* * * * * +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: | | | | this children's book has a new paragraph for every sentence, | | and other unusual formatting. | | | | inconsistent hyphenation and quotation marks in the original | | document have been preserved. | | | | a number of obvious typographical errors have been corrected | | in this text. for a complete list, please see the end of | | this document. | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * _young folk's library of choice literature_ stories of great inventors fulton whitney morse cooper edison by hattie e. macomber educational publishing company boston new york chicago san francisco copyrighted by educational publishing company contents. page robert fulton eli whitney samuel morse peter cooper thomas a. edison [illustration: fulton.] robert fulton. this story is about a giant. do you believe in them? he peeps out of your coffee cup in the morning. he cheers you upon a cold day in winter. but the boys and girls were not so well acquainted with him a hundred years ago. about that long ago, far to the north and east, a queer boy lived. he sat in his grandmother's kitchen many an hour, watching the tea-kettle. he seemed to be idle. but he was really very busy. he was talking very earnestly to the giant. the giant was a prisoner. no one knew how to free him. many had often tried to do this and failed. he was almost always invisible. but when he did appear, it was in the form of a very old man. this old man had long, white hair, and a beard which seemed to enwrap him like a cloak--a cloak as white as snow. so his name is the white giant. the boy's name was james watt. he lived in far-away scotland. he sat long, listening to the white giant as he told him many wonderful things. the way in which the giant first showed himself to james was very strange. james noticed that the lid of the tea-kettle was acting very strangely. it rose and fell, fluttered and danced. now, james had lived all his life among people who believed in witches and fairies. so he was watching for them. and he thought there was somebody in the kettle trying to get out. so he said, "who are you and what do you want?" "space, freedom, and something to do," cried the giant. "if you will only let me out, i'll work hard for you. i'll draw your carriages and ships. i'll lift all your weights. i'll turn all the wheels of your factories. i'll be your servant always, in a thousand other ways." [illustration: john fitch's steamboat, . by permission of providence & stonington steamship co.] if you have now guessed the common name of this giant, we will call him steam. at the time james watt lived, there were no steam boats, steam mills, nor railways. and this boy, though his grandmother scolded, thought much about the giant in the tea-kettle. and he became the inventor of the first steam engine that was of any use to the world. so, little by little, people came to know that steam is a great, good giant. they tried in many different ways to make him useful. they wished very much to make him run a boat. one man tried to run his boat in a queer way. he made something like a duck's foot to push it through the water. another moved his boat by forcing a stream of water in at the bow and out at the stern. then came a man named john fitch. he made his engine run a number of oars so as to paddle the boat forward. he grew very poor. people laughed at him. but he said, "when i shall be forgotten, steam boats will run up the rivers and across the seas." then people laughed the harder and called him "a crank." mr. fitch's boat was tried in . now, in , there happened a good thing for this old world. a little baby boy was born in that year. perhaps you wonder why it was such a good thing for the world. some of you will know why when you read that this baby's name was robert fulton. his father was poor. his father was a farmer in pennsylvania. mr. fulton had two little girls older than baby robert. when robert was grown larger he had three sisters and one brother. but their father died when they were all small. robert did not go to school till he was eight years old. his mother taught him at home. he knew how to read and write, and a very little arithmetic. his first teacher was a mr. johnson. mr. johnson was a quaker. he thought robert a dull pupil. robert did not learn his lessons very well. but mr. johnson soon found that he was never idle. he did not care to play at recess. he stayed in and used his pencil in drawing. he often spent hours in this way. robert soon became fond of going into the machine shops. he understood machinery very quickly. the men always gave him a welcome. he didn't get into mischief. he often helped the men with his neat drawings. one day robert was late in getting to school. the master asked the reason. robert answered that he had been in mr. miller's shop pounding out lead for a lead pencil. mr. johnson then encouraged him in doing such useful things. in a few days, all the pupils in the school had pencils made in that way. mr. johnson urged robert to give more attention to his studies. robert said, "my head is so full of thoughts of my own that i haven't room there for the thoughts from dusty books." as he was not idle, no doubt this was true. when robert was thirteen, the boys in the town had a great disappointment. it was nearly july. of course the boys expected to celebrate the fourth. but a notice was put up. this notice urged the people not to illuminate their homes. it was very warm weather. the people then had only candles with which to light their homes. candles were very scarce. but robert had some. he took them to a shop and exchanged them for powder. the owner of the store asked him why he gave up the candles, which were so scarce and dear. robert said, "i am a good citizen, and if our officers do not wish us to illuminate the town, i shall respect their wishes." he found some pieces of paste-board. he rolled these himself. in this way he made some rockets. the store-keeper told him he would find it impossible to do this. "no, sir," robert answered, "there is nothing impossible." his rockets were a success, and the people were astonished. robert bought at different times small quantities of quicksilver. the men in the machine shops were curious to know what he did with it. but they could not find out. for this reason they called him "quicksilver bob." robert was interested in guns. sometimes he would tell the workmen how to improve them. the men liked him so well that they were always willing to try whatever he advised. robert was fond of fishing. one of the workmen often went fishing with his father. this man sometimes took robert. they had only an old flat boat. the boys had to pole the boat from place to place. it was hard work. they were sometimes very tired. robert, soon after one fishing excursion, went away to visit an aunt. he was gone a week. while away he made a complete model of a little fishing boat. this boat had paddle wheels. the model was placed in the garret. many years afterward his aunt was proud to have it as an ornament on her parlor table. of course the boys arranged a set of paddle wheels for their fishing boat. after this they enjoyed their fishing much more than before. robert fulton's boyhood was during the revolutionary war. he made many queer pictures of the hessian soldiers. these hessians were germans, who had been hired by the british to help them fight the americans. the people who wished our country to belong to england were called tories. those who wished america to be free were called whigs. the whig boys often fought the tory boys on the soldiers' camp ground. the soldiers grew tired of this. they stretched a rope to keep the boys out. robert drew a picture in which the whigs crossed the rope and whipped the tories. the boys all thought it a good picture. so they tried to make it real. they became so troublesome that the town officers had to interfere. but robert was all this time fast growing up. he had to choose some way of taking care of himself. he was more fond of his pencil and brush than of anything else. near his home, had lived a celebrated painter. his name was benjamin west. benjamin west's father and robert's father had been great friends. mr. west had become famous. he now lived in england. robert thought he would like to be an artist, too. so he left his home and went to the city of philadelphia. he knew that it meant hard work. he was industrious and pains-taking. he had many friends. benjamin franklin was one of his friends. soon he did very nice work. in the four years after he was seventeen, he not only took care of himself, but sent money to his mother and sisters. he spent his twenty-first birthday at home. he had then earned enough money to buy a small farm for his mother. for this farm he paid four hundred dollars. he helped his family to get nicely settled in their new home. then he went back to philadelphia. at this time mr. fulton, as we must now call him, was not well. partly for this reason he decided to take a voyage to europe. he carried letters from many well-known americans. he found friends in europe. benjamin west was kind to him there. [illustration: a canal scene.] he soon had plenty of work to do. one of his friends was an english gentleman, who was called the earl of stanhope. the earl was much interested in canals. canals, you probably know, are artificial rivers. boats are drawn on them by horses, which walk along a path on the shore. the path is called the tow-path. railways were almost unknown then. so canals were very useful in carrying goods across the country. they had been in use in europe and asia for hundreds of years. mr. fulton invented a double inclined-plane. this could be used in raising and lowering canal boats without disturbing their cargoes. the british government gave mr. fulton a patent upon it. mr. fulton wrote a book about canals and the ways in which they help a country. he sent copies of this book to the president of the united states, and other men in high offices. he thought canals would help america. but it was ten years before he could get people to think much about it. then mr. fulton helped in planning the erie canal. this was very successful. you can see this canal now. it is in the state of new york and is still used. mr. fulton planned a cast-iron aqueduct which was built in scotland. an aqueduct is often made to carry water to cities. he invented a mill for sawing marble, a machine for spinning flax, another for scooping out earth, called a dredging machine, and several kinds of canal boats. you will wonder before reaching the end of this story how one man could do so many things. but you must remember that he was never lazy as a boy, and so learned to make good use of every moment. in , mr. fulton went to the greatest city in france, called paris. there he made a new friend. this was joel barlow, an american and a poet. mr. fulton thought that all ships should have the freedom of the ocean. he thought it would take hundreds of years to get all nations to consent to this. he believed that he could find a quicker way. he thought it would be best to blow up all warships. he made a little sub-marine boat. sub-marine means under the sea. this boat could be lowered below the surface of the water. he found a way to supply it with air. but he could not get it to run swiftly. it took much money to build such boats. he tried to get the french government to help him. he was often tired and disappointed. but he never stopped trying. he tried to destroy some large boats. this was to be done with torpedoes. but he was not very successful. he succeeded in destroying one boat. but since then others have carried out his plan, and torpedoes are often used in war. this little story is told of mr. fulton:-- he was once in new york working upon his torpedoes. he invited the mayor and many others to hear him lecture. they came and were all much interested. he showed them the copper cylinders which were to hold the powder. then he showed them the clockwork, which, when it was set running, would cause the cylinders to explode. he turned to a case and drew out a peg. he then said, "gentlemen, this torpedo is all ready to blow up a vessel. it contains one hundred and seventy pounds of powder. the clockwork is now running. if i should allow it to run fifteen minutes it would blow us all to atoms." his audience was much frightened. they all ran away. mr. fulton put the peg back in its place. he told them it was then safe. not until then did they dare come back. but now our giant, steam, became the friend of mr. fulton. many had tried to put this giant to work. but at first he seemed rather hard to teach. long before, a poet had written these lines, which show how much people hoped to make the giant do:-- "soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam, afar drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car." it was a true prophecy. mr. fulton married the daughter of a mr. walter livingston. this mr. livingston had a relative who was a great man, and a rich man. he was much interested in all inventions. he often helped inventors with his money. he had long believed that boats could be moved by steam. at one time the state of new york gave him the right of all steam boats for twenty years. he was given the right if he would get one steam boat running within a year. but the year passed and the boat was not built. everybody made fun of his "grand rights." at this time our government made him our minister to france. there he met robert fulton for the first time. and in paris mr. livingston and mr. fulton made a steam boat. when it was finished they invited their friends to come and see it tried. early upon the morning when they hoped to succeed, a messenger came. he bore sad news. the new boat had broken in two. the machinery was too heavy for it. it had sunk to the bottom of the river seine. mr. fulton had not had his breakfast. he hurried to the river. he worked standing in the cold water. in twenty-four hours he had saved the machinery, and some other parts of the boat. but it made him ill. he never was so strong again. of course he felt greatly discouraged. they went to work again. they built another boat. this was a success. it was sixty-six feet long, and moved by wheels on the side. mr. livingston and mr. fulton decided to try again in america upon the hudson river. mr. livingston was given again the same privileges by the state of new york. but this time mr. fulton was his partner. they were given two years in which to make their boat. they were to make one which could go four miles an hour. it took much money. mr. fulton promised to ask only a certain sum of mr. livingston. but this sum proved to be too small. he went to see a friend. he talked long and earnestly to him. but the friend grew tired and told him he must go home or go to bed. mr. fulton wanted one thousand dollars. his friend said he would see him again. [illustration: the eructor amphibolis. a combined steamboat and locomotive constructed by oliver evans a native of newport, delaware, in .] [illustration: perspective view of machinery in fulton's clermont. by permission of providence & stonington steamship co.] mr. fulton came again before the poor man had had any breakfast. he gave him no peace. but he got his money at last. mr. fulton was much laughed at for trying to make such a boat. the boat was called by people, "fulton's folly." his friends would listen politely to him. but he said he knew they did not believe in him. he often, as he walked about, heard people laugh and sneer at him. but at last the boat was done. the sun rose smiling on that august morning. the world was enjoying its morning nap. only a few people were on the shores. gracefully the boat was moved from the jersey shore. [illustration: the clermont, by permission of providence & stonington steamship co.] those who saw were amazed. old sailors were frightened. when they saw a boat with no sails, they thought it an evil spirit. but the long line of black smoke which they saw was only the breath of the dear old giant, steam. at last he had something to do. this boat was called the clermont. it passed the city of new york. it passed the beautiful highlands of the hudson. it puffed patiently on until it reached albany. all along the shores people watched it breathlessly. everybody stopped sneering and cheered. the clermont had gone one hundred and fifty miles in thirty-two hours. except that the ocean steamships are larger, handsomer, and more finely finished, they are much like mr. fulton's clermont. who can doubt mr. fulton's joy at his success. at last he had found a way to make all nations know each other. mr. fulton had other troubles after this. wicked people tried to steal his invention from him. but no one else has ever been given credit for it. everyone who tried a ride upon the boat found it much nicer than jolting along in a stage coach. in two years a regular line of boats was running between the great city of new york and its capital city. mr. fulton built other boats. some of them were ferry-boats. [illustration: brooklyn bridge and fulton ferry.] a ferry from new york to long island is still called by his name, fulton ferry. do you suppose the thousands of people who cross by it, ever think of patient, industrious, hard-working, robert fulton? in january, , mr. fulton went to trenton, new jersey, as witness in a lawsuit. the weather was very severe. mr. fulton became much chilled. in coming back his boat was caught in the ice. it was several hours before it could be moved. you remember mr. fulton was not very strong. he was ill for several days. he was very anxious about a boat which he was building. he left his bed too soon. he was then taken very ill indeed. and upon the twenty-fourth of february, , the world lost this great man. everyone mourned his loss. the great city of new york was in mourning. he was buried in the livingston vault in trinity churchyard, new york. no monument has ever been raised over this great man. but the boats which every year ply back and forth upon lake, river, and ocean, are constant reminders of his great work for the world. [illustration: eli whitney.] eli whitney. the war, called the revolution, was ended. the treaty of peace had been signed. america had won her freedom. our country then was smaller than now. it contained only about four million people. these people were widely scattered. the world did not think of the united states as an important country. it was thought to be about as important as denmark or portugal is now. we call one part of our country the south. the south of this time was very different from the south of to-day. fewer cities were to be seen. many forests covered the land. the plantations were few. plantation is the southern word for farm. there were not many slaves then. people hoped slavery would die out. they thought it might if it were let alone. many people left the south to find other homes. this was because they could not make a good living there. indigo, rice, and cotton were raised. but only a little cotton was planted. this was because it was such hard work to get it ready to sell. cotton grows upon a small shrub. people of olden times called it the "wool of trees." the germans still call it "tree-wool." one kind is called "sea-island" cotton. this is because it grows well upon the low, sandy islands of the sea. some such islands are found near south carolina. this cotton likes the salt which it finds in the soil. the herb cotton grows to a height of from eighteen to twenty-four inches. the land is made ready for the seed during the winter. as soon as the frost is gone mother earth is given her baby seeds to care for. soon the beautiful plantlets appear. the leaves are of a dark green. then later come the pale yellow flowers. the plants must then be well cared for. toward autumn the fruit is seen. this looks like a walnut still in its rough coat. [illustration: cotton balls.] then the pods burst. the field is then beautiful. it looks as if it were covered with snow. then comes the hard work of the picking. all hands upon the plantation must then work in the fields. the slaves of long ago were kept very busy during this season. the women and children worked. they have to be careful that the cotton is quite dry when picked. if it were damp the cotton would mould. this would spoil it for use. can you imagine a snow-white field dotted with black people? their bright eyes must have shone still more brightly there. the cotton does not all ripen at one time. but it must be gathered soon after the pods are burst. [illustration] this is because the sun injures the color of the cotton. or the rain and dews injure it. or the winds may blow it away. so the cotton pickers were kept busy from august until the frost came. they went over the same fields many times. then, after a busy day in the field, other work remained to be done. the cotton pickers sat upon the ground in a circle. from the midst of the cotton they took the black seeds. these seeds were very troublesome. they are covered with hairs. they cling fast to the cotton. these naughty children of the plant love their mother. so fast do they cling to her, that a person could clean but one pound of cotton in a whole day. so you may understand why so little was raised. in , eight bags of cotton were taken from the united states to england. these were seized by the custom officers. these officers are those who look after goods sent in or out of a country. if money is to be paid upon the goods, it is called a duty. the custom officers must see that the duty is paid. these men said that this cotton could not have come from america. during the next two years less than one hundred-twenty bags were sent there from our country. the treaty of peace with england was made in . none of the treaty-makers then knew that any cotton was raised in america. would you like to know why, fifty years later, a million bales were sent from america? this is the story: in the war with england, america had some brave generals. one of these was general nathaniel greene. he had helped to win victories in the south. the state of georgia gave him a tract of land. general greene lived with his family upon this land. he at last died there. mrs. greene was very lonely. she went to the north to visit her friends. on her voyage home she met a pleasant gentleman. he was a young man, only twenty-seven years of age. he, too, was going to georgia. his name was eli whitney. and now you must know something of his story. eli whitney was born in massachusetts in . his people were farmers. they were not rich people. eli's father had a workshop. in this shop he worked upon rainy days. he made wheels and chairs. eli grew up like other farm boys. he helped on the farm. he attended the district school. he took care of the cattle and horses. but very early in his life he became fond of tools. he used to creep into his father's shop. he could scarcely wait to be old enough to use the tools there. one of the interesting tools was a lathe for turning chair posts. his father allowed him the use of all these as soon as he was large enough to take care of them. after that, he was always at work at something. he liked work in the shop much more than work upon the farm. eli's mother died when he was a little boy. this is a sad event in any boy's life. when eli was about twelve years old, his father took a journey from home. he was gone two or three days. when he returned, he called the housekeeper. he asked her what the boys had been doing. she told him what the elder boys had done. "but what has eli been doing?" said he. "he has been making a fiddle," was the answer. "ah!" said the father, "i fear eli will take his portion in fiddles." the fiddle was finished like a common violin. it made pretty good music. many people came to see it. they said it was a fine piece of work for a boy. afterwards people brought him their violins to mend. he did the mending nicely. every one was surprised. they brought him other work to do. eli's father had a nice watch. eli loved to look at it. it was a great wonder to him. he wished to see the inside of it. his father would not allow this. one sunday the family were getting ready for church. eli noticed that his father intended leaving his watch at home. he could not lose such a good chance. so he pretended to be quite sick. his father allowed him to stay at home. soon he was alone with the wonderful little watch. he hurried to the room where it hung. he took it down carefully. his hands shook, but he managed to open it. how delightful was the motion of those wheels! it seemed a living thing. eli forgot his father. he thought only of the wonderful machinery. he must know just how it went. he took the watch all to pieces before he remembered how wrong it was to do so. then he began to be frightened. what if he couldn't put it together! he knew his father was a very stern man. slowly and carefully the boy went to work. and so bright was he that he succeeded in getting it together all right. his father did not find out the mischief. several years afterward eli told him about it. when eli was thirteen years old his father married a second time. eli's stepmother had a handsome set of table knives. she valued them highly. one day eli said, "i could make as good knives as those if i had tools. "and i could make the tools if i had common tools to begin with." his mother laughed at him. but soon after one of the knives was broken. eli made a blade exactly like the broken one, except its stamp. soon eli was fifteen years of age. he wished to go into the nail-making business. it was during the revolution. nails were made almost entirely by hand. they were in great demand. they brought good prices. eli asked his father to bring him a few tools. his father consented. the work was begun. eli was very industrious. he made good nails. he also found time to make more tools for his own use. he put in knife blades. he repaired broken machinery. he did many other things beyond the skill of country workmen. eli worked in this way two winters. he made money. he worked on the farm in the summer. at one time eli took a journey of forty miles. he visited every workshop on the way. these visits taught him much. he found a man who could go back with him and help him in his business. at the close of the war it did not pay to go on with the nail-making. the ladies began a new fashion about that time. this was the use of long pins for fastening on their bonnets. he made very nearly all the pins used. eli made these pins with great skill. this work was done in the time spared from his farm work. he also made excellent walking canes. during all these years eli's schooling had been received at different times at the district school. he was very fond of arithmetic. during his nineteenth year he made up his mind to have a college education. his step-mother did not wish him to do this. but he worked hard and saved his money. a part of the time he taught school. he was twenty-three when he entered yale college. he borrowed some money, for which he gave his note. at one time one of the college teachers wished to show his pupils some experiments. but some of the things to be used were broken. eli offered to mend them. this he did, and succeeded in surprising every one. a carpenter lived near his boarding place. eli asked for the loan of some of his tools. the careful carpenter did not wish to lend them. he at last gave his consent in this way:-- the gentleman with whom mr. whitney boarded must promise to pay all the damages. but he soon saw how skilful mr. whitney was. he was surprised and said: "there was one good mechanic spoiled when you went to college." mr. whitney graduated in . he was engaged by a gentleman in georgia to teach his children. it was on this journey to his new work that he met mrs. greene. mrs. greene liked mr. whitney very much. when they reached savannah, she invited him to her home. at this time he had a great disappointment. the gentleman who had hired him to come to georgia coolly told him his services were not wanted. he had no friends. he was out of money. but mrs. greene became his good friend. he went to live at her house. here he began the study of law. mrs. greene was one day doing some embroidery. she broke the frame upon which she was working. she did not know how to finish the work without it. mr. whitney looked at it carefully. then he made her a new frame. it was even better than the other one had been. of course mrs. greene was much pleased. mr. whitney also made fine toys for the children. soon after this, a party of gentlemen visited at mrs. greene's home. they were nearly all men who had been officers during the war. mr. greene had been their general. they began talking of the south. they wished something might be done to improve that part of the country. they wished it might be made a better place in which to live. they spoke of the fine spinning machines that were coming into use in england. much land in the south could be used for cotton. this could be sent to england for manufacture. the south could become a rich country in this way. but there was one great difficulty. it cost so much to clean the cotton. mrs. greene said, "i know who can help you. "apply to my young friend, mr. whitney. he can make anything." she then showed the gentlemen her frame and other things which mr. whitney had made. mr. whitney said he had never seen cotton or its seed. none was raised near the home of the greene's. mr. whitney did not make any promises. but the next day he went to work. he went first to the city of savannah. there he searched among the warehouses and boats. at last he found a small parcel of cotton. this he carried home. he shut himself up in a small basement room. his tools were poor. he made better ones. no wire could be bought in savannah. so he made his own wire. mrs. greene and a mr. miller were the only persons allowed to come into his work-shop. day after day the children wondered to hear the queer clinking and hammering. they laughed at mr. whitney. but that did not trouble him. before the end of the winter the machine was nearly perfect. its success seemed certain. mrs. greene was very happy over the work. she was eager that people should know about this wonderful invention. she could not wait until a patent was secured. a patent is given by the government. it is given to prevent others from claiming an invention. often it keeps people from manufacturing the article without the permission of the owner. so mrs. green invited a party of gentlemen from all parts of the state to visit her. these gentlemen were taken to see the machine do its work. they were greatly astonished. for what did they see? this curious little machine cleaned the cotton of its seed. and it would clean in a day more than a man could do in months. they went to their homes. they told everybody about it. great crowds began coming to see it. but they were refused permission to do so. this was because it had not yet been patented. so one night some wicked men broke into the building. they stole the cotton-gin. you can well imagine how dreadful this was. mr. whitney had no money. so mr. miller agreed to be his partner. mr. miller had come to georgia from the north. he, too, was a graduate of yale college. he afterward married mrs. greene. he became mr. whitney's partner in may, . perhaps you wonder why the machine was called a gin. it was a short way of saying engine. a gin is a machine that aids the work of a person. the cotton-gin was made to work much the same as the hand of a person. it dragged the cotton away from the seed. and now begins the sorrowful part of the story. before mr. whitney could get his patent, several other gins had been made. each claimed to be the best. the plans were all stolen from mr. whitney's. [illustration: roller-gin.] one was the roller-gin. this crushed the seed in the cotton. of course this injured the cotton. another was the saw-gin. this was exactly like mr. whitney's, except that the saws were set differently. many lawsuits were begun. mr. whitney went to connecticut. there he had a shop for making the gins. when the suits began he had to return to georgia. in this way two years went by. by this time everyone knew the value of the gin. mr. whitney went to new york. there he became ill. his illness lasted three weeks. then he was able to go on to new haven. [illustration: saw-gin, .] there he found that his shop had been destroyed by fire. all his machines and papers were burned. he was four thousand dollars in debt. but neither mr. miller nor mr. whitney were the kind of men who give up easily. mr. miller wrote that he would give all his time, thought, labor, and all the money he could borrow to help. "it shall never be said that we gave up when a little perseverance would have carried us through," he said. about this time bad news came from england. the cotton, you remember, was then all sent there for manufacture. english manufacturers now claimed that the cotton was injured by the gin. this was in . miller and whitney had thirty gins working in different places in georgia. some were worked by cattle and horses. others were run by water. soon, however, the manufacturers found that the whitney cotton gin did not injure the cotton. the first lawsuit was decided against miller and whitney. they asked for another trial. but this was refused them. everywhere through the south they were cheated and robbed. yet all the time the south was growing richer because of the cotton gin. slaves grew more and more valuable. for negroes can endure the heat of the cotton fields. but white men can not. the planters of the south bought more and more slaves. so slavery grew stronger because of the cotton gin. several states made contracts with mr. whitney. they agreed to pay him certain sums of money. but south carolina broke her contract. all these things made mr. whitney sick at heart. he said that he had tried hard to do right by every one. and it stung him to the very soul to be treated like a swindler or a villain. the people of georgia tried to prove that somebody in switzerland had invented the cotton gin. tennessee broke its contract. there were high-minded men who tried to help mr. whitney. they were able to do only a little for him. in , mr. miller died. mr. whitney was then left to fight his battles alone. things grew a little brighter as time went on. mr. whitney received some money on his invention. but the greater part of it had to be spent in lawsuits. a suit was begun in the united states court. but the time of his patent was almost out. he had made six journeys to georgia. one gentleman said that he never knew another man so persevering. in , mr. whitney made a contract with the government of the united states. by this contract he was to manufacture fire-arms. he established his factory near new haven. the place is now called whitneyville. it is a beautiful place. a waterfall furnished the power to run his machinery. here mr. whitney worked hard. he had machinery to make. he had to teach his own workmen. for eight years he worked to fill this contract. he arose as soon as day appeared. look in any part of the factory you might, you would see something which he, himself had done. he improved many tools. he made better guns than had ever been made. so that for these things, too, our country is indebted to mr. whitney. in , he made new contracts. another war with england began in that year. mr. whitney's guns never failed to be all right. other men took contracts of the same kind. but their guns were failures. mr. calhoun, the secretary of war, said to mr. whitney, "you are saving your country seventy-five thousand dollars a year." this was by his improvements in fire-arms. mr. whitney tried to get the government to extend the time of the patent upon the cotton-gin. but this was refused. that did not seem very grateful, did it? robert fulton, the inventor of the first steamboat, was his friend. they had many troubles in common. mr. whitney's last days were his happiest days. such patience, perseverance, and skill must count in the long run. his factory made him quite a rich man. some of the southern states showed their gratitude. in , mr. whitney married miss edwards of connecticut. he had a son and three daughters. the people of new haven respected him. they gave him great honor. he died on january , . the little cotton-gin had done a great work. the sunny south was covered with beautiful plantations. the cotton fields shone in the sunlight. [illustration] riches were beginning to fill the pockets of the planters. only one blight remained upon the land. this was the dreadful system of slavery. and that, too, has been destroyed. we wish that mr. whitney might see the south of to-day. he did not live to know how great a curse slavery might be. he did not foresee that his cotton-gin might help to cause a great war. yet the blue and the gray fought and died. the blood of many a hero stained a southern field. all this that the cotton-pickers might be free! all this that our country might be truly "the land of the free and the home of the brave!" [illustration: s.f.b. morse.] samuel finley breese morse. if everything were now as it was in , what a queer place this world of ours would be to us! a hundred years ago! suppose we imagine ourselves living in the year . the railroads then were very few and poor. "fulton's folly," the first steamboat, had not yet frightened the sailors in new york harbor, with its long line of black smoke. lighting by means of gas was yet unknown. electric lights were not even dreamed of. even kerosene, which we think makes so poor a light, was then unused. so there are many, many things, common and useful to us now, which were unknown to the world in . you have heard of the giant, steam. there is yet another giant which god has placed in the world for man's use. this is electricity. is it not strange that this great power should have been so long unused in the world? boys and girls can understand how useful this power now is. so you will be interested in knowing something of the man who helped to introduce to the world this great giant, electricity. the baby who was given this long name, samuel finley breese morse, was born in charlestown, massachusetts. the date of his birth was april , . he was called samuel finley for his great-grandfather. his mother's name, as a girl, was elizabeth breese. you will see that he won fame enough to cover each and every one of these names. finley morse had, as he grew older, two brothers younger than himself. their names were sidney e. morse, and richard cary morse. finley was sent first to an old lady's school. he was but four years old when he started. the school was very near his home. the school mistress was known as, "old ma'am rand." she was an invalid and unable to leave her chair. so she had a long rattan. when the children did not mind, she could, with her long rattan, reach them at the further side of the room. one punishment of mrs. rand's was to pin a naughty child to her dress. as early as this part of his life, finley morse tried his hand at drawing. he drew mrs. rand's picture upon a chest of drawers. instead of a pencil he used a pin. so mrs. rand pinned him to her dress. of course he did not like that. he tried to get away. this tore the dress. then mrs. rand had to use her rattan. when seven years of age finley was sent to school at andover. he went to phillip's academy. while there the father wrote letters to his boy. he gave his boy good advice. he told him about george washington. he also told him about another great man. this man was a statesman of holland. he did all the business for that republic. yet he had time to go to evening amusements. some one asked this statesman how he did this. he said there was nothing so easy, for that it was only doing one thing at a time, and never putting off anything until to-morrow that could be done to-day. finley's parents were always kind to him. he soon became a manly boy. he was the kind of boy who seemed to know that he must one day be a man. so he worked hard at school. he began early to think and act for himself. when he was but thirteen he wrote a sketch of the "life of demosthenes." he sent it to his father. this his father kept carefully. it showed the genius, learning and taste of his boy. this bright boy was ready for college at the age of fourteen. but his father thought it best to keep him at home for a year. finley, when a boy, was always fond of drawing. when but fifteen, he painted a fairly good picture in water colors. this represented a room in his father's house. his father, his two brothers and himself stood by a table. his mother sat in a chair. on the table was a globe, at which they were all looking. his room at college was covered with pictures of his own making. one of these was called, "freshmen climbing the hill of science." the poor fellows were scrambling to the top of a hill on their hands and knees. finley had taken no lessons in art, yet he drew many portraits. the other boys were all delighted to have their pictures drawn by him. they paid him a dollar apiece. this kept him in spending money. he also painted upon ivory. for these he had five dollars each. so, when finley morse graduated from yale college, he was more fond of drawing and painting than of anything else. finley at this time was a fine looking boy. he had a pleasant smile. he was always courteous. every one liked him. he was as fond of a frolic as any one. at one time the college cooks did not do their work to suit the boys. so the boys gave them a mock trial. they sent a report of the trial to the college president. the bad cooks were dismissed. afterwards the boys had better things to eat. at another time the boys went to a paper mill near by. they bought a great quantity of paper. this they made into a baloon. it was eighteen feet in length. they filled it with air, and sent it on its journey. it sailed finely, and soon was out of sight. they tried it again. the second time it took fire and was soon nothing but ashes. about this time finley heard his first lecture upon electricity. after graduating, he returned to his father's house in charlestown. there he wrote a letter to his brothers with a queer kind of ink. the writing did not show at all until heated by fire. his brothers had to write to him to find out how to read it. about this time finley made a new friend. this friend was washington allston. mr. allston was a great painter. he learned to love finley morse. mr. allston spent most of his time in london. finley begged his people to allow him to go to london with mr. allston. they finally gave their consent. so mr. morse made his first voyage across the atlantic. they landed at liverpool. they had to go from there to london in a stage coach. as soon as he arrived he wrote to his parents. in his letter he said that he wished they could hear from each other in an instant. "but three thousand miles are not passed over in an instant. so we must wait four long weeks before we can hear from each other again." even then he longed for a telegraph. in london he had the help of another great artist. this was benjamin west. he, too, was an american. mr. morse wished to become a student in the royal academy. he had to make a drawing of hercules. hercules, you know, was one of the heroes of early greece. the story is that he did very many brave deeds. finley's drawing was to be taken to mr. west. he worked very hard upon it for two weeks. then he went to mr. west with it. mr. west said, "very well, sir, very well; go on and finish it." "it is finished," replied finley. "oh, no," said mr. west. "look here, and here, and here." so, when the mistakes were pointed out, finley saw them. he took the drawing home and worked patiently for another week. then he brought it to mr. west again. mr. west handed it back to mr. morse, saying: "very well indeed, sir. go on and finish it." "is it not finished?" said mr. morse, for he was almost discouraged. "see," said mr. west, "you have not marked this muscle nor that finger joint." so another three days were spent on the drawing. again it was taken back. "very clever indeed," said mr. west, "very clever. now go on and finish it." "i cannot finish it," replied mr. morse. then the old man patted him on the shoulder and said: "well, i have tried you long enough. "now, sir, you have learned more by this drawing than you would have learned in double the time by a dozen half finished drawings. "finish one picture, sir, and you are a painter." mr. morse took this good advice. he went to work upon a large picture. it was a picture of the "dying hercules." he first modeled his picture in clay. this he did so well that he received a gold medal for it. this was on may , . his picture, too, was given great praise. it was counted as one of the twelve best among the two thousand pictures. so mr. morse went on patiently and carefully in this work. he made many good friends in london. one of these friends was the poet, coleridge. mr. morse was a great comfort to his parents. he was careful with his money. he and a young mr. leslie, lived and painted together. he spent all his money to get helps in his work. he visited all the picture galleries, and spent days in the study of pictures. at this time england and america were at war. americans were sometimes made prisoners and kept in the prisons of england. mr. morse tried to help some of them. you have heard of the great french general, napoleon. you know of the many wars he had. in , napoleon met his enemies, the english and prussians. they had a battle at waterloo. napoleon was defeated. the people of england were anxious for news. but how slowly news came in those days! it took many days to carry the good tidings. the battle was fought on the th day of june. it was not until july that the news came of the victory of the english general. mr. morse wrote about it to his parents. he told how anxiously the people had waited. finally the people heard the booming of cannon. the bells were rung. people laughed and cried for joy. would it not seem strange to us now to wait for our news so long? yet the inventor of the telegraph had to wait often very long. but at last the time came for mr. morse to return to america. he sailed in august, . he bore with him the good wishes of his many friends in london. he had a stormy voyage. a ship signaled his ship for help. the captain did not wish to send help. he said he had all he could do to attend to his own ship. mr. morse told him that, if he did not help them, he would publish the facts when they reached america. so the captain thought better of it. he helped to save the ship. when he landed on his return mr. morse found that the people of america had heard of him. they knew of the fine pictures he had painted. he was now but twenty-four years of age. he set up a studio in boston. but the people of america were not as interested in art then as now. he waited many months for something to do. but nobody came for a picture. he left boston almost penniless. then he began painting portraits in different places. he received fifteen dollars for each portrait. he went to concord, new hampshire. there he met a beautiful young lady. her name was lucretia p. walker. she had a very sweet temper. she always used good sense. mr. morse became more and more successful with his portraits. he received more money for them. he went on a journey to the south. there he found much to do. he made three thousand dollars. then he came back to concord. there he married miss walker. mr. and mrs. morse lived for a few years in south carolina. then they came to new haven, connecticut. his father came to live with them there. mr. morse began to paint a great picture at washington. it was called "the house of representatives." washington is the capital city of the united states. the picture, when finished, was very beautiful. it was sold at last to an englishman. about this time a great friend of america visited washington. have you heard of general la fayette? you can read what great things he did for our country. every american loved him then. even the people who live now, love his memory. mr. morse was engaged to paint the portrait of general la fayette. he began the picture. before he had finished, he received dreadful news from home. his loved wife had died very suddenly. he hastened home. it seemed too hard to bear. not long afterwards he lost his father. he then went to live in new york. there he worked hard at his art. his artist friends made him president of their society. this was the national academy. while in new york he heard some lectures about electricity. he thought about it and talked much with his friends. he wished to visit beautiful italy. so, in , he sailed for europe. his friends there gave him a hearty welcome. he visited many cities. he met general la fayette again. he visited him in his home. mr. morse had always been fond of inventions. he himself invented a pump at one time. at another, he tried his hand at making a machine for cutting marble. he was always experimenting with colors, and other things used by artists. the year had arrived. you will see, by and by, that it is a good date to remember. people knew almost nothing about speed in traveling. in that year the longest railroad was in the southern part of the united states. it was one hundred thirty-five miles long. the next longer was in england. it was thirty miles long. the next was in massachusetts. it was ten miles long. the mails were carried in coaches. on the first day of october, , mr. morse sailed for america. the name of this ship was the "sully." the passengers were much interested in some things which had lately been found out about electricity. people had long known that lightning and electricity were the same. signals had been made with electricity. but the thought which came to mr. morse had never entered the mind of man before. he could think of nothing but a telegraph. he thought night and day. he seemed to see the end from the beginning. as he sat upon the deck of the ship after dinner, he drew out a little note book. he began his plan in this little book. from the beginning he said, "if a message will go ten miles without dropping, i can make it go around the globe." and he said this again and again during the years that came after. sleep forsook him. but one morning at the breakfast table he announced his plan. he showed it to the passengers. and five years after, when the model was built, it was found to be like the one shown that morning on board the ship "sully." "the steed called lightning (say the fates) was tamed in the united states; 'twas franklin's hand that caught the horse, 'twas harnessed by professor morse." upon landing in america a long struggle began. for twelve long years, mr. morse worked to get people to notice his invention. [illustration: diagram showing the morse alphabet and arrangement of the telegraph line.] it would take much money to construct a real telegraph. but money mr. morse did not have. he had three motherless children to provide for. he lived in a room in a fifth story of a building belonging to his brothers. this room was his study, studio, bed chamber, parlor, kitchen, drawing room and work shop. on one side of the room was his cot bed. on the other were his tools. he brought his simple food to his room at night. this he did, that no one might see how little he had to eat. he often gave lessons in painting. one pupil did not pay promptly. mr. morse asked to be paid. the pupil gave him ten dollars, asking if he would accept it. he said it would keep him from starving. he had had nothing to eat for twenty-four hours. the government, at this time, was giving some work to american artists. mr. morse knew he deserved to have a picture to paint. but, through a mistake, he was not given one. he felt much hurt by this. but perhaps he would not have pushed his telegraph through, if he had been given plenty of painting to do. as it was, morse, the painter, became morse, the inventor. it was not until that mr. morse had his wonderful invention ready to exhibit. during that year many people saw it. many thought it a silly toy. few dreamed of its importance. mr. alfred vail, whose father and brother had large brass and iron works, was one of those who believed in it. mr. vail decided to assist mr. morse. he was young and liked machinery. long after, mr. morse said that much of the success of the telegraph was due to mr. vail. in , mr. morse asked congress to give him aid. he wished to build a telegraph between baltimore and washington. the president and others saw the telegraph exhibited. a gentleman, named mr. f.o.j. smith, helped mr. morse with money. but many congressmen laughed at the idea. do you not think they felt ashamed when they found how great a thing they had been laughing at? while waiting for congress to decide, mr. morse went to europe again. he tried to get a patent in london, but it was refused him. the french people gave him a paper which didn't mean much. he met some great men, however, who did all they could for him. did you ever see a daguerreotype? it is an old fashioned portrait. perhaps you can find some at home. mr. morse met in paris the man who first took these pictures. his name was mr. daguerre. you see how the pictures were named. he was exhibiting his pictures at this time. so the two greatest things in paris in those days were the electro-magnetic telegraph and daguerreotypes. mr. daguerre and mr. morse became fast friends. mr. daguerre taught mr. morse how to take daguerreotypes. when mr. morse returned to america, he took some portraits of this kind. he also taught others how to do so. having returned to america, he found plenty to do. he wished to try the telegraph under water. he arranged about two miles of wire. he put it into new york harbor. a row boat was used in placing it. it was a beautiful moonlight night. people walking along the shore might well wonder what kind of fish were to be caught with such a long line. at day break professor morse was ready for his experiment. two or three characters were sent on the line. then no more could be sent. some sailors, in pulling up their anchor, had caught the wire. they pulled in about two hundred feet. then they cut the wire. so ended the first cable. the vails had been good friends to mr. morse. but they became afraid to spend any more money. then, indeed, mr. morse was in despair. a bill had been brought before congress, asking for thirty thousand dollars. this was to build the trial telegraph line. oh, how anxiously mr. morse waited! delay after delay came. many congressmen in their speeches, made all manner of fun of the bill. twilight came upon the evening of march rd, . it was the last day of the session of congress. there were still one hundred and nineteen bills to dispose of. it seemed impossible that the telegraph bill could be reached. mr. morse had patiently waited all day. at last he gave up all hope. he left the building and went to his hotel. he planned to leave for new york on an early train. as he came down to breakfast next morning, a young lady met him. "i have come to congratulate you," she exclaimed. "upon what?" inquired the professor. "upon the passage of your bill," she replied. "impossible! its fate was sealed last evening. you must be mistaken." "not at all," said the young lady; "father sent me to tell you that your bill was passed. it was passed just five minutes before the close of the session." mr. morse was almost overcome with the news. he promised the young lady that she should send the first message over the new line. mr. morse received a sad message in the midst of his joy. this was the news of the death of his dearest friend, mr. allston. he hastened to the home of his friend in cambridge. the brush with which mr. allston had been painting was still moist. mr. morse begged this as a memorial of his friend. he afterwards gave it to the national academy. now that the bill was passed, how hard he and his friend worked to build the line! they tried putting the wires underground. but this proved very expensive. then they tried the poles as we have them now. this succeeded nicely. was the year for the appointing of a new president. the whig party were to hold their convention at baltimore, in may. the managers of the telegraph worked hard to get the line done before the meeting. and, although the line was not finished, signals were arranged by which the message could be given. at last the day came. henry clay was nominated for president. the news was sent by the wires to washington. passengers arrived from baltimore an hour later. they were astonished to find the news already known. on the th of may the line was ready for its test. every one was anxious. mr. vail was at the baltimore end of the line. miss ellsworth, the young lady who had the promise of sending the first message, was with mr. morse. remember the twelve long, weary, anxious years, during which mr. morse had worked and waited. it was an anxious moment. miss ellsworth chose her message from the bible. it is found in numbers, rd chapter, rd verse. the words are: "what hath god wrought!" this was received at once by mr. vail. professor morse said this of the words of the message:-- "it baptized the american telegraph with the name of the author." he meant by this, that god was the author of the telegraph. what a glad, happy time followed! everybody congratulated mr. morse. the democratic convention took place two days later. there was much excitement. james k. polk was nominated for president. all sorts of messages were sent over the new telegraph line. mr. morse loved his country. and through his whole life worked for its interests. he rejoiced in having his invention called an american invention. he was at one time in europe. his friend, mr. f.o.j. smith, was embarking on his voyage for home. mr. morse said to him:-- "when you arrive in sight of dear america, bless it for me. "and when you land, kiss the very ground for me. "land of lands! oh, that all our country-men would but know their blessings! "god hath not dealt so with any nation. "we ought to be the best, as well as the happiest and most prosperous of all nations. "nor should we forget to whom we are in debt for all these blessings. "'righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any nation.'" * * * * * there were still many hard things for mr. morse to endure. wicked men tried to steal his invention from him. they pretended to have invented telegraphs. the nations of europe did not treat him justly. but, little by little, the telegraph lines were built over the country. little, by little, the world came to know and love the name of samuel f.b. morse. honors of all sorts were given him. but, through all, he was the same kind, patient man. the sultan of turkey was the first foreign prince to honor mr. morse. but he was followed by many others. you have noticed that mr. morse never had a chance to enjoy a home. in , he bought a beautiful home upon the hudson. in the following year he married miss griswold, a lady born at sault ste. marie. they called their new home locust grove. there they enjoyed life greatly. professor morse had a telegraph instrument in his study. he afterwards bought a beautiful home in new york city. there they spent their winters. these words were written by a friend to mrs. morse, alluding to her husband:-- "though he did not 'snatch the thunder from the heaven,' he gave the electric current thought, and bound the earth in light." to mr. morse belongs also the honor of the submarine telegraph. a successful telegraph of this kind was laid near new york city. other gentlemen became interested in this. chief among these were mr. cyrus w. field and his brother david dudley field. the story of the cable laid across the atlantic is a long one. but mr. morse lived to see this, too, a success. when mr. morse was eighty years of age, his statue was erected in central park, new york. this was done by the telegraph operators of the country. it represented mr. morse as sending the first message of the telegraph, "what hath god wrought." mr. morse was present when the statue was unveiled. in he became very ill. his busy life was at an end. the whole country mourned, as news flashed over the wires that professor morse was dying. the light was going out of those bright, kind eyes. the fingers that harnessed the steed, lightning were powerless. the great brain, that had worked so hard for the world, was ready for rest. the great heart, that never kept an unkind thought, ceased to beat. all america mourned for him. messages were received from europe, asia and africa, paying tribute to the dead. few men have lived such lives as did samuel finley breese morse. [illustration] [illustration: peter cooper.] peter cooper. on the seventh of april, in , the great city of new york was in mourning. flags were at half-mast. the bells tolled. shops were closed, but in the windows were pictures of a kind-faced, white-haired man. these pictures were draped in black. all day long tens of thousands of people passed by an open coffin in one of the churches. some of these people were governors, some millionaires. there were poor women, too, with little children in their arms. there were workmen in their common clothes. there were ragged newsboys. and all these people had aching hearts. the great daily papers printed many columns about the sad event. people in england sent messages by the atlantic cable that they, too, had sad hearts. who was this man for whom the world mourned on that april day? was he a president? oh, no. a great general? far from it. did he live magnificently and have splendid carriages and fine diamonds? no, he was simply peter cooper, a man ninety-two years old, and the best loved man in america. had he given money? yes, but other men in our country do that had he traveled abroad, and so become widely known? no, he would never go to europe because he wished to use his money in a different way. why, then, was he loved by so many? one of the new york papers gave this truthful answer: "peter cooper went through his long life as gentle as a sweet woman, as kind as a good mother, as honest as a man could live, and remain human." some boys would be ashamed to be thought as gentle as a girl, but not so peter cooper. he was born poor, and was always willing that everyone should know it. he despised pride. when his old horse and chaise came down broadway, every cartman and omnibus driver turned aside for him. though a millionaire, he was their friend and brother, and they were proud and fond of him. he gave away more than he kept. he found places for the poor to work if possible. he gave money to those he found were worthy. and though he was one of the busiest men in america, he always took time to be kind. his pastor, mr. collyer, said this of him:-- "his presence, wherever he went, lay like a bar of sunshine across a dark and troubled day. i have seen it light up the careworn faces of thousands of people. it seemed as if those who looked at him were saying to themselves; 'it cannot be so bad a world as we thought, since peter cooper lives in it and blesses us.'" but how did this poor boy become a millionaire? and how did he get people to love him so? he did it, boys and girls, by making up his mind to do it at first, and then sticking to it. nobody could have had more hard things to overcome than peter cooper. his parents were poor and had nine children. his father moved from town to town, always hoping to do better. he forgot the old saying, "a rolling stone gathers no moss." when the fifth baby was born, he was named after the apostle peter, because his father said, "this boy will come to something." but he was not a strong boy. he was able to go to school but one year of his life, and then only every other day. his father was a hatter, and when peter was eight years old he pulled hair from rabbit skins for hat pulp. year after year he worked harder than he was able, but he was determined to win. when his eight little brothers and sisters needed shoes, he ripped up an old one to see how it was made. always after that he made the shoes for the family. do you think a lazy boy would have done that? when he was seventeen, he bade his anxious mother good-bye, and started for new york to make his fortune. do you know what a lottery is? it is a way dishonest people have of making money. tickets are sold for prizes, and of course only one person can get the prize, while all the rest must lose their money. soon after peter cooper reached new york he saw an advertisement of a lottery. he might draw a prize by buying a ticket. each ticket cost ten dollars. peter had just that much money. he thought the matter over carefully. he wished very much to have some money, for then he could help his mother. so he bought a ticket, and drew--nothing. poor boy! he was now penniless. but he never touched games of chance again. years afterward he used to say, "it was the cheapest piece of knowledge i ever bought." day after day the tall, slender boy walked the streets of new york looking for work. at last he found a place. it was in a carriage shop. here he bound himself as apprentice for five years at two dollars a month and board. you see he could buy no good clothes. he had no money for cigars or pleasures of any kind. he helped to bring carriages for rich men's sons to ride in. there is an old saying, that "everybody has to walk at one end of life," and they are fortunate who walk at the beginning and ride at the close. when his day's work was over he liked to read. his companions made fun of him because he would not join them. he made a little money by extra work. he hired a teacher, to whom he recited evenings. he was often very tired, but he never complained. he had many friends because he was always good-natured. he used often to say to himself, "if ever i get rich i will build a place where the poor girls and boys of new york may have an education free." wasn't that a queer thought for a boy who earned only fifty cents a week? yet perhaps his even dreaming such dreams helped him to do the great things of which i shall tell you. now, peter noticed that the tools which they worked with in the carriage shop were not very good. so he began to try to make better ones. he succeeded in doing so, but mr. woodward, the man for whom he worked, had all the benefit of his work. but at last peter's apprenticeship was over. much to his surprise mr. woodward one day called him into his office. "you have been very faithful," he said, "and i will set you up in a carriage manufactory of your own. "you could pay me back the money borrowed in a few years." this was a remarkable offer for a poor young man. but peter had made it a solemn rule of his life never to go in debt. so he thanked mr. woodward very earnestly, but declined his offer. it was then mr. woodward's turn to be astonished. but he knew peter was right, and respected his good judgment in the matter. we may now call peter cooper a mechanic. a mechanic is one who has skill in using tools in shaping wood, metals, etc. peter now found a situation in a woolen mill at hempstead, long island. here he received nine dollars a week. still he kept trying to find better ways of doing things. he invented a machine for shearing cloth, and from that earned five hundred dollars in two years. with so much money as this he could not rest until he had visited his mother. he found his parents deeply in debt. he gave them the whole of his money, and promised to do more than that. his father had not made a mistake in naming him after the apostle peter. during this time mr. cooper had learned to know a beautiful girl named sarah bedell. this girl became his wife. they moved to new york. here mr. cooper had a grocery-store. a friend advised him to buy a glue factory which was for sale. he knew nothing of the business, but he thought he could learn it. he soon made not only the best glue, but the cheapest in the country. for thirty years he carried on this business almost alone, with no salesman and no book-keeper. he rose every morning at daylight, kindled his factory fires, and worked all the forenoon making glue. in the afternoon he sold it. in the evenings he kept his accounts, wrote his letters, and read with his wife and children. he worked this way long after he had an income of thirty thousand dollars a year. this was not because he wanted to have so much more money for himself. you remember he had a plan to carry out which would take much money. that was to build his free school for the poor. he had no time for parties or pleasures. but the people of new york knew he was both honest and intelligent. they asked him to be a member of the city council, and president of their board of education. peter cooper never refused to do anything which might help others. so he did not refuse these offices. i must tell you now about mr. cooper's first child, and how fine a thing it was to have an inventor for a papa. mr. cooper made for this baby a self-rocking cradle, with a fan attached to keep off the flies, and with a musical instrument to soothe the dear baby into dreamland. mr. cooper's business prospered. [illustration: the "best friend,"--first locomotive built in america. built by peter cooper.] once the glue factory burned, with a loss of forty thousand dollars. but at nine o'clock the next morning there was lumber on the ground for a factory three times as large as the one burned. he then built a rolling mill and furnace in baltimore. they were then trying to build the baltimore and ohio railroad. only thirteen miles of the road had been finished. the directors were about to give up the work. there were many sharp turns in the track. the directors were discouraged because they thought no engine could be made to make those turns. mr. cooper knew that this road would help his rolling mill. nothing could discourage him. [illustration: first train in america.] he went to work and made the first locomotive made in america. he attached a box-car to it. then he invited the directors to take a ride. he took the place of engineer himself. away they flew over the thirteen miles in an hour. the directors took courage, and the road was soon finished. years after, when mr. cooper had become a great man, he was invited to visit baltimore. the old engine was brought out, much to the delight of the people, who cheered again and again at sight of it. mr. cooper soon built at trenton, n.j., the largest rolling mill in the united states. he also built a large blast furnace, and steel and wire works in different parts of pennsylvania. [illustration: new york central empire state express. fastest locomotive in the world. "engine ." copyrighted by a.p. yates, by permission of new york central r.r.] he bought the andover iron mines. he built eight miles of railroad in this rough country. over this road he carried forty thousand tons a year. the poor boy, who once earned but twenty-five dollars a year, had become a millionaire. no good luck accomplished this. but these are the things that did it: hard work. living within his means. saving his time. common sense, which helped him to look carefully before he invested his money. promptness. keeping his word. mr. cooper was honorable in all his business. once he said to a friend who had an interest in the trenton works: "i do not feel quite easy about the amount we are making. we are making too much money. it is not right." the price was made lower at once. do you not think peter cooper was an unusual kind of a man to lower the price of an article just because the world needed it so much? he was now sixty-four years of age. he had worked day and night for forty years to build his free college. he had bought the ground for it. and now for five whole years he watched his great, six-story, brown-stone building as it grew. the man who was once a penniless lad should teach many through these great stones some of the lessons he knew so well. some of these are industry, economy and perseverance. the words which he wrote and placed in a box in the corner stone are not too hard for you to read. "the great object that i desire to accomplish by the erection of this institution is to open the avenues of scientific knowledge to the youth of our city and country, and so unfold the volume of nature that the young may see the beauties of creation, enjoy its blessings, and learn to love the author from whom cometh every good and perfect gift." but would the poor young men and women of new york who worked hard all day care for an education? some people said no. but mr. cooper thought of his own boyhood, and believed that young people loved books, and would be glad of a chance to study them. [illustration: cooper institute, new york city.] and when the grand building was opened students crowded in from the shops and factories. some were worn and tired, as peter cooper had often been in his youth. but they studied eagerly in spite of that. every saturday night two thousand came together in the great hall. there the most famous people in the world lectured before them. every year nearly five hundred thousand read in the free library and reading rooms. four thousand pupils came to the night school to study science and art. the white-haired, kindly-faced man went daily to see the students. they loved him as a father. his last act was to buy ten type-writers for the girls in that department. has the work paid? ask any of those young men and women who have gone out from cooper institute to earn their own living. not one of them had to pay a cent for his education. no one is admitted who does not expect to earn his living. mr. cooper did not love weak, idle young people, who are willing their parents shall take care of them. the work has grown so large that more money is needed--perhaps another million. mr. cooper gave it two millions of dollars. many are turned from the doors because there is no more room. some of the pupils from the institute have become teachers. one receives two dollars an hour for teaching. several engrave on wood. one receives one hundred and fifty dollars a month. another, a lady, married a gentleman of wealth, and to show her gratitude to mr. cooper has opened another "free school of art." is it any wonder that when peter cooper died thirty-five hundred came up from the institution to lay roses upon his coffin. his last words to his son and daughter were not to forget cooper union. they have just given one hundred thousand dollars to it. mr. cooper had many friends among the great and good of the land. he died as unselfishly as he had lived, and who can measure the good he did in the world? [illustration: edison.] a great inventor. thomas a. edison was born in milan, ohio, february , . there was nothing in milan to make a boy wish to do great deeds. there was a canal there. thomas had one great help--his mother. she had been a teacher. her greatest wish for her son was that he should love knowledge. thomas had a quick mind. he inquired into everything. he was fond of getting every little thing well learned. he never did things by halves. he loved to try experiments. when thomas was a very little boy, only six years old, and still wearing dresses, he did a very funny thing. he was one day found missing. his frightened parents searched for him long and anxiously. where do you think he was found? they found him in the barn, sitting on a nest of goose eggs, with his dress spread out to keep them warm. he thought he could hatch some goslings as well as the mother-goose. he had placed some food near by so that he might stay as long as necessary. he went to a regular school only two months. his father and mother were his teachers. his father, to encourage him to read, paid him for every book which he read. but thomas did not need to be paid to read, for he read with pleasure every volume he could get hold of. when he was ten years old, he was reading such books as gibbon's "history of rome," hume's "history of england," and sear's "history of the world." besides these, he had read several books about chemistry. he loved to read about great men and their deeds. when he played, it was at building plank roads, digging caves, and exploring the banks of the canal. when only twelve years of age, he was obliged to go out into the world and earn his own living. he obtained a place as train-boy on the grand trunk railroad, in eastern michigan. he sold apples, peanuts, song-books, and papers. he had such a pleasant, sunny face that everyone liked to buy of him. he succeeded so well that soon he had four boys working under him. this was not enough to keep him busy. he had never lost his liking for chemistry. he managed to trade some of his papers for things with which to try experiments. he found a book which helped him. he fitted up an old baggage car as a room for his experiments. he was afraid some one would touch his chemicals; so he labelled every bottle, "poison." soon this busy boy had another business. he bought three hundred pounds of old type from the "detroit free press." he had gained a little knowledge of printing by keeping his eyes open when buying papers. soon a paper, called the "grand trunk herald," was printed by master tom. this paper was twelve by sixteen inches in size. it was filled with railway gossip and many other things of interest to travelers. baggagemen and brakemen wrote articles for it. george stephenson, who built a great bridge at montreal, liked it so well that he ordered an extra edition for his own use. everybody liked it. the "london times" spoke of it as the only paper in the world published on a railway train. but the "grand trunk herald" had a sad ending. do you know what phosphorus is? it is a substance which will take fire of itself if not kept under water. tom's bottle of phosphorus was thrown to the floor by the jolting of the car. soon everything was on fire. the conductor rushed in and threw all the type and chemicals out of the car. he also gave the young chemist a thrashing. poor thomas gathered up what was left. he put his things in the basement of his father's house. thomas's father now lived at port huron. thomas always slept at home. he now printed another and a larger journal. this was called the "paul pry." in this he published an article which one of his subscribers did not like. the angry man, meeting thomas on the banks of the st. clair river, picked him up and threw him in. thomas was a good swimmer and reached the shore in safety. but he did not care for the printing business any more. during the four years in which thomas edison was a train-boy, he had earned two thousand dollars and given it all to his parents. when in detroit, he read as much as possible from the public library. once he thought he would begin with number one and read each of the thousand volumes. he read until he had finished a long row of hard books on a shelf fifteen feet long. then he made up his mind that anyone would have to live as long as methuselah to read a library through, and gave up the plan. thomas became interested in telegraphy during the civil war. he used to telegraph the headings in his paper ahead one station. he thought this a good way to advertise. he finally bought a good book about electricity. soon the basement of the house at port huron was filled with many things beside printing presses. he used stove-pipe wire, and soon had a telegraph wire between the basement and the home of a boy friend. perhaps it was a good thing that all the children in the edison family were not like thomas. had they been, the poor old house would scarcely have held them. but the mother was proud of all that thomas did. she did not worry over the bottles, wires, strings, and printing presses. about this time thomas did a brave thing. the station agent at mt. clemens had a baby boy two years old. this baby crept on to the track in front of a train just coming in. quick as thought, young edison rushed to the track and saved the child at the risk of his own life. the baby's father was very grateful and offered to teach thomas telegraphy. of course, thomas was very happy, and accepted the offer. he came to mt. clemens every evening, after working hard all day. he did so well that, in five months, he was given a position at port huron. he earned six and one-quarter dollars a week. he worked almost night and day, so that he might learn all he could about it. his mother said that the world would hear from her boy some day. afterwards he worked in several places. in indianapolis, though not yet seventeen, he invented his first telegraph instrument. this was thought to be a great thing for so young a boy to do. he lost several places because he tried new ways. at last, he was obliged to walk nearly all the way to louisville because he had no money. here he was given a good position. he stayed several years. under the telegraph rooms was an elegant bank. one day, while experimenting, he spilled a great bottle of acid. this acid went through the floor into the bank below. of course it spoiled the ceiling, handsome carpets, and furniture. so the unfortunate inventor had to leave louisville. he finally gave up trying to be a telegraph operator. he opened a little shop. he invented many things, and kept on thinking. he could not make his inventions successful, for he had little money. he thought so hard that he forgot everything else. once he was asked to speak before a company. he forgot all about it. they sent for him, and found him at the top of a house putting up a telegraph line. he went in his working clothes to make his speech. he felt queer when he found a room full of elegant ladies. but he made a good speech. then he went to new york. there he walked the streets three weeks, looking for work. nobody wanted a man who experimented. by chance, he one day went into an office where the telegraph instrument was out of repair. he offered to fix it. they laughed at him, but let him try. he succeeded in fixing it. they gave him a good position. from this time on there were better times for him. after this the world soon sang his praises; and, in the next ten years, fortune poured into his lap half a million dollars. this was the result of his thinking. the man who was in charge of the united states patent office called him "the young man who keeps the pathway to the patent office hot with his footsteps." mr. edison believed that two messages could be sent over the same wire at the same time. of course the world laughed at the idea. but soon our inventor managed to send four messages over the same wire at the same time. then the world stopped laughing. people said, "this young man is the greatest inventor of his age, and a discoverer as well." the grand trunk train-boy had proved a genius. when twenty-six years of age, he married a young lady of newark, miss mary stillwell. three years later he moved to menlo park. this was twenty-four miles from new york. it was not a pleasant place, but he hoped to work there in quiet. he had so many visitors that he could not work. he said, "i think i shall fix a wire to my gate, and connect it with a battery so that it will knock everybody over that touches it." but he was really kind. he would smile pleasantly, and explain patiently to anyone who wished to know about his inventions. at menlo park he built a great laboratory. this was filled with batteries and machinery. here all the world came to see his wonderful talking machine. it is called a phonograph. what do you think mr. edison called this machine? he said, "i have invented a great many machines, but this is my baby, and i expect it to grow up and support me in my old age." would you like to know the names of some of his inventions. one is the carbon telephone. the tasimeter measures the heat even of the far away stars. the electric pen multiplies copies of letters and drawings. over sixty thousand are now in use in this country. the automatic telegraph permits the sending of several thousand words over the same wire in one minute. [illustration] there are many others. do you wonder that he is called "the wizard of menlo park?" but his crowning discovery is the electric light. some gentlemen of new york put one hundred thousand dollars into mr. edison's hands. they told him to experiment until he could make a light which every one would be glad to use. many had tried to do this and had not succeeded. it is said that he tried two thousand substances for the arch in his glass globe before he found one which suited him. do you know what he chose at last? do you remember the plant which the boys and girls of india, china, and japan know so well? it is the bamboo. and it was bamboo which mr. edison chose. oh, how glad this light made many people! in ten cotton factories in one town were men, women, and children working. they worked in rooms where gas was used. the gas injured their eyes and health. now in those same factories there are sixty thousand electric lights. the bamboo burns six hundred hours before it has to be replaced. would you like a picture of mr. edison? close your eyes then and think of him like this. he is five feet ten inches high. his face is boyish, but earnest. he has light gray eyes. his hair is dark, slightly gray, and falls over his forehead. he is a pleasant man to see. he loves his work. for ten years he has averaged eighteen hour's work a day. you have seen that he is not a man to give up easily. once an invention of his--a printing press--failed. he took five men into the upper part of his factory. he declared he would never come down until it worked satisfactorily. for two days and nights, and for twelve hours more, he worked without sleep. he conquered the difficulty. then he slept thirty hours. he often works all night. he says he can work best when the rest of the world sleeps. but he likes fun, too. one day he said to his old friend, of whom he learned telegraphing, "look here--i am able to send a message from new york to boston without any wire at all." "that is impossible," said his friend. "oh, no, it's a new invention." "well, how is it done?" said mr. mckensie. "by sealing it up and sending by mail," was the comical answer. he has two children. one, a girl, mary, is nicknamed "dot." the other, a son, thomas, is called "dash." mr. edison doesn't like to have great dinners given in his honor. but the world gives him great honors. at the paris exposition in , two great rooms were filled with his inventions. the rooms were lighted with his lights. he receives letters daily in french, german, italian, spanish, russian, and turkish. mr. edison says, "anything is possible with electricity." that he is a genius, nobody can deny. but do you suppose he could have done all these things without his great reading, or if he had been a lazy person? * * * * * +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | typographical errors corrected in text: | | | | page : perserverance replaced with perseverance | | page : betwen replaced with between | | page : clemans replaced with clemens | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * the weathercock, being the adventures of a boy with a bias, by george manville fenn. ________________________________________________________________________ there is actually another title to this book, "the boy inventer", and that is just the character of our sixteen-year-old hero. he is living with his uncle, who is a doctor in a small lincolnshire village. he is friendly, after a fashion, with three boys who are living in the rector's house, where they are being educated. our hero, vane lee, is also a bit of a naturalist, as is the author of this book. but some of his inventions have a way of going wrong, as for example when he decides to make the defective church clock work. he takes it all to pieces, cleans all the parts up, and puts it all together again--with the exception of two vital wheels. in the middle of the night the clock's bell begins to strike without cease--the signal in the village for a fire. everybody turns out and rushes about with fire hoses looking for the fire, and it takes a while before they find out that there never was a fire at all. but one day vane is set upon by two gipsy boys, and beaten nearly to death. nobody knows who did the deed, as vane is for a long while unconscious. eventually he comes round, and things become a little bit clearer, but exactly how i will not reveal here. the typography of the book we used was not very good, and there were a number of spelling inconsistencies. for instance "gipsy" is sometimes spelt "gipsey" and sometimes "gypsy". and the unfortunate mr deering is sometimes spelt "dearing" and sometimes "dereing". i hope we have ironed these things out, as well as making the hyphenation more consistent throughout the book. read it, or listen to it--you'll enjoy it. ________________________________________________________________________ the weathercock, being the adventures of a boy with a bias, by george manville fenn. chapter one. toadstools! "oh, i say, here's a game! what's he up to now?" "hi! vane! old weathercock! hold hard!" "do you hear? which way does the wind blow?" three salutations shouted at a lad of about sixteen, who had just shown himself at the edge of a wood on the sunny slope of the southwolds, one glorious september morning, when the spider-webs were still glittering with iridescent colours, as if every tiny strand were strung with diamonds, emeralds and amethysts, and the thick green moss that clothed the nut stubbs was one glorious sheen of topaz, sapphire and gold. down in the valley the mist still hung in thick patches, but the sun's rays were piercing it in many directions, and there was every promise of a hot day, such as would make the shade of the great forest with its acorn-laden oaks welcome, and the whole place tempting to one who cared to fill pocket or basket with the bearded hazelnuts, already beginning to show colour in the pale green husks, while the acorns, too, were changing tint slightly, and growing too big for their cups. the boy, who stood with his feet deep in moss, was framed by the long lithe hazel stems, and his sun-browned face looked darker in the shade as, bareheaded, his cap being tucked in the band of his norfolk jacket, he passed one hand through his short curly hair, to remove a dead leaf or two, while the other held a little basket full of something of a bright orange gold; and as he glanced at the three youths in the road, he hurriedly bent down to rub a little loam from the knees of his knickerbockers--loam freshly gathered from some bank in the wood. "morning," he said, as the momentary annoyance caused by the encounter passed off. "how is it you chaps are out so early?" "searching after you, of course," said the first speaker. "what have you got there?" "these," said the lad, holding up his basket, as he stepped down amongst the dewy grass at the side of the road. "have some?" "have some? toadstools?" "toad's grandmothers!" cried the lad. "they're all chanterelles--for breakfast. delicious." the first of the three well-dressed youths, all pupils reading with the reverend morton syme, at the rectory, mavis greythorpe, lincolnshire, gave a sidelong glance at his companions and advanced a step. "let's look," he said. the bearer of the basket raised his left hand with his fungoid booty, frankly trusting, and his fellow-pupil delivered a sharp kick at the bottom of the wicker receptacle--a kick intended to send the golden chalice-like fungi flying scattered in the air. but george vane lee was as quick in defence as the other was in attack, and his parry was made in the easiest and most effortless way. it was just this:-- he let the basket swing down and just passed his right hand forward, seeming only to brush the assailant's ankle--in fact it was the merest touch, but sufficient to upset the equilibrium of a kicker on one leg, and the next moment lance distin was lying on his back in a perfect tangle of brambles, out of which he scrambled, scratched and furious, amidst a roar of laughter from his companions. "you beggar!" he cried, with his dark eyes flashing, and a red spot in each of his sallow cheeks. "keep off!" cried the mushroom bearer, backing away. "lay hold of him, gilmore--aleck!" the lads addressed had already caught at the irate boy's arms. "let go, will you!" he yelled. "i'll let him know." "be quiet, or we'll all sit on you and make you." "i'll half kill him--i'll nearly break his neck." "no, don't," said the boy with the basket, laughing. "do you want your leave stopped? nice you'd look with a pair of black eyes." "you can't give them to me," roared the lad, passionately, as he still struggled with those who held him, but giving them little trouble in keeping him back. "don't want to. served you right. shouldn't have tried to kick over my basket. there, don't be in such a temper about that." "i'll pay you for it, you miserable cad!" "don't call names, distie," said the lad coolly. "those who play at bowls must expect rubbers. let him go, boys; he won't hurt me." it was a mere form that holding; but as the detaining pair loosened their hold, lance distin gave himself a violent wrench, as if he were wresting himself free, and then coloured to the roots of his hair, as he saw the laugh in his adversary's eyes. "distie's got no end of trinidad sun in him yet.--what a passionate fellow you are, cocoa. i say, these are good, really. come home with me and have breakfast." lance distin, son of a wealthy planter in the west indies, turned away scornfully, and the others laughed. "likely," said fred gilmore, showing his white teeth. "why, i wouldn't poison a cat with them." "no," said aleck macey; "i know." "know what?" "it's a dodge to make a job for his uncle, because the doctor can't get any practice." "don't want any," said the lad, good-humouredly. "if he did, he'd go back to savile row." "not he," snarled distin, pausing in his occupation of removing thorns from his jacket. "killed all his patients, and was obliged to run away into the country." "that's it!" said vane lee, with a laugh. "what a clever chap you are, distie; at least you would be if your tongue wasn't quite so sharp. there, shake hands, i didn't mean to hurt you." he stretched out rather a dirty hand, at which the young creole gave a contemptuous glance, looked at his own white fingers, and thrust them into his pockets. "ah, well, they are dirty," said vane, laughing. "no, they're not. it's only good old english soil. come on. uncle will be glad to see you, and then we'll all walk up to the rectory together." _crick_! distin struck a match, and, with a very haughty look on his thin face, began to puff at a cigarette which he had taken from a little silver case, vane watching him scornfully the while, but only to explode with mirth the next moment, for the young west indian, though he came from where his father's plantations produced acres of the pungent weed, was not to the manner born, and at the third draw inhaled so much acrid smoke that he choked, and stood coughing violently till vane gave him a hearty slap on his back. down went the cigarette, as distin made a bound forward. "you boor!" he coughed out; and, giving the lad a malevolent look, he turned haughtily to the others. "are you fellows coming home to breakfast?" he did not pause for an answer, but walked off sharply in the direction of the rectory, a quarter of a mile from the little sleepy town. "oh, i say," cried vane, in a tone full of remorse, "what an old pepper-pot he is! i didn't mean to upset him. he began it,--now, didn't he?" "yes, of course," said gilmore. "never mind. he'll soon come round." "oh, yes," said macey. "i shouldn't take any notice. he'll forget it all before night." "but it seems so queer," said the lad, taking out and examining one of his mushrooms. "i just came out for a walk, and to pick some of these to have cooked for breakfast; and just as i've got a nice basketful, i come upon you fellows, and you begin to chaff and play larks, and the next moment i might have been knocking all the skin off my knuckles against distin's face, if i hadn't backed out--like a coward," he added, after a pause. "oh, never mind," said the others. "but i do mind," cried the lad. "i want to be friends with everyone. i hate fighting and quarrelling, and yet i'm always getting into hot-water." "better go and get your hands in now--with soap," said macey, staring at the soil-marks. "pooh! a rinse in the water-cress stream would take that off. never mind distin: come home, you two." "no, not this morning," said gilmore. "i won't ask you to taste the mushrooms: honour bright." "wouldn't come if you did," said macey, with a merry laugh on his handsome face. "old distie would never forgive us if we came home with you now." "no," said gilmore; "he'd keep us awake half the night preaching at you. oh! here's old syme." "ah, gentlemen, good-morning," said a plump, florid clergyman with glittering glasses. "that's right, walk before breakfast. good for stamina. must be breakfast time though. what have you got there, lee?" "fungi, sir." "hum! ha!" said the rector bending over the basket. "which? fungi, soft as you pronounce it, or fungi--funghi, hard, eh?" "uncle says soft, sir," said vane. "hum--ha--yes," said the rector, poking at one of the vegetable growths with the forefinger of his gloved hand. "he ought to know. but, _vulgo_, toadstools. you're not going to eat those, are you?" "yes, sir. will you try a few?" "eh? try a few, lee? thanks, no. too much respect for my gastric region. and look here; hadn't you better try experiments on jamby's donkey? it's very old." "wouldn't be any good, sir. nothing would hurt him," said vane, laughing. "hum! ha! suppose not. well, don't poison one of my pupils--yourself. breakfast, gentlemen, breakfast. the matutinal coffee and one of brader's rolls, not like the london french, but passably good; and there is some cold stuffed chine." "cold stuffed chine!" said vane, as he walked in the other direction. "why, these will be twice as good--if martha will cook 'em. nasty prejudiced old thing!" ten minutes later he reached a gate where the remains of a fine old avenue leading up to a low mossy-looking stone house, built many generations back; and as he neared it, a pleasant odour, suggestive of breakfast, saluted his nostrils, and he went round and entered the kitchen, to be encountered directly by quite an eager look from its occupant, as he made his petition. the weathercock--by george manville fenn chapter two. aunt and uncle. "no, master vane, i'll not," cried cook, bridling up, and looking as if an insult had been offered to her stately person; "and if master and missus won't speak, it's time someone else did." "but i only want them just plainly stewed with a little butter, pepper, and salt," said vane, with the basket in his hand. "a little butter and pepper and salt, sir!" cried cook reproachfully; "a little rhubar' and magneshire, you mean, to keep the nasty pysonous thinks from hurting of you. really i do wonder at you, sir, a-going about picking up such rubbish." "but they're good food--good to eat." "yes, sir; for toads and frogs. don't tell me, sir. do you think i don't know what's good christian food when i see it, and what isn't?" "i know you think they're no good, but i want to try them as an experiment." "life isn't long enough, sir, to try sperrymens, and i'd sooner go and give warning at once than be the means of laying you on a bed of agony and pain." "oh, well, never mind, cook, let me do them myself." "what?" cried the stout lady in such a tone of indignant surprise that the lad felt as if he had been guilty of a horrible breach of etiquette, and made his retreat, basket and all, toward the door. but he had roused martha, who, on the strength of many years' service with the doctor and his lady in london, had swollen much in mind as well as grown stout in body, and she followed him to the kitchen-door where he paused without opening it, for fear of the dispute reaching the ears of aunt and uncle in the breakfast-room. "look here, martha," he said, "don't be cross. never mind. i'm sorry i asked you." "cross? cross, master vane? is it likely i should make myself cross about a basketful of rubbishing toadstools that you've wasted your time in fetching out of the woods?" "no, no, you are not cross, and i beg your pardon." "and i wouldn't have thought it of you, sir. the idee, indeed, of you wanting to come and meddle here in my kitchen!" "but i don't want to, i tell you, so don't say any more about it." but before vane could grasp the woman's intention, she had snatched the basket from his hand and borne it back to the table, upon which she thumped it with so much vigour that several of the golden chalice-like fungi leaped out. "here, what are you going to do?" cried vane. "what you told me, sir," said cook austerely, and with a great hardening of her face. "i don't forget my dooties, sir, if other people do." "oh, but never mind, cook," cried vane. "i'm sorry i asked you." "pray don't say any more about it, sir. the things shall be cooked and sent to table, and it's very thankful you ought to be, i'm sure, that master's a doctor and on the spot ready, for so sure as you eat that mess in the parlour, you'll all be on a bed of sickness before night." "now, martha," cried vane; "that's just what you said when i asked you to cook the parasol mushrooms." "paragrandmother mushrooms, sir; you might just as well call them by their proper name, umberrella toadstools, and i don't believe any one ate them." "yes; uncle and i ate them, and they were delicious. cook these the same way." "i know how to cook them, sir, only it's an insult to proper mushrooms to dress them in the same way as good wholesome food." "that's good wholesome food," said vane, "only people don't know it. i wanted to bring you some big puff balls to fry for me, but you turn so cross about it." "and enough to make anyone turn cross, sir. there, that will do now. i've said that i'd cook them, and that's enough." vane lee felt that there was nothing to be done now but make a retreat, and he went into the hall where eliza jane, the doctor's housemaid, was whisking a feather-brush about, over picture-frames, and ornaments, curiosities from different parts of the world, and polishing the hall table. from this she flew to the stand and caught up the hat brush with which she attacked the different hats on the pegs, speaking over her shoulder at vane in a rapid way as she went on. "now, don't you ask me to do anything, master vane, because i'm all behind, and your aunt's made the tea and waiting for you, and your uncle will be back directly, for he has only gone down the garden for a walk, and to pick up the fallen peaches." "wasn't going to ask you to do anything," was the reply. "but you've been asking cook to do something, and a nice fantigue she'll be in. she was bad enough before. i wouldn't have such a temper for all the money in the bank of england. what have you been asking her to do?--bother the hat!" eliza was brushing so vigorously that she sent vane's hard felt hat, which she had just snatched up from where he had placed it, flying to the other end of the hall just as doctor lee, a tall, pleasant-looking grey-haired man, came in from the garden with a basket of his gleanings from beneath the south wall. "that meant for me?" he said, staring down at the hat and then at vane. "which i beg your pardon, sir," said the maid, hurriedly. "i was brushing it, and it flew out of my hand." "ah! you should hold it tight," said the doctor, picking up the hat, and looking at a dint in the crown. "it will require an operation to remove that depression of the brain-pan on the _dura mater_. i mean on the lining, eh, vane?" "oh, i can soon put that right," said the boy merrily, as he gave it a punch with his fist and restored the crown to its smooth dome-like shape. "yes," said the doctor, "but you see we cannot do that with a man who has a fractured skull. been out i see?" he continued, looking down at the lad's discoloured, dust-stained boots. "oh, yes, uncle, i was out at six. glorious morning. found quite a basketful of young chanterelles." "indeed? what have you done with them?" "been fighting martha to get her to cook them." "and failed?" said the doctor quietly, as he peered into the basket, and turned over the soft, downy, red-cheeked peaches he had brought in. "no, uncle,--won." "now, you good people, it's nearly half-past eight. breakfast-- breakfast. bring in the ham, eliza." "good-morning, my dear," said the doctor, bending down to kiss the pleasantly plump elderly lady who had just opened the dining-room door, and keeping up the fiction of its being their first meeting that morning. "good-morning, dear." "come, vane, my boy," cried the doctor, "breakfast, breakfast. here's aunt in one of her furious tempers because you are so late." "don't you believe him, my dear," said the lady. "it's too bad. and really, thomas, you should not get in the habit of telling such dreadful fibs even in fun. had a nice walk, vane?" "yes, aunt, and collected a capital lot of edible fungi." "the word fungi's enough to make any one feel that they are not edible, my dear," said aunt hannah. "what sort did you get? not those nasty, tall, long-legged things you brought before?" "no, aunt; beautiful golden chanterelles. i wanted to have them cooked for breakfast." "and i have told him it would be high treason," said the doctor. "martha would give warning." "no, no, my dear, not quite so bad as that, but leave them to me, and i'll cook them for lunch myself." "no need, aunt; martha came down from her indignant perch." "i'm glad of that," said the lady smiling; "but, one minute, before we go in the dining-room: there's a beautiful _souvenir_ rosebud over the window where i cannot reach it. cut it and bring it in." "at your peril, sir," said the doctor fiercely. "the last rose of summer! i will not have it touched." "now, my dear tom, don't be so absurd," cried the lady. "what is the use of your growing roses to waste--waste--waste themselves all over the place." "you hear that, vane? there's quoting poetry. waste their sweetness on the desert air, i suppose you mean, madam?" "yes: it's all the same," said the lady. "thank you, my dear," she continued, as vane handed the rose in through the window. "my poor cut-down bloom," sighed the doctor; but vane did not hear him, for he was setting his hat down again in the museum-like hall, close by the fishing-tackle and curiosities of many lands just as a door was opened and a fresh, maddening odour of fried ham saluted his nostrils. "oh, murder!" cried the lad; and he rushed upstairs, three steps at a time, to begin washing his hands, thinking the while over his encounter with his creole fellow-pupil. "glad i didn't fight him," he muttered, as he dried his knuckles, and looked at them curiously. "better than having to ask uncle for his sticking-plaster." he stopped short, turning and gazing out of the bedroom window, which looked over the back garden toward the field with their jersey cows; and just then a handsome game-cock flapped his bronzed wings and sent forth his defiant call. "cock-a-doodle-doo! indeed," muttered vane; "and he thinks me a regular coward. i suppose it will have to come to a set-to some day. i feel sure i can lick him, and perhaps, after all, he'll lick me." "oh, vane, my dear boy, don't!" cried mrs lee, as the lad rushed down again, his feet finding the steps so rapidly that the wonder was that he did not go headlong, and a few seconds later, he was in his place at the dining-room table, tastily arranged with its plate, china, and flowers. a walk before breakfast is a wonderful thing for the appetite, and vane soon began with a sixteen-year-old growing appetite upon the white bread, home-made golden butter, and the other pleasant products of the doctor's tiny homestead, including brahma eggs, whose brown shells suggested that they must have been boiled in coffee. the doctor kept the basket he had brought in beside him on the cloth, and had to get up four times over to throw great fat wood-lice out of the window, after scooping them up with a silver tablespoon, the dark grey creatures having escaped from between the interstices of the basket, and being busily making their way in search of some dry, dark corner. "it is astonishing what a predilection for peaches the wood-louse has," said the doctor, resuming his seat. "all your fault, uncle," said vane, with his mouth full. "mine! why?" "you see you catch them stealing, and then you forgive them and let them go to find their way back to the south wall, so that they can begin again." "humph! yes," said the doctor; "they have plenty of enemies to shorten their lives without my help. well, so you found some mushrooms, did you?" "yes, uncle, just in perfection." "some more tea, dear?" said vane's aunt. "i hope you didn't bring many to worry cook with." "only a basket full, aunty," said vane merrily. "what!" cried the lady, holding the teapot in air. "but she is going to cook them for dinner." "really, my dear, i must protest," said the lady. "vane cannot know enough about such things to be trusted to bring them home and eat them. i declare i was in fear and trembling over that last dish." "you married a doctor, my dear," said vane's uncle quietly; "and you saw me partake of the dish without fear. someone must experimentalise, somebody had to eat the first potato, and the first bunch of grapes. nature never labelled them wholesome food." "then let somebody else try them first," said the lady. "i do not feel disposed to be made ill to try whether this or that is good for food. i am not ambitious." "then you must forgive us: we are," said the doctor dipping into his basket. "come, you will not refuse to experimentalise on a peach, my dear. there is one just fully ripe, and--dear me! there are two wood-lice in this one. eaten their way right in and living there." he laid one lovely looking peach on a plate, and made another dip. "that must have fallen quite early in the night," said vane, sharply, "slugs have been all over it." "so they have," said the doctor, readjusting his spectacles. "here is a splendid one. no: a blackbird has been digging his beak into that. and into this one too. really, my dear, i'm afraid that my garden friends and foes have been tasting them all. no, here is one with nothing the matter, save the contusion consequent from its fall from the mother tree." "on to mother earth," said vane laughing. "i say, uncle, wouldn't it be a good plan to get a lot of that narrow old fishing net, and spread it out hanging from the wall, so as to catch all the peaches that fall?" "excellent," said the doctor. "i'll do it," said vane, wrinkling up his brow, as he began to puzzle his brains about the best way to suspend the net for the purpose. soon after, the lad was in the doctor's study, going over some papers he had written, ready for his morning visit to the rectory; and this put him in mind of the encounter with his fellow-pupil, distin, and made him thoughtful. "he doesn't like me," the boy said to himself; "and somehow i feel as if i do not like him. i don't want to quarrel, and it always seems as if one was getting into hot-water with him. he's hot-blooded, i suppose, from being born in the west indies. well, if that's it," mused vane, "he can't help it any more than i can help being cool because i was born in england. i won't quarrel with him. there." and taking up his books and papers, he strapped them together, and set off for the rectory, passing out of the swing-gate, going along the road toward the little town above which the tall grey-stone tower stood up in the clear autumn air with its flagstaff at the corner of the battlements, its secondary tower at the other corner, holding within it the narrow spiral staircase which led from the floor to the leads; and about it a little flock of jackdaws sailing round and round before settling on the corner stones, and the top. "wish i could invent something to fly with," thought vane, as he reached the turning some distance short of the first houses of the town. "it does seem so easy. those birds just spread out their wings, and float about wherever they please with hardly a beat. there must be a way, if one could only find it out." he went off into the pleasant lane to the left, and caught sight of a bunch of blackberries apparently within reach, and he was about to cross the dewy band of grass which bordered the road, when he recollected that he had just put on clean boots, and the result of a scramble through and among brambles would be unsatisfactory for their appearance in the rector's prim study. so the berries hung in their place, left to ripen, and he went on till a great dragon-fly came sailing along the moist lane to pause in the sunny openings, and poise itself in the clear air where its wings vibrated so rapidly that they looked like a patch of clear gauze. vane's thoughts were back in an instant to the problem that has puzzled so many minds; and as he watched the dragon-fly, a couple of swallows skimmed by him, darted over the wall, and were gone. then, flopping idly along in its clumsy flight, came a white butterfly, and directly after a bee--one of the great, dark, golden-banded fellows, with a soft, velvety coat. "and all fly in a different way," said vane to himself, thoughtfully. "they all use wings, but all differently; and they have so much command over them, darting here and there, just as they please. i wonder whether i could make a pair of wings and a machine to work them. it doesn't seem impossible. people float up in balloons, but that isn't enough. i think i could do it, and--oh, hang it, there goes ten, and the rector will be waiting. i wonder whether i can recollect all he said about those greek verbs." chapter three. in the study. vane reached the rectory gate and turned in with his brains in the air, dashing here and there like a dragon-fly, skimming after the fashion of a swallow, flying steadily, bumble-bee-fashion, and flopping faintly as the butterfly did whose wings were so much out of proportion to the size of its body. either way would do, he thought, or better still, if he could fly by a wide-spread membrane stretched upon steel or whalebone ribs or fingers like a bat. why not? he mused. there could be no reason; and he was beginning to wonder why he had never thought of making some flying machine before, when he was brought back to earth from his imaginary soarings by a voice saying,-- "hullo! here's old weathercock!" and this was followed by a laugh which brought the colour into his cheeks. "i don't care," he thought. "let him laugh. better be a weathercock and change about, than be always sticking fast. uncle says we can't help learning something for one's trouble." by this time he was at the porch, which he entered just as the footman was carrying out the breakfast things. "rector isn't in the study then, joseph?" said vane. "no, sir; just coming in out of the garden. young gents is in there together." vane felt disposed to wait and go in with the rector, but, feeling that it would be cowardly, he walked straight in at the study door to find distin, gilmore, and macey seated at the table, all hard at work, but apparently not over their studies. "why, gracious!" cried macey. "alive?" said gilmore. "used to it," sneered distin. "that sort of creature takes a deal of killing." "what's the matter?" said vane, good-humouredly, taking a seat. "why," said gilmore, "we were all thinking of writing to our tailors to send us suits of mourning out of respect for you--believe it or not as you please." "thankye," said vane quietly. "then i will not believe it, because distin wouldn't order black if i were drowned." "who said a word about drowned? i said poisoned," cried gilmore. "not a word about it. but why?" "because you went home and ate those toadstools." "wrong," said vane quietly, "i haven't eaten them yet." "then three cheers for the tailors; there's a chance for them yet," cried macey. "why didn't you eat them?" asked gilmore. "afraid?" "i don't think so. they'll be ready by dinner time, will you come?" grimaces followed, as vane quietly opened his books, and glanced round the rector's room with its handsome book-cases all well filled, chimney-piece ornamented with classic looking bronzes; and the whole place with its subdued lights and heavily curtained windows suggestive of repose for the mind and uninterrupted thought and study. books and newly-written papers lay on the table, ready for application, but the rector's pupils did not seem to care about work in their tutor's absence, for macey, who was in the act of handing round a tin box when vane entered, now passed it on to the latter. "lay hold, old chap," he said. vane opened it, and took out a piece of crisp dark brown stickiness generally known as "jumble," and transferred it to his mouth, while four lower jaws were now seen at work, giving the pupils the aspect of being members of that portion of the quadrupedal animal kingdom known as ruminants. "worst of this stuff is," said macey, "that you get your teeth stuck together. oh, i say, gil, what hooks! a whole dozen?" gilmore nodded as he opened a ring of fine silkworm gut, and began to examine the points and backs of the twelve bright blue steel hooks at the ends of the gut lengths, and the carefully-tied loops at the other. "where did you buy them?" continued macey, as he gloated over the bright hookah. no answer. "where did you buy them, gil?" said macey again. "cuoz--duoz--ooze." "what!" cried macey; and distin and vane both looked wonderingly at their fellow-pupil, who had made a peculiar incoherent guttural noise, faintly represented by the above words. then vane began to laugh. "what's the matter, gil?" he said. gilmore gave his neck a peculiar writhe, and his jaws a wrench. "i wish you fellows wouldn't bother," he cried. "you, macey, ought to know better: you give a chap that stickjaw stuff of yours, and then worry him to speak. come by post, i said. from london." distin gave vent to a contemptuous sniff, and it was seen that he was busily spreading tobacco on thin pieces of paper, and rolling them up into cigarettes with the nonchalant air of one used to such feats of dexterity, though, truth to tell, he fumbled over the task; and as he noticed that vane was observing him with a quiet look of good-humoured contempt, his fingers grew hot and moist, and he nervously blundered over his task. "well," he said with a vicious twang in his tones, "what are you staring at?" "you," replied vane, with his hand holding open a greek lexicon. "then mind your lessons, schoolboy," retorted distin sharply. "did you never see a gentleman roll a cigarette before?" "no," said vane quietly, and then, feeling a little nettled by the other's tone, he continued, "and i can't see one now." distin half rose from the table, crushing a partly formed cigarette in his hand. "did you mean that for another insult, sir?" he cried in a loud, angry voice. "oh, i say, distie," said gilmore, rising too, and catching his arm, "don't be such a pepper-pot. old weathercock didn't mean any harm." "mind your own business," said distin, fiercely wrenching his arm free. "that is my business--to sit on you when you go off like a firework," said gilmore merrily. "i say, does your father grow much ginger on his plantation?" "i was speaking to the doctor's boy, and i'll thank you to be silent," cried distin. "oh, i say, don't, don't, don't!" cried macey, apostrophising all three. "what's the good of kicking up rows about nothing! here, distie," he continued, holding out his box; "have some more jumble." distin waved the tin box away majestically, and turned to vane. "i said, sir, goo--gloo--goog--" he stepped from his place to the window in a rage, for his voice had suddenly become most peculiar; and as the others saw him thrust a white finger into his mouth and tear out something which he tried to throw away but which refused to be cast off, they burst into a simultaneous roar of laughter, which increased as they saw the angry lad suck his finger, and wipe it impatiently on his handkerchief. "don't you give me any of your filthy stuff again, you. macey," he cried. "all right," said the culprit, wiping the tears out of his eyes, and taking the tin box from his pocket. "have a bit more?" distin struck the tin box up furiously, sending it flying open, as it performed an arc in the air, and distributing fragments of the hard-baked saccharine sweet. "oh, i say!" cried macey, hastily stooping to gather up the pieces. "here, help, gil, or we shall have syme in to find out one of them by sitting on it." "look here, sir," cried distin, across the table to vane, who sat, as last comer, between him and the door, "i said did you mean that as an insult?" "oh, rubbish!" replied vane, a little warmly now; "don't talk in that manner, as if you were somebody very big, and going to fight a duel." "i asked you, sir, if you meant that remark as an insult," cried distin, "and you evade answering, in the meanest and most shuffling way. i was under the impression when i came down to greythorpe it was to read with english gentlemen, and i find--" "never mind what you find," said vane; "i'll tell you what you do." "oh, you will condescend to tell me that," sneered distin. "pray what do i do?" "don't tell him, lee," said gilmore; "and stop it, both of you. mr syme will be here directly, and we don't want him to hear us squabbling over such a piece of idiotic nonsense." "and you call my resenting an insult of the most grave nature a piece of idiocy, do you, mr gilmore?" "no, mr distin; but i call the beginning of this silly row a piece of idiocy." "of course you fellows will hang together," said distin, with a contemptuous look. "i might have known that you were not fit to trust as a friend." "look here, dis," said gilmore, in a low, angry voice, "don't you talk to me like that." "and pray why, sir?" said distin, in a tone full of contempt. "because i'm not vane, sir, and--" "i say, old chaps, don't, please don't," cried macey, earnestly. "look here; i've got a tip from home by this morning's post, and i'll be a good feed to set all square. come: that's enough." then, imitating the rector's thick, unctuous voice, "hum--ha!--silence, gentlemen, if you please." "silence yourself, buffoon!" retorted distin, sharply, and poor macey sank down in his chair, startled, or assuming to be. "no, mr gilmore," said distin, haughtily, "you are not vane lee, you said, and--and what?" "i'll tell you," cried the lad, with his brow lowering. "i will not sit still and let you bully me. he may not think it worth his while to hit out at a foreign-bred fellow who snaps and snarls like an angry dog, but i do; and if you speak to me again as you did just now, i'll show you how english-bred fellows behave. i'll punch your head." "no, you will not, gil," said vane, half rising in his seat. "i don't want to quarrel, but if there must be one, it's mine. so look here, distin: you've done everything you could for months past to put me out of temper." "he--aw!--he--aw!" cried macey, in parliamentary style. "be quiet, jackass," cried distin; and macey began to lower himself, in much dread, under the table. "i say," continued vane, "you have done everything you could to put me out of temper, and i've put up with it patiently, and behaved like a coward." "he--aw, he--aw!" said macey again; and vane shook his fist at him good-humouredly. "amen. that's all, then," cried macey; and then, imitating the rector again, "now, gentlemen, let us resume our studies." "be quiet, aleck," said gilmore, angrily; "i--" he did not go on, for he saw distin's hand stealing toward a heavy dictionary, and, at that moment, vane said firmly:-- "i felt it was time to show you that i am not quite a coward. i did mean it as an insult, as you call it. what then?" "that!" cried distin, hurling the dictionary he had picked up with all his might at his fellow-pupil, across the table, but without effect. vane, like most manly british lads, knew how to take care of himself, and a quick movement to one side was sufficient to allow the big book to pass close to his ear, and strike with a heavy bang against the door panel just as the handle rattled, and a loud "hum--ha!" told that the rector was coming into the room for the morning's reading. chapter four. martha's mistake. as quickly as if he were fielding a ball, vane caught up the volume from where it fell, and was half-way back to his seat as the rector came in, looking very much astonished, partly at the noise of the thump on the door, partly from an idea that the dictionary had been thrown as an insult to him. macey was generally rather a heavy, slow fellow, but on this occasion he was quick as lightning, and, turning sharply to distin, who looked pale and nervous at the result of his passionate act. "you might have given the dictionary to him, distin," he said, in a reproachful tone. "don't do books any good to throw 'em." "quite right, mr macey, quite right," said the rector, blandly, as he moved slowly to the arm-chair at the end of the table. "really, gentlemen, you startled me. i was afraid that the book was intended for me, hum--ha! in disgust because i was so late." "oh, no, sir," cried distin, with nervous eagerness. "of course not, my dear distin, of course not. an accident--an error-- of judgment. good for the binders, no doubt, but not for the books. and i have an affection for books--our best friends." he subsided into his chair as he spoke. "pray forgive me for being so late. a little deputation from the town, mr rounds, my churchwarden; mr dodge, the people's. a little question of dispute calling for a gentle policy on my part, and--but, no matter; it will not interest you, neither does it interest me now, in the face of our studies. mr macey, shall i run over your paper now?" macey made a grimace at vane, as he passed his paper to the rector; and, as it was taken, vane glanced at distin, and saw that his lips were moving as he bent over his greek. vane saw a red spot in each of his sallow cheeks, and a peculiar twitching about the corners of his eyes, giving the lad a nervous, excitable look, and making vane remark,-- "what a pity it all is. wish he couldn't be so easily put out. he can't help it, i suppose, and i suppose i can. there, he shan't quarrel with me again. i suppose i ought to pitch into him for throwing the book at my head, but i could fight him easily, and beat him, and, if i did, what would be the good? i should only make him hate me instead of disliking me as he does. bother! i want to go on with my greek." he rested his head upon his hands determinedly, and, after a great deal of effort, managed to condense his thoughts upon the study he had in hand; and when, after a long morning's work, the rector smilingly complimented him upon his work, he looked up at him as if he thought it was meant in irony. "most creditable, sir, most creditable; and i wish i could say the same to you, my dear macey. a little more patient assiduity--a little more solid work for your own sake, and for mine. don't let me feel uncomfortable when the alderman, your respected father, sends me his customary cheque, and make me say to myself, `we have not earned this honourably and well.'" the rector nodded to all in turn, and went out first, while, as books were being put together, macey said sharply:-- "here, vane; i'm going to walk home with you. come on!" vane glanced at distin, who stood by the table with his eyes half-closed, and his hand resting upon the dictionary he had turned into a missile. "he's waiting to hear what i say," thought vane, quickly. then aloud:--"all right, then, you shall. i see through you, though. you want to be asked to lunch on the toadstools." in spite of himself, vane could not help stealing another glance at distin, and read in the contempt which curled his upper lip that he was accusing him mentally of being a coward, and eager to sneak away. "well, let him," he thought. "as i am not afraid of him, i can afford it." then he glanced at gilmore who was standing sidewise to the window with his hands in his pockets; and he frowned as he encountered vane's eyes, but his face softened directly. "i won't ask you to come with us, gil," said vane frankly. "all right, old weathercock," cried gilmore; and his face lit up now with satisfaction. "he doesn't think i'm afraid," said vane to himself. "am i to wait all day for you?" cried macey. "no; all right, i'm coming," said vane, finishing the strapping together of his books.--"ready now." but he was not, for he hesitated for a moment, coloured, and then his face, too, lit up, and he turned to distin, and held out his hand. "i'm afraid i lost my temper a bit, distie," he said; "but that's all over now. shake hands." distin raised the lids of his half-closed eyes, and gazed full at the speaker, but his hand did not stir from where it rested upon the book. and the two lads stood for some moments gazing into each other's eyes, till the blue-veined lids dropped slowly over distin's, and without word or further look, he took his cigarette case out of his pocket, walked deliberately out of the study, and through the porch on to the gravel drive, where, directly after, they heard the sharp _crick-crack_ of a match. "it's all going to end in smoke," said macey, wrinkling up his forehead. "i say, it isn't nice to wish it, because i may be in the same condition some day; but i do hope that cigarette will make him feel queer." "i wouldn't have his temper for anything," cried gilmore, angrily. "it isn't english to go on like that." "oh, never mind," said vane; "he'll soon cool down." "yes; but when he does, you feel as if it's only a crust," cried gilmore. "and that the jam underneath isn't nice," added macey. "never mind. it's nothing fresh. we always knew that our west india possessions were rather hot. come on, vane. i don't know though. i don't want to go now." "not want to come? why?" "because i only wanted to keep you two from dogs delighting again." "you behaved very well, vane, old fellow," said gilmore, ignoring macey's attempts to be facetious. "he thinks you're afraid of him, and if he don't mind he'll someday find out that he has made a mistake." "i hope not," said vane quietly. "i hate fighting." "you didn't seem to when you licked that gipsy chap last year." vane turned red. "no: that's the worst of it. i always feel shrinky till i start; and then, as soon as i get hurt, i begin to want to knock the other fellow's head off--oh, i say, don't let us talk about that sort of thing; one has got so much to do." "you have, you mean," said gilmore, clapping him on the shoulder. "what's in the wind now, weathercock?" "he's making a balloon," said macey, laughing. vane gave quite a start, as he recalled his thoughts about flight that morning. "told you so," cried macey merrily; "and he's going to coax pepper-pot distin to go up with him, and pitch him out when they reach the first lake." "no, he isn't," said gilmore; "he's going to be on the look-out, for distie's sure to want to serve him out on the sly if he can." "coming with us?" said vane. "no, not this time, old chap," said gilmore, smiling. "i'm going to be merciful to your aunt and spare her." "what do you mean?" "i'll come when aleck macey stops away. he does eat at such a frightful rate, that if two of us came your people would never have us in at the little manor again." macey made an offer as if to throw something, but gilmore did not see it, for he had stepped close up to vane and laid his hand upon his shoulder. "i'm going to stop with distie. don't take any notice of his temper. i'm afraid he cannot help it. i'll stay and go about with him, as if nothing had happened." vane nodded and went off with macey, feeling as if he had never liked gilmore so much before; and then the little unpleasantry was forgotten as they walked along from the rectory gates, passing, as they reached the main road, a party of gipsies on their way to the next town with their van and cart, both drawn by the most miserable specimens of the four-legged creature known as horse imaginable, and followed by about seven or eight more horses and ponies, all of which found time to crop a little grass by the roadside as cart and van were dragged slowly along. it was not an attractive-looking procession, but the gipsies themselves seemed active and well, and the children riding or playing about the vehicles appeared to be happy enough, and the swarthy, dark-eyed women, both old and young, good-looking. just in front of the van, a big dark man of forty slouched along, with a whip under his arm, and a black pipe in his mouth; and every now and then he seemed to remember that he had the said whip, and took it in hand, to give it a crack which sounded like a pistol shot, with the result that the horse in the van threw up its head, which had hung down toward the road, and the other skeleton-like creature in the cart threw up its tail with a sharp whisk that disturbed the flies which appeared to have already begun to make a meal upon its body, while the scattered drove of ragged ponies and horses ceased cropping the roadside herbage, and trotted on a few yards before beginning to eat again. "they're going on to some fair," said macey, as he looked curiously at the horses. "i say, you wouldn't think anyone would buy such animals as those." "want to buy a pony, young gentlemen?" said the man with the pipe, sidling up to them. "what for?" said macey sharply. "scarecrow? we're not farmers." the man grinned. "and we don't keep dogs," continued macey. "oh, i say, george, you have got a pretty lot to-day." the gipsy frowned and gave his whip a crack. "only want cleaning up, master," he said. "going to the fair?" the man nodded and went on, for all this was said without the two lads stopping; and directly after, driving a miserable halting pony which could hardly get over the ground, a couple of big hulking lads of sixteen or seventeen appeared some fifty yards away. "oh, i say, vane," cried macey; "there's that chap you licked last year. you'll see how he'll smile at you." "i should like to do it again," said vane. "look at them banging that poor pony about. what a shame it seems!" "yes. you ought to invent a machine for doing away with such chaps as these. they're no good," said macey. "oh, you brute!--i say, don't the poor beggar's sides sound hollow!" "hollow! yes," cried vane indignantly; "they never feed them, and that poor thing can't find time to graze." "no. it will be a blessing for it when it's turned into leather and glue." "go that side, and do as i do," whispered vane; and they separated, and took opposite sides of the road, as the two gipsy lads stared hard at them, and as if to rouse their ire shouted at the wretched pony, and banged its ribs. what followed was quickly done. vane snatched at one stick and twisted it out of the lad's hand nearest to him macey followed suit, and the boys stared. "it would serve you precious well right if i laid the stick about your shoulders," cried vane, breaking the ash sapling across his knee. "ditto, ditto," cried macey doing the same, and expecting an attack. the lads looked astonished for the moment, but instead of resenting the act, trotted on after the pony, which had continued to advance; and, as soon as they were at a safe distance, one of them turned, put his hand to his mouth and shouted "yah!" while the other took out his knife and flourished it. "soon cut two more," he cried. "there!" said macey, "deal of good you've done. the pony will only get it worse, and that's another notch they've got against you." "pish!" said vane, contemptuously. "yes, it's all very well to say pish; but suppose you come upon them some day when i'm not with you. gipsies never forget, and you see if they don't serve you out." vane gave him a merry look, and macey grinned. "i hope you will always be with me to take care of me," said vane. "do my best, old fellow--do my best, little man. i say, though, do you mean me to come and have lunch?" "it'll be dinner to-day," said vane. "but won't your people mind?" "mind! no. uncle and aunt both said i was to ask you to come as often as i liked. uncle likes you." "no; does he?" "yes; says you're such a rum fellow." "oh!" macey was silent after that "oh," and the silence lasted till they reached the manor, for vane was thinking deeply about the quarrel that morning; but, as the former approached the house, he felt no misgivings about his being welcome, the doctor, who was in the garden, coming forward to welcome him warmly, and mrs lee, who heard the voices, hastening out to join them. ten minutes later they were at table, where macey proved himself a pretty good trencherman till the plates were changed and eliza brought in a dish and placed it before her mistress. "hum!" said the doctor, "only one pudding and no sweets. why, macey, they're behaving shabbily to you to-day." aunt hannah looked puzzled, and vane stared. "is there no tart or custard, eliza?" asked the doctor. "yes, sir; both coming, sir," said the maid, who was very red in the face. "then what have you there?" eliza made an unspellable noise in her throat, snatched off the cover from the dish, and hurried out of the room. "dear me!" said the doctor putting on his glasses, and looking at the dish in which, in the midst of a quantity of brownish sauce, there was a little island of blackish scraps, at which aunt hannah gazed blankly, spoon in hand. "what is it, my dear?" continued the doctor. "i'm afraid, dear, it is a dish of those fungi that vane brought in this morning." "oh, i see. you will try them, macey?" "well, sir, i--" "of course he will, uncle. have a taste, aleck. give him some, aunt." aunt hannah placed a portion upon their visitor's plate, and macey was wonderfully polite--waiting for other people to be served before he began. "oh, i say, aunt, take some too," cried vane. "do you wish it, my dear? well, i will;" and aunt hannah helped herself, as the doctor began to turn his portion over; and macey thought of poisoning, doctors, and narrow escapes, as he trifled with the contents of his plate. "humph!" said the doctor breaking a painful silence. "i'm afraid, vane, that cook has made a mistake." "mistake, sir?" cried macey, eagerly; "then you think they are not wholesome?" "decidedly not," said the doctor. "i suppose these are your chanterelles, vane." "don't look like 'em, uncle." "no, my boy, they do not. i can't find any though," said the doctor, as he turned over his portion with his fork. "no: i was wrong." "they are not the chanterelles then, uncle?" "oh, yes, my boy, they are. i was afraid that martha had had an accident with the fungi, and had prepared a substitute from my old shooting boots, but i can't see either eyelet or nail. can you?" "oh, my dear!" cried aunt hannah to her nephew; "do, pray, ring, and have them taken away. you really should not bring in such things to be cooked." "no, no: stop a moment," said the doctor, as macey grinned with delight; "let's see first whether there is anything eatable." "it's all like bits of shrivelled crackling," said vane, "only harder." "yes," said the doctor, "much. i'm afraid martha did not like her job, and she has cooked these too much. no," he added, after tasting, "this is certainly not a success. now for the tart--that is, if our young friend macey has quite finished his portion." "i haven't begun, sir," said the visitor. "then we will wait." "no, no, please sir, don't. i feel as if i couldn't eat a bit." "and i as if they were not meant to eat," said the doctor, smiling. "never mind, vane; we'll get aunt to cook the rest, or else you and i will experimentalise over a spirit lamp in the workshop, eh?" "yes, uncle, and we'll have macey there, and make him do all the tasting for being so malicious." "tell me when it's to be," said macey, grinning with delight at getting rid of his plate; "and i'll arrange to be fetched home for a holiday." chapter five. the miller's boat. vane so frequently got into hot-water with his experiments that he more than once made vows. but his promises were as unstable as water, and he soon forgot them. he had vowed that he would be contented with things as they were, but his active mind was soon at work contriving. he and macey had borrowed rounds the miller's boat one day for a row. they were out having a desultory wander down by the river, when they came upon the bluff churchwarden himself, and he gave them a friendly nod as he stood by the roadside talking to chakes about something connected with the church; and, as the boys went on, macey said, laughing, "i say, weathercock, you're such a fellow for making improvements, why don't you take chakes in hand, and make him look like the miller?" "they are a contrast, certainly," said vane, glancing back at the gloomy, bent form of the sexton, as he stood looking up sidewise at the big, squarely-built, wholesome-looking miller. "but i couldn't improve him. i say, what shall we do this afternoon?" "i don't know," said macey. "two can't play cricket comfortably. it's stupid to bowl and field." "well, and it's dull work to bat, and be kept waiting while the ball is fetched. let's go to my place. i want to try an experiment." "no, thank you," cried macey. "don't catch me holding wires, or being set to pound something in a mortar. i know your little games, vane lee. you've caught me once or twice before." "well, let's do something. i hate wasting time." "come and tease old gil; or, let's go and sit down somewhere near distie. he's in the meadows, and it will make him mad as mad if you go near him." "try something better," said vane. "oh, i don't know. we might go blackberrying, only one seems to be getting too old for that sort of thing. let's hire two nags, and have a ride." "well, young gents, going my way?" cried the miller, from behind them, as he strode along in their rear. "where are you going?" said vane. "down to the mill. the wind won't blow, so i'm obliged to make up for it at the river mill, only the water is getting short. that's the best of having two strings to your bow, my lads. by the time the water gets low, perhaps the wind may rise, and turn one's sails again. when i can't get wind or water there's no flour, and if there's no flour there'll be no bread." "that's cheerful," cried macey. "yes; keeps one back, my lad. two strings to one's bow arn't enough. say, master lee, you're a clever sort of chap, and make all kinds of 'ventions; can't you set me going with a steam engine thing as 'll make my stones run, when there's no water?" "i think i could," said vane, eagerly. "i thowt you'd say that, lad," cried the miller, laughing; "but i've heard say as there's blowings-up--explosions--over your works sometimes, eh?" "oh, that was an accident," cried vane. "and accidents happen in the best regulated families, they say," cried the miller. "well, i must think about it. cost a mint o' money to do that." by this time they had reached the long, low, weather-boarded, wooden building, which spanned the river like a bridge, and looked curiously picturesque among the ancient willows growing on the banks, and with their roots laving in the water. it was a singular-looking place, built principally on a narrow island in the centre of the stream, and its floodgates and dam on either side of the island; while heavy wheels, all green with slimy growth, and looking grim and dangerous as they turned beneath the mill on either side, kept up a curious rumbling and splashing sound that was full of suggestions of what the consequences would be should anyone be swept over them by the sluggish current in the dam, and down into the dark pool below. "haven't seen you, gents, lately, for a day's fishing," said the miller, as he entered the swing-gate, and held it open for the lads to follow, which, having nothing else to do, they did, as a matter of course. "no," said macey; "been too busy over our books." the churchwarden laughed. "oh, yes, i suppose so, sir. you look just the sort of boy who would work himself to death over his learning. tired of fishing?" "i'm not," said vane. "have there been many up here lately?" "swarms," said the miller. "pool's alive with roach and chub sometimes, and up in the dam for hundreds of yards you may hear the big tench sucking and smacking their lips among the weeds, as if they was waiting for a bit of paste or a fat worm." "you'll give us a day's fishing any time we like to come then, mr rounds?" said vane. "two, if you like, my lads. sorry i can't fit you up with tackle, or you might have a turn now." "oh, i shan't come and fish that way," cried macey. "i've tried too often. you make all kinds of preparations, and then you come, and the fish won't bite. they never will when i try." "don't try enough, do he, master lee?" "yes, i do," cried macey. "i like fishing with a net, or i should like to have a try if you ran all the water out of the dam, so that we could see what fish were in." "yes, i suppose you'd like that." "hi! look there, vane," cried macey, pointing to a newly-painted boat fastened by its chain to one of the willows. "i'm ready for a row if mr rounds would lend us the boat." "nay, you'd go and drown yourself and master vane too." "pooh! as if we couldn't row. i say, mr rounds, do lend us the boat." "oh, well, i don't mind, my lads, if you'll promise to be steady, and not get playing any games." "oh, i'll promise, and there's no need to ask lee. he's as steady as you are." "all right, lads; you can have her. oars is inside the mill. i'll show you. want to go up or down?" "i don't care," said macey. "if you want to go down stream, i shall have to slide the boat down the overshoot. better go up, and then you'll have the stream with you coming back. hello, here's some more of you." this was on his seeing distin and gilmore coming in the other direction, and macey shouted directly: "hi! we've got the boat. come and have a row." gilmore was willing at once, but distin held off for a few moments, but the sight of the newly-painted boat, the clear water of the sunlit river, and the glowing tints of the trees up where the stream wound along near the edge of the wood, were too much for him, and he took the lead at once, and began to unfasten the chain. "you can fasten her up again when you bring her back," said the miller, as he led the way into the mill. "i do like the smell of the freshly-ground flour," cried macey, as they passed the door. "but, i say, vane lee, hadn't we better have gone alone? you see if those two don't monopolise the oars till they're tired, and then we shall have to row them just where they please." "never mind," said vane; "we shall be on the water." "i'll help you pitch them in, if they turn nasty, as people call it, down here." "there you are, young gents, and the boat-hook, too," said the miller, opening his office door, and pointing to the oars. "brand noo uns i've just had made, so don't break 'em." "all right, we'll take care," said macey; and, after a few words of thanks, the two lads bore out the oars, and crossed a narrow plank gangway in front of the mill to the island, where distin and gilmore were seated in the boat. "who's going to row?" said macey. "we are," replied distin, quietly taking off his jacket, gilmore following suit, and macey gave vane a look, which plainly said, "told you so," as he settled himself down in the stern. the start was not brilliant, for, on pushing off, distin did not take his time from gilmore, who was before him, and consequently gave him a tremendous thump on the back with both fists. "i say," roared gilmore, "we haven't come out crab-catching." whereupon macey burst into a roar of laughter, and vane smiled. distin, who was exceedingly nervous and excited, looked up sharply, ignored macey, and addressed vane. "idiot!" he cried. "i suppose you never had an accident in rowing." "lots," said vane, with his face flushing, but he kept his temper. "perhaps you had better take the oar yourself." "try the other way, mr distin, sir," cried the miller, in his big, bluff voice; and, looking up, they could see his big, jolly face at a little trap-like window high up in the mill. "eh! oh, thank you," said distin, in a hurried, nervous way, and, rising in his seat, he was in the act of turning round to sit down with his back to gilmore, when a fresh roar of laughter from macey showed him that the miller was having a grin at his expense. just then the little window shut with a sharp clap, and distin hesitated, and glanced at the shore as if, had it been closer, he would have leaped out of the boat, and walked off. but they were a good boat's length distant, and he sat down again with an angry scowl on his face, and began to pull. "in for a row again," said gilmore to himself. "why cannot a fellow bear a bit of banter like that!" to make things go more easily, gilmore reversed the regular order of rowing, and took his time, as well as he could, from distin, and the boat went on, the latter tugging viciously at the scull he held. the consequence was, that, as there was no rudder and the river was not straight, there was a tendency on the part of the boat to run its nose into the bank, in spite of all that gilmore could do to prevent it; and at last macey seized the boat-hook, and put it over the stern. "look here," he cried, "i daresay i can steer you a bit with this." but his act only increased the annoyance of distin, who had been nursing his rage, and trying to fit the cause in some way upon vane. "put that thing down, idiot!" he cried, fiercely, "and sit still in the boat. do you think i am going to be made the laughing-stock of everybody by your insane antics?" "oh, all right, colonist," said macey, good-humouredly; "only some people would put the pole down on your head for calling 'em idiots." "what!" roared distin; "do you dare to threaten me?" "oh, dear, no, sir. i beg your pardon, sir. i'm very sorry, sir. i didn't come for to go for to--" "clown!" cried distin, contemptuously. "oh, i say, vane, we are having a jolly ride," whispered macey, but loud enough for distin to hear, and the creole's dark eyes flashed at them. "i say, distin," said gilmore in a remonstrant growl, "don't be so precious peppery about nothing. aleck didn't mean any harm." "that's right! take his part," cried distin, making the water foam, as he pulled hard. "you fellows form a regular cabal, and make a dead set at me. but i'm not afraid. you've got the wrong man to deal with, and--confound the wretched boat!" he jumped up, and raising the scull, made a sharp dig with it at the shore, and would have broken it, had not gilmore checked him. "don't!" he cried, "you will snap the blade." for, having nearly stopped rowing as he turned to protest, the natural result was that the boat's nose was dragged round, and the sharp prow ran right into the soft overhanging bank and stuck fast. vane tried to check himself, but a hearty fit of laughter would come, one which proved contagious, for macey and gilmore both joined in, the former rolling about and giving vent to such a peculiar set of grunts and squeaks of delight, as increased the others' mirth, and made distin throw down his scull, and jump ashore, stamping with rage. "no, no, distie, don't do that," cried gilmore, wiping his eyes. "come back." "i won't ride with such a set of fools," panted distin, hoarsely. "you did it on purpose to annoy me." he took a few sharp steps away, biting his upper lip with rage, and the laughter ceased in the boat. "i say, distin," cried vane; and the lad faced round instantly with a vindictive look at the speaker as he walked sharply back to the boat, and sprang in. "no, i will not go," he cried. "that's what you want--to get rid of me, but you've found your match." he sprang in so sharply that the boat gave a lurch and freed itself from the bank, gliding off into deep water again; and as distin resumed his scull, gilmore waited for it to dip, and then pulled, so that solely by his skill--for distin was very inexperienced as an oarsman--the boat was kept pretty straight, and they went on up stream in silence. macey gazed at gilmore, who was of course facing him, but he could not look at his friend without seeing distin too, and to look at the latter meant drawing upon himself a savage glare. so he turned his eyes to vane, with the result that distin watched him as if he were certain that he was going to detect some fresh conspiracy. macey sighed, and gazed dolefully at the bank, as if he wished that he were ashore. vane gazed at the bank too, and thought of his ill luck in being at odds with distin, and of the many walks he had had along there with his uncle. these memories brought up plenty of pleasant thoughts, and he began to search for different water-plants and chat about them to macey, who listened eagerly this time for the sake of having something to do. "look!" said vane pointing; "there's the stratiotes." "what?" "stratiotes. the water-soldier." "then he's a deserter," said macey. "hold hard you two, and let's arrest him." "no, no; go on rowing," said vane. "don't take any notice of the buffoon, gilmore," cried distin sharply. "pull!" "i say, old cock of the weather," whispered macey, leaning over the side, "i'd give something to be as strong as you are." "why?" asked vane in the same low tone. "because my left fist wants to punch distie's nose, and i haven't got muscle enough--what do you call it, biceps--to do it." "let dogs delight to bark and bite," said vane, laughing. "don't," whispered macey; "you're making distie mad again. he feels we're talking about him. go on about the vegetables." "all right. there you are then. that's all branched bur-reed." "what, that thing with the little spikey horse-chestnuts on it?" "that's it." "good to eat?" "i never tried it. there's something that isn't," continued vane, pointing at some vivid green, deeply-cut and ornamental leaves. "what is it? looks as if it would make a good salad." "water hemlock. very poisonous." "do not chew the hemlock rank--growing on the weedy bank," quoted macey. "i wish you wouldn't begin nursery rhymes. you've started me off now. i should like some of those bulrushes," and he pointed to a cluster of the brown poker-like growth rising from the water, well out of reach from the bank. "those are not bulrushes." "what are they, then?" "it is the reed-mace." "they'll do just as well by that name. i say, distie, i want to cut some of them." "go on rowing," said distin, haughtily, to gilmore, without glancing at macey. "all right, my lord," muttered macey. "halloo! what was that? a big fish?" "no; it was a water-rat jumped in." "all right again," said macey good-humouredly. "i don't know anything at all. there never was such an ignorant chap as i am." "give me the other scull, gilmore," said distin, just then. "all right, but hadn't we better go a little higher first? the stream runs very hard just here." distin uttered a sound similar to that made by a turkey-cock before he begins to gobble--a sound that may be represented by the word _phut_, and they preserved their relative places. "what are those leaves shaped like spears?" said macey, giving vane a peculiar look. "arrowheads." "there, i do know what those are!" cried macey, quickly as a shoal of good-sized fish darted of from a gravelly shallow into deep water. "well, what are they?" "roach and dace." "neither," said vane, laughing heartily. "well, i--oh, but they are." "no." "what then?" "chub." "how do you know?" "by the black edge round their tails." "i say!" cried macey; "how do you know all these precious things so readily?" "walks with uncle," replied vane. "i don't know much but he seems to know everything." "why i thought he couldn't know anything but about salts and senna, and bleeding, and people's tongues when they put 'em out." "here, macey and he had better row now," cried distin, suddenly. "let's have a rest, gilmore." the exchange of position was soon made, and macey said, as he rolled up his sleeves over his thin arms, which were in peculiar contrast to his round plump face:-- "now then: let's show old pepper-pot what rowing is." "no: pull steadily, and don't show off," said vane quietly. "we want to look at the things on the banks." "oh, all right," cried macey resignedly; and the sculls dipped together in a quiet, steady, splashless pull, the two lads feathering well, and, with scarcely any exertion, sending the boat along at a fair pace, while vane, with a naturalist's eye, noted the different plants on the banks, the birds building in the water-growth--reed sparrows, and bearded tits, and pointing out the moor-hens, coots, and an occasional duck. all at once, as they cut into a patch of the great dark flat leaves of the yellow water-lily, there was a tremendous swirl in the river just beyond the bows of the boat--one which sent the leaves heaving and falling for some distance ahead. "come now, that was a pike," cried macey, as he looked at distin lolling back nonchalantly, with his eyes half-closed. "yes; that was a pike, and a big one too," said vane. "let's see, opposite those three pollard willows in the big horseshoe bend. we'll come and have a try for him, aleck, one of these days." it was a pleasant row, macey and vane keeping the oars for a couple of hours, right on, past another mill, and among the stumps which showed where the old bridge and the side-road once spanned the deeps--a bridge which had gradually decayed away and had never been replaced, as the traffic was so small and there was a good shallow ford a quarter of a mile farther on. the country was beautifully picturesque up here, and the latter part of their row was by a lovely grove of beeches which grew on a chalk ridge-- almost a cliff--at whose foot the clear river ran babbling along. here, all of a sudden, macey threw up the blade of his oar, and at a pull or two from vane, the boat's keel grated on the pebbly sand. "what's that for?" cried gilmore, who had been half asleep as he sat right back in the stern, with his hands holding the sides. "time to go back," said macey. "want my corn." "he means his thistle," said distin, rousing himself to utter a sarcastic remark. "thistle, if you like," said macey, good-humouredly. "donkey enjoys his thistle as much as a horse does his corn, or you did chewing sugar-cane among your father's niggers." it was an unlucky speech, and like a spark to gunpowder. distin sprang up and made for macey, with his fists doubled, but vane interposed. "no," he said; "no fighting in a boat, please. gilmore and i don't want a ducking, if you do." there was another change in the creole on the instant. the fierce angry look gave place to a sneering smile, and he spoke in a husky whisper. "oh, i see," he said, gazing at vane the while, with half-shut eyes. "you prompted him to say that." vane did not condescend to answer, but macey cried promptly,-- "that he didn't. made it all up out of my own head." "a miserable insult," muttered distin. "but he had nothing to do with it, distie," said macey; "all my own; and if you wish for satisfaction--swords or pistols at six sharp, with coffee, i'm your man." distin took no heed of him, but stood watching vane, his dark half-shut eyes flashing as they gazed into the lad's calm wide-open grey orbs. "i say," continued macey, "if you wish for the satisfaction of a gentleman--" "satisfaction--gentleman!" raged out distin, as he turned suddenly upon macey. "silence, buffoon!" "the buffoon is silent," said macey, sinking calmly down into his place; "but don't you two fight, please, till after we've got back and had some food. i say, gil, is there no place up here where we can buy some tuck?" "no," replied gilmore; and then, "sit down, vane. come, distie, what is the good of kicking up such a row about nothing. you really are too bad, you know. let's, you and i, row back." "keep your advice till it is asked for," said distin contemptuously. "you, macey, go back yonder into the stern. perhaps mr vane lee will condescend to take another seat." "oh, certainly," said vane quietly, though there was a peculiar sensation of tingling in his veins, and a hot feeling about the throat. the peculiar human or animal nature was effervescing within him, and though he hardly realised it himself, he wanted to fight horribly, and there was that mastering him in those moments which would have made it a keen joy to have stood ashore there on the grass beneath the chalk cliff and pummelled distin till he could not see to get back to the boat. but he did not so much as double his fist, though he knew that macey and gilmore were both watching him narrowly and thinking, he felt sure, that, if distin struck him, he would not return the blow. as the three lads took their seats, distin, with a lordly contempt and arrogance of manner, removed his jacket, and deliberately doubled it up to place it forward. then slowly rolling up his sleeves he took the sculls, seated himself and began to back-water but without effect, for the boat was too firmly aground forward. "you'll never get her off that way," cried macey the irrepressible. "now lads, all together, make her roll." "sit still, sir!" thundered distin--at least he meant to thunder, but it was only a hoarse squeak. "yes, sir; certainly, sir," cried macey; and then, in an undertone to his companions, "shall we not sterrike for ferreedom? are we all--er-- serlaves!" then he laughed, and slapped his leg, for distin drew in one scull, rose, and began to use the other to thrust the boat off. "i say, you know," cried macey, as gilmore held up the boat-hook to distin, but it was ignored, "i don't mean to pay my whack if you break that scull." "do you wish me to break yours?" retorted distin, so fiercely that his words came with a regular snarl. "oh, murder! he's gone mad," said macey, in a loud whisper; and screwing up his face into a grimace which he intended to represent horrible dread, but more resembled the effects produced by a pin or thorn, he crouched down right away in the stern of the boat, but kept up a continuous rocking which helped distin's efforts to get her off into deep water. when the latter seated himself, turned the head, and began to row back, that is to say, he dipped the sculls lightly from time to time, so as to keep the boat straight, the stream being strong enough to carry them steadily down without an effort on the rower's part. macey being right in the stern, vane and gilmore sat side by side, making a comment now and then about something they passed, while distin was of course alone, watching them all from time to time through his half-closed eyes, as if suspicious that their words might be relating to him. then a gloomy silence fell, which lasted till macey burst out in ecstatic tones: "oh, i am enjoying of myself!" then, after a pause: "never had such a glorious day before." another silence, broken by macey once more, saying in a deferential way:-- "if your excellency feels exhausted by this unwonted exertion, your servant will gladly take an oar." distin ceased rowing, and, balancing the oars a-feather, he said coldly:-- "if you don't stop that chattering, my good fellow, i'll either pitch you overboard, or set you ashore to walk home." "thankye," cried macey, cheerfully; "but i'll take the dry, please." distin's teeth grated together as he sat and scowled at his fellow-pupil, muttering, "chattering ape;" but he made no effort to put his threats into execution, and kept rowing on, twisting his neck round from time to time, to see which way they were going; vane and gilmore went on talking in a low tone; and macey talked to himself. "he has made me feel vicious," he said. "i'm a chattering ape, am i? he'll pitch me overboard, will he? i'd call him a beast, only it would be so rude. he'd pitch me overboard, would he? well, i could swim if he did, and that's more than he could do." macey looked before him at vane and gilmore, to see that the former had turned to the side and was thoughtfully dipping his hand in the water, as if paddling. "halloo, weathercock!" he cried. "i know what you're thinking about." "not you," cried vane merrily, as he looked back. "i do. you were thinking you could invent a machine to send the boat along far better than old west indies is doing it now." vane stared at him. "well," he said, hesitatingly, "i was not thinking about distin's rowing, but i was trying to hit out some way of propelling a boat without steam." "knew it! i knew it! here, i shan't read for the bar; i shall study up for a head boss conjurer, thought-reader, and clairvoyant." "for goodness' sake, gilmore, lean back, and stuff your handkerchief in that chattering pie's mouth. you had better; it will save me from pitching him into the river." then deep silence fell on the little party, and macey's eyes sparkled. "yes, he has made me vicious now," he said to himself; and, as he sat back, he saw something which sent a thought through his brain which made him hug his knees. "let me see," he mused: "vane can swim and dive like an otter, and gil is better in the water than i am. all right, my boy; you shall pitch me in." then aloud: "keep her straight, distie. don't send her nose into the willows." the rower looked sharply round, and pulled his right scull. then, a little further on, macey shouted:-- "too much port--pull your right." distin resented this with an angry look; but macey kept on in the most unruffled way, and, by degrees, as the rower found that it saved him from a great deal of unpleasant screwing round and neck-twisting, he began to obey the commands, and pulled a little harder, so that they travelled more swiftly down the winding stream. "port!" shouted macey. "port it is! straight on!" then, after a minute,-- "starboard! more starboard! straight on!" again: "pull your right--not too much. both hands;" and distin calmly and indifferently followed the orders, till it had just occurred to him that the others might as well row now, when macey shouted again:-- "right--a little more right; now, both together. that's the way;" and, as again distin obeyed, macey shut his eyes, and drew up his knees. to give a final impetus to the light craft, distin leaned forward, threw back the blades of the sculls, dipped, and took hold of the water, and then was jerked backwards as the boat struck with a crash on one of the old piles of the ancient bridge, ran up over it a little way, swung round, and directly after capsized, and began to float down stream, leaving its human freight struggling in deep water. chapter six. distin is incredulous. "oh, murder!" shouted macey, as he rose to the surface, and struck out after the boat, which he reached, and held on by the keel. gilmore swam after him, and was soon alongside, while vane made for the bank, climbed out, stood up dripping, and roaring with laughter. "hi! gil!--aleck, bring her ashore," he cried. "all right!" came back; but almost simultaneously vane shouted again, in a tone full of horror:-- "here, both of you--distin--where's distin?" he ran along the bank as he spoke, gazing down into the river, but without seeing a sign of that which he sought. macey's heart sank within him, as, for the first time, the real significance of that which he had done in carefully guiding the rower on to the old rotten pile came home. a cold chill ran through him, and, for the moment, he clung, speechless and helpless, to the drifting boat. but vane soon changed all that. "here, you!" he yelled, "get that boat ashore, turn her over, and come to me--" as he spoke, he ran to and fro upon the bank for a few moments, but, seeing nothing, he paused opposite a deep-looking place, and plunged in, to begin swimming about, raising his head at every stroke, and searching about him, but searching in vain, for their companion, who, as far as he knew, had not risen again to the surface. meanwhile, gilmore and macey tried their best to get the boat ashore, and, after struggling for a few minutes in the shallow close under the bank, they managed to right her, but not without leaving a good deal of water in the bottom. still she floated as they climbed in and thrust her off, but only for gilmore to utter a groan of dismay as he grasped the helplessness of their situation. "no oars--no oars!" he cried; and, standing up in the stern, he plunged into the water again, to swim toward where he could see vane's head. "what have i done--what have i done!" muttered macey, wildly. "oh, poor chap, if he should be drowned!" for a moment he hesitated about following gilmore, but, as he swept the water with his eyes, he caught sight of something floating, and, sitting down, he used one hand as a paddle, trying to get the boat toward the middle of the river to intercept the floating object, which he had seen to be one of the oars. vane heard the loud splash, and saw that gilmore was swimming to his help, then he kept on, looking to right and left in search of their companion; but everywhere there was the eddying water gliding along, and bearing him with it. for a time he had breasted the current, trying to get toward the deeps where the bridge had stood, but he could make no way, and, concluding from this that distin would have floated down too, he kept on his weary, useless search till gilmore swam up abreast. "haven't seen him?" panted the latter, hoarsely. "shall we go lower?" "no," cried vane; "there must be an eddy along there. let's go up again." they swam ashore, climbed out on to the bank, and, watching the surface as they ran, they made for the spot where the well-paved road had crossed the bridge. here they stood in silence for a few moments, and gilmore was about to plunge in again, but vane stopped him. "no, no," he cried, breathing heavily the while; "that's of no use. wait till we see him rise--if he is here," he added with a groan. the sun shone brightly on the calm, clear water which here looked black and deep, and after scanning it for some time vane said quickly-- "look! there, just beyond that black stump." "no; there is nothing there but a deep hole." "yes, but the water goes round and round there, gil; that must be the place." he was about to plunge in, but it was gilmore's turn to arrest him. "no, no; it would be no use." "yes; i'll dive down." "but there are old posts and big stones, i daren't let you go." "ah!" shouted vane wildly; "look--look!" he shook himself free and plunged in as gilmore caught sight of something close up to the old piece of blackened oak upon which macey had so cleverly steered the boat. it was only a glimpse of something floating, and then it was gone; and he followed vane, who was swimming out to the old post. this he reached before gilmore was half-way, swam round for a few moments, and then paddled like a dog, rose as high as he could, turned over and dived down into the deep black hole. in a few moments he was up again to take a long breath and dive once more. this time he was down longer, and gilmore held on by the slimy post, gazing about with staring eyes, and prepared himself to dive down after his friend, when all at once, vane's white face appeared, and one arm was thrust forth to give a vigorous blow upon the surface. "got him," he cried in a half-choked voice, "gil, help!" gilmore made for him directly, and as he reached his companion's side the back of distin's head came to the surface, and gilmore seized him by his long black hair. their efforts had taken them out of the eddy into the swift stream once more, and they began floating down; vane so confused and weak from his efforts that he could do nothing but swim feebly, while his companion made some effort to keep distin's face above water and direct him toward the side. an easy enough task at another time, for it only meant a swim of some fifty yards, but with the inert body of distin, and vane so utterly helpless that he could barely keep himself afloat, gilmore had hard work, and, swim his best, he could scarcely gain a yard toward the shore. very soon he found that he was exhausting himself by his efforts and that it would be far better to go down the stream, and trust to getting ashore far lower down, though, at the same time, a chilly feeling of despair began to dull his energies, and it seemed hopeless to think of getting his comrade ashore alive. all the same, though, forced as the words sounded, he told vane hoarsely that it was all right, and that they would soon get to the side. vane only answered with a look--a heavy, weary, despairing look--which told how thoroughly he could weigh his friend's remark, as he held on firmly by distin and struck out slowly and heavily with the arm at liberty. there was no doubt about vane's determination. if he had loosed his hold of distin, with two arms free he could have saved himself with comparative ease, but that thought never entered his head, as they floated down the river, right in the middle now, and with the trees apparently gliding by them and the verdure and water-growth gradually growing confused and dim. to vane all now seemed dreamlike and strange. he was in no trouble--there was no sense of dread, and the despair of a few minutes before was blunted, as with his body lower in the water, which kept rising now above his lips, he slowly struggled on. all at once gilmore shouted wildly,-- "vane--we can't do it. let's swim ashore." vane turned his eyes slowly toward him, as if he hardly comprehended his words. "what can i do?" panted gilmore, who, on his side, was gradually growing more rapid and laboured in the strokes he made; but vane made no sign, and the three floated down stream, each minute more helpless; and it was now rapidly becoming a certainty that, if gilmore wished to save his life, he must quit his hold of distin, and strive his best to reach the bank. "it seems so cowardly," he groaned; and he looked wildly round for help, but there was none. then there seemed to be just one chance: the shore looked to be just in front of them, for the river turned here sharply round, forming a loop, and there was a possibility of their being swept right on to the bank. vain hope! the stream swept round to their right, bearing them toward the other shore, against which it impinged, and then shot off with increased speed away for the other side; and, though they were carried almost within grasping distance of a tree whose boughs hung down to kiss the swift waters, the nearest was just beyond gilmore's reach, as he raised his hand, which fell back with a splash, as they were borne right out, now toward the middle once more, and round the bend. "i can't help it. must let go," thought gilmore. "i'm done." then aloud: "vane, old chap! let go. let's swim ashore;" and then he shuddered, for vane's eyes had a dull, half-glazed stare, and his lips, nostrils,--the greater part of his face, sank below the stream. "oh, help!" groaned gilmore; "he has gone:" and, loosing his hold of distin, he made a snatch at vane, who was slowly sinking, the current turning him face downward, and rolling him slowly over. but gilmore made a desperate snatch, and caught him by the sleeve as vane rose again with his head thrown back and one arm rising above the water, clutching frantically at vacancy. the weight of that arm was sufficient to send him beneath the surface again, and gilmore's desperate struggle to keep him afloat resulted in his going under in turn, losing his presence of mind, and beginning to struggle wildly as he, too, strove to catch at something to keep himself up. another few moments and all would have been over, but the clutch did not prove to be at vacancy. far from it. a hand was thrust into his, and as he was drawn up, a familiar voice shouted in his singing ears, where the water had been thundering the moment before: "catch hold of the side," was shouted; and his fingers involuntarily closed on the gunwale of the boat, while macey reached out and seized vane by the collar, drew him to the boat, or the boat to him, and guided the drowning lad's cramped hand to the gunwale too. "now!" he shouted; "can you hold on?" there was no answer from either, and macey hesitated for a few moments, but, seeing how desperate a grip both now had, he seized one of the recovered sculls, thrust it out over the rowlock, and pulled and paddled first at the side, then over the stern till, by help of the current, he guided the boat with its clinging freight into shallow water where he leaped overboard, seized gilmore, and dragged him right up the sandy shallow to where his head lay clear. he then went back and seized vane in turn, after literally unhooking his cramped fingers from the side, and dragged him through the shallow water a few yards, before he realised that his fellow-pupil's other hand was fixed, with what for the moment looked to be a death-grip, in distin's clothes. this task was more difficult, but by the time he had dragged vane alongside of gilmore, the latter was slowly struggling up to his feet; and in a confused, staggering way he lent a hand to get vane's head well clear of the water on to the warm dry pebbles, and then between them they dragged distin right out beyond the pebbles on to the grass. "one moment," cried macey, and he dashed into the water again just in time to catch hold of the boat, which was slowly floating away. then wading back he got hold of the chain, and twisted it round a little blackthorn bush on the bank. "i'm better now," gasped gilmore. and then, "oh, aleck, aleck, they're both dead!" "they aren't," shouted macey fiercely. "look! old weathercock's moving his eyes, but i'm afraid of poor old colonist. here, hi, vane, old man! you ain't dead, are you? catch hold, gil, like this, under his arm. now, together off!" they seized vane, and, raising his head and shoulders, dragged him up on to the grass, near where distin lay, apparently past all help, and a groan escaped from gilmore's lips, as, rapidly regaining his strength and energy, he dropped on his knees beside him. "it's all right," shouted macey, excitedly, when a whisper would have done. "weathercock's beginning to revive again. hooray, old vane! you'll do. we must go to distie." vane could not speak, but he made a sign, which they interpreted to mean, go; and the next moment they were on their knees by distin's side, trying what seemed to be the hopeless task of reviving him. for the lad's face looked ghastly in the extreme; and, though macey felt his breast and throat, there was not the faintest pulsation perceptible. but they lost no time; and gilmore, who was minute by minute growing stronger, joined in his companion's efforts at resuscitation from a few rather hazy recollections of a paper he had once read respecting the efforts to be made with the apparently drowned. everything was against them. they had no hot flannels or water-bottles to apply to the subject's feet, no blankets in which to wrap him, nothing but sunshine, as macey began. after doubling up a couple of wet jackets into a cushion and putting them under distin's back, he placed himself kneeling behind the poor fellow's head, seized his arms, pressed them hard against his sides, and then drew them out to their full stretch, so as to try and produce respiration by alternately compressing and expanding the chest. he kept on till he grew so tired that his motions grew slow; and then he gave place to gilmore, who carried on the process eagerly, while macey went to see how vane progressed, finding him able to speak now in a whisper. "how is distin?" he whispered. "bad," said macey, laconically. "not dead!" cried vane, frantically. "not yet," was the reply; "but i wouldn't give much for the poor fellow's chance. oh, vane, old chap, do come round, and help. you are so clever, and know such lots of things. i shall never be happy again if he dies." for answer to this appeal vane sat up, but turned so giddy that he lay back again. "i'll come and try as soon as i can," he said, feebly. "all the strength has gone out of me." "let me help you," cried macey; and he drew vane into a sitting position, but had to leave him and relieve gilmore, whose arms were failing fast. macey took his place, and began with renewed vigour at what seemed to be a perfectly hopeless task, while gilmore went to vane. "it's no good," muttered macey, whose heart was full of remorse; and a terrible feeling of despair came over him. "it's of no use, but i will try and try till i drop. oh, if i could only bring him to, i'd never say an unkind word to him again!" he threw himself into his task, working distin's thin arms up and down with all his might, listening intently the while for some faint suggestion of breathing, but all in vain; the arms he held were cold and dank, and the face upon which he looked down, seeing it in reverse, was horribly ghastly and grotesque. "i don't like him," continued macey, to himself, as he toiled away; "i never did like him, and i never shall, but i think i'd sooner it was me lying here than him. and me the cause of it all." "poor old distie!" he went on. "i suppose he couldn't help his temper. it was his nature, and he came from a foreign country. how could i be such a fool? nearly drowned us all." he bent over distin at every pressure of the arms, close to the poor fellow's side; and, as he hung over him, the great tears gathered in his eyes, and, in a choking voice, he muttered aloud:-- "i didn't mean it, old chap. it was only to give you a ducking for being so disagreeable; indeed, indeed, i wish it had been me." "oh, i say," cried a voice at his ear; "don't take on like that, old fellow. we'll bring him round yet. vane's getting all right fast." "i can't help it, gil, old chap," said macey, in a husky whisper; "it is so horrible to see him like this." "but i tell you we shall bring him round. you're tired, and out of heart. let me take another turn." "no, i'm not tired yet," said macey, recovering himself, and speaking more steadily. "i'll keep on. you feel his heart again." he accommodated his movements to his companion's, and gilmore kept his hand on distin's breast, but he withdrew it again without a word; and, as macey saw the despair and the hopeless look on the lad's face, his own heart sank lower, and his arms felt as if all the power had gone. but, with a jerk, he recommenced working distin's arms up and down with the regular pumping motion, till he could do no more, and he again made way for gilmore. he was turning to vane, but felt a touch on his shoulder, and, looking round, it was to gaze in the lad's grave face. "how is he?" "oh, bad as bad can be. do, pray, try and save him, vane. we mustn't let him die." vane breathed hard, and went to distin's side, kneeling down to feel his throat, and looking more serious as he rose. "let me try now," he whispered, but gilmore shook his head. "you're too weak," he said. "wait a bit." vane waited, and at last they were glad to let him take his turn, when the toil drove off the terrible chill from which he was suffering, and he worked at the artificial respiration plan, growing stronger every minute. again he resumed the task in his turn, and then again, after quite an hour of incessant effort had been persisted in; while now the feeling was becoming stronger in all their breasts that they had tried in vain, for there was no more chance. "if we could have had him in a bed, we might have done some good," said gilmore, sadly. "vane, old fellow, i'm afraid you must give it up." but, instead of ceasing his efforts, the lad tried the harder, and, in a tone of intense excitement, he panted:-- "look!" "at what?" cried macey, eagerly; and then, going down on his knees, he thrust in his hand beneath the lad's shirt. "yes! you can feel it. keep on, vane, keep on." "what!" shouted gilmore; and then he gave a joyful cry, for there was a trembling about one of distin's eyelids, and a quarter of an hour later they saw him open his eyes, and begin to stare wonderingly round. it was only for a few moments, and then they closed again, as if the spark of the fire of life that had been trembling had died out because there had been a slight cessation of the efforts to produce it. but there was no farther relaxation. all, in turn, worked hard, full of excitement at the fruit borne by their efforts; and, at last, while vane was striving his best, the patient's eyes were opened, gazed round once more, blankly and wonderingly, till they rested upon vane's face, when memory reasserted itself, and an unpleasant frown darkened the creole's countenance. "don't," he cried, angrily, in a curiously weak, harsh voice, quite different from his usual tones; and he dragged himself away, and tried to rise, but sank back. vane quitted his place, and made way for macey, whose turn it would have been to continue their efforts, but distin gave himself a jerk, and fixed his eyes on gilmore, who raised him by passing one hand beneath his shoulders. "better?" "better? what do you mean? i haven't--ah! how was it the boat upset?" there was no reply, and distin spoke again, in a singularly irritable way. "i said, how was it the boat upset? did someone run into us?" "you rowed right upon one of the old posts," replied gilmore, and distin gazed at him fixedly, while macey shrank back a little, and then looked furtively from vane to gilmore, and back again at distin, who fixed his eyes upon him searchingly, but did not speak for some time. "here," he said at last; "give me your hand. i can't sit here in these wet things." "can you stand?" said gilmore, eagerly. "of course i can stand. why shouldn't i? because i'm wet? oh!" he clapped his hands to his head, and bowed down a little. "are you in pain?" asked gilmore, with solicitude. "of course i am," snarled distin; "any fool could see that. i must have struck my head, i suppose." "he doesn't suspect me," thought macey, with a long-drawn breath full of relief. "here, i'll try again," continued distin. "where's the boat? i want to get back, and change these wet things. oh! my head aches as if it would split!" gilmore offered his hand again, and, forgetting everything in his desire to help one in pain and distress, vane ranged up on the other side, and was about to take distin's arm. but the lad shrank from him fiercely. "i can manage," he said. "i don't want to be hauled and pulled about like a child. now, gil, steady. let's get into the boat. i want to lie down in the stern." "wait a minute or two; she's half full of water," cried macey, who was longing to do something helpful. "come on, vane." the latter went to his help, and they drew the boat closer in. "oh, i say," whispered the lad, "isn't old dis in a temper?" "yes; i've heard that people who have been nearly drowned are terribly irritable when they come to," replied vane, in the same tone. "never mind, we've saved his life." "you did," said macey. "nonsense; we all did." "no; we two didn't dive down in the black pool, and fetch him up. oh, i say, vane, what a day! if this is coming out for pleasure i'll stop at home next time. now then, together." they pulled together, and by degrees lightened the boat of more and more water, till they were able to get it quite ashore, and drain out the last drops over the side. then launching again, and replacing the oars, macey gave his head a rub. "we shall have to buy the miller a new boat-hook," he said. "i suppose the iron on the end of the pole was so heavy that it took the thing down. i never saw it again. pretty hunt i had for the sculls. i got one, but was ever so long before i could find the other." "you only just got to us in time," said vane, with a sigh; and he looked painfully in his companion's eyes. "oh, i say, don't look at a fellow like that," said macey. "i am sorry--i am, indeed." vane was silent, but still looked at his fellow-pupil steadily. "don't ever split upon me, old chap," continued macey; "and i'll own it all to you. i thought it would only be a bit of a lark to give him a ducking, for he had been--and no mistake--too disagreeable for us to put up with it any longer." "then you did keep on telling him which hand to pull and steered him on to the pile?" macey was silent. "if you did, own to it like a man, aleck." "yes, i will--to you, vane. i did, for i thought it would be such a game to see him overboard, and i felt it would only be a wetting for us. i never thought of it turning out as it did." he ceased speaking, and vane stood gazing straight before him for a few moments. "no," he said, at last, "you couldn't have thought that it would turn out like it did." "no, 'pon my word, i didn't." "and we might have had to go back and tell syme that one of his pupils was dead. oh, aleck, if it had been so!" "yes, but don't you turn upon me, vane. i didn't mean it. you know i didn't mean it; and i'll never try such a trick as that again." "ready there?" cried gilmore. "yes; all right," shouted macey. then, in a whisper, "don't tell distie. he'd never forgive me. here they come." for, sallow, and with his teeth chattering, distin came toward them, leaning on gilmore's arm; but, as he reached the boat, he drew himself up, and looked fixedly in vane's face. "you needn't try to plot any more," he said, "for i shall be aware of you next time." "plot?" stammered vane, who was completely taken aback. "i don't know what you mean." "of course not," said distin, bitterly. "you are such a genius--so clever. you wouldn't set that idiot macey to tell me which hand to pull, so as to overset the boat. but i'll be even with you yet." "i wouldn't, i swear," cried vane, sharply. "oh, no; not likely. you are too straightforward and generous. but i'm not blind: i can see; and if punishment can follow for your cowardly trick, you shall have it. come, gil, you and i will row back together. it will warm us, and we can be on our guard against treachery this time." he stepped into the boat, staggered, and would have fallen overboard, had not vane caught his arm; but, as soon as he had recovered his balance, he shook himself free resentfully and seated himself on the forward thwart. "jump in," said gilmore, in a low voice. "yes, jump in, mr vane lee, and be good enough to go right to the stern. you did not succeed in drowning me this time; and, mind this, if you try any tricks on our way back, i'll give you the oar across the head. you cowardly, treacherous bit of scum!" "no, he isn't," said macey, boldly, "and you're all out of it, clever as you are. it was not vane's doing, the running on the pile, but mine. i did it to take some of the conceit and bullying out of you, so you may say and do what you like." "oh, yes, i knew you did it," sneered distin; "but there are not brains enough in your head to originate such a dastardly trick. that was vane lee's doing, and he'll hear of it another time, as sure as my name's distin." "i tell you it was my own doing entirely," cried macey, flushing up; "and i'll tell you something else. i'm glad i did it--so there. for you deserved it, and you deserve another for being such a cad." "what do you mean?" cried distin, threateningly. "what i say, you ungrateful, un-english humbug. you were drowning; you couldn't be found, and you wouldn't have been here now, if it hadn't been for old weathercock diving down and fetching you up, and then, half-dead himself, working so hard to help save your life." "i don't believe it," snarled distin. "don't," said macey, as he thrust the boat from the side, throwing himself forward at the same time, so that he rode out on his chest, and then wriggled in, to seat himself close by vane, while gilmore and distin began to row hard, so as to get some warmth into their chilled bodies. they went on in silence for some time, and then macey leaped up. "now, vane," he cried; "it's our turn." "sit down," roared distin. "don't, aleck," said vane, firmly. "you are quite right. we want to warm ourselves too. come, gil, and take my place." "sit down!" roared distin again; but gilmore exchanged places with vane, and macey stepped forward, and took hold of distin's oar. "now then, give it up," he said; and, utterly cowed by the firmness of the two lads, distin stepped over the thwart by vane, and went and seated himself by gilmore. "ready?" cried macey. "yes." "you pull as hard as you can, and let's send these shivers out of us. you call out, gil, and steer us, for we don't want to have to look round." they bent their backs to their work, and sent the boat flying through the water, gilmore shouting a hint from time to time, with the result that they came in sight of the mill much sooner than they had expected, and gilmore looked out anxiously, hoping to get the boat moored unseen, so that they could hurry off and get to the rectory by the fields, so that their drenched condition should not be noticed. but, just as they approached the big willows, a window in the mill was thrown open, the loud clacking and the roar of the machinery reached their ears, and there was the great, full face of the miller grinning down at them. "why, hallo!" he shouted; "what game's this? been fishing?" "no," said vane, quietly; "we--" but, before he could finish, the miller roared:-- "oh, i see, you've been bathing; and, as you had no towels, you kept your clothes on. i say, hang it all, my lads, didst ta capsize the boat?" "no," said vane, quietly, as he leaped ashore with the chain; "we had a misfortune, and ran on one of those big stumps up the river." "hey? what, up yonder by old brigg?" "yes." "hang it all, lads, come into the cottage, and i'll send on to fetch your dry clothes. hey, but it's a bad job. mustn't let you catch cold. here, hi! mrs lasby. kettle hot?" "yes, mester," came from the cottage. "then set to, and make the young gents a whole jorum of good hot tea." the miller hurried the little party into the cottage, where the kitchen-fire was heaped up with brushwood and logs, about which the boys stood, and steamed, drinking plenteously of hot tea the while, till the messenger returned with their dry clothes, and, after the change had been made, their host counselled a sharp run home, to keep up the circulation, undertaking to send the wet things back himself. chapter seven. mr. bruff's present. that boating trip formed a topic of conversation in the study morning after morning when the rector was not present--a peculiar form of conversation when distin was there--which was not regularly, for the accident on the river served as an excuse for several long stays in bed--but a free and unfettered form when he was not present. for macey soon freed vane from any feeling of an irksome nature by insisting to gilmore how he had been to blame. gilmore looked very serious at first, but laughed directly after. "i really thought it was an accident," he said; "and i felt the more convinced that it was on hearing poor old hot-headed distie accuse you, vane, because, of course, i knew you would not do such a thing; and i thought macey blamed himself to save you." "thought me a better sort of fellow than i am, then," said macey. "much," replied gilmore, quietly. "you couldn't see old weathercock trying to drown all his friends." "i didn't," cried macey, indignantly. "i only wanted to give distie a cooling down." "and nicely you did it," cried gilmore. "there, don't talk any more about it," cried vane, who was busy sketching upon some exercise paper. "it's all over, and doesn't bear thinking about." "what's he doing?" cried macey, reaching across the table, and making a snatch at the paper, which vane tried hurriedly to withdraw, but only saved a corner, while macey waved his portion in triumph. "hoo-rah!" he cried. "it's a plan for a new patent steamboat, and i shall make one, and gain a fortune, while poor old vane will be left out in the cold." "let's look," said gilmore. "no, no. it's too bad," cried vane, making a fresh dash at the paper. "shan't have it, sir! sit down," cried macey. "how dare you, sir! look, gil! it is a boat to go by steam, with a whipper-whopper out at the stern to send her along." "i wish you wouldn't be so stupid, aleck. give me the paper." "shan't." "i don't want to get up and make a struggle for it." "i should think not, sir. sit still. oh, i say, gil, look. here it all is. it's not steam. it's a fellow with long arms and queer elbows turns a wheel." "get out!" cried vane, laughing; "those are shafts and cranks." "of course they are. no one would think it, though, would they, gil? i say, isn't he a genius at drawing?" "look here, aleck, if you don't be quiet with your chaff i'll ink your nose." "wonderful, isn't he?" continued macey. "i say, how many hundred miles an hour a boat like that will go!" "oh, i say, do drop it," cried vane, good-humouredly. "i know," cried macey; "this is what you were thinking about that day we had rounds' boat." "well, yes," said vane, quietly. "i couldn't help thinking how slow and laborious rowing seemed to be, and how little change has been made in all these years that are passed. you see," he continued, warming to his subject, "there is so much waste of manual labour. it took two of us to move that boat and not very fast either." "and only one sitting quite still to upset it," said gilmore quietly. macey started, as if he had been stung. "there's a coward," he cried. "i thought you weren't going to say any more about it." "slipped out all at once, aleck," said gilmore. "but you were quite right," said vane. "two fellows toiling hard, and just one idea from another's brain proved far stronger." "now you begin," groaned macey. "oh, i say, don't! i wouldn't have old distie know for anything. you chaps are mean." "go on, vane," cried gilmore. "there's nothing more to go on about, for i haven't worked out the idea thoroughly." "i know," cried macey, with a mischievous twinkle in his eyes. "i thought," continued vane dreamily, "that one might contrive a little paddle or screw--" "and work it with hot-water pipes," cried macey. it was vane's turn to wince now; and he made a pretence of throwing a book at macey, who ducked down below the table, and then slowly raised his eyes to the level as vane went on. "then you could work that paddle by means of cranks." "only want one--old weathercock. best crank i know," cried macey. "will you be quiet," cried gilmore. "go on, vane." "that is nearly all," said the latter, thoughtfully, and looking straight before him, as if he could see the motive-power he mentally designed. "but how are you going to get the thing to work?" "kitchen-boiler," cried macey. gilmore made "an offer" at him with his fist, but macey dodged again. "oh, one might move it by working a lever with one's hands." "then you might just as well row," said gilmore. "well, then, by treadles, with one's feet." "oh--oh--oh!" roared macey. "don't! don't! who's going to be put on the tread-mill when he wants to have a ride in a boat? why, i--" "pst! syme!" whispered gilmore, as a step was heard. then the door opened, and distin came in, looking languid and indifferent. "morning," cried gilmore. "better?" distin gave him a short nod, paid no heed to the others, and went to his place to take up a book, yawning loudly as he did so. then he opened the book slowly. "look!" cried macey, with a mock aspect of serious interest. "eh? what at?" said vane. "the book," cried macey; and then he yawned tremendously. "oh, dear! i've got it now." vane stared. "don't you see? you, being a scientific chap, ought to have noticed it directly. example of the contagious nature of a yawn." oddly enough, gilmore yawned slightly just at the moment, and, putting his hand to his mouth, said to himself, "oh, dear me!" "there!" cried macey, triumphantly, "that theory's safe. distie comes in, sits down, yawns; then the book yawns, i yawn, gilmore yawns. you might, could, would, or should yawn, only you don't, and--" "good-morning, gentlemen. i'm a bit late, i fear. had a little walk after breakfast, and ran against doctor lee, who took me in to see his greenhouse. he tells me you are going to heat it by hot-water. why, vane, you are quite a genius." macey reached out a leg to kick vane under the table, but it was distin's shin which received the toe of the lad's boot, just as gilmore moved suddenly. distin uttered a sharp ejaculation, and looked fiercely across at gilmore. "what did you do that for?" he cried. "what?" "kick me under the table." "i did not." "yes, you--" "gentlemen, gentlemen," cried the rector reprovingly, "this is not a small boarding-school, and you are not school-boys. i was speaking." "i beg your pardon, sir," cried gilmore. distin was silent, and macey, who was scarlet in the face; glanced across at vane, and seemed as if he were going to choke with suppressed laughter, while vane fidgeted about in his seat. the rector frowned, coughed, changed his position, smiled, and went on, going back a little to pick up his words where he had left off. "quite a genius, vane--yes, i repeat it, quite a genius." "oh, no, sir; it will be easy enough." "after once doing, vane," said the rector, "but the first invention--the contriving--is, i beg to say, hard. however, i am intensely gratified to see that you are putting your little--little--little--what shall i call them?" "dodges, sir," suggested macey, deferentially. "no, mr macey, that is too commonplace--too low a term for the purpose, and we will, if you please, say schemes." "yes, sir," said macey, seriously--"schemes." "schemes to so useful a purpose," continued the rector; "and i shall ask you to superintend the fitting up of my conservatory upon similar principles." "really, sir, i--" began vane; but the rector smiled and raised a protesting hand. "don't refuse me, vane," he said. "of course i shall beg that you do not attempt any of the manual labour--merely superintend; but i shall exact one thing, if you consent to do it for me. that is, if the one at the manor succeeds." "of course i will do it, if you wish, sir," said vane. "i felt sure you would. i said so to your uncle, and your aunt said she was certain you would," continued the rector; "but, as i was saying, i shall exact one thing: as my cook is a very particular woman, and would look startled if i even proposed to go into the kitchen--" he paused, and vane, who was in misery, glanced at macey--to see that he was thoroughly enjoying it all, while distin's countenance expressed the most sovereign contempt. "i say, vane lee," said the rector again, as if he expected an answer, "i shall exact one thing." "yes, sir. what?" "that the rule of the queen of the kitchen be respected; but--ah, let me see, mr distin, i think we were to take up the introductory remarks made on the differential calculus." and the morning's study at the rectory went on. "best bit of fun i've had for a long time," cried macey, as he strolled out with vane when the readings were at an end. "yes, at my expense," cried vane sharply. "my leg hurts still with that kick." "oh, that's nothing," cried macey; "i kicked old distie twice as hard by mistake, and he's wild with gilmore because he thinks it's he." vane gripped him by the collar. "no, no, don't. i apologise," cried macey. "don't be a coward." "you deserve a good kicking," cried vane, loosing his grasp. "yes, i know i do, but be magnanimous in your might, oh man of genius." "look here," cried vane, grinding his teeth, "if you call me a genius again, i will kick you, and hard too." "but i must. my mawmaw said i was always to speak the truth, sir." "yes, and i'll make you speak the truth, too. such nonsense! genius! just because one can use a few tools, and scheme a little. it's absurd." "all right. i will not call you a genius any more. but i say, old chap, shall you try and make a boat go by machinery?" "i should like to," said vane, who became dreamy and thoughtful directly. "but i have no boat." "old rounds would lend you his. there was a jolly miller lived down by the greythorpe river," sang macey. "nonsense! he wouldn't lend me his boat to cut about." "sell it you." vane shook his head. "cost too much." "then, why cut it? you ought to be able to make a machine that would fit into a boat with screws, or be stuck like a box under the thwarts." "yes, so i might. i didn't think of that," cried vane, eagerly. "i'll try it." "there," said macey, "that comes of having a clever chap at your elbow like yours most obediently. halves!" "eh?" "i say, halves! i invented part of the machine, and i want to share. but when are you going to begin old syme's conservatory?" "oh, dear!" sighed vane. "i'd forgotten that. come along. let's try and think out the paddles as you propose. i fancy one might get something like a fish's tail to propel a boat." "what, by just waggling?" "it seems to me to be possible." "come on, and let's do it then," cried macey, starting to trot along the road. "i want to get the taste of distin out of my mouth.--i say--" "well?" "don't i wish his mother wanted him so badly that he was obliged to go back to the west indies at once.--hallo! going to the wood?" "yes, i don't mean to be beaten over those fungi we had the other day," cried vane; and to prove that he did not, he inveigled macey into accompanying him into the woods that afternoon, to collect another basketful--his companion assisting by nutting overhead, while vane busied himself among the moss at the roots of the hazel stubs. "going to have those for supper?" said macey, as they were returning. vane shook his head. "i suppose i mustn't take these home to-day after all." "look here, come on with me to the rectory, and give 'em to mr syme." "pooh!--why, he laughed at them." "but you can tell him you had some for dinner at the little manor. i won't say anything." "i've a good mind to, for i've read that they are delicious if properly cooked," cried vane. "no, i don't like to. but i should like to give them to someone, for i don't care to see them wasted." "do bring them to the rectory, and i'll coax distie on into eating some. he will not know they are yours; and, if they upset him, he will not be of so much consequence as any one else." but vane shook his head as they walked thoughtfully back. "i know," he cried, all at once; "i'll give them to mrs bruff." "but would she cook them?" "let's go and see. what time is it?" "half-past four," said macey. "plenty of time before he gets home from work." vane started off at such a rate that macey had to cry out for respite as they struck out of the wood, and reached a lane where, to their surprise, they came plump upon the gipsies camped by the roadside, with a good fire burning, and their miserable horse cropping the grass in peace. the first objects their eyes lit upon were the women who were busily cooking; and vane advanced and offered his basket of vegetable treasures, but they all laughed and shook their heads, and the oldest woman of the party grunted out the word "poison." "there," said macey, as they went along the lane, "you hear. they ought to know whether those are good or no. if they were nice, do you think the gipsies would let them rot in the woods." "but, you see, they don't know," said vane quietly, and then he gripped his companion's arm. "what's that?" he whispered. "some one talking in the wood." "poaching perhaps," said vane, as he peered in amongst the trees. just then the voice ceased, and there was a rustling in amongst the bushes at the edge of the wood, as if somebody was forcing his way through, and resulting in one of the gipsy lads they had before seen, leaping out into the narrow deep lane, followed by the other. the lads seemed to be so astonished at the encounter that they stood staring at vane and macey for a few moments, then looked at each other, and then, as if moved by the same impulse, they turned and rushed back into the wood, and were hidden from sight directly. "what's the matter with them?" said vane. "they must have been at some mischief." "mad, i think," said macey. "all gipsies are half mad, or they wouldn't go about, leading such a miserable life as they do. song says a gipsy's life is a merry life. oh, is it? nice life in wet, cold weather. they don't look very merry, then." "never mind: it's nothing to do with us. come along." half-an-hour's walking brought them into the open fields, and as they stood at the end of the lane in the shade of an oak tree, macey said suddenly: "i say, there's old distie yonder. where has he been? bet twopence it was to see the gipsies and get his fortune told." "for a walk as far as here, perhaps, and now he is going back." macey said it "seemed rum," and they turned off then to reach bruff's cottage, close to the little town. "i don't see anything rum in it," vane said, quietly. "don't you? well, i do. gilmore was stopping back to keep him company, wasn't he? well, where is gilmore? and why is distie cutting along so--at such a rate?" vane did not reply, and macey turned to look at him wonderingly. "here! hi! what's the matter?" vane started. "matter?" he said, "nothing." "what were you thinking about? inventing something?" "oh, no," said vane, confusedly. "well, i was thinking about something i was making." "thought so. well, i am glad i'm not such a hobby-bob sort of a fellow as you are. syme says you're a bit of a genius, ever since you made his study clock go; but you're the worst bowler, batter, and fielder i know; you're not worth twopence at football; and if one plays at anything else with you--spins a top, or flies a kite, or anything of that kind--you're never satisfied without wanting to make the kite carry up a load, or making one top spin on the top of another, and--" "take me altogether, i'm the most cranky, disagreeable fellow you ever knew, eh?" said vane, interrupting. "show me anyone who says so, and i'll punch his head," cried macey, eagerly. "there he goes. no; he's out of sight now." "what, old distie? pooh! he's nobody, only a creole, and don't count." the gardener's cottage stood back from the road; its porch covered with roses, and the little garden quite a blaze of autumn flowers; and as they reached it, vane paused for a moment to admire them. "hallo!" cried macey, "going to improve 'em?" "they don't want it," said vane, quietly. "i was thinking that you always see better flowers in cottage gardens than anywhere else." at that moment the gardener's wife came to the door, smiling at her visitors, and vane recollected the object of his visit. "i've brought you these, mrs bruff," he said. "toadstools, sir?" said the woman, opening her eyes widely. "no; don't call them by that name," cried macey, merrily; "they're philogustators." "kind of potaters, sir?" said the woman, innocently. "are they for eben to grow?" "no, for you to cook for his tea. don't say anything, but stew them with a little water and butter, pepper and salt." "oh, thank you, sir," cried the woman. "are they good?" "delicious, if you cook them well." "indeed i will, sir. thank you so much." she took the basket, and wanted to pay for the present with some flowers, but the lads would only take a rosebud each, and went their way, to separate at the turning leading to the rectory gate. chapter eight. a professional visit. "not going up to the rectory?" said the doctor, next morning. "no, uncle," said vane, looking up from a book he was reading. "joseph came with a note, before breakfast, to say that the rector was going over to lincoln to-day, and that he hoped i would do a little private study at home." "then don't, my dear," said aunt hannah. "you read and study too much. get the others to go out with you for some excursion." vane looked at her in a troubled way. "he was going to excursion into the workshop. eh, boy?" said the doctor. "yes, uncle, i did mean to." "no, no, no, my dear; get some fresh air while it's fine. yes, eliza." "if you please, ma'am, cook says may she speak to you." "yes; send her in," was the reply; and directly after martha appeared, giving the last touches to secure the clean apron she had put on between kitchen and breakfast-room. "cook's cross," said vane to himself, as his aunt looked up with-- "well, cook?" "sorry to trouble you, ma'am, but i want to know what i'm to do about my vegetables this morning." "cook them," said vane to himself, and then he repeated the words aloud, and added, "not like you did my poor chanterelles." "hush, vane, my dear," said aunt hannah, as the cook turned upon him fiercely. "i do not understand what you mean, martha." "i mean, ma'am," said the cook, jerkily, but keeping her eyes fixed upon vane, "that bruff sent word as he's too ill to come this morning; and i can't be expected to go down gardens, digging potatoes and cutting cauliflowers for dinner. it isn't my place." "no, no, certainly not, martha," said aunt hannah. "dear me! i am sorry bruff is so ill. he was quite well yesterday." "but i want the vegetables now, ma'am." "and you shall have them, martha," said the doctor, rising, bowing, and opening the door for the cook to pass out, which she did, looking wondering and abashed at her master, as if not understanding what he meant. "dear me!" continued the doctor, rubbing one ear, and apostrophising his nephew, "what a strange world this is. now, by and by, vane, that woman will leave here to marry and exist upon some working man's income, and never trouble herself for a moment about whether it's her place to go down the garden `to cut a cabbage to make an apple-pie,' as the poet said--or somebody else; but be only too glad to feel that there is a cabbage in the garden to cut, and a potato to dig. vane, my boy, will you come and hold the basket?" "no, uncle; i'll soon dig a few, and cut the cauliflower," said vane, hastily; and he hurried toward the door. "i'll go with you, my boy," said the doctor; and he went out with his nephew, who was in a state of wondering doubt, respecting the gardener's illness. for suppose that chanterelles were, after all, not good to eat, and he had poisoned the man! "come along, vane. we can find a basket and fork in the tool-house." the doctor took down his straw hat, and led the way down the garden, looking very happy and contented, but extremely unlike the savile row physician, whom patients were eager to consult only a few years before. then the tool-house was reached, and he shouldered a four-pronged fork, and vane took the basket; the row of red kidney potatoes was selected, and the doctor began to dig and turn up a root of fine, well-ripened tubers. "work that is the most ancient under the sun, vane, my boy," said the old gentleman, smiling. "pick them up." but vane did not stir. he stood, basket in hand, thinking; and the more he thought the more uneasy he grew. "ready? pick them up!" cried the doctor. "what are you thinking about, eh?" vane gave a jump. "i beg your pardon, uncle, i was thinking." "i know that. what about?" "bruff being ill." "hum! yes," said the doctor, lifting the fork to remove a potato which he had accidentally impaled. "i think i know what's the matter with master bruff." "so do i, uncle. will you come on and see him, as soon as we have got enough vegetables?" "physician's fee is rather high for visiting a patient, my boy; and bruff only earns a pound a week. what very fine potatoes!" "you will come on, won't you, uncle? i'm sure i know what's the matter with him." "do you?" said the doctor, turning up another fine root of potatoes. "without seeing him?" "yes, uncle;" and he related what he had done on the previous afternoon. "indeed," said the doctor, growing interested. "but you ought to know a chanterelle if you saw one. are you sure what you gave mrs bruff were right?" "quite, uncle; i am certain." "dear me! but they are reckoned to be perfectly wholesome food. i don't understand it. there, pick up the potatoes, and let's cut the cauliflowers. i'll go and see what's wrong." five minutes after the basket was handed in to martha; and then the doctor washed his hands, changed his hat, and signified to aunt hannah where they were going. "that's right, my dear, i thought you would," said the old lady, beaming. "going too, vane, my dear?" "yes, aunt." "that's right. i hope you will find him better." vane hoped so, too, in his heart, as he walked with his uncle to the gardener's cottage, conjuring up all kinds of suffering, and wondering whether the man had been ill all the night; and, to make matters worse, a deep groan came from the open bedroom window as they approached. vane looked at his uncle in horror. "good sign, my boy," said the doctor cheerfully. "not very bad, or he would not have made that noise. well, mrs bruff," he continued, as the woman appeared to meet them at the door, "so ebenezer is unwell?" "oh, yes, sir, dreadful. he was took badly about two o'clock, and he has been so queer ever since." "dear me," said the doctor. "do you know what has caused it?" "yes, sir," said the woman, beginning to sob; "he says it's those nasty toadstools master vane brought, and gave me to cook for his tea. ah, master vane, you shouldn't have played us such a trick." vane looked appealingly at his uncle, who gave him a reassuring nod. "you cooked them then?" said the doctor. "oh, yes, sir, and we had them for tea, and the nasty things were so nice that we never thought there could be anything wrong." "what time do you say your husband was taken ill?" "about two o'clock, sir." "and what time were you taken ill?" "me, sir?" said the woman staring. "i haven't been ill." "ah! you did not eat any of the--er--toadstools then?" "yes, sir, i did, as many as ebenezer." "humph! what time did your husband come home last night?" "i don't know, sir, i was asleep. but i tell you it was about two when he woke me up, and said he was so bad." "take me upstairs," said the doctor shortly; and he followed the woman up to her husband's room, leaving vane alone with a sinking heart, and wishing that he had not ventured to give the chanterelles to the gardener's wife. he could not sit down but walked about, listening to the steps and murmur of voices overhead, meaning to give up all experiments in edible fungi for the future, and ready to jump as he heard the doctor's heavy step again crossing the room, and then descending the stairs, followed by bruff's wife. "do you think him very bad, sir?" she faltered. "oh, yes," was the cheerful reply; "he has about as splitting a headache as a poor wretch could have." "but he will not die, sir?" "no, mrs bruff," said the doctor. "not just yet; but you may tell him, by-and-by, when you get him downstairs, feeling penitent and miserable, that, if he does not leave off going to the chequers, he'll have to leave off coming to the little manor." "why, sir, you don't think that?" faltered the woman. "no, i do not think, because i am quite sure, mrs bruff. he was not hurt by your cookery, but by what he took afterward. you understand?" "oh, sir!" "come along, vane. good-morning, mrs bruff," said the doctor, loud enough for his voice to be heard upstairs. "i am only too glad to come and help when any one is ill; but i don't like coming upon a fool's errand." the doctor walked out into the road, looking very stern and leaving the gardener's wife in tears, but he turned to vane with a smile before they had gone far. "then you don't think it was the fungi, uncle?" said the lad, eagerly. "yes, i do, boy, the produce of something connected with yeast fungi; not your chanterelles." vane felt as if a load had been lifted off his conscience. "very tiresome, too," said the doctor, "for i wanted to have a chat with bruff to-day about that greenhouse flue. he says it is quite useless, for the smoke and sulphur get out into the house and kill the plants. now then, sir, you are such a genius at inventing, why can't you contrive the way to heat the greenhouse without causing me so much expense in the way of fuel, eh? i mean the idea you talked about before. i told mr syme it was to be done." vane was not ready with an answer to that question, and he set himself to think it out, just as they encountered the gipsy vans again, and the two lads driving the lame pony, at the sight of which the doctor frowned, and muttered something about the police, while the lads favoured vane with a peculiar look. chapter nine. how to heat the greenhouse. "vane, my boy, you are like my old friend deering," said the doctor one morning. "am i, uncle?" said the lad. "i'll have a good look at him if ever i see him." the doctor laughed. "i mean he is one of those men who are always trying to invent something fresh; he is a perfect boon to the patent agents." vane looked puzzled. "you don't understand the allusion?" "no, uncle, i suppose it's something to do with my being fond of--" "riding hobbies," said the doctor. "oh, i don't want to ride hobbies, uncle," said vane, in rather an ill-used tone. "i only like to be doing things that seem as if they would be useful." "and quite right, too, my dear," said aunt hannah, "only i do wish you wouldn't make quite such a mess as you do sometimes." "yes, it's quite right, mess or no mess," said the doctor pleasantly. "i'm glad to see you busy over something or another, even if it does not always answer. better than wasting your time or getting into mischief." "but they always would answer, uncle," said vane, rubbing one ear in a vexed fashion--"that is, if i could get them quite right." "ah, yes, if you could get them quite right. well, what about the greenhouse? you know i was telling the parson the other day about your plans about the kitchen-boiler and hot-water." vane looked for a moment as if he had received too severe a check to care to renew the subject on which he had been talking; but his uncle looked so pleasant and tolerant of his plans that the boy fired up. "well, it was like this, uncle: you say it is a great nuisance for any one to have to go out and see to the fire on wet, cold, dark nights." "so it is, boy. any one will grant that." "yes, uncle, and that's what i want to prevent." "well, how?" "stop a moment," said vane. "i've been thinking about this a good deal more since you said you must send for the bricklayer." "well, well," said the doctor, "let's hear." "i expect you'll laugh at me," said vane; "but i've been trying somehow to get to the bottom of it all." "of course; that's the right way," said the doctor; and aunt hannah gave an approving nod. "well," said vane; "it seems to me that one fire ought to do all the work." "so it does, my boy," said the doctor; "but it's a devouring sort of monster and eats up a great deal of coal." "but i mean one fire ought to do for both the kitchen and the greenhouse, too." "what, would you have martha's grate in among the flowers, and let her roast and fry there? that wouldn't do." "no, no, uncle. let the greenhouse be heated with hot-water pipes." "well?" "and connect them, as i said before, with the kitchen-boiler." "as i told syme," said the doctor. "no, no, no," cried aunt hannah, very decisively. "i'm quite sure that wouldn't do; and i'm certain that martha would not approve of it." "humph!" ejaculated the doctor. "i'm afraid our martha does not approve of doing anything but what she likes. but that would not do, boy. i told syme so, but he was hot over it--boiler-hot." "well, then, let it be by means of a small boiler fitted somewhere at the side of the kitchen range, uncle; then the one fire will do everything; and, with the exception of a little cost at first, the greenhouse will always afterwards be heated for nothing." "come, i like that idea," said the doctor, rubbing his nose. "there's something in that, eh, my dear? sounds well." "yes," said aunt hannah, "it sounds very well, but so do all vane's plans; and, though i like to encourage him so long as he does not make too much mess, i must say that they seldom do anything else but sound." "oh, aunt!" "well, it's quite true, my dear, and you know it. i could name a dozen things." "no, no, don't name 'em, aunt," said vane hurriedly. "i know i have made some mistakes; but then everyone does who tries to invent." "then why not let things be as they are, my dear. i'm sure the old corkscrew was better to take out corks than the thing you made." "it would have been beautiful, aunt," cried vane, "if--" "it hadn't broken so many bottles," said the doctor with a humorous look in his eyes. "it wouldn't have mattered if it had been aunt's cowslip wine, but it always chose my best port and sherry." "and then there was that churn thing," continued aunt hannah. "oh, come, aunt, that was a success." "what, a thing that sent all the cream flying out over martha when she turned the handle! no, my dear, no." "but you will not see, aunt, that it was because the thing was not properly made." "of course i do, my dear," said aunt hannah. "that's what i say." "no, no, aunt, i mean made by a regular manufacturer, with tight lids. that was only a home-made one for an experiment." "yes, i know it was, my dear; and i recollect what a rage martha was in with the thing. i believe that if i had insisted upon her going on using that thing, she would have left." "i wish you wouldn't keep on calling it a thing, aunt," said vane, in an ill-used tone; "it was a patent churn." "never mind, boy," said the doctor, "yours is the fate of all inventors. people want a deal of persuading to use new contrivances; they always prefer to stick to the old ones." "well, my dear, and very reasonably, too," said aunt hannah. "you know i like to encourage vane, but i cannot help thinking sometimes that he is too fond of useless schemes." "not useless, aunt." "well, then, schemes; and that it would be better if he kept more to his latin and greek and mathematics with mr syme, and joining the other pupils in their sports." "oh, he works hard enough at his studies," said the doctor. "i'm very glad to hear you say so, my dear," said aunt hannah; "and as to the rather unkind remark you made about the churn--" "no, no, my dear, don't misunderstand me. i meant that people generally prefer to keep to the old-fashioned ways of doing things." "but, my dear," retorted aunt hannah, who had been put out that morning by rebellious acts on the part of martha, "you are as bad as anyone. see how you threw away vane's pen-holder that he invented, and in quite a passion, too. i did think there was something in that, for it is very tiresome to have to keep on dipping your pen in the ink when you have a long letter to write." "oh, aunty, don't bring up that," said vane, reproachfully. but it was too late. "hang the thing!" cried the doctor, with a look of annoyance and perplexity on his countenance; "that was enough to put anyone out of temper. the idea was right enough, drawing the holder up full like a syringe, but then you couldn't use it for fear of pressing it by accident, and squirting the ink all over your paper, or on to your clothes. 'member my new shepherd's-plaid trousers, vane?" "yes, uncle; it was very unfortunate. you didn't quite know how to manage the holder. it wanted studying." "studying, boy! who's going to learn to study a pen-holder. goose-quill's good enough for me. they don't want study." vane rubbed his ear, and looked furtively from one to the other, as aunt hannah rose, and put away her work. "no, my dear," she said, rather decisively; "i'm quite sure that martha would never approve of anyone meddling with her kitchen-boiler." she left the room, and vane sat staring at his uncle, who returned his gaze with droll perplexity in his eyes. "aunt doesn't take to it, boy," said the doctor. "no, uncle, and i had worked it out so thoroughly on paper," cried vane. "i'm sure it would have been a great success. you see you couldn't do it anywhere, but you could here, because our greenhouse is all against the kitchen wall. you know how well that rose grows because it feels the heat from the fireplace through the bricks?" "got your plans--sketches--papers?" said the doctor. "yes, uncle," cried the boy, eagerly, taking some sheets of note-paper from his breast. "you can see it all here. this is where the pipe would come out of the top of the boiler, and run all round three sides of the house, and go back again and into the boiler, down at the bottom." "and would that be enough to heat the greenhouse?" "plenty, uncle. i've worked it all out, and got a circular from london, and i can tell you exactly all it will cost--except the bricklayers' work, and that can't be much." "can't it?" cried the doctor, laughing. "let me tell you it just can be a very great deal. i know it of old. there's a game some people are very fond of playing at, vane. it's called bricks and mortar. don't you ever play at it much; it costs a good deal of money." "oh, but this couldn't cost above a pound or two." "humph! no. not so much as building a new flue, of course. but, look here: how about cold, frosty nights? the kitchen-fire goes out when martha is off to bed." "it does now, uncle," said the lad; "but it mustn't when we want to heat the hot-water pipes." "but that would mean keeping up the fire all night." "well, you would do that if you had a stove and flue, uncle." "humph, yes." "and, in this case, the fire on cold winters' nights would be indoors, and help to warm the house." "so it would," said the doctor, who went on examining the papers very thoughtfully. "the pipes would be nicer and neater, too, than the brick flue, uncle." "true, boy," said the doctor, still examining the plans very attentively. "but, look here. are you pretty sure that this hot-water would run all along the pipes?" "quite, uncle, and i did so hope you would let me do it, if only to show old bruff that he does not know everything." "but you don't expect me to put my hand in my pocket and pay pounds on purpose to gratify your vanity, boy--not really?" said the doctor. "no, uncle," cried vane; "it's only because i want to succeed." "ah, well, i'll think it over," said the doctor; and with that promise the boy had to rest satisfied. chapter ten. vane's workshop. but vane went at once to the kitchen with the intention of making some business-like measurements of the opening about the range, and to see where a boiler could best be placed. a glance within was sufficient. martha was busy about the very spot; and vane turned back, making up his mind to defer his visit till midnight, when the place would be solitary, and the fire out. there was the greenhouse, though; and, fetching a rule, he went in there, and began measuring the walls once more, to arrive at the exact length of piping required, when he became conscious of a shadow cast from the open door; and, looking up, there stood bruff, with a grin upon his face--a look so provocative that vane turned upon him fiercely. "well, what are you laughing at?" he cried. "you, mester." "why?" "i was thinking as you ought to hev been a bricklayer or carpenter, sir, instead of a scollard, and going up to rectory. measuring for that there noo-fangle notion of yours?" "yes, i am," cried vane; "and what then?" "oh, nowt, sir, nowt, only it wean't do. only throwing away money." "how do you know, bruff?" "how do i know, sir? why, arn't i been a gardener ever since i was born amost, seeing as my father and granfa' was gardeners afore me. you tak' my advice, sir, as one as knows. there's only two ways o' heating places, and one's wi' a proper fireplace an' a flue, and t'other's varmentin wi' hot manner." "varmentin with hot manner, as you call it. why, don't they heat the vineries at tremby court with hot-water?" "i've heered you say so, sir, but i niver see it. tak' my advice, sir, and don't you meddle with things as you don't understand. remember them taters?" "oh, yes, i remember the potatoes, bruff; and i daresay, if the truth was known, you cut all the eyes out, instead of leaving the strongest, as i told you." "i don't want no one to teach me my trade," said the man, sulkily; and he shuffled away, leaving vane wondering why he took so much trouble, only to meet with rebuffs from nearly everyone. "i might just as well be fishing, or playing cricket, or lying on my back in the sun, like old distin does. nobody seems to understand me." he was standing just inside the door, moodily tapping the side-post with the rule, when he was startled by a step on the gravel, and, looking up sharply, he found himself face to face with a little, keen, dark, well-dressed man, who had entered the gate, seen him standing in the greenhouse, and walked across the lawn, whose mossy grass had silenced his footsteps till he reached the path. "morning," he said. "doctor at home?" "yes," replied vane, looking at the stranger searchingly, and wondering whether he was a visitor whom his uncle would be glad to see. the stranger was looking searchingly at him, and he spoke at once:-- "you are the nephew, i suppose?" vane looked at him wonderingly. "yes, i thought so. father and mother dead, and the doctor bringing you up. lucky fellow! here, what does this mean?" and he pointed to the rule. "i was measuring," said vane, colouring. "ah! thought you were to be a clergyman or a doctor. going to be a carpenter?" "no," replied vane sharply, and feeling full of resentment at being questioned so by a stranger. "i was measuring the walls." "what for?" said the stranger, stepping into the greenhouse and making the lad draw back. "well, if you must know, sir--" "no, i see. old flue worn-out;--measuring for a new one." vane shook his head, and, in spite of himself, began to speak out freely, the stranger seeming to draw him. "no; i was thinking of hot-water pipes." "good! modern and better. always go in for improvements. use large ones." "do you understand heating with hot-water, sir?" "a little," said the stranger, smiling. "where are you going to make your furnace?" "i wasn't going to make one." "going to do it with cold hot-water then?" said the stranger, smiling again. "no, of course not. the kitchen-fireplace is through there," said vane, pointing with his rule, "and i want to put a boiler in, so that the one fire will answer both purposes." "good! excellent!" said the stranger sharply. "your own idea?" "yes, sir." "do it, then, as soon as you can--before the winter. now take me in to your uncle." vane looked at him again, and now with quite a friendly feeling for the man who could sympathise with his plans. he led the stranger to the front door, and was about to ask him his name, when the doctor came out of his little study. "ah, deering," he said quietly, "how are you? who'd have thought of seeing you." "not you, i suppose," said the visitor quietly. "i was at lincoln on business, and thought i would come round your way as i went back to town." "glad to see you, man: come in. vane, lad, find your aunt, and tell her mr deering is here." "can't see that i'm much like him," said vane to himself, as he went in search of his aunt, and saw her coming downstairs. "here's mr deering, aunt," he said, "and uncle wants you." "oh, dear me!" cried aunt hannah, looking troubled, and beginning to arrange her collar and cuffs. "why did uncle say that i was like mr deering, aunt?" whispered vane. "i'm not a bit. he's dark and i'm fair." "he meant like him in his ways, my dear: always dreaming about new inventions, and making fortunes out of nothing. i do hope your uncle will not listen to any of his wild ideas." this description of the visitor excited vane's curiosity. one who approved of his plans respecting the heating of the greenhouse was worthy of respect, and vane was in no way dissatisfied to hear that mr deering was quite ready to accept the doctor's hospitality for a day or two. that afternoon, as aunt hannah did not show the least disposition to leave the doctor and his guest alone, the latter rose and looked at vane. "i should like a walk," he said. "suppose you take me round the garden, squire." vane followed him out eagerly; and as soon as they were in the garden, the visitor said quickly:-- "got a workshop?" vane flushed a little. "only a bit of a shed," he said. "it was meant to be a cow-house, but uncle lets me have it to amuse myself in." "show it to me," said the visitor. "wouldn't you rather come round the grounds to have a look at uncle's fruit?" said vane hurriedly. "no. why do you want to keep me out of your den?" "well, it's so untidy." "workshops generally are. some other reason." "i have such a lot of failures," said vane hurriedly. "blunders and mistakes, i suppose, in things you have tried to make?" "yes." "show me." vane would far rather have led their visitor in another direction, but there was a masterful decided way about him that was not to be denied, and the lad led him into the large shed which had been floored with boards and lined, so as to turn it into quite a respectable workshop, in which were, beside a great heavy deal table in the centre, a carpenter's bench, and a turning lathe, while nails were knocked in everywhere, shelves ran from end to end, and the place presented to the eye about as strange a confusion of odds and ends as could have been seen out of a museum. vane looked at the visitor as he threw open the door, expecting to hear a derisive burst of laughter, but he stepped in quietly enough, and began to take up and handle the various objects which took his attention, making remarks the while. "you should not leave your tools lying about like this: the edges get dulled, and sometimes they grow rusty. haven't you a tool-chest?" "there is uncle's old one," said vane. "exactly. then, why don't you keep them in the drawers?--humph! galvanic battery!" "yes; it was uncle's." "and he gives it to you to play with, eh?" vane coloured again. "i was trying to perform some experiments with it." "oh, i see. well, it's a very good one; take care of it. little chemistry, too, eh?" "yes: uncle shows me sometimes how to perform experiments." "but he does not show you how to be neat and orderly." "oh, this is only a place to amuse oneself in!" said vane. "exactly, but you can get ten times the amusement out of a shop where everything is in its place and there's a place for everything. now, suppose i wanted to perform some simple experiment, say, to show what convection is, with water, retort and spirit lamp?" "convection?" said vane, thoughtfully, as if he were searching in his mind for the meaning of a word he had forgotten. "yes," said the visitor, smiling. "surely you know what convection is." "i've forgotten," said vane, shaking his head. "i knew once." "then you have not forgotten. you've got it somewhere packed away. head's untidy, perhaps, as your laboratory." "i know," cried vane--"convection: it has to do with water expanding and rising when it is hot and descending when it is cold." "of course it has," said the visitor, laughing, "why you were lecturing me just now on the art of heating greenhouses by hot-water circulating through pipes; well, what makes it circulate?" "the heat." "of course, by the law of convection." vane rubbed one ear. "you had not thought of that?" "no." "ah, well, you will not forget it again. but, as i was saying--suppose i wanted to try and perform a simple experiment to prove, on a small scale, that the pipes you are designing would heat. i cannot see the things i want, and i'll be bound to say you have them somewhere here." "oh, yes: i've got them all somewhere." "exactly. take my advice, then, and be a little orderly. i don't mean be a slave to order. you understand?" "oh, yes," said vane, annoyed, but at the same time pleased, for he felt that the visitor's remarks were just. "humph! you have rather an inventive turn then, eh?" "oh, no," cried vane, disclaiming so grand a term, "i only try to make a few things here sometimes on wet days." "pretty often, seemingly," said the visitor, peering here and there. "silk-winding, collecting. what's this? trying to make a steam engine?" "no, not exactly an engine; but i thought that perhaps i might make a little machine that would turn a wheel." "and supply you with motive-power. well, i will tell you at once that it would not." "why not?" said vane, with a little more confidence, as he grew used to his companion's abrupt ways. "because you have gone the wrong way to work, groping along in the dark. i'll be bound to say," he continued, as he stood turning over the rough, clumsy contrivance upon which he had seized--a bit of mechanism which had cost the boy a good many of his shillings, and the blacksmith much time in filing and fitting in an extremely rough way--"that newcomen and watt and the other worthies of the steam engine's early days hit upon exactly the same ideas. it is curious how men in different places, when trying to contrive some special thing, all start working in the same groove." "then you think that is all stupid and waste of time, sir?" "i did not say so. by no means. the bit of mechanism is of no use-- never can be, but it shows me that you have the kind of brain that ought to fit you for an engineer, and the time you have spent over this has all been education. it will teach you one big lesson, my lad. when you try to invent anything again, no matter how simple, don't begin at the very beginning, but seek out what has already been done, and begin where others have left off--making use of what is good in their work as a foundation for yours." "yes, i see now," said vane. "i shall not forget that." their visitor laughed. "then you will be a very exceptional fellow, vane lee. but, there, i hope you will not forget. humph!" he continued, looking round, "you have a capital lot of material here: machinery and toys. no, i will not call them toys, because these playthings are often the parents of very useful machines. what's that--balloon?" "an attempt at one," replied vane. "oh, then, you have been trying to solve the flying problem." "yes," cried vane excitedly; "have you?" "yes, i have had my season of thought over it, my lad; and i cannot help thinking that it will some day be mastered or discovered by accident." vane's lips parted, and he rested his elbows on the workbench, placed his chin in his hands, and gazed excitedly in his companion's face. "and how do you think it will be done?" "ah, that's a difficult question to answer, boy. there is the problem to solve. all i say is, that if we have mastered the water and can contrive a machine that will swim like a fish--" "but we have not," said vane. "indeed! then what do you call an atlantic liner, with the propeller in its tail?" "but that swims on the top of the water." "of course it does, because the people on board require air to breathe. otherwise it could be made to swim beneath the water as a fish does, and at twenty miles an hour." "yes: i did not think of that." "well, as we have conquered the water to that extent, i do not see why we should not master the air." "we can rise in balloons." "yes, but the balloon is clumsy and unmanageable. it will not do." "what then, sir?" "that's it, my boy, what then? it is easy to contrive a piece of mechanism with fans that will rise in the air, but when tried on a large scale, to be of any real service, i'm afraid it would fail." "then why not something to fly like a bird or a bat?" said vane eagerly. "no; the power required to move the great flapping wings would be too weighty for it; and, besides, i always feel that there is a something in a bird or bat which enables it to make itself, bulk for bulk, the same weight as the atmosphere." "but that seems impossible," said vane. "seems, but it may not be so. fifty years ago the man would have been laughed at who talked about sending a message to australia and getting the answer back the same day, but we do not think much of it now. we would have thought of the arabian nights, and magicians, if a man had spoken to some one miles away, then listened to his tiny whisper answering back; but these telephonic communications are getting to be common business matters now. why, vane, when i was a little boy photography or light-writing was only being thought of: now people buy accurate likenesses of celebrities at a penny a piece on barrows in london streets." vane nodded. "to go back to the flying," continued his companion, "i have thought and dreamed over it a great deal, but without result. i am satisfied, though, of one thing, and it is this, that some birds possess the power of gliding about in the air merely by the exercise of their will. i have watched great gulls floating along after a steamer at sea, by merely keeping their wings extended. at times they would give a slight flap or two, but not enough to affect their progress--it has appeared to me more to preserve their balance. and, again, in one of the great alpine passes, i have watched the swiss eagle--the lammergeyer--rise from low down and begin sailing round and round, hardly beating with his wings, but always rising higher and higher in a vast spiral, till he was above the mountain-tops which walled in the sides of the valley. then i have seen him sail right away. there is something more in nature connected with flight, which we have not yet discovered. i will not say that we never shall, for science is making mighty strides. there," he added, merrily, "end of the lecture. let's go out in the open air." vane sighed. "i came from london, my boy, where all the air seems to be second-hand. out here on this slope of the wolds, the breeze gives one life and strength. take me for a walk, out in the woods, say, it will do me good, and make me forget the worries and cares of life." "are you inventing something?" mr deering gave the lad a sharp look, and nodded his head. "may i ask what, sir?" "no, my boy, you may not," said mr deering, sadly. "perhaps i am going straightway on the road to disappointment and failure; but i must go on now. some day you will hear. now take me where i can breathe. oh, you happy young dog!" he cried merrily. "what a thing it is to be a boy!" "is it?" said vane, quietly. "yes, it is. and you, sir, think to yourself, like the blind young mole you are, what a great thing it is to be a man. there, come out into the open air, and let's look at nature; i get very weary sometimes of art." vane looked wonderingly at his new friend and did not feel so warmly toward him as he had a short time before, but this passed off when they were in the garden, where he admired the doctor's fruit, waxed eloquent over the apples and pears, and ate one of the former with as much enjoyment as a boy. he was as merry as could be, too, and full of remarks as the doctor's jersey cow and french poultry were inspected, but at his best in the woods amongst the gnarled old oaks and great beeches, seeming never disposed to tire. that night mr deering had a very long consultation with the doctor; and vane noted that his aunt looked very serious indeed, but she said nothing till after breakfast the next morning, when their visitor had left them for town, and evidently in the highest spirits. "let that boy go on with his whims, doctor," he said aloud, in vane's hearing. "he had better waste a little money in cranks and eccentrics than in toffee and hard-bake. good-bye." and he was gone as suddenly, so it seemed to vane, as he had come. it was then that vane heard his aunt say: "well, my dear, i hope it is for the best. it will be a very serious thing for us if it should go wrong." "very," said the doctor drily; and vane wondered what it might be. chapter eleven. oiling the clock. the plan of the town of mavis greythorpe was very simple, being one long street with houses on either side, placed just as the builders pleased. churchwarden rounds' long thatched place stood many yards back, which was convenient, for he liked to grow roses that his neighbours could see and admire. crumps the cowkeeper's, too, stood some distance back, but that was handy, for there was room for the cowshed and the dairy close to the path. dredge, the butcher, had his open shop, too--a separate building from the house at the back--close to the path, where customers could see the mortal remains of one sheep a week, sometimes two, and in the cold weather a pig, and a half or third of a "beast," otherwise a small bullock, the other portions being retained by neighbouring butchers at towns miles away, where the animal had been slain. but at fair time and christmas, butcher, or, as he pronounced it, buttcher dredge, to use his own words, "killed hissen" and a whole bullock was on exhibition in his open shop. the houses named give a fair idea of the way in which architecture was arranged for in mavis; every man who raised a house planted it where it seemed good in his own eyes; and as in most cases wayfarers stepped down out of the main street into the front rooms, the popular way of building seemed to have been that the builder dug a hole and then put a house in it. among those houses which were flush with the main street was that of michael chakes, clerk and sexton, who was also the principal shoemaker of mavis, and his place of business was a low, open-windowed room with bench and seat, where, when not officially engaged, he sat at work, surrounded by the implements and products of his trade, every now and then opening his mouth and making a noise after repeating a couple of lines, under the impression that he was singing. upon that point opinions differed. vane lee wanted a piece of leather, and as there was nothing at home that he could cut up, saving one of the doctor's wellington boots, which were nearly new, he put on his cap, thrust his hands in his pockets, and set off for the town street, as eagerly as if his success in life depended upon his obtaining that piece of leather instanter. the place was perfectly empty as he reached the south end, the shops looked nearly the same, save that at grader the baker's there were four covered glasses, containing some tasteless looking biscuits full of holes; a great many flies, hungry and eager to get out, walking in all directions over the panes; and on the lowest shelf grader's big tom-cat, enjoying a good sleep in the sun. vane did not want any of those biscuits, but just then he caught sight of distin crossing the churchyard, and to avoid him he popped in at the baker's, to be saluted by a buzz from the flies, and a slow movement on the part of the cat who rose, raised his back into a high arch, yawned and stretched, and then walked on to the counter, and rubbed his head against vane's buttons, as the latter thrust his hands into his pocket for a coin, and tapped on the counter loudly once, then twice, then the third time, but there was no response, for the simple reason that mrs grader had gone to talk to a neighbour, and john grader, having risen at three to bake his bread, and having delivered it after breakfast, was taking a nap. "oh, what a sleepy lot they are here!" muttered vane, as he went to the door which, as there was no sign of distin now, and he did not want any biscuits, he passed, and hurried along the street to where michael chakes sat in his open window, tapping away slowly at the heavy sole of a big boot which he was ornamenting with rows of hob-nails. vane stepped in at once, and the sexton looked up, nodded, and went on nailing again. "oughtn't to put the nails so close, mike." "nay, that's the way to put in nails, mester vane!" said the sexton. "but if they were open they'd keep a man from slipping in wet and frost." "don't want to keep man from slipping, want to make 'em weer." "oh, all right; have it your own way. here, i want a nice strong new bit of leather, about six inches long." "what for?" "never you mind what for, get up and sell me a bit." "nay, i can't leave my work to get no leather to-day, mester. soon as i've putt in these here four nails, i'm gooing over to belfry." "what for? some one dead?" "nay, not they. folk weant die a bit now, mester vane. i dunno whether it's parson syme's sarmints or what, but seems to me as if they think it's whole dooty a man to live to hundred and then not die." "nonsense, cut me my bit of leather, and let me go." "nay, sir, i can't stop to coot no leather to-day. i tellee i'm gooin' to church." "but what for?" "clock's stopped." "eh! has it?" cried vane eagerly. "what's the matter with it?" "i d'know sir. somethin' wrong in its inside, i spect. i'm gooing to see." "forgotten to wind it up, mike." "nay, that i arn't, sir. wound her up tight enew." "then that's it. wound up too tight, perhaps." "nay, she's been wound up just the same as i've wound her these five-and-twenty year, just as father used to. she's wrong inside." "goes stiff. wants a little oil. bring some in a bottle with a feather and i'll soon put it right." the sexton pointed with his hammer to the chimney-piece where a small phial bottle was standing, and vane took it up at once, and began turning a white fowl's feather round to stir up the oil. "you mean to come, then?" said the sexton. "of course. i'm fond of machinery," cried vane. "ay, you be," said the sexton, tapping away at the nails, "and you'd like to tak' that owd clock all to pieces, i know." "i should," cried vane with his eyes sparkling. "shall i?" "what?" cried the sexton, with his hammer raised. "why, you'd never get it put together again." "tchah! that i could. i would somehow," added the lad. "ay somehow; but what's the good o' that! suppose she wouldn't goo when you'd putt her together somehow. what then?" "why, she won't go now," cried vane, "so what harm would it do?" "well, i don't know about that," said the sexton, driving in the last nail, and pausing to admire the iron-decorated sole. "now, then, cut my piece of leather," cried vane. "nay, i can't stop to coot no pieces o' leather," said the sexton. "church clock's more consekens than all the bits o' leather in a tanner's yard. i'm gooing over yonder now." "oh, very well," said vane, as the man rose, untied his leathern apron, and put on a very ancient coat, "it will do when we come back." "mean to go wi' me, then?" "of course i do." the sexton chuckled, took his hat from behind the door, and stepped out on to the cobble-stone pathway, after taking the oil bottle and a bunch of big keys from a nail. the street looked as deserted as if the place were uninhabited, and not a soul was passed as they went up to the church gate at the west end of the ancient edifice, which had stood with its great square stone fortified tower, dominating from a knoll the tiny town for five hundred years--ever since the days when it was built to act as a stronghold to which the mavis greythorpites could flee if assaulted by enemies, and shoot arrows from the narrow windows and hurl stones from the battlements. or, if these were not sufficient, and the enemy proved to be very enterprising indeed, so much so as to try and batter in the hugely-thick iron-studded belfry-door, why there were those pleasant openings called by architects machicolations, just over the entrance, from which ladlesful of newly molten lead could be scattered upon their heads. michael chakes knew the bunch of keys by heart, but he always went through the same ceremony--that of examining them all four, and blowing in the tubes, as if they were panpipes, keeping the one he wanted to the last. "oh, do make haste, mike," cried the boy. "you are so slow." "slow and sewer's my motter, mester vane," grunted the sexton, as he slowly inserted the key. "don't you hurry no man's beast; you may hev an ass of your own some day." "if i do i'll make him go faster than you do. i say, though, mike, do you think it's true about those old bits of leather?" as he spoke, vane pointed to a couple of scraps of black-looking, curl-edged hide, fastened with broad headed nails to the belfry-door. "true!" cried the sexton, turning his grim, lined, and not over-clean face to gaze in the frank-looking handsome countenance beside him. "true! think o' that now, and you going up to rectory every day, to do your larning along with the other young gents, to mester syme. well, that beats all." "what's that got to do with it?" cried vane, as the sexton ceased from turning the key in the door, and laid one hand on the scraps of hide. "got to do wi' it, lad? well i am! and to call them leather." "well, so they are leather," said vane. "and do you mean to say, standing theer with the turn-stones all around you as you think anything bout t'owd church arn't true?" "no, but i don't think it's true about those bits of leather." "leather, indeed!" cried the sexton. "i'm surprised at you, mester vane--that i am. them arn't leather but all that's left o' the skins o' the swedums and danes as they took off 'em and nailed up on church door to keep off the rest o' the robbin', murderin' and firin' wretches as come up river in their ships and then walked the rest o' the way across the mash?" "oh, but it might be a bit of horse skin." "nay, nay, don't you go backslidin' and thinking such a thing as that, mester. why, theer was a party o' larned gentlemen come one day all t'way fro' lincoln, and looked at it through little tallerscope things, and me standing close by all the time to see as they didn't steal nowt, for them sort's terruble folk for knocking bits off wi' hammers as they carries in their pockets and spreadin' bits o' calico over t' brasses, and rubbin' 'em wi' heel balls same as i uses for edges of soles; and first one and then another of 'em says--`human.' that's what they says. ay, lad, that's true enough, and been here to this day." "ah, well, open the door, mike, and let's go in. i don't believe people would have been such wretches as to skin a man, even if he was a dane, and then nail the skin up there. but if they did, it wouldn't have lasted." the sexton shook his head very solemnly and turned the great key, the rusty lock-bolt shooting back reluctantly, and the door turning slowly on its hinges, which gave forth a dismal creak. "here, let's give them a drop of oil," cried vane; but the sexton held the bottle behind him. "nay, nay," he said; "they're all right enew. let 'em be, lad." "how silent it seems without the old clock ticking," said vane, looking up at the groined roof where, in place of bosses to ornament the handsome old ceiling of the belfry, there were circular holes intended to pour more lead and arrows upon besiegers, in case they made their way through the door, farther progress being through a narrow lancet archway and up an extremely small stone spiral staircase toward which vane stepped, but the sexton checked him. "nay, mester, i go first," he said. "look sharp then." but the only thing sharp about the sexton were his awls and cutting knives, and he took an unconscionably long time to ascend to the floor above them where an opening in the staircase admitted them to a square chamber, lighted by four narrow lancet windows, and into which hung down from the ceiling, and through as many holes, eight ropes, portions of which were covered with worsted to soften them to the ringers' hands. vane made a rush for the rope of the tenor bell, but the sexton uttered a cry of horror. "nay, nay, lad," he said, as soon as he got his breath, "don't pull: 'twould make 'em think there's a fire." "oh, all right," said vane, leaving the rope. "nay, promise as you weant touch 'em, or i weant go no further." "i promise," cried vane merrily. "now, then, up you go to the clock." the sexton looked relieved, and went to a broad cupboard at one side of the chamber, opened it, and there before them was the great pendulum of the old clock hanging straight down, and upon its being started swinging, it did so, but with no answering _tic-tac_. "where are the weights, mike?" cried vane, thrusting in his head, and looking up. "oh, i see them." "ay, you can see 'em, lad, wound right up. there, let's go and see." the sexton led the way up to the next floor, but here they were stopped by a door, which was slowly opened after he had played his tune upon the key pipes. "oh i say, mike, what a horrible old bore you are," cried the boy, impatiently. "then thou shouldstna hev coom, lad," said the sexton as they stood now in a chamber through which the bell ropes passed and away up through eight more holes in the next ceiling, while right in the middle stood the skeleton works of the great clock, with all its wheels and escapements open to the boy's eager gaze, as he noted everything, from the portion which went out horizontally through the wall to turn the hands on the clock's face, to the part where the pendulum hung, and on either side the two great weights which set the machine in motion, and ruled the striking of the hours. the clock was screwed down to a frame-work of oaken beams, and looked, in spite of its great age and accumulation of dust, in the best of condition, and, to the sexton's horror, vane forgot all about the eight big bells overhead, and the roof of the tower, from which there was a magnificent view over the wolds, and stripped off his jacket. "what are you going to do, lad?" cried the sexton. "see what's the matter. why the clock won't go." "nay, nay, thou must na touch it, lad. why, it's more than my plaace is worth to let anny one else touch that theer clock." "oh, nonsense! here, give me the oil." vane snatched the bottle, and while the sexton looked on, trembling at the sacrilege, as it seemed to him, the lad busily oiled every bearing that he could reach, and used the oil so liberally that at last there was not a drop left, and he ceased his task with a sigh. "there, mike, she'll go now," he cried. "can't say i've done any harm." "nay, i wean't say that you hev, mester, for i've been standing ready to stop you if you did." vane laughed. "now, then, start the pendulum," he said; "and then put the hands right." he went to the side to start the swinging regulator himself but the sexton again stopped him. "nay," he said; "that's my job, lad;" and very slowly and cautiously he set the bob in motion. "there, i told you so," cried vane; "only wanted a drop of oil." for the pendulum swung _tic_--_tac_--_tic_--_tac_ with beautiful regularity. then, as they listened it went _tic_--_tic_. then _tic_ two or three times over, and there was no more sound. "didn't start it hard enough, mike," cried vane; and this time, to the sexton's horror, he gave the pendulum a good swing, the regular _tic_--_tac_ followed, grew feeble, stopped, and there was an outburst as if of uncanny laughter from overhead, so real that it was hard to think that it was only a flock of jackdaws just settled on the battlements of the tower. "oh, come, i'm not going to be beaten like this," cried vane, "i know i can put the old clock right." "nay, nay, not you," said the sexton firmly. "but i took our kitchen clock to pieces, and put it together again; and now it goes splendidly--only it doesn't strike right." "mebbe," said the sexton, "but this arn't a kitchen clock. nay, master vane, the man 'll hev to come fro lincun to doctor she." "but let me just--" "nay, nay, you don't touch her again." the man was so firm that vane had to give way and descend, forgetting all about the piece of leather he wanted, and parting from the sexton at the door as the key was turned, and then walking back home, to go at once to his workshop and sit down to think. there was plenty for him to do--any number of mechanical contrivances to go on with, notably the one intended to move a boat without oars, sails, or steam, but they were not church clocks, and for the time being nothing interested him but the old clock whose hands were pointing absurdly as to the correct time. all at once a thought struck vane, and he jumped up, thrust a pair of pliers, a little screw-wrench and a pair of pincers into his pockets and went out again. chapter twelve. those two wheels. as vane walked along the road the tools in his pocket rattled, and they set him thinking about mr deering, and how serious he had made his uncle look for a few days. then about all their visitor had said about flying, and that set him wondering whether it would be possible to contrive something which might easily be tested. "i could go up on to the leads of the tower, step off and float down into the churchyard." vane suddenly burst out laughing. "why, if i had said that yonder," he thought, "old macey would tell me that it would be just in the right place, for i should be sure to break my neck." then he began thinking about bruff the gardener, for he passed his cottage; and about his coming to work the next day after being ill, and never saying another word about the chanterelles. directly after his thoughts turned in another direction, for he came upon the two gipsy lads, seated under the hedge, with their legs in the ditch, proof positive that the people of their tribe were somewhere not very far away. the lads stared at him very hard, and vane stared back at them, thinking what a curious life it seemed--for two big strong boys to be always hanging about, doing nothing but drive a few miserable worn-out horses from fair to fair. just as he was abreast of the lads, one whispered something to the other, but what it was vane could not understand, for it sounded mere gibberish. then the other replied, without moving his head, and vane passed on. "i don't believe it's a regular language they talk," he said to himself. "only a lot of slang words they've made up. what do they call it? rum--rum--romany, that is it. well, it doesn't sound roman-like to me." about a hundred yards on he looked back, to see that the two gipsy lads were in eager converse, and one was gesticulating so fiercely, that it looked like quarrelling. but vane had something else to think about, and he went on, holding the tools inside his pockets, to keep them from clicking together as he turned up toward the rectory, just catching sight of the gipsy lads again, now out in the road and slouching along toward the town. "wonder whether mr symes is at home again," thought vane, but he did not expect that he would be, as it was his hour for being from the rectory, perhaps having a drive, so that he felt pretty easy about him. but he kept a sharp look-out for gilmore and the others. "hardly likely for them to be in," he thought; and then he felt annoyed with himself because his visit seemed furtive and deceptive. as a rule, he walked up to the front of the house, feeling quite at home, and as if he were one of its inmates, whereas now there was the feeling upon him that he had no business to go upon his present mission, and that the first person he met would ask him what right he had to come sneaking up there with tools in his pockets. for a moment he thought he would go back, but he mastered that, and went on, only to hesitate once more, feeling sure that he had heard faintly the rector's peculiar clearing of his voice--"hah-errum!" his active brain immediately raised up the portly figure of his tutor before him, raising his eyebrows, and questioning him about why he was there; but these thoughts were chased away directly after, as he came to an opening in the trees, through which he could look right away to where the river went winding along through the meadows, edged with pollard willows, and there, quite half-a-mile away, he could see a solitary figure standing close to the stream. "that's old macey," muttered vane, "fishing for perch in his favourite hole." feeling pretty certain that the others would not be far away, he stood peering about till he caught sight of another figure away to his right. "gilmore surely," he muttered; and then his eyes wandered again till they lighted upon a figure seated at the foot of a tree close by the one he had settled to be gilmore. "old distie," said vane, with a laugh. "what an idle fellow he is. never happy unless he is sitting or lying down somewhere. i suppose it's from coming out of a hot country, where people do lie about a great deal." "that's all right," he thought, "they will not bother me, and i needn't mind, for it's pretty good proof that the rector is out." feeling fresh confidence at this, but, at the same time, horribly annoyed with himself because of the shrinking feeling which troubled him, he went straight up the path to the porch and rang. joseph, the rector's footman, came hurrying into the hall, pulling down the sides of his coat, and looked surprised and injured on seeing that it was only one of "master's pupils." "i only wanted the keys of the church, joe," said vane, carelessly. "there they hang, sir," replied the man, pointing to a niche in the porch. "yes, i know, but i didn't like to take them without speaking," said vane; and the next minute he was on his way to the churchyard through the rectory garden, hugging the duplicate keys in his pocket, and satisfied that he could reach the belfry-door without being seen by the sexton. it was easy enough to get there unseen. whether he could open the door unheard was another thing. there was no examining each key in turn, and no whistling in the pipes, but the right one chosen at once and thrust in. "_tah_!" came from overhead loudly; and vane started back, when quite a chorus arose, and the flock of jackdaws flew away, as if rejoicing at mocking one who was bent upon a clandestine visit to the church. "how stupid!" muttered vane; but he gave a sharp glance round to see if he were observed before turning the key, and throwing open the door. "why didn't he let me oil it?" he muttered, for the noise seemed to be twice as loud now, and after dragging out the key the noise was louder still, he thought, as he thrust to the door, and locked it on the inside. then, as he withdrew the key again, he hesitated and stood listening. everything look strange and dim, and he felt half disposed to draw back, but laughing to himself at his want of firmness, he ran up the winding stairs again, as fast as the worn stones would let him, passed the ringers' chamber, and went on up to the locked door, which creaked dismally, as he threw it open. the next moment he was by the clock. but he did not pause here. drawing back into the winding staircase he ascended to where the bells hung, and had a good look at the one with the hammer by it--that on which the clock struck the hours--noted how green it was with verdigris, and then hurried down to the clock-chamber, took out his tools, pulled off his jacket and set to work. for there was this peculiarity about the doctor's nephew--that he gave the whole of his mind and energies to any mechanical task which took his fancy, and, consequently, there was neither mind nor energy left to bestow upon collateral circumstances. another boy would have had a thought for the consequences of what he was attempting--whether it was right for him to meddle, whether the rector would approve. vane had not even the vestige of a thought on such matters. he could only see wheels and pinions taken out after the removal of certain screws, cleaned, oiled, put back, and the old clock pointing correctly to the time of day and, striking decently and in order, as a church clock should. pincers, pliers and screw-driver were laid on the floor and the screw-wrench was applied here and there, after which a cloth or rag was required to wipe the different wheels, and pivots; but unfortunately nothing of the kind was at hand, so a clean pocket-handkerchief was utilised, not to its advantage--and the work went on. vane's face was a study as he used his penknife to scrape and pare off hardened oil, which clogged the various bearings; and as some pieces of the clock, iron or brass, was restored to its proper condition of brightness, the lad smiled and looked triumphant. time went on, though that clock stood still, and all at once, as he set down a wheel and began wishing that he had some one to help him remove the weights, it suddenly dawned upon him that it was getting towards sunset, that he had forgotten all about his dinner, and that if he wanted any tea, he must rapidly replace the wheels he had taken out, and screw the frame-work back which he had removed. he had been working at the striking part of the clock, and he set to at once building up again, shaking his head the while at the parts he had not cleaned, having been unable to remove them on account of the line coiled round a drum and attached to a striking weight. "a clockmaker would have had that weight off first thing, i suppose," he said to himself, as he toiled away. "i'll get aleck to come and help me to-morrow and do it properly, while i'm about it." "it's easy enough," he said half-aloud at the end of an hour. "i believe i could make a clock in time if i tried. there you are," he muttered as he turned the final screw that he had removed. "hullo, what a mess i'm in!" he looked at his black and oily hands, and began thinking of soap and soda with hot-water as he rose from his knees after gathering up his tools, and then he stopped staring before him at a ledge beneath the back of the clock face. "why, i forgot them," he said, taking from where they lay a couple of small cogged wheels which he had cleaned very carefully, and put on one side early in his task. "where do they belong to?" he muttered, as he looked from them to the clock and back again. there seemed to be nothing missing: every part fitted together, but it was plain enough that these two wheels had been left out, and that to find out where they belonged and put them back meant a serious task gone over again. "well, you two will have to wait," said the boy at last. "it doesn't so much matter as i'm going to take the clock to pieces again, but all the same, i don't like missing them." he hesitated for a few moments, as to what he should do with the wheels, and ended by reaching in and laying them just beneath the works on one of the squared pieces of oak to which the clock was screwed. ten minutes later he was at the rectory porch, where he hung up the keys just inside the hall, and then trotted home with his hands in his pockets to hide their colour. he was obliged to show them in the kitchen though, where he went to beg a jug of hot-water and some soda. "why, where have you been, sir?" cried martha; "and the dinner kept waiting a whole hour, and orders from your aunt to broil chicken for your tea, as if there wasn't enough to do, and some soda? i haven't got any." "but you've got some, cookie," said vane. "not a bit, if you speak to me in that disrespectful way, sir. my name's martha, if you please. well, there's a bit, but how a young gentleman can go on as you do making his hands like a sweep's i don't know, and if i was your aunt i'd--" vane did not hear what, for he had hurried away with the hot-water and soda, the odour of the kitchen having had a maddening effect upon him, and set him thinking ravenously of the dinner he had missed and the grilled chicken to come. but there was no reproof for him when, clean and decent once more, he sought the dining-room. aunt hannah shook her head, but smiled as she made the tea, and kissed him as he went to her side. "why, vane, my dear, you must be starving," she whispered. but his uncle was deep in thought over some horticultural problem and did not seem to have missed him. he roused up, though, over the evening meal, while vane was trying to hide his nails, which in spite of all his efforts looked exceedingly black and like a smith's. it was the appetising odour of the grilled chicken that roused the doctor most, for after sipping his tea and partaking of one piece of toast he gave a very loud sniff and began to look round the table. vane's plate and the dish before him at once took his attention. "meat tea?" he said smiling pleasantly. "dear me! and i was under the impression that we had had dinner just as usual. come, vane, my boy, don't be greedy. remember your aunt; and i'll take a little of that. it smells very good." "but, my dear, you had your dinner, and vane was not there," cried aunt hannah. "oh! bless my heart, yes," said the doctor. "really i had quite forgotten all about it." "hold your plate, uncle," cried vane. "oh, no, thank you, my boy. it was all a mistake, i was thinking about the greenhouse, my dear, you know that the old flue is worn-out, and really something must be done to heat it." "oh, never mind that," said aunt hannah, but vane pricked up his ears. "but i must mind it, my dear," said the doctor. "it does not matter now, but the cold weather will come, and it would be a pity to have the choice plants destroyed." "i think it is not worth the trouble," said aunt hannah. "see how tiresome it is for someone to be obliged to come to see to that fire late on cold winter nights." "there can be no pleasure enjoyed, my dear, without some trouble," said the doctor. "it is tiresome, i know, all that stoking and poking when the glass is below freezing point, and once more, i say i wish there could be some contrivance for heating the greenhouse without farther trouble." vane pricked up his ears again, and for a few moments his uncle's words seemed about to take root; but those wheels rolled into his mind directly after, and he was wondering where they could belong to, and how it was that he had not missed them when he put the others back. then the grilled chicken interfered with his power of thinking, and the greenhouse quite passed away. the evenings at the little manor house were very quiet, as a rule. the doctor sat and thought, or read medical or horticultural papers; aunt hannah sat and knitted or embroidered and kept looking up to nod at vane in an encouraging way as he was busy over his classics or mathematics, getting ready for reading with the rector next day; and the big cat blinked at the fire from the hearthrug. but, on this particular night, vane hurried through the paper he had to prepare for the next day, and fetched out of the book-cases two or three works which gave a little information on horology, and he was soon deep in toothed-wheels, crown-wheels, pinions, ratchets, pallets, escapements, free, detached, anchor, and half-dead. then he read on about racks, and snails; weights, pendulums, bobs, and compensations. reading all this was not only interesting, but gave the idea that taking a clock to pieces and putting it together again was remarkably easy; but there was no explanation about those missing wheels. bedtime at last, and vane had another scrub with the nail-brush at his hands before lying down. it was a lovely night, nearly full-moon, and the room looked so light after the candle was out that vane gave it the credit of keeping him awake. for, try how he would, he could not get to sleep. now he was on his right side, but the pillow grew hot and had to be turned; now on his left, with the pillow turned back. too many clothes, and the counterpane stripped back. not enough: his uncle always said that warmth was conducive to sleep, and the counterpane pulled up. but no sleep. "oh, how wakeful i do feel!" muttered the boy impatiently, as he tossed from side to side. "is it the chicken?" no; it was not the chicken, but the church clock, and those two wheels, which kept on going round and round in his mind without cessation. he tried to think of something else: his studies, greek, latin, the mathematical problems upon which he was engaged; but, no: ratchets and pinions, toothed-wheels, free and detached, pendulums and weights, had it all their own way, and at last he jumped out of bed, opened the window and stood there, looking out, and cooling his heated, weary head for a time. "now i can sleep," he said to himself, triumphantly, as he returned to his bed; but he was wrong, and a quarter of an hour after he was at the washstand, pouring himself out a glass of water, which he drank. that did have some effect, for at last he dropped off into a fitful unrefreshing sleep, to be mentally borne at once into the chamber of the big stone tower, with the clockwork tumbled about in heaps all round him; and he vainly trying to catch the toothed-wheels, which kept running round and round, while the clock began to strike. vane started up in bed, for the dream seemed real--the clock was striking. no: that was not a clock striking, but one of the bells, tolling rapidly in the middle of the night. for a moment the lad thought he was asleep, but the next he had sprung out of bed and run to the window to thrust out his head and listen. it was unmistakable: the big bell was going as he had never heard it before--not being rung, but as if someone had hold of the clapper and were beating it against the side--_dang, dang, dang, dang_--stroke following stroke rapidly; and, half-confused by the sleep from which he had been awakened, vane was trying to make out what it meant, when faintly, but plainly heard on the still night air, came that most startling of cries-- "fire! fire! fire!" the weathercock--by george manville fenn chapter thirteen. a disturbed night. just as vane shivered at the cry, and ran to hurry on some clothes, there was the shape of the door clearly made out in lines of light, and directly after a sharp tapping. "vane, my boy, asleep?" "no, uncle; dressing." "you heard the bell, then. i'm afraid it means fire." "yes, fire, fire! i heard them calling." "i can't see anything, can you?" "no, uncle, but i shall be dressed directly, and will go and find out where it is?" "o hey! master vane!" came from the outside. "fire!" it was the gardener's voice, and the lad ran to the window. "yes, i heard. where is it?" "don't know yet, sir. think it's the rectory." "oh, dear! oh, dear!" came from vane's door. "hi, vane, lad, i'll dress as quickly as i can. you run on and see if you can help. whatever you do, try and save the rector's books." vane grunted and went on dressing, finding everything wrong in the dark, and taking twice as long as usual to get into his clothes. as he dressed, he kept on going to the window to look out, but not to obtain any information, for the gardener had run back at a steady trot, his steps sounding clearly on the hard road, while the bell kept up its incessant clamour, the blows of the clapper following one another rapidly as ever, and with the greatest of regularity. but thrust his head out as far as he would, there was no glare visible, as there had been the year before when the haystack was either set on fire or ignited spontaneously from being built up too wet. then the whole of the western sky was illumined by the flames, and patches of burning hay rose in great flakes high in air, and were swept away by the breeze. "dressed, uncle. going down," cried vane, as he walked into the passage. "shan't be five minutes, my boy." "take care, vane, dear," came in smothered and suggestive tones. "don't go too near the fire." "all right, aunt," shouted the boy, as he ran downstairs, and, catching up his cap, unfastened the front door, stepped out, ran down the path, darted out from the gate, and began to run toward where the alarm bell was being rung. it was no great distance, but, in spite of his speed, it seemed to be long that night; and, as vane ran, looking eagerly the while for the glow from the fire, he came to the conclusion that the brilliancy of the moon was sufficient to render it invisible, and that perhaps the blaze was yet only small. "hi! who's that?" cried a voice, whose owner was invisible in the shadow cast by a clump of trees. "i--vane lee. is the rectory on fire, distin?" "i've just come out of it, and didn't see any flames," said the youth contemptuously. "here, hi! distie!" came from the side-road leading to the rectory grounds. "wait for us. who's that? oh, you, vane. what's the matter?" "i don't know," replied vane. "i jumped out of bed when i heard the alarm bell." "so did we, and here's aleck got his trousers on wrong way first." "i haven't," shouted macey; "but that's my hat you've got." as he spoke, he snatched the hat gilmore was wearing, and tossed the one he held toward his companion. "are you fellows coming?" said distin, coldly. "of course we are," cried macey. "come on, lads; let's go and help them get out the town squirt." they started for the main street at a trot, and vane panted out:-- "i'll lay a wager that the engine's locked up, and that they can't find the keys." "and when they do, the old pump won't move," cried gilmore. "and the hose will be all burst," cried macey. "i thought we were going to help," said distin, coldly. "if you fellows chatter so, you'll have no breath left." by this time they were among the houses, nearly everyone of which showed a light at the upper window. "here's bruff," cried vane, running up to a group of men, four of whom were carrying poles with iron hooks at the end--implements bearing a striking family resemblance to the pole drags said to be "kept in constant readiness," by wharves, bridges, and docks. "what have you got there, gardener?" shouted gilmore. "hooks, sir, to tear off the burning thack." "but where is the burning thatch?" cried vane. "i dunno, sir," said the gardener. "i arn't even smelt fire yet." "have they got the engine out?" "no, sir. they arn't got the keys yet. well, did you make him hear?" continued bruff, as half-a-dozen men came trotting down the street. "nay, we can't wacken him nohow." "what, chakes?" cried vane. "ay; we've been after the keys." "but he must be up at the church," said vane. "it's he who is ringing the bell." "nay, he arn't theer," chorused several. "we went theer first, and doors is locked." by this time there was quite a little crowd in the street, whose components were, for the most part, asking each other where the fire was; and, to add to the confusion, several had brought their dogs, some of which barked at the incessant ringing of the big bell, while three took part in a quarrel, possibly induced by ill-temper consequent upon their having been roused from their beds. "then he must have locked himself in," cried vane. "not he," said distin. "go and knock him up; he's asleep still." "well," said bruff, with a chuckle, as he stood his hook pole on end, "owd mike chakes can sleep a bit, i know; but if he can do it through all this ting dang, he bets me." "come and see," cried vane, making for the church-tower. "no; come and rout him out of bed," cried distin. just then a portly figure approached, and the rector's smooth, quick voice was heard asking:-- "where is the fire, my men?" "that's what we can't none on us mak' out, parson," said a voice. "hey! here's mester rounds; he's chutch-waarden; he'll know." "nay, i don't know," cried the owner of the name; "i've on'y just got out o' bed. who's that pullin' the big bell at that rate?" "we think it's saxton," cried a voice. "yes, of course. he has locked himself in." "silence!" cried the rector; and, as the buzz of voices ceased, he continued, "has anyone noticed a fire?" "nay, nay, nay," came from all directions. "but at a distance--at either of the farms?" "nay, they're all right, parson," said the churchwarden. "we could see if they was alight. hi! theer! how'd hard!" he roared, with both hands to his mouth. "don't pull the bell down." for the clangour continued at the same rate,--_dang, dang dang, dang_. "owd mikey chakes has gone mad, i think," said a voice. "follow me to the church," said the rector; and, leading the way with his pupils, the rector marched the little crowd up the street, amidst a buzz of voices, many of which came from bedroom windows, now all wide-open, and with the occupants of the chambers gazing out, and shouting questions to neighbours where the fire might be. a few moments' pause was made at the sexton's door, but all was silent there, and no response came to repeated knocks. "he must be at the church, of course," said the rector; and in a few minutes all were gathered at the west door, which was tried, and, as before said, found to be fastened. "call, somebody with a loud voice." "we did come and shout, sir, and kicked at the door." "call again," said the rector. "the bell makes so much clamour the ringer cannot hear. hah! he has stopped." for, as he spoke, the strokes on the bell grew slower, and suddenly ceased. a shout was raised, a curious cry, composed of "mike"--"chakes!"--"shunk" and other familiar appellations. "hush, hush!" cried the rector. "one of you--mr rounds, will you have the goodness to summon the sexton." "hey! hey! sax'on!" shouted the miller in a voice of thunder; and he supplemented his summons by kicking loudly at the door. "excuse me, mr rounds," said the rector; "the call will suffice." "but it don't suffice, parson," said the bluff churchwarden. "hi, chakes, man, coom down an' open doooor!" "straange and queer," said the butcher. "theer arn't nobody, or they'd say summat." there was another shout. "plaace arn't harnted, is it?" said a voice from the little crowd. "will somebody have the goodness to go for my set of the church keys," said the rector with dignity. "you? thank you, mr macey. you know where they hang." macey went off at a quick pace; and, to fill up the time, the rector knocked with the top of his stick. by this time the doctor had joined the group. "it seems very strange," he said. "the sexton must have gone up himself, nobody else had keys." "and there appears to be nothing to cause him to raise an alarm," said the rector. "surely the man has not been walking in his sleep." "tchah!" cried the churchwarden; "not he, sir. wean't hardly walk a dozen steps, even when he's awake. why, hallo! what now?" "here he is! here he is!" came excitedly from the crowd, as the sexton walked deliberately up with a lantern in one hand, a bunch of keys in the other. "mr chakes," said the rector sternly, "what is the meaning of this?" "dunno, sir. i come to see," replied the sexton. "i thowt i heerd bell tolling, and i got up and as there seems to be some'at the matter i comed." "then, you did not go into the belfry to ring the alarm," cried the doctor. "nay, i ben abed and asleep till the noise wackened me." "it is very strange," said the rector. "ah, here is mr macey. have the goodness to open the door; and, mr rounds, will you keep watch over the windows to see if any one escapes. this must be some trick." as the door was opened the rector turned to his pupils. "surely, young gentlemen," he said in a whisper, "you have not been guilty of any prank." they all indignantly disclaimed participation, and the rector led the way into the great silent tower, where he paused. "i'm afraid i must leave the search to younger men," he said. "that winding staircase will be too much for me." previously all had hung back out of respect to the rector, but at this a rush was made for the belfry, the rectory pupils leading, and quite a crowd filling the chamber where the ropes hung perfectly still. "nobody here, sir," shouted distin, down the staircase. "dear me!" exclaimed the rector; who was standing at the foot, almost alone, save that he had the companionship of the doctor and that they were in close proximity to the churchwarden and the watchers outside the door. "go up higher. perhaps he is hiding by the clock or among the bells." this necessitated chakes going up first, and unlocking the clock-chamber door, while others went higher to see if any one was hidden among the bells or on the roof. "i know'd there couldn't be no one in here," said chakes solemnly, as he held up his lantern, and peered about, and round the works of the clock. "how did you know?" said distin suspiciously. "that's how," replied the sexton, holding up his keys. "no one couldn't get oop here, wi'out my key or parson's." this was received with a solemn murmur, and after communications had been sent to and fro between the rector and distin, up and down the spiral staircase, which made an excellent speaking-tube, the rector called to everyone to come back. he was obeyed, chakes desiring the pupils to stay with him while he did the locking up; and as he saw a look exchanged between macey and gilmore, he raised his keys to his lips, and blew down the pipes. "here, hallo!" cried gilmore, "where's the show and the big drum? he's going to give us punch and judy." "nay, sir, nay, i always blows the doost out. you thought i wanted you to stay because--nay, i arn't scarred. on'y thought i might want someone to howd lantern." he locked the clock-chamber door, and they descended to the belfry, where several of the people were standing, three having hold of the ropes. "nay, nay, you mustn't pull they," shouted chakes. "bell's been ringing 'nuff to-night. latt 'em be." "why, we never looked in those big cupboards," cried macey suddenly, pointing to the doors behind which the weights hung, and the pendulum, when the clock was going, swung to and fro. "nay, there's nowt," said the sexton, opening and throwing back the door to show the motionless ropes and pendulum. vane had moved close up with the others, and he stood there in silence as the doors were closed again, and then they descended to join the group below, the churchwarden now coming to the broad arched door. "well?" he cried; "caught 'em?" "there's no one there," came chorused back. "then we must all hev dreamed we heard bell swing," said the churchwarden. "let's all goo back to bed." "it is very mysterious," said the rector. "very strange," said the doctor. "the ringing was of so unusual a character, too." "owd place is harnted," said a deep voice from the crowd, the speaker having covered his mouth with his hand, so as to disguise his voice. "shame!" said the rector sternly. "i did not think i had a parishioner who could give utterance to such absurd sentiments." "then what made bell ring?" cried another voice. "i do not know yet," said the rector, gravely; "but there must have been some good and sufficient reason." "perhaps one of the bells was left sticking up," said macey--a remark which evoked a roar of laughter. "it is nearly two o'clock, my good friends," said the rector, quietly; "and we are doing no good discussing this little puzzle. leave it till daylight, and let us all return home to our beds. chakes, have the goodness to lock the door. good-night, gentlemen. doctor, you are coming my way; young gentlemen, please." he marched off with the doctor, followed by his four pupils, till distin increased his pace a little, and contrived to get so near that the doctor half turned and hesitated for distin to come level. "perhaps you can explain it, my young friend," he said; and distin joined in the conversation. meanwhile gilmore and macey were talking volubly, while vane seemed to be listening. "it's all gammon about haunting and ghosts and goblins," said gilmore. "chaps who wrote story-books invented all that kind of stuff, same as they did about knights in full armour throwing their arms round beautiful young ladies, and bounding on to their chargers and galloping off." "oh, come, that's true enough," said macey. "what!" cried gilmore, "do you mean to tell me that you believe a fellow dressed in an ironmonger's shop, and with a big pot on his head, and a girl on his arm, could leap on a horse?" "yes, if he was excited," cried macey. "he couldn't do it, without the girl." "but they did do it." "no, they didn't. it's impossible. if you want the truth, read some of the proper accounts about the armour they used to wear. why, it was so heavy that--" "yes, it was heavy," said macey, musingly. "yes, so heavy, that when they galloped at each other with big clothes-prop things, and one of 'em was knocked off his horse, and lay flat on the ground, he couldn't get up again without his squires to help him." "you never read that." "well, no, but vane lee did. he told me all about it. i suppose, then, you're ready to believe that the church-tower's haunted?" "i don't say that," said macey, "but it does seem very strange." "oh, yes, of course it does," said gilmore mockingly. "depend upon it there was a tiny chap with a cloth cap, ending in a point sitting up on the timbers among the bells with a big hammer in his hands, and he was pounding away at the bell till he saw us coming, and then off he went, hammer and all." "i didn't say i believed that," said macey; "but i do say it's very strange." "well, good-night, syme," said the doctor, who had halted at the turning leading up to the rectory front door. "it is very curious, but i can't help thinking that it was all a prank played by some of the town lads to annoy the sexton. well, vane, my boy, ready for bed once more?" vane started out of a musing fit and said good-night to his tutor and fellow-pupils to walk back with his uncle. "i can't puzzle it out, vane. i can't puzzle it out," the doctor said, and the nephew shivered, for fear that the old gentleman should turn upon him suddenly and say, "can you?" but no such question was asked, for the doctor began to talk about different little mysteries which he had met with in his career, all of which had had matter-of-fact explanations that came in time, and then they reached the house, to find a light in the breakfast-room, where aunt hannah was dressed, and had prepared some coffee for them. "oh, i have been so anxious," she cried. "whose place is burned?" "no one's," said the doctor, cheerily; and then he related their experience. "i'm very thankful it's no worse," said aunt hannah. "some scamps of boys must have had a string tied to the bell, i suppose." poor old lady, she seemed to think of the great tenor bell in the old tower as if it were something which could easily be swung by hand. they did not sit long; and, ill at ease, and asking himself whether he was going to turn into a disingenuous cowardly cur, vane gladly sought his chamber once more to sit down on the edge of his bed, and ponder over his day's experience. "it must have been through leaving out those two wheels," he muttered, "that made something go off, and start the weight running down as fast as it could. i must speak about it first thing to-morrow morning, or the people will think the place is full of ghosts. yes, i'll tell uncle in the morning and he can do what he likes." on coming to this resolve vane undressed and slipped into bed once more, laid his head on the pillow, and composed himself to sleep; but no sleep came, and with his face burning he glided out of bed again, put on a few things, and then stole out of his bedroom into the passage, where he stood hesitating for a few minutes. "no," he muttered as he drew a deep breath, "i will not be such a coward;" and, creeping along the passage, he tapped softly on the next bedroom door. "eh? yes. someone ill?" cried the doctor. "down directly." "no, no, uncle, don't get up," cried vane hoarsely. "i only wanted to tell you something." "tell me something? well, what is it?" "i wanted to say that i had been trying to clean the church clock this afternoon, and i left out two of the wheels." "what!" roared the doctor. "hang it all, boy, i think nature must have left out two of your wheels." chapter fourteen. macey in difficulties. "well, no," said the doctor emphatically, after hearing vane's confession at breakfast next morning. "no harm was done, so i think we will make it a private affair between us, vane, for the rector would look upon it as high treason if he knew." "i'll go and tell him if you say i am to, uncle." "then i do not say you are to, boy. by the way, do your school-fellows--i beg their pardons--your fellow-pupils know?" "i have only told you and aunt, sir." "ah, well, let it rest with us, and i daresay the clockmaker will have his own theory about how the two wheels happened to be missing from the works of the clock. only don't you go meddling with things which do not belong to your department in future or you may get into very serious trouble indeed." the doctor gave his nephew a short sharp nod which meant dismissal, and vane went off into the conservatory to think about his improvement of the heating apparatus. but the excitement of the previous night and the short rest he had had interfered with his powers of thought, and the greenhouse was soon left for the laboratory, and that place for the rectory, toward which vane moved with a peculiarly guilty feeling. he wished now that the doctor had given him leave to speak out, for then he felt that he could have gone more comfortably to the study, instead of taking his seat imagining that the rector suspected him, or that he had been told that his pupil had been seen going into the church-tower with chakes, and afterwards alone. "he can't help knowing," vane said to himself, as he neared the grounds; "and i shall have to confess after all." but he did not, for on reaching the rectory joseph met him with the announcement that master was so unwell that he had decided not to get up. "then there will be no study this morning, joseph?" "no, sir, not a bit, and the young gents have gone off--rabbiting, i think." "which way?" "sowner's woods, sir. i think if you was to look sharp you'd ketch 'em up." vane felt quite disposed to "look sharp," and overtake the others, one reason being that he hoped to find distin more disposed to become friendly again, for he argued it was so stupid for them, working together at the same table, to be separated and to carry on a kind of feud. it was about a couple of miles to sowner's wood, and with the intention of taking all the short cuts, and getting there in less than half an hour, vane hurried on, feeling the soft sweet breeze upon his cheeks and revelling in the joy of being young, well and hearty. the drowsy sensations he had felt at breakfast were rapidly passing off, and his spirits rose as he now hoped that there would be no trouble about his escapade with the clock, as he had done the right thing in explaining matters to the doctor. it was a glorious morning, with the country round looking lovely in the warm mellow light of early autumn, and, gaze which way he would, some scene of beauty met his eye. his course was along the main road for some distance, after which he would have to turn down one of the many narrow lanes of that part of the country--lanes which only led from one farm to another, and for the most part nearly impassable in winter from the scarcity of hard material for repairing the deep furrows made by the waggon-wheels. but these lanes were none the less beautiful with their narrow borders of grass in the place of paths, each cut across at intervals, to act as a drain to the road, though it was seldom that they did their duty and freed the place from the pools left by the rain. the old romans, when they made roads, generally drew them straight. the lincolnshire farmers made them by zigzagging along the edge of a man's land, so that there was no cause for surprise to vane when after going along some distance beneath the overhanging oak trees he came suddenly upon his old friends the gipsies once more, with the miserable horses grazing, the van and cart drawn up close to the hedge, and the women cooking at their wood fire as of old. they saluted him with a quiet nod, and as vane went on, he was cognisant of the fact that they were watching him; but he would not look back till he had gone some distance. when he did the little camp was out of sight, but the two gipsy lads were standing behind as if following him. as soon as they saw that they were observed, they became deeply intent upon the blackberries and haws upon the hedges, picking away with great eagerness, but following again as vane went on. "i suppose they think i'm going rabbiting or fishing, and hope to get a job," thought vane. "well, they'll be disappointed, but they must find it out for themselves." he was getting hot now, for the sun came down ardently, and there was no wind down in the deeply-cut lane, but he did not check his pace for he was nearing sowner's woods now, and eager to find out the object which had brought his three fellow-pupils there. "what are they after?" he said. "distin wouldn't stoop to go blackberrying or nutting. he doesn't care for botany. rabbiting! i'll be bound to say they've got a gun and are going to have a day at them. "well, i don't mind," he concluded after a pause, "but i don't believe old distin would ever hit a rabbit if he tried, and--" he stopped short, for, on turning a corner where the lane formed two sides of a square field, he saw that the two great hulking lads were slouching along after him still, and had lessened the distance between them considerably. vane's musings had been cut short off and turned into another track. "well," he said, "perhaps they may have a chance to hunt out wounded rabbits, or find dead ones, and so earn sixpence a piece." then, as he hurried on, taking off his hat now to wipe his steaming brow, he began to wonder who had given the pupils leave for a day's rabbit-shooting, and came to the conclusion at last that churchwarden rounds, who had some land out in this direction had obtained permission for them. "don't matter," he said; "perhaps they're not after rabbits after all." soon after the lane turned in another direction and, as he passed round the corner, thinking of what short cuts any one might make who did not mind forcing his way through or leaping hedges, he once more glanced back at the gipsy lads, and found that he was only being followed by one. "the other has given it up as a bad job," he said to himself, and then, "how much farther is it? and what a wild-goose chase i am coming. they may have gone in quite another direction, for joseph couldn't be sure." just then, though, an idea occurred to him--that he would easily find out where they were when they fired. "i wonder whose gun they have borrowed?" for, knowing that they owned none, he began to run over in his mind who would be the most ready to lend a gun in the expectation of getting half a crown for its use. "gurner's got one, because he goes after the wild geese in the winter," thought vane; "and bruff has that big flint-lock with the pan lined with silver. he'd lend it to anybody for a shilling and be glad of it.-- well, look at that! why he must have made a regular short cut so as to get there. why did he do that?" this thought was evoked by vane suddenly catching sight of the second gipsy lad turned into the first. in other words, the one whom he supposed to have gone back, had gone on, and vane found himself in that narrow lane with high banks and hedges on either side and with one of these great lawless lads in front, and the other behind. for the first time it now occurred to vane that the place was very lonely, and that the nearest farm was quite a mile away, right beyond sowner wood, whose trees now came in view, running up the slope of a great chalk down. "whatever do they mean?" thought vane, for the gipsy lad in front had suddenly stopped, turned round, and was coming toward him. "why, he has a stick," said vane to himself, and looking sharply round he saw that the other one also carried a stick. for a moment a feeling of dread ran through him, but it passed off on the instant, and he laughed at himself for a coward. "pooh!" he said, "they want to beat for rabbits and that's why they have got their sticks." in spite of himself vane lee wondered why the lads had not been seen to carry sticks before; then, laughing to himself as he credited them with having had them tucked up somewhere under their clothes, he walked on boldly. "what nonsense!" he thought; "is it likely that those two fellows would be going to attack me!" but all the same their movements were very suggestive, for there was a furtive, peculiar action on the part of the one in front, who was evidently uneasy, and kept on looking behind him and to right and left, as if in search of danger or a way of escape, and in both a peculiar hesitancy that struck vane at once. under the circumstances, he too, had hard work to keep from looking about for a way of escape, should the lads mean mischief: but he did not, for fear that they should think him cowardly, and walked steadily on, with the result that the boy in front stopped short and then began slowly to retreat. "they are up to some game," thought vane with his heart beginning to beat hard, and a curious feeling of excitement running through him as he thought of his chances against two strong lads armed with sticks if they did dare to attack him. but again he cast aside the thought as being too absurd, and strode boldly on. "these are not the days for footpads and highwaymen," he said to himself, and just then the lad in front gave vent to a peculiar whistle, made a rush up the bank on his left, looked sharply round, ducked down, whistled again, and disappeared. "i'd give something to know what game they call this," said vane to himself, as he watched the spot where the lad had disappeared; and then he turned sharply round to question the one who was following him, but, to his astonishment, he found that the lane behind him was vacant. vane paused for a few moments and then made a dash forward till he reached the trampled grass and ferns where the first boy had scrambled up the bank, climbed to the top, and stood looking round for him. but he was gone, and there was not much chance for anyone not gifted with the tracking power of an indian to follow the fugitive through the rough tangle of scrub oak, ferns, brambles and gorse which spread away right to the borders of the wood. just as he was standing on the highest part of the bank looking sharply round, he heard a shout. then-- "weathercock, ahoy! coo-ee!" he looked in the direction, fully expecting to see macey, whose voice he recognised, but for some minutes he was invisible. then he saw the tall ferns moving, and directly after he caught sight of his fellow-pupil's round face, and then of his arms waving, as he literally waded through the thick growth. vane gave an answering shout, and went to meet him, trying the while to arrive at a settlement of the gipsy lads' conduct, and feeling bound to come to the conclusion that they had meant mischief; but heard macey coming, perhaps the others, for he argued that they could not be very far away. vane laughed to himself, as he advanced slowly, for he knew the part he was in well enough, and it amused him as he fought his way on, to think of the struggles macey, a london boy, was having to get through the tangle of briar and furze. for he had often spent an hour in the place with the doctor, collecting buckthorn and coral-moss, curious lichens, sphagnum, and the round, and long-leaved sundews, or butterwort: for all these plants abounded here, with the bramble and bracken. there were plenty of other bog plants, too, in the little pools and patches of water, while the dry, gravelly and sandy mounds here and there were well known to him as the habitat of the long-legged parasol mushrooms, whose edible qualities the doctor had taught him in their walks. "poor old macey!" he said, as he leaped over or parted the great thorny strands of the brambles laden with their luscious fruit which grew here in abundance, and then he stopped short and laughed, for a yell came from his fellow-pupil, who had also stopped. "come on," cried vane. "can't! i'm caught by ten million thorns. oh, i say, do come and help a fellow out." vane backed a little way, and selecting an easier path, soon reached the spot where macey was standing with his head and shoulders only visible. "why didn't you pick your way?" he cried. "couldn't," said macey dolefully; "the thorns wouldn't let me. i say, do come." "all right," said vane, confidently, but the task was none too easy, for macey had floundered into the densest patch of thorny growth anywhere near, and the slightest movement meant a sharp prick from blackberry, rose, or furze. "whatever made you try to cross this bit?" said vane, who had taken out his knife to divide some of the strands. "i was trying to find the lane. haven't seen one about anywhere, have you?" "why, of course i have," said vane, laughing at his friend's doleful plight. "it's close by." "i began to think somebody had taken it away. oh! ah! i say--do mind; you're tearing my flesh." "but i must cut you out. now then, lift that leg and put your foot on this bramble." "it's all very fine to talk, but i shall be in rags when i do get out." "that's better: now the other. there, now, put your hand on my shoulder and give a jump." "i daren't." "nonsense--why?" "i should leave half my toggery behind." "you wouldn't: come along. take my hands." macey took hold of his companion's hands, there was a bit of a struggle, and he stood bemoaning his injuries; which consisted of pricks and scratches, and a number of thorns buried deeply beneath his clothes. "nice place this is," he said dolefully. "lovely place for botanists," said vane, merrily. "then i'm thankful i'm not a botanist." "where are the others?" asked vane. "i don't know. distin wanted to lie down in the shade as soon as we reached the edge of the wood, and gil wouldn't leave him, out of civility." "then you didn't come rabbit-shooting?" "rabbit-grandmothering! we only came for a walk, and of course i didn't want to sit down and listen to distin run down england and puff the west indies, so i wandered off into the wood and lost myself." "what, there too?" "yes, and spent my time thinking about you." "what! because you wanted me to act as guide?" "no, i didn't: it was because i got into a part where the oak trees and fir trees were open, and there was plenty of grass. and there i kept on finding no end of toadstools such as you delight in devouring." "ah!" exclaimed vane eagerly. "where was it?" "oh, you couldn't find the place again. i couldn't, but there were such big ones; and what do you think i said?" "how should i know?" said vane, trampling down the brambles, so as to make the way easier for his companion. "i said i wish the nasty pig was here, and he could feast for a month." "thank you," said vane. "i don't care. i can only pity ignorant people. but whereabouts did you leave gil and distin?" "i don't know, i tell you. under an oak tree." "yes, but which?" "oh, somewhere. i had a pretty job to find my way out, and i didn't till i had picked out a great beech tree to sleep in to-night, and began thinking of collecting acorns for food." "why didn't you shout?" "i did, till i was so hoarse i got down to a whisper. oh, i say, why did you let that bit of furze fly back?" "couldn't help it." "i'm getting sick of greythorpe. no police to ask your way, no gas lamps, no cabs." "none at all. it's a glorious place, isn't it, aleck?" "well, i suppose it is when you know your way, and are not being pricked with thorns." "ah, you're getting better," cried vane. "what shall we do--go back alone, or try and find them?" "go back, of course. i'm not going through all that again to-day to find old distin, and hear him sneer about you. he's always going on. says syme has no business to have you at the rectory to mix with gentlemen." "oh, he says that, does he?" "yes, and i told him you were more of a gentleman than he was, and he gave me a back-handed crack over the mouth." "and what did you do--hit him back?" "not with my fist. with my tongue. called him a nigger. that hits him hardest, for he's always fancying people think there's black blood in his veins, though, of course, there isn't, and it wouldn't matter if there were, if he was a good fellow. let's get on. where's the lane?" "just down there," said vane; and they reached it directly after, but there were no signs of the gipsies, and vane said nothing about them then, feeling that he must have been mistaken about their intentions, which could only have been to beg. chapter fifteen. two busy days. it is curious to study the different things which please boys. anything less likely to form a fortnight's amusement for a lad than the iron-pipes, crooks, bends, elbows, syphons and boiler delivered by waggon from the nearest railway, it would be hard to conceive. but to vane they were a source of endless delight, and it thoroughly puzzled him to find bruff, the gardener, muttering and grumbling about their weight. "it arn't gardener's work, sir, that's why i grumbled," said the man. "my work's flowers and vegetables and sech. i arn't used to such jobs as that." "why, what difference does it make?" cried vane. "a deal, sir. don't seem respectful to a man whose dooty's flowers and vegetables and sech, to set him hauling and heaving a lot o' iron-pipes just got down for your pranks." "well, of all the ungrateful, grumbling fellows!" cried vane. "isn't it to save you from coming up here on cold, frosty nights to stoke the fire?" "nay, bud it wean't," said bruff, with a grin. "look here, mester vane, i've sin too many of your contraptions not to know better. you're going to have the greenhouse pulled all to pieces, and the wall half knocked down to try your bits o' tricks, and less than a month they'll all have to be pulled out again, and a plain, good, old english flue 'll have to be put up as ought to be done now." "you're a stubborn old stick-in-the-way, bruff. why, if you could have done as you liked, there would never have been any railway down here. mind! don't break that. cast-iron's brittle." "brittle! it's everything as is bad, sir. but you're right, theere. niver a bit o' railway would i hev hed. coach and waggon was good enew for my feyther, and it was good enew for me." "come along," said vane; "let's get all in their places, as they'll be in the greenhouse." "ay, we'll get 'em in, i suppose," grumbled the gardener, "bud you mark my words, mester vane; them water pipes 'll nivver get hot, and, when they do, they'll send out a nasty, pysonous steam as'll kill ivery plahnt in the greenhouse. now, you see?" "grumble away," said vane; and bruff did grumble. he found fault at being taken away from his work to help in master vane's whims, murmured at having to help move the boiler, and sat down afterwards, declaring that he had hurt his back, and could do no more that day; whereupon vane, who was much concerned, was about to fetch the doctor, but bruff suddenly felt a little better, and gradually came round. matters had gone as far as this when voices were heard in the avenue, and gilmore and macey made their appearance. vane's first movement was to run and get his jacket to put on; but he stopped himself, and stood fast. "i don't mind their seeing me," he muttered. but he did, and winced as the joking began, gilmore taking a high tone, and asking vane for an estimate for fitting up a vinery for him. gilmore and macey both saw that their jokes gave annoyance; and, to turn them off, offered to help, macey immediately taking off his coat, hanging it over the greenhouse door, and seizing the end of a pipe to move it where it was not wanted. "don't be jealous, bruff," he cried, as he saw the gardener stare. "i'll leave a little bit of work for you to do." bruff grinned and scratched his head. "oh, if it comes to that, mester macey," he said, "you come here any time, and i'll give you some sensible work to do, diggin' or sweeping." "i say," whispered vane, the next minute, when he had contrived to get macey alone, "what made you take off your coat?" "so as to help." "no, it wasn't, or not alone for that. you were thinking about what distin said about my not being fit to associate with gentlemen." macey flushed a little, like a girl. "nonsense!" he said. "now, confess. the truth!" "oh, i don't know. well, perhaps. here, come along, or we shan't get done to-day." they did not get done that day; in fact they had hardly begun when it was time to leave off; and though there was plenty of fun and joking and banging together of pieces of iron-pipe and noise which brought out the doctor to see, and aunt hannah in a state of nervousness to make sure that nobody was hurt, vane did not enjoy his work, for he could not help glancing at his dirty hands, and asking himself whether distin was not right. and at these times his fellow-pupil's fastidiously clean hands and unruffled, prim and dandified aspect came before him, making him feel resolved to be more particular as to the character of the hobbies he rode. at parting, when gilmore and macey were taking leave after a visit to vane's room and a plenteous application of soap and nail-brushes, in spite of their declaration that they had had a jolly day, their leader-- their foreman of the works, as gilmore called him--had quite made up his mind that he would let the bricklayer and blacksmith finish the job. in consequence of his resolve, he was up by six o'clock next morning when the men came, meaning to superintend, but he soon lapsed, and was as busy as either of them. vane fully expected a severe encounter with martha apropos of her kitchen-fire being left unlit, and the litter of brick and mortar rubbish made by the bricklayer; but to his surprise the cook did not come into the kitchen, and during breakfast vane asked why this was. "aunt's diplomancy," said the doctor, merrily. "no, no, my dear. your uncle's," cried aunt hannah. "ah, well, halves," cried the doctor. "martha wanted a holiday to visit her friends, and she started last night for two days. can you get the boiler set and all right for mrs bruff to clean up before martha comes back?" "you must, my dear, really," cried aunt hannah. "you must." "oh, very well, aunt, if the bricklayer will only work well, it shall be done." "thank you, my dear, for really i should not dare to meet martha if everything were not ready; and pray, pray, my dear, see that nothing is done to interfere with her kitchen-fire." the doctor laughed. vane promised, and forgetful entirely of appearances he deputed his uncle to go to the rectory and excuse him for two days, and worked like a slave. the result was that not only was the boiler set in the wall behind the kitchen-fire, and all put perfectly straight before the next night, but the iron-pipes, elbows, and syphons were joined together with their india-rubber rings, and supported on brick piers, the smith having screwed in a couple of taps for turning off the communication in hot weather, and the fitting of the boiler; and pipes through the little iron cistern at the highest point completing the work. "ought by rights, sir, to stand for a few days for the mortar to set," said the bricklayer on leaving; and this opinion being conveyed to aunt hannah, she undertook that martha, should make shift in the back kitchen for a day or two--just as they had during her absence. "she will not like it, my dear," said aunt hannah, "but as there is no muddle to clean up, and all looks right, i don't mind making her do that." "real tyrant of the household, vane," said the doctor. "don't you ever start housekeeping and have a cook." everything had been finished in such excellent time, consequent upon certain bribery and corruption in the shape of half-crowns, that early in the evening, vane, free from all workmanlike traces, was able to point triumphantly to the neat appearance of the job, and explain the working of the supply cistern, and of the stop-cocks between the boiler and the pipes to his aunt and uncle. "i thought there ought only to be one tap," said vane; "but they both declared that there ought to be one to each pipe, so as to stop the circulation; and as it only cost a few shillings more i didn't stop the smith from putting it in." "humph!" said the doctor as vane turned first one and then the other tap on and off, "seems to work nice and easy." "and it does look very much neater than all those bricks," said aunt hannah. "but i must say one thing, my dear, though i don't like to damp your project, it does smell very nasty indeed." "oh, aunt, dear," cried vane merrily; "that's nothing: only the brunswick black with which they have painted the pipes. that smell will all go off when it's hard and dry. that wants to dry slowly, too, so you'll be sure and tell martha about not lighting the fire." "oh, yes, my dear, i'll see to that." "then now i shall go up to the rectory and tell them i'm coming to lessons in the morning, and--" he hesitated--"i think i shall give up doing rough jobs for the future." "indeed," said the doctor with a humorous twinkle in his eye; "wouldn't you like to take the church clock to pieces, and clean it and set it going again?" vane turned sharply on his uncle with an appealing look. "now really, my dear, you shouldn't," cried aunt hannah. "don't, don't, pray, set the boy thinking about doing any more such dirty work." "dirty work? quite an artist's job. i only mentioned it because mr syme told me that a man would be over from lincoln to-morrow to see to the clock. quite time it was done." vane hurried off to escape his uncle's banter, and was soon after in the lane leading up to the rectory, where, as luck had it, he saw distin walking slowly on in front, and, acting on the impulse of the moment, he ran after him. "evening," he cried. distin turned his head slowly, and looked him coldly in the face. "i beg your pardon," he drawled, "were you speaking to me?" "oh, hang it, distie, yes," cried vane. "what's the good of us two being out. shake hands. i'm sorry if i said anything to offend you and hope you'll forgive me if there is anything to forgive." distin stared at him haughtily. "really," he said in rather a drawling manner, "i am at a loss to understand what you mean by addressing me like this, sir." "oh, i say, distie, don't take that queer tone to a fellow," cried vane, who could not help feeling nettled. "here, shake hands--there's a good fellow." he held out his own once more for the other to take, but distin ignored it, and half turning away he said:-- "have the goodness to address me next time when i have spoken to you. i came down here to read with mr syme, and i shall go on doing so, but i presume it is open to me to choose whom i please for my associates, and i shall select gentlemen." "well," said vane, shortly, "my father was a gentleman; and do you mean to insinuate that my uncle and aunt are not a gentleman and lady?" "i refuse to discuss matters with every working-class sort of boy i am forced to encounter," said distin, haughtily. "have the goodness to keep yourself to yourself, and to associate with people of your own class. good-evening." "have the goodness to associate with people of your own class!" said vane, unconsciously repeating his fellow-pupil's words. "i don't like fighting, but, oh, how he did make my fingers itch to give him one good solid punch in the head." vane stood looking at the retiring figure thoroughly nettled now. "ugh!" he exclaimed, "what a nasty mean temper to have. it isn't manly. it's like a spiteful boarding-school girl. well, i'm not going down on my knees to him. i can get on without distin if he can get on without me. but it is so petty and mean to go on about one liking to do a bit of mechanical work. one can read classics and stick to one's mathematics all the same, and if i can't write a better paper than he can it's a queer thing." vane turned to go back to the little manor, for, in spite of his defiant, careless way of treating distin's words, he could not help feeling too much stung to care about continuing his journey to the rectory, for the feeling would come to the front that his fellow-pupil had some excuse for what he had said. "i suppose i did look like a blacksmith's or bricklayer's boy to-day," he said to himself. "but if i did, what business is it of his? there's nothing disgraceful in it, or uncle would soon stop me. and, besides, gilmore and macey don't seem to mind, and their families are far higher than distin's. there: i don't care. i was going to give up all kind of work that dirties one's hands, but now i will not, just out of spite. dirty work, indeed! i'll swear i never looked half so dirty over my carpentering and turning and scheming as i've seen him look after a game at football on a wet day." but all the same, the evening at the little manor seemed to be a very dull one; and when, quite late, the carrier's cart stopped at the gate, and cook got down, vane felt no interest in knowing what she would say about the alterations in her kitchen, nor in knowing whether aunt hannah had spoken to her about not lighting the kitchen-fire. but he revived a little after his supper, and was eager to take a candle and go out of the hall-door and along the gravel-path, shading the light, on his way to the greenhouse, where he had a good quiet inspection of his work, and was delighted to find that the india-rubber joints hardly leaked in the least, and no more than would be cured by the swelling of the caoutchouc, as soon as the pipes were made hot, and the rings began to fit more tightly, by filling up the uneven places in the rough iron. everything looked delightfully fresh and perfect; the pipes glistened of an ebon blackness; the two brass taps shone new and smooth; and the various plants and flowers exhaled their scent and began to master that of the brunswick black. soon after satisfying himself that all was right, he made his way up to his bedroom, so thoroughly tired out by the bodily exertion of the two past days that he dropped off at once into a heavy, dreamless sleep, which was brought to an end about eight o'clock the next morning by a sensation of his having been seized by a pair of giant hands and thrown suddenly and heavily upon the bedroom floor. chapter sixteen. a lesson on steam. half-stunned, confused, and wondering, vane lee awoke to the fact that he really was lying upon the carpet at the side of his bed, and for a few moments, he felt that he must have fallen out; but, in an indistinct fashion, he began to realise that he had heard a tremendous noise in his sleep, and started so violently that he had rather thrown himself than fallen out of bed, while to prove to him that there was something terribly wrong, there were loud shrieks from the lower part of the house, and from the passage came his uncle's voice. "vane, my lad, quick! jump up!" "it's an earthquake," panted vane, as he hurried on his clothes, listening the while with fear and trembling, to the screams which still rose at intervals from below. "that's eliza's voice," he thought, and directly after as he waited, full of excitement, for the next shock, and the crumbling down of the house, "that's cook." almost at the same moment a peculiar odour came creeping in beneath and round the door; and vane, as he forced a reluctant button through the corresponding hole with fumbling fingers took a long sniff. "'tisn't an earthquake," he thought; "that's gunpowder!" the next moment, after trying to think of what gunpowder there was on the premises, and unable to recall any, he was for attributing the explosion, for such he felt it to be, to some of the chemicals in the laboratory. that idea he quickly dismissed, for the screams were from the kitchen, and he was coming round to the earthquake theory again, when a thought flashed through his brain, and he cried aloud in triumph, just as the doctor threw open his door:-- "it is gunpowder." "smells like it, boy," cried the doctor, excitedly, "but i had none. had you?" "no, uncle," cried vane, as a fresh burst of screaming, arose; "but it's cook. she has been blowing up the copper hole to make the fire draw." "come along! that's it!" cried the doctor. "stupid woman! i hope she is not much burned." this all took place as they were hurrying down into the hall, where the odour was stifling now: that dank, offensive, hydrogenous smell which is pretty familiar to most people, and as they hurried on to the kitchen from which the cries for help came more faintly now, they entered upon a dimly-seen chaos of bricks, mortar, broken crockery, and upset kitchen furniture. "a pound of powder at least," cried the doctor, who then began to sneeze violently, the place being full of steam, and dust caused by the ceiling having been pretty well stripped of plaster. "here, cook--eliza--where are you?" "oh, master, master, master!" "help!--help!--help!" two wild appeals for aid from the back kitchen, where the copper was set, and into which uncle and nephew hurried, expecting to find the two maids half buried in _debris_. but, to the surprise of both, that office was quite unharmed, and cook was seated in a big windsor chair, sobbing hysterically, while eliza was on the floor, screaming faintly with her apron held over her face. "how could you be so foolish!--how much powder?--where did you get it?-- where are you hurt?" rattled out the doctor breathlessly. "anything the matter, cook?" said bruff, coming to the door. "matter? yes," cried the doctor, growing cool again. "here, help me lift eliza into a chair." "no, no, don't touch me; i shall fall to pieces," sobbed the maid wildly. "nonsense! here, let me see where you are hurt," continued the doctor, as eliza was lifted carefully. "oh, master vane--oh, master vane! is it the end of the world?" groaned cook, as the lad took one of her hands, and asked her where she was injured. "no, no," cried vane. "tell me where you are harmed." "i don't know--i don't know--i don't know," moaned the trembling woman, beginning in a very high tone and ending very low. "it's all over--it's all over now." "give her water," said the doctor. "she's hysterical. here, cook," he cried sternly, "how came you to bring powder into the house?" "i don't know--i don't know--i don't know," moaned the trembling woman. "oh, master, give me something. don't let me die just yet." "die! nonsense!" cried the doctor. "be quiet, eliza. hang it, women, i can't do anything if you cry out like this. wherever are you hurt? you, eliza, speak." his firm way had its effect; and as bruff and vane stood looking on, the maid faltered:-- "i was a-doing the breakfast-room, sir, when it went off; and, soon as i heered cook scream, i tried to get to her, but had to go round by the back." "did you know she was going to blow up the copper hole with gunpowder?" "no, sir. last time i see her, she was lighting the kitchen-fire." "what!" yelled vane. "yes, sir," cried cook, sitting up suddenly, and speaking indignantly: "and i won't stop another day in a house where such games is allowed. i'd got a good fire by half-past six, and was busy in the back kitchen when it went off. me get powder to blow up copper holes? i scorn the very idee of it, sir. it's that master vane put powder among the coals to play me a trick." "i didn't," cried vane. "don't say that, sir," interposed bruff, "why, i see the greenhouse chockfull o' smoke as i come by." vane had turned quite cold, and was staring at his uncle, while his uncle with his face full of chagrin and perplexity was staring at him. "you've done it this time, my boy," said the doctor, sadly. "is anybody killed?--is anybody killed?" cried aunt hannah from the hall. "i can't come through the kitchen. my dear vane! oh, do speak." "no one hurt," shouted the doctor. "come, vane." he led the way through the shattered kitchen, which was a perfect wreck; but before he could reach the hall, vane had passed him. "aunt! aunt!" he cried; "did you tell cook not to light the kitchen-fire?" "oh, dear me!" cried aunt hannah; "what a head i have. i meant to, but i quite forgot." there was silence in the hall for a few moments, only broken by a sob or two from the back kitchen. then aunt hannah spoke again. "oh, i am so sorry, my dear. but is anybody very badly hurt?" "yes," said the doctor, dryly. "vane is--very." "my dear, my dear! where?" cried aunt hannah, catching the lad by the arm. "only in his _amour propre_" said the doctor, and vane ran out of the hall and through the front door to get round to the greenhouse, but as he opened the door of the glass building the doctor overtook him, and they entered in silence, each looking round eagerly for the mischief done. here it was not serious: some panes of glass were broken, and two or three pipes nearest to the wall were blown out of their places; but there was the cause of all mischief, the two taps in the small tubes which connected the flow and return pipes were turned off, with the consequence, that there was no escape for the steam, and the closed boiler had of course exploded as soon as sufficient steam had generated, with the consequences seen. "pretty engineer you are, sir," cried the doctor, "to have both those stop-cocks turned." "there ought not to have been a second one, uncle," said vane dolefully. "i let them get the better of me yesterday, and put in the second. if it had not been for that, one pipe would have been always open, and there could have been no explosion." "humph! i see," said the doctor. "but i ought to have left them turned on, and i should have done so, only i did not think that there was going to be any fire this morning." "here, come back, and let's see the extent of the mischief in the kitchen. that piece of new wall is blown out, you see." he pointed to the loose bricks and mortar thrust out into quite a bow; and then they walked sadly back into the house, where cook's voice could be heard scolding volubly, mingled with aunt hannah's milder tones, though the latter could hardly be heard as they entered the devastated kitchen, from which the smoke and dust had now pretty well disappeared, making the damage plain to see. and very plain it was: the new boiler stood in front of the grate, with a hole ripped in one side, the wrought iron being forced out by the power of the steam, just as if it had been composed of paper; the kitchen range was broken, and the crockery on the dresser exactly opposite to the fireplace looked as if it had been swept from the shelves and smashed upon the floor. chairs were overturned; the table was lying upon its side; tins, coppers, graters, spoons and ladles were here, there, and everywhere. the clock had stopped, and the culinary implements that ornamented the kitchen chimney-piece had evidently flown up to the ceiling. in short, scarcely a thing in the place had escaped some damage, while dust and fragments of plaster covered every object, and the only witness of the explosion, the cat, which had somehow been sheltered and escaped unhurt, was standing on the top of the cupboard, with its eyes glowering and its tail standing straight up, feathered out like a plume. "oh, my dear, my dear, what a scene!" cried aunt hannah, piteously. "vane must never perform any more experiments here." she had just come to the back kitchen-door, and was looking in. "oh, aunt! aunt!" cried vane. "all very well to blame the poor boy," said the doctor with mock severity. "it was your doing entirely." "mine, thomas!" faltered aunt hannah. "of course it was. you were told not to have the kitchen-fire lit." "yes--yes," wailed aunt hannah; "and i forgot it." "it was not only that, aunt, dear," said vane, going to her side, and taking her hand. "it was my unlucky experiment was the principal cause." "not another day, eliza," came from the back kitchen. "no, no, not if they went down on their bended knees and begged me to stop." "what, amongst all this broken crockery?" cried the doctor. "hold your tongue, you stupid woman, and send bruff to ask his wife to come and help clear up all this mess." cook, invisible in the back, uttered a defiant snort. "ah!" shouted the doctor. "am i master here. see to a fire there at once, and i should like one of those delicious omelettes for my breakfast, cook. let's have breakfast as soon as you can. there, no more words. let's be very thankful that you were neither of you badly scalded. you heard what i said, bruff?" "yes, sir, of course." "then go and fetch your wife directly. cook will give you some breakfast here." bruff scurried off, and eliza entered the kitchen, wiping her eyes. "bit of a fright for you, eh, my girl?" said the doctor, taking her hand, and feeling her pulse. "well done! brave little woman. you are as calm as can be again. you're not going to run away at a moment's notice." "oh, no, sir," cried eliza eagerly. "nor cook neither," said the doctor aloud. "she's too fond of us to go when we are in such a state as this." there was a sniff now from the back kitchen and the doctor gave vane a humorous look, as much as to say, "i can manage cook better than your aunt." "there, my dear," he said, "it's of no use for you to cry over spilt milk. better milk the cow again and be more careful. see what is broken by and by, and then come to me for a cheque. vane, my boy, send a letter up at once for another boiler." "but surely, dear--" began aunt hannah. "i am not about to have the boiler set there again? indeed i am. vane is not going to be beaten because we have had an accident through trusting others to do what we ought to have done for ourselves. there, come and let's finish dressing; and cook!" "yes, sir," came very mildly from the back kitchen, in company with the crackling of freshly-lit wood. "you'll hurry the breakfast all you can." "yes, sir." "don't feel any the worse now, do you?" "no, sir, only a little ketchy about the throat." "oh, i'll prescribe for that." "thank you, sir, but it will be better directly," said cook hastily. "after you've taken my dose, make yourself a good strong cup of tea. come along, my dear. now, vane, your face wants washing horribly, my boy. hannah, my dear, you understand now the tremendous force of steam." "yes, my dear," said aunt hannah, sorrowfully. "i do indeed." "and if ever in the future you see anyone sitting upon the safety valve to get up speed, don't hesitate for a moment, go and knock him off." "my dear thomas," said aunt hannah, dolefully, "this is no subject for mirth." "eh? isn't it? i think it is. why, some of us might have been scalded to death, and we have all escaped. don't you call that a cause for rejoicing? what do you say, vane?" "i say, sir, that i shall never forgive myself," replied the lad sadly. "not your place, weathercock, but mine, and your aunt's. i'll forgive you freely, and as for your aunt, she can't help it because she was partly to blame." chapter seventeen. anxieties. "hallo, boiler-burster," cried gilmore, next time they met, while macey ran into a corner of the study to turn his face to the wall and keep on exploding with laughter, "when are you going to do our conservatory up here?" "oh, i say, don't chaff me," cried vane, "i have felt so vexed about it all." "distie has been quite ill ever since with delight at your misfortune. it has turned him regularly bilious." "said it was a pity you weren't blown up, too," cried macey. "bah! don't tell ugly tales," said gilmore. "i wish i could feel that he did not," thought vane, who had a weakness for being good friends with everybody he knew. he had to encounter plenty of joking about the explosion, and for some time after, bruff used to annoy him by turning away when they met, and shaking his shoulders as if convulsed with mirth, but after a sharp encounter with vane, when he had ventured to say he knew how it would be, he kept silence, and later on he was very silent indeed. for the new boiler came down, and was set without any objection being made by cook, who was for some time, however, very reluctant to go near the thing for fear it should go off; but familiarity bred contempt, and she grew used to it as it did not go off, and to bruff's great disgust it acted splendidly, heating the greenhouse in a way beyond praise, and with scarcely any trouble, and an enormous saving of fuel. vane was so busy over the hot-water apparatus, and had so much to think about with regard to the damages in connection with the explosion, that he had forgotten all about the adventure in the lane just prior to meeting macey, till one day, when out botanising with the doctor, they came through that very lane again, and in their sheltered corner, there were the gipsies, looking as if they had never stirred for weeks. there, too, were the women cooking by the fire, and the horses and ponies grazing on the strips of grass by the roadside. but closer examination would have proved that the horses which drew cart and van were different, and several of the drove of loose ones had been sold or changed away. there, too, were the boys whose duty it was to mind the horses slouching about the lane, and their dark eyes glistened as the doctor and vane came along. "dear me!" said the doctor suddenly. "what, uncle?" "i thought i saw someone hurry away through the furze bushes as we came up, as if to avoid being seen. your friend macey i think." "couldn't have been, uncle, or he would have stopped." "i was mistaken perhaps.--a singular people these, so wedded to their restless life. i should like to trace them back and find out their origin. it would be a curious experience to stay with them for a year or two," continued the doctor, after a long silence, "and so find out exactly how they live. i'm afraid that they do a little stealing at times when opportunity serves. fruit, poultry, vegetables, any little thing they can snap up easily. then, too, they have a great knowledge of herbs and wild vegetables, with which, no doubt, they supplement their scanty fare. like to join them for a bit, vane?" "oh, no," said the boy laughing. "i don't think i should care for that. too fond of a comfortable bed, uncle, and a chair and table for my meals." "if report says true, their meals are not bad," continued the doctor. "their women are most clever at marketing and contrive to buy very cheaply of the butchers, and they are admirable cooks. they do not starve themselves." "think there's any truth about the way they cook fowls or pheasants, uncle?" "what, covering them all over with clay, and then baking them in the hot embers of a wood fire? not a doubt about it, boy. they serve squirrels and hedgehogs in the same way, even a goose at times. when they think it is done, the clay is burned into earthenware. then a deft blow with a stick or stone cracks the burnt clay and the bird or animal is turned out hot and juicy, the feathers or bristles remaining in the clay." "don't think i could manage hedgehog or squirrel, uncle." "i should not select them for diet. they are both carnivorous, and the squirrel, in addition, has its peculiar odorous gland like the pole-cat tribe." "but a squirrel isn't carnivorous, uncle," said vane, "he eats nuts and fruit." "and young birds, too, sometimes, my boy. flesh-eating things are not particularly in favour for one's diet. even the american backwoodsman who was forced to live on crows did not seem very favourably impressed. you remember?" "no, uncle; it's new to me." "he was so short of food, winter-game being scarce, that he had to shoot and eat crows. someone asked him afterwards whether they were nice, and he replied that he `didn't kinder hanker arter 'em.'" "well, i don't `kinder hanker arter' squirrel," said vane, merrily, "and i don't `kinder hanker arter' being a gipsy king ha--ha--as the old song says. you'll have to make me an engineer, uncle." "steam engineer, boy?" said the doctor, smiling. "oh, anything, as long as one has to be contriving something new. couldn't apprentice me to an inventor, could you?" "to mr deering, for instance?" vane shook his head. "i don't know," he said, dubiously. "i liked--you don't mind my speaking out, uncle?" "no, boy, speak out," said the doctor, looking at him curiously. "i was going to say that i liked mr deering for some things. he was so quick and clever, but--" "you didn't like him for other things?" vane nodded, and the doctor looked care-worn and uneasy; his voice sounded a little husky, too, as he said sharply:-- "oh, he is a very straightforward, honourable man. we were at school together, and i could trust deering to any extent. but he has been very unfortunate in many ways, and i'm afraid has wasted a great deal of his life over unfruitful experiments with the result that he is still poor." "but anyone must have some failures, uncle. all schemes cannot be successful." "true, but there is such a large proportion of disappointment that i should say an inventor is an unhappy man." "not if he makes one great hit," cried vane warmly. "oh, i should like to invent something that would do a vast deal of good, and set everyone talking about it. why, it would mean a great fortune." "and when you had made your great fortune, what then?" "well, i should be a rich man, and i could make you and aunt happy." "i don't know that, vane," said the doctor, laying his hand upon the lad's shoulder. "i saved a pleasant little competence out of my hard professional life, and it has been enough to keep us in this pleasant place, and bring up and educate you. i am quite convinced that if i had ten times as much i should be no happier, and really, my boy, i don't think i should like to see you a rich man." "uncle!" "i mean it, vane. there, dabble in your little schemes for a bit, and you shall either go to college or to some big civil engineer as a pupil, but you must recollect the great poet's words." "what are they, uncle?" said vane, in a disappointed tone. "`there is a divinity that shapes our ends, rough-hew them how we may.' "now let's have a little more botany. what's that?" "orange peziza," said vane, pouncing upon a little fungus cup; and this led the doctor into a dissertation on the beauty of these plants, especially of those which required a powerful magnifying glass to see their structure. farther on they entered a patch of fir-wood where a little search rewarded them with two or three dozen specimens of the orange milk mushroom, a kind so agreeable to the palate that the botanists have dubbed it delicious. "easy enough to tell, vane," said the doctor, as he carefully removed every scrap of dirt and grass from the root end of the stem, and carefully laid the neatly-shaped dingy-green round-table shaped fungi in his basket upon some moss. "it is not every edible fungus that proves its safety by invariably growing among fir trees and displaying this thick rich red juice like melted vermilion sealing-wax." "and when we get them home, martha will declare that they are rank poison," said vane. "and all because from childhood she has been taught that toadstools are poison. some are, of course, boy, so are some wild fruits, but it would be rather a deprivation for us if we were to decline to eat every kind of fruit but one." "i should think it would," cried vane, "or two." "and yet, that is what people have for long years done in england. folks abroad are wiser. there, it's time we went back." vane was very silent on his homeward way, for the doctor had damped him considerably, and the bright career which he had pictured for himself as an inventor was beginning to be shrouded in clouds. "civil engineer means a man who surveys and measures land for roads and railways, and makes bridges," said vane to himself. "i don't think i should like that. rather go to a balloon manufactory and--" he stopped to think of the subject which the word balloon brought up, and at last said to himself: "oh, if i could only invent the way how to fly." "the boy has too much gas in his head," the doctor said to himself, as they reached home; "and he must be checked, but somehow he has spoiled my walk." he threw himself into an easy chair after placing his basket on the table, and into which aunt hannah peeped as vane went up to his room. "botanical specimens, my dear," she said. "yes, for the cook," said the doctor dreamily. "oh, my dear, you should not bring them home. you know how martha dislikes trying experiments. my dear, what is the matter?" "oh, nothing--nothing, only vane was talking to me, and it set me thinking whether i have done right in trusting deering as i have." aunt hannah looked as troubled as the doctor now, and sighed and shook her head. "no," cried the doctor firmly, "i will not doubt him. he is a gentleman, and as honest as the day." "yes," said aunt hannah quietly, "but the most honourable people are not exempt from misfortune." "my dear hannah," cried the doctor, "don't talk like that. why it would ruin vane's prospects if anything went wrong." "and ours too," said aunt hannah sadly, just as vane was still thinking of balloons. chapter eighteen. a tell-tale shadow. "what's going on here?" said vane to himself, as he was walking up the town, and then, the colour rose to his cheeks, and he looked sharply round to see if he was observed. but greythorpe town street was as empty as usual. there was grader's cat in the window, a dog asleep on a step, and a few chickens picking about in front of the carrier's, while the only sounds were the clink, clink of the blacksmith's hammer upon his anvil, and the brisk tapping made by chakes, as he neatly executed repairs upon a pair of shoes. a guilty conscience needs no accuser, and, if it had not been for that furtive visit to the clock, vane would not have looked round to see if he was observed before hurrying up to the church, and entering the tower, for the open door suggested to him what was going on. he mounted the spiral staircase, and, on reaching the clock-chamber, its door being also open, vane found himself looking at the back of a bald-headed man in his shirt-sleeves, standing with an oily rag in his hand, surrounded by wheels and other portions of the great clock. vane stopped short, and there was a good deal of colour in his face still, as he watched the man till he turned. "come to put the clock right, mr gramp?" he said. "how do, sir; how do? yes, i've come over, and not before it was wanted. clocks is like human beings, sir, and gets out of order sometimes. mr syme sent word days ago, but i was too busy to come sooner." "ah!" said vane, for the man was looking at him curiously. "i hear she went a bit hard the other night, and set all the bells a-ringing." "no, only one," said vane, quickly. "and no wonder, when folks gets a-meddling with what they don't understand. do you know, sir--no, you'll never believe it--watch and clock making's a hart?" "a difficult art, too," said vane, rather nervously. "eggs--actly, sir, and yet, here's your shoemaker--bah! your cobbler, just because the church clock wants cleaning, just on the strength of his having to wind it up, thinks he can do it without sending for me. no, you couldn't believe it, sir, but, as true as my name's gramp, he did; and what does he do? takes a couple of wheels out, and leaves 'em tucked underneath. but, as sure as his name's chakes, i'm going straight up to the rectory as soon as i'm done, and if i don't--" "no, no, don't," cried vane, excitedly, for the turn matters had taken was startling. "it was not chakes, mr gramp; it was i." "you, mr lee, sir? you?" cried the man, aghast with wonder. "whatever put it into your head to try and do such a thing as that? mischief?" "no, no, it was not that; the clock wouldn't go, and i came up here all alone, and it did seem so tempting that i began to clean a wheel or two, and then i wanted to do a little more, and a little more, and i got the clock pretty well all to pieces; and then--somehow--well, two of the wheels were left out." the clockmaker burst into a hearty fit of laughter. "i should think they were left out," he cried. "then i must use your name instead of chakes, eh?" "no, no, mr gramp; pray don't do that; the rector doesn't know. i only told my uncle, and i wasn't thinking about you when i tried to set it going." "but, you see, sir, it was such a thing to do--to meddle with a big church clock. if it had been an old dutch with wooden works and sausage weights, or a brass american, i shouldn't have said a word; but my church clock, as i've tended for years! really, sir, you know it's too bad a deal." "yes, mr gramp, it was too bad; a great piece of--of--assumption." "assumption, sir; yes, sir, that's the very word. well, really, i hardly know what to say." "say nothing, mr gramp." "you did tell the doctor, sir?" "yes, i told uncle." "hum! i'm going to call at the little manor to see the doctor about the tall eight-day. perhaps i'd better consult him." "well, yes, speak to uncle if you like, but go by what he says." the clockmaker nodded, and went on with his work, and from looking on, vane came to helping, and so an hour passed away, when it suddenly occurred to him that aunt hannah had said something about a message she wanted him to take, so he had unwillingly to leave the clock-chamber. "good-day, sir, good-day. i shall see you this evening." "yes, of course," said vane; and then, as he hurried down the stairs, it seemed as if there was to be quite a vexatious re-opening of the case. "i do wish i had not touched the old thing," muttered vane, as he went back. "i couldn't offer him half-a-crown to hold his tongue. clockmaker's too big." but he did not see the clockmaker again that day, for, as he entered the little drawing-room-- "my dear," cried aunt hannah, "i was wishing that you would come. i want you to go over to lenby for me, and take this packet--a bottle, mind, for mrs merry. it's a liniment your uncle has made up for her rheumatism." "mrs merry, aunt?" "yes, my dear, at the far end of the village; she's quite a martyr to her complaint, and i got your uncle to call and see her last time you were out for a drive. have the pony if you like." "yes, take her, boy," said the doctor. "she is getting too fat with good living. no; i forgot she was to be taken to the blacksmith's to be shod this afternoon." "all right, uncle, i'll walk over," cried vane, "i shall enjoy it." "well, it will not do you any harm. go across the rough land at the edge of the forest. you may find a few ferns worth bringing for the greenhouse. and pray try for a few fungi." vane nodded, thrust the packet in his breast, and, taking trowel and basket, he started for his three-miles cross-country walk to lenby, a tiny village, famous for its spire, which was invisible till it was nearly reached, the place lying in a nook in the wold hills, which, in that particular part, were clothed with high beeches of ancient growth. the late autumn afternoon was glorious, and the little town was soon left behind, the lane followed for a time, but no gipsy van or cart visible, though there was the trace of the last fire. being deep down in the cutting-like hollow, vane could not see over the bank, where a donkey was grazing amongst the furze, while, completely hidden in a hollow, there was one of those sleeping tents, formed by planting two rows of willow sticks a few feet apart and then bending over the tops, tying them together, and spreading a tilt over all. this was invisible to the boy and so were the heads of the two stout gipsy lads, who peered down at him from a little farther on, and then drew softly away to shelter themselves among the bushes and ferns till they were beyond hearing. when, stooping low, they ran off towards the wood, but in a stealthy furtive manner as if they were trying to stalk some wild animal and cut it off farther on, where the place was most solitary and wild. in happy ignorance of the interest taken in his proceedings, vane trudged along till it seemed to him that it was time to climb up out of the lane by the steep sand bank, and this he did, but paused half-way without a scientific or inventive idea in his head, ready to prove himself as boyish as anyone of his years, for he had come upon a magnificent patch of brambles sending up in the hot autumn sunshine cone after cone of the blackest of blackberries such as made him drive his toes into the loose sand to get a better foothold, and long for a suitable basket, the one he carried being a mere leather bag. "aunt would like a lot of these," he thought, and resisting the temptation to have a feast he left them on the chance of finding them next day when he could come provided with a basket. for blackberries found as much favour with aunt hannah as the doctor's choicest plums or apples. a little higher, though, vane paused again to stain his fingers and lips with the luscious fruit, which, thanks to the american example, people have just found to be worthy of cultivation in their gardens. "'licious," said vane, with a smack of the lips, and then, mounting to the top of the bank he stood for a few moments gazing at the glorious prospect, all beautiful cultivation on his right, all wild grass, fern, and forest on his left. this last took most of his attention, as he mapped out his course by the nearest way to the great clump of beeches which towered above the oaks, and then at once strode onward, finding an easy way where a stranger would soon have found himself stuck fast, hedged in by thorns. "i'll come back by the road," thought vane. "after all it's better and less tiring." but with the beeches well in view, he made light of the difficulties of the little trodden district, which seemed to be quite a sanctuary for the partridges, three coveys rising, as he went on, with a tremendous rush and whirr of wing, to fly swiftly for a distance, and then glide on up and down, rising at clumps of furze, and clearing them, to descend into hollows and rise again apparently, after the first rush, without beat of wing. "it's very curious, that flying," said vane to himself, as he stood sheltering his eyes to watch the last covey till it passed out of sight--"ten of them, and they went along just as if they had nothing to do but will themselves over the ground. it must be a fine thing to fly. find it out some day," he said; and he hurried on again to reach the spot where a little rill made a demarcation between the sand and bog he had traversed, and the chalk which rose now in a sharp slope on the other side. he drew back a little way, took a run and leaped right across the cress-bordered clear water, alighting on hard chalk pebbles, and causing a wild splashing and rustling as a pair of moor-hens rose from amongst the cress, their hollow wings beating hard, their long green legs and attenuated toes hanging apparently nerveless beneath them, and giving a slight glimpse of their coral-coloured beak, and crests and a full view of the pure white and black of their short barred tail ere they disappeared amongst the bulrushes which studded one side of the winding stream. vane watched them for a moment or two, and shook his head. "partridges beat them hollow. wonder whether i can find uncle any truffles." he made for the shade of the beeches, passing at once on to a crackling carpet of old beech-mast and half rotten leaves, while all around him the great trees sent up their wonderfully clean, even-lined trunks, and boughs laden with dark green leaves, and the bronzy brown-red cases of the tiny triangular nuts, the former ready now to gape and drop their sweet contents where those of the past year had fallen before. "pity beech-nuts are so small," he said, as he stood looking up in the midst of a glade where the tall branches of a dozen regularly planted trees curved over to meet those of another dozen, and touching in the centre, shutting out the light, and forming a natural cathedral nave, such as might very well have suggested a building to the first gothic architect for working the design in stone. "ought to be plenty here," said vane to himself after drinking his fill of the glorious scene with its side aisles and verdant chapels all around; and stooping down at the foot of one tree, he began with the little trowel which he had taken from his pocket to scrape away the black coating of decayed leaves, and then dig here and there for the curious tubers likely to be found in such a place, but without result. "hope uncle hasn't bought a turkey to stuff with truffles," he said with a laugh, as he tried another place; "the basket does not promise to be very heavy." he had no better luck here, and he tried another, in each case carefully scratching away the dead leaves to bare the soft leaf-mould, and then dig carefully. "want a truffle dog, or a pig," he muttered; and then he pounced upon a tuber about twice as large as a walnut, thrusting it proudly into his basket. "where one is, there are sure to be others," he said; and he resumed his efforts, finding another and another, all in the same spot. "why, i shall get a basketful," he thought, and he began to dwell pleasantly upon the satisfaction the sight of his successful foray would give the doctor, who had a special penchant for truffles, and had often talked about what expensive delicacies they were for those who dwelt in london. encouraged then by his success, he went on scraping and grubbing away eagerly with more or less success, while the task grew more mechanical, and after feeling that his bottle was safe in his breast-pocket, he began to think that it was time to leave off, and go on his mission; but directly after, as he was rubbing the clean leaf-mould from off a tuber, his thoughts turned to distin, and the undoubted enmity he displayed. "if it was not such a strong term," he said to himself, "i should be ready to say he hates me, and would do me any ill-turn he could." he had hardly thought this, and was placing his truffle in the basket, when a faint noise toward the edge of the wood where the sun poured in, casting dark shadows from the tree-trunks, made him look sharply in that direction. for a few moments he saw nothing, and he was about to credit a rabbit with the sound, when it suddenly struck him that one of the shadows cast on the ground not far distant had moved slightly, and as he fixed his eyes upon it intently, he saw that it was not a shadow cast by a tree, unless it was one that had a double trunk for some distance up and then these joined. the next moment he was convinced:--for it was the shadow of a human being hiding behind a good-sized beech, probably in profound ignorance that his presence was clearly shown to the person from whom he was trying to hide. chapter nineteen. vane is missing. aunt hannah had been very busy devoting herself according to her custom in watching attentively while eliza bustled about, spreading the cloth for high tea--a favourite meal at the little manor. she had kept on sending messages to martha in the kitchen till that lady had snorted and confided to eliza, "that if missus sent her any more of them aggrawating orders she would burn the chicken to a cinder." for aunt hannah's great idea in life was to make those about her comfortable and happy; and as vane would return from his long walk tired and hungry, she had ordered roast chicken for tea with the sausages mrs rounds had sent as a present after the pig-killing. that was all very well. martha said "yes, mum," pleasantly and was going to do her best; but unfortunately, aunt hannah made a remark which sent the cook back to her kitchen, looking furious. "as if i ever did forget to put whole peppers in the bread sauce," she cried to eliza with the addition of a snort, and from that minute there were noises in the kitchen. the oven door was banged to loudly; saucepans smote the burning coals with their bottoms heavily; coals were shovelled on till the kitchen became as hot as martha's temper, and the plates put down to heat must have had their edges chipped, so hardly were they rattled together. but in the little drawing-room aunt hannah sat as happy and placid as could be till it was drawing toward the time for vane's return, when she took her keys from her basket, and went to the store-room for a pot of last year's quince marmalade and carried it into the dining-room. "master vane is so fond of this preserve, eliza," she said. "oh, and, by the way, ask martha to send in the open jam tart. i dare say he would like some of that." "i did tell martha so, ma'am." "that was very thoughtful of you, eliza." "but she nearly snapped my head off, ma'am." "dear, dear, dear, i do wish that martha would not be so easily put out." aunt hannah gave a glance over the table, and placing a fresh bunch of flowers in a vase in the centre, and a tiny bowl of ornamental leaves, such as the doctor admired, by his corner of the table, smiled with satisfaction to see how attractive everything looked. then she went back to her work in the drawing-room, but only to pop up again and go to the window, open it, and look out at where the doctor was busy with his penknife and some slips of bass, cutting away the old bindings and re-tying some choice newly-grafted pears which had begun to swell and ask for more room to develop. "it's getting very nearly tea-time, my dear," she cried. "bruff went half an hour ago." "yes, quarter of an hour before his time," said the doctor. "that's a curious old silver watch of his, always fast, but he believes in it more than he does in mine." "but it is time to come in and wash your hands, love." "no. another quarter of an hour," said the doctor. "vane come back?" "no, dear, not yet. but he must be here soon." "i will not keep his lordship waiting," said the doctor, quietly going on with his tying; and aunt hannah toddled back to look at the drawing-room mantel-clock. "dear me, yes," she said; "it is nearly a quarter to six." punctually to his time, the doctor's step was heard in the little hall, where he hung up his hat before going upstairs to change his coat and boots and wash his hands. then descending. "time that boy was back, isn't it?" he said going behind aunt hannah, who was looking out of the window at a corner which afforded a glimpse of the road. "oh, my dear, how you startled me!" cried aunt hannah. "can't help it, my dear. i always was an ugly man." "my dear, for shame! yes, it's quite time he was back. i am growing quite uneasy." "been run over perhaps by the train." "oh, my dear!" cried aunt hannah in horrified tones. "but how could he be? the railway is not near where he has gone." "of course it isn't. there, come and sit down and don't be such an old fidget about that boy. you are spoiling him." "that i am sure i am not, my dear." "but you are--making a regular molly of him. he'll be back soon. i believe if you had your own way you would lead him about by a string." "now that is nonsense, my dear," cried aunt hannah. "how can i help being anxious about him when he is late?" "make more fuss about him than if he was our own child." aunt hannah made no reply, but sat down working and listening intently for the expected step, but it did not come, and at last she heaved a sigh. "yes, he is late," said the doctor, looking at his watch. "not going anywhere else for you, was he?" "oh, no, my dear; he was coming straight back." "humph!" ejaculated the doctor; "thoughtless young dog! i want my tea." "he can't be long now," said aunt hannah. "humph! can't be. that boy's always wool-gathering instead of thinking of his duties." aunt hannah's brow wrinkled and she looked five years older as she rose softly to go to the window, and look out. "that will not bring him here a bit sooner, hannah," said the doctor drily. "i dare say he has gone in at the rectory, and syme has asked him to stay." "oh, no, my dear, i don't think he would do that, knowing that we should be waiting." "never did, i suppose," said the doctor. aunt hannah was silent. she could not deny the impeachment, and she sat there with her work in her lap, thinking about how late it was; how hungry the doctor would be, and how cross it would make him, for he always grew irritable when kept waiting for his meals. then she began to think about going and making the tea, and about the chicken, which would be done to death, and the doctor did not like chickens dry. just then there was a diversion. eliza came to the door. "if you please 'm, cook says shall she send up the chicken? it's half-past six." aunt hannah looked at the doctor, and the doctor looked at his watch. "wait a minute," he said; and then: "no, i'll give him another quarter of an hour." "what a tantrum martha will be in," muttered eliza, as she left the room. "oh, that poor chicken!" thought aunt hannah, and then aloud:-- "i hope vane has not met with any accident." "pshaw! what accident could he meet with in walking to the village with a bottle of liniment and back, unless--" "yes?" cried aunt hannah, excitedly; "unless what, my dear?" "he has opened the bottle and sat down by the roadside to drink it all." "oh, my dear, surely you don't think that vane would be so foolish." "i don't know," cried the doctor, "perhaps so. he is always experimentalising over something." "but," cried aunt hannah, with a horrified look, "it was liniment for outward application only!" "exactly: that's what i mean," said the doctor. "he has not been content without trying the experiment of how it would act rubbed on inside instead of out." "then that poor boy may be lying somewhere by the roadside in the agonies of death--poisoned," cried aunt hannah in horror; but the doctor burst out into a roar of laughter. "oh, it's too bad, my dear," cried aunt hannah, tearfully. "you are laughing at me and just, too, when i am so anxious about vane." "i'm not: a young rascal. he has met those sweet youths from the rectory, and they are off somewhere, or else stopping there." the doctor rose and rang the bell. "are you going to send up to see, my dear?" "no, i am not," said the doctor, rather tartly. "i am going to--" eliza entered the room. "we'll have tea directly, eliza," said the doctor; and aunt hannah hurried into the dining-room to measure out so many caddy spoonfuls into the hot silver pot, and pour in the first portion of boiling water, but listening for the expected footstep all the time. that meal did not go off well, for, in spite of the doctor's assumed indifference, he was also anxious about his nephew. aunt hannah could not touch anything, and the doctor's appetite was very little better; but he set this down to the chicken being, as he said, dried to nothing, and the sausages being like horn--exaggerations, both--for, in spite of martha's threats, she was too proud of her skill in cooking to send up anything overdone. the open jam tart was untouched, and the opening of that pot of last year's quince marmalade proved to have been unnecessary; for, though aunt hannah paused again and again with her cup half-way to her lips, it was not vane's step that she heard; and, as eight o'clock came, she could hardly keep back her tears. all at once the doctor rose and went into the hall, followed by aunt hannah, who looked at him wistfully as he put on a light overcoat, and took hat and stick. "i'll walk to the rectory," he said, "and bring him back." aunt hannah laid her hand upon his arm, as he reached the door. "don't be angry with him, my dear," she whispered. "why not? is that boy to do just as he pleases here? i'll give him a good sound thrashing, that's what i'll do with him." aunt hannah took away the doctor's walking stick, which he had made whish through the air and knock down one of vane's hats. "there, i'll do it with my fist," cried the doctor. "you cannot amputate that." "my dear!" whispered aunt hannah, handing back the stick. "all right, i will not hit him, but i'll give him a most tremendous tongue thrashing, as they call it here." "no, no; there is some reason for his being late." "very well," cried the doctor. "i shall soon see." the door closed after him, and aunt hannah began to pace the drawing-room, full of forebodings. "i am sure there is something very wrong," she said, "or vane would not have behaved like this." she broke down here, and had what she called "a good cry." but it did not seem to relieve her, and she recommenced her walking once more. at every sound she made for the door, believing it was vane come back, and, truth to tell, thinking very little of the doctor, but every time she hurried to the door and window she was fain to confess it was fancy, and resumed her weary agitated walk up and down the room. at last, though, there was the click of the swing-gate, and she hurried to the porch where she was standing as the doctor came up. "yes, dear," she cried, before he reached the door. "has he had his tea?" the doctor was silent, and came into the hall where aunt hannah caught his arm. "there is something wrong?" she cried. "no, no, don't be agitated, my dear," said the doctor gently. "it may be nothing." "then he is there--hurt?" "no, no. they have not seen him." "he has not been with the pupils?" "no." "oh, my dear, my dear, what does it mean?" cried aunt hannah. "it is impossible to say," said the doctor, "but we must be cool. vane is not a boy to run away." "oh, no." "so i have sent bruff over to ask what time he got to lenby, and what time he left, and, if possible, to find out which way he returned. bruff may meet him. we don't know what may have kept him. nothing serious, of course." but the doctor's words did not carry conviction; and, as if sympathising with his wife, he took and pressed her hand. "come, come," he whispered, "try and be firm. we have no reason for thinking that there is anything wrong." "no," said aunt hannah, with a brave effort to keep down her emotion.--"yes, eliza, what is it?" there had been a low whispering in the hall, followed by eliza tapping at the door and coming in. "i beg pardon, ma'am," said the maid, hastily, "but cook and me's that anxious we hoped you wouldn't mind my asking about master vane." a curious sound came from the passage, something between a sigh and a sob. "there is nothing to tell you," said the doctor, "till bruff comes back. mr vane has been detained; that's all." "thank you, sir," said eliza. "it was only that we felt we should like to know." in spite of the trouble she was in there was room for a glow of satisfaction in aunt hannah's mind on finding how great an interest was felt by the servants; and she set herself to wait as patiently as she could for news. "it will not be so very long, will it dear?" she whispered, for she could not trust herself to speak aloud. "it must be two hours," said the doctor gravely. "it is a long way. i am sorry i did not make bruff drive, but i thought it would take so long to get the pony ready that i started him at once;" and then ready to reprove his wife for her anxiety and eagerness to go to door or window from time to time, the doctor showed himself to be just as excited, and at the end of the first hour, he strode out into the hall. aunt hannah followed him. "i can't stand it any longer, my dear," he cried. "i don't believe i care a pin about the young dog, for i am sure he is playing us some prank, but i must go and meet bruff." "yes, do, do," cried aunt hannah, hurriedly getting the doctor's hat and stick. "but couldn't i go, too?" the doctor bent down, and kissed her. "no, no, my dear, you would only hinder me," he said, tenderly, and to avoid seeing her pained and working face he hurried out and took the road for lenby, striking off to the left, after passing the church. but after walking sharply along the dark lane, for about a couple of miles, it suddenly occurred to the doctor that the chances were, that bruff, who knew his way well, would take the short cuts, by the fields, and, after hesitating for a few minutes, he turned and hurried back. "a fool's errand," he muttered. "i ought to have known better." as matters turned out, he had done wisely in returning, and the walk had occupied his mind, for, as he came within hearing of the little manor again, he fancied that a sound in front was the click of the swing-gate. it was: for he reached the door just as eliza was on her way to the drawing-room to announce that bruff had come back. "bring him here," said the doctor, who had entered. "no: stop: i'll come and speak to him in the kitchen." but aunt hannah grasped his hand. "no, no," she whispered firmly now. "i must know the worst." "send bruff in," said the doctor, sternly, and the next minute the gardener was heard rubbing his boots on the mat, and came into the hall, followed by the other servants. "well, bruff," said the doctor, in a short, stern way, "you have not found him?" "no, sir, arn't seen or heard nowt." "but he had been and left the medicine?" "nay, sir, not he. nobody had seen nowt of him. he hadn't been there." aunt hannah uttered a faint gasp. "but didn't you ask at either of the cottages as you passed?" asked the doctor sharply. "cottages, sir? why, there arn't none. i cut acrost the fields wherever i could, and the only plaace nigh is candell's farm--that's quarter of a mile down a lane." "yes, yes, of course," said the doctor. "i had forgotten. then you have brought no news at all?" "well, yes, sir; a bit as you may say." "well, what is it, man? don't keep us in suspense." "seems like news to say as he arn't been nowheres near lenby." "can you form any idea of where he is likely to have gone?" bruff looked in his hat and pulled the lining out a little way, and peered under that as if expecting to find some information there, but ended by shaking his head and looking in a puzzled fashion at the doctor. "come with me," said the latter, and turning to aunt hannah, he whispered: "go and wait patiently, my dear. i don't suppose there is anything serious the matter. i daresay there is a simple explanation of the absence if we could find it; but i feel bound to try and find him, if i can, to-night." "but how long will you be?" "one hour," said the doctor, glancing at his watch. "if i am not back then you will have a message from me in that time, so that you will be kept acquainted with all i know." "please, sir, couldn't we come and help?" said cook eagerly. "me and 'liza's good walkers." "thank you," said the doctor; "the best help you can render is to sit up and wait, ready to attend to your mistress." he turned to aunt hannah who could not trust herself to speak, but pressed his hand as he passed out into the dark night, followed by bruff. "the rectory," he said briefly; and walked there rapidly to ring and startle joseph, who was just thinking of giving his final look round before going to bed. "some one badly, sir?" he said, as he admitted the doctor and gardener, jumping at the conclusion that his master was wanted at a sick person's bedside. "no. have you seen mr vane since he left after lessons this morning?" "no, sir." "where is the rector?" "in his study, sir." "and the young gentlemen?" "just gone up to bed, sir." "show me into the study." joseph obeyed, and the rector, who was seated with a big book before him, which he was not reading, jumped up in a startled way. "vane lee?" he cried. "yes: i'm very anxious about vane. he was sent over to lenby, this afternoon and has not returned. i want to ask macey and gilmore if they know anything of his whereabouts." "but some one came long ago. they have not seen him since luncheon." "tut--tut--tut!" ejaculated the doctor. "not been back then?" the doctor shook his head, and the rector suggested that he had stayed at lenby and half a dozen other things which could be answered at once. "would you mind sending for the lads to come down?" "certainly not. of course," cried the rector; and he rang and sent up a message. "i don't suppose they are in bed," he said. "they always have a good long gossip; and, as long as they are down in good time i don't like to be too strict. but, my dear lee. you don't think there is anything serious?" "i don't know what to think, syme," cried the doctor, agitatedly. "is it an escapade--has he run off?" "my dear sir, you know him almost as well as i do. is he the sort of boy to play such a prank?" "i should say, no. but, stop, you have had some quarrel. you have been reproving him." "no--no--no," cried the doctor. "nothing of the kind. if there had been i should have felt more easy." "but, what can have happened? a walk to lenby and back by a boy who knows every inch of the way." "that is the problem," said the doctor. "ah, here is someone." for there was a tap at the door, and macey entered, to look wonderingly from one to the other. "aleck, my boy," said the doctor, "vane is missing. can you suggest anything to help us? do you know of any project that he had on hand or of any place he was likely to have gone to on his way to lenby?" "no," said macey, quickly. "take time, my dear boy, and think," said the rector. "but i can't think, sir, of anything," cried macey. "no. unless--" "yes," cried the doctor; "unless what?" "he was going to lenby, you say." "yes." "well, mightn't he have stopped there?" "no, no, my boy," cried the doctor, in disappointed tones, as gilmore came in, and directly after distin, both looking wonderingly round. "we sent there." "then i don't know," said macey, anxiously. "he might have gone over the bit of moor though." "yes," said the doctor; "he could have gone that way." "well, sir, mightn't he have been caught among the brambles, or lost his way?" "no, my boy, absurd!" "i once did, sir, and he came and helped me out." "oh, no," cried the doctor; "impossible." "but there are some very awkward pieces of bog and peat and water-holes, sir," said gilmore; and as he said this distin drew a deep breath, and took a step back from the shaded lamp. the rector also drew a deep breath, and looked anxiously at the doctor, who stood with his brow contracted for a few moments, and then shook his head. "he was too clever and active for that," he cried. "no, gilmore, that is not the solution. he is not likely to have come upon poachers? there are a great many pheasants about there?" "no poachers would be about in the afternoon," said the rector. "my dear lee, i do not like to suggest so terrible a thing, but i must say, i think it is our duty to get all the help we can, and search the place armed with lanterns." the doctor looked at him wildly. "of course we'll help. what do you say?" "yes," said the doctor hoarsely. "let us search." the rector rang the bell, and joseph answered directly. "wait a moment," cried the doctor. "mr distin, you have not spoken yet. tell me: what is your opinion. do you think vane can have come to harm in the moor strip yonder?" distin shrank back as he was addressed, and looked round wildly, from one to the other. "i--i?" he faltered. "yes, you--my dear boy," said the rector, sharply. "answer at once, and do, pray, try to master that nervousness." distin passed his tongue over his lips, and his voice sounded very husky as he said, almost inaudibly at first, but gathering force as he went on:-- "i don't know. i have not seen him since this morning." "we know that," said the doctor; "but should you think it likely, that he has met with an accident, or can you suggest anywhere likely for him to have gone?" "no, sir, no," said distin, firmly now. "i can't think of anywhere, nor should i think he is likely to have sunk in either of the bog holes, though he is very fond of trying to get plants of all kinds when he is out." "yes, yes," said the doctor, hoarsely. "i taught him;" and as he spoke distin gave a furtive look all round the room, to see that nearly everyone was watching him closely. "we must hope for the best, lee," said the doctor, firmly. "joseph, take doctor lee's man with you, go down the town street and spread the alarm. we want men with lanterns as quickly as possible. that place must be searched." the two men started at once, and the rector, after an apology, began to put on his boots once more. "i promised to go or send word to the manor," said the doctor, "but i feel as if i had not the heart to go." "to tell mrs lee, sir?" said distin, quickly. "yes, to say that we are all going to search for vane," said the doctor, "but not what we suspect." "i understand," said distin, quickly; and, as if glad to escape, he hurried out of the room, and directly after they heard the closing of the outer door, and his steps on the gravel as he ran. chapter twenty. no news. "distin seems curiously agitated and disturbed," said the doctor. "yes: he is a nervous, finely-strung youth," replied the rector. "the result of his birth in a tropical country. it was startling, too, his being fetched down from bed to hear such news." "of course--of course," said the doctor; and preparations having been rapidly made by the rector, who mustered three lanterns, one being an old bull's-eye, they all started. "better go down as far as the church, first, and collect our forces. then we'll make a start for the moor. but who shall we have for guide?" "perhaps i know the place best," said the doctor; and they started in silence, passing down the gravel drive, out at the gate, and then along the dark lane with the lights dancing fitfully amongst the trees and bushes on either side, and casting curiously weird shadows behind. as they reached the road, macey, who carried one lantern, held it high above his head and shouted. "hush--hush!" cried the doctor, for the lad's voice jarred upon him in the silence. "distin's coming, sir," said macey. there was an answering hail, and then the _pat-pat_ of steps, as distin trotted after and joined them. by the time the church was reached, there was plenty of proof of vane's popularity, for lanterns were dancing here and there, and lights could be seen coming from right up the street, while a loud eager buzz of voices reached their ears. ten minutes after the doctor found himself surrounded by a band of about forty of the townsfolk, everyone of whom had some kind of lantern and a stick or pole, and all eager to go in search of the missing lad. rounds the miller was one of the foremost, and carried the biggest lantern, and made the most noise. chakes the sexton, was there, too, with his lantern--a dim, yellow-looking affair, whose sides were of horn sheets, with here and there fancy devices punched in the tin to supply air to the burning candle within. crumps, from the dairy, graders the baker, and john wrench the carpenter, all were there, and it seemed a wonder to macey where all the lanterns had come from. but it was no wonder, for greythorpe was an ill-lit place, where candles and oil-lamps took the place of gas even in the little shops, and there were plenty of people who needed the use of a stable-light. there were two policemen stationed in greythorpe, but they were off on their nightly rounds, and it was not until the weird little procession of light-bearers had gone half a mile from the town that there was a challenge from under a dark hedge, and two figures stepped out into the road. "eh? master vane lee lost?" said one of the figures, the lights proclaiming them to be the policemen, who had just met at one of their appointed stations; "then we'd better jyne you." this added two more lanterns to the bearers of light, but for a long time they were not opened, but kept as a reserved force--ready if wanted. at last, in almost utter silence, the moor was reached, the men were spread out, and the search began. but it was ended after an hour's struggling among the bushes, and an extrication of chakes, and wrench the carpenter, from deep bog holes into which they had suddenly stepped, and, on being drawn out, sent home. then rounds spoke out in his loud, bluff way. "can't be done, doctor, by this light. it's risking the lives of good men and true. i want to find young mester, and i'll try as if he was a son of my own, but we can't draw this mash to-night." there was a dead silence at this, and then the rector spoke out. "i'm afraid he is right, lee. i would gladly do everything possible, but this place really seems impassable by night." the doctor was silent, and the rector spoke again: "what do you say, constable?" "as it can't be done, sir, with all respect to you as the head of the parish." "seems to me like getting up an inquess, sir," said dredge the butcher, "with ooz all dodging about here with our lights, like so many will-o'-the-wispies." "ay, i was gooin' to say as theered be job for owd chakes here 'fore morning if he gets ower his ducking." "i'm afraid you are right," said the doctor, sadly. "if i were sure that my nephew was somewhere here on the moor, i should say keep on at all hazards, but it is too dangerous a business by lantern light." "let's give a good shout," cried the miller; "p'r'aps the poor lad may hear it. now, then, all together: one, two three, and _ahoy_!" the cry rang far out over the moor, and was faintly answered, so plainly that macey uttered a cry of joy. "come on," he cried; "there he is." "nay, lad," said the miller; "that was on'y the echo." "no, no," said macey; "it was an answer." "it did sound like it," said the rector; and the doctor remained in doubt. "you listen," said the miller; and, putting his hands on either side of his mouth, he gave utterance to a stentorian roar. "vane, ho!" there was a pause, and a "ho!" came back. "all right?" roared the miller. "right!" came back. "good-night!" shouted the miller again. "night!" "there, you see. only an echo," said the miller. "wish it wasn't. why, if it had been his voice, lads, we'd soon ha' hed him home." "yes, it's an echo, aleck," said gilmore, sadly. "but we could stop, and go on searching, sir," cried macey. "it's such a pity to give up." "only till daybreak, my lad," said the doctor, sadly. "we can do no good here, and the risk is too great." gilmore uttered a low sigh, and macey a groan, as, after a little more hesitation, it was decided to go back to the town, and wait till the first dawn, when the search could be resumed. "and, look here, my lads," cried the miller; "all of you as can had better bring bill-hooks and sickles, for it's bad going through these brambles, even by day." "and you, constables," said the rector; "you are on duty along the roads. you will keep a sharp look-out." "of course, sir, and we'll communicate with the other men we meet from lenby and riby, and dunthorpe. we shall find him, sir, never fear." the procession of lanterns was recommenced, but in the other direction now, and in utter despondency the doctor followed, keeping with the rector and his pupils, all trying in turn to suggest some solution of the mystery, but only for it to close in more darkly round them, in spite of all. the police then left them at the spot where they had been encountered, and promised great things, in which nobody felt any faith; and at last, disheartened and weary, the churchyard was reached, and the men dismissed, all promising to be ready to go on at dawn. then there was a good deal of opening of lanterns, the blowing out of candle and lamp, the closing of doors, and an unpleasant, fatty smell, which gradually dispersed as all the men departed but the miller. "hope, gentlemen," he said, in his big voice, "you don't think i hung back from helping you." "no, no, rounds," said the doctor, sadly; "you are not the sort of man to fail us in a pinch." "thankye, doctor," said the bluff fellow, holding out his hand. "same to you. i aren't forgot the way you come and doctored my missus when she was so bad, and you not a reg'lar doctor, but out o' practice. but nivver you fear; we'll find the lad. i shan't go to bed, but get back and light a pipe. i can think best then; and mebbe i'll think out wheer the young gent's gone." "thank you, rounds," said the doctor. "perhaps we had all better go and try and think it out, for heaven grant that it may not be so bad as we fear." "amen to that!" cried the miller, "as clerk's not here. and say, parson, i'll goo and get key of owd chakes, and, at the first streak o' daylight, i'll goo to belfry, and pull the rope o' the ting-tang to rouse people oop. you'll know what it means." he went off; and the rest of the party, preceded by joseph bruff having sought his cottage, walked slowly back, all troubled by the same feeling, omitting distin, that they had done wrong in giving up so easily, but at the same time feeling bound to confess that they could have done no good by continuing the search. as they reached the end of the rectory lane and the doctor said "good-night," the rector urged him to come up to the rectory and lie down on a couch till morning, but doctor lee shook his head. "no," he said, "it is quite time i was back. there is someone sorrowing there more deeply than we can comprehend. till daybreak, syme. good-night." macey stood listening to the doctor's retiring footsteps and then ran after him. "hi! macey!" cried gilmore. "mr macey, where are you going?" cried the rector. but the boy heard neither of them as he ran on till the doctor heard the footsteps and stopped. "yes," he said, "what is it?" "only me--aleck macey, sir." "yes, my lad? have you brought a message from mr syme?" "no, sir; i only wanted--i only thought--i--i--doctor lee, please let me come and wait with you till it's time to start." macey began falteringly, but his last words came out with a rush. "why not go back to bed, my lad, and get some rest--some sleep?" "rest?--sleep? who is going to sleep when, for all we know, poor old vane's lying helpless somewhere out on the moor. let me come and stop with you." for answer the doctor laid his hand upon macey's shoulder, and they reached the little manor swing-gate and passed up the avenue without a word. there were lights burning in two of the front windows, and long before they reached the front door in the porch, it was opened, and a warm glow of light shone out upon the advancing figures. it threw up, too, the figure of aunt hannah, who, as soon as she realised the fact that there were two figures approaching, ran out and before the doctor could enlighten her as to the truth, she flung her arms round macey's neck, and hugged him to her breast, sobbing wildly. "oh, my dear, my dear, where have you been--where have you been?" as she spoke, she buried her face upon the lad's shoulder, while macey looked up speechlessly at the doctor, and he, choked with emotion as he was, could not for some moments find a word to utter. still, clinging to him in the darkness aunt hannah now took tightly hold of the boy's arm, as if fearing he might again escape from her, and drawing him up toward the door from which the light shone now, showing eliza and martha both waiting, she suddenly grasped the truth, and uttered a low wail of agony. "not found?" she cried. "oh, how could you let me, how could you! it was too cruel, indeed, indeed!" aunt hannah's sobs broke out loudly now; and, unable to bear more, macey glided away, and did not stop running after passing the gate till he reached the rectory door. chapter twenty one. in the early morning. churchwarden rounds kept his word, for at the first break of day his vigorous arms sent the ting-tang ringing in a very different way to that adopted by old chakes for the last few minutes before service commenced on sunday morning and afternoon. and he did not ring in vain, for though the search was given up in the night the objections were very genuine. everyone was eager to help so respected a neighbour as the doctor, and to a man the searchers surrounded him as he walked up to the church; even wrench the carpenter, and chakes the sexton putting in an appearance in a different suit to that worn over-night and apparently none the worse for the cold plunge into peaty water they had had. the rector was not present, and the little expedition was about to start, when macey came running up to say that mr syme was close behind. this decided the doctor to pause for a few minutes, and while it was still twilight the rector with gilmore and distin came up, the former apologising for being so late. "i'm afraid that i fell asleep in my chair, lee," he whispered. "i'm very sorry." "there is no need to say anything," said the doctor sadly. "it is hardly daybreak even now." gilmore looked haggard, and his face on one side was marked by the leather of the chair in which he had been asleep. macey looked red-eyed too, but distin was perfectly calm and as neat as if he had been to bed as usual to enjoy an uninterrupted night's rest. when the start was made, it having been decided to follow the same course as over-night, hardly a word was said, for in addition to the depression caused by the object in view, the morning felt chilly, and everything looked grim and strange in the mist. the rector and doctor led the way with the churchwarden, then followed the rector's three pupils, and after them the servants and townspeople in silence. macey was the first of the rectory trio to speak, and he harked back to the idea that vane must be caught in the brambles just as he had been when trying to make a short cut, but gilmore scouted the notion at once. "impossible!" he said, "vane wouldn't be so stupid. if he is lost on the moor it is because he slipped into one of those black bog holes, got tangled in the water-weeds and couldn't get out." "ugh!" exclaimed macey with a shudder. "oh, i say: don't talk like that. it's too horrid. you don't think so, do you, distie? why it has made you as white as wax to hear him talk like that." distin shivered as if he were cold, and he forced a smile as he said hastily:-- "no: of course i don't. it's absurd." "what is?" said gilmore. "your talking like this. it isn't likely. i think it's a great piece of nonsense, this searching the country." "why, what would you do?" cried macey. "i--i--i don't know," cried distin, who was taken aback. "yes, i do. i should drive over to the station to see if he took a ticket for london, or sheffield, or birmingham, or somewhere. it's just like him. he has gone to buy screws, or something, to make a whim-wham to wind up the sun." "no, he hasn't," said macey sturdily; "he wouldn't go and upset the people at home like that; he's too fond of them." "pish!" ejaculated distin contemptuously. "distie's sour because he is up so early, gil," continued macey. "don't you believe it. vane's too good a chap to go off like that." "bah! he is always changing about. why, you two fellows call him weathercock." "well!" cried gilmore; "it isn't because we don't like him." "no," said macey, "only in good-humoured fun, because he turns about so. i wish," he added dolefully, "he would turn round here now." "you don't think as the young master's really drownded, do you?" said a voice behind, and macey turned sharply, to find that bruff had been listening to every word. "no, i don't," he cried angrily; "and i'll punch anybody's head who says he is. i believe old distie wishes he was." "you're a donkey," cried distin, turning scarlet. "then keep away from my heels--i might kick. it makes me want to with everybody going along as cool as can be, as if on purpose, to fish the best chap i ever knew out of some black hole among the bushes." "best chap!" said distin, contemptuously. "yes: best chap," retorted macey, whose temper was soured by the cold and sleeplessness of the past night. further words were stopped by the churchwarden's climbing up the sandy bank of the deep lane, and stopping half-way to the top to stretch out his hand to the rector whom he helped till he was amongst the furze, when he turned to help the doctor, who was, however, active enough to mount by himself. the rest of the party were soon up in a group, and then there was a pause and the churchwarden spoke. "if neither of you gentlemen, has settled what to do," he said, "it seems to me the best thing is to make a line of our-sens along top of the bank here, and then go steady right along towards lenby--say twenty yards apart." the doctor said that no better plan could be adopted, but added:-- "i should advise that whenever a pool is reached the man who comes to it should shout. then all the line must stop while i come to the pool and examine it." "but we've got no drags or hooks, mester," whispered the churchwarden, and the doctor shuddered. "no," he said hastily, "but i think there would certainly be some marks of struggling at the edge--broken twigs, grass, or herbage torn away." "look at distie," whispered gilmore. "was looking," replied macey who was gazing fixedly at his fellow-pupil's wild eyes and hollow cheeks. "hasn't pitched, or shoved him in, has he?" "hush! don't talk like that," whispered gilmore again; and just then the object of their conversation looked up sharply, as if conscious that he was being canvassed, and gazed suspiciously from one to the other. meanwhile the miller who had uncovered so as to wipe his brow, threw his staring red cotton handkerchief sharply back into the crown of his hat and knocked it firmly into its place. "why, of course," he said: "that's being a scientific gentleman. i might have thought of that, but i didn't." without further delay half the party spread out toward the wood which formed one side of the moor, while the other half spread back toward the town; and as soon as all were in place the doctor, who was in the centre, with rounds the miller on his right, and the rector on his left, gave the word. the churchwarden shouted and waved his hat and with the soft grey dawn gradually growing brighter, and a speck or two of orange appearing high up in the east, the line went slowly onward towards lenby, pausing from time to time for pools to be examined and for the more luckless of the party to struggle out of awkward places. the rector's three pupils were on the right--the end nearest the town, distin being the last in the line and in spite of macey's anticipations, he struggled on as well as the best man there. patches of mist like fleecy clouds, fallen during the night, lay here and there; and every now and then one who looked along the line could see companions walk right into these fogs and disappear for minutes at a time to suddenly step out again on to land that was quite clear. hardly a word was spoken, the toil was sufficient to keep every one silent. for five minutes after a start had been made every one was drenched with dew to the waist, and as macey afterwards said if they had forded the river they could not have been more wet. every now and then birds were startled by someone, to rise with a loud _whirr_ if they were partridges, with a rapid beating of pinions and frightened quacking if wild-fowl; and for a few moments, more than once, both macey and gilmore forgot the serious nature of their mission in interest in the various objects they encountered. for these were not few. before they had gone a quarter of a mile there was a leap and a rush, and unable to contain himself, bruff, who was next on macey's left suddenly shouted "_loo_--_loo_--_loo_--_loo_." "see him, mester macey!" he cried. "oh, if we'd had a greyhound." but they had no long-legged hound to dart off after the longer-eared animal; and the hare started from its form in some dry tussock grass, went off with its soft fur streaked to its sides with the heavy dew, and was soon out of reach. then a great grey flapped-wing heron rose from a tiny mere and sailed heavily away. that pool had to be searched as far as its margin was concerned; and as it was plainly evident that birds only had visited it lately, the line moved on again just as the red disk of the sun appeared above the mist, and in one minute the grim grey misty moor was transformed into a vast jewelled plain spangled with myriads upon myriads of tiny gems, glittering in all the colours of the prism, and sending a flash of hopeful feeling into the boys' breasts. "oh!" cried macey; "isn't it lovely! i am glad i came." "yes," said gilmore; and then correcting himself. "who can feel glad on a morning like this!" "i can," said macey, "for it all makes me feel now that we are stupid to think anything wrong can have happened to poor old weathercock. he's all right somewhere." something akin to macey's feeling of light-heartedness had evidently flashed into the hearts of all in the line, for men began to shout to one another as they hurried on with more elasticity of tread; they made lighter of their difficulties, and no longer felt a chill of horror whenever rounds summoned all to a halt, while the doctor passed along the line to examine some cotton-rush dotted margin about a pool. working well now, the line pressed on steadily in the direction of lenby, and a couple of miles must have been gone over when a halt was called, and after a short discussion in the centre, the churchwarden came panting along the line giving orders as he went till he reached the end where the three pupils were. "now, lads," he cried, "we're going to sweep round now, like the soldiers do--here by this patch of bushes. you, mr distin, will march right on, keeping your distance as before, and go the gainest way for the wood yonder, where you'll find the little stream. then you'll keep back along that and we shall sweep that side of the moor till we get to the lane again." "but we shall miss ever so much in the middle," cried gilmore. "ay, so we shall, lad, but we'll goo up along theer afterwards, and back'ards, and forwards till we've been all over." "but, i say," cried macey, "you don't think we shall find him here, do you?" "nay, i don't, lad; but the doctor has a sort of idee that we may, and i'm not the man to baulk him. he might be here, you see." "yes," said macey; "he might. there: all right, we'll go on when you give the word." "forrard, then, my lads; there it is, and i wish we may find him. nay, i don't," he said, correcting himself, "for, poor lad he'd be in a bad case to have fallen down here for the night. theer's something about it i can't understand, and if i were you, mr distin, sir, i'd joost chuck an eye now and then over the stream towards the edge of the wood." distin nodded and the line was swung round, so as to advance for some distance toward the wood which began suddenly just beyond the stream. there another shout, and the waving of the miller's hat, altered the direction again, and with distin close by the flowing water, the line was marched back toward the lane with plenty of repetitions of their outward progress but it was at a slower rate, for the tangle was often far more dense. and somehow, perhaps from the brilliancy of the morning, and the delicious nature of the pure soft air, the lads' spirits grew higher, and they had to work hard to keep their attention to the object they had in view, for nature seemed to be laying endless traps for them, especially for macey, who certainly felt vane's disappearance most at heart, but was continually forgetting him on coming face to face with something fresh. now it was an adder coiled up in the warm sunshine on a little dry bare clump among some dead furze. it was evidently watching him but making no effort to get out of his way. he had a stick, and it would have been easy to kill the little reptile, but somehow he had not the heart to strike at him, and he walked on quickly to overtake the line which had gone on advancing while he lagged behind. ten minutes later he nearly stepped upon a rabbit which bounded away, as he raised his stick to hurl it after the plump-looking little animal like a boomerang. but he did not throw, and the rabbit escaped. he did not relax his efforts, but swept the tangle of bushes and brambles from right to left and back to the right, always eagerly trying to find something, if only a footprint to act as a clue that he might follow, but there was no sign. all at once in a sandy spot amongst some furze bushes he stopped again, with a grim smile on his lip. "very evident that he hasn't been here," he muttered, as he looked at some scattered specimens of a fungus that would have delighted vane, and been carried off as prizes. they were tall-stemmed, symmetrically formed fungi, with rather ragged brown and white tops, which looked as if in trying to get them open into parasol shape the moorland fairies had regularly torn up the outer skin of the tops with their little fingers; those unopened though showed the torn up marks as well, as they stood there shaped like an egg stuck upon a short thin stick. "come on!" shouted gilmore. "found anything?" macey shook his head, and hurried once more onward to keep the line, to hear soon afterwards _scape, scape_, uttered shrilly by a snipe which darted off in zigzag flight. "oh, how poor old vane would have liked to be here on such a morning!" thought macey, and a peculiar moisture, which he hastily dashed away, gathered in his eyes and excused as follows:-- "catching cold," he said, quickly. "no wonder with one's feet and legs so wet, why, i'm soaking right up to the waist. hallo! what bird's that?" for a big-headed, thick-beaked bird flew out of a furze bush, showing a good deal of white in its wings. "chaffinch, i s'pose. no; can't be. too big. oh, i do wish poor old vane was here: he knows everything of that kind. where can he be? where can he be?" it was hot work that toiling through the bushes, but no one murmured or showed signs of slackening as he struggled along. there were halts innumerable, and the doctor could be seen hurrying here and hurrying there along the straggling line till at last a longer pause than usual was made at some pool, and heads were turned toward those who seemed to be making a more careful examination than usual; while, to relieve the tedium of the halt, distin suddenly went splashing through the shallow stream on to the pebbly margin on the other side. "shan't you get very wet?" shouted gilmore. "can't get wetter than i am," was shouted back then. "i say it's ten times better walking here. look out! moor-hens!" "and wild ducks," cried gilmore, as a pair of pointed-winged mallards flew up with a wonderfully graceful flight. but the birds passed away unnoticed, for just then distin uttered a cry which brought macey tearing over the furze and brambles following gilmore, who was already at the edge of the stream, and just then the signal was given by the miller to go on. chapter twenty two. vane is taken at a disadvantage. vane felt for the moment quite startled, the place being so silent and solitary, but the idea of danger seemed to him absurd, and he stood watching the shadow till all doubt of its being human ceased, for an arm was raised and then lowered as if a signal was being made. "what can it mean?" he thought. and then:--"i'll soon see." just as he had made up his mind to walk forward, there was a slight movement and a sharp crack as of a twig of dead wood breaking under the pressure of a foot, and he who caused the sound, feeling that his presence must be known, stepped out from behind the tree. "why, i fancied it was distie," said vane to himself with a feeling of relief that he would have found it hard to explain, for it was one of the gipsy lads approaching him in a slow, furtive way. "thought they were gone long enough ago," he said to himself; and then speaking: "hi! you, sir; come here!--make him try and dig some up. wonder they don't hunt for truffles themselves," he added. "don't think they are wholesome, perhaps." the lad came slowly toward him, but apparently with great unwillingness. "come on," cried vane, "and i'll give you a penny. hallo! here's the other one!" for the second lad came slouching along beneath the trees. "here, you two," cried vane, waving his trowel; "come along and dig up some of these. that's right. you've got sticks. you can do it with the points." the second boy had come into sight from among the trees to vane's left, and advanced cautiously now, as if doubtful of the honesty of his intentions. "that's right," cried vane. "come along, both of you, and i'll give you twopence a piece. do you hear? i shan't hurt you." but they did not hasten their paces, advancing very cautiously, stick in hand, first one and then the other, glancing round as if for a way of escape, as it seemed. "why, they're as shy as rabbits," thought vane, laughing to himself. "it's leading such a wild life, i suppose. here," he cried to the first lad, who was now within a yard of him, while the other was close behind; "see these? i want some of them. come on, and i'll show you how to find them. why, what did you do that for?" vane gave a bound forward, wincing with pain, for he had suddenly received a heavy blow on the back from the short cudgel the boy behind him bore, and as he turned fiercely upon him, thrusting the trowel into his basket and doubling his fist to return the blow, the first boy struck him heavily across the shoulder with his stick. if the gipsy lads imagined that the blows would cow vane, and make him an easy victim for the thrashing they had evidently set themselves to administer, they were sadly mistaken. for uttering a cry of rage as the second blow sent a pang through him, vane dashed down his basket and trowel, spun round and rushed at his second assailant, but only to receive a severe blow across one wrist while another came again from behind. "you cowards!" roared vane; "put down those sticks, or come in front." the lads did neither, and finding in spite of his rage the necessity for caution, vane sprang to a tree, making it a comrade to defend his back, and then struck out wildly at his assailants. so far his efforts were in vain. sticks reach farther than fists, and his hands both received stinging blows, one on his right, numbing it for the moment and making him pause to wonder what such an unheard-of attack could mean. thoughts fly quickly at all times, but with the greatest swiftness in emergencies, and as vane now stood at bay he could see that these two lads had been watching him for some time past, and that the attack had only been delayed for want of opportunity. "i always knew that gipsies could steal," he thought, "but only in a little petty, pilfering way. this is highway robbery, and if i give them all i've got they will let me go." then he considered what he had in his pockets--about seven shillings, including the half-pence--and a nearly new pocket-knife. he was just coming to the conclusion that he might just as well part with this little bit of portable property and escape farther punishment, when one of the boys made a feint at his head and brought his stick down with a sounding crack, just above his left knee, while the other struck him on the shoulder. vane's blood was up now, and forgetting all about compromising, he dashed at one of his assailants, hitting out furiously, getting several blows home, in spite of the stick, and the next minute would have torn it from the young scoundrel's grasp if the other had not attacked him so furiously behind that he had to turn and defend himself there. this gave the boy he was beating time to recover himself, and once more vane was attacked behind and had to turn again. all this was repeated several times, vane getting far the worst of the encounter, for the gipsy lads were as active as cats and wonderfully skilful at dealing blows; but all the same they did not escape punishment, as their faces showed, vane in his desperation ignoring the sticks and charging home with pretty good effect again and again. "it's no good; i shall be beaten," he thought as he now protected himself as well as he could by the shelter afforded by the tree he had chosen, though poor protection it was, for first one and then the other boy would dart in feinting with his stick and playing into the other's hand and giving him an opportunity to deliver a blow. "i shall have to give in, and the young savages will almost kill me." and all this time he was flinching, dodging and shrinking here and there, and growing so much exhausted that his breath came thick and fast. "oh, if i only had a stick!" he panted, as he avoided a blow on one side to receive one on the other; and this made him rush savagely at one of the lads; but he had to draw back, smarting from a sharp blow across the left arm, right above the elbow, and one which half numbed the member. but though he cast longing eyes round, there was no sticks save those carried by the boys, who, with flashing eyes, kept on darting in and aiming wherever they could get a chance. there was one fact, however, which vane noticed, and which gave him a trifle of hope just when he was most despairing: his adversaries never once struck at his head, contenting themselves by belabouring his arms, back and legs, which promised to be rendered quite useless if the fight went on. and all the time neither of the gipsy lads spoke a word, but kept on leaping about him, making short runs, and avoiding his blows in a way that was rapidly wearing him out. should he turn and run? no, he thought; they would run over the ground more swiftly than he, and perhaps get him down. then he thought of crying for help, but refrained, for he felt how distant they were from everyone, and that if he cried aloud he would only be expending his breath. and lastly, the idea came again that he had better offer the lads all he had about him. but hardly had the thought crossed his brain, than a more vicious blow than usual drove it away, and he rushed from the shelter of the tree-trunk at the boy who delivered that blow. in trying to avoid vane's fist, he caught his heel, staggered back, and in an instant his stick was wrested from his hand, whistled through the air, and came down with a sounding crack, while what one not looking on might have taken to be an echo of the blow sounded among the trees. but it was not an echo, only the real thing, the second boy having rushed to his brother's help, and struck at vane's shoulder, bringing him fiercely round to attack in turn, stick-armed now, and on equal terms. for vane's blow had fallen on the first boy's head, and he went down half-stunned and bleeding, to turn over and then begin rapidly crawling away on hands and knees. vane saw this, and he forgot that he was weak, that his arms were numbed and tingling, and that his legs trembled under him. if victory was not within his grasp, he could take some vengeance for his sufferings; and the next minute the beechen glade was ringing with the rattle of stick against stick, as in a state of blind fury now, blow succeeded blow, many not being fended off by the gipsy lad's stick, but reaching him in a perfect hail on head, shoulders, arms, everywhere. they flew about his head like a firework, making him see sparks in a most startling way till vane put all his remaining strength into a tremendous blow which took effect upon a horizontal bough; the stick snapped in two close to his hand, and he stood defenceless once more, but the victor after all, for the second boy was running blindly in and out among the trees, and the first was quite out of sight. as he grasped the position, vane uttered a hoarse shout and started in pursuit, but staggered, reeled, tried to save himself, and came down, heavily upon something hard, from which he moved with great rapidity and picked up to look at in dismay. it was the trowel. a faint, rustling sound amongst the leaves overhead roused vane to the fact that he must have been sitting there some time in a giddy, half-conscious state, and, looking up, he could see the bright eyes of a squirrel fixed upon him, while its wavy bushy tail was twitching, and the little animal sounded as if it were scolding him for being there; otherwise all was still, and, in spite of his sufferings, it seemed very comical to vane that the pretty little creature should be abusing him, evidently looking upon him as a thief come poaching upon the winter supply of beech-nuts. then the giddy feeling grew more oppressive, the trees began to slowly sail round him, and there appeared to be several squirrels and several branches all whisking their bushy tails and uttering that peculiar sound of theirs--_chop, chop, chop_,--as if they had learned it from the noise made by the woodman in felling trees. what happened then vane did not know, for when he unclosed his eyes again, it was to gaze at the level rays of the ruddy sun which streamed in amongst the leaves and twigs of the beeches, making them glorious to behold. for a few minutes he lay there unable to comprehend anything but the fact that his head was amongst the rough, woody beech-mast, and that one hand grasped the trowel while the other was full of dead leaves; but as his memory began to work more clearly and he tried to move, the sharp pains which shot through him chased all the mental mists away and he sprang up into a sitting posture unable to resist uttering a groan of pain as he looked round to see if either of the gipsy boys was in sight. chapter twenty three. where vane spent the night. the squirrel and the squirrel only. there was not even a sound now. vane could see the basket he had brought and the two pieces of the strong ash stick which he had broken over the fight with the second boy. the ground was trampled and the leaves kicked up, but no enemy was near, and he naturally began to investigate his damages. "they haven't killed me--not quite," he said, half-aloud, as he winced in passing his hand over his left shoulder and breast; and then his eyes half-closed, a deathly feeling of sickness came over him and he nearly fainted with horror, for at the touch of his hand a severe pain shot through his shoulder, and he could feel that his breast and armpit was soaking wet. recovering from the shock of the horrible feeling he took out his handkerchief to act as a bandage, for he felt that he must be bleeding freely from one of the blows, and he knew enough from his uncle's books about injured arteries to make him set his teeth and determine to try and stop that before he attempted to get to his feet and start for home. his first effort was to unbutton his norfolk jacket and find the injury which he felt sure must be a cut across the shoulder, but at the first touch of his hand he winced again, and the sick feeling came back with a faint sensation of horror, for there was a horrible grating sound which told of crushed bone and two edges grinding one upon the other. again he mastered his weakness and boldly thrust his hand into his breast, withdrew it, and burst out into a wild hysterical laugh as he gave a casual glance at his hand before passing it cautiously into his left breast-pocket and bringing out, bit by bit, the fragments of the bottle of preparation which the doctor had dispensed, and that it had been his mission to deliver that afternoon. for in the heat of the struggle, a blow of one of the sticks had crushed the bottle, saturating his breast and side with the medicament, and suggesting to his excited brain a horrible bleeding wound and broken bones. "oh, dear!" he groaned; and he laughed again, "how easy it is to deceive oneself;" and he busied himself, as he spoke, in picking out the remains of the bottle, and finally turned his pocket inside out and shook it clear. "don't smell very nice," he said with a sigh; "but i hope it's good for bruises. well, it's of no use for me to go on now, so i may as well get back." he was kneeling now and feeling his arms and shoulders again, and then he cautiously touched his face and head. but there was no pain, no trace of injury in that direction, and he began softly passing his hands up and down his arms, and over his shoulders, wincing with agony at every touch, and feeling that he must get on at once if he meant to reach home, for a terrible stiffness was creeping over him, and when at last he rose to his feet, he had to support himself by the nearest tree, for his legs were bruised from hip to ankle, and refused to support his weight. "it is of no good," he said at last, after several efforts to go on, all of which brought on a sensation of faintness. "i can't walk; what shall i do?" he took a step or two, so as to be quite clear of the broken bottle, and then slowly lowered himself down upon the thick bed of beech-mast and leaves, when the change to a recumbent position eased some of his sufferings, and enabled him to think more clearly. and one of the results of this was a feeling of certainty that it would be impossible for him to walk home. then he glanced round, wondering whether his assailants had gone right away or were only watching prior to coming back to finish their work. "i don't know what it means," he said, dolefully. "i can't see why they should attack me like this. i never did them any harm. it must be for the sake of money, and they'll come back when i'm asleep." vane ground his teeth, partly from rage, partly from pain, as he thrust his hand into his pocket, took out all the money he had, and then after looking carefully round, he raised the trowel, scraped away the leaves, dug a little hole and put in the coins, then covered them up again, spreading the leaves as naturally as possible, and mentally making marks on certain trees so as to remember the spot. at the same time he was haunted by the feeling that his every act was being watched, and that the coins would be found. "never mind," he muttered, "they must find them," and he lay back once more to think about getting home, and whether he could manage the task after a rest, but he grew more and more certain that he could not, for minute by minute he grew cooler, and in consequence his joints and muscles stiffened, so that at last he felt as if he dared not stir. he lay quite still for a while, half-stunned mentally by his position, and glad to feel that he was not called upon to act in any way for the time being, all of which feeling was of course the result of the tremendous exertion through which he had passed, and the physical weakness and shock caused by the blows. it was a soft, deliciously warm evening, and it was restful to lie there, gazing through the trees at the glowing west, which was by slow degrees paling. the time had gone rapidly by during the last two hours or so, and it suddenly occurred to him in a dull, hazy way that the evening meal, a kind of high tea, would be about ready now at the little manor; that aunt hannah would be getting up from her work to look out of the window and see if he was coming; and that after his afternoon in the garden, the doctor would have been up to his bedroom and just come down ready to take his seat at the snug, comfortable board. "and they are waiting for me," thought vane. the idea seemed more to amuse than trouble him in his half-stupefied state, for everything was unreal and dreamy. he could not fully realise that he was lying there battered and bruised, but found himself thinking as of some one else in whose troubles he took an interest. it was a curious condition of mind to be in, and, if asked, he could not have explained why he felt no anxiety nor wonder whether, after waiting tea for a long time, the doctor would send to meet him, and later on despatch a messenger to the village, where no news would be forthcoming. perhaps his uncle and aunt would be anxious and would send people in search of him, and if these people were sent they would come along the deep lane and over the moorland piece, thinking that perhaps he would have gone that way for a short cut. perhaps. it all seemed to be perhaps, in a dull, misty way, and it was much more pleasant to lie listening to the partridges calling out on the moor--that curiously harsh cry, answered by others at a distance, and watch the sky growing gradually grey, and the clouds in the west change from gold to crimson, then to purple, and then turn inky black, while now from somewhere not far away he heard the flapping of wings and a hoarse, crocketing sound which puzzled him for the moment, but as it was repeated here and there, he knew it was the pheasants which haunted that part of the forest, flying up to their roosts for the night, to be safe from prowling animals--four-legged, or biped who walked the woods by night armed with guns. for it did not matter; nothing mattered now. he was tired; and then all was blank. sleep or stupor, one or the other. vane had been insensible for hours when he woke up with a start to find that lie was aching and that his head burned. he was puzzled for a few minutes before he could grasp his position. then all he had passed through came, and he lay wondering whether any search had been made. but still that did not trouble him. he wanted to lie still and listen to the sounds in the wood, and to watch the bright points of light just out through the narrow opening where he had seen the broad red face of the sun dip down, lower and lower out of sight. the intense darkness, too, beneath the beeches was pleasant and restful, and though there were no partridges calling now, there were plenty of sounds to lie and listen to, and wonder what they could be. at another time he would have felt startled to find himself alone out there in the darkness, but in his strangely dulled state now every feeling of alarm was absent, and a sensation akin to curiosity filled his brain. even the two gipsy lads were forgotten. he had once fancied that they might return, but he had had reasoning power enough left to argue that they would have come upon him long enough before, and to feel that he must have beaten them completely,--frightened them away. and as he lay he awoke to the fact that all was not still in that black darkness, for there was a world of active, busy life at work. now there came, like a whispering undertone, a faint clicking noise as the leaves moved. there were tiny feet passing over him; beetles of some kind that shunned the light; wood-lice and pill millipedes, hurrying here and there in search of food; and though vane could not see them he knew that they were there. again there was the soft rustling movement of a leaf, and then of another a short distance away on the other side of his head. and vane smiled as he lay there on his back staring up at the overhanging boughs through which now and then he could catch sight of a fine bright ray. for he knew that sound well enough. it was made by great earth worms which reached out of their holes in the cool, moist darkness, feeling about for a soft leaf which they could seize with their round looking mouths, hold tightly, and draw back after them into the hole from which their tails had not stirred. vane lay listening to this till he was tired, and then waited for some other sound of the night. it was not long in coming--a low, soft, booming buzz of some beetle, which sailed here and there, now close by, now so distant that its hum was almost inaudible, but soon came nearer again till it was right over his head, when there was a dull flip, then a tap on the dry beech-mast. "cockchafer," said vane softly, and he knew that it had blundered up against some twig and fallen to earth, where, though he could not see it, he knew that it was lying upon its back sprawling about with its awkward-looking legs, vainly trying to get on to them again and start upon another flight. once more there was silence, broken only by a faint, fine hum of a gnat, and the curious wet crackling or rustling sound which rose from the leaves. then vane smiled, for in the distance there was a resonant, "hoi, hoi," such as might have been made by people come in search of him. but he knew better, as the shout rose up, and nearer and nearer still at intervals, for it was an owl sailing along on its soft, silent pinions, the cry being probably to startle a bird from its roost or some unfortunate young bird or mouse into betraying its whereabouts, so that a feathered leg might suddenly be darted down to seize, with four keen claws all pointing to one centre, and holding with such a powerful grip that escape was impossible. the owl passed through the dark shadowy aisles, and its cry was heard farther and farther away till it died out; but there was no sense of loneliness in the beech-wood. there was always something astir. now it was a light tripping sound of feet over the dead leaves, the steps striking loudly on the listener's ear. then they ceased, as if the animal which made the sounds were cautious and listening for danger. again trip, trip, trip, plainly heard and coming nearer, and from half-a-dozen quarters now the same tripping sounds, followed by pause after pause, and then the continuation as if the animals were coming from a distance to meet at some central spot. _rap_! a quick, sharp blow of a foot on the ground, followed by a wild, tearing rush of rabbits among the trees, off and away to their burrows, not one stopping till its cotton-wool-like tail had followed its owner into some sandy hole. another pause with the soft petillation of endless life amongst the dead leaves, and then from outside the forest, down by the sphagnum margined pools, where the cotton-rushes grew and the frogs led a cool, soft splashing life, there came a deep-toned bellowing roar, rising and falling with a curious ventriloquial effect as if some large animal had lost its way, become bogged, and in its agony was calling upon its owner for rescue. no large quadruped, only a brown-ruffed, long necked, sharp-billed bittern, the now rare marsh bird which used to haunt the watery solitudes with the heron, but save here and there driven away by drainage and the naturalist's gun. and as vane lay and listened, wondering whether the bird uttered its strange, bellowing song from down by a pool, or as it sailed round and round, and higher and higher, over the boggy mere, he recalled the stories chakes had told him of the days when "bootherboomps weer as plentiful in the mash as wild ducks in winter." and then he tried to fit the bird's weird bellowing roar with the local rustic name--"boomp boomp--boother boomp!" but it turned out a failure, and he lay listening to the bird's cry till it grew fainter and less hoarse. then fainter still, and at last all was silent, for vane had sunk once more into a half-insensible state, it could hardly be called sleep, from which he was roused by the singing of birds and the dull, chattering wheezing chorus kept up by a great flock of starlings, high up in the beech tops. the feverish feeling which had kept him from being cold had now passed off, and he lay there chilled to the bone, aching terribly and half-puzzled at finding himself in so strange a place. but by degrees he recalled everything, and feeling that unless he made some effort to crawl out of the beech-wood he might lie there for many hours, perhaps days, he tried to turn over so as to get upon his knees and then rise to his feet. he was not long in finding that the latter was an impossibility, for at the slightest movement the pain was intense, and he lay still once more. but it was terribly cold; he was horribly thirsty, and fifty yards away the beech trees ended and the sun was shining hotly on the chalky bank, while just below there was clear water ready for scooping up with his hand to moisten his cracked lips. in addition, there were blackberries or, if not, dew-berries which he might reach. only a poor apology for breakfast, but delicious now if he could only get some between his lips. he tried again, then again, each time the pain turning him sick; but there was a great anxiety upon him now. his thoughts were no longer dull and strained in a selfish stupor; he was awake, fully awake, and in mental as well as bodily agony. for his thoughts were upon those at the little manor, and he knew that they must have passed a sleepless night on his account, and he knew, too, that in all probability his uncle had been out with others searching for him, certain that some evil must have befallen or he would have returned. it was a terrible wrench, and he felt as if his muscles were being torn; but with teeth set, he struggled till he was upon hands and knees, and then made his first attempt to crawl, if only for a foot or two. at last, after shrinking again and again, he made the effort, and the start made, he persevered, though all the time there was a singing in his ears, the dead leaves and blackened beech-mast seemed to heave and fall like the surface of the sea, and a racking agony tortured his limbs. but he kept on foot by foot, yard by yard, with many halts and a terrible drag upon his mental powers before he could force himself to recommence. how long that little journey of fifty or sixty yards took he could not tell; all he knew was that he must get out of the forest and into the sunshine, where he might be seen by those who came in search of him; and there was water there--the pure clear water which would be so grateful to his parched lips and dry, husky throat. the feeling of chill was soon gone, for his efforts produced a burning pain in every muscle, but in a dim way he knew that he was getting nearer the edge, for it was lighter, and a faint splashing sound and the beating of wings told of wild-fowl close at hand in that clear water. on then again so slowly, but foot by foot, till the last of the huge pillar-like trunks which had seemed to bar his way was passed, and he slipped down a chalky bank to lie within sight of the water but unable to reach it, utterly spent, when he heard a familiar voice give the australian call--"coo-ee!" and he tried to raise a hand but it fell back. directly after a voice cried: "hi! here he is!" the voice was distin's, and as he heard it vane fainted dead away. the weathercock--by george manville fenn chapter twenty four. the law asks questions. seeing the rush made by gilmore and macey, bruff hesitated for a few moments, and then turned and shouted to joseph, the next man. "they've fun suthin," and ran after them. joseph turned and shouted to wrench, the carpenter. "they've got him," and followed bruff. wrench shouted to chakes and ran after joseph, and in this house-that-jack-built fashion the news ran along the line to the doctor and rector, and right to the end, with the result that all came hurrying along in single-file, minute by minute increasing the size of the group about where vane lay quite insensible now. "poor old chap," cried macey, dropping on his knees by his friend's side, gilmore kneeling on the other, and both feeling his hands and face, which were dank and cold, while distin stood looking down grimly but without offering to stir. "don't say he's dead, sir," panted bruff. "no, no, he's not dead," cried macey. "fetch some water; no, run for the doctor." "he's coming, sir," cried joseph, shading his eyes to look along the line. "he won't be long. hi--hi--yi! found, found, found!" roared the man, and his cry was taken up now and once more the news flew along the line, making all redouble their exertions, even the rector, who had not done such a thing for many years, dropping into the old football pace of his youth, with his fists up and trotting along after the doctor. but the progress was very slow. it was a case of the more haste the worst speed, for a bee-line through ancient gorse bushes and brambles is not perfection as a course for middle-aged and elderly men not accustomed to go beyond a walk. every one in his excitement caught the infection, and began to run, but the mishaps were many. chakes, whose usual pace was one mile seven furlongs per hour, more or less, tripped and went down; and as nobody stopped to help him, three men passed him before he had struggled up and began to look about for his hat. the next to go down was rounds, the miller, who, after rushing several tangles like an excited rhinoceros, came to grief over an extra tough bramble strand, and went down with a roar. "are you hurt, mr rounds?" panted the doctor. "hurt!" cried the churchwarden, "i should think i am, sir. five hundred million o' thorns in me. but don't you wait. you go on, and see to that boy," he continued, as he drew himself into a sitting position. "dessay he wants you more than i do." "then i will go on, mr rounds; forgive me for leaving you." "all right, sir, and you too, parson; goo on, niver mind me." the rector seemed disposed to stay, for he was breathless, but he trotted on, and was close to the doctor, as he reached the group on the other side of the stream. "not dead?" panted the doctor. "oh no, sir," cried macey, "but he's very bad; seems to have tumbled about among the trees a great deal. look at his face." the doctor knelt down after making the men stand back. "must have fallen heavily," he said, as he began his examination. "head cut, great swelling, bruise across his face, and eye nearly closed. this is no fall, mr syme. good heavens! look at his hand and wrist. the poor fellow has been horribly beaten with sticks, i should say." "but tell me," panted the rector; "he is not--" "no, no, not dead; insensible, but breathing." "found him, gentlemen?" said a voice; and as the rector looked up, it was to see the two police constables on their way to join them. "yes, yes," cried the rector; "but, tell me, was there any firing in the night--any poachers about?" "no, sir; haven't seen or heard of any lately; we keep too sharp a look-out. why, the young gent has got it severely. some one's been knocking of him about." "don't stop to talk," cried the doctor. "i must have him home directly." "here, how is he?" cried a bluff voice; and rounds now came up, dabbing his scratched and bleeding face with his handkerchief. "bad, bad, rounds," said the doctor. "bad? ay, he is. but, halloo, who is been doing this?" he looked around at his fellow-townsmen, and then at vane's fellow-pupils so fiercely that gilmore said quickly: "not i, mr rounds." "silence!" cried the doctor angrily. "it is of vital importance that my nephew should be carried home at once." "oh, we'll manage that, sir," said one of the constables as he slipped off his greatcoat and spread it on the ground. "now, if we lift him and lay him upon that, and half-a-dozen take hold of the sides and try to keep step, we can get him along." "yes, that's right," cried the doctor, superintending the lifting, which drew a faint groan from vane. "poor lad!" he said; "but i'm glad to hear that. now then, better keep along this side of the stream till we can cut across to the lane. here, i want a good runner." "i'll go," said gilmore quickly. "yes, you," said the doctor, "go and tell my wife to have vane's bed ready. say we have found him hurt, but not very badly." "why not take him to the rectory?" said mr syme. "it is nearer." "thank you, but i'll have him at home," said the doctor. "one moment, gentlemen," said the first constable, book in hand. "i want to know exactly where he was found." "here, man, here," cried the doctor. "now then, lift him carefully, and keep step. if i say stop, lower him directly." "yes, sir; go on," said the constable. "we must have a look round before we come away. p'r'aps you'd stop along with us, mr churchwarden, sir, and maybe one of you young gents would stay," he continued, addressing distin. "me--me stay!" said the lad starting, and flushing to his brow. "yes, sir. young gents' eyes are sharp and see things sometimes." "yes, distin, my dear boy," said the rector, "stop with them. you are going to search?" "yes, sir. that young gent couldn't have got into that state all by himself, and we want to find out who did it." the man glanced sharply at distin again as he spoke, and the young creole avoided his eye with the result that the constable made a note in his book with a pencil which seemed to require wetting before it would mark. "i think," said the rector, "it is my duty to stay here, as this matter is assuming a serious aspect." "thank ye, sir; i should be glad if you would," said the constable. "it do begin to look serious." "joseph, run on after dr lee, and tell him why i am staying. say that he is to use the carriage at once if he wishes to send for help or nurse. i shall not be very long." joseph ran off at a sharp trot after the departing group, and the constable went slowly forward after carefully examining the ground where vane had been found. "keep back, everybody, please. plenty of footprints here," he said, "but all over, i'm afraid. hah! look here, sir," he continued, pointing down at the loose sand and pebbles; "he crawled along here on his hands and knees." distin looked sallow and troubled now, and kept on darting furtive looks at those about, several of the men having stopped back to see what the constable might find. "don't see no steps but his," said the constable, who seemed to be keenly observant for so rustic-looking a man. "hah, that's where he come down, regularly slipped, you see." he pointed to the shelving bank of chalk, on the top of which the beeches began, and over which their long, lithe branches drooped. "steady, please. i'll go on here by myself with you two gents. you see as no one else follows till i give leave." the second constable nodded, and the bank was climbed, the rector telling distin to hold out a hand to help him--a hand that was very wet and cold, feeling something like the tail of a codfish. here the constable had no difficulty in finding vane's track over the dead leaves and beech-mast for some distance, and then he uttered an ejaculation as he pounced upon a broken stick, one of the pieces being stained with blood. "it's getting warm," he said. "oh, yes, don't come forward, gentlemen. here we are: ground's all trampled and kicked up, and what's this here? little trowel and a basket and--" he turned over the contents of the basket with a puzzled expression. "aren't taters," he said, holding the basket to the rector. "no, my man, they are truffles." "oh, yes, sir, i can see they're trifles." "truffles, my man, troofles," said the rector. "the poor fellow must have been digging them up." "but no one wouldn't interfere with him for digging up that stuff, sir. i mean keepers or the like. and there's been two of 'em here, simminly. oh, yes, look at the footmarks, only they don't tell no tales. i like marks in soft mud, where you can tell the size, and what nails was in the boots. stuff like this shows nothing. halloo, again." "found something else?" cried the rector excitedly. "bits o' broken glass, sir,--glass bottle. there's a lot of bits scattered about." the constable searched about the grass of the beech grove where the struggle had taken place, but not being gifted with the extraordinary eyes and skill of an american indian, he failed to find the track of vane's assailants going and coming, and he was about to give up when the rector pointed to a couple of places amongst the dead leaves which looked as if two hands had torn up some of the dead leaves. "ay, that's someat," said the constable quickly. "i see, sir, you're quite right. some one went down here and--phee-ew!" he whistled as he picked up a leaf. "see that, sir?" the rector looked, shuddered and turned away, but distin pressed forward with a curious, half-fascinated aspect, and stared down at the leaf the constable held out, pointing the while to several more like it which lay upon the ground. "blood?" said distin in a hoarse voice. "yes, sir, that's it. either the young gent or some one else had what made that. don't look nice, do it?" distin shuddered, and the constable made another note in his book, moistening his pencil over and over again and glancing thoughtfully at distin as he wrote in a character that might have been called cryptographic, for it would have defied any one but the writer to have made it out. "well, constable," said the rector at last, "what have you discovered?" "that the young gent was out here, sir, digging up them tater things as he was in the habit of grubbing up--weeds and things. i've seen him before." "yes, yes," said the rector. "well?" "and then some one come and went at him." "some one," said the rector, "i thought you said two." "so i did, sir, and i thought so at first, but i don't kind o' find marks of more than one, and he broke this stick about mr vane, and the wonder to me is as he hasn't killed him. perhaps he has." "but what motive? it could not have been the keepers." "not they, sir. they liked him." "could it be poachers?" "can't say, sir. hardly. what would they want to 'tack a young gent like that for?" "have there been any tramps about who might do it for the sake of robbery?" "ha'n't been a tramp about here for i don't know how long, sir. we're quite out of them trash. looks to me more like a bit o' spite." "spite?" "yes, sir. young gent got any enemies as you know on?" the rector laughed and distin joined in, making the constable scratch his head. "oh, no, my man, we have no enemies in my parish. you have not got the right clue this time. try again." "i'm going to, sir, but that's all for to-day," said the man, buttoning up his book in his pocket. "i think we'll go back to the town now." "by all means," said the rector. "very painful and very strange. come, distin." as he spoke he walked from under the twilight of the great beech-wood out into the sunshine, where about a dozen of the searchers were waiting impatiently in charge of the second constable for a report of what had been done. as the rector went on, distin looked keenly round and then bent down over the leaves which bore the ugly stains, and without noticing that the constable had stolen so closely to him, that when he raised his head he found himself gazing full in the man's searching eyes. "very horrid, sir, aren't it," he said. "yes, yes, horrible," cried distin, hastily, and he turned sharply round to follow the rector. at that moment the constable touched him on the shoulder with the broken stick, and distin started round and in spite of himself shivered at the sight of the pieces. "yes," he said hoarsely, as his face now was ghastly. "you want to speak to me?" "yes, sir, just a word or two. would you mind telling me where you was yesterday afternoon--say from four to six o'clock?" "i--i don't remember," said distin. "why do you ask?" "the law has a right to ask questions, sir, and doesn't always care about answering of them," said the man with a twinkle of the eye. "you say you don't know where you was?" "no. i am not sure. at the rectory, i think." "you aren't sure, sir, but at the rectory, you think. got rather a bad memory, haven't you, sir?" "no, excellent," cried distin desperately. "you says as you was at the rectory yesterday afternoon when this here was done?" "how do you know it was done in the afternoon," said distin, quickly. "reason one, 'cause the young gent went in the afternoon to lenby. reason two, 'cause he was digging them trifles o' taters, and young gents don't go digging them in the dark. that do, sir?" "yes. i feel sure now that i was at the rectory," said distin, firmly. "then i must ha' made a mistake, sir--eyes nothing like so good as they was." "what do you mean," cried distin, changing colour once more. "oh, nothing, sir, nothing, only i made sure as i see you when i was out in my garden picking apples in the big old tree which is half mine, half my mate's. but of course it was my mistake. thought you was going down the deep lane." "oh, no, i remember now," said distin, carelessly; "i go out so much to think and study, that i often quite forget. yes, i did go down the lane--of course, and i noticed how many blackberries there were on the banks." "ay, there are a lot, sir--a great lot to-year. the bairns gets quite basketsful of 'em." "are you coming, distin?" cried the rector. "yes, sir, directly," cried distin; and then haughtily, "do you want to ask me any more questions, constable?" "no, sir, thankye; that will do." "then, good-morning." distin walked away with his head up, and a nonchalant expression on his countenance, leaving the constable looking after him. "want to ask me any more questions, constable," he said, mimicking distin's manner. "then good-morning." he stood frowning for a few minutes, and nodded his head decisively. "well," he said, "you're a gentleman, i suppose, and quite a scholard, or you wouldn't be at parson's, but if you aren't about as artful as they make 'em, i'm as thick-headed as a beetle. poor lad! only a sort o' foreigner, i suppose. what a blessing it is to be born a solid englishman. not as i've got a word again your irishman and scotchman, or your welsh, if it comes to that, but what can you expect of a lad born out in a hot climate that aren't good for nobody but blacks?" he took a piece of string out of his pocket, and very carefully tied the trowel and pieces of broken stick together as firmly as if they were to be despatched on a long journey. then he opened the basket, peeped in, and frowned at the truffles, closed it up and went out. "any of you as likes can go in now," he said, and shaking his head solemnly as questions began to pour upon him from all sides respecting the stick and basket, he strode off with his colleague in the direction of the town, gaining soon upon the rector, who was too tired and faint to walk fast, for it was not his habit to pass the night out of bed, and take a walk of some hours' duration at early dawn. chapter twenty five. bates is obstinate. gilmore reached the little manor to find aunt hannah ready to hurry out and meet him, and he shrank from giving his tidings, fearing that it would be a terrible shock. but he could keep nothing back with those clear, trusting eyes fixed upon him, and he gave his message. "you would not deceive me, mr gilmore?" she said. "you are sure that he is only badly hurt; the doctor--my husband--hasn't sent you on to soften worse news to come?" "indeed no," cried gilmore warmly. "don't think that. he is very bad. it is not worse." aunt hannah closed her eyes, and he saw her lips move for a few moments. he could not hear the words she spoke, but he took off his hat, and bent his head till she laid her hand upon his arm. "thank god!" she said fervently. "i feared the worst. they are coming on, you say?" "yes, but it will be quite an hour before they can get here. you will excuse me, mrs lee, i want to get back to poor old vane's side." "yes, go," she said cheerfully. "i shall be very busy getting ready for him. the doctor did not say that you were to take anything back?" "no," said gilmore; and he hurried away, admiring the poor little lady's fortitude, for he could see that she was suffering keenly, and only too glad to be alone. as he hurried back to the town he was conscious for the first time that his lower garments were still saturated and patched with dust; that his hands were torn and bleeding, and that his general aspect was about as disordered as it could possibly be. in fact he felt that he looked as if he had been spending the early morning trying to drag a pond, and that every one who saw him would be ready to jeer. on the contrary, though he met dozens of people all eager to question him about vane, no one appeared to take the slightest notice of his clothes, and he could not help learning how popular his friend was among the townsfolk, as he saw their faces assume an aspect of joy and relief. "i wonder whether they would make so much fuss about me," he said to himself; and, unable to arrive at a self-satisfying conclusion, he began to think what a blank it would have made in their existence at the rectory if vane had been found dead. from that, as he hurried along, he began to puzzle himself about the meaning of it all, and was as far off from a satisfactory conclusion as when he began, on coming in sight of the little procession with the doctor walking on one side of vane, and macey upon the other. he had not spoken, but lay perfectly unconscious, and there was not the slightest change when, followed by nearly the whole of the inhabitants of greythorpe, he was borne in at the little manor gate, the crowd remaining out in the road waiting for such crumbs of news as bruff brought to them from time to time. there was not much to hear, only that the doctor had carefully examined vane when he had been placed in bed, and found that his arms and shoulders were horribly beaten and bruised, and that the insensibility still lasted, while doctor lee had said something about fever as being a thing to dread. they were the words of wisdom, for before many hours had passed vane was delirious and fighting to get out of bed and defend himself against an enemy always attacking him with a stick. he did not speak, only shrank and cowered and then attacked in turn fiercely, producing once more the whole scene so vividly that the doctor and aunt hannah could picture everything save the enemy who had committed the assault. the next evening, while the rector sat thinking over the bad news he had heard from the little manor half-an-hour before, joseph tapped at the door to announce a visitor, and the rector said that he might be shown in. macey was at the little manor. gilmore and distin were in the grounds when the visitor was seen entering the gate, and the latter looked wildly round, as if seeking for the best way to escape; but mastering himself directly, he stood listening to gilmore, who exclaimed: "hallo! here's mr pc. let's go and ask him if he has any news about the brute who nearly killed poor old vane." "no," said distin, hoarsely; "let's wait till he comes out." "all right," replied gilmore; and he stood in the gloom beneath the great walnut tree watching the constable go up to the porch, ring, and, after due waiting, enter, his big head, being seen soon after, plainly shown against the study shaded lamp. "well, constable," said the rector; "you have news for me?" "yes, sir." "about the assailant of my poor pupil?" "yes, sir, and i should have been here before, only it was magistrates' day, and i had to go over to the town to attend a case." "well, what have you found out? do you know who the person was that assailed mr vane lee?" "yes, sir: i'm pretty sure." "not some one in this town?" "yes, sir." "surely not. i cannot think that any one would be so cruel." "sorry to say it is so, sir, as far as i know; and i'm pretty sure now." "but who? we have so few black sheep here, i am thankful to say. not tompkins?" "no, sir." "jevell?" "no, sir, some one much nigher home than that, sir, i'm sorry to say." "well, speak, and put me out of my suspense." "some one here, sir," said the constable, after drawing a long breath. "what!" "fact, sir. some one as lives here at the rectory." "in the name of common sense, man," cried the rector, angrily, "whom do you mean--me?" "no, sir, that would be too bad," said the constable. "whom, then?" "your pupil, sir, mr distin." had a good solid japanese earthquake suddenly shaken down all the walls of the rectory and left the reverend morton syme seated in his easy chair unhurt and surrounded by debris and clouds of dust, he could not have looked more astonished. he stared at the constable, who stood before him, very stiff, much buttoned up and perfectly unmoved, as a man would stand who feels his position unassailable. then quietly and calmly taking out his gold-rimmed spring eye-glasses, the rector drew a white pocket-handkerchief from his breast, carefully polished each glass, put them on and stared frowningly at his visitor, who returned the look for a time, and then feeling his position irksome and that it called for a response, he coughed, saluted in military fashion and settled his neck inside his coat collar. "you seem to be perfectly sober, bates," said the rector at last. "sober, sir?" said the man quickly. "well, i think so, sir." "then, my good man, you must be mad." the constable smiled. "beg pardon, sir. that's just what criminals make a point of saying when you charge 'em. not as i mean, sir," he added hastily, "that you are a criminal, far from it." "thank you, my man, i hope not. but what in the name of common sense has put it into your head that my pupil, mr distin, could be guilty of such a terrible deed? oh, it's absurd--i mean monstrous." the constable looked at him stolidly, and then said slowly: "suckumstarnces, sir, and facks." "but, really, my good man, i--stop! you said you had been over to the town and met your chief officer. surely you have not started this shocking theory there." "oh, yes, sir. in dooty bound. i told him my suspicions." "well, what did he say?" the constable hesitated, coughed, and pulled himself tightly together. "i asked you what your chief officer said, sir." "well, sir, if i must speak i must. he said i was a fool." "ah, exactly," cried the rector, eagerly. then, checking himself, he said with a deprecating smile: "no, no, bates, i do not endorse that, for i have always found you a very respectable, intelligent officer, who has most efficiently done his duty in greythorpe; and unless it were for your benefit, i should be very sorry to hear of your being removed." "thankye, sir; thankye kindly," said the constable. "but in this case, through excess of zeal, i am afraid you have gone much too far. mr lance distin is a gentleman, a student, and of very excellent family. a young man of excellent attainments, and about as likely to commit such a brutal assault as you speak of, as--as, well, for want of a better simile, bates, as i am." the constable shook his head and looked very serious. "now, tell me your reasons for making such a charge." the explanations followed. "flimsy in the extreme, bates," said the rector triumphantly, and as if relieved of a load. "and you show no more common sense than to charge a gentleman with such a crime solely because you happened to see him walking in that direction." "said he wasn't out, sir." "well, a slip--a piece of forgetfulness. we might either of us have done the same. but tell me, why have you come here?" "orders was to investigate, and if i found other facts, sir, to communicate with the chief constable." "of course. now, you see, my good man, that what i say is correct--that through excess of zeal you are ready to charge my pupil--a gentleman entrusted to my charge by his father in the west indies--a pupil to whom, during his stay in england, i act _in loco parentis_--and over whose career i shall have to watch during his collegiate curriculum-- with a crime that must have been committed by some tramp. you understand me?" "yes, sir, all except the french and the cricklum, but i daresay all that's right." the rector smiled. "now, are you satisfied that you have made a mistake?" "no, sir, not a bit of it," said the constable stolidly. the rector made a deprecating gesture with his hand, rose and rang the bell. then he returned to his seat, sat back and waited till the bell was answered. "have the goodness, joseph, to ask mr distin to step here." "if i might make so bold, sir," interposed the constable, "i should like you to have 'em all in." "one of my pupils, mr macey, is at the manor." "macey? that's the funny one," said the constable. "perhaps you'd have in them as is at home." "ask mr gilmore to step in too." joseph withdrew, and after a painful silence, steps were heard in the porch. "by the way, bates," said the rector, hastily, "have you spread this charge?" "no, sir; of course not." "does not doctor lee know?" "not yet, sir. thought it my dooty to come fust to you." "i thank you, bates. it was very considerate of you. hush!" distin's voice was heard saying something outside in a loud, laughing way, and the next moment he tapped and entered. "joseph said you wished to see me, sir." then, with an affected start as he saw the constable standing there, "have you caught them?" "be good enough to sit down, distin. gilmore, take a chair." then, after a pause: "you are here, gilmore, at the constable's request, but the matter does not affect you. my dear distin, it does affect you, and i want you to help me convince this zealous but wrong-headed personage that he is labouring under a delusion." "certainly, sir," replied distin, cheerfully. "what is the delusion?" "in plain, simple english, my dear boy, he believes that you committed that cruel assault upon poor vane lee." "oh," exclaimed distin, springing up and gazing excited at the constable, his eyes full of reproach--a look which changed to one of indignation, and with a stamp of the foot like one that might be given by an angry girl, he cried: "how dare he!" "ah, yes! how dare he," said the rector. "but pray do not be angry, my dear boy. there is no need. bates is a very good, quiet, sensible man who comes here in pursuance of what he believes to be his duty, and i am quite convinced that as soon as he realises the fact that he has made a great mistake he will apologise, and there will be an end of it." the constable did not move a muscle, but stood gazing fixedly at distin, who uttered a contemptuous laugh. "well, mr syme," he said, "what am i to do? pray give me your advice." "certainly, and it is my duty to act as your counsel; so pray forgive me for asking you questions which you may deem unnecessary--for i grant that they are as far as i am concerned, but they are to satisfy this man." "pray ask me anything you like, sir," cried distin with a half-contemptuous laugh. "then tell me this, on your honour as a gentleman: did you assault vane lee?" "no!" cried distin. "did you meet him in the wood the day before yesterday?" "no." "did you encounter him anywhere near there, quarrel with and strike him?" "no, no, no," cried distin, "and i swear--" "there is no need to swear, mr distin. you are on your honour, sir," said the rector. "well, sir, on my honour i did not see vane lee from the time he left this study the day before yesterday till i found him lying below the chalk-bank by that stream." "thank you, distin. i am much obliged for your frank disclaimer," said the rector, gravely. "as i intimated to you all this was not necessary to convince me, but to clear away the scales from this man's eyes. now, bates," he continued, turning rather sternly to the constable, "are you satisfied?" "no, sir," said the man bluntly, "not a bit." "why, you insolent--" "silence, mr distin," said the rector firmly. "but, really, sir, this man's--" "i said silence, mr distin. pray contain yourself. recollect what you are. i will say anything more that i consider necessary." he cleared his throat, sat back for a few moments, and then turned to the constable. "now, my good fellow, you have heard mr distin's indignant repudiation of this charge, and you are obstinately determined all the same." "don't know about obstinate, sir," replied the constable, "i am only doing my duty, sir." "what you conceive to be your duty, bates. but you are wrong, my man, quite wrong. you are upon the wrong scent. now i beg of you try to look at this in a sensible light and make a fresh start to run down the offender. you see you have made a mistake. own to it frankly, and i am sure that mr distin will be quite ready to look over what has been said." just then there was a tap at the door. "may i come in, sir?" "yes, come in, my dear boy. you have just arrived from the manor?" "yes, sir," said macey. "how is vane?" macey tried to answer, but something seemed to rise in his throat, and when he did force out his words they sounded low and husky. "awfully bad, sir. the doctor took me up, but he doesn't know anybody. keeps going on about fighting." "poor lad," said the rector, with a sigh. "but, look here, macey, you must hear this. the constable here--bates--has come to announce to me his belief that the assault was committed by your fellow-pupil." "distin?" cried macey, sharply, and as he turned to him the creole's jaw dropped. "yes, but it is of course a mistake, and has been disproved. i was pointing out to bates here the folly of an obstinate persistence in such an idea, when you entered." then turning once more to the constable, "come, my man, you see now that you are in the wrong." "no, sir," said the constable, "i didn't see it before, but i feel surer now that i'm right." "what?" "that young gent thinks so too." "mr macey? absurd!" "see how he jumped to it directly, sir." "nonsense, man! nonsense," cried the rector. "here, macey, my dear boy, i suppose, as a man of peace, i must strive to convince this wrong-headed personage. tell him that he is half mad." "for thinking distin did it, sir?" replied macey, slowly. "exactly--yes." "it wouldn't be quite fair, sir, because i'm afraid i thought so, too." the constable gave his leg a slap. "you--you dare to think that," cried distin. "hush! hush! hush!" said the rector, firmly. "macey, my dear boy, what cause have you for thinking such a thing." "distin hates him." the constable drew a long breath, and he had hard work to preserve his equanimity in good official style. "my dear macey," cried the rector reproachfully, "surely you are not going, on account of a few boyish disagreements, to think that your fellow-pupil would make such a murderous attack. come, you don't surely believe that?" "no," said macey slowly, "i don't now: i can't believe that he would be such a wretch." "there!" cried the rector, triumphantly. "now, constable, there is no more to say, except that i beg you will not expose me and mine to painful trouble, and yourself to ridicule by going on with this baseless charge." "can't say, sir, i'm sure," replied the constable. "i want to do my dooty, and i want to show respect to you, mr syme, sir, as has always been a good, kind gentleman to me; but we're taught as no friendly or personal feelings is to stand in the way when we want to catch criminals. so, with all doo respect to you, i can't make no promises." "i shall not ask you, my man," replied the rector; "what i do say is go home and think it over. in a day or two i hope and trust that my pupil vane lee will be well enough to enlighten us as to who were his assailants." "i hope so, sir. but suppose he dies?" "heaven forbid! my man. there, do as i say: go back and think over this meeting seriously, and believe me i shall be very glad to see you come to me to-morrow and say frankly, from man to man--i have been in the wrong. don't shrink from doing so. it is an honour to anyone to avow that he was under a misapprehension." "thankye, sir, and good-night," said the constable, as the rector rang for joseph to show him out; and the next minute all sat listening to his departing steps on the gravel, followed by the _click click click click_ of the swing-gate. the rector looked round as if he were about to speak, but he altered his mind, and the three pupils left the room, distin going up to his chamber without a word, while attracted by the darkness gilmore and macey strolled out through the open porch into the grounds. "suppose he dies?" said macey, almost unconsciously repeating the constable's words. "oh, i say, don't talk like that," cried gilmore. "it isn't likely, and you shouldn't have turned against poor old distie as you did." "i couldn't help it," said macey, sadly. "you'd have thought the same if the doctor had let you go up to see poor old weathercock. it was horrid. his face is dreadful, and his arms are black and blue from the wrist to the shoulder." "but dis declared that he hadn't seen him," cried gilmore. "i hope he hadn't, for it's too horrid to think a fellow you mix with could be such a wretch." gilmore turned sharply round to his companion, but it was too dark to see his face. there was something, however, in his tone of voice which struck him as being peculiar. it did not sound confident of distin's innocence. there was a want of conviction in his words too, and this set gilmore thinking as to the possibility of distin having in a fit of rage and dislike quarrelled with and then beaten vane till the stick was broken and his victim senseless. the idea grew rapidly as he stood there beside macey in the darkness, and he recalled scores of little incidents all displaying distin's dislike of his fellow-pupil; and as gilmore thought on, a conscious feeling of horror, almost terror, crept over him till his common sense began to react and argue the matter out so triumphantly that in a voice full of elation he suddenly and involuntarily exclaimed: "it's absurd! he couldn't." "what's absurd? who couldn't," cried macey, starting from a reverie. "did i say that aloud?" said gilmore, wonderingly. "why, you shouted it." "i was thinking about whether it was possible that the constable was right." "that's queer," said macey; "i was thinking just the same." "and that distie had done it?" "yes." "well, don't you see that it is impossible?" "no, i wish i could," said macey sadly; "can you?" "why, of course. vane's as strong as distie, isn't he?" "yes, quite." "and he can use his fists." "i should rather think he can. i put on the gloves with him one day and he sent me flying. but what has that got to do with it?" "everything. do you think distie could have pitched into vane with a stick and not got something back?" "why, of course he couldn't." "well, there you are, then. he hasn't got a scratch." "hist! what's that," said macey, softly. "sounded like a window squeaking." "come away," whispered macey taking his companion by the arm, and leading him over the turf before he stopped some distance now from the house. "what is it?" said gilmore then. "that noise; it was old distie at his window. i could just make him out. he had been listening to what we said." "listeners never hear--" began gilmore. "any good of themselves," said macey, finishing the old saying. "well, i don't mind." "more don't i." and the two lads went in. chapter twenty six. sympathy. those were sad and weary hours at the little manor, and when vane's delirium was at its height and he was talking most rapidly, doctor lee for almost the first time in his life felt doubtful of his own knowledge and ability to treat his patient. he was troubled with a nervous depression, which tempted him to send for help, and he turned to white-faced, red-eyed aunt hannah. "i'm afraid i'm not treating him correctly," he whispered. "i think i will send bruff over to the station to telegraph for help." but aunt hannah shook her head. "if you cannot cure him, dear," she said firmly, "no one can. no, do not send." "but he is so very bad," whispered the doctor; "and when this fever passes off he will be as weak as a babe." "then we must nurse him back to strength," said aunt hannah. "no, dear, don't send. it is not a case of doubt. you know exactly what is the matter, and of course how to treat him for the best." the doctor was silenced and stood at the foot of the bed, while aunt hannah laid her cool, soft hand upon the sufferer's burning brow. neither aunt nor uncle troubled to think much about the causes of the boy's injuries; their thoughts were directed to the nursing and trying to allay the feverish symptoms, for the doctor was compelled to own that his nephew's condition was grave, the injuries being bad enough alone without the exposure to the long hours of a misty night just on the margin of a moor. it was not alone in the chamber that sympathetic conversation went on, for work was almost at a standstill in house and garden. for the three servants talked together, as they found out how much vane had had to do with their daily life, and what a blank his absence on a bed of sickness had caused. "oh, dear!" sighed martha, "poor, poor fellow!" the tears were rolling down her cheeks, and to keep up an ample supply of those signs of sorrow she took a very long sip of warm tea, for the pot had been kept going almost incessantly since vane had been borne up to his bed. "yes, it is.--oh, dear," sighed eliza. "poor dear! only to think of it and him only as you may say yesterday alive and well." "ay, and so it is, and so it always will be," said bruff, who was standing by the kitchen-door turning some ale round and round in the bottom of a mug. "ah!" sighed martha. "ah, indeed!" sighed eliza. "and me so ready to make a fuss about the poor dear because he'd made a litter sometimes with his ingenuous proceedings." "and me too," sighed eliza, "and ready to bite my very tongue off now for saying the things i did." "yes, as mr syme says, we're a many of us in black darkness," muttered bruff. "why, that there hot-water apparatus is a boon and a blessin' to men, as the song says." "about the pens?" added eliza. "you can most see the things grow." "ah," sighed martha. "he weer as reight as reight. it was all them turning off the scape-yokes." "and missus forgetting to tell martha about not lighting the fire." "and if he'd only get well again," sobbed martha, wiping her eyes, "the biler might be busted once a week, and not a word would i say." "no," sighed bruff giving his ale another twist round and slowly pouring it down his throat. "there's a rose tree in the garden as he budded hisself, though i always pretended it was one of my doing, and sorry i am now." "ah," sighed martha, "we all repents when it's too late." pop! a cinder flew out of the fire on to the strip of carpet lying across the hearth, and a pungent odour of burning wool arose. but bruff stooped down and using his hardened fingers as tongs, picked up the cinder and tossed it inside the fender. martha started as the cinder flew out and looked aghast at eliza, her ruddy face growing mottled, while the housemaid's cheeks were waxen as the maids gave themselves up to the silly superstition that, like many more, does not die hard but absolutely refuses to die at all. "oh, my poor dear!" cried martha, sobbing aloud, while eliza buried her face in her apron, and the reason thereof suddenly began to dawn upon bruff, who turned to the fireplace again, stooped down and carefully picked up the exploded bubble of coke and gas, turned it over two or three times, and then by a happy inspiration giving it a shake and producing a tiny tinkling noise. bruff's face expanded into a grin. "why, it aren't," he cried holding out the cinder; "it's a puss o' money." "no, no," sighed martha, "that isn't the one." "that it is," cried bruff, sturdily. "i'm sure on it. look 'liza." the apron was slowly drawn away from the girl's white face and she fixed her eyes on the hollow cinder, but full of doubt. "it is. hark!" cried bruff, and he shook the cinder close to eliza's ear. "can't you hear?" "it does tinkle," she said. "but are you sure that's the one?" "of course i am, and it's a sign as he'll get well again, and be rich and happy." "no, no; that isn't the one, that isn't the one," sobbed martha. "tell you it is," cried bruff so fiercely that the cook doubtingly took the piece of cinder, shook it, and by degrees a smile spread over her countenance and she rose and put the scrap on the chimney-piece between two bright brass candlesticks. "for luck," she said; and this time she wiped her eyes dry and examined a saucepan of beef tea which she had stewed down. "in case it's wanted," she said confidentially, though there was not the slightest likelihood thereof for some time to come. "well," said bruff at last, "i suppose i had better go out to work." but he only looked out of the kitchen window at the garden and shook his head. "don't seem to hev no 'art in it," he said, looking from one to the other, as if this were quite a new condition for him to be in. "seems to miss him so, and look wheer you will theer's a something as puts you in mind of him. well, all i says is this, and both of you may hear it, only let him get well and he may do any mortal thing in my garden, and i won't complain." bruff took up his mug, looked inside it, and set it down again with a frown. "my missus is coming up to see if she can do owt for you 's afternoon." "ah!" sighed cook, "you never know what neighbours is till you're in trouble, 'liza." "no." "go up, soft like, and ask missus if i may send her a cup o' tea." "no," said eliza, decisively; "pour one out and i'll take it up. and i say, dear, you know what a one master is for it; why don't you send him up the little covered basin o' beef tea. there, i'll go and put a napkin over a tray." perhaps it was due to being called "dear," perhaps to the fact there was an outlet for the strong beef tea she had so carefully prepared; at any rate martha smiled and went to the cupboard for the pepper, and then to the salt-box, to season the beef tea according to her taste. five minutes later the tray was borne up with the herbaceous and the flesh tea, and in addition some freshly-made crisp brown toast. the refreshments were most welcome, for both the doctor and aunt hannah were exhausted and faint, and as soon as they were alone again, and eliza gone down with the last bulletin, aunt hannah shed a few tears. "so sympathetic and thoughtful of the servants, dear," she said. the doctor nodded, and then as he dipped the dry toast in the beef tea he thought to himself that vane had somehow managed to make himself a friend everywhere. but an enemy, too, he thought directly after, and he set himself to try and think out who it could be--an occupation stopped by messengers from the rectory, gilmore, distin and macey having arrived to ask how the patient was getting on. while on their way back, they met bates, the constable, looking very solemn as he saluted them and went on, thinking a great deal, but waiting until vane recovered his senses before proceeding to act. chapter twenty seven. vane recollects. "hah, that's better," said the doctor one fine morning, "feel stronger, don't you?" "oh yes, uncle," said vane rather faintly, "only my head feels weak and strange, and as if i couldn't think." "then don't try," said the doctor, and for another day or two vane was kept quiet. but all the time there was a curious mental effervescence going on as the lad lay in bed, the object of every one's care; and until he could clearly understand why he was there, there was a constant strain and worry connected with his thoughts. "give him time," the doctor used to say to aunt hannah, "and have confidence in his medical man. when nature has strengthened him enough his mind will be quite clear." "but are you sure, dear?" said aunt hannah piteously; "it would be so sad if the poor fellow did not quite recover his memory." "humph!" ejaculated the doctor, "this comes of having some one you know by heart for medical attendant. you wouldn't have asked doctor white or doctor black such a question as that." "it is only from anxiety, my dear," said aunt hannah; "i have perfect confidence in you. it is wonderful how he is improved." just then two visitors arrived in the shape of gilmore and macey. they had come to make inquiries on account of the rector, they said; and on hearing the doctor's report, macey put in a petition on his own account. "let you go up and sit with him a bit?" said the doctor. "well, i hardly know what to say. he knows us now; but will you promise to be very quiet?" "oh, of course, sir," cried macey. "i can't let two go up," said the doctor. macey looked at gilmore. "i'll give way if you'll promise to let me have first turn next time." "agreed," said macey; and gilmore went off back to give the doctor's report to the rector, while macey was led upstairs gently by aunt hannah, and after again promising to be very quiet, let into vane's room, and the door closed behind him. vane was lying, gazing drowsily at the window, but the closing of the door made him turn his eyes toward the new comer, when his face lit up directly. "what, aleck!" he said faintly. "what, old weathercock!" cried macey, running to the bed. "oh, i say, old chap, it does one good to see you better, i say you're going to be quite well now, aren't you?" "yes, i am better. but have they caught them?" "eh? caught what?" "those two young scoundrels of gipsies," said vane quickly. then, as he realised what he had said, he threw his arms out over the sheet. "why, that's what i've been trying to think of for days, and now it's come. have they caught them?" "what for?" said macey, wonderingly. "for knocking me about as they did. they ought to be punished; i've been very ill, haven't i?" "awful," said macey, quickly. "but, i say, was it those two chaps?" vane looked at him half wonderingly. "yes, of course," he said. "i remember it all now. it's just as if a cloud had gone away from the back of my head, and i could see clearly right back now." "why did they do it?" cried macey, speaking out, but feeling dubious, for vane's manner was rather strange, and he might still be wandering. "i don't know," said vane; "i was getting truffles for uncle when they came along, and it was fists against sticks. they won, i suppose." "well, rather so i think," said macey, edging toward the door. "don't go, old chap. you've only just come." "no, but you're talking too much, and you're to be kept quiet." "well, i'm lying quiet. but, tell me, have they caught those two fellows for knocking me about last night?" "no, not yet; and i must go now, old fellow." "but tell me this: what did syme say this morning because i didn't come?" "oh, nothing much; he was tackling me. i got it horribly for being so stupid." "not you. but tell him i shall be back in the morning." "all right. good-bye." they shook hands, and macey hurried down to the doctor and mrs lee. "here, he's ever so much better and worse, too, sir," cried macey. the doctor started up in alarm. "oh, no, sir; he's quiet enough, but he thinks it was only last night when he was knocked about." "convalescents are often rather hazy about their chronology," said the doctor. "but he's clear enough in one thing, sir; he says it was the two gipsy lads who set upon him with sticks." "ah!" cried the doctor. "and i came down to ask you if these two fellows ought not to be caught." "yes, yes, of course," cried the doctor. "but first of all we must be sure whether he is quite clear in his head. this may be an illusion." "well, sir, it may be," replied macey, "but if i'd had such a knocking about as poor vane, i shouldn't make any mistake about it as soon as i could begin to think." "stay here," said the doctor. "i'll go up and see him." he went up and all doubt about his nephew's clearness of memory was at an end, for vane began at once. "i've been lying here some time, haven't i, uncle?" "yes, my boy; a long while." "i was very stupid just now when macey was here. it seemed to me that it was only last night that i was in the wood getting truffles, when those two gipsy lads attacked me, but, of course, i've been very ill since." "yes, my boy, very." "the young scoundrels! there was the basket and trowel, i remember." "yes, my boy, they brought them home." "that's right. it was your little bright trowel, and--oh, of course i remember that now. i was taking the bottle of liniment, and one of the lad's sticks struck me on the breast, where i had the bottle in my pocket, and shivered it." "struck you with his stick?" "yes. i made as hard a fight of it as i could, but they were too much for me." "don't think about it any more now, but try and have a nap," said the doctor quietly. "i want to go down." vane sighed. "what's the matter, boy, fresh pain?" "no, i was thinking what a trouble i am to you, uncle." "trouble, boy? why, it's quite a treat," said the doctor, laughing. "i was quite out of practice, and i'm in your debt for giving me a little work." "don't thank me, uncle," said vane with a smile, though it was only the shadow of his usual hearty laugh. "i wouldn't have given you the job if i could have helped it." the doctor nodded, patted the boy's shoulder and went down, for vane in his weakness willingly settled himself off to sleep, his eyes being half-closed as the doctor shut the door. "well, sir," cried macey, eagerly, as the doctor entered the drawing-room, "he's all right in the head again, isn't he?" "i don't think there's a doubt of it, my lad," said the doctor. "you are going close by, will you ask the policeman to come down?" "yes; i'll tell him," cried macey, eagerly. "no, no, leave me to tell him. i would rather," said the doctor, "because i must speak with some reserve. it is not nice to arrest innocent people." "but i may tell mr syme and gilmore?" "oh, yes, you can tell what you know," replied the doctor; and, satisfied with this concession, macey rushed off. as he reached the lane leading to the rectory, habit led him up it a few yards. then recollecting himself, he was turning back when he caught sight of distin and gilmore coming toward him, and he waited till they came up. "it's all right," he cried. "vane knows all about it now, and he told me and the doctor who it is that he has to thank for the knocking about." "what! he knows?" cried distin, eagerly; and gilmore caught his companion's arm. "yes," he cried, catching distin's arm in turn, "come on with me." "where to?" said distin, starting. "to the police--to old bates." distin gave macey a curious look, and then walked on beside him, macey repeating all he knew as they went along toward bates' cottage, where they found the constable looking singularly unofficial, for he was in his shirt-sleeves weeding his garden. "want me, gents?" he said with alacrity as he rose and looked from one to the other, his eyes resting longest upon distin, as if he had some doubt about him that he could not clear up. "we don't, but the doctor does," cried macey. "i've just come from there." "phee-ew!" whistled the constable. "they been at his fowls again? no; they'd have known in the morning. why--no--yes--you don't mean to say as mr vane's come round enough to say who knocked him about?" "the doctor told me to tell you he wanted you to step down to see him," said macey coolly; "so look sharp." the constable ran to the pump to wash his hands, and five minutes after he was on the way to the little manor. "i'm wrong," he muttered as he went along--"ever so wrong. somehow you can't be cock-sure about anything. i could ha' sweered as that yallow-faced poople had a finger in it, for it looked as straight as straight; but theer, it's hard work to see very far. now, let's hear what the doctor's got to say." chapter twenty eight. rowing superseded. "that there mr distin 'll have his knife into me for what i said about him. oh, dear me, what a blunder i did make!" "yes, wrong as wrong," said constable bates, as he came away from the little manor, "and me niver to think o' they two lungeing looking young dogs. why, of course it was they. i can see it clear now, as clear--a child could see it. well, i'll soon run them down." easier said than done, for the two gipsy lads seemed to have dropped quite out of sight, and in spite of the help afforded by members of the constabulary all round the county the two furtive, weasel-like young scamps could not be heard of. they and their gang had apparently migrated to some distant county, and the matter was almost forgotten. "it doesn't matter," vane said, as he grew better. "i don't want to punish the scamps, i want to finish my boat;" and as soon as he grew strong he devoted all his spare time to the new patent water-walker as macey dubbed it, and at which distin now and then delivered a covert sneer. for this scheme was the outcome of the unfortunate ride on the river that day when vane sat dreaming in the boat and watching the laborious work of those who wielded the oars and tried to think out a means of sending a boat gliding through the water almost without effort. he had thought over what had already been done as far as he knew, and pondered over paddle-wheels and screws with the mighty engines which set them in motion, but his aquatic mechanism must need neither fire nor steam. it must be something simple, easily applicable to a small boat, and either depend upon a man's arm or foot, as in the treadle of a lathe, or else be a something that he could wind up like old chakes did the big clock, with a great winch key, and then go as long as he liked. it took so much thinking, and he was so silent indoors, that aunt hannah told the doctor in confidence one night that she was sure poor vane was sickening for something, and she was afraid that it was measles. "yes," said the doctor with a laugh, "sort of mental measles. you'll see he will break out directly with a rash--" "oh, my dear," cried aunt hannah, "then hadn't he better be kept in a warm bed?" "hannah, my beloved wife," said the doctor, solemnly, "is it not time you learned to wait till your ill-used husband has finished his speech before you interrupt him? i was saying break out directly with a rash desire to spend more money upon a whim-wham to wind up the sun." "ah, now you are joking," said aunt hannah. "then you do not think he is going to be ill again?" "not a bit." it all came out in a day or two, and after listening patiently to the whole scheme-- "well," said the doctor, "try, only you are not to go beyond five pounds for expenses." "then you believe in it, uncle," cried vane, excitedly. "i am not going to commit myself, boy," said the doctor. "try, and if you succeed you may ride us up and down the river as often as you like." vane went off at once to begin. "five pounds, my dear," said aunt hannah, shaking her head, "and you do not believe in it. will it not be money wasted." "not more so than five pounds spent in education," replied the doctor, stoutly. "the boy has a turn for mechanics, so let him go on. he'll fail, but he will have learned a great deal about ics, while he has been amusing himself for months." "about hicks?" said aunt hannah, innocently, "is he some engineer?" "who said _hicks_?" cried the doctor, "i said ics--statics, and dynamics and hydraulics, and the rest of their nature's forces." "oh," said aunt hannah, "i understand," which can only be looked upon as a very innocent fib. meanwhile vane had hurried down to the mill, for five pounds does not go very far in mechanism, and there would be none to spare for the purchase of a boat. "hallo, squire," roared the miller, who saw him as he approached the little bridge, "you're too late." "what for--going out?" "going out? what, with all this water on hand. nay, lad, mak' your hay while the sun shines. deal o' grinding to do a day like this." "then why did you say i was too late?" said vane. "for the eels running. they weer coming down fast enew last night. got the eel trap half full. come and look." he led the way down through a flap in the floor to where, in a cellar-like place close to the big splashing mill wheel, there was a tub half full of the slimy creatures, anything but a pleasant-looking sight, and vane said so. "reight, my lad," said the miller, "but you wait till a basketful goes up to the little manor and your martha has ornamented 'em with eggs and crumbs and browned 'em and sent 'em up on a white napkin, with good parsley. won't be an unpleasant sight then, eh? come down to fish?" "no," said vane, hesitating now. "oh, then, you want the boat?" "yes, it was about the boat." "well, lad, there she is chained to the post. you're welcome, only don't get upset again and come back here like drowned rats." "i don't want to row," said vane. "i--er--that is--oh, look here, mr rounds," he cried desperately, "you can only say no. i am inventing a plan for moving boats through the water without labour." "well, use the oars; they aren't labour." "but i mean something simpler or easier." "nay, theer aren't no easier way unless you tak a canoe and paddle." "but i'm going to invent an easier way, and i want you to lend me the boat for an experiment." "what!" roared the miller, "you want to coot my boat to pieces for some new fad o' yourn. nay, lad, it aren't likely." "but i don't want to cut it up." "say, coot, lad, coot; don't chop your words short; sounds as if you were calling puss wi' your cat." "well, then i don't want to coot up the boat, only to fit my machine in when it's ready, and propel the boat that way." "oh, i see," said the miller, scratching his big head. "you don't want to coot her aboot." "no, not at all; i won't even injure the paint." "hum, well, i don't know what to say, lad. you wouldn't knock her aboot?" "no; only bring my machine and fit it somewhere in the stern." "sort o' windmill thing?" "oh, no." "oh, i see, more like my water-mill paddles, eh?" "well, i don't quite know yet," said vane. "what, aren't it ready?" "no; i haven't begun." "oh. mebbe it never will be." "oh, yes, i shall finish it," said vane. "hey, what a lad thou art for scheming things; i wish you'd mak' me a thing to grind corn wi'out weering all the face off the stones, so as they weant bite." "perhaps i will some day." "ay, there'd be some sense in that, lad. well, thou alway was a lad o' thy word when i lent you the boat, so you may have her when you like; bood i'll lay a wager you don't get a machine done as'll row the boat wi' me aboard." "we'll see," cried vane, excitedly. "ay, we will," said the miller. "bood, say, lad, what a one thou art for scheming! i say i heered some un say that it was one o' thy tricks that night when church clock kep' on striking nine hundred and nineteen to the dozen." "well, mr round--" "i know'd: thou'd been winding her oop wi' the kitchen poker, or some game o' that sort, eh?" "no, i only tried to clean the clock a little, and set it going again." "ay, and left all ta wheels out. haw--haw--haw!" the miller's laugh almost made the mill boards rattle. "i say, don't talk about it, mr round," cried vane; "and, really, i only forgot two." the miller roared again. "on'y left out two! hark at him! why, ivery wheel has some'at to do wi' works. theer, i weant laugh at thee, lad, only don't fetch us all oot o' bed another night, thinking the whole plaace is being bont aboot our ears. theer tak' the boat when you like; you're welcome enew." vane went off in high glee, and that day he had long interviews with wrench the carpenter, and the blacksmith, who promised to work out his ideas as soon as he gave them models or measurements, both declaring that they had some splendid "stooff" ready to "wuck off," and vane went back to his own place and gave every spare moment to his idea. that propeller took exactly two months to make, for the workmen always made the parts entrusted to them either too short or too long, and in fact just as a cobbler would make a boot that ought to have been the work of a skilful veteran. "it's going to be a rum thing," said macey, who helped a great deal by strolling down from the rectory, sitting on a box, and drumming his heels on the side, while he made disparaging remarks, and said that the whole affair was sure to fail. the doctor came in too, and nodded as the different parts were explained; but as the contrivance was worked out, vane found that he had to greatly modify his original ideas; all the same though, he brought so much perseverance to bear that the blacksmith's objections were always overridden, and wrench the carpenter's growls suppressed. one of the greatest difficulties encountered was the making the machine so self-contained that it could be placed right in the stern of the boat without any need for nails or stays. but vane had a scheme for every difficulty, and at last the day came when the new propeller was set up in the little workshop, and distin, brought by curiosity, accompanied gilmore and macey to the induction. vane was nervous enough, but proud, as he took his fellow-pupils into the place, and there, in the middle, fixed upon a rough, heavy bench, stood the machine. "why, you never got that made for five pounds?" cried gilmore. "n-no," said vane, wincing a little, "i'm afraid it will cost nearly fifteen. i had to make some alterations." "looks a rum set-out," continued gilmore, and distin stood and smiled. "oh, i say, while i remember," cried gilmore, "there was a little girl wanted you this morning, dis. said she had a message for you." "oh, yes, i saw her," said distin, nonchalantly. "begging--i saw her." "she'll always be following you," said macey. "why, that makes four times she has been after you, dis." "oh, well, poor thing, what can one do," said distin, hurriedly; "some mother or sister very ill, i believe. but i say, vane," he continued, as if eager to change the conversation, "where is this thing to go?" "in the stern of the boat." "stern? why, it will fill the boat, and there will not be room for anything else." "oh, but the future ones will be made all of iron, and not take up half the space." gilmore touched a lever and moved a crank. "don't, don't," yelled macey, running to the door, "it will go off." there was a roar of laughter, in which all joined, and vane explained the machine a little more, and above all that this was only a tentative idea and just to see if the mechanism would answer its purpose. "but, i say," cried gilmore, "it looks like a wooden lathe made to turn water." "or a mangle," said distin, with a sneer of contempt. "wrong, both of you," cried macey, getting toward the door, so as to be able to escape if vane tried to get at him. "i'll tell you what it's like--a knife-grinder's barrow gone mad." "all right," said vane, "laugh away. wait till you see how it works." "when are you going to try it?" said gilmore. "to-morrow afternoon. mr round's going to send a cart for it and four of his men to get it down." "we will be there," said macey with a scowl such as would be assumed by the wicked man in a melodrama, and then the workshop was locked up. chapter twenty nine. trying an experiment. "pray, pray, be careful, vane, my dear," cried aunt hannah, the next afternoon, when the new propeller had been carefully lifted on to the miller's cart, and the inventor rushed in to say good-bye and ask the doctor and his aunt to come down for the trial, which would take place in two hours' time exactly. then he followed the cart, but only to be overtaken by the rector's other three pupils, macey announcing that mr syme was going to follow shortly. vane did not feel grateful, and he would have rather had the trial all alone, but he was too eager and excited to mind much, and soon after the boat was drawn up to the side of the staging, at the end of the dam, the ponderous affair lifted from the cart, and the miller came out to form one of the group of onlookers. "why, hey, vane lee, my lad, she's too big enew. she'll sink the boat." "oh, no," cried vane. "it looks heavier than it is." "won't be much room for me," said the miller, with a chuckle. "you mustn't come," cried vane in alarm. "only macey and i are going in the boat. we work the pedals and hand cranks. this is only an experiment to see if it will go." "hey bood she'll goo reight enew," said the miller, seriously, "if i get in. reight to the bottom, and the mill 'll be to let." there was a roar of laughter at this, and macey whispered:-- "i say, weathercock, if they're going to chaff like this i shall cut off." "no, no, don't be a coward," whispered back vane; "it's only their fun. it don't hurt." "oh, doesn't it. i feel as if gnats were stinging me." "that theer boat 'll never carry her, my lad," said the miller. "it will, i tell you," cried vane, firmly. "aw reight. in wi' her then, and when she's at the bottom you can come and fish for her. it's straange and deep down there." "now then, ready?" cried vane after a due amount of preparation. an affirmative answer was given; the frame-work with its cranks was carefully lifted on to the platform and lowered into the boat's stern, which it fitted exactly, and vane stepped in, and by the help of a screw-hammer fitted some iron braces round the boat, screwed them up tightly. the machine was fairly fixed in its place and looked extremely top-heavy, and with vane in the stern as well, sent the boat's gunwale down within four inches of the surface and the bows up correspondingly high. by this time the rector and the little manor people had arrived, while quite a little crowd from the town had gathered to stand on the edge of the dam and for the most part grin. "there," said vane as he stood up covered with perspiration from his efforts. "that's about right. in a boat made on purpose the machine would be fitted on the bottom and be quite out of the way." "couldn't be, lad," said the miller. "but goo on, i want to see her move." "wish there was another boat here, gil," said distin. "you and i would race them." "let them talk," said vane, to encourage macey, who looked very solemn, and as he spoke he carefully examined the two very small paddles which dropped over each side, so arranged that they should, when worked by the cranks and hand levers, churn up the water horizontally instead of vertically like an ordinary paddle wheel. there were a good many other little things to do, such as driving in a few wedges between the frame-work and side of the boat, to get all firmer, but vane had come provided with everything necessary, and when he could no longer delay the start, which he had put off as long as possible, and when it seemed as if macey would be missing if they stopped much longer, the lad rose up with his face very much flushed and spoke out frankly and well, explaining that it was quite possible that his rough machine would not work smoothly at first, but that if the principle was right he would soon have a better boat and machine. hereupon gilmore cried, "hooray!" and there was a hearty cheer, accompanied by a loud tapping of the rector's walking stick, on the wooden gangway. "now, vane, lad, we're getting impatient," cried the doctor, who was nearly as anxious as his nephew. "off with you!" "well said, doctor," cried the miller; "less o' the clapper, my lads, and more of the spinning wheels and stones." "ready, macey?" whispered vane. "no," was whispered back. "why?" "i'm in such an awful stew." "get out. it's all right. now then. you know. come down and sit in your place steadily." macey stepped down into the boat, which gave a lurch, and went very near the water, as far as the gunwale was concerned. "hi theer; howd hard," cried the miller; "he's too heavy. coom out, lad, and i'll tak thy place." there was another roar of laughter at this. "oh, i say, mr round, don't chaff us or we can't do it," whispered vane to the jolly-looking great twenty-stone fellow. "aw reight, lad. i'll be serious enew now. off you go! shall i give you a shove?" "no," said vane. "i want to prove the boat myself. now, macey, you sit still till i've worked her round even, and then when i say off, you keep on stroke for stroke with me." "all right," cried macey, and vane began to work his crank and paddle on the boat's starboard side with the result that they began to move and curve round. then, applying more force and working hard, he gave himself too much swing in working his lever, with the result that his side rose a little. in the midst of the cheering that had commenced the little horizontal paddle came up level with the surface, spun round at a great rate, and sent a tremendous shower of spray all over those on the gangway, distin getting the worst share, and in his effort to escape it nearly going off into the dam. "you did that on purpose," he roared furiously, his voice rising above the shout of laughter. "oh, i've had enough of this," said macey. "let me get out." "no, no, sit still. it's all right," whispered vane. then, aloud, "i didn't, dis, it was an accident. all right, aleck, keep the boat level. now we're straight for the river. work away." macey tugged at his lever and pushed with his feet; his paddle now revolved, and though the boat swayed dangerously, and aunt hannah was in agony lest it should upset, the paddles kept below the surface, and cheer after cheer arose. for the two lads, in spite of the clumsiness and stiffness of the mechanism, were sending the boat steadily right out of the dam and into the river, where they ran it slowly for some four hundred yards before they thought it time to turn, and all the while with a troop of lads and men cheering with all their might. "sit steady; don't sway," said vane, "she's rather top-heavy." "i just will," responded macey. "she'd be over in a moment. but, i say, isn't it hard work?" "the machinery's too stiff," said vane. "my arms are," said macey, "and i don't seem to have any legs." "never mind." "but i do." "stop now," said vane, and the boat glided on a little way and then the stream checked her entirely, right in the middle. "that's the best yet," said macey, with a sigh of relief. but there was no rest for him. "now," cried vane, "we're going back." "can't work 'em backwards." "no, no, forward," said vane. "i'll work backwards. work away." macey obeyed, and a fresh burst of cheers arose as, in obedience to the reverse paddling, the boat turned as if on a pivot. then as soon as it was straight for the mill, vane reversed again, and accompanied by their sympathisers on the bank and working as hard as they could, the two engineers sent the boat slowly along, right back into the pool, and by judicious management on vane's part, alongside of the wooden staging which acted as a bridge to the mill on its little island. here plenty more cheers saluted the navigators. "bravo! bravo!" cried the rector. "well done, vane," cried the doctor. "viva," shouted distin, with a sneering look at vane, who winced as if it had been a physical stab, and he did not feel the happier for knowing that the cheers were for nothing, since he did not want macey's words to tell him that his machine was a failure from the amount of labour required. "why, i could have taken the boat there and back home myself with a pair of sculls, and nearly as fast again," whispered the boy. it was quite correct, and vane felt anything but happy, as he stepped on to the top of the camp-shed, where the others were. "can't wark it by mysen," said the miller. "won't join me, i suppose, doctor?" "any one else, not you," said the doctor, merrily. "come," said the rector, "another trial. gilmore, distin, you have a turn." "all right, sir," cried gilmore, getting into the boat; "come on, dis." "oh, i don't know," said the young creole. "he's afraid," said macey, mischievously, and just loud enough for distin to hear. the latter darted a furious look at him, and then turned to gilmore. "oh, very well," he said in a careless drawl. "i don't mind having a try." "it'll take some of the fat conceit out of him, weathercock," said macey, wiping his streaming brow. "oh, i say, i am hot." gilmore had taken off his jacket and vest before getting into the boat. distin kept his on, and stepped down, while vane held the boat's side from where he kneeled on the well-worn planks. "take off your things, man," said gilmore, as distin sat down. "work the levers steadily, gil," said vane. "all right, old fellow." "i dare say we can manage; thank you," said distin, in a low, sarcastic tone, meant for vane's ears alone, for, saving the miller, the others were chatting merrily about the success of the trial. "it does not seem to be such a wonderfully difficult piece of performance." "it isn't," said vane, frankly. "only trim the boat well she's top-heavy." "thank you once more," said distin, as he took off jacket and vest, and began to fold them. "i'll give her head a push off," said vane, taking up the boat-hook and beginning to thrust the boat's head out so that the fresh engineers could start together. "thank you again," said distin, sarcastically, as the bows went round, and vane after sending the prow as far as he could, ran and caught the stern, and drew that gently round till the boat was straight for the river and gliding forward. "ready, dis?" said gil, who had hold of his lever, and foot on the treadle he had to work. "one moment," said distin, rising in the boat to place his carefully folded clothes behind him, and it was just as vane gave the boat a final thrust and sent it gliding. "give us a shout, you fellows," cried gilmore. "steady dis!" he roared. "hooray!" came from the little crowd. "oh, what a lark!" shouted macey, but aunt hannah uttered a shriek. vane's thrust had not the slightest thing to do with the mishap, for the boat was already so crank that the leverage of distin's tall body, as he stood up, was quite enough to make it settle down on one side. as this disturbed his balance, he made a desperate effort to recover himself, placed a foot on the gunwale, and the next moment, in the midst of the cheering, took a header right away into the deep water, while the boat gradually continued its motion till it turned gently over, and floated bottom upwards, leaving gilmore slowly swimming to the side, where he clung to the camp-shedding laughing, till it seemed as if he would lose his hold. "help! help!" cried aunt hannah. "all right, ma'am," said the miller, snatching the boat-hook from vane. "mr distin! mr distin," shrieked aunt hannah. the miller literally danced with delight. "up again directly, ma'am," he said, "only a ducking, and the water's beautifully clean. there he is," he continued, as distin's head suddenly popped up with his wet black hair streaked over his forehead, and catching him deftly by the waistband of his trowsers with the boat-hook, the miller brought the panting youth to the gangway, and helped him out. "you did that on purpose," cried distin, furiously; but the miller only laughed the more, and soon after the boat had been drawn to its moorings, and righted, it was chained up, so that it should do no more mischief, the miller said. that brought the experiment to a conclusion, and when the machine had been taken back dry to the workshop, as it had been proved that it was only labour in a novel way and much increased, vane broke it up, and the doctor, when the bills were paid, said quietly: "i think vane will have a rest now for a bit." chapter thirty. money troubles. "going out, vane?" "only to the rectory, uncle; want me?" "no, my boy, no," said the doctor, sadly. "er--that is, i do want to have a chat with you, but another time will do." "hadn't you better tell me now, uncle," said vane. "i don't like to go on waiting and thinking that i have a scolding coming, and not know what it's about." the doctor, who was going out into the garden, smiled as he turned, shook his head, and walked back to his chair. "you have not been doing anything, vane, my lad," he said quickly and sadly. "if anyone deserves a scolding it is i; and your aunt persistently refuses to administer it." "of course," said aunt hannah, looking up from her work, "you meant to do what was right, my dear. i am sorry more on your account than on my own, dear," and she rose and went behind the doctor's chair to place her hands on his shoulder. he took them both and pressed them together to hold them against his cheek. "thank you, my dear," he said, turning his head to look up in her eyes. "i knew it would make no difference in you. for richer or poorer, for better or worse, eh? there, go and sit down, my dear, and let's have a chat with vane here." aunt hannah bowed her head and went back to her place, but contrived so that she might pass close to vane and pass her hand through his curly hair. "vane, boy," said the doctor sharply and suddenly, "i meant to send you to college for the regular terms." "yes, uncle." "and then let you turn civil engineer." "yes, uncle, i knew that," said the lad, wonderingly. "well, my boy, times are altered. i may as well be blunt and straightforward with you. i cannot afford to send you to college, and you will have to start now, beginning to earn your own living, instead of five or six years hence." vane looked blank and disappointed for a few moments, and then, as he realised that his aunt and uncle were watching the effect of the latter's words keenly, his face lit up. "all right, uncle," he said; "i felt a bit damped at first, for i don't think i shall like going away from home, but as to the other, the waiting and college first, i shan't mind. i am sorry though that you are in trouble. i'm afraid i've been a great expense to you." "there, don't be afraid about that any longer, my boy," said the doctor, rising. "thank you, my lad--thank you. that was very frank and manly of you. there, you need not say anything to your friends at present, and--i'll talk to you another time." the doctor patted vane on the shoulder, then wrung his hand and hurried out into the garden. "why, auntie, what's the matter?" cried vane, kneeling down by the old lady's chair, as she softly applied her handkerchief to her eyes. "it's money, my dear, money," she said, making an effort to be calm. "i did hope that we were going to end our days here in peace, where, after his long, anxious toil in london, everything seems to suit your uncle so, and he is so happy with his botany and fruit and flowers; but heaven knows what is best, and we shall have to go into quite a small cottage now." "but i thought uncle was ever so rich, aunt," cried vane. "oh, if i'd known i wouldn't have asked him for money as i have for my schemes." "oh, my dear, it isn't that," cried aunt hannah. "i was always afraid of it, but i did not like to oppose your uncle." "it? what was it?" cried vane. "perhaps i ought not to tell you, dear, but i don't know. you must know some time. it was that mr deering. your uncle has known him ever since they were boys at school together; and then mr deering, who is a great inventor, came down and told your uncle that he had at last found the means of making his fortune over a mechanical discovery, if some one would be security for him. your uncle did not like to refuse." "oh, dear!" muttered vane. "you see it was not to supply him with money then, only to be security, so that other people would advance him money and enable him to start his works and pay for his patents." "yes, aunt, i understand," cried vane. "and now--" "his invention has turned out to be a complete failure, and your poor uncle will have to pay off mr deering's liabilities. when that is done, i am afraid we shall be very badly off, my dear." "that you shan't, auntie," cried vane, quickly; "i'll work for you both, and i'll make a fortune somehow. i don't see why i shouldn't invent." "no, no, don't, boy, for goodness' sake," said the doctor, who had heard part of the conversation as he returned. "let's have good hard work, my lad. let someone else do the inventing." "all right, uncle," said vane, firmly; "i'll give up all my wild ideas now about contriving things, and set to work." "that's right, boy," said the doctor. "i'm rather sick of hearing inventions named." "don't say that, dear," said aunt hannah, quietly and firmly; "and i should not like all vane's aspirations to be damped because mr deering has failed. some inventions succeed: the mistake seems to me to be when people take it for granted that everything must be a success." "hear! hear!" cried the doctor, thumping the table. "here hi! you vane, why don't you cheer, sir, when our queen of sheba speaks such words of wisdom. your aspirations shall not be stopped, boy. there, no more words about the trouble. it's only the loss of money, and it has done me good. i was growing idle and dyspeptic." "you were not, dear," said aunt hannah, decidedly. "oh, yes, i was, my dear, and this has roused me up. there, i don't care a bit for the loss, since you two take it so bravely. and, perhaps after all, in spite of all the lawyers say, matters may not turn out quite so badly. deering says he shall come down, and i like that: it's honourable and straightforward of him." "i wish he would not come," said aunt hannah, "i wish we had never seen his face." "no, no! tut, tut," said the doctor. "i'm sure i shall not be able to speak civilly to him," cried aunt hannah. "you will, dear, and you will make him as welcome as ever. his misfortune is as great as ours--greater, because he has the additional care of feeling that he has pretty well ruined us and poor vane here." "oh, it hasn't ruined me, uncle," cried vane. "i don't so much mind missing college." "but, suppose i had some money to leave you, my boy, and it is all gone." "oh," cried vane, merrily, "i'm glad of that. mr syme said one day that he always pitied a young man who had expectations from his elders, for, no matter how true-hearted the heir might be, it was always a painful position for him to occupy, that of waiting for prosperity till other people died. it was something like that, uncle, but i haven't given it quite in his words." "humph! syme is a goose," said the doctor, testily. "i'm sure you never wanted me dead, so as to get my money, vane." "why, of course not, uncle. i never thought about money except when i wanted to pay old wrench or dance for something he made for me." "there, i move that this meeting be adjourned," cried the doctor. "one moment, though, before it is carried unanimously. how will aunt behave to poor deering, when he comes down." "same as she behaves to every one, uncle," cried vane, laughing. "there, old lady," said the doctor, "and as for the money, bah! let it take wings and fly away, and--" the doctor's further speech was checked by aunt hannah throwing her arms about his neck and burying her face in his breast, while vane made a rush out into the garden and then ran rapidly down the avenue. "if i'd stopped a minute longer, i should have begun blubbering like a great girl," he muttered. "why, hanged if my eyes aren't quite wet." chapter thirty one. history repeats itself. vane made his way straight to the rectory, with a fixed intention in his mind. the idea had been growing for days: now it was quite ripe, consequent, perhaps, on the state of mind produced by the scene at the manor. "it will be more frank and manly," he said to himself. "he's different to us and can't help his temper, so i'll look over everything, and say `what's the good of our being bad friends. shake hands and forgive me. i'm a rougher, coarser fellow than you are, and i dare say i've often said things that hurt you when i didn't mean it.'" "come, he can't get over that," said vane, half-aloud, and full of eagerness to get distin alone, he turned up the rectory lane, and came at once upon gilmore and macey. "hullo, weathercock," cried the latter, "which way does the wind blow?" "due east." "that's rectory way." "yes; is distie in?" "no; what do you want with him. he doesn't want you. come along with us," said gilmore. "no, i want to see distie--which way did he go?" "toward the moor," said macey, with an air of mock mystery. "there's something going on, old chap." "what do you mean?" "a little girl came and waited about the gate till we were in the grounds, and then she began to signal and i went to her. but she didn't want me. she said she wanted to give this to that tall gentleman." "this?" said vane. "what was this?" "a piece of stick, with notches cut in it," said macey. "you're not chaffing, are you?" "not a bit of it. i went and told distie, and he turned red as a bubby-jock and went down to the gate, took the stick, stuck it in his pocket, and then marched off." "why, what does that mean?" cried vane. "i don't know," said macey. "distie must belong to some mysterious bund or verein, as the germans call it. perhaps he's a rosicrucian, or a member of a mysterious sect, and this was a summons to a meeting." "get out," cried vane. "well, are you coming with us? aleck has had a big tip from home, and wants to spend it." "yes; do come, vane." "no, not to-day," cried the lad, and he turned off and walked away sharply to avoid being tempted into staying before he had seen distin, and "had it out," as he termed it. "hi! weathercock!" shouted macey, "better stop. i've invented something--want your advice." "not to be gammoned," shouted back vane; and he went off at a sharp trot, leaped a stile and went on across the fields, his only aim being to get away from his companions, but as soon as he was out of sight, he hesitated, stopped, and then went sharply off to his left. "i'll follow distie," he muttered. "the moor's a good place for a row. he can shout at me there, and get in a passion. then he'll cool down, and we shall be all right again--and a good job too," he added. "it is so stupid for two fellows studying together to be bad friends." by making a few short cuts, and getting over and through hedges, vane managed to take a bee-line for the moor, and upon reaching it, he had a good look round, but there was no sign of distin. "he may be lying down somewhere," thought vane, as he strode on, making his way across the moor in the direction of the wood, but still there was no sign of distin, even after roaming about for an hour, at times scanning the surface of the long wild steep, at others following the line of drooping trees at the chalk-bank edge, but for the most part forgetting all about the object of his search, as his attention was taken up by the flowers and plants around. there was, too, so much to think about in the scene at home, that afternoon, and as he recalled it all, vane set his teeth, and asked himself whether the time was not coming when he must set aside boyish things, and begin to think seriously of his future as a man. he went on and on, so used to the moor that it seemed as if his legs required no guidance, but left his brain at liberty to think of other things than the course he was taking, while he wondered how long it would be before he left greythorpe, and whether he should have to go to london or some one of the big manufacturing towns. there was mr deering, too, ready to take up a good deal of his thought. and now it seemed cruel that this man should have come amongst them to disturb the current of a serene and peaceful life. "i think he ought to be told so, too," said vane to himself; "but i suppose that it ought not to come from me." he had to pause for a few moments to extricate himself from a tangle of brambles consequent upon his having trusted his legs too much, and, looking up then, he found that he was a very short distance from the edge of the beech-wood, and a second glance showed him that he was very near the spot where he had dug for the truffles, and then encountered the two gipsy lads. a feeling of desire sprang up at once in him to see the spot again, and, meaning to go in among the trees till he had passed over the ground on his way along the edge of the wood to where he could strike across to the deep lane, he waded over the pebbles of the little stream, dried his boots in the soft, white sand on the other side, and ran lightly up the bank, to step at once in among the leaves and beech-mast. it was delightfully cool and shady after the hot sunshine of the moor, and he was winding in and out among the great, smooth tree-trunks, looking for the spot where he had had his struggle, when he fancied that he heard the murmur of voices not far away. "fancy--or wood pigeons," he said to himself; and, involuntarily imitating the soft, sweet _too roochetty coo roo_ of the birds, he went on, but only to be convinced directly after that those were voices which he had heard; and, as he still went on in his course, he knew that, after all, he was going to encounter distin, for it was undoubtedly his voice, followed by a heavy, dull utterance, like a thick, hoarse whisper. vane bore off a little to the left. his curiosity was deeply stirred, for he knew that distin had received some kind of message, and he had followed him, but it was with the idea of meeting him on his return. for he could not play the eavesdropper; and, feeling that he had inadvertently come upon business that was not his, he increased his pace, only to be arrested by an angry cry, followed by these words, distinctly heard from among the trees: "no, not another sixpence; so do your worst!" the voice was distin's, undoubtedly; and, as no more was said, vane began to hurry away. he had nothing to do with distin's money matters, and he was walking fast when there was the rapid beat of feet away to his right, but parallel with the way he was going. then there was a rush, a shout, a heavy fall, and a half-smothered voice cried "help!" that did seem to be vane's business, and he struck off to the right directly, to bear through a denser part of the wood, and come to an opening, which struck him at once as being the one where he had had his encounter with the gipsy lads. the very next moment, with every nerve tingling, he was running toward where he could see his two enemies kneeling upon someone they had got down; and, though he could not see the face, he knew it was distin whom they were both thumping with all their might. "now will you?" he heard, as he rushed forward toward the group, all of whose constituents were so much excited by their struggle that they did not hear his approach. "no," shouted vane, throwing himself upon them, but not so cleverly as he had meant, for his toe caught in a protruding root, and he pitched forward more like a skittle-ball than a boy, knocking over the two gipsy lads, and himself rolling over amongst the beech-mast and dead leaves. distin's two assailants were so startled and astonished that they, too, rolled over and over hurriedly several times before they scrambled to their feet, and dived in among the trees. but vane was up, too, on the instant. "here, dis!" he shouted; "help me take them." distin had risen, too, very pale everywhere in the face but about the nose, which was very ruddy, for reasons connected with a blow, but, as vane ran on, he did not follow. "do you hear? come on!" cried vane, looking back. "help me, and we can take them both." but distin only glanced round for a way of retreat, and, seeing that vane was alone, the two gipsy lads dodged behind a tree, and cleverly kept it between them as he rushed on, and then sprang out at him, taking him in the rear, and getting a couple of blows home as he turned to defend himself. "history repeats itself," he muttered, through his set teeth; "but they haven't got any sticks;" and, determined now to make a prisoner of one of them, he attacked fiercely, bringing to bear all the strength and skill he possessed, for there was no sign of shrinking on the part of the two lads, who came at him savagely, as if enraged at his robbing them of their prey. there were no sticks now, as vane had said; it was an attack with nature's weapons, but the two gipsy lads had had their tempers whetted in their encounter with distin, and, after the first fright caused by vane's sudden attack, they met him furiously. they were no mean adversaries, so long as spirit nerved them, for they were active and hard as cats, and had had a long experience in giving and taking blows. so that, full of courage and indignation as he was, vane soon began to find that he was greatly overmatched, and, in the midst of his giving and taking, he looked about anxiously for distin, but for some time looked in vain. all at once, though, as he stepped back to avoid a blow he saw distin peering round the trunk of one of the trees. "oh, there you are," he panted, "come on and help me." distin did not stir, and one of the gipsy lads burst into a hoarse laugh. "not he," cried the lad. "why, he give us money to leather you before." distin made an angry gesture, but checked himself. "take that for your miserable lie," cried vane, and his gift was a stinging blow in the lad's mouth, which made him shrink away, and make room for his brother, who seized the opportunity of vane's arm and body being extended, to strike him full in the ear, and make him lose his balance. "'tarn't a lie," cried this latter. "he did give us three shillin' apiece to leather you." the lad speaking followed up his words with blows, and vane was pretty hard set, while a conscious feeling of despair came over him on hearing of distin's treachery. but he forced himself not to credit it, and struck out with all his might. "i don't believe it," he roared, "a gentleman wouldn't do such a thing." "but he aren't a gent," said the first lad, coming on again, with his lips bleeding. "promised to pay us well, and he weant." "come and show them it's all a lie, dis," cried vane, breathlessly. "come and help me." but distin never stirred. he only stood glaring at the scene before him, his lips drawn from his white teeth, and his whole aspect betokening that he was fascinated by the fight. "do you hear?" roared vane at last, hoarsely. "you're never going to be such a coward as to let them serve me as they did before." still distin did not stir, and a burst of rage made the blood flush to vane's temples, as he ground his teeth and raged out with: "you miserable, contemptible cur!" he forgot everything now. all sense of fear--all dread of being beaten by two against one--was gone, and as if he had suddenly become possessed with double his former strength, he watchfully put aside several of the fierce blows struck at him, and dodged others, letting his opponents weary themselves, while he husbanded his strength. it was hard work, though, to keep from exposing himself in some fit of blind fury, for the lads, by helping each other, kept on administering stinging blows, every one of which made vane grind his teeth, and long to rush in and close with one or the other of his adversaries. but he mastered the desire, knowing that it would be fatal to success, for the gipsies were clever wrestlers, and would have the advantage, besides which, one of them could easily close and hold while the other punished him. "i wouldn't have believed it. i wouldn't have believed it," he kept on muttering as he caught sight of distin's pallid face again and again, while avoiding the dodges and attempts to close on the part of the gipsies. at last, feeling that this could not go on, and weakened by his efforts, vane determined to try, and, by a sudden rush, contrive to render one of his adversaries _hors de combat_, when, to his great delight, they both drew off, either for a few minutes' rest, or to concoct some fresh mode of attack. whatever it might be, the respite was welcome to vane, who took advantage of it to throw off his norfolk jacket; but watching his adversaries the while, lest they should make a rush while he was comparatively helpless. but they did not, and tossing the jacket aside he rapidly rolled up his sleeves, and tightened the band of his trousers, feeling refreshed and strengthened by every breath he drew. "now," he said to himself as the gipsies whispered together, "let them come on." but they did not attack, one of them standing ready to make a rush, while the other went to the edge of the wood to reconnoitre. "it means fighting to the last then," thought vane, and a shiver ran through him as he recalled his last encounter. perhaps it was this, and the inequality of the match which made him turn to where distin still stood motionless. "i say, dis," he cried, appealingly, "i won't believe all they said. we'll be friends, when it's all over, but don't leave me in the lurch like this." distin looked at him wildly, but still neither spoke nor stirred, and vane did not realise that he was asking his fellow-pupil that which he was not likely to give. for the latter was thinking,-- "even if he will not believe it, others will," and he stared wildly at vane's bruised and bleeding face with a curious feeling of envy at his prowess. "right," shouted the gipsy lad who had been on the look-out, and running smartly forward, he dashed at vane, followed by his brother, and the fight recommenced. "if they would only come on fairly, i wouldn't care," thought vane, as he did his best to combat the guerilla-like warfare his enemies kept up, for he did not realise that wearisome as all their feinting, dodging and dropping to avoid blows, and their clever relief of each other might be, a bold and vigorous closing with them would have been fatal. and, oddly enough, though they had sought to do this at first, during the latter part of the encounter they had kept aloof, though perhaps it was no wonder, for vane had given some telling blows, such as they did not wish to suffer again. "i shall have to finish it, somehow," thought vane, as he felt that he was growing weaker; and throwing all the vigour and skill into his next efforts, he paid no heed whatever to the blows given him by one of the lads, but pressed the other heavily, following him up, and at last, when he felt nearly done, aiming a tremendous left-handed blow at his cheek. as if to avoid the blow, the lad dropped on his hands and knees, but this time he was a little too late; the blow took effect, and his falling was accelerated so that he rolled over and over, while unable to stop himself, vane's body followed his fist and he, too, fell with a heavy thud, full on his adversary's chest. vane was conscious of both his knees coming heavily upon the lad, and he only saved his face from coming in contact with the ground by throwing up his head. then, he sprang up, as, for the first time during the encounter, distin uttered a warning cry. it warned vane, who avoided the second lad's onslaught, and gave him a smart crack on the chest and another on the nose. this gave him time to glance at his fallen enemy, who did not try to get up. it was only a momentary glance, and then he was fighting desperately, for the second boy seemed to be maddened by the fate of the first. casting off all feinting now, he dashed furiously at vane, giving and receiving blows till the lads closed in a fierce wrestling match, in which vane's superior strength told, and in another moment or two, he would have thrown his adversary, had not the lad lying unconscious on the dead leaves, lent his brother unexpected aid. for he was right in vane's way, so that he tripped over him, fell heavily with the second gipsy lad upon his chest, holding him down with his knees and one hand in his collar, while he raised the other, and was about to strike him heavily in the face, when there was a dull sound and he fell over upon his brother, leaving vane free. "thankye, dis," he panted, as he struggled to his knees; "that crack of yours was just in time," and the rector's two pupils looked each other in the face. it was only for a moment, though, and then vane seated himself to recover breath on the uppermost of his fallen foes. chapter thirty two. having it out. "now," said vane, after sitting, panting for a few minutes, "i came out to-day on purpose to find you, and ask you to shake hands. glad i got here in time to help you. shake hands, now." "no," said distin, slowly; "i can't do that." "nonsense! i say these two have got it. why not?" "because," said distin, with almost a groan, "i'm not fit. my hands are not clean." "wash 'em then, or never mind." "you know what i mean," said distin. "what they said was true." vane stared at him in astonishment. "yes, it's quite true," said distin, bitterly. "i've behaved like a blackguard." just at that moment, the top gipsy began to struggle, and vane gave him a tremendous clout on the ear. "lie still or i'll knock your head off," he cried, fiercely. "you don't mean to say you set these two brutes to knock me about with sticks?" "yes, he did," cried the top boy. "yes, i did," said distin, after making an effort as if to swallow something. "i paid them, and they have pestered me for money ever since. they sent to me to-day to come out to them, and i gave them more, but they were not satisfied and were knocking me about when you came." the lower prisoner now began to complain, and with cause, for his brother was lying across his chest, so that he had the weight of two to bear; but vane reached down suddenly and placed his fist on the lad's nose, with a heavy grinding motion. "you dare to move, that's all," he growled, threateningly, and the lad drew a deep breath, and lay still, while distin went on as if something within him were forcing this confession. "there," he said, "it's all over now. they've kept out of sight of the police all this time, and sent messages to me from where they were in hiding, and i've had to come and pay them. i've been like a slave to them, and they've degraded me till i've felt as if i couldn't bear it." "and all for what?" said vane, angrily. "i never did you any harm." "i couldn't help it," said distin. "i hated you, i suppose. i tell you, i've behaved like a blackguard, and i suppose i shall be punished for it, but i'd rather it was so than go on like i have lately." "look here," cried vane, savagely, and he raised himself up a little as if he were riding on horseback, and then nipped his human steed with his knees, and bumped himself down so heavily that both the gipsy lads yelled. "yes, i meant to hurt you. i say, look here, i know what you both mean. you are going to try and heave me off, and run for it, but don't you try it, my lads, or it will be the worse for you. it's my turn this time, and you don't get away, so be still. do you hear? lie still!" vane's voice sounded so deep and threatening that the lads lay perfectly quiescent, and distin went on. "better get out your handkerchief," he said, taking out his own, "and we'll tie their hands behind them, and march them to bates' place." "you'll help me then?" said vane. "yes." "might as well have helped me before, and then i shouldn't have been so knocked about." distin shook his head, and began to roll up his pocket-handkerchief to form a cord. "there's no hurry," said vane, thoughtfully. "i want a rest." the lowermost boy uttered a groan, for his imprisonment was painful. "better let's get it over," said distin, advancing and planting a foot on a prisoner who looked as if he were meditating an attempt to escape. "no hurry," said vane, quietly, "you haven't been fighting and got pumped out. besides, it wants thinking about. i don't quite understand it yet. i can't see why you should do what you did. it was so cowardly." "don't i know all that," cried distin, fiercely. "hasn't it been eating into me? i'm supposed to be a gentleman, and i've acted toward you like a miserable cad, and disgraced myself forever. it's horrible and i want to get it over." "i don't," said vane, slowly. "can't you see how maddening it is. i've got to go with you to take these beasts--no, i will not call them that, for i tempted them with money to do it all, and they have turned and bitten me." "yes: that was being hoist with your own petard, mr engineer," cried vane, merrily. "don't laugh at me," cried distin with a stamp of the foot. "can't you see how i'm degraded; how bitter a sting it was to see you, whom i tried to injure, come to my help. isn't it all a judgment on me?" "don't know," said vane looking at him stolidly and then frowning and administering a sounding punch in the ribs to his restive seat, with the effect that there was another yell. "you make light of it," continued distin, "for you cannot understand what i feel. i have, i say, to take these brutes up to the police--" "no, no," cried the two lads, piteously. "--and then go straight to syme, and confess everything, and of course he'll expel me. nice preparation for a college life; and what will they say at home?" "yes," said vane, echoing the other's words; "what will they say at home? you mean over in trinidad?" distin bowed his head, his nervous-looking face working from the anguish he felt, and his lower lip quivering with the mental agony and shame. "trinidad's a long way off," said vane, thoughtfully. "no place is far off now," cried distin, passionately. "and if it were ten times as far, what then? don't i know it? do you think i can ever forget it all?" "no," said vane; "you never will. i suppose it must have made you uncomfortable all along." "don't--don't talk about it," cried distin, piteously. "there, come along, you must be rested now." "look here," cried one of the lads, shrilly; "if you tak' us up to greytrop we'll tell all about it." vane gave another bump. "what's the good of that, stupid," he said. "mr distin would tell first." "yes," said the young fellow firmly; and as vane looked at his determined countenance, he felt as if he had never liked him so well before; "i shall tell first. come what may, vane lee, you shan't have it against me that i did not speak out openly. now, come." "not yet," said vane, stubbornly. "i'm resting." there was a pause, and one of the gipsy lads began to snivel. "oh, pray, good, kind gen'l'man, let us go this time, and we'll never do so any more. do, please, good gen'l'man, let us go." "if you don't stop that miserable, pitiful, cowardly howling, you cur," cried vane so savagely that the lad stared at him with his mouth open, "i'll gag that mouth of yours with moss. lie still!" vane literally yelled this last order at the lad, and the mouth shut with a snap, while its owner stared at him in dismay. "i only wish i could have you standing up and lying down too," cried vane, "or that it wasn't cowardly to punch your wretched heads now you are down." there was another pause, during which the lowermost boy began to groan, but he ceased upon vane giving a fresh bump. "i shall be obliged now, mr lee," said distin, quickly, "by your helping to tie those two scoundrels." "no more a scoundrel than you are," said the lowermost boy fiercely; and vane gave another bump. "don't hurt him," said distin. "he only spoke the truth. come, let's turn this one over." vane did not stir, but sat staring hard in distin's face. "look here," he said at last; "you mean what you say about the police and mr syme?" "yes, of course." "and you understand what will follow?" distin bowed as he drew his breath hard through his teeth. "you will not be able to stop at the rectory even if that busybody bates doesn't carry it over to the magistrates." "i know everything," said distin, firmly, and he drew a long breath now of relief. "i am set upon it, even if i never hold up my head again." "all right," said vane in his peculiar, hard, stubborn way. "you've made up your mind; then i've made up mine." "what do you mean?" said distin. "wait and see," said vane, shortly. "but i wish to get it over." "i know you do. but you're all right. look at me, i can't see, but expect my face is all puffy; and look at my knuckles. these fellows have got heads like wood." "i am sorry, very sorry," said distin, sadly; "but i want to make all the reparation i can." "give me that handkerchief," said vane sharply; and he snatched it from distin's hand. "no, no, keep back. i'll do what there is to do. they're not fit to touch. ah, would you!" the top boy had suddenly thrown up his head in an effort to free himself. but his forehead came in contact with vane's fist and he dropped back with a groan. "hurt, did it!" said vane, bending down, and whispering a few words. then aloud, as he rose. "now, then, get up and let me tie your hands behind you." the lad rose slowly and painfully. "turn round and put your hands behind you," cried vane. the lad obeyed, and then as if shot from a bow he leaped over his prostrate brother with a loud whoop and dashed off among the trees. "no, no, it's of no use," cried vane as distin started in pursuit; "you might just as well try to catch a hare. now you, sir, up with you." the second lad rose, groaning as if lame and helpless, turning his eyes piteously upon his captor; and then, quick as lightning, he too started off. "loo, loo, loo!" shouted vane, clapping his hands as if cheering on a greyhound. "i say, distie, how the beggars can run." a defiant shout answered him, and vane clapped his hands to his mouth and yelled: "po-lice--if you ever come again." "yah!" came back from the wood, and distin cried, angrily: "you let them go on purpose." "of course i did," said vane. "here's your handkerchief. you don't suppose i would take them up, and hand them over to the police, and let you lower yourself like you said, do you?" "yes--yes," cried distin, speaking like a hysterical girl. "i will tell everything now; how i was tempted, and how i fell." "bother!" cried vane, gruffly. "that isn't like an english lad should speak. you did me a cowardly, dirty trick, and you confessed to me that you were sorry for it. do you think i'm such a mean beast that i want to take revenge upon you!" "but it is my duty--i feel bound--i must speak," cried distin, in a choking voice. "nonsense! it's all over. i'm the person injured, and i say i won't have another word said. i came out this afternoon to ask you to make friends, and to shake hands. there's mine, and let the past be dead." vane stood holding out his hand, but it was not taken. "do you hear?" he cried. "shake hands." "i can't," groaned distin, with a piteous look. "i told you before mine are not clean." "mine are," said vane, meaning, of course, metaphorically; "and perhaps--no, there is no perhaps--mine will clean yours." vane took the young creole's hand almost by force, and gave it a painful grip, releasing it at last for distin to turn to the nearest tree, lay his arm upon the trunk, and then lean his forehead against it in silence. vane stood looking at him, hesitating as to what he should say or do. then, with a satisfied nod to himself, he said, cheerily: "i'm going down to the stream to have a wash. come on soon." it was a bit of natural delicacy, and the sensitive lad, born in a tropic land, felt it as he stood there with his brain filled with bitterness and remorse, heaping self-reproaches upon himself, and more miserable than he had ever before been in his life. "i do believe he's crying," thought vane, as he hurried out of the woodland shade, and down to the water's edge, where, kneeling down by a little crystal pool, he washed his stained and bleeding hands, and then began to bathe his face and temples. "not quite so hot as i was," he muttered; "but, oh, what a mess i'm in! i shan't be fit to show myself, and must stop out till it's dark. what would poor aunt say if she saw me! frighten her nearly into fits." he was scooping up the fresh, cool water, and holding it to his bruises, which pained him a good deal, but, in spite of all his sufferings, he burst into a hearty fit of laughter at last, and, as his eyes were closed, he did not notice that a shadow was cast over him, right on to the water. it was distin, for he had come quietly down the bank, and was standing just behind him. "are you laughing at me?" he said, bitterly. "eh? you there?" cried vane, raising his head. "no, i was grinning at the way those two fellows scuttled off. they made sure they were going to be in the lock-up to-night." "where they ought to have been," said distin. "oh, i don't know. they're half-wild sort of fellows--very cunning, and all that sort of thing. i daresay i should have done as they did if i had been a gipsy. but, never mind that now. they'll keep away from greythorpe for long enough to come." he began dabbing his face with his handkerchief, and looking merrily at distin. "i say," he cried; "i didn't know i could fight like that. is my face very queer?" "it is bruised and swollen," said distin, with an effort. "i'm afraid it will be worse to-morrow." "so am i, but we can't help it. never mind, it will be a bit of a holiday for me till the bruises don't show; and i can sit and think out something else. come and see me sometimes." "i can't, vane, i can't," cried distin, wildly. "do you think i have no feeling?" "too much, i should say," cried vane. "there, why don't you let it go? uncle says life isn't long enough for people to quarrel or make enemies. that's all over; and, i say, i feel ever so much more comfortable now. haven't got such a thing as a tumbler in your pocket, have you?" distin looked in the bruised and battered face before him, wondering at the lad's levity, as vane continued: "no, i suppose you haven't, and my silver cup is on the sideboard. never mind: here goes. just stand close to me, and shout if you see any leeches coming." as he spoke, he lay down on his chest, reaching over another clear portion of the stream. "i must drink like a horse," he cried; and, placing his lips to the surface, he took a long draught, rose, wiped his lips, drew a deep breath, and exclaimed, "hah! that was good." then he reeled, caught at the air, and would have fallen, but distin seized him, and lowered him to the ground, where he lay, looking very ghastly, for a few minutes. "only a bit giddy," he said, faintly. "it will soon go off." "i'll run and fetch help," cried distin, excitedly. "nonsense! what for? i'm getting better. there: that's it." he sat up, and, with distin's help, struggled to his feet. "how stupid of me!" he said, with a faint laugh. "i suppose it was leaning over the water so long. i'm all right now." he made a brave effort, and the two lads walked toward the lane, but, before they had gone many yards, vane reeled again. this time the vertigo was slighter, and, taking distin's arm, he kept his feet. "let's walk on," he said. "i daresay the buzzy noise and singing in my head will soon pass off." he was right: it did, and they progressed slowly till they reached the lane, where the walking was better, but vane was still glad to retain distin's help, and so it happened that, when they were about a mile from the rectory, gilmore and macey, who were in search of them, suddenly saw something which made them stare. "i say," cried macey; "'tisn't real, is it? wait till i've rubbed my eyes." "why, they've made it up," cried gilmore. "i say, aleck, don't say a word." "why not?" "i mean don't chaff them or dis may go off like powder. you know what he is." "i won't speak a word, but, i say, it's weathercock's doing. he has invented some decoction to charm creoles, and henceforth old dis will be quite tame." as they drew nearer, gilmore whispered: "they've been having it out." "yes, and weathercock has had an awful licking; look at his phiz." "no," said gilmore. "vane has licked; and it's just like him, he hasn't hit dis in the face once. don't notice it." "not i." they were within speaking distance now; and distin's sallow countenance showed two burning red spots in the cheeks. "hullo!" cried vane. "come to meet us?" "yes," said gilmore; "we began to think you were lost." "oh, no," said vane, carelessly. "been some distance and the time soon goes. i think i'll turn off here, and get home across the meadows. good-evening, you two. good-night, dis, old chap." "good-night," said distin, huskily, as he took the bruised and slightly bleeding hand held out to him. then turning away, he walked swiftly on. "why, vane, old boy," whispered gilmore, "what's going on?" vane must have read of douglas jerrold's smart reply, for he said, merrily: "i am; good-night," and he was gone. "i'm blest!" cried macey; giving his leg a slap. "he has gone in back way so as not to be seen," cried gilmore. "that's it," cried macey, excitedly. "well, of all the old weathercocks that ever did show which way the wind blew--" he did not finish that sentence, but repeated his former words-- "i'm blest!" chapter thirty three. in hiding. vane meant to slip in by the back after crossing the meadows, but as a matter of course he met bruff half-way down the garden, later than he had been there for years. "why, master vane!" he cried, "you been at it again." "hush! don't say anything," cried the lad. but bruff's exclamation had brought martha to the kitchen-door; and as she caught sight of vane's face, she uttered a cry which brought out eliza, who shrieked and ran to tell aunt hannah, who heard the cry, and came round from the front, where, with the doctor, she had been watching for the truant, the doctor being petulant and impatient about his evening meal. then the murder was out, and vane was hurried into the little drawing-room, where aunt hannah strove gently to get him upon the couch. "no, no, no," cried vane. "uncle, tell bruff and those two that they are not to speak about it." the doctor nodded and gave the order, but muttered, "only make them talk." "but what has happened, my dear? where have you been?" "don't bother him," said the doctor, testily. "here, boy, let's look at your injuries." "they're nothing, uncle," cried vane. "give me some tea, aunt, and i'm as hungry as a hunter. what have you got?" "oh, my dear!" cried aunt hannah; "how can you, and with a face like that." "nothing the matter with him," said the doctor, "only been fighting like a young blackguard." "couldn't help it, uncle," said vane. "you wouldn't have had me lie down and be thrashed without hitting back." "oh, my dear!" cried aunt hannah, "you shouldn't fight." "of course not," said the doctor, sternly. "it is a low, vulgar, contemptible, disgraceful act for one who is the son of a gentleman-- to--to--did you win?" "yes, uncle," cried vane; and he lay back in the easy chair into which he had been forced by aunt hannah, and laughed till the tears rolled down his cheeks. aunt hannah seized him and held him. "oh, my love," she cried to the doctor, "pray give him something: sal-volatile or brandy: he's hysterical." "nonsense!" cried the doctor. "here--vane--idiot, you leave off laughing, sir?" "i can't, uncle," cried vane, piteously; "and it does hurt so. oh my! oh my! you should have seen the beggars run." "beggars? you've been fighting beggars, vane!" cried aunt hannah. "oh, my dear! my dear!" "will you hold your tongue, hannah," cried the doctor, sternly. "here, vane, who ran? some tramps?" "no, uncle: those two gipsy lads." "what! who attacked you before?" "yes, and they tried it again. aunt, they got the worst of it this time." "you--you thrashed them?" cried the doctor, excitedly. "yes, uncle." "alone?" "oh, yes: only with someone looking on." "but you beat them alone; gave them a thorough good er--er--licking, as you call it, sir?" "yes, uncle; awful." "quite beat them?" "knocked them into smithereens; had them both down, one on the other, and sat on the top for half an hour." the doctor caught vane's right hand in his left, held it out, and brought his own right down upon it with a sounding spank, gripped it, and shook the bruised member till vane grinned with pain. "oh, my dear!" remonstrated aunt hannah, "you are hurting him, and you are encouraging him in a practice that--" "makes perfect," cried the doctor, excitedly. "by george! i wish i had been there!" "my dear!" "i do, hannah. it makes me feel quite young again. but come and have your tea, you young dog--you young roman--you trojan, you--well done, alexander. but stop!--those two young scoundrels. hi! where's bruff?" "stop, uncle," cried vane, leaping up and seizing the doctor's coat-tails. "what are you going to do?" "send bruff for bates, and set him on the young scoundrels' track. i shan't rest till i get them in jail." "no, no, uncle, sit down," said vane, with a quiver in his voice. "we can't do that." then he told them all. as vane ended his narrative, with the doctor pacing up and down the room, and martha fussing because the delicate cutlets she had prepared were growing cold, aunt hannah was seated on the carpet by her nephew's chair, holding one of his bruised hands against her cheek, and weeping silently as she whispered, "my own brave boy!" as she spoke, she reached up to press her lips to his, but vane shrank away. "no, no, aunt dear," he said, "i'm not fit to kiss." "oh, my own brave, noble boy," she cried; and passing her arms about his neck, she kissed him fondly. "who's encouraging the boy in fighting now?" cried the doctor, sharply. "but, how could he help it, my dear?" said aunt hannah. "of course; how could he help it." then changing his manner, he laid his hand upon vane's shoulder. "you are quite right, vane, lad. let them call you weathercock if they like, but you do always point to fair weather, my boy, and turn your back on foul. no: there must be no police business. the young scoundrels have had their punishment--the right sort; and mr distin has got his in a way such a proud, sensitive fellow will never forget." "but ought not vane to have beaten him, too?" said aunt hannah, naively. "what!" cried the doctor, in mock horror. "woman! you are a very glutton at revenge. three in one afternoon? but to be serious. he was beaten, then, my dear--with forgiveness. coals of fire upon his enemy's head, and given him a lesson such as may form a turning point in his life. god bless you, my boy! you've done a finer thing to-day than it is in your power yet to grasp. you'll think more deeply of it some day, and--hannah, my darling, are you going to stand preaching at this poor boy all the evening, when you see he is nearly starved?" aunt hannah laughed and cried together, as she fondled vane. "i'll go and fetch you a cup of tea, my dear. don't move." the doctor took a step forward, and gave vane a slap on the back. "cup of tea--brought for him. come along, boy. aunt would spoil us both if she could, but we're too good stuff, eh? now, prize-fighter, give your aunt your arm, and i'll put some big black patches on your nose and forehead after tea." vane jumped up and held out his arm, but aunt hannah looked at him wildly. "you don't think, dear, that black patches--oh!" "no, i don't," said the doctor gaily; "but we must have some pleasant little bit of fiction to keep him at home for a few days. little poorly or--i know. note to the rectory asking syme to forgive me, and we'll have the pony-carriage at six in the morning, and go down to scarboro' for a week, till he is fit to be seen." "yes," said aunt hannah, eagerly, "the very thing;" and to her great delight, save that his mouth was stiff and sore, vane ate and drank as if nothing whatever had been the matter. the next morning they started for their long drive, to catch the train. "third-class now, my boy," said the doctor, sadly; "economising has begun." "and i had forgotten it all," thought vane. "poor uncle!--poor aunt! i must get better, and go to work." chapter thirty four. the mouse and the lion. the stay at scarboro' was short, for a letter came from aunt hannah, announcing that mr deering was coming down, and adding rather pathetically that she wished he would not. the doctor tossed the letter over to vane, who was looking out of the hotel window, making a plan for sliding bathing machines down an inclined plane; and he had mentally contrived a delightful arrangement when he was pulled up short by the thought that the very next north-east gale would send in breakers, and knock his inclined plane all to pieces. "for me to read, uncle," he said. the doctor nodded. "then you'll want to go back." "yes, and you must stay by yourself." vane rose and went to the looking-glass, stared at his lips, made a grimace and returned. "i say, uncle, do i look so very horrid?" he said. "that eye's not ornamental, my boy." "no, but shall you mind very much?" "i? not at all." "then i shall come back with you." "won't be ashamed to be seen?" "not i," said vane; "i don't care, and i should like to be at home when mr deering comes." "why?" "he may be able to get me engaged somewhere in town." "humph!" ejaculated the doctor. "want to run away from us then, now we are poor." "uncle!" shouted vane, fiercely indignant; but he saw the grim smile on the old man's countenance, and went close up and took his arm. "you didn't mean that," he continued. "it's because i want to get to work so as to help you and aunt now, instead of being a burden to you." "don't want to go, then?" vane shook his head sadly. "no, uncle, i've been so happy at home, but of course should have to go some day." "ah, well, there is no immediate hurry. we'll wait. i don't think that mr deering is quite the man i should like to see you with in your first start in life. i'm afraid, vane, boy, that he is reckless. yesterday, i thought him unprincipled too, but he is behaving like a man of honour in coming down to see me, and show me how he went wrong. it's a sad business, but i daresay we shall get used to it after a time." the journey back was made so that they reached home after dark, vane laughingly saying that it would screen him a little longer, and almost the first person they encountered was mr deering himself. "hah, doctor," he said quietly, "i'm glad you're come back. i only reached here by the last train." the doctor hesitated a moment, and then shook hands. "well, youngster," said the visitor, "i suppose you have not set the thames on fire yet." "no," said vane, indignantly, for their visitor's manner nettled him, "and when i try to, i shall set to work without help." deering's eyes flashed angrily. "vane!" said aunt hannah, reproachfully. "you forget that mr deering is our guest, vane," said the doctor. "yes, uncle, i forgot that." "don't reprove him," said deering. "i deserve it, and i invited the taunt by my manner toward your nephew." "dinner's ready," said aunt hannah, hastily. "or supper," said the doctor, and ten minutes later they were all seated at the meal, talking quietly about scarboro', its great cliffs and the sea, mr deering showing a considerable knowledge of the place. no allusion whatever was made to the cause of their guest's visit till they had adjourned to the drawing-room, mr deering having stopped in the hall to take up a square tin box, and another which looked like a case made to contain rolled up plans. the doctor frowned, and seeing that some business matters were imminent, aunt hannah rose to leave the room, and vane followed her example. "no, no, my dear mrs lee," said deering, "don't leave us, and there is nothing to be said that the lad ought not to hear. it will be a lesson to him, as he is of a sanguine inventive temperament like myself, not to be too eager to place faith in his inventions." "look here, deering," said the doctor, after clearing his voice, "this has been a terrible misfortune for us, and, i believe, for you too." "indeed it has," said deering, bitterly. "i feel ten years older, and in addition to my great hopes being blasted, i know that in your eyes, and those of your wife, i must seem to have been a thoughtless, designing scoundrel, dishonest to a degree." "no, no, mr deering," said aunt hannah, warmly, "nobody ever thought that of you." "right," said the doctor, smiling. "i have wept bitterly over it, and grieved that you should ever have come down here to disturb my poor husband in his peaceful life, where he was resting after a long laborious career. it seemed so cruel--such a terrible stroke of fate." "yes, madam, terrible and cruel," said deering, sadly and humbly. "there now, say no more about it," said the doctor. "it is of no use to cry over spilt milk." "no," replied deering, "but i do reserve to myself the right to make some explanations to you both, whom i have injured so in your worldly prospects." "better let it go, deering. there, man, we forgive you, and the worst we think of you is that you were too sanguine and rash." "don't say that," cried deering, "not till you have heard me out and seen what i want to show you; but god bless you for what you have said. lee, you and i were boys at school together; we fought for and helped each other, and you know that i have never willingly done a dishonest act." "never," said the doctor, reaching out his hand, to which the other clung. "you had proof of my faith in you when i became your bondman." "exactly." "then, now, let's talk about something else." "no," said deering, firmly. "i must show you first that i was not so rash and foolish as you think. mrs lee, may i clear this table?" "oh, certainly," said aunt hannah, rather stiffly. "vane, my dear, will you move the lamp to the chimney." vane lifted it and placed it on the mantelpiece, while mr deering moved a book or two and the cloth from the round low table, and then opening a padlock at the end of the long round tin case, he drew out a great roll of plans and spread them on the table, placing books at each corner, to keep them open. "here," he said, growing excited, "is my invention. i want you all to look--you, in particular, vane, for it will interest you from its similarity to a plan you had for heating your conservatory." vane's attention was centred at once on the carefully drawn and coloured plans, before which, with growing eagerness, their visitor began to explain, in his usual lucid manner, so that even aunt hannah became interested. the idea was for warming purposes, and certainly, at first sight, complicated, but they soon grasped all the details, and understood how, by the use of a small furnace, water was to be heated, and to circulate by the law of convection, so as to supply warmth all through public buildings, or even in houses where people were ready to dispense with the ruddy glow of fire. "yes," said the doctor, after an hour's examination of the drawings; "that all seems to be quite right." "but the idea is not new," said vane. "exactly. you are quite right," said deering; "it is only a new adaptation in which i saw fortune, for it could be used in hundreds of ways where hot-water is not applicable now. i saw large works springing up, and an engineering business in which i hoped you, vane, would share; for with your brains, my boy, i foresaw that you would be invaluable to me, and would be making a great future for yourself. there, now, you see my plans, lee. do i seem so mad and reckless to you both? have i not gone on step by step, and was i not justified in trying to get monetary help to carry out my preparations for what promised so clearly to be a grand success?" "well, really, deering, i can't help saying yes," said the doctor. "it does look right, doesn't it, my dear?" "yes," said aunt hannah, with a sigh; "it does certainly look right." "i would not go far till, as i thought, i had tested my plans in every way." "that was right," said the doctor. "well, what's the matter--why hasn't it succeeded?" "ah, why, indeed?" replied deering. "some law of nature, which, in spite of incessant study, i cannot grasp, has been against me." vane was poring over the plans, with his forehead full of lines and his mouth pursed up, and, after bringing sheet after sheet to the top, he ended by laying the fullest drawing with all its colourings and references out straight, and, lifting the lamp back upon it in the centre of the table to give a better light; and while his aunt and untie were right and left, mr deering was facing him, and he had his back to the fire: "but you should have made models, and tested it all thoroughly." "i did, lee, i did," cried mr deering, passionately. "i made model after model, improving one upon the other, till i had reached, as i thought, perfection. they worked admirably, and when i was, as i thought, safe, and had obtained my details, i threw in the capital, for which you were security, started my works, and began making on a large scale. orders came in, and i saw, as i told you, fortune in my grasp." "well, and what then?" "failure. that which worked so well on a small scale was useless on a large." vane was the only one standing, and leaning his elbows on the great drawing, his chin upon his hands, deeply interested in the pipes, elbows, taps, furnace, and various arrangements. "but that seems strange," said the doctor. "i should have thought you were right." "exactly," said deering, eagerly. "you would have thought i was right. i felt sure that i was right. i would have staked my life upon it. if i had had a doubt, lee, believe me i would not have risked that money, and dragged you down as i have." "i believe you, deering," said the doctor, more warmly than he had yet spoken; "but, hang it, man, i wouldn't give up. try again." "i have tried again, till i feel that if i do more my brain will give way--i shall go mad. no: nature is against me, and i have made a terrible failure." aunt hannah sighed. "there is nothing for me but to try and recover my shattered health, get my nerves right again, and then start at something else." "why not have another try at this?" said the doctor. "i cannot," said deering. "i have tried, and had disastrous explosions. in one moment the work of months has been shattered, and now, if i want men to work for me again, they shake their heads, and refuse. it is of no use to fence, lee. i have staked my all, and almost my life, on that contrivance, and i have failed." "it can't be a failure," said vane, suddenly. "it must go." deering looked at him pityingly. "you see," he said to aunt hannah, "your nephew is attracted by it, and believes in it." "yes," said aunt hannah, with a shudder. "roll up the plans now, my dear," she added, huskily; "it's getting late." "all right, aunt. soon," said vane, quietly; and then, with some show of excitement, "i tell you it must go. why, it's as simple as simple. look here, uncle, the water's heated here and runs up there and there, and out and all about, and comes back along those pipes, and gradually gets down to the coil here, and is heated again. why, if that was properly made by good workmen, it couldn't help answering." deering smiled sadly. "you didn't have one made like that, did you?" "yes. six times over, and of the best material." "well?" "no, my boy, ill. there was a disastrous explosion each time." vane looked searchingly in the inventor's face. "why, it couldn't explode," cried vane. "my dear vane, pray do not be so stubborn," said aunt hannah. "i don't want to be, aunt, but i've done lots of things of this kind, and i know well enough that if you fill a kettle with water, solder down the lid, and stop up the spout, and then set it on the fire, it will burst, just as our boiler did; but this can't. look, uncle, here is a place where the steam and air can escape, so that it can't go off." "but it did, my boy, it did." "what, made from that plan?" "no, not from that, but from the one i had down here," said mr deering; and he took out his keys, opened the square tin box, and drew out a carefully folded plan, drawn on tracing linen, and finished in the most perfect way. "there," said the inventor, as vane lifted the lamp, and this was laid over the plan from which it had been traced; "that was the work-people's reference--it is getting dirty now. you see it was traced from the paper." "yes, i see, and the men have followed every tracing mark. well, i say that the engine or machine, or whatever you call it, could not burst." the inventor smiled sadly, but said no more, and vane went on poring over the coloured drawing, with all its reference letters, and sections and shadings, while the doctor began conversing in a low tone. "then you really feel that it is hopeless?" he said. "quite. my energies are broken. i have not the spirit to run any more risks, even if i could arrange with my creditors," replied deering, sadly. "another such month as i have passed, and i should have been in a lunatic asylum." the doctor looked at him keenly from beneath his brows, and involuntarily stretched out a hand, and took hold of his visitor's wrist. "yes," he said, "you are terribly pulled down, deering." "now, vane, my dear," said aunt hannah, softly; "do put away those dreadful plans." "all right, aunt," said the boy; "just lift up the lamp, will you?" aunt hannah raised the lamp, and vane drew the soiled tracing linen from beneath, while, as the lamp was heavy, the lady replaced it directly on the spread-out papers. vane's face was a study, so puckered up and intent it had grown, as he stood there with the linen folded over so that he could hold it beneath the lamp-shade, and gaze at some detail, which he compared with the drawing on the paper again and again. "my dear!" whispered aunt hannah; "do pray put those things away now; they give me quite a cold shudder." vane did not answer, but drew a long breath, and fixed his eyes on one particular spot of the pencilled linen, then referred to the paper beneath the lamp, which he shifted a little, so that the bright circle of light shed by the shade was on one spot from which the tracing had been made. "vane," said aunt hannah, more loudly, "put them away now." "yes," said deering, starting; "it is quite time. they have done their work, and to-morrow they shall be burned." "no," yelled vane, starting up and swinging the linen tracing round his head as he danced about the room. "hip, hip, hip, hurray, hurray, hurray!" "has the boy gone mad?" cried the doctor. "vane, my dear child!" cried aunt hannah. "hip, hip, hip, hurray," roared vane again, leaping on the couch, and waving the plan so vigorously, that a vase was swept from a bracket and was shivered to atoms. "oh, i didn't mean that," he cried. "but of course it burst." "what do you mean?" cried deering, excitedly. "look there, look here!" cried vane, springing down, doubling the linen tracing quickly, so that he could get his left thumb on one particular spot, and then placing his right forefinger on the plan beneath the lamp. "see that?" "that?" cried deering, leaning over the table a little, as he sat facing the place lately occupied by vane. "that?" he said again, excitedly, and then changing his tone, "oh, nonsense, boy, only a fly-spot in the plan, or a tiny speck of ink." "yes, smudged," cried vane; "but, look here," and he doubled the tracing down on the table; "but they've made it into a little stop-cock here." "what?" roared deering. "and if that wasn't in your machine, of course it blew up same as my waterpipes did in the conservatory, and wrecked the kitch--" vane did not finish his sentence, for the inventor sprang up with the edge of the table in his hands, throwing up the top and sending the lamp off on to the floor with a crash, while he fell backward heavily into his chair, as if seized by a fit. chapter thirty five. mrs. lee is incredulous. "help, help," cried aunt hannah, excitedly, as the lamp broke on the floor, and there was a flash of flame as the spirit exploded, some having splashed into the fire, and for a few minutes it seemed as if the fate of the little manor was sealed. but vane only stared for a moment or two aghast at the mischief, and then seized one end of the blazing hearthrug. mr deering seized the other, and moved by the same impulse, they shot the lamp into the hearth, turned the rug over, and began trampling upon it to put out the flame. "get mrs lee out," shouted deering. "here, vane, the table cover; fetch mats." the fire was still blazing up round the outside of the rug; there was a rush of flame up the chimney from the broken lamp; and the room was filling fast with a dense black evil-smelling smoke. but vane worked well as soon as the doctor had half carried out mrs lee, and kept running back with door-mats from the hall; and he was on his way with the dining-room hearthrug, when martha's voice came from kitchen-ward, full of indignation: "don't tell me," she said evidently to eliza, "it's that boy been at his sperriments again, and it didn't ought to be allowed." vane did not stop to listen, but bore in the great heavy hearthrug. "here, vane, here," cried the doctor; and the boy helped to spread it over a still blazing patch, and trampled it close just as aunt hannah and eliza appeared with wash-hand jug of water and martha with a pail. "no, no," cried the doctor; "no water. the fire is trampled out." the danger was over, and they all stood panting by the hall-door, which was opened to drive out the horrible black smoke. "why, vane, my boy," cried the doctor, as the lad stood nursing his hands, "not burned?" "yes, uncle, a little," said vane, who looked as if he had commenced training for a chimney-sweep; "just a little. i shan't want any excuse for not going to the rectory for a few days." "humph!" muttered the doctor, as mr deering hurried into the smoke to fetch out his drawings and plans; "next guest who comes to my house had better not be an inventor." then aloud: "but what does this mean, vane, lad, are you right?" "right?--yes," cried deering, reappearing with his blackened plans, which he bore into the dining-room, and then, regardless of his sooty state, he caught the doctor's hands in his and shook them heartily before turning to aunt hannah, who was looking despondently at her ruined drawing-room. "never mind the damage, mrs lee," he cried, as he seized her hands. "it's a trifle. i'll furnish your drawing-room again." "oh, mr deering," she said, half-tearfully, half in anger, "i do wish you would stop in town." "hannah, my dear!" cried the doctor. then, turning to deering: "but; look here, has vane found out what was wrong?" "found out?" cried deering, excitedly; "why, his sharp young eyes detected the one little bit of grit in the wheel that stopped the whole of the works. lee, my dear old friend, i can look you triumphantly in the face again, and say that your money is not lost, for i can return it, tenfold--do you hear, mrs lee, tenfold, twentyfold, if you like; and as for you--you black-looking young rascal!" he cried, turning and seizing vane's hand, "if you don't make haste and grow big enough to become my junior partner, why i must take you while you are small." "oh, oh!" shouted vane; "my hands, my hands!" "and mine too," said deering, releasing vane's hands to examine his own. "yes, i thought i had burned my fingers before, but i really have this time. doctor, i place myself and my future partner in your hands." aunt hannah forgot her blackened and singed hearthrugs and broken lamp as soon as she realised that there was real pain and suffering on the way, and busily aided the doctor as he bathed and bandaged the rather ugly burns on vane's and mr deering's hands. and at last, the smoke having been driven out, all were seated once more, this time in the dining-room, listening to loud remarks from martha on the stairs, as she declared that she was sure they would all be burned in their beds, and that she always knew how it would be--remarks which continued till aunt hannah went out, and then there was a low buzzing of voices, and all became still. and now, in spite of his burns, deering spread out his plans once more, and compared them for a long time in silence, while vane and the doctor looked on. "yes," he said at last, "there can be no mistake. vane is right. this speck was taken by the man who traced it for a stop-cock, and though this pipe shows so plainly here in the plan, in the engine itself it is right below here, and out of sight. you may say that i ought to have seen such a trifling thing myself; but i did not, for the simple reason that i knew every bit of mechanism by heart that ought to be there; but of this i had no knowledge whatever. vane, my lad, you've added i don't know how many years to my life, and you'll never do a better day's work as long as you live. i came down here to-day a broken and a wretched man, but i felt that, painful as it would be, i must come and show my old friend that i was not the scoundrel he believed." the doctor uttered a sound like a low growl, and just then aunt hannah came back looking depressed, weary, and only half-convinced, to hear deering's words. "there is not a doubt about it now, mrs lee," he cried, joyfully. "vane has saved your little fortune." "and his inheritance," said the doctor, proudly. "no," cried deering, clapping vane on the shoulder, "he wants no inheritance, but the good education and training you have given him. speak out, my lad, you mean to carve your own way through life?" "oh, i don't know," cried vane; "you almost take my breath away. i only found out that little mistake in your plans." "and that was the hole through which your uncle's fortune was running out. now, then, answer my question, boy. you mean to fight your own way in life?" "don't call it fighting," said vane, raising one throbbing hand. "i've had fighting enough to last me for years." "well, then, _carve_ your way, boy?" "oh, yes, sir, i mean to try. i say, uncle, what time is it?" "one o'clock, my boy," said the doctor, heartily; "the commencement of another and i hope a brighter day." chapter thirty six. "i am glad." trivial as vane's discovery may seem, it was the result of long months and study of applied science, and certain dearly bought experiences, and though mr deering blamed himself for not having noticed the little addition which had thwarted all his plans and brought him to the verge of ruin, he frankly avowed over and over again that he was indebted to his old friend's nephew for his rescue from such a perilous strait. he was off back to town that same day, and in a week the doctor, who was beginning to shake his head and feel doubtful whether he ought to expect matters to turn out so well, received a letter from the lawyer, to say that there would be no need to call upon him for the money for which he had been security. "but i do not feel quite safe yet, vane, my boy," he said, "and i shall not till i really see the great success. who can feel safe over an affair which depends on the turning on or off of a tap." but he need not have troubled himself, for he soon had ample surety that he was perfectly safe, and that he need never fear having to leave the little manor. meanwhile matters went on at the rectory in the same regular course, mr syme's pupils working pretty hard, and there being a cessation of the wordy warfare that used to take place with distin, macey, and gilmore, and their encounters, in which vane joined, bantering and being bantered unmercifully; but distin was completely changed. the sharp bitterness seemed to have gone out of his nature, and he became quiet and subdued. vane treated him just the same as of old, but there was no warm display of friendship made, only on distin's part a steady show of deference and respect till the day came when he was to leave greythorpe rectory for cambridge. it was just at the last; the good-byes had been said, and the fly was waiting to take him to the station, when he asked vane to walk on with him for a short distance, and bade the fly-man follow slowly. vane agreed readily enough, wondering the while what his old fellow-pupil would say, and he wondered still more as they walked on and on in silence. then vane began to talk of the distance to cambridge; the college life; and of how glad he would be to get there himself; starting topics till, to use his own expression, when describing the scene to his uncle, he felt "in a state of mental vacuum." a complete silence had fallen upon them at last, when they were a couple of miles on the white chalky road, and the fly-man was wondering when his passenger was going to get in, as vane looked at his watch. "i say, dis, old chap," he said, "you'll have to say good-bye if you mean to catch that train." "yes," cried distin, hoarsely, as he caught his companion's hand. "i had so much i wanted to say to you, about all i have felt during those past months, but i can't say it. yes," he cried passionately, "i must say this: i always hated you, vane. i couldn't help it, but you killed the wretched feeling that day in the wood, and ever since i have fought with myself in silence, but so hard." "oh, i say," cried vane; "there, there, don't say any more. i've forgotten all that." "i must," cried distin; "i know. i always have felt since that you cannot like me, and i have been so grateful to you for keeping silence about that miserable, disgraceful episode in my life--no, no, look me in the face, vane." "i won't. look in your watch's face," cried vane, merrily, "and don't talk any more such stuff, old chap. we quarrelled, say, and it was like a fight, and we shook hands, and it was all over." "with you, perhaps, but not with me," said distin. "i am different. i'd have given anything to possess your frank, manly nature." "oh, i say, spare my blushes, old chap," cried vane, laughing. "be serious a minute, vane. it may be years before we meet again, but i must tell you now. you seem to have worked a change in me i can't understand, and i want you to promise me this--that you will write to me. i know you can never think of me as a friend, but--" "why can't i?" cried vane, heartily. "i'll show you. write? i should think i will, and bore you about all my new weathercock schemes. dis, old chap, i'm such a dreamer that i've no time to see what people about me are like, and i've never seen you for what you really are till now we're going to say good-bye. i am glad you've talked to me like this." something very like a sob rose in distin's throat as they stood, hand clasped in hand, but he was saved from breaking down. "beg pardon, sir," said the fly driver, "but we shan't never catch that train." "yes; half a sovereign for you, if you get me there," cried distin, snatching open the fly, and leaping in; "good-bye, old chap!" he cried as vane banged the door and he gripped hands, as the latter ran beside the fly, "mind and write--soon--good-bye--good-bye." and vane stood alone in the dusty road looking after the fly till it disappeared. "well!" he cried, "poor old dis! who'd have thought he was such a good fellow underneath all that sour crust. i _am_ glad," and again as he walked slowly and thoughtfully back:--"i _am_ glad." chapter thirty seven. staunch friends. time glided on, and it became gilmore's turn to leave the rectory. other pupils came to take the places of the two who had gone, but macey said the new fellows, did not belong, and could not be expected to cotton to the old inhabitants. "and i don't want 'em to," he said one morning, as he was poring over a book in the rectory study, "for this is a weary world, weathercock." "eh? what's the matter?" cried vane, wonderingly, as he looked across the table at the top of macey's head, which was resting against his closed fists, so that the lad's face was parallel with the table. "got a headache?" "horrid. it's all ache inside. i don't believe i've got an ounce of brains. i say, it ought to weigh pounds, oughtn't it?" "here, what's wrong?" said vane. "let me help you." "wish you would, but it's of no good, old fellow. i shall never pass my great-go when i get to college." "why?" "because i shall never pass the little one. i say, do i look like a fool?" he raised his piteous face as he spoke, and vane burst into a roar of laughter. "ah, it's all very well to laugh. that's the way with you clever chaps. i say, can't you invent a new kind of thing--a sort of patent oyster-knife to open stupid fellows' understanding? you should practice with it on me." "come round this side," said vane, and macey came dolefully round with the work on mathematics, over which he had been poring. "you don't want the oyster-knife." "oh, don't i, old fellow; you don't know." "yes, i do. you've got one; every fellow has, if he will only use it." "where abouts? what's it like--what is it?" "perseverance," said vane. "come on and let's grind this bit up." they "ground" that bit up, and an hour after, macey had a smile on his face. the "something attempted" was "something done." "that's what i do like so in you, vane," he cried. "what?" "you can do all sorts of things so well, and work so hard. why you beat the busy bee all to bits, and are worth hives of them." "why?" said vane, laughing. "you never go about making a great buzz over your work, as much as to say: `hi! all of you look here and see what a busy bee i am,' and better still, old chap, you never sting." "ever hear anything of mr deering now, uncle?" said vane, one morning, as he stood in his workshop, smiling over some of his models and schemes, the inventor being brought to his mind by the remark he had made when he was there, about even the attempts being educational. "no, boy; nothing now, for some time; i only know that he has been very successful over his ventures; has large works, and is prospering mightily, but, like the rest of the world, he forgets those by whose help he has risen." "oh, i don't think he is that sort of man, uncle. of course, he is horribly busy." "a man ought not to be too busy to recollect those who held the ladder for him to climb, vane," said the doctor, warmly. "you saved him when he was in the lowest of low water." "oh, nonsense, uncle, i only saw what a muddle his work-people had made, just as they did with our greenhouse, and besides, don't you remember it was settled that i was to carve--didn't we call it--my own way." the doctor uttered a grunt. "that's all very well," began the doctor, but vane interrupted him. "i say, uncle, i've been thinking very deeply about my going to college." "well, what about it. time you went, eh?" "no, uncle, and i don't think i should like to go. of course, i know the value of the college education, and the position it gives a man; but it means three years' study--three years waiting to begin, and three years--" "well, sir, three years what?" "expense to you, uncle." "now, look here, vane," said the doctor, sternly, "when i took you, a poor miserable little fatherless and motherless boy, to bring up--and precious ugly you were--i made up my mind to do my duty by you." "and so you have, uncle, far more than i deserved," said vane, merrily. "silence, sir," cried the doctor, sternly. "i say--" but whatever it was, he did not say it, for something happened. strange coincidences often occur in everyday life. one thinks of writing to a friend, and a letter comes from that friend, or a person may have formed the subject of conversation, and that person appears. somehow, just as the doctor had assumed his sternest look, the door of vane's little atelier was darkened, and mr deering stood therein, looking bright, cheery of aspect, and, in appearance, ten years younger than on the night when he upset the table, and the little manor house was within an inch of being burned down. "mrs lee said i should find you here," he said. "why, doctor, how well you look. i'll be bound to say you never take much of your own physic. glad to see you again, old fellow," he cried, shaking hands very warmly. "but, i beg your pardon, i did not know you were engaged with a stranger. will you introduce me?" "oh, i say, mr deering," cried vane. "it is! the same voice grown gruff. the weathercock must want oiling. seriously, though, my dear boy, you have grown wonderfully. it's this greythorpe air." the doctor welcomed his old friend fairly enough, but a certain amount of constraint would show, and deering evidently saw it, but he made no sign, and they went into the house, where aunt hannah met them in the drawing-room, looking a little flustered, consequent upon an encounter with martha in the kitchen, that lady having declared that it would be impossible to make any further preparations for the dinner, even if a dozen gentlemen had arrived, instead of one. "ah, my dear mrs lee," said deering, "and i have never kept my word about the refurnishing of this drawing-room. what a scene we had that night, and how time has gone since!" vane looked on curiously all the rest of that day, and could not help feeling troubled to see what an effort both his uncle and aunt made to be cordial to their guest, while being such simple, straightforward people, the more they tried, the more artificial and constrained they grew. deering ignored everything, and chatted away in the heartiest manner; declared that it was a glorious treat to come down in the country; walked in the garden, and admired the doctor's flowers and fruit, and bees, and made himself perfectly at home, saying that he had come down uninvited for a week's rest. vane began at last to feel angry and annoyed; but seizing his opportunity, the doctor whispered:-- "don't forget, boy, that he is my guest. prosperity has spoiled him, but i am not entertaining the successful inventor; i am only thinking of my old school-fellow whom i helped as a friend." "all right, uncle, i'll be civil to him." six days glided slowly by, during which deering monopolised the whole of everybody's time. he had the pony-carriage out, and made vane borrow miller round's boat and row him up the river, and fish with him, returning at night to eat the doctor and mrs lee's excellent dinner, and drink the doctor's best port. and now the sixth day--the evening--had arrived, and aunt hannah had said to vane:-- "i am so glad, my dear. to-morrow, he goes back to town." "and a jolly good job too, aunt!" cried vane. "yes, my dear, but do be a little more particular what you say." they were seated all together in the drawing-room, with deering in the best of spirits, when all of a sudden, he exclaimed:-- "this is the sixth day! how time goes in your pleasant home, and i've not said a word yet about the business upon which i came. well, i must make up for it now. ready, vane?" "ready for what, sir,--game at chess?" "no, boy, work, business; you are rapidly growing into a man. i want help badly and the time has arrived. i've come down to settle what we arranged for about my young partner." had a shell fallen in the little drawing-room, no one could have looked more surprised. deering had kept his word. in the course of the next morning a long and serious conversation ensued, which resulted evidently in deering's disappointment on the doctor's declining to agree to the proposal. "but, it is so quixotic of you, lee," cried deering, angrily. "wrong," replied the doctor, smiling in his old school-fellow's face; "the quixotism is on your side in making so big a proposal on vane's behalf." "but you are standing in the boy's light." "not at all. i believe i am doing what is best for him. he is far too young to undertake so responsible a position." "nonsense!" "i think it sense," said the doctor, firmly. "vane shall go to a large civil engineer's firm as pupil, and if, some years hence, matters seem to fit, make your proposition again about a partnership, and then we shall see." deering had to be content with this arrangement, and within the year vane left greythorpe, reluctantly enough, to enter upon his new career with an eminent firm in great george street, westminster. but he soon found plenty of change, and three years later, long after the rector's other pupils had taken flight, vane found himself busy surveying in brazil, and assisting in the opening out of that vast country. it was hard but delightful work, full at times of excitement and adventure, till upon one unlucky day he was stricken down by malarious fever on the shores of one of the rivers. fortunately for him it happened there, and not hundreds of miles away in the interior, where in all probability for want of help his life would have been sacrificed. his companions, however, got him on board a boat, and by easy stages he was taken down to rio, where he awoke from his feverish dream, weak as a child, wasted almost to nothing, into what appeared to him another dream, for he was in a pleasantly-shaded bedroom, with someone seated beside him, holding his hand, and gazing eagerly into his wandering eyes. "vane," he said, in a low, excited whisper; "do you know me." "distin!" said vane feebly, as he gazed in the handsome dark face of the gentleman bending over him. "hah!" was ejaculated with a sigh of content; "you'll get over it now; but i've been horribly afraid for days." "what's been the matter?" said vane, feebly. "am i at the rectory? where's mr syme? and my uncle?" "stop; don't talk now." vane was silent for a time; then memory reasserted itself. he was not at greythorpe, but in brazil. "why, i was taken ill up the river. have you been nursing me?" "yes, for weeks," said distin, with a smile. "where am i?" "at rio. in my house. i am head here of my father's mercantile business." "but--" "no, no, don't talk." "i must ask this: how did i get here?" "i heard that you were ill, and had you brought home that's all. i was told that the overseer with the surveying expedition was brought down ill--dying, they said, and then i heard that his name was vane lee. can it be old weathercock? i said; and i went and found that it was, and-- well, you know the rest." "then i have you to thank for saving my life." "well," said distin, "you saved mine. there, don't talk; i won't. i want to go and write to the doctor that you are mending now. by-and-by, when you are better, we must have plenty of talks about the old lincolnshire days." distin was holding vane's hands as he spoke, and his voice was cheery, though the tears were in his eyes. "and so," whispered vane, thoughtfully, "i owe you my life." "i owe you almost more than that," said distin, huskily. "vane, old chap, i've often longed for us to meet again." it was a curious result after their early life. vane often corresponded with gilmore and macey, but somehow he and distin became the staunchest friends. "i can't understand it even now," vane said to him one day when they were back in england, and had run down to the old place again. "fancy you and i being companions here." "the wind has changed, old weathercock," cried distin, merrily. then, seriously: "no, i'll tell you, vane; there was some little good in me, and you made it grow." the end. the colored inventor a record of fifty years by henry e. baker. assistant examiner united states patent office [illustration: henry e. baker.] the year marks the close of the first fifty years since abraham lincoln issued that famous edict known as the emancipation proclamation, by which physical freedom was vouchsafed to the slaves and the descendants of slaves in this country. and it would seem entirely fit and proper that those who were either directly or indirectly benefited by that proclamation should pause long enough at this period in their national life to review the past, recount the progress made, and see, if possible, what of the future is disclosed in the past. that the colored people in the united states have made substantial progress in the general spread of intelligence among them, and in elevating the tone of their moral life; in the acquisition of property; in the development and support of business enterprises, and in the professional activities, is a matter of quite common assent by those who have been at all observant on the subject. this fact is amply shown to be true by the many universities, colleges and schools organized, supported and manned by the race, by their attractive homes and cultured home life, found now in all parts of our country; by the increasing numbers of those of the race who are successfully engaging in professional life, and by the gradual advance the race is making toward business efficiency in many varied lines of business activity. it is not so apparent, however, to the general public that along the line of inventions also the colored race has made surprising and substantial progress; and that it has followed, even if "afar off," the footsteps of the more favored race. and it is highly important, therefore, that we should make note of what the race has achieved along this line to the end that proper credit may be accorded it as having made some contribution to our national progress. standing foremost in the list of things that have actually done most to promote our national progress in all material ways is the item of inventions. without inventions we should have had no agricultural implements with which to till the fertile fields of our vast continent; no mining machinery for recovering the rich treasure that for centuries lay hidden beneath our surface; no steamcar or steamboat for transporting the products of field and mine; no machinery for converting those products into other forms of commercial needs; no telegraph or telephone for the speedy transmission of messages, no means for discovering and controlling the various utilitarian applications of electricity; no one of those delicate instruments which enable the skilful surgeon of to-day to transform and renew the human body, and often to make life itself stand erect, as it were, in the very presence of death. without inventions we could have none of those numerous instruments which to-day in the hands of the scientist enable him accurately to forecast the weather, to anticipate and provide against storms on land and at sea, to detect seismic disturbances and warn against the dangers incident to their repetition; and no wireless telegraphy with its manifold blessings to humanity. all these great achievements have come to us from the hand of the inventor. he it is who has enabled us to inhabit the air above us, to tunnel the earth beneath, explore the mysteries of the sea, and in a thousand ways, unknown to our forefathers, multiply human comforts and minimize human misery. indeed, it is difficult to recall a single feature of our national progress along material lines that has not been vitalized by the touch of the inventor's genius. into this vast yet specific field of scientific industry the colored man has, contrary to the belief of many, made his entry, and has brought to his work in it that same degree of patient inquisitiveness, plodding industry and painstaking experiment that has so richly rewarded others in the same line of endeavor, namely, the endeavor both to create new things and to effect such new combinations of old things as will adapt them to new uses. we know that the colored man has accomplished something--indeed, a very great deal--in the field of invention, but it would be of the first importance to us now to know exactly what he has done, and the commercial value of his productions. unfortunately for us, however, this can never be known in all its completeness. a very recent experiment in the matter of collecting information on this subject has disclosed some remarkably striking facts, not the least interesting of which is the very widespread belief among those who ought to know better that the colored man has done absolutely nothing of value in the line of invention. this is but a reflex of the opinions variously expressed by others at different times on the subject of the capacity of the colored man for mental work of a high order. thomas jefferson's remark that no colored man could probably be found who was capable of taking in and comprehending euclid, and that none had made any contribution to the civilization of the world through his art, would perhaps appear somewhat excusable when viewed in the light of the prevailing conditions in his day, and on which, of course, his judgment was based; but even at that time jefferson knew something of the superior quality of benjamin banneker's mental equipment, for it is on record that they exchanged letters on that subject. coming down to a later day, when our race as a whole had shared, to some extent at least, in the progress of learning, so well informed an exponent of popular thought as henry ward beecher is said to have declared that the whole african race in its native land could be obliterated from the face of the earth without loss to civilization, and yet beecher knew, or should have known, of the scholarly dr. blyden, of liberia, who was at one time president of the college of liberia at monrovia, and minister from his country to the court of st. james, and whose contributions to the leading magazines of europe and america were eagerly accepted and widely read on both continents. less than ten years ago, in a hotly contested campaign in the state of maryland, a popular candidate for congress remarked, in one of his speeches, that the colored race should be denied the right to vote because "none of them had ever evinced sufficient capacity to justify such a privilege," and that "no one of the race had ever yet reached the dignity of an inventor." yet, at that very moment, there was in the library of congress in washington a book of nearly pages containing a list of nearly patents representing the inventions of colored people. only a few years later a leading newspaper in the city of richmond, va., made the bold statement that of the many thousands of patents annually granted by our government to the inventors of our country, "not a single patent had ever been granted to a colored man." of course this statement was untrue, but what of that? it told its tale, and made its impression--far and wide; and it is incumbent upon our race now to outrun that story, to correct that impression, and to let the world know the truth. in a recent correspondence that has reached nearly two-thirds of the more than , registered patent attorneys in this country, who are licensed to prosecute applications for patents before the patent office at washington, it is astonishing to have nearly , of them reply that they never heard of a colored inventor, and not a few of them add that they never expect to hear of one. one practising attorney, writing from a small town in tennessee, said that he not only has never heard of a colored man inventing anything, but that he and the other lawyers to whom he passed the inquiry in that locality were "inclined to regard the whole subject as a joke." and this, remember, comes from practising lawyers, presumably men of affairs, and of judgment, and who keep somewhat ahead of the average citizen in their close observation of the trend of things. now there ought not to be anything strange or unbelievable in the fact that in any given group of more than , , human beings, of whatever race, living in our age, in our country, and developing under our laws, one can find multiplied examples of every mental bent, of every stage of mental development, and of every evidence of mental perception that could be found in any other similar group of human beings of any other race; and yet, so set has become the traditional attitude of one class in our country toward the other class that the one class continually holds up before its eyes an imaginary boundary line in all things mental, beyond which it seems unwilling to admit that it is possible for the other class to go. under this condition of the general class thought in our country it has become the fixed conviction that no colored man has any well-defined power of initiative, that the colored man has no originality of thought, that in his mental operations he is everlastingly content to pursue the beaten paths of imitation, that therefore he has made no contribution to the inventive genius of our country, and so has gained no place for himself in the ranks of those who have made this nation the foremost nation of the world in the number and character of its inventions. that this conclusion with reference to the colored man's inventive faculty is wholly untrue i will endeavor now to show. in the world of invention the colored man has pursued the same line of activity that other men have followed; he has been spurred by the same necessity that has confronted other men, namely, the need for some device by which to minimize the exactions of his daily toil, to save his time, conserve his strength and multiply the results of his labor. like other men, the colored man sought first to invent the thing that was related to his earlier occupations, and as his industrial pursuits became more varied his inventive genius widened correspondingly. thus we find that the first recorded instances of patents having been granted to a colored man--and the only ones specifically so designated--are the two patents on corn harvesters which were granted in and to one henry blair, of maryland, presumably a "free person of color," as the law was so construed at that time as to bar the issuance of a patent to a slave. with the exception of these two instances the public records of the patent office give absolutely no hint as to whether any one of the more than , , patents granted by this government to meritorious inventors from all parts of the world has been granted to a colored inventor. the records make clear enough distinctions as to nationality, but absolutely none as to race. this policy of having the public records distinguish between inventors of different nationalities only is a distinct disadvantage to the colored race in this country. if the inventors of england or france or germany or italy, or any other country, desire to ascertain the number and character of the inventions patented to the citizens of their respective countries, it would require but a few hours of work to get exact statistics on the subject, but not so with the colored inventor. here, as elsewhere, he has a hard road to travel. in fact, it seems absolutely impossible to get even an approximately correct answer to that question for our race. whatever of statistics one is able to get on this subject must be obtained almost wholly in a haphazard sort of way from persons not employed in the patent office, and who must, in the great majority of cases, rely on their memory to some extent for the facts they give. under such circumstances as these it is easy to see the large amount of labor involved in getting up such statistics as may be relied upon as being true. there have been two systematic efforts made by the patent office itself to get this information, one of them being in operation at the present time. the effort is made through a circular letter addressed to the thousands of patent attorneys throughout the country, who come in contact often with inventors as their clients, to popular and influential newspapers, to conspicuous citizens of both races, and to the owners of large manufacturing industries where skilled mechanics of both races are employed, all of whom are asked to report what they happen to know on the subject under inquiry. the answers to this inquiry cover a wide range of guesswork, many mere rumors and a large number of definite facts. these are all put through the test of comparison with the official records of the patent office, and this sifting process has evolved such facts as form the basis of the showing presented here. there is just one other source of information which, though its yield of facts is small, yet makes up in reliability what it lacks in numerousness; and that is where the inventor himself comes to the patent office to look after his invention. this does not often happen, but it rarely leaves anything to the imagination when it does happen. sometimes it has been difficult to get this information by correspondence even from colored inventors themselves. many of them refuse to acknowledge that their inventions are in any way identified with the colored race, on the ground, presumably, that the publication of that fact might adversely affect the commercial value of their invention; and in view of the prevailing sentiment in many sections of our country, it cannot be denied that much reason lies at the bottom of such conclusion. notwithstanding the difficulties above mentioned as standing in the way of getting at the whole truth, something over , instances have been gathered as representing patents granted to colored inventors, but so far only about of these have been verified as definitely belonging to that class. these patents tell a wonderful story of the progress of the race in the mastery of the science of mechanics. they cover inventions of more or less importance in all the branches of mechanics, in chemical compounds, in surgical instruments, in electrical utilities, and in the fine arts as well. from the numerous statements made by various attorneys to the effect that they have had several colored clients whose names they could not recall, and whose inventions they could not identify on their books, it is practically certain that the nearly verified patents do not represent more than one-half of those that have been actually granted to colored inventors, and that the credit for these must perhaps forever lie hidden in the unbreakable silence of official records. but before directing attention specifically to some of the very interesting details disclosed by this latest investigation into the subject, let us consider for a brief moment a few of the inventions which colored men have made, but for which no patents appear to be of record. i should place foremost among these that wonderful clock constructed by our first astronomer, benjamin banneker, of maryland. banneker's span of earthly existence covered the years from to . his parentage was of african and english origin, and his mental equipment was far above the average of his day and locality in either race. aside from his agricultural pursuits, on which he relied for a livelihood, he devoted his time mainly to scientific and mechanical studies, producing two things by which he will be long remembered: an almanac and a clock. the latter he constructed with crude tools, and with no knowledge of any other timepiece except a watch and a sundial; yet the clock he made was so perfect in every detail of its mechanical construction, so accurate in the mathematical calculations involved, that it struck the hours with faultless precision for twenty years, and was the mechanical wonder of his day and locality. another instance is that of mr. james forten, of philadelphia, who is credited with the invention of an apparatus for managing sails. he lived from to , and his biographer says he amassed a competence from his invention and lived in leisurely comfort as a consequence. still another instance is that of robert benjamin lewis, who was born in gardiner, me., in . he invented a machine for picking oakum, which machine is said to be in use to-day in all the essential particulars of its original form by the shipbuilding interests of maine, especially at bath. it is of common knowledge that in the south, prior to the war of the rebellion, the burden of her industries, mechanical as well as agricultural, fell upon the colored population. they formed the great majority of her mechanics and skilled artisans as well as of her ordinary laborers, and from this class of workmen came a great variety of the ordinary mechanical appliances, the invention of which grew directly out of the problems presented by their daily employment. there has been a somewhat persistent rumor that a slave either invented the cotton gin or gave to eli whitney, who obtained a patent for it, valuable suggestions to aid in the completion of that invention. i have not been able to find any substantial proof to sustain that rumor. mr. daniel murray, of the library of congress, contributed a very informing article on that subject to the _voice of the negro_, in , but mr. murray did not reach conclusions favorable to the contention on behalf of the colored man. it is said that the zigzag fence, so commonly used by farmers and others, was originally introduced into this country by african slaves. we come now to consider the list of more modern inventions, those inventions from which the element of uncertainty is wholly eliminated, and which are represented in the patent records of our government. in this verified list of nearly patents granted by our government to the inventors of our race we find that they have applied their inventive talent to the whole range of inventive subjects; that in agricultural implements, in wood and metal-working machines, in land conveyances on road and track, in seagoing vessels, in chemical compounds, in electricity through all its wide range of uses, in aeronautics, in new designs of house furniture and bric-à-brac, in mechanical toys and amusement devices, the colored inventor has achieved such success as should present to the race a distinctly hope-inspiring spectacle. of course it is not possible, in this particular presentation of the subject, to dwell much at length upon the merits of any considerable number of individual cases. this feature will be brought out more fully in the larger publication on this subject which the writer now has in course of preparation. but there are several conspicuous examples of success in this line of endeavor that should be fully emphasized in any treatment of this subject. i like to tell of what has been done by granville t. woods and his brother lyates, of new york; by elijah mccoy, of detroit; by joseph hunter dickinson, of new jersey; by william b. purvis, of philadelphia; ferrell and creamer, of new york; by douglass, of ohio; murray, of south carolina; matzeliger, of lynn; beard, of alabama; richey, of the district of columbia; and a host of others that i could mention. foremost among these men in the number and variety of his inventions, as well as in the commercial value involved, stands the name of granville t. woods. six years ago mr. woods sent me a list of his inventions patented up to that time, and there were then about thirty of them, since which time he has added nearly as many more, including those which he perfected jointly with his brother lyates. his inventions relate principally to electrical subjects, such as telegraphic and telephonic instruments, electric railways and general systems of electrical control, and include several patents on means for transmitting telegraphic messages between moving trains. the records of the patent office show that for valuable consideration several of mr. woods' patents have been assigned to the foremost electrical corporations of the world, such as the general electric company, of new york, and the american bell telephone company, of boston. these records also show that he followed other lines of thought in the exercise of his inventive faculty, one of his other inventions being an incubator, another a complicated and ingenious amusement device, another a steam-boiler furnace, and also a mechanical brake. mr. woods is, perhaps, the best known of all the inventors whose achievements redound to the credit of our race; and in his passing away he has left us the rich legacy of a life successfully devoted to the cause of progress. [illustration: elijah mccoy.] in the prolific yield of his inventive genius, elijah mccoy, of detroit, stands next to granville t. woods. so far as is ascertainable from the office records mr. mccoy obtained his first patent in july, , and the last patent was granted to him in july, . during the intervening forty years he continued to invent one thing after another, completing a record of nearly forty patents on as many separate and distinct inventions. his inventions, like those of woods', cover a wide range of subjects, but relate particularly to the scheme of lubricating machinery. he is regarded as the pioneer in the art of steadily supplying oil to machinery in intermittent drops from a cup so as to avoid the necessity for stopping the machine to oil it. his lubricating cup was in use for years on stationary and locomotive machinery in the west, including the great railway locomotives, the boiler engines of the steamers on the great lakes, on transatlantic steamships, and in many of our leading factories. mccoy's lubricating cups were famous thirty years ago as a necessary equipment in all up-to-date machinery, and it would be rather interesting to know how many of the thousands of machinists who used them daily had any idea then that they were the invention of a colored man. another inventor whose patents occupy a conspicuous place in the records of the patent office, and whose achievements in that line stand recorded as a credit to the colored man, is mr. william b. purvis, of philadelphia. his inventions also cover a variety of subjects, but are directed mainly along a single line of experiment and improvement. he began, in , the invention of machines for making paper bags, and his improvements in this line of machinery are covered by a dozen patents; and a half dozen other patents granted mr. purvis include three patents on electric railways, one on a fountain pen, another on a magnetic car-balancing device, and still another for a cutter for roll holders. another very interesting instance of an inventor whose genius for creating new things is constantly active, producing results that express themselves in terms of dollars for himself and others, is that of mr. joseph hunter dickinson, of new jersey. mr. dickinson's specialty is in the line of musical instruments, particularly the piano. he began more than fifteen years ago to invent devices for automatically playing the piano, and is at present in the employ of a large piano factory, where his various inventions in piano-player mechanism are eagerly adopted in the construction of some of the finest player pianos on the market. he has more than a dozen patents to his credit already, and is still devoting his energies to that line of invention. the company with which he is identified is one of the very largest corporations of its kind in the world, and it is no little distinction to have one of our race occupy so significant a relation to it, and to hold it by the sheer force of a trained and active intellect. mr. frank j. ferrell, of new york, has obtained about a dozen patents for his inventions, the larger portion of them being for improvements in valves for steam engines. mr. benjamin f. jackson, of massachusetts, is the inventor of a dozen different improvements in heating and lighting devices, including a controller for a trolley wheel. mr. charles v. richey, of washington, has obtained about a dozen patents on his inventions, the last of which was a most ingenious device for registering the calls on a telephone and detecting the unauthorized use of that instrument. this particular patent was only recently taken out by mr. richey, and he has organized a company for placing the invention on the market, with fine prospects of success. hon. george w. murray, of south carolina, former member of congress from that state, has received eight patents for his inventions in agricultural implements, including mostly such different attachments as readily adapt a single implement to a variety of uses. henry creamer, of new york, has made seven different inventions in steam traps, covered by as many patents, and andrew j. beard, of alabama, has about the same number to his credit for inventions in car-coupling devices. mr. william douglass, of kansas, was granted about a half dozen patents for various inventions in harvesting machines. one of his patents, that one numbered , , and dated may , , for a self-binding harvester, is conspicuous in the records of the patent office for the complicated and intricate character of the machine, for the extensive drawings required to illustrate it and the lengthy specifications required to explain it--there being thirty-seven large sheets of mechanical drawings and thirty-two printed pages of descriptive matter, including the claims drawn to cover the novel points presented. this particular patent is, in these respects, quite unique in the class here considered. mr. james doyle, of pittsburgh, has obtained several patents for his inventions, one of them being for an automatic serving system. this latter device is a scheme for dispensing with the use of waiters in dining rooms, restaurants and at railroad lunch counters. it was recently exhibited with the pennsylvania exposition society's exhibits at pittsburgh, where it attracted widespread attention from the press and the public. the model used on that occasion is said to have cost nearly $ , . in the civil service at washington there are several colored men who have made inventions of more or less importance which were suggested by the mechanical problems arising in their daily occupations. mr. shelby j. davidson, of kentucky, a clerk in the office of the auditor for the post office department, operated a machine for tabulating and totalizing the quarterly accounts which were regularly submitted by the postmasters of the country. mr. davidson's attention was first directed to the loss in time through the necessity for periodically stopping to manually dispose of the paper coming from the machine. he invented a rewind device which served as an attachment for automatically taking up the paper as it issued from the machine, and adapted it for use again on the reverse side, thus effecting a very considerable economy of time and material. his main invention, however, was a novel attachment for adding machines which was designed to automatically include the government fee, as well as the amount sent, when totalizing the money orders in the reports submitted by postmasters. this was a distinct improvement in the efficiency and value of the machine he was operating and the government granted him patents on both inventions. his talents were recognized not only by the office in which he was employed by promotion in rank and pay, but also in a very significant way by the large factory which turned out the adding machines the government was using. mr. davidson has since resigned his position and is now engaged in the practice of the law in washington, d.c. [illustration: robert a. pelham.] mr. robert pelham, of detroit, is similarly employed in the census bureau, where his duties include the compilation of groups of statistics on sheets from data sent into the office from the thousands of manufacturers of the country. unlike most of the other men in the departmental service, mr. pelham seemed anxious to get through with his job quickly, for he devised a machine used as an adjunct in tabulating the statistics from the manufacturers' schedules in a way that displaced a dozen men in a given quantity of work, doing the work economically, speedily and with faultless precision, when operated under mr. pelham's skilful direction. mr. pelham has also been granted a patent for his invention, and the proved efficiency of his devices induced the united states government to lease them from him, paying him a royalty for their use, in addition to his salary for operating them. mr. pelham's mechanical genius is evidently "running in the family," for his oldest son, now a high-school youth, has distinguished himself by his experiments in wireless telegraphy, and is one of the very few colored boys in washington holding a regular license for operating the wireless. mr. w. a. lavalette, of the government printing office, the largest printing establishment in the world, began his career as a printer there years before the development of that art called into use the wonderful machines employed in it to-day; and one of his first efforts was to devise a printing machine superior to the pioneer type used at that time. this was in , and he succeeded that year in inventing and patenting a printing machine that was a notable novelty in its day, though it has, of course, long ago been superseded by others. i have reserved for the last the name and work of jan matzeliger, of massachusetts. although there are barely half a dozen patents standing in his name on the records of the office, and his name is little known to the general public, there are, i think, some points in his career that easily make him conspicuous above all the rest, and i have found the story really inspiring. as a very young man matzeliger worked in a shoe shop in lynn, mass., serving his apprenticeship at that trade. seeking, in the true spirit of the inventor, to make two blades of grass grow where only one grew before, he devised the first complete machine ever invented for performing automatically all the operations involved in attaching soles to shoes. other machines had previously been made for performing a part of these operations, but matzeliger's machine was the only one then known to the mechanical world that could simultaneously hold the last in place to receive the leather, move it forward step by step so that other co-acting parts might draw the leather over the heel, properly punch and grip the upper and draw it down over the last, plait the leather properly at the heel and toe, feed the nails to the driving point, hold them in position while being driven, and then discharge the completely soled shoe from the machine, everything being done automatically, and requiring less than a minute to complete a single shoe. this wonderful achievement marked the beginning of a distinct revolution in the art of making shoes by machinery. matzeliger realized this, and attempted to capitalize it by organizing a stock company to market his invention; but his plans were frustrated through failing health and lack of business experience, and shortly thereafter, at the age of , he passed away. he had done his work, however, under the keen eye of the shrewd yankees, and these were quick to see the immense commercial importance of the step he had accomplished. one of these bought the patent and all of the stock that he could find of the company organized by matzeliger. this fortunate purchase laid the foundation for the organization of the united shoe machinery company, the largest and richest corporation of the kind in the world. (see, in _munsey's magazine_ of august, , on page , biographical sketch of mr. sidney winslow, millionaire head of the united shoe machinery company.) some idea may be had of the magnitude of this giant industry, which is thus shown to have grown directly out of the inventions of a young colored man, by recalling the fact that the corporation represents the consolidation of forty-one different smaller companies, that its factories cover twenty-one acres of ground, that it gives employment daily to , persons, that its working capital is quoted at $ , , , and that it controls more than patents representing improvements in the machines it produces. from an article published in the lynn (mass.) _news_, of october , , it appears that the united shoe machinery company, above mentioned, established at lynn a school, the only one of its kind in the world, where boys are taught exclusively to operate the matzeliger type of machine; that a class of about boys and young men are graduated from this school annually and sent out to various parts of the world to instruct others in the art of handling this machine. some years before his death matzeliger became a member of a white church in lynn, called the north congregational society, and bequeathed to this church some of the stock of the company he had organized. years afterward this church became heavily involved in debt, and remembering the stock that had been left to it by this colored member, found, upon inquiry, that it had become very valuable through the importance of the patent under the management of the large company then controlling it. the church sold the stock and realized from the sale more than enough to pay off the entire debt of the church, amounting to $ , . with the canceled mortgage as one incentive, this church held a special service of thanks one sunday morning, on which occasion a life-sized portrait of their benefactor looked down from the platform on the immense congregation below, while a young white lady, a member of the church, read an interesting eulogy of the deceased and the pastor, rev. a. j. covell, preached an eloquent sermon on the text found in romans : --"owe no man anything but to love one another." let us cherish the hope that the spirit and the significance of that occasion sank deep in the hearts of those present. there are those who have tried to deny to our race the share that is ours in the glory of matzeliger's achievements. these declare that he had no negro blood in his veins; but the proof against this assertion is irrefutable. through correspondence with the mayor of lynn, a certified copy of the death certificate issued on the occasion of matzeliger's death has been obtained, and this document designates him a "mulatto." others have tried the same thing with reference to granville t. woods, a too kind biographer, writing of him in the _cosmopolitan_ in april, , stating that he had no negro blood in him. but those who knew mr. woods personally will readily acquit him of the charge of any such ethnological errancy. another effort to detract from matzeliger's fame comes up in the criticism that his machine was not perfect, requiring subsequent improvements to complete it and make it commercially valuable. matzeliger was as truly a pioneer, blazing the way for a great industrial triumph, as was whitney, or howe, or watt, or fulton, or any other one of the scores of pioneers in the field of mechanical genius. the cotton gin of to-day is, of course, not the cotton gin first given to the world by whitney, but the essential principles of its construction are found clearly outlined in whitney's machine. the complex and intricate sewing machine of to-day, with its various attachments to meet the needs of the modern seamstress, is not the crude machine that came from the brain of elias howe; the giant locomotives that now speedily cover the transcontinental distance between new york and san francisco bear but slight resemblance to the engine that stephenson first gave us. in fact, the first productions of all these pioneers, while they disclosed the principles and laid the foundations upon which to build, resemble the later developments only "as mists resemble rain;" but these pioneers make up the army of capable men whose toil and trial, whose brawn and brain, whose infinite patience and indomitable courage have placed this nation of ours in the very front rank of the world's inventors; and, standing there among them, with his name indelible, is our dark-skinned brother, the patient, resourceful matzeliger. in the credit here accorded our race for its achievements in the field of invention our women as well as our men are entitled to share. with an industrial field necessarily more circumscribed than that occupied by our men, and therefore with fewer opportunities and fewer reasons, as well, for exercising the inventive faculty, they have, nevertheless, made a remarkably creditable showing. the record shows that more than twenty colored women have been granted patents for their inventions, and that these inventions cover also a wide range of subjects--artistic, utilitarian, fanciful. the foregoing facts are here presented as a part only of the record made by the race in the field of invention for the first half century of our national life. we can never know the whole story. but we know enough to feel sure that if others knew the story even as we ourselves know it, it would present us in a somewhat different light to the judgment of our fellow men, and, perhaps, make for us a position of new importance in the industrial activities of our country. this great consummation, devoutly to be wished, may form the story of the next fifty years of our progress along these specific lines, so that some one in the distant future, looking down the rugged pathway of the years, may see this race of ours coming up, step by step, into the fullest possession of our industrial, economic and intellectual emancipation. note the writer has in preparation, for early publication, a book which will deal more in detail with the subject of this pamphlet, presenting the names of all inventors, so far as ascertained, with the titles of their inventions and the dates and numbers of their patents, together with brief biographical sketches of many of the more active inventors. published by the crisis publishing company copyrighted, , by henry e. baker little masterpieces of science [illustration: george stephenson.] little masterpieces of science edited by george iles invention and discovery _by_ benjamin franklin alexander graham bell michael faraday count rumford joseph henry george stephenson [illustration] new york doubleday, page & company copyright, , by doubleday, page & co. copyright, , by george b. prescott copyright, , by s. s. mcclure co. copyright, , by doubleday, mcclure & co. preface to a good many of us the inventor is the true hero for he multiplies the working value of life. he performs an old task with new economy, as when he devises a mowing-machine to oust the scythe; or he creates a service wholly new, as when he bids a landscape depict itself on a photographic plate. he, and his twin brother, the discoverer, have eyes to read a lesson that nature has held for ages under the undiscerning gaze of other men. where an ordinary observer sees, or thinks he sees, diversity, a franklin detects identity, as in the famous experiment here recounted which proves lightning to be one and the same with a charge of the leyden jar. of a later day than franklin, advantaged therefor by new knowledge and better opportunities for experiment, stood faraday, the founder of modern electric art. his work gave the world the dynamo and motor, the transmission of giant powers, almost without toll, for two hundred miles at a bound. it is, however, in the carriage of but trifling quantities of motion, just enough for signals, that electricity thus far has done its most telling work. among the men who have created the electric telegraph joseph henry has a commanding place. a short account of what he did, told in his own words, is here presented. then follows a narrative of the difficult task of laying the first atlantic cables, a task long scouted as impossible: it is a story which proves how much science may be indebted to unfaltering courage, to faith in ultimate triumph. to give speech the wings of electricity, to enable friends in denver and new york to converse with one another, is a marvel which only familiarity places beyond the pale of miracle. shortly after he perfected the telephone professor bell described the steps which led to its construction. that recital is here reprinted. a recent wonder of electric art is its penetration by a photographic ray of substances until now called opaque. professor röntgen's account of how he wrought this feat forms one of the most stirring chapters in the history of science. next follows an account of the telegraph as it dispenses with metallic conductors altogether, and trusts itself to that weightless ether which brings to the eye the luminous wave. to this succeeds a chapter which considers what electricity stands for as one of the supreme resources of human wit, a resource transcending even flame itself, bringing articulate speech and writing to new planes of facility and usefulness. it is shown that the rapidity with which during a single century electricity has been subdued for human service, illustrates that progress has leaps as well as deliberate steps, so that at last a gulf, all but infinite, divides man from his next of kin. at this point we pause to recall our debt to the physical philosophy which underlies the calculations of the modern engineer. in such an experiment as that of count rumford we observe how the corner-stone was laid of the knowledge that heat is motion, and that motion under whatever guise, as light, electricity, or what not, is equally beyond creation or annihilation, however elusively it may glide from phase to phase and vanish from view. in the mastery of flame for the superseding of muscle, of breeze and waterfall, the chief credit rests with james watt, the inventor of the steam engine. beside him stands george stephenson, who devised the locomotive which by abridging space has lengthened life and added to its highest pleasures. our volume closes by narrating the competition which decided that stephenson's "rocket" was much superior to its rivals, and thus opened a new chapter in the history of mankind. george iles. contents franklin, benjamin lightning identified with electricity franklin explains the action of the leyden phial or jar. suggests lightning-rods. sends a kite into the clouds during a thunderstorm; through the kite-string obtains a spark of lightning which throws into divergence the loose fibres of the string, just as an ordinary electrical discharge would do. faraday, michael preparing the way for the electric dynamo and motor notices the inductive effect in one coil when the circuit in a concentric coil is completed or broken. notices similar effects when a wire bearing a current approaches another wire or recedes from it. rotates a galvanometer needle by an electric pulse. induces currents in coils when the magnetism is varied in their iron or steel cores. observes the lines of magnetic force as iron filings are magnetized. a magnetic bar moved in and out of a coil of wire excites electricity therein,--mechanical motion is converted into electricity. generates a current by spinning a copper plate in a horizontal plane. henry, joseph invention of the electric telegraph improves the electro-magnet of sturgeon by insulating its wire with silk thread, and by disposing the wire in several coils instead of one. experiments with a large electro-magnet excited by nine distinct coils. uses a battery so powerful that electro-magnets are produced one hundred times more energetic than those of sturgeon. arranges a telegraphic circuit more than a mile long and at that distance sounds a bell by means of an electro-magnet. iles, george the first atlantic cables forerunners at new york and dover. gutta-percha the indispensable insulator. wire is used to sheathe the cables. cyrus w. field's project for an atlantic cable. the first cable fails. so does the second cable . a triumph of courage, . the highway smoothed for successors. lessons of the cable. bell, alexander graham the invention of the telephone indebted to his father's study of the vocal organs as they form sounds. examines the helmholtz method for the analysis and synthesis of vocal sounds. suggests the electrical actuation of tuning-forks and the electrical transmission of their tones. distinguishes intermittent, pulsatory and undulatory currents. devises as his first articulating telephone a harp of steel rods thrown into vibration by electro-magnetism. exhibits optically the vibrations of sound, using a preparation of a human ear: is struck by the efficiency of a slight aural membrane. attaches a bit of clock spring to a piece of goldbeater's skin, speaks to it, an audible message is received at a distant and similar device. this contrivance improved is shown at the centennial exhibition, philadelphia, . at first the same kind of instrument transmitted and delivered, a message; soon two distinct instruments were invented for transmitting and for receiving. extremely small magnets suffice. a single blade of grass forms a telephonic circuit. dam, h. j. w. photographing the unseen röntgen indebted to the researches of faraday, clerk-maxwell, hertz, lodge and lenard. the human optic nerve is affected by a very small range in the waves that exist in the ether. beyond the visible spectrum of common light are vibrations which have long been known as heat or as photographically active. crookes in a vacuous bulb produced soft light from high tension electricity. lenard found that rays from a crookes' tube passed through substances opaque to common light. röntgen extended these experiments and used the rays photographically, taking pictures of the bones of the hand through living flesh, and so on. iles, george the wireless telegraph what may follow upon electric induction. telegraphy to a moving train. the preece induction method; its limits. marconi's system. his precursors, hertz, onesti, branly and lodge. the coherer and the vertical wire form the essence of the apparatus. wireless telegraphy at sea. iles, george electricity, what its mastery means: with a review and a prospect electricity does all that fire ever did, does it better, and performs uncounted services impossible to flame. its mastery means as great a forward stride as the subjugation of fire. a minor invention or discovery simply adds to human resources: a supreme conquest as of flame or electricity, is a multiplier and lifts art and science to a new plane. growth is slow, flowering is rapid: progress at times is so quick of pace as virtually to become a leap. the mastery of electricity based on that of fire. electricity vastly wider of range than heat: it is energy in its most available and desirable phase. the telegraph and the telephone contrasted with the signal fire. electricity as the servant of mechanic and engineer. household uses of the current. electricity as an agent of research now examines nature in fresh aspects. the investigator and the commercial exploiter render aid to one another. social benefits of electricity, in telegraphy, in quick travel. the current should serve every city house. rumford, count (benjamin thompson) heat and motion identified observes that in boring a cannon much heat is generated: the longer the boring lasts, the more heat is produced. he argues that since heat without limit may be thus produced by motion, heat must be motion. stephenson, george the "rocket" locomotive and its victory shall it be a system of stationary engines or locomotives? the two best practical engineers of the day are in favour of stationary engines. a test of locomotives is, however, proffered, and george stephenson and his son, robert, discuss how they may best build an engine to win the first prize. they adopt a steam blast to stimulate the draft of the furnace, and raise steam quickly in a boiler having twenty-five small fire-tubes of copper. the "rocket" with a maximum speed of twenty-nine miles an hour distances its rivals. with its load of water its weight was but four and a quarter tons. invention and discovery franklin identifies lightning with electricity [from franklin's works, edited in ten volumes by john bigelow, vol. i, pages - , copyright by g. p. putnam's sons, new york.] dr. stuber, the author of the first continuation of franklin's life, gives this account of the electrical experiments of franklin:-- "his observations he communicated, in a series of letters, to his friend collinson, the first of which is dated march , . in these he shows the power of points in drawing and throwing off the electrical matter, which had hitherto escaped the notice of electricians. he also made the grand discovery of a _plus_ and _minus_, or of a _positive_ and _negative_ state of electricity. we give him the honour of this without hesitation; although the english have claimed it for their countryman, dr. watson. watson's paper is dated january , ; franklin's july , , several months prior. shortly after franklin, from his principles of the _plus_ and _minus_ state, explained in a satisfactory manner the phenomena of the leyden phial, first observed by mr. cuneus, or by professor muschenbroeck, of leyden, which had much perplexed philosophers. he showed clearly that when charged the bottle contained no more electricity than before, but that as much was taken from one side as thrown on the other; and that to discharge it nothing was necessary but to produce a communication between the two sides by which the equilibrium might be restored, and that then no signs of electricity would remain. he afterwards demonstrated by experiments that the electricity did not reside in the coating as had been supposed, but in the pores of the glass itself. after the phial was charged he removed the coating, and found that upon applying a new coating the shock might still be received. in the year , he first suggested his idea of explaining the phenomena of thunder gusts and of _aurora borealis_ upon electric principles. he points out many particulars in which lightning and electricity agree; and he adduces many facts, and reasonings from facts, in support of his positions. "in the same year he conceived the astonishingly bold and grand idea of ascertaining the truth of his doctrine by actually drawing down the lightning, by means of sharp pointed iron rods raised into the regions of the clouds. even in this uncertain state his passion to be useful to mankind displayed itself in a powerful manner. admitting the identity of electricity and lightning, and knowing the power of points in repelling bodies charged with electricity, and in conducting fires silently and imperceptibly, he suggested the idea of securing houses, ships and the like from being damaged by lightning, by erecting pointed rods that should rise some feet above the most elevated part, and descend some feet into the ground or water. the effect of these he concluded would be either to prevent a stroke by repelling the cloud beyond the striking distance or by drawing off the electrical fire which it contained; or, if they could not effect this they would at least conduct the electrical matter to the earth without any injury to the building. "it was not until the summer of that he was enabled to complete his grand and unparalleled discovery by experiment. the plan which he had originally proposed was, to erect, on some high tower or elevated place, a sentry-box from which should rise a pointed iron rod, insulated by being fixed in a cake of resin. electrified clouds passing over this would, he conceived, impart to it a portion of their electricity which would be rendered evident to the senses by sparks being emitted when a key, the knuckle, or other conductor, was presented to it. philadelphia at this time afforded no opportunity of trying an experiment of this kind. while franklin was waiting for the erection of a spire, it occurred to him that he might have more ready access to the region of clouds by means of a common kite. he prepared one by fastening two cross sticks to a silk handkerchief, which would not suffer so much from the rain as paper. to the upright stick was affixed an iron point. the string was, as usual, of hemp, except the lower end, which was silk. where the hempen string terminated, a key was fastened. with this apparatus, on the appearance of a thundergust approaching, he went out into the commons, accompanied by his son, to whom alone he communicated his intentions, well knowing the ridicule which, too generally for the interest of science, awaits unsuccessful experiments in philosophy. he placed himself under a shed, to avoid the rain; his kite was raised, a thunder-cloud passed over it, no sign of electricity appeared. he almost despaired of success, when suddenly he observed the loose fibres of his string to move towards an erect position. he now presented his knuckle to the key and received a strong spark. how exquisite must his sensations have been at this moment! on his experiment depended the fate of his theory. if he succeeded, his name would rank high among those who had improved science; if he failed, he must inevitably be subjected to the derision of mankind, or, what is worse, their pity, as a well-meaning man, but a weak, silly projector. the anxiety with which he looked for the result of his experiment may easily be conceived. doubts and despair had begun to prevail, when the fact was ascertained, in so clear a manner, that even the most incredulous could no longer withhold their assent. repeated sparks were drawn from the key, a phial was charged, a shock given, and all the experiments made which are usually performed with electricity." faraday's discoveries leading up to the electric dynamo and motor [michael faraday was for many years professor of natural philosophy at the royal institution, london, where his researches did more to subdue electricity to the service of man than those of any other physicist who ever lived. "faraday as a discoverer," by professor john tyndall (his successor) depicts a mind of the rarest ability and a character of the utmost charm. this biography is published by d. appleton & co., new york: the extracts which follow are from the third chapter.] in we have faraday at the climax of his intellectual strength, forty years of age, stored with knowledge and full of original power. through reading, lecturing, and experimenting, he had become thoroughly familiar with electrical science: he saw where light was needed and expansion possible. the phenomena of ordinary electric induction belonged, as it were, to the alphabet of his knowledge: he knew that under ordinary circumstances the presence of an electrified body was sufficient to excite, by induction, an unelectrified body. he knew that the wire which carried an electric current was an electrified body, and still that all attempts had failed to make it excite in other wires a state similar to its own. what was the reason of this failure? faraday never could work from the experiments of others, however clearly described. he knew well that from every experiment issues a kind of radiation, luminous, in different degrees to different minds, and he hardly trusted himself to reason upon an experiment that he had not seen. in the autumn of he began to repeat the experiments with electric currents, which, up to that time, had produced no positive result. and here, for the sake of younger inquirers, if not for the sake of us all, it is worth while to dwell for a moment on a power which faraday possessed in an extraordinary degree. he united vast strength with perfect flexibility. his momentum was that of a river, which combines weight and directness with the ability to yield to the flexures of its bed. the intentness of his vision in any direction did not apparently diminish his power of perception in other directions; and when he attacked a subject, expecting results, he had the faculty of keeping his mind alert, so that results different from those which he expected should not escape him through pre-occupation. he began his experiments "on the induction of electric currents" by composing a helix of two insulated wires, which were wound side by side round the same wooden cylinder. one of these wires he connected with a voltaic battery of ten cells, and the other with a sensitive galvanometer. when connection with the battery was made, and while the current flowed, no effect whatever was observed at the galvanometer. but he never accepted an experimental result, until he had applied to it the utmost power at his command. he raised his battery from ten cells to one hundred and twenty cells, but without avail. the current flowed calmly through the battery wire without producing, during its flow, any sensible result upon the galvanometer. "during its flow," and this was the time when an effect was expected--but here faraday's power of lateral vision, separating, as it were from the line of expectation, came into play--he noticed that a feeble movement of the needle always occurred at the moment when he made contact with the battery; that the needle would afterwards return to its former position and remain quietly there unaffected by the _flowing_ current. at the moment, however, when the circuit was interrupted the needle again moved, and in a direction opposed to that observed on the completion of the circuit. this result, and others of a similar kind, led him to the conclusion "that the battery current through the one wire did in reality induce a similar current through the other; but that it continued for an instant only, and partook more of the nature of the electric wave from a common leyden jar than of the current from a voltaic battery." the momentary currents thus generated were called _induced currents_, while the current which generated them was called the _inducing_ current. it was immediately proved that the current generated at making the circuit was always opposed in direction to its generator, while that developed on the rupture of the circuit coincided in direction with the inducing current. it appeared as if the current on its first rush through the primary wire sought a purchase in the secondary one, and, by a kind of kick, impelled backward through the latter an electric wave, which subsided as soon as the primary current was fully established. faraday, for a time, believed that the secondary wire, though quiescent when the primary current had been once established, was not in its natural condition, its return to that condition being declared by the current observed at breaking the circuit. he called this hypothetical state of the wire the _electro-tonic state_: he afterwards abandoned this hypothesis, but seemed to return to it in after life. the term electro-tonic is also preserved by professor du bois reymond to express a certain electric condition of the nerves, and professor clerk maxwell has ably defined and illustrated the hypothesis in the tenth volume of the "transactions of the cambridge philosophical society." the mere approach of a wire forming a closed curve to a second wire through which a voltaic current flowed was then shown by faraday to be sufficient to arouse in the neutral wire an induced current, opposed in direction to the inducing current; the withdrawal of the wire also generated a current having the same direction as the inducing current; those currents existed only during the time of approach or withdrawal, and when neither the primary nor the secondary wire was in motion, no matter how close their proximity might be, no induced current was generated. faraday has been called a purely inductive philosopher. a great deal of nonsense is, i fear, uttered in this land of england about induction and deduction. some profess to befriend the one, some the other, while the real vocation of an investigator, like faraday, consists in the incessant marriage of both. he was at this time full of the theory of ampère, and it cannot be doubted that numbers of his experiments were executed merely to test his deductions from that theory. starting from the discovery of oersted, the celebrated french philosopher had shown that all the phenomena of magnetism then known might be reduced to the mutual attractions and repulsions of electric currents. magnetism had been produced from electricity, and faraday, who all his life long entertained a strong belief in such reciprocal actions, now attempted to effect the evolution of electricity from magnetism. round a welded iron ring he placed two distinct coils of covered wire, causing the coils to occupy opposite halves of the ring. connecting the ends of one of the coils with a galvanometer, he found that the moment the ring was magnetized, by sending a current through _the other coil_, the galvanometer needle whirled round four or five times in succession. the action, as before, was that of a pulse, which vanished immediately. on interrupting the current, a whirl of the needle in the opposite direction occurred. it was only during the time of magnetization or demagnetization that these effects were produced. the induced currents declared a _change_ of condition only, and they vanished the moment the act of magnetization or demagnetization was complete. the effects obtained with the welded ring were also obtained with straight bars of iron. whether the bars were magnetized by the electric current, or were excited by the contact of permanent steel magnets, induced currents were always generated during the rise, and during the subsidence of the magnetism. the use of iron was then abandoned, and the same effects were obtained by merely thrusting a permanent steel magnet into a coil of wire. a rush of electricity through the coil accompanied the insertion of the magnet; an equal rush in the opposite direction accompanied its withdrawal. the precision with which faraday describes these results, and the completeness with which he defined the boundaries of his facts, are wonderful. the magnet, for example, must not be passed quite through the coil, but only half through, for if passed wholly through, the needle is stopped as by a blow, and then he shows how this blow results from a reversal of the electric wave in the helix. he next operated with the powerful permanent magnet of the royal society, and obtained with it, in an exalted degree, all the foregoing phenomena. and now he turned the light of these discoveries upon the darkest physical phenomenon of that day. arago had discovered in , that a disk of non-magnetic metal had the power of bringing a vibrating magnetic needle suspended over it rapidly to rest; and that on causing the disk to rotate the magnetic needle rotated along with it. when both were quiescent, there was not the slightest measurable attraction or repulsion exerted between the needle and the disk; still when in motion the disk was competent to drag after it, not only a light needle, but a heavy magnet. the question had been probed and investigated with admirable skill by both arago and ampère, and poisson had published a theoretic memoir on the subject; but no cause could be assigned for so extraordinary an action. it had also been examined in this country by two celebrated men, mr. babbage and sir john herschel; but it still remained a mystery. faraday always recommended the suspension of judgment in cases of doubt. "i have always admired," he says, "the prudence and philosophical reserve shown by m. arago in resisting the temptations to give a theory of the effect he had discovered, so long as he could not devise one which was perfect in its application, and in refusing to assent to the imperfect theories of others." now, however, the time for theory had come. faraday saw mentally the rotating disk, under the operation of the magnet, flooded with his induced currents, and from the known laws of interaction between currents and magnets he hoped to deduce the motion observed by arago. that hope he realized, showing by actual experiment that when his disk rotated currents passed through it, their position and direction being such as must, in accordance with the established laws of electro-magnetic action, produce the observed rotation. introducing the edge of his disk between the poles of the large horseshoe magnet of the royal society, and connecting the axis and the edge of the disk, each by a wire with a galvanometer, he obtained, when the disk was turned round, a constant flow of electricity. the direction of the current was determined by the direction of the motion, the current being reversed when the rotation was reversed. he now states the law which rules the production of currents in both disks and wires, and in so doing uses, for the first time, a phrase which has since become famous. when iron filings are scattered over a magnet, the particles of iron arrange themselves in certain determined lines called magnetic curves. in , faraday for the first time called these curves "lines of magnetic force;" and he showed that to produce induced currents neither approach to nor withdrawal from a magnetic source, or centre, or pole, was essential, but that it was only necessary to cut appropriately the lines of magnetic force. faraday's first paper on magneto-electric induction, which i have here endeavoured to condense, was read before the royal society on the th of november, . on january , , he communicated to the royal society a second paper on "terrestrial magneto-electric induction," which was chosen as the bakerian lecture for the year. he placed a bar of iron in a coil of wire, and lifting the bar into the direction of the dipping needle, he excited by this action a current in the coil. on reversing the bar, a current in the opposite direction rushed through the wire. the same effect was produced, when, on holding the helix in the line of dip, a bar of iron was thrust into it. here, however, the earth acted on the coil through the intermediation of the bar of iron. he abandoned the bar and simply set a copper-plate spinning in a horizontal plane; he knew that the earth's lines of magnetic force then crossed the plate at an angle of about °. when the plate spun round, the lines of force were intersected and induced currents generated, which produced their proper effect when carried from the plate to the galvanometer. "when the plate was in the magnetic meridian, or in any other plane coinciding with the magnetic dip, then its rotation produced no effect upon the galvanometer." at the suggestion of a mind fruitful in suggestions of a profound and philosophic character--i mean that of sir john herschel--mr. barlow, of woolwich, had experimented with a rotating iron shell. mr. christie had also performed an elaborate series of experiments on a rotating iron disk. both of them had found that when in rotation the body exercised a peculiar action upon the magnetic needle, deflecting it in a manner which was not observed during quiescence; but neither of them was aware at the time of the agent which produced this extraordinary deflection. they ascribed it to some change in the magnetism of the iron shell and disk. but faraday at once saw that his induced currents must come into play here, and he immediately obtained them from an iron disk. with a hollow brass ball, moreover, he produced the effects obtained by mr. barlow. iron was in no way necessary: the only condition of success was that the rotating body should be of a character to admit of the formation of currents in its substance: it must, in other words, be a conductor of electricity. the higher the conducting power the more copious were the currents. he now passes from his little brass globe to the globe of the earth. he plays like a magician with the earth's magnetism. he sees the invisible lines along which its magnetic action is exerted and sweeping his wand across these lines evokes this new power. placing a simple loop of wire round a magnetic needle he bends its upper portion to the west: the north pole of the needle immediately swerves to the east: he bends his loop to the east, and the north poles moves to the west. suspending a common bar magnet in a vertical position, he causes it to spin round its own axis. its pole being connected with one end of a galvanometer wire, and its equator with the other end, electricity rushes round the galvanometer from the rotating magnet. he remarks upon the "_singular independence_" of the magnetism and the body of the magnet which carries it. the steel behaves as if it were isolated from its own magnetism. and then his thoughts suddenly widen, and he asks himself whether the rotating earth does not generate induced currents as it turns round its axis from west to east. in his experiment with the twirling magnet the galvanometer wire remained at rest; one portion of the circuit was in motion _relatively_ to _another portion_. but in the case of the twirling planet the galvanometer wire would necessarily be carried along with the earth; there would be no relative motion. what must be the consequence? take the case of a telegraph wire with its two terminal plates dipped into the earth, and suppose the wire to lie in the magnetic meridian. the ground underneath the wire is influenced like the wire itself by the earth's rotation; if a current from south to north be generated in the wire, a similar current from south to north would be generated in the earth under the wire; these currents would run against the same terminal plates, and thus neutralize each other. this inference appears inevitable, but his profound vision perceived its possible invalidity. he saw that it was at least possible that the difference of conducting power between the earth and the wire might give one an advantage over the other, and that thus a residual or differential current might be obtained. he combined wires of different materials, and caused them to act in opposition to each other, but found the combination ineffectual. the more copious flow in the better conductor was exactly counterbalanced by the resistance of the worst. still, though experiment was thus emphatic, he would clear his mind of all discomfort by operating on the earth itself. he went to the round lake near kensington palace, and stretched four hundred and eighty feet of copper wire, north and south, over the lake, causing plates soldered to the wire at its ends to dip into the water. the copper wire was severed at the middle, and the severed ends connected with a galvanometer. no effect whatever was observed. but though quiescent water gave no effect, moving water might. he therefore worked at london bridge for three days during the ebb and flow of the tide, but without any satisfactory result. still he urges, "theoretically it seems a necessary consequence, that where water is flowing there electric currents should be formed. if a line be imagined passing from dover to calais through the sea, and returning through the land, beneath the water, to dover, it traces out a circuit of conducting matter one part of which, when the water moves up or down the channel, is cutting the magnetic curves of the earth, while the other is relatively at rest.... there is every reason to believe that currents do run in the general direction of the circuit described, either one way or the other, according as the passage of the waters is up or down the channel." this was written before the submarine cable was thought of, and he once informed me that actual observation upon that cable had been found to be in accordance with his theoretic deduction. three years subsequent to the publication of these researches, that is to say on january , , faraday read before the royal society a paper "on the influence by induction of an electric current upon itself." a shock and spark of a peculiar character had been observed by a young man named william jenkin, who must have been a youth of some scientific promise, but who, as faraday once informed me, was dissuaded by his own father from having anything to do with science. the investigation of the fact noticed by mr. jenkin led faraday to the discovery of the _extra current_, or the current _induced in the primary wire itself_ at the moments of making and breaking contact, the phenomena of which he described and illustrated in the beautiful and exhaustive paper referred to. seven and thirty years have passed since the discovery of magneto-electricity; but, if we except the _extra current_, until quite recently nothing of moment was added to the subject. faraday entertained the opinion that the discoverer of a great law or principle had a right to the "spoils"--this was his term--arising from its illustration; and guided by the principle he had discovered, his wonderful mind, aided by his wonderful ten fingers, overran in a single autumn this vast domain, and hardly left behind him the shred of a fact to be gathered by his successors. and here the question may arise in some minds, what is the use of it all? the answer is, that if man's intellectual nature thirsts for knowledge then knowledge is useful because it satisfies this thirst. if you demand practical ends, you must, i think, expand your definition of the term practical, and make it include all that elevates and enlightens the intellect, as well as all that ministers to the bodily health and comfort of men. still, if needed, an answer of another kind might be given to the question "what is its use?" as far as electricity has been applied for medical purposes, it has been almost exclusively faraday's electricity. you have noticed those lines of wire which cross the streets of london. it is faraday's currents that speed from place to place through these wires. approaching the point of dungeness, the mariner sees an unusually brilliant light, and from the noble lighthouse of la hève the same light flashes across the sea. these are faraday's sparks exalted by suitable machinery to sun-like splendour. at the present moment the board of trade and the brethren of the trinity house, as well as the commissioners of northern lights, are contemplating the introduction of the magneto-electric light at numerous points upon our coasts; and future generations will be able to refer to those guiding stars in answer to the question, what has been the practical use of the labours of faraday? but i would again emphatically say, that his work needs no justification, and that if he had allowed his vision to be disturbed by considerations regarding the practical use of his discoveries, those discoveries would never have been made by him. "i have rather," he writes in , "been desirous of discovering new facts and new relations dependent on magneto-electric induction, than of exalting the force of those already obtained; being assured that the latter would find their full development hereafter." in , when lecturing before a private society in london on the element chlorine, faraday thus expresses himself with reference to this question of utility. "before leaving this subject, i will point out the history of this substance as an answer to those who are in the habit of saying to every new fact, 'what is its use?' dr. franklin says to such, 'what is the use of an infant?' the answer of the experimentalist is, 'endeavour to make it useful.' when scheele discovered this substance, it appeared to have no use; it was in its infancy and useless state, but having grown up to maturity, witness its powers, and see what endeavours to make it useful have done." professor joseph henry's invention of the electric telegraph [in the regents of the smithsonian institution, washington, d. c., at the instance of their secretary, professor joseph henry, took evidence with respect to his claims as inventor of the electric telegraph. the essential paragraphs of professor henry's statement are taken from the proceedings of the board of regents of the smithsonian institution, washington, .] there are several forms of the electric telegraph; first, that in which frictional electricity has been proposed to produce sparks and motion of pith balls at a distance. second, that in which galvanism has been employed to produce signals by means of bubbles of gas from the decomposition of water. third, that in which electro-magnetism is the motive power to produce motion at a distance; and again, of the latter there are two kinds of telegraphs, those in which the intelligence is indicated by the motion of a magnetic needle, and those in which sounds and permanent signs are made by the attraction of an electro-magnet. the latter is the class to which mr. morse's invention belongs. the following is a brief exposition of the several steps which led to this form of the telegraph. the first essential fact which rendered the electro-magnetic telegraph possible was discovered by oersted, in the winter of -' . it is illustrated by figure , in which the magnetic needle is deflected by the action of a current of galvanism transmitted through the wire a b. [illustration: fig. ] the second fact of importance, discovered in , by arago and davy, is illustrated in fig. . it consists in this, that while a current of galvanism is passing through a copper wire a b, it is magnetic, it attracts iron filings and not those of copper or brass, and is capable of developing magnetism in soft iron. [illustration: fig. ] the next important discovery, also made in , by ampère, was that two wires through which galvanic currents are passing in the same direction attract, and in the opposite direction, repel, each other. on this fact ampère founded his celebrated theory, that magnetism consists merely in the attraction of electrical currents revolving at right angles to the line joining the two poles of the magnet. the magnetization of a bar of steel or iron, according to this theory consists in establishing within the metal by induction a series of electrical currents, all revolving in the same direction at right angles to the axis or length of the bar. [illustration: fig. ] it was this theory which led arago, as he states, to adopt the method of magnetizing sewing needles and pieces of steel wire, shown in fig. . this method consists in transmitting a current of electricity through a helix surrounding the needle or wire to be magnetised. for the purpose of insulation the needle was enclosed in a glass tube, and the several turns of the helix were at a distance from each other to insure the passage of electricity through the whole length of the wire, or, in other words, to prevent it from seeking a shorter passage by cutting across from one spire to another. the helix employed by arago obviously approximates the arrangement required by the theory of ampère, in order to develop by induction the magnetism of the iron. by an attentive perusal of the original account of the experiments of arago, it will be seen that, properly speaking, he made no electro-magnet, as has been asserted by morse and others; his experiments were confined to the magnetism of iron filings, to sewing needles and pieces of steel wire of the diameter of a millimetre, or of about the thickness of a small knitting needle. [illustration: fig. ] mr. sturgeon, in , made an important step in advance of the experiments of arago, and produced what is properly known as the electro-magnet. he bent a piece of iron _wire_ into the form of a horseshoe, covered it with varnish to insulate it, and surrounded it with a helix, of which the spires were at a distance. when a current of galvanism was passed through the helix from a small battery of a single cup the iron wire became magnetic, and continued so during the passage of the current. when the current was interrupted the magnetism disappeared, and thus was produced the first temporary soft iron magnet. the electro-magnet of sturgeon is shown in fig. . by comparing figs. and it will be seen that the helix employed by sturgeon was of the same kind as that used by arago; instead however, of a straight steel wire inclosed in a tube of glass, the former employed a bent wire of soft iron. the difference in the arrangement at first sight might appear to be small, but the difference in the results produced was important, since the temporary magnetism developed in the arrangement of sturgeon was sufficient to support a weight of several pounds, and an instrument was thus produced of value in future research. [illustration: fig. ] the next improvement was made by myself. after reading an account of the galvanometer of schweigger, the idea occurred to me that a much nearer approximation to the requirements of the theory of ampère could be attained by insulating the conducting wire itself, instead of the rod to be magnetized, and by covering the whole surface of the iron with a series of coils in close contact. this was effected by insulating a long wire with silk thread, and winding this around the rod of iron in close coils from one end to the other. the same principle was extended by employing a still longer insulated wire, and winding several strata of this over the first, care being taken to insure the insulation between each stratum by a covering of silk ribbon. by this arrangement the rod was surrounded by a compound helix formed of a long wire of many coils, instead of a single helix of a few coils, (fig. ). in the arrangement of arago and sturgeon the several turns of wire were not precisely at right angles to the axis of the rod, as they should be, to produce the effect required by the theory, but slightly oblique, and therefore each tended to develop a separate magnetism not coincident with the axis of the bar. but in winding the wire over itself, the obliquity of the several turns compensated each other, and the resultant action was at right angles to the bar. the arrangement then introduced by myself was superior to those of arago and sturgeon, first in the greater multiplicity of turns of wire, and second in the better application of these turns to the development of magnetism. the power of the instrument with the same amount of galvanic force, was by this arrangement several times increased. the maximum effect, however, with this arrangement and a single battery was not yet obtained. after a certain length of wire had been coiled upon the iron, the power diminished with a further increase of the number of turns. this was due to the increased resistance which the longer wire offered to the conduction of electricity. two methods of improvement therefore suggested themselves. the first consisted, not in increasing the length of the coil, but in using a number of separate coils on the same piece of iron. by this arrangement the resistance to the conduction of the electricity was diminished and a greater quantity made to circulate around the iron from the same battery. the second method of producing a similar result consisted in increasing the number of elements of the battery, or, in other words, the projectile force of the electricity, which enabled it to pass through an increased number of turns of wire, and thus, by increasing the length of the wire, to develop the maximum power of the iron. [illustration: fig. ] to test these principles on a larger scale, the experimental magnet was constructed, which is shown in fig. . in this a number of compound helices were placed on the same bar, their ends left projecting, and so numbered that they could be all united into one long helix, or variously combined in sets of lesser length. from a series of experiments with this and other magnets it was proved that, in order to produce the greatest amount of magnetism from a battery of a single cup, a number of helices is required; but when a compound battery is used, then one long wire must be employed, making many turns around the iron, the length of wire and consequently the number of turns being commensurate with the projectile power of the battery. in describing the results of my experiments, the terms _intensity_ and _quantity_ magnets were introduced to avoid circumlocution, and were intended to be used merely in a technical sense. by the _intensity_ magnet i designated a piece of soft iron, so surrounded with wire that its magnetic power could be called into operation by an _intensity_ battery, and by a _quantity_ magnet, a piece of iron so surrounded by a number of separate coils, that its magnetism could be fully developed by a _quantity_ battery. i was the first to point out this connection of the two kinds of the battery with the two forms of the magnet, in my paper in _silliman's journal_, january, , and clearly to state that when magnetism was to be developed by means of a compound battery, one long coil was to be employed, and when the maximum effect was to be produced by a single battery, a number of single strands were to be used. these steps in the advance of electro-magnetism, though small, were such as to interest and astonish the scientific world. with the same battery used by mr. sturgeon, at least a hundred times more magnetism was produced than could have been obtained by his experiment. the developments were considered at the time of much importance in a scientific point of view, and they subsequently furnished the means by which magneto-electricity, the phenomena of dia-magnetism, and the magnetic effects on polarized light were discovered. they gave rise to the various forms of electro-magnetic machines which have since exercised the ingenuity of inventors in every part of the world, and were of immediate applicability in the introduction of the magnet to telegraphic purposes. neither the electro-magnet of sturgeon nor any electro-magnet ever made previous to my investigations was applicable to transmitting power to a distance. the principles i have developed were properly appreciated by the scientific mind of dr. gale, and applied by him to operate mr. morse's machine at a distance. previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism in soft iron were imperfectly understood. the electro-magnet made by sturgeon, and copied by dana, of new york, was an imperfect quantity magnet, the feeble power of which was developed by a single battery. it was entirely inapplicable to a long circuit with an intensity battery, and no person possessing the requisite scientific knowledge, would have attempted to use it in that connection after reading my paper. in sending a message to a distance, two circuits are employed, the first a long circuit through which the electricity is sent to the distant station to bring into action the second, a short one, in which is the local battery and magnet for working the machine. in order to give projectile force sufficient to send the power to a distance, it is necessary to use an intensity battery in the long circuit, and in connection with this, at the distant station, a magnet surrounded with many turns of one long wire must be employed to receive and multiply the effect of the current enfeebled by its transmission through the long conductor. in the local or short circuit either an intensity or a quantity magnet may be employed. if the first be used, then with it a compound battery will be required; and, therefore on account of the increased resistance due to the greater quantity of acid, a less amount of work will be performed by a given amount of material; and, consequently, though this arrangement is practicable it is by no means economical. in my original paper i state that the advantages of a greater conducting power, from using several wires in the quantity magnet, may, in a less degree, be obtained by substituting for them one large wire; but in this case, on account of the greater obliquity of the spires and other causes, the magnetic effect would be less. in accordance with these principles, the receiving magnet, or that which is introduced into the long circuit, consists of a horseshoe magnet surrounded with many hundred turns of a single long wire, and is operated with a battery of from twelve to twenty-four elements or more, while in the local circuit it is customary to employ a battery of one or two elements with a much thicker wire and fewer turns. it will, i think, be evident to the impartial reader that these were improvements in the electro-magnet, which first rendered it adequate to the transmission of mechanical power to a distance; and had i omitted all allusion to the telegraph in my paper, the conscientious historian of science would have awarded me some credit, however small might have been the advance which i made. arago and sturgeon, in the accounts of their experiments, make no mention of the telegraph, and yet their names always have been and will be associated with the invention. i briefly, however, called attention to the fact of the applicability of my experiments to the construction of the telegraph; but not being familiar with the history of the attempts made in regard to this invention, i called it "barlow's project," while i ought to have stated that mr. barlow's investigation merely tended to disprove the possibility of a telegraph. i did not refer exclusively to the needle telegraph when, in my paper, i stated that the _magnetic_ action of a current from a trough is at least not sensibly diminished by passing through a long wire. this is evident from the fact that the immediate experiment from which this deduction was made was by means of an electro-magnet and not by means of a needle galvanometer. [illustration: fig. ] at the conclusion of the series of experiments which i described in _silliman's journal_, there were two applications of the electro-magnet in my mind: one the production of a machine to be moved by electro-magnetism, and the other the transmission of or calling into action power at a distance. the first was carried into execution in the construction of the machine described in _silliman's journal_, vol. xx, , and for the purpose of experimenting in regard to the second, i arranged around one of the upper rooms in the albany academy a wire of more than a mile in length, through which i was enabled to make signals by sounding a bell, (fig. .) the mechanical arrangement for effecting this object was simply a steel bar, permanently magnetized, of about ten inches in length, supported on a pivot, and placed with its north end between the two arms of a horseshoe magnet. when the latter was excited by the current, the end of the bar thus placed was attracted by one arm of the horseshoe, and repelled by the other, and was thus caused to move in a horizontal plane and its further extremity to strike a bell suitably adjusted. i also devised a method of breaking a circuit, and thereby causing a large weight to fall. it was intended to illustrate the practicability of calling into action a great power at a distance capable of producing mechanical effects; but as a description of this was not printed, i do not place it in the same category with the experiments of which i published an account, or the facts which could be immediately deduced from my papers in _silliman's journal_. from a careful investigation of the history of electro-magnetism in its connection with the telegraph, the following facts may be established: . previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and the electro-magnet which then existed was inapplicable to the transmission of power to a distance. . i was the first to prove by actual experiment that, in order to develop magnetic power at a distance, a galvanic battery of intensity must be employed to project the current through the long conductor, and that a magnet surrounded by many turns of one long wire must be used to receive this current. . i was the first actually to magnetize a piece of iron at a distance, and to call attention to the fact of the applicability of my experiments to the telegraph. . i was the first to actually sound a bell at a distance by means of the electro-magnet. . the principles i had developed were applied by dr. gale to render morse's machine effective at a distance. the first atlantic cables george iles [from "flame, electricity and the camera," copyright doubleday, page & co., new york.] electric telegraphy on land has put a vast distance between itself and the mechanical signalling of chappé, just as the scope and availability of the french invention are in high contrast with the rude signal fires of the primitive savage. as the first land telegraphs joined village to village, and city to city, the crossing of water came in as a minor incident; the wires were readily committed to the bridges which spanned streams of moderate width. where a river or inlet was unbridged, or a channel was too wide for the roadway of the engineer, the question arose, may we lay an electric wire under water? with an ordinary land line, air serves as so good a non-conductor and insulator that as a rule cheap iron may be employed for the wire instead of expensive copper. in the quest for non-conductors suitable for immersion in rivers, channels, and the sea, obstacles of a stubborn kind were confronted. to overcome them demanded new materials, more refined instruments, and a complete revision of electrical philosophy. as far back as , francisco salva had recommended to the academy of sciences, barcelona, the covering of subaqueous wires by resin, which is both impenetrable by water and a non-conductor of electricity. insulators, indeed, of one kind and another, were common enough, but each of them was defective in some quality indispensable for success. neither glass nor porcelain is flexible, and therefore to lay a continuous line of one or the other was out of the question. resin and pitch were even more faulty, because extremely brittle and friable. what of such fibres as hemp or silk, if saturated with tar or some other good non-conductor? for very short distances under still water they served fairly well, but any exposure to a rocky beach with its chafing action, any rub by a passing anchor, was fatal to them. what the copper wire needed was a covering impervious to water, unchangeable in composition by time, tough of texture, and non-conducting in the highest degree. fortunately all these properties are united in gutta-percha: they exist in nothing else known to art. gutta-percha is the hardened juice of a large tree (_isonandra gutta_) common in the malay archipelago; it is tough and strong, easily moulded when moderately heated. in comparison with copper it is but one , , , , , , th as conductive. as without gutta-percha there could be no ocean telegraphy, it is worth while recalling how it came within the purview of the electrical engineer. in josé d'almeida, a portuguese engineer, presented to the royal asiatic society, london, the first specimens of gutta-percha brought to europe. a few months later, dr. w. montgomerie, a surgeon, gave other specimens to the society of arts, of london, which exhibited them; but it was four years before the chief characteristic of the gum was recognized. in mr. s. t. armstrong of new york, during a visit to london, inspected a pound or two of gutta-percha, and found it to be twice as good a non-conductor as glass. the next year, through his instrumentality, a cable covered with this new insulator was laid between new york and jersey city; its success prompted mr armstrong to suggest that a similarly protected cable be submerged between america and europe. eighteen years of untiring effort, impeded by the errors inevitable to the pioneer, stood between the proposal and its fulfilment. in the messrs. siemens laid under water in the port of kiel a wire covered with seamless gutta-percha, such as, beginning with , they had employed for subterranean conductors. this particular wire was not used for telegraphy, but formed part of a submarine-mine system. in mr. c. v. walker laid an experimental line in the english channel; he proved the possibility of signalling for two miles through a wire covered with gutta-percha, and so prepared the way for a venture which joined the shores of france and england. [illustration: fig. .--calais-dover cable, ] in a cable twenty-five miles in length was laid from dover to calais, only to prove worthless from faulty insulation and the lack of armour against dragging anchors and fretting rocks. in the experiment was repeated with success. the conductor now was not a single wire of copper, but four wires, wound spirally, so as to combine strength with flexibility; these were covered with gutta-percha and surrounded with tarred hemp. as a means of imparting additional strength, ten iron wires were wound round the hemp--a feature which has been copied in every subsequent cable (fig. ). the engineers were fast learning the rigorous conditions of submarine telegraphy; in its essentials the dover-calais line continues to be the type of deep-sea cables to-day. the success of the wire laid across the british channel incited other ventures of the kind. many of them, through careless construction or unskilful laying, were utter failures. at last, in , a submarine line miles in length gave excellent service, as it united varna with constantinople; this was the greatest length of satisfactory cable until the submergence of an atlantic line. in cyrus w. field of new york opened a new chapter in electrical enterprise as he resolved to lay a cable between ireland and newfoundland, along the shortest line that joins europe to america. he chose valentia and heart's content, a little more than , miles apart, as his termini, and at once began to enlist the co-operation of his friends. although an unfaltering enthusiast when once his great idea had possession of him, mr. field was a man of strong common sense. from first to last he went upon well-ascertained facts; when he failed he did so simply because other facts, which he could not possibly know, had to be disclosed by costly experience. messrs. whitehouse and bright, electricians to his company, were instructed to begin a preliminary series of experiments. they united a continuous stretch of wires laid beneath land and water for a distance of , miles, and found that through this extraordinary circuit they could transmit as many as four signals per second. they inferred that an atlantic cable would offer but little more resistance, and would therefore be electrically workable and commercially lucrative. in a cable was forthwith manufactured, divided in halves, and stowed in the holds of the _niagara_ of the united states navy, and the _agamemnon_ of the british fleet. the _niagara_ sailed from ireland; the sister ship proceeded to newfoundland, and was to meet her in mid-ocean. when the _niagara_ had run out miles of her cable it snapped under a sudden increase of strain at the paying-out machinery; all attempts at recovery were unavailing, and the work for that year was abandoned. the next year it was resumed, a liberal supply of new cable having been manufactured to replace the lost section, and to meet any fresh emergency that might arise. a new plan of voyages was adopted: the vessels now sailed together to mid-sea, uniting there both portions of the cable; then one ship steamed off to ireland, the other to the newfoundland coast. both reached their destinations on the same day, august , , and, feeble and irregular though it was, an electric pulse for the first time now bore a message from hemisphere to hemisphere. after despatches had passed through the wire it became silent forever. in one of these despatches from london, the war office countermanded the departure of two regiments about to leave canada for england, which saved an outlay of about $ , . this widely quoted fact demonstrated with telling effect the value of cable telegraphy. now followed years of struggle which would have dismayed any less resolute soul than mr. field. the civil war had broken out, with its perils to the union, its alarms and anxieties for every american heart. but while battleships and cruisers were patrolling the coast from maine to florida, and regiments were marching through washington on their way to battle, there was no remission of effort on the part of the great projector. indeed, in the misunderstandings which grew out of the war, and that at one time threatened international conflict, he plainly saw how a cable would have been a peace-maker. a single word of explanation through its wire, and angry feelings on both sides of the ocean would have been allayed at the time of the _trent_ affair. in this conviction he was confirmed by the english press; the london _times_ said: "we nearly went to war with america because we had no telegraph across the atlantic." in the british government had appointed a committee of eminent engineers to inquire into the feasibility of an atlantic telegraph, with a view to ascertaining what was wanting for success, and with the intention of adding to its original aid in case the enterprise were revived. in july, , this committee presented a report entirely favourable in its terms, affirming "that a well-insulated cable, properly protected, of suitable specific gravity, made with care, tested under water throughout its progress with the best-known apparatus, and paid into the ocean with the most improved machinery, possesses every prospect of not only being successfully laid in the first instance, but may reasonably be relied upon to continue for many years in an efficient state for the transmission of signals." taking his stand upon this endorsement, mr. field now addressed himself to the task of raising the large sum needed to make and lay a new cable which should be so much better than the old ones as to reward its owners with triumph. he found his english friends willing to venture the capital required, and without further delay the manufacture of a new cable was taken in hand. in every detail the recommendations of the scientific committee were carried out to the letter, so that the cable of was incomparably superior to that of . first, the central copper wire, which was the nerve along which the lightning was to run, was nearly three times larger than before. the old conductor was a strand consisting of seven fine wires, six laid around one, and weighed but pounds to the mile. the new was composed of the same number of wires, but weighed pounds to the mile. it was made of the finest copper obtainable. to secure insulation, this conductor was first embedded in chatterton's compound, a preparation impervious to water, and then covered with four layers of gutta-percha, which were laid on alternately with four thin layers of chatterton's compound. the old cable had but three coatings of gutta-percha, with nothing between. its entire insulation weighed but pounds to the mile, while that of the new weighed pounds.[ ] the exterior wires, ten in number, were of bessemer steel, each separately wound in pitch-soaked hemp yarn, the shore ends specially protected by thirty-six wires girdling the whole. here was a combination of the tenacity of steel with much of the flexibility of rope. the insulation of the copper was so excellent as to exceed by a hundredfold that of the core of --which, faulty though it was, had, nevertheless, sufficed for signals. so much inconvenience and risk had been encountered in dividing the task of cable-laying between two ships that this time it was decided to charter a single vessel, the _great eastern_, which, fortunately, was large enough to accommodate the cable in an unbroken length. foilhommerum bay, about six miles from valentia, was selected as the new irish terminus by the company. although the most anxious care was exercised in every detail, yet, when , miles had been laid, the cable parted in , feet of water, and although thrice it was grappled and brought toward the surface, thrice it slipped off the grappling hooks and escaped to the ocean floor. mr. field was obliged to return to england and face as best he might the men whose capital lay at the bottom of the sea--perchance as worthless as so much atlantic ooze. with heroic persistence he argued that all difficulties would yield to a renewed attack. there must be redoubled precautions and vigilance never for a moment relaxed. everything that deep-sea telegraphy has since accomplished was at that moment daylight clear to his prophetic view. never has there been a more signal example of the power of enthusiasm to stir cold-blooded men of business; never has there been a more striking illustration of how much science may depend for success upon the intelligence and the courage of capital. electricians might have gone on perfecting exquisite apparatus for ocean telegraphy, or indicated the weak points in the comparatively rude machinery which made and laid the cable, yet their exertions would have been wasted if men of wealth had not responded to mr. field's renewed appeal for help. thrice these men had invested largely, and thrice disaster had pursued their ventures; nevertheless they had faith surviving all misfortunes for a fourth attempt. in a new company was organized, for two objects: first, to recover the cable lost the previous year and complete it to the american shore; second, to lay another beside it in a parallel course. the _great eastern_ was again put in commission, and remodelled in accordance with the experience of her preceding voyage. this time the exterior wires of the cable were of galvanized iron, the better to resist corrosion. the paying-out machinery was reconstructed and greatly improved. on july , , the huge steamer began running out her cable twenty-five miles north of the line struck out during the expedition of ; she arrived without mishap in newfoundland on july , and electrical communication was re-established between america and europe. the steamer now returned to the spot where she had lost the cable a few months before; after eighteen days' search it was brought to the deck in good order. union was effected with the cable stowed in the tanks below, and the prow of the vessel was once more turned to newfoundland. on september th this second cable was safely landed at trinity bay. misfortunes now were at an end; the courage of mr. field knew victory at last; the highest honors of two continents were showered upon him. 'tis not the grapes of canaan that repay, but the high faith that failed not by the way. [illustration: fig. .--commercial cable, ] what at first was as much a daring adventure as a business enterprise has now taken its place as a task no more out of the common than building a steamship, or rearing a cantilever bridge. given its price, which will include too moderate a profit to betray any expectation of failure, and a responsible firm will contract to lay a cable across the pacific itself. in the atlantic lines the uniformly low temperature of the ocean floor (about ° c.), and the great pressure of the superincumbent sea, co-operate in effecting an enormous enhancement both in the insulation and in the carrying capacity of the wire. as an example of recent work in ocean telegraphy let us glance at the cable laid in , by the commercial cable company of new york. it unites cape canso, on the northeastern coast of nova scotia, to waterville, on the southwestern coast of ireland. the central portion of this cable much resembles that of its predecessor in . its exterior armour of steel wires is much more elaborate. the first part of fig. shows the details of manufacture: the central copper core is covered with gutta-percha, then with jute, upon which the steel wires are spirally wound, followed by a strong outer covering. for the greatest depths at sea, type _a_ is employed for a total length of , miles; the diameter of this part of the cable is seven-eighths of an inch. as the water lessens in depth the sheathing increases in size until the diameter of the cable becomes one and one-sixteenth inches for miles, as type _b_. the cable now undergoes a third enlargement, and then its fourth and last proportions are presented as it touches the shore, for a distance of one and three-quarter miles, where type _c_ has a diameter of two and one-half inches. the weights of material used in this cable are: copper wire, tons; gutta-percha, tons; jute yarn, tons; steel wire, , tons; compound and tar, , tons; total, , tons. the telegraph-ship _faraday_, specially designed for cable-laying, accomplished the work without mishap. electrical science owes much to the atlantic cables, in particular to the first of them. at the very beginning it banished the idea that electricity as it passes through metallic conductors has anything like its velocity through free space. it was soon found, as professor mendenhall says, "that it is no more correct to assign a definite velocity to electricity than to a river. as the rate of flow of a river is determined by the character of its bed, its gradient, and other circumstances, so the velocity of an electric current is found to depend on the conditions under which the flow takes place."[ ] mile for mile the original atlantic cable had twenty times the retarding effect of a good aerial line; the best recent cables reduce this figure by nearly one-half. in an extreme form, this slowing down reminds us of the obstruction of light as it enters the atmosphere of the earth, of the further impediment which the rays encounter if they pass from the air into the sea. in the main the causes which hinder a pulse committed to a cable are two: induction, and the electrostatic capacity of the wire, that is, the capacity of the wire to take up a charge of its own, just as if it were the metal of a leyden jar. let us first consider induction. as a current takes its way through the copper core it induces in its surroundings a second and opposing current. for this the remedy is one too costly to be applied. were a cable manufactured in a double line, as in the best telephonic circuits, induction, with its retarding and quenching effects, would be neutralized. here the steel wire armour which encircles the cable plays an unwelcome part. induction is always proportioned to the conductivity of the mass in which it appears; as steel is an excellent conductor, the armour of an ocean cable, close as it is to the copper core, has induced in it a current much stronger, and therefore more retarding, than if the steel wire were absent. a word now as to the second difficulty in working beneath the sea--that due to the absorbing power of the line itself. an atlantic cable, like any other extended conductor, is virtually a long, cylindrical leyden jar, the copper wire forming the inner coat, and its surroundings the outer coat. before a signal can be received at the distant terminus the wire must first be charged. the effect is somewhat like transmitting a signal through water which fills a rubber tube; first of all the tube is distended, and its compression, or secondary effect, really transmits the impulse. a remedy for this is a condenser formed of alternate sheets of tin-foil and mica, _c_, connected with the battery, _b_, so as to balance the electric charge of the cable wire (fig. ). in the first atlantic line an impulse demanded one-seventh of a second for its journey. this was reduced when mr. whitehouse made the capital discovery that the speed of a signal is increased threefold when the wire is alternately connected with the zinc and copper poles of the battery. sir william thomson ascertained that these successive pulses are most effective when of proportioned lengths. he accordingly devised an automatic transmitter which draws a duly perforated slip of paper under a metallic spring connected with the cable. to-day to letters are sent per minute instead of fifteen, as at first. [illustration: fig. .--condenser] in many ways a deep-sea cable exaggerates in an instructive manner the phenomena of telegraphy over long aerial lines. the two ends of a cable may be in regions of widely diverse electrical potential, or pressure, just as the readings of the barometer at these two places may differ much. if a copper wire were allowed to offer itself as a gateless conductor it would equalize these variations of potential with serious injury to itself. accordingly the rule is adopted of working the cable not directly, as if it were a land line, but indirectly through condensers. as the throb sent through such apparatus is but momentary, the cable is in no risk from the strong currents which would course through it if it were permitted to be an open channel. [illustration: fig. .--reflecting galvanometer l, lamp; n, moving spot of light reflected from mirror] a serious error in working the first cables was in supposing that they required strong currents as in land lines of considerable length. the very reverse is the fact. mr. charles bright, in _submarine telegraphs_, says: "mr. latimer clark had the conductor of the and lines joined together at the newfoundland end, thus forming an unbroken length of , miles in circuit. he then placed some sulphuric acid in a very small silver thimble, with a fragment of zinc weighing a grain or two. by this primitive agency he succeeded in conveying signals through twice the breadth of the atlantic ocean in little more than a second of time after making contact. the deflections were not of a dubious character, but full and strong, from which it was manifest than an even smaller battery would suffice to produce somewhat similar effects." [illustration: fig. .--siphon recorder] at first in operating the atlantic cable a mirror galvanometer was employed as a receiver. the principle of this receiver has often been illustrated by a mischievous boy as, with a slight and almost imperceptible motion of his hand, he has used a bit of looking-glass to dart a ray of reflected sunlight across a wide street or a large room. on the same plan, the extremely minute motion of a galvanometer, as it receives the successive pulsations of a message, is magnified by a weightless lever of light so that the words are easily read by an operator (fig. ). this beautiful invention comes from the hands of sir william thomson [now lord kelvin], who, more than any other electrician, has made ocean telegraphy an established success. [illustration: fig. .--siphon record. "arrived yesterday"] in another receiver, also of his design, the siphon recorder, he began by taking advantage of the fact, observed long before by bose, that a charge of electricity stimulates the flow of a liquid. in its original form the ink-well into which the siphon dipped was insulated and charged to a high voltage by an influence-machine; the ink, powerfully repelled, was spurted from the siphon point to a moving strip of paper beneath (fig. ). it was afterward found better to use a delicate mechanical shaker which throws out the ink in minute drops as the cable current gently sways the siphon back and forth (fig. ). minute as the current is which suffices for cable telegraphy, it is essential that the metallic circuit be not only unbroken, but unimpaired throughout. no part of his duty has more severely taxed the resources of the electrician than to discover the breaks and leaks in his ocean cables. one of his methods is to pour electricity as it were, into a broken wire, much as if it were a narrow tube, and estimate the length of the wire (and consequently the distance from shore to the defect or break) by the quantity of current required to fill it. footnotes: [ ] henry m. field, "history of the atlantic telegraph." new york: scribner, . [ ] "a century of electricity." boston, houghton, mifflin & co., . bell's telephonic researches [from "bell's electric speaking telephones," by george b. prescott, copyright by d appleton & co., new york, ] in a lecture delivered before the society of telegraph engineers, in london, october , , prof. a. g. bell gave a history of his researches in telephony, together with the experiments that he was led to undertake in his endeavours to produce a practical system of multiple telegraphy, and to realize also the transmission of articulate speech. after the usual introduction, professor bell said in part: it is to-night my pleasure, as well as duty, to give you some account of the telephonic researches in which i have been so long engaged. many years ago my attention was directed to the mechanism of speech by my father, alexander melville bell, of edinburgh, who has made a life-long study of the subject. many of those present may recollect the invention by my father of a means of representing, in a wonderfully accurate manner, the positions of the vocal organs in forming sounds. together we carried on quite a number of experiments, seeking to discover the correct mechanism of english and foreign elements of speech, and i remember especially an investigation in which we were engaged concerning the musical relations of vowel sounds. when vocal sounds are whispered, each vowel seems to possess a particular pitch of its own, and by whispering certain vowels in succession a musical scale can be distinctly perceived. our aim was to determine the natural pitch of each vowel; but unexpected difficulties made their appearance, for many of the vowels seemed to possess a double pitch--one due, probably, to the resonance of the air in the mouth, and the other to the resonance of the air contained in the cavity behind the tongue, comprehending the pharynx and larynx. i hit upon an expedient for determining the pitch, which, at that time, i thought to be original with myself. it consisted in vibrating a tuning fork in front of the mouth while the positions of the vocal organs for the various vowels were silently taken. it was found that each vowel position caused the reinforcement of some particular fork or forks. i wrote an account of these researches to mr. alex. j. ellis, of london. in reply, he informed me that the experiments related had already been performed by helmholtz, and in a much more perfect manner than i had done. indeed, he said that helmholtz had not only analyzed the vowel sounds into their constituent musical elements, but had actually performed the synthesis of them. he had succeeded in producing, artificially, certain of the vowel sounds by causing tuning forks of different pitch to vibrate simultaneously by means of an electric current. mr. ellis was kind enough to grant me an interview for the purpose of explaining the apparatus employed by helmholtz in producing these extraordinary effects, and i spent the greater part of a delightful day with him in investigating the subject. at that time, however, i was too slightly acquainted with the laws of electricity fully to understand the explanations given; but the interview had the effect of arousing my interest in the subjects of sound and electricity, and i did not rest until i had obtained possession of a copy of helmholtz's great work "the theory of tone," and had attempted, in a crude and imperfect manner, it is true, to reproduce his results. while reflecting upon the possibilities of the production of sound by electrical means, it struck me that the principle of vibrating a tuning fork by the intermittent attraction of an electro-magnet might be applied to the electrical production of music. i imagined to myself a series of tuning forks of different pitches, arranged to vibrate automatically in the manner shown by helmholtz--each fork interrupting, at every vibration, a voltaic current--and the thought occurred, why should not the depression of a key like that of a piano direct the interrupted current from any one of these forks, through a telegraph wire, to a series of electro-magnets operating the strings of a piano or other musical instrument, in which case a person might play the tuning fork piano in one place and the music be audible from the electro-magnetic piano in a distant city. the more i reflected upon this arrangement the more feasible did it seem to me; indeed, i saw no reason why the depression of a number of keys at the tuning fork end of the circuit should not be followed by the audible production of a full chord from the piano in the distant city, each tuning fork affecting at the receiving end that string of the piano with which it was in unison. at this time the interest which i felt in electricity led me to study the various systems of telegraphy in use in this country and in america. i was much struck with the simplicity of the morse alphabet, and with the fact that it could be read by sound. instead of having the dots and dashes recorded on paper, the operators were in the habit of observing the duration of the click of the instruments, and in this way were enabled to distinguish by ear the various signals. it struck me that in a similar manner the duration of a musical note might be made to represent the dot or dash of the telegraph code, so that a person might operate one of the keys of the tuning fork piano referred to above, and the duration of the sound proceeding from the corresponding string of the distant piano be observed by an operator stationed there. it seemed to me that in this way a number of distinct telegraph messages might be sent simultaneously from the tuning fork piano to the other end of the circuit by operators, each manipulating a different key of the instrument. these messages would be read by operators stationed at the distant piano, each receiving operator listening for signals for a certain definite pitch, and ignoring all others. in this way could be accomplished the simultaneous transmission of a number of telegraphic messages along a single wire, the number being limited only by the delicacy of the listener's ear. the idea of increasing the carrying power of a telegraph wire in this way took complete possession of my mind, and it was this practical end that i had in view when i commenced my researches in electric telephony. [illustration: fig. ] in the progress of science it is universally found that complexity leads to simplicity, and in narrating the history of scientific research it is often advisable to begin at the end. in glancing back over my own researches, i find it necessary to designate, by distinct names, a variety of electrical currents by means of which sounds can be produced, and i shall direct your attention to several distinct species of what may be termed telephonic currents of electricity. in order that the peculiarities of these currents may be clearly understood, i shall project upon the screen a graphical illustration of the different varieties. the graphical method of representing electrical currents shown in fig. is the best means i have been able to devise of studying, in an accurate manner, the effects produced by various forms of telephonic apparatus, and it has led me to the conception of that peculiar species of telephonic current, here designated as _undulatory_, which has rendered feasible the artificial production of articulate speech by electrical means. a horizontal line (_g g'_) is taken as the zero of current, and impulses of positive electricity are represented above the zero line, and negative impulses below it, or _vice versa_. the vertical thickness of any electrical impulse (_b_ or _d_), measured from the zero line, indicates the intensity of the electrical current at the point observed; and the horizontal extension of the electric line (_b_ or _d_) indicates the duration of the impulse. nine varieties of telephonic currents may be distinguished, but it will only be necessary to show you six of these. the three primary varieties designated as intermittent, pulsatory and undulatory, are represented in lines , and . sub-varieties of these can be distinguished as direct or reversed currents, according as the electrical impulses are all of one kind or are alternately positive and negative. direct currents may still further be distinguished as positive or negative, according as the impulses are of one kind or of the other. an intermittent current is characterized by the alternate presence and absence of electricity upon the circuit. a pulsatory current results from sudden or instantaneous changes in the intensity of a continuous current; and an undulatory current is a current of electricity, the intensity of which varies in a manner proportional to the velocity of the motion of a particle of air during the production of a sound: thus the curve representing graphically the undulatory current for a simple musical note is the curve expressive of a simple pendulous vibration--that is, a sinusoidal curve. and here i may remark, that, although the conception of the undulatory current of electricity is entirely original with myself, methods of producing sound by means of intermittent and pulsatory currents have long been known. for instance, it was long since discovered that an electro-magnet gives forth a decided sound when it is suddenly magnetized or demagnetized. when the circuit upon which it is placed is rapidly made and broken, a succession of explosive noises proceeds from the magnet. these sounds produce upon the ear the effect of a musical note when the current is interrupted a sufficient number of times per second.... [illustration: fig. ] for several years my attention was almost exclusively directed to the production of an instrument for making and breaking a voltaic circuit with extreme rapidity, to take the place of the transmitting tuning fork used in helmholtz's researches. without going into details, i shall merely say that the great defects of this plan of multiple telegraphy were found to consist, first, in the fact that the receiving operators were required to possess a good musical ear in order to discriminate the signals; and secondly, that the signals could only pass in one direction along the line (so that two wires would be necessary in order to complete communication in both directions). the first objection was got over by employing the device which i term a "vibratory circuit breaker," whereby musical signals can be automatically recorded.... i have formerly stated that helmholtz was enabled to produce vowel sounds artificially by combining musical tones of different pitches and intensities. his apparatus is shown in fig. . tuning forks of different pitch are placed between the poles of electro-magnets (_a _, _a _, &c.), and are kept in continuous vibration by the action of an intermittent current from the fork _b_. resonators, , , , etc., are arranged so as to reinforce the sounds in a greater or less degree, according as the exterior orifices are enlarged or contracted. [illustration: fig. ] thus it will be seen that upon helmholtz's plan the tuning forks themselves produce tones of uniform intensity, the loudness being varied by an external reinforcement; but it struck me that the same results would be obtained, and in a much more perfect manner, by causing the tuning forks themselves to vibrate with different degrees of amplitude. i therefore devised the apparatus shown in fig. , which was my first form of articulating telephone. in this figure a harp of steel rods is employed, attached to the poles of a permanent magnet, n. s. when any one of the rods is thrown into vibration an undulatory current is produced in the coils of the electro-magnet e, and the electro-magnet e' attracts the rods of the harp h' with a varying force, throwing into vibration that rod which is in unison with that vibrating at the other end of the circuit. not only so, but the amplitude of vibration in the one will determine the amplitude of vibration in the other, for the intensity of the induced current is determined by the amplitude of the inducing vibration, and the amplitude of the vibration at the receiving end depends upon the intensity of the attractive impulses. when we sing into a piano, certain of the strings of the instrument are set in vibration sympathetically by the action of the voice with different degrees of amplitude, and a sound, which is an approximation to the vowel uttered, is produced from the piano. theory shows that, had the piano a very much larger number of strings to the octave, the vowel sounds would be perfectly reproduced. my idea of the action of the apparatus, shown in fig. , was this: utter a sound in the neighbourhood of the harp h, and certain of the rods would be thrown into vibration with different amplitudes. at the other end of the circuit the corresponding rods of the harp h would vibrate with their proper relations of force, and the _timbre_ [characteristic quality] of the sound would be reproduced. the expense of constructing such an apparatus as that shown in figure deterred me from making the attempt, and i sought to simplify the apparatus before venturing to have it made. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] i have before alluded to the invention by my father of a system of physiological symbols for representing the action of the vocal organs, and i had been invited by the boston board of education to conduct a series of experiments with the system in the boston school for the deaf and dumb. it is well known that deaf mutes are dumb merely because they are deaf, and that there is no defect in their vocal organs to incapacitate them from utterance. hence it was thought that my father's system of pictorial symbols, popularly known as visible speech, might prove a means whereby we could teach the deaf and dumb to use their vocal organs and to speak. the great success of these experiments urged upon me the advisability of devising method of exhibiting the vibrations of sound optically, for use in teaching the deaf and dumb. for some time i carried on experiments with the manometric capsule of köenig and with the phonautograph of léon scott. the scientific apparatus in the institute of technology in boston was freely placed at my disposal for these experiments, and it happened that at that time a student of the institute of technology, mr. maurey, had invented an improvement upon the phonautograph. he had succeeded in vibrating by the voice a stylus of wood about a foot in length, which was attached to the membrane of the phonautograph, and in this way he had been enabled to obtain enlarged tracings upon a plane surface of smoked glass. with this apparatus i succeeded in producing very beautiful tracings of the vibrations of the air for vowel sounds. some of these tracings are shown in fig. . i was much struck with this improved form of apparatus, and it occurred to me that there was a remarkable likeness between the manner in which this piece of wood was vibrated by the membrane of the phonautograph and the manner in which the _ossiculo_ [small bones] of the human ear were moved by the tympanic membrane. i determined therefore, to construct a phonautograph modelled still more closely upon the mechanism of the human ear, and for this purpose i sought the assistance of a distinguished aurist in boston, dr. clarence j. blake. he suggested the use of the human ear itself as a phonautograph, instead of making an artificial imitation of it. the idea was novel and struck me accordingly, and i requested my friend to prepare a specimen for me, which he did. the apparatus, as finally constructed, is shown in fig. . the _stapes_ [inmost of the three auditory ossicles] was removed and a pointed piece of hay about an inch in length was attached to the end of the incus [the middle of the three auditory ossicles]. upon moistening the membrana tympani [membrane of the ear drum] and the ossiculæ with a mixture of glycerine and water the necessary mobility of the parts was obtained, and upon singing into the external artificial ear the piece of hay was thrown into vibration, and tracings were obtained upon a plane surface of smoked glass passed rapidly underneath. while engaged in these experiments i was struck with the remarkable disproportion in weight between the membrane and the bones that were vibrated by it. it occurred to me that if a membrane as thin as tissue paper could control the vibration of bones that were, compared to it, of immense size and weight, why should not a larger and thicker membrane be able to vibrate a piece of iron in front of an electro-magnet, in which case the complication of steel rods shown in my first form of telephone, fig. , could be done away with, and a simple piece of iron attached to a membrane be placed at either end of the telegraphic circuit. figure shows the form of apparatus that i was then employing for producing undulatory currents of electricity for the purpose of multiple telegraphy. a steel reed, a, was clamped firmly by one extremity to the uncovered leg _h_ of an electro-magnet e, and the free end of the reed projected above the covered leg. when the reed a was vibrated in any mechanical way the battery current was thrown into waves, and electrical undulations traversed the circuit b e w e', throwing into vibration the corresponding reed a' at the other end of the circuit. i immediately proceeded to put my new idea to the test of practical experiment, and for this purpose i attached the reed a (fig. ) loosely by one extremity to the uncovered pole _h_ of the magnet, and fastened the other extremity to the centre of a stretched membrane of goldbeaters' skin _n_. i presumed that upon speaking in the neighbourhood of the membrane _n_ it would be thrown into vibration and cause the steel reed a to move in a similar manner, occasioning undulations in the electrical current that would correspond to the changes in the density of the air during the production of the sound; and i further thought that the change of the density of the current at the receiving end would cause the magnet there to attract the reed a' in such a manner that it should copy the motion of the reed a, in which case its movements would occasion a sound from the membrane _n'_ similar in _timbre_ to that which had occasioned the original vibration. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the results, however, were unsatisfactory and discouraging. my friend, mr. thomas a. watson, who assisted me in this first experiment, declared that he heard a faint sound proceed from the telephone at his end of the circuit, but i was unable to verify his assertion. after many experiments, attended by the same only partially successful results, i determined to reduce the size and weight of the spring as much as possible. for this purpose i glued a piece of clock spring about the size and shape of my thumb nail, firmly to the centre of the diaphragm, and had a similar instrument at the other end (fig. ); we were then enabled to obtain distinctly audible effects. i remember an experiment made with this telephone, which at the time gave me great satisfaction and delight. one of the telephones was placed in my lecture room in the boston university, and the other in the basement of the adjoining building. one of my students repaired to the distant telephone to observe the effects of articulate speech, while i uttered the sentence, "do you understand what i say?" into the telephone placed in the lecture hall. to my delight an answer was returned through the instrument itself, articulate sounds proceeded from the steel spring attached to the membrane, and i heard the sentence, "yes, i understand you perfectly." it is a mistake, however, to suppose that the articulation was by any means perfect, and expectancy no doubt had a great deal to do with my recognition of the sentence; still, the articulation was there, and i recognized the fact that the indistinctness was entirely due to the imperfection of the instrument. i will not trouble you by detailing the various stages through which the apparatus passed, but shall merely say that after a time i produced the form of instrument shown in fig. , which served very well as a receiving telephone. in this condition my invention was, in , exhibited at the centennial exhibition in philadelphia. the telephone shown in fig. was used as a transmitting instrument, and that in fig. as a receiver, so that vocal communication was only established in one direction.... [illustration: fig. ] the articulation produced from the instrument shown in fig. was remarkably distinct, but its great defect consisted in the fact that it could not be used as a transmitting instrument, and thus two telephones were required at each station, one for transmitting and one for receiving spoken messages. [illustration: fig. ] it was determined to vary the construction of the telephone shown in fig. , and i sought, by changing the size and tension of the membrane, the diameter and thickness of the steel spring, the size and power of the magnet, and the coils of insulated wire around their poles, to discover empirically the exact effect of each element of the combination, and thus to deduce a more perfect form of apparatus. it was found that a marked increase in the loudness of the sounds resulted from shortening the length of the coils of wire, and by enlarging the iron diaphragm which was glued to the membrane. in the latter case, also, the distinctness of the articulation was improved. finally, the membrane of goldbeaters' skin was discarded entirely, and a simple iron plate was used instead, and at once intelligible articulation was obtained. the new form of instrument is that shown in fig. , and, as had been long anticipated, it was proved that the only use of the battery was to magnetize the iron core, for the effects were equally audible when the battery was omitted and a rod of magnetized steel substituted for the iron core of the magnet. [illustration: fig. ] it was my original intention, as shown in fig. , and it was always claimed by me, that the final form of telephone would be operated by permanent magnets in place of batteries, and numerous experiments had been carried on by mr. watson and myself privately for the purpose of producing this effect. at the time the instruments were first exhibited in public the results obtained with permanent magnets were not nearly so striking as when a voltaic battery was employed, wherefore we thought it best to exhibit only the latter form of instrument. the interest excited by the first published accounts of the operation of the telephone led many persons to investigate the subject, and i doubt not that numbers of experimenters have independently discovered that permanent magnets might be employed instead of voltaic batteries. indeed, one gentleman, professor dolbear, of tufts college, not only claims to have discovered the magneto-electric telephone, but, i understand, charges me with having obtained the idea from him through the medium of a mutual friend. a still more powerful form of apparatus was constructed by using a powerful compound horseshoe magnet in place of the straight rod which had been previously used (see fig. ). indeed, the sounds produced by means of this instrument were of sufficient loudness to be faintly audible to a large audience, and in this condition the instrument was exhibited in the essex institute, in salem, massachusetts, on the th of february, , on which occasion a short speech shouted into a similar telephone in boston sixteen miles away, was heard by the audience in salem. the tones of the speaker's voice were distinctly audible to an audience of six hundred people, but the articulation was only distinct at a distance of about six feet. on the same occasion, also, a report of the lecture was transmitted by word of mouth from salem to boston, and published in the papers the next morning. from the form of telephone shown in fig. to the present form of the instrument (fig. ) is but a step. it is, in fact, the arrangement of fig. in a portable form, the magnet f. h. being placed inside the handle and a more convenient form of mouthpiece provided.... it was always my belief that a certain ratio would be found between the several parts of a telephone, and that the size of the instrument was immaterial; but professor peirce was the first to demonstrate the extreme smallness of the magnets which might be employed. and here, in order to show the parallel lines in which we were working, i may mention the fact that two or three days after i had constructed a telephone of the portable form (fig. ), containing the magnet inside the handle, dr. channing was kind enough to send me a pair of telephones of a similar pattern, which had been invented by experimenters at providence. the convenient form of the mouthpiece shown in fig. , now adopted by me, was invented solely by my friend, professor peirce. i must also express my obligations to my friend and associate, mr. thomas a. watson, of salem, massachusetts, who has for two years past given me his personal assistance in carrying on my researches. in pursuing my investigations i have ever had one end in view--the practical improvement of electric telegraphy--but i have come across many facts which, while having no direct bearing upon the subject of telegraphy, may yet possess an interest for you. for instance, i have found that a musical tone proceeds from a piece of plumbago or retort carbon when an intermittent current of electricity is passed through it, and i have observed the most curious audible effects produced by the passage of reversed intermittent currents through the human body. a breaker was placed in circuit with the primary wires of an induction coil, and the fine wires were connected with two strips of brass. one of these strips was held closely against the ear, and a loud sound proceeded from it whenever the other slip was touched with the other hand. the strips of brass were next held one in each hand. the induced currents occasioned a muscular tremor in the fingers. upon placing my forefinger to my ear a loud crackling noise was audible, seemingly proceeding from the finger itself. a friend who was present placed my finger to his ear, but heard nothing. i requested him to hold the strips himself. he was then distinctly conscious of a noise (which i was unable to perceive) proceeding from his finger. in this case a portion of the induced current passed through the head of the observer when he placed his ear against his own finger, and it is possible that the sound was occasioned by a vibration of the surfaces of the ear and finger in contact. when two persons receive a shock from a ruhmkorff's coil by clasping hands, each taking hold of one wire of the coil with the free hand, a sound proceeds from the clasped hands. the effect is not produced when the hands are moist. when either of the two touches the body of the other a loud sound comes from the parts in contact. when the arm of one is placed against the arm of the other, the noise produced can be heard at a distance of several feet. in all these cases a slight shock is experienced so long as the contact is preserved. the introduction of a piece of paper between the parts in contact does not materially interfere with the production of the sounds, but the unpleasant effects of the shock are avoided. [illustration: fig. ] when an intermittent current from a ruhmkorff's coil is passed through the arms a musical note can be perceived when the ear is closely applied to the arm of the person experimented upon. the sound seems to proceed from the muscles of the fore-arm and from the biceps muscle. mr. elisha gray has also produced audible effects by the passage of electricity through the human body. an extremely loud musical note is occasioned by the spark of a ruhmkorff's coil when the primary circuit is made and broken with sufficient rapidity. when two breakers of different pitch are caused simultaneously to open and close the primary circuit a double tone proceeds from the spark. a curious discovery, which may be of interest to you, has been made by professor blake. he constructed a telephone in which a rod of soft iron, about six feet in length, was used instead of a permanent magnet. a friend sang a continuous musical tone into the mouthpiece of a telephone, like that shown in fig. , which was connected with the soft iron instrument alluded to above. it was found that the loudness of the sound produced in this telephone varied with the direction in which the iron rod was held, and that the maximum effect was produced when the rod was in the position of the dipping needle. this curious discovery of professor blake has been verified by myself. when a telephone is placed in circuit with a telegraph line the telephone is found seemingly to emit sounds on its own account. the most extraordinary noises are often produced, the causes of which are at present very obscure. one class of sounds is produced by the inductive influence of neighbouring wires and by leakage from them, the signals of the morse alphabet passing over neighbouring wires being audible in the telephone, and another class can be traced to earth currents upon the wire, a curious modification of this sound revealing the presence of defective joints in the wire. professor blake informs me that he has been able to use the railroad track for conversational purposes in place of a telegraph wire, and he further states that when only one telephone was connected with the track the sounds of morse operating were distinctly audible in the telephone, although the nearest telegraph wires were at least fifty feet distant. professor peirce has observed the most singular sounds produced from a telephone in connection with a telegraph wire during the aurora borealis, and i have just heard of a curious phenomenon lately observed by dr. channing. in the city of providence, rhode island, there is an over-house wire about one mile in extent with a telephone at either end. on one occasion the sound of music and singing was faintly audible in one of the telephones. it seemed as if some one were practising vocal music with a pianoforte accompaniment. the natural supposition was that experiments were being made with the telephone at the other end of the circuit, but upon inquiry this proved not to have been the case. attention having thus been directed to the phenomenon, a watch was kept upon the instruments, and upon a subsequent occasion the same fact was observed at both ends of the line by dr. channing and his friends. it was proved that the sounds continued for about two hours, and usually commenced about the same time. a searching examination of the line disclosed nothing abnormal in its condition, and i am unable to give you any explanation of this curious phenomenon. dr. channing has, however, addressed a letter upon the subject to the editor of one of the providence papers, giving the names of such songs as were recognized, and full details of the observations, in the hope that publicity may lead to the discovery of the performer, and thus afford a solution of the mystery. my friend, mr. frederick a. gower, communicated to me a curious observation made by him regarding the slight earth connection required to establish a circuit for the telephone, and together we carried on a series of experiments with rather startling results. we took a couple of telephones and an insulated wire about yards in length into a garden, and were enabled to carry on conversation with the greatest ease when we held in our hands what should have been the earth wire, so that the connection with the ground was formed at either end through our bodies, our feet being clothed with cotton socks and leather boots. the day was fine, and the grass upon which we stood was seemingly perfectly dry. upon standing upon a gravel walk the vocal sounds, though much diminished, were still perfectly intelligible, and the same result occurred when standing upon a brick wall one foot in height, but no sound was audible when one of us stood upon a block of freestone. one experiment which we made is so very interesting that i must speak of it in detail. mr. gower made earth connection at his end of the line by standing upon a grass plot, whilst at the other end of the line i stood upon a wooden board. i requested mr. gower to sing a continuous musical note, and to my surprise the sound was very distinctly audible from the telephone in my hand. upon examining my feet i discovered that a single blade of grass was bent over the edge of the board, and that my foot touched it. the removal of this blade of grass was followed by the cessation of the sound from the telephone, and i found that the moment i touched with the toe of my boot a blade of grass or the petal of a daisy the sound was again audible. the question will naturally arise, through what length of wire can the telephone be used? in reply to this i may say that the maximum amount of resistance through which the undulatory current will pass, and yet retain sufficient force to produce an audible sound at the distant end, has yet to be determined; no difficulty has, however, been experienced in laboratory experiments in conversing through a resistance of , ohms, which has been the maximum at my disposal. on one occasion, not having a rheostat [for producing resistance] at hand, i passed the current through the bodies of sixteen persons, who stood hand in hand. the longest length of real telegraph line through which i have attempted to converse has been about miles. on this occasion no difficulty was experienced so long as parallel lines were not in operation. sunday was chosen as the day on which it was probable other circuits would be at rest. conversation was carried on between myself, in new york, and mr. thomas a. watson, in boston, until the opening of business upon the other wires. when this happened the vocal sounds were very much diminished, but still audible. it seemed, indeed, like talking through a storm. conversation, though possible, could be carried on with difficulty, owing to the distracting nature of the interfering currents. i am informed by my friend mr. preece that conversation has been successfully carried on through a submarine cable, sixty miles in length, extending from dartmouth to the island of guernsey, by means of hand telephones. photographing the unseen: the roentgen ray h. j. w. dam [by permission from _mcclure's magazine_, april, , copyright by s. s. mcclure, limited.] in all the history of scientific discovery there has never been, perhaps, so general, rapid, and dramatic an effect wrought on the scientific centres of europe as has followed, in the past four weeks, upon an announcement made to the würzburg physico-medical society, at their december [ ] meeting, by professor william konrad röntgen, professor of physics at the royal university of würzburg. the first news which reached london was by telegraph from vienna to the effect that a professor röntgen, until then the possessor of only a local fame in the town mentioned, had discovered a new kind of light, which penetrated and photographed through everything. this news was received with a mild interest, some amusement, and much incredulity; and a week passed. then, by mail and telegraph, came daily clear indications of the stir which the discovery was making in all the great line of universities between vienna and berlin. then röntgen's own report arrived, so cool, so business-like, and so truly scientific in character, that it left no doubt either of the truth or of the great importance of the preceding reports. to-day, four weeks after the announcement, röntgen's name is apparently in every scientific publication issued this week in europe; and accounts of his experiments, of the experiments of others following his method, and of theories as to the strange new force which he has been the first to observe, fill pages of every scientific journal that comes to hand. and before the necessary time elapses for this article to attain publication in america, it is in all ways probable that the laboratories and lecture-rooms of the united states will also be giving full evidence of this contagious arousal of interest over a discovery so strange that its importance cannot yet be measured, its utility be even prophesied, or its ultimate effect upon long established scientific beliefs be even vaguely foretold. the röntgen rays are certain invisible rays resembling, in many respects, rays of light, which are set free when a high-pressure electric current is discharged through a vacuum tube. a vacuum tube is a glass tube from which all the air, down to one-millionth of an atmosphere, has been exhausted after the insertion of a platinum wire in either end of the tube for connection with the two poles of a battery or induction coil. when the discharge is sent through the tube, there proceeds from the anode--that is, the wire which is connected with the positive pole of the battery--certain bands of light, varying in colour with the colour of the glass. but these are insignificant in comparison with the brilliant glow which shoots from the cathode, or negative wire. this glow excites brilliant phosphorescence in glass and many substances, and these "cathode rays," as they are called, were observed and studied by hertz; and more deeply by his assistant, professor lenard, lenard having, in , reported that the cathode rays would penetrate thin films of aluminum, wood, and other substances, and produce photographic results beyond. it was left, however, for professor röntgen to discover that during the discharge quite other rays are set free, which differ greatly from those described by lenard as cathode rays. the most marked difference between the two is the fact that röntgen rays are not deflected by a magnet, indicating a very essential difference, while their range and penetrative power are incomparably greater. in fact, all those qualities which have lent a sensational character to the discovery of röntgen's rays were mainly absent from those of lenard, to the end that, although röntgen has not been working in an entirely new field, he has by common accord been freely granted all the honors of a great discovery. exactly what kind of a force professor röntgen has discovered he does not know. as will be seen below, he declines to call it a new kind of light, or a new form of electricity. he has given it the name of the x rays. others speak of it as the röntgen rays. thus far its results only, and not its essence, are known. in the terminology of science it is generally called "a new mode of motion," or, in other words, a new force. as to whether it is or not actually a force new to science, or one of the known forces masquerading under strange conditions, weighty authorities are already arguing. more than one eminent scientist has already affected to see in it a key to the great mystery of the law of gravity. all who have expressed themselves in print have admitted, with more or less frankness, that, in view of röntgen's discovery, science must forthwith revise, possibly to a revolutionary degree, the long accepted theories concerning the phenomena of light and sound. that the x rays, in their mode of action, combine a strange resemblance to both sound and light vibrations, and are destined to materially affect, if they do not greatly alter, our views of both phenomena, is already certain; and beyond this is the opening into a new and unknown field of physical knowledge, concerning which speculation is already eager, and experimental investigation already in hand, in london, paris, berlin, and, perhaps, to a greater or less extent, in every well-equipped physical laboratory in europe. this is the present scientific aspect of the discovery. but, unlike most epoch-making results from laboratories, this discovery is one which, to a very unusual degree, is within the grasp of the popular and non-technical imagination. among the other kinds of matter which these rays penetrate with ease is human flesh. that a new photography has suddenly arisen which can photograph the bones, and, before long, the organs of the human body; that a light has been found which can penetrate, so as to make a photographic record, through everything from a purse or a pocket to the walls of a room or a house, is news which cannot fail to startle everybody. that the eye of the physician or surgeon, long baffled by the skin, and vainly seeking to penetrate the unfortunate darkness of the human body, is now to be supplemented by a camera, making all the parts of the human body as visible, in a way, as the exterior, appears certainly to be a greater blessing to humanity than even the listerian antiseptic system of surgery; and its benefits must inevitably be greater than those conferred by lister, great as the latter have been. already, in the few weeks since röntgen's announcement, the results of surgical operations under the new system are growing voluminous. in berlin, not only new bone fractures are being immediately photographed, but joined fractures, as well, in order to examine the results of recent surgical work. in vienna, imbedded bullets are being photographed, instead of being probed for, and extracted with comparative ease. in london, a wounded sailor, completely paralyzed, whose injury was a mystery, has been saved by the photographing of an object imbedded in the spine, which, upon extraction, proved to be a small knife-blade. operations for malformations, hitherto obscure, but now clearly revealed by the new photography, are already becoming common, and are being reported from all directions. professor czermark of graz has photographed the living skull, denuded of flesh and hair, and has begun the adaptation of the new photography to brain study. the relation of the new rays to thought rays is being eagerly discussed in what may be called the non-exact circles and journals; and all that numerous group of inquirers into the occult, the believers in clairvoyance, spiritualism, telepathy, and kindred orders of alleged phenomena, are confident of finding in the new force long-sought facts in proof of their claims. professor neusser in vienna has photographed gallstones in the liver of one patient (the stone showing snow-white in the negative), and a stone in the bladder of another patient. his results so far induce him to announce that all the organs of the human body can, and will, shortly, be photographed. lannelongue of paris has exhibited to the academy of science photographs of bones showing inherited tuberculosis which had not otherwise revealed itself. berlin has already formed a society of forty for the immediate prosecution of researches into both the character of the new force and its physiological possibilities. in the next few weeks these strange announcements will be trebled or quadrupled, giving the best evidence from all quarters of the great future that awaits the röntgen rays, and the startling impetus to the universal search for knowledge that has come at the close of the nineteenth century from the modest little laboratory in the pleicher ring at würzburg. the physical institute, professor röntgen's particular domain, is a modest building of two stories and basement, the upper story constituting his private residence, and the remainder of the building being given over to lecture rooms, laboratories, and their attendant offices. at the door i was met by an old serving-man of the idolatrous order, whose pain was apparent when i asked for "professor" röntgen, and he gently corrected me with "herr doctor röntgen." as it was evident, however, that we referred to the same person, he conducted me along a wide, bare hall, running the length of the building, with blackboards and charts on the walls. at the end he showed me into a small room on the right. this contained a large table desk, and a small table by the window, covered by photographs, while the walls held rows of shelves laden with laboratory and other records. an open door led into a somewhat larger room, perhaps twenty feet by fifteen, and i found myself gazing into a laboratory which was the scene of the discovery--a laboratory which, though in all ways modest, is destined to be enduringly historical. there was a wide table shelf running along the farther side, in front of the two windows, which were high, and gave plenty of light. in the centre was a stove; on the left, a small cabinet whose shelves held the small objects which the professor had been using. there was a table in the left-hand corner; and another small table--the one on which living bones were first photographed--was near the stove, and a ruhmkorff coil was on the right. the lesson of the laboratory was eloquent. compared, for instance, with the elaborate, expensive, and complete apparatus of, say, the university of london, or of any of the great american universities, it was bare and unassuming to a degree. it mutely said that in the great march of science it is the genius of man, and not the perfection of appliances, that breaks new ground in the great territory of the unknown. it also caused one to wonder at and endeavour to imagine the great things which are to be done through elaborate appliances with the röntgen rays--a field in which the united states, with its foremost genius in invention, will very possibly, if not probably, take the lead--when the discoverer himself had done so much with so little. already, in a few weeks, a skilled london operator, mr. a. a. c. swinton, has reduced the necessary time of exposure for röntgen photographs from fifteen minutes to four. he used, however, a tesla oil coil, discharged by twelve half-gallon leyden jars, with an alternating current of twenty thousand volts' pressure. here were no oil coils, leyden jars, or specially elaborate and expensive machines. there were only a ruhmkorff coil and crookes (vacuum) tube and the man himself. professor röntgen entered hurriedly, something like an amiable gust of wind. he is a tall, slender, and loose-limbed man, whose whole appearance bespeaks enthusiasm and energy. he wore a dark blue sack suit, and his long, dark hair stood straight up from his forehead, as if he were permanently electrified by his own enthusiasm. his voice is full and deep, he speaks rapidly, and, altogether, he seems clearly a man who, once upon the track of a mystery which appealed to him, would pursue it with unremitting vigor. his eyes are kind, quick, and penetrating; and there is no doubt that he much prefers gazing at a crookes tube to beholding a visitor, visitors at present robbing him of much valued time. the meeting was by appointment, however, and his greeting was cordial and hearty. in addition to his own language he speaks french well and english scientifically, which is different from speaking it popularly. these three tongues being more or less within the equipment of his visitor, the conversation proceeded on an international or polyglot basis, so to speak, varying at necessity's demand. it transpired in the course of inquiry, that the professor is a married man and fifty years of age, though his eyes have the enthusiasm of twenty-five. he was born near zurich, and educated there, and completed his studies and took his degree at utrecht. he has been at würzburg about seven years, and had made no discoveries which he considered of great importance prior to the one under consideration. these details were given under good-natured protest, he failing to understand why his personality should interest the public. he declined to admire himself or his results in any degree, and laughed at the idea of being famous. the professor is too deeply interested in science to waste any time in thinking about himself. his emperor had feasted, flattered, and decorated him, and he was loyally grateful. it was evident, however, that fame and applause had small attractions for him, compared to the mysteries still hidden in the vacuum tubes of the other room. "now, then," said he, smiling, and with some impatience, when the preliminary questions at which he chafed were over, "you have come to see the invisible rays." "is the invisible visible?" "not to the eye; but its results are. come in here." [illustration: bones of a human foot photographed through the flesh from a photograph by a. a. c. swinton, victoria street, london. exposure, fifty-five seconds] he led the way to the other square room mentioned, and indicated the induction coil with which his researches were made, an ordinary ruhmkorff coil, with a spark of from four to six inches, charged by a current of twenty amperes. two wires led from the coil, through an open door, into a smaller room on the right. in this room was a small table carrying a crookes tube connected with the coil. the most striking object in the room, however, was a huge and mysterious tin box about seven feet high and four feet square. it stood on end, like a huge packing case, its side being perhaps five inches from the crookes tube. the professor explained the mystery of the tin box, to the effect that it was a device of his own for obtaining a portable dark-room. when he began his investigations he used the whole room, as was shown by the heavy blinds and curtains so arranged as to exclude the entrance of all interfering light from the windows. in the side of the tin box, at the point immediately against the tube, was a circular sheet of aluminum one millimetre in thickness, and perhaps eighteen inches in diameter, soldered to the surrounding tin. to study his rays the professor had only to turn on the current, enter the box, close the door, and in perfect darkness inspect only such light or light effects as he had a right to consider his own, hiding his light, in fact, not under the biblical bushel, but in a more commodious box. "step inside," said he, opening the door, which was on the side of the box farthest from the tube. i immediately did so, not altogether certain whether my skeleton was to be photographed for general inspection, or my secret thoughts held up to light on a glass plate. "you will find a sheet of barium paper on the shelf," he added, and then went away to the coil. the door was closed, and the interior of the box became black darkness. the first thing i found was a wooden stool, on which i resolved to sit. then i found the shelf on the side next the tube, and then the sheet of paper prepared with barium platinocyanide. i was thus being shown the first phenomenon which attracted the discoverer's attention and led to his discovery, namely, the passage of rays, themselves wholly invisible, whose presence was only indicated by the effect they produced on a piece of sensitized photographic paper. a moment later, the black darkness was penetrated by the rapid snapping sound of the high-pressure current in action, and i knew that the tube outside was glowing. i held the sheet vertically on the shelf, perhaps four inches from the plate. there was no change, however, and nothing was visible. "do you see anything?" he called. "no." "the tension is not high enough;" and he proceeded to increase the pressure by operating an apparatus of mercury in long vertical tubes acted upon automatically by a weight lever which stood near the coil. in a few moments the sound of the discharge again began, and then i made my first acquaintance with the röntgen rays. the moment the current passed, the paper began to glow. a yellowish green light spread all over its surface in clouds, waves and flashes. the yellow-green luminescence, all the stranger and stronger in the darkness, trembled, wavered, and floated over the paper, in rhythm with the snapping of the discharge. through the metal plate, the paper, myself, and the tin box, the invisible rays were flying, with an effect strange, interesting and uncanny. the metal plate seemed to offer no appreciable resistance to the flying force, and the light was as rich and full as if nothing lay between the paper and the tube. "put the book up," said the professor. i felt upon the shelf, in the darkness, a heavy book, two inches in thickness, and placed this against the plate. it made no difference. the rays flew through the metal and the book as if neither had been there, and the waves of light, rolling cloud-like over the paper, showed no change in brightness. it was a clear, material illustration of the ease with which paper and wood are penetrated. and then i laid book and paper down, and put my eyes against the rays. all was blackness, and i neither saw nor felt anything. the discharge was in full force, and the rays were flying through my head, and, for all i knew, through the side of the box behind me. but they were invisible and impalpable. they gave no sensation whatever. whatever the mysterious rays may be, they are not to be seen, and are to be judged only by their works. i was loath to leave this historical tin box, but time pressed. i thanked the professor, who was happy in the reality of his discovery and the music of his sparks. then i said: "where did you first photograph living bones?" "here," he said, leading the way into the room where the coil stood. he pointed to a table on which was another--the latter a small short-legged wooden one with more the shape and size of a wooden seat. it was two feet square and painted coal black. i viewed it with interest. i would have bought it, for the little table on which light was first sent through the human body will some day be a great historical curiosity; but it was not for sale. a photograph of it would have been a consolation, but for several reasons one was not to be had at present. however, the historical table was there, and was duly inspected. "how did you take the first hand photograph?" i asked. the professor went over to a shelf by the window, where lay a number of prepared glass plates, closely wrapped in black paper. he put a crookes tube underneath the table, a few inches from the under side of its top. then he laid his hand flat on the top of the table, and placed the glass plate loosely on his hand. "you ought to have your portrait painted in that attitude," i suggested. "no, that is nonsense," said he, smiling. "or be photographed." this suggestion was made with a deeply hidden purpose. the rays from the röntgen eyes instantly penetrated the deeply hidden purpose. "oh, no," said he; "i can't let you make pictures of me. i am too busy." clearly the professor was entirely too modest to gratify the wishes of the curious world. "now, professor," said i, "will you tell me the history of the discovery?" "there is no history," he said. "i have been for a long time interested in the problem of the cathode rays from a vacuum tube as studied by hertz and lenard. i had followed their and other researches with great interest, and determined, as soon as i had the time, to make some researches of my own. this time i found at the close of last october. i had been at work for some days when i discovered something new." "what was the date?" "the eighth of november." "and what was the discovery?" "i was working with a crookes tube covered by a shield of black cardboard. a piece of barium platinocyanide paper lay on the bench there. i had been passing a current through the tube, and i noticed a peculiar black line across the paper." "what of that?" "the effect was one which could only be produced, in ordinary parlance, by the passage of light. no light could come from the tube, because the shield which covered it was impervious to any light known, even that of the electric arc." "and what did you think?" "i did not think; i investigated. i assumed that the effect must have come from the tube, since its character indicated that it could come from nowhere else. i tested it. in a few minutes there was no doubt about it. rays were coming from the tube which had a luminescent effect upon the paper. i tried it successfully at greater and greater distances, even at two metres. it seemed at first a new kind of invisible light. it was clearly something new, something unrecorded." "is it light?" "no." "is it electricity?" "not in any known form." "what is it?" "i don't know." and the discoverer of the x rays thus stated as calmly his ignorance of their essence as has everybody else who has written on the phenomena thus far. "having discovered the existence of a new kind of rays, i of course began to investigate what they would do." he took up a series of cabinet-sized photographs. "it soon appeared from tests that the rays had penetrative powers to a degree hitherto unknown. they penetrated paper, wood, and cloth with ease; and the thickness of the substance made no perceptible difference, within reasonable limits." he showed photographs of a box of laboratory weights of platinum, aluminum, and brass, they and the brass hinges all having been photographed from a closed box, without any indication of the box. also a photograph of a coil of fine wire, wound on a wooden spool, the wire having been photographed, and the wood omitted. "the rays," he continued, "passed through all the metals tested, with a facility varying, roughly speaking, with the density of the metal. these phenomena i have discussed carefully in my report to the würzburg society, and you will find all the technical results therein stated." he showed a photograph of a small sheet of zinc. this was composed of smaller plates soldered laterally with solders of different metallic proportions. the differing lines of shadow, caused by the difference in the solders, were visible evidence that a new means of detecting flaws and chemical variations in metals had been found. a photograph of a compass showed the needle and dial taken through the closed brass cover. the markings of the dial were in red metallic paint, and thus interfered with the rays, and were reproduced. "since the rays had this great penetrative power, it seemed natural that they should penetrate flesh, and so it proved in photographing the hand, as i showed you." a detailed discussion of the characteristics of his rays the professor considered unprofitable and unnecessary. he believes, though, that these mysterious radiations are not light, because their behaviour is essentially different from that of light rays, even those light rays which are themselves invisible. the röntgen rays cannot be reflected by reflecting surfaces, concentrated by lenses, or refracted or diffracted. they produce photographic action on a sensitive film, but their action is weak as yet, and herein lies the first important field of their development. the professor's exposures were comparatively long--an average of fifteen minutes in easily penetrable media, and half an hour or more in photographing the bones of the hand. concerning vacuum tubes, he said that he preferred the hittorf, because it had the most perfect vacuum, the highest degree of air exhaustion being the consummation most desirable. in answer to a question, "what of the future?" he said: "i am not a prophet, and i am opposed to prophesying. i am pursuing my investigations, and as fast as my results are verified i shall make them public." "do you think the rays can be so modified as to photograph the organs of the human body?" in answer he took up the photograph of the box of weights. "here are already modifications," he said, indicating the various degrees of shadow produced by the aluminum, platinum, and brass weights, the brass hinges, and even the metallic stamped lettering on the cover of the box, which was faintly perceptible. "but professor neusser has already announced that the photographing of the various organs is possible." "we shall see what we shall see," he said. "we have the start now; the development will follow in time." "you know the apparatus for introducing the electric light into the stomach?" "yes." "do you think that this electric light will become a vacuum tube for photographing, from the stomach, any part of the abdomen or thorax?" the idea of swallowing a crookes tube, and sending a high frequency current down into one's stomach, seemed to him exceedingly funny. "when i have done it, i will tell you," he said, smiling, resolute in abiding by results. "there is much to do, and i am busy, very busy," he said in conclusion. he extended his hand in farewell, his eyes already wandering toward his work in the inside room. and his visitor promptly left him; the words, "i am busy," said in all sincerity, seeming to describe in a single phrase the essence of his character and the watchword of a very unusual man. returning by way of berlin, i called upon herr spies of the urania, whose photographs after the röntgen method were the first made public, and have been the best seen thus far. in speaking of the discovery he said: "i applied it, as soon as the penetration of flesh was apparent, to the photograph of a man's hand. something in it had pained him for years, and the photograph at once exhibited a small foreign object, as you can see;" and he exhibited a copy of the photograph in question. "the speck there is a small piece of glass, which was immediately extracted, and which, in all probability, would have otherwise remained in the man's hand to the end of his days." all of which indicates that the needle which has pursued its travels in so many persons, through so many years, will be suppressed by the camera. "my next object is to photograph the bones of the entire leg," continued herr spies. "i anticipate no difficulty, though it requires some thought in manipulation." it will be seen that the röntgen rays and their marvellous practical possibilities are still in their infancy. the first successful modification of the action of the rays so that the varying densities of bodily organs will enable them to be photographed will bring all such morbid growths as tumours and cancers into the photographic field, to say nothing of vital organs which may be abnormally developed or degenerate. how much this means to medical and surgical practice it requires little imagination to conceive. diagnosis, long a painfully uncertain science, has received an unexpected and wonderful assistant; and how greatly the world will benefit thereby, how much pain will be saved, only the future can determine. in science a new door has been opened where none was known to exist, and a side-light on phenomena has appeared, of which the results may prove as penetrating and astonishing as the röntgen rays themselves. the most agreeable feature of the discovery is the opportunity it gives for other hands to help; and the work of these hands will add many new words to the dictionaries, many new facts to science, and, in the years long ahead of us, fill many more volumes than there are paragraphs in this brief and imperfect account. the wireless telegraph george iles [from "flame, electricity and the camera," copyright by doubleday, page & co., new york.] in a series of experiments interesting enough but barren of utility, the water of a canal, river, or bay has often served as a conductor for the telegraph. among the electricians who have thus impressed water into their service was professor morse. in he sent a few signals across the channel from castle garden, new york, to governor's island, a distance of a mile. with much better results, he sent messages, later in the same year, from one side of the canal at washington to the other, a distance of eighty feet, employing large copper plates at each terminal. the enormous current required to overcome the resistance of water has barred this method from practical adoption. we pass, therefore, to electrical communication as effected by induction--the influence which one conductor exerts on another through an intervening insulator. at the outset we shall do well to bear in mind that magnetic phenomena, which are so closely akin to electrical, are always inductive. to observe a common example of magnetic induction, we have only to move a horseshoe magnet in the vicinity of a compass needle, which will instantly sway about as if blown hither and thither by a sharp draught of air. this action takes place if a slate, a pane of glass, or a shingle is interposed between the needle and its perturber. there is no known insulator for magnetism, and an induction of this kind exerts itself perceptibly for many yards when large masses of iron are polarised, so that the derangement of compasses at sea from moving iron objects aboard ship, or from ferric ores underlying a sea-coast, is a constant peril to the mariner. electrical conductors behave much like magnetic masses. a current conveyed by a conductor induces a counter-current in all surrounding bodies, and in a degree proportioned to their conductive power. this effect is, of course, greatest upon the bodies nearest at hand, and we have already remarked its serious retarding effect in ocean telegraphy. when the original current is of high intensity, it can induce a perceptible current in another wire at a distance of several miles. in henry remarked that electric waves had this quality, but in that early day of electrical interpretation the full significance of the fact eluded him. in the top room of his house he produced a spark an inch long, which induced currents in wires stretched in his cellar, through two thick floors and two rooms which came between. induction of this sort causes the annoyance, familiar in single telephonic circuits, of being obliged to overhear other subscribers, whose wires are often far away from our own. the first practical use of induced currents in telegraphy was when mr. edison, in , enabled the trains on a line of the staten island railroad to be kept in constant communication with a telegraphic wire, suspended in the ordinary way beside the track. the roof of a car was of insulated metal, and every tap of an operator's key within the walls electrified the roof just long enough to induce a brief pulse through the telegraphic circuit. in sending a message to the car this wire was, moment by moment, electrified, inducing a response first in the car roof, and next in the "sounder" beneath it. this remarkable apparatus, afterward used on the lehigh valley railroad, was discontinued from lack of commercial support, although it would seem to be advantageous to maintain such a service on other than commercial grounds. in case of chance obstructions on the track, or other peril, to be able to communicate at any moment with a train as it speeds along might mean safety instead of disaster. the chief item in the cost of this system is the large outlay for a special telegraphic wire. the next electrician to employ induced currents in telegraphy was mr. (now sir) william h. preece, the engineer then at the head of the british telegraph system. let one example of his work be cited. in a cable was laid between lavernock, near cardiff, on the bristol channel, and flat holme, an island three and a third miles off. as the channel at this point is a much-frequented route and anchor ground, the cable was broken again and again. as a substitute for it mr. preece, in , strung wires along the opposite shores, and found that an electric pulse sent through one wire instantly made itself heard in a telephone connected with the other. it would seem that in this etheric form of telegraphy the two opposite lines of wire must be each as long as the distance which separates them; therefore, to communicate across the english channel from dover to calais would require a line along each coast at least twenty miles in length. where such lines exist for ordinary telegraphy, they might easily lend themselves to the preece system of signalling in case a submarine cable were to part. marconi, adopting electrostatic instead of electro-magnetic waves, has won striking results. let us note the chief of his forerunners, as they prepared the way for him. in maxwell observed that electricity and light have the same velocity, , miles a second, and he formulated the theory that electricity propagates itself in waves which differ from those of light only in being longer. this was proved to be true by hertz, who in showed that where alternating currents of very high frequency were set up in an open circuit, the energy might be conveyed entirely away from the circuit into the surrounding space as electric waves. his detector was a nearly closed circle of wire, the ends being soldered to metal balls almost in contact. with this simple apparatus he demonstrated that electric waves move with the speed of light, and that they can be reflected and refracted precisely as if they formed a visible beam. at a certain intensity of strain the air insulation broke down, and the air became a conductor. this phenomenon of passing quite suddenly from a non-conductive to a conductive state is, as we shall duly see, also to be noted when air or other gases are exposed to the x ray. now for the effect of electric waves such as hertz produced, when they impinge upon substances reduced to powder or filings. conductors, such as the metals, are of inestimable service to the electrician; of equal value are non-conductors, such as glass and gutta-percha, as they strictly fence in an electric stream. a third and remarkable vista opens to experiment when it deals with substances which, in their normal state, are non-conductive, but which, agitated by an electric wave, instantly become conductive in a high degree. as long ago as mr. s. a. varley noticed that black lead, reduced to a loose dust, effectually intercepted a current from fifty daniell cells, although the battery poles were very near each other. when he increased the electric tension four- to six-fold, the black-lead particles at once compacted themselves so as to form a bridge of excellent conductivity. on this principle he invented a lightning-protector for electrical instruments, the incoming flash causing a tiny heap of carbon dust to provide it with a path through which it could safely pass to the earth. professor temistocle calzecchi onesti of fermo, in , in an independent series of researches, discovered that a mass of powdered copper is a non-conductor until an electric wave beats upon it; then, in an instant, the mass resolves itself into a conductor almost as efficient as if it were a stout, unbroken wire. professor edouard branly of paris, in , on this principle devised a coherer, which passed from resistance to invitation when subjected to an electric impulse from afar. he enhanced the value of his device by the vital discovery that the conductivity bestowed upon filings by electric discharges could be destroyed by simply shaking or tapping them apart. in a homely way the principle of the coherer is often illustrated in ordinary telegraphic practice. an operator notices that his instrument is not working well, and he suspects that at some point in his circuit there is a defective contact. a little dirt, or oxide, or dampness, has come in between two metallic surfaces; to be sure, they still touch each other, but not in the firm and perfect way demanded for his work. accordingly he sends a powerful current abruptly into the line, which clears its path thoroughly, brushes aside dirt, oxide, or moisture, and the circuit once more is as it should be. in all likelihood, the coherer is acted upon in the same way. among the physicists who studied it in its original form was dr. oliver j. lodge. he improved it so much that, in , at the royal institution in london, he was able to show it as an electric eye that registered the impact of invisible rays at a distance of more than forty yards. he made bold to say that this distance might be raised to half a mile. as early as professor d. e. hughes began a series of experiments in wireless telegraphy, on much the lines which in other hands have now reached commercial as well as scientific success. professor hughes was the inventor of the microphone, and that instrument, he declared, affords an unrivalled means of receiving wireless messages, since it requires no tapping to restore its non-conductivity. in his researches this investigator was convinced that his signals were propagated, not by electro-magnetic induction, but by aerial electric waves spreading out from an electric spark. early in he showed his apparatus to professor stokes, who observed its operation carefully. his dictum was that he saw nothing which could not be explained by known electro-magnetic effects. this erroneous judgment so discouraged professor hughes that he desisted from following up his experiments, and thus, in all probability, the birth of the wireless telegraph was for several years delayed.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--marconi coherer, enlarged view] the coherer, as improved by marconi, is a glass tube about one and one-half inches long and about one-twelfth of an inch in internal diameter. the electrodes are inserted in this tube so as almost to touch; between them is about one-thirtieth of an inch filled with a pinch of the responsive mixture which forms the pivot of the whole contrivance. this mixture is per cent. nickel filings, per cent. hard silver filings, and a mere trace of mercury; the tube is exhausted of air to within one ten-thousandth part (fig. ). how does this trifle of metallic dust manage loudly to utter its signals through a telegraphic sounder, or forcibly indent them upon a moving strip of paper? not directly, but indirectly, as the very last refinement of initiation. let us imagine an ordinary telegraphic battery strong enough loudly to tick out a message. be it ever so strong it remains silent until its circuit is completed, and for that completion the merest touch suffices. now the thread of dust in the coherer forms part of such a telegraphic circuit: as loose dust it is an effectual bar and obstacle, under the influence of electric waves from afar it changes instantly to a coherent metallic link which at once completes the circuit and delivers the message. an electric impulse, almost too attenuated for computation, is here able to effect such a change in a pinch of dust that it becomes a free avenue instead of a barricade. through that avenue a powerful blow from a local store of energy makes itself heard and felt. no device of the trigger class is comparable with this in delicacy. an instant after a signal has taken its way through the coherer a small hammer strikes the tiny tube, jarring its particles asunder, so that they resume their normal state of high resistance. we may well be astonished at the sensitiveness of the metallic filings to an electric wave originating many miles away, but let us remember how clearly the eye can see a bright lamp at the same distance as it sheds a sister beam. thus far no substance has been discovered with a mechanical responsiveness to so feeble a ray of light; in the world of nature and art the coherer stands alone. the electric waves employed by marconi are about four feet long, or have a frequency of about , , per second. such undulations pass readily through brick or stone walls, through common roofs and floors--indeed, through all substances which are non-conductive to electric waves of ordinary length. were the energy of a marconi sending-instrument applied to an arc-lamp, it would generate a beam of a thousand candle-power. we have thus a means of comparing the sensitiveness of the retina to light with the responsiveness of the marconi coherer to electric waves, after both radiations have undergone a journey of miles. an essential feature of this method of etheric telegraphy, due to marconi himself, is the suspension of a perpendicular wire at each terminus, its length twenty feet for stations a mile apart, forty feet for four miles, and so on, the telegraphic distance increasing as the square of the length of suspended wire. in the kingstown regatta, july, , marconi sent from a yacht under full steam a report to the shore without the loss of a moment from start to finish. this feat was repeated during the protracted contest between the _columbia_ and the _shamrock_ yachts in new york bay, october, . on march , , marconi signals put wimereux, two miles north of boulogne, in communication with the south foreland lighthouse, thirty-two miles off.[ ] in august, , during the manoeuvres of the british navy, similar messages were sent as far as eighty miles. it was clearly demonstrated that a new power had been placed in the hands of a naval commander. "a touch on a button in a flagship is all that is now needed to initiate every tactical evolution in a fleet, and insure an almost automatic precision in the resulting movements of the ships. the flashing lantern is superseded at night, flags and the semaphore by day, or, if these are retained, it is for services purely auxiliary. the hideous and bewildering shrieks of the steam-siren need no longer be heard in a fog, and the uncertain system of gun signals will soon become a thing of the past." the interest of the naval and military strategist in the marconi apparatus extends far beyond its communication of intelligence. any electrical appliance whatever may be set in motion by the same wave that actuates a telegraphic sounder. a fuse may be ignited, or a motor started and directed, by apparatus connected with the coherer, for all its minuteness. mr. walter jamieson and mr. john trotter have devised means for the direction of torpedoes by ether waves, such as those set at work in the wireless telegraph. two rods projecting above the surface of the water receive the waves, and are in circuit with a coherer and a relay. at the will of the distant operator a hollow wire coil bearing a current draws in an iron core either to the right or to the left, moving the helm accordingly. as the news of the success of the marconi telegraph made its way to the london stock exchange there was a fall in the shares of cable companies. the fear of rivalry from the new invention was baseless. as but fifteen words a minute are transmissible by the marconi system, it evidently does not compete with a cable, such as that between france and england, which can transmit , words a minute without difficulty. the marconi telegraph comes less as a competitor to old systems than as a mode of communication which creates a field of its own. we have seen what it may accomplish in war, far outdoing any feat possible to other apparatus, acoustic, luminous, or electrical. in quite as striking fashion does it break new ground in the service of commerce and trade. it enables lighthouses continually to spell their names, so that receivers aboard ship may give the steersmen their bearings even in storm and fog. in the crowded condition of the steamship "lanes" which cross the atlantic, a priceless security against collision is afforded the man at the helm. on november , , marconi telegraphed from the american liner _st. paul_ to the needles, sixty-six nautical miles away. on december and , , he received wireless signals near st. john's, newfoundland, sent from poldhu, cornwall, england, or a distance of , miles,--a feat which astonished the world. in many cases the telegraphic business to an island is too small to warrant the laying of a cable; hence we find that trinidad and tobago are to be joined by the wireless system, as also five islands of the hawaiian group, eight to sixty-one miles apart. a weak point in the first marconi apparatus was that anybody within the working radius of the sending-instrument could read its messages. to modify this objection secret codes were at times employed, as in commerce and diplomacy. a complete deliverance from this difficulty is promised in attuning a transmitter and a receiver to the same note, so that one receiver, and no other, shall respond to a particular frequency of impulses. the experiments which indicate success in this vital particular have been conducted by professor lodge. when electricians, twenty years ago, committed energy to a wire and thus enabled it to go round a corner, they felt that they had done well. the hertz waves sent abroad by marconi ask no wire, as they find their way, not round a corner, but through a corner. on may , , a party of french officers on board the _ibis_ at sangatte, near calais, spoke to wimereux by means of a marconi apparatus, with cape grisnez, a lofty promontory, intervening. in ascertaining how much the earth and the sea may obstruct the waves of hertz there is a broad and fruitful field for investigation. "it may be," says professor john trowbridge, "that such long electrical waves roll around the surface of such obstructions very much as waves of sound and of water would do." [illustration: fig. --discontinuous electric waves] [illustration: fig. --wehnelt interrupter] it is singular how discoveries sometimes arrive abreast of each other so as to render mutual aid, or supply a pressing want almost as soon as it is felt. the coherer in its present form is actuated by waves of comparatively low frequency, which rise from zero to full height in extremely brief periods, and are separated by periods decidedly longer (fig. ). what is needed is a plan by which the waves may flow either continuously or so near together that they may lend themselves to attuning. dr. wehnelt, by an extraordinary discovery, may, in all likelihood, provide the lacking device in the form of his interrupter, which breaks an electric circuit as often as two thousand times a second. the means for this amazing performance are simplicity itself (fig. ). a jar, _a_, containing a solution of sulphuric acid has two electrodes immersed in it; one of them is a lead plate of large surface, _b_; the other is a small platinum wire which protrudes from a glass tube, _d_. a current passing through the cell between the two metals at _c_ is interrupted, in ordinary cases five hundred times a second, and in extreme cases four times as often, by bubbles of gas given off from the wire instant by instant. footnotes: [ ] "history of the wireless telegraph," by j. j. fahie. edinburgh and london, william blackwood & sons; new york, dodd, mead & co., . this work is full of interesting detail, well illustrated. [ ] the value of wireless telegraphy in relation to disasters at sea was proved in a remarkable way yesterday morning. while the channel was enveloped in a dense fog, which had lasted throughout the greater part of the night, the east goodwin lightship had a very narrow escape from sinking at her moorings by being run into by the steamship _r. f. matthews_, , tons gross burden, of london, outward bound from the thames. the east goodwin lightship is one of four such vessels marking the goodwin sands, and, curiously enough, it happens to be the one ship which has been fitted out with signor marconi's installation for wireless telegraphy. the vessel was moored about twelve miles to the northeast of the south foreland lighthouse (where there is another wireless-telegraphy installation), and she is about ten miles from the shore, being directly opposite deal. the information regarding the collision was at once communicated by wireless telegraphy from the disabled lightship to the south foreland lighthouse, where mr. bullock, assistant to signor marconi, received the following message: "we have just been run into by the steamer _r. f. matthews_ of london. steamship is standing by us. our bows very badly damaged." mr. bullock immediately forwarded this information to the trinity house authorities at ramsgate.--_times_, april , . electricity, what its mastery means: with a review and a prospect george iles [from "flame, electricity and the camera," copyright by doubleday, page & co., new york.] with the mastery of electricity man enters upon his first real sovereignty of nature. as we hear the whirr of the dynamo or listen at the telephone, as we turn the button of an incandescent lamp or travel in an electromobile, we are partakers in a revolution more swift and profound than has ever before been enacted upon earth. until the nineteenth century fire was justly accounted the most useful and versatile servant of man. to-day electricity is doing all that fire ever did, and doing it better, while it accomplishes uncounted tasks far beyond the reach of flame, however ingeniously applied. we may thus observe under our eyes just such an impetus to human intelligence and power as when fire was first subdued to the purposes of man, with the immense advantage that, whereas the subjugation of fire demanded ages of weary and uncertain experiment, the mastery of electricity is, for the most part, the assured work of the nineteenth century, and, in truth, very largely of its last three decades. the triumphs of the electrician are of absorbing interest in themselves, they bear a higher significance to the student of man as a creature who has gradually come to be what he is. in tracing the new horizons won by electric science and art, a beam of light falls on the long and tortuous paths by which man rose to his supremacy long before the drama of human life had been chronicled or sung. of the strides taken by humanity on its way to the summit of terrestrial life, there are but four worthy of mention as preparing the way for the victories of the electrician--the attainment of the upright attitude, the intentional kindling of fire, the maturing of emotional cries to articulate speech, and the invention of written symbols for speech. as we examine electricity in its fruitage we shall find that it bears the unfailing mark of every other decisive factor of human advance: its mastery is no mere addition to the resources of the race, but a multiplier of them. the case is not as when an explorer discovers a plant hitherto unknown, such as indian corn, which takes its place beside rice and wheat as a new food, and so measures a service which ends there. nor is it as when a prospector comes upon a new metal, such as nickel, with the sole effect of increasing the variety of materials from which a smith may fashion a hammer or a blade. almost infinitely higher is the benefit wrought when energy in its most useful phase is, for the first time, subjected to the will of man, with dawning knowledge of its unapproachable powers. it begins at once to marry the resources of the mechanic and the chemist, the engineer and the artist, with issue attested by all its own fertility, while its rays reveal province after province undreamed of, and indeed unexisting, before its advent. every other primal gift of man rises to a new height at the bidding of the electrician. all the deftness and skill that have followed from the upright attitude, in its creation of the human hand, have been brought to a new edge and a broader range through electric art. between the uses of flame and electricity have sprung up alliances which have created new wealth for the miner and the metal-worker, the manufacturer and the shipmaster, with new insights for the man of research. articulate speech borne on electric waves makes itself heard half-way across america, and words reduced to the symbols of symbols--expressed in the perforations of a strip of paper--take flight through a telegraph wire at twenty-fold the pace of speech. because the latest leap in knowledge and faculty has been won by the electrician, he has widened the scientific outlook vastly more than any explorer who went before. beyond any predecessor, he began with a better equipment and a larger capital to prove the gainfulness which ever attends the exploiting a supreme agent of discovery. as we trace a few of the unending interlacements of electrical science and art with other sciences and arts, and study their mutually stimulating effects, we shall be reminded of a series of permutations where the latest of the factors, because latest, multiplies all prior factors in an unexampled degree.[ ] we shall find reason to believe that this is not merely a suggestive analogy, but really true as a tendency, not only with regard to man's gains by the conquest of electricity, but also with respect to every other signal victory which has brought him to his present pinnacle of discernment and rule. if this permutative principle in former advances lay undetected, it stands forth clearly in that latest accession to skill and interpretation which has been ushered in by franklin and volta, faraday and henry. although of much less moment than the triumphs of the electrician, the discovery of photography ranks second in importance among the scientific feats of the nineteenth century. the camera is an artificial eye with almost every power of the human retina, and with many that are denied to vision--however ingeniously fortified by the lens-maker. a brief outline of photographic history will show a parallel to the permutative impulse so conspicuous in the progress of electricity. at the points where the electrician and the photographer collaborate we shall note achievements such as only the loftiest primal powers may evoke. a brief story of what electricity and its necessary precursor, fire, have done and promise to do for civilization, may have attraction in itself; so, also, may a review, though most cursory, of the work of the camera and all that led up to it: for the provinces here are as wide as art and science, and their bounds comprehend well-nigh the entirety of human exploits. and between the lines of this story we may read another--one which may tell us something of the earliest stumblings in the dawn of human faculty. when we compare man and his next of kin, we find between the two a great gulf, surely the widest betwixt any allied families in nature. can a being of intellect, conscience, and aspiration have sprung at any time, however remote, from the same stock as the orang and the chimpanzee? since , when darwin published his "origin of species," the theory of evolution has become so generally accepted that to-day it is little more assailed than the doctrine of gravitation. and yet, while the average man of intelligence bows to the formula that all which now exists has come from the simplest conceivable state of things,--a universal nebula, if you will,--in his secret soul he makes one exception--himself. that there is a great deal more assent than conviction in the world is a chiding which may come as justly from the teacher's table as from the preacher's pulpit. now, if we but catch the meaning of man's mastery of electricity, we shall have light upon his earlier steps as a fire-kindler, and as a graver of pictures and symbols on bone and rock. as we thus recede from civilization to primeval savagery, the process of the making of man may become so clear that the arguments of darwin shall be received with conviction, and not with silent repulse. as we proceed to recall, one by one, the salient chapters in the history of fire, and of the arts of depiction that foreran the camera, we shall perceive a truth of high significance. we shall see that, while every new faculty has its roots deep in older powers, and while its growth may have been going on for age after age, yet its flowering may be as the event of a morning. even as our gardens show us the century-plants, once supposed to bloom only at the end of a hundred years, so history, in the large, exhibits discoveries whose harvests are gathered only after the lapse of æons instead of years. the arts of fire were slowly elaborated until man had produced the crucible and the still, through which his labours culminated in metals purified, in acids vastly more corrosive than those of vegetation, in glass and porcelain equally resistant to flame and the electric wave. these were combined in an hour by volta to build his cell, and in that hour began a new era for human faculty and insight. it is commonly imagined that the progress of humanity has been at a tolerably uniform pace. our review of that progress will show that here and there in its course have been _leaps_, as radically new forces have been brought under the dominion of man. we of the electric revolution are sharply marked off from our great-grandfathers, who looked upon the cell of volta as a curious toy. they, in their turn, were profoundly differenced from the men of the seventeenth century, who had not learned that flame could outvie the horse as a carrier, and grind wheat better than the mill urged by the breeze. and nothing short of an abyss stretches between these men and their remote ancestors, who had not found a way to warm their frosted fingers or lengthen with lamp or candle the short, dark days of winter. throughout the pages of this book there will be some recital of the victories won by the fire-maker, the electrician, the photographer, and many more in the peerage of experiment and research. underlying the sketch will appear the significant contrast betwixt accessions of minor and of supreme dignity. the finding a new wood, such as that of the yew, means better bows for the archer, stronger handles for the tool-maker; the subjugation of a universal force such as fire, or electricity, stands for the exaltation of power in every field of toil, for the creation of a new earth for the worker, new heavens for the thinker. as a corollary, we shall observe that an increasing width of gap marks off the successive stages of human progress from each other, so that its latest stride is much the longest and most decisive. and it will be further evident that, while every new faculty is of age-long derivation from older powers and ancient aptitudes, it nevertheless comes to the birth in a moment, as it were, and puts a strain of probably fatal severity on those contestants who miss the new gift by however little. we shall, therefore, find that the principle of permutation, here merely indicated, accounts in large measure for three cardinal facts in the history of man: first, his leaps forward; second, the constant accelerations in these leaps; and third, the gap in the record of the tribes which, in the illimitable past, have succumbed as forces of a new edge and sweep have become engaged in the fray.[ ] the interlacements of the arts of fire and of electricity are intimate and pervasive. while many of the uses of flame date back to the dawn of human skill, many more have become of new and higher value within the last hundred years. fire to-day yields motive power with tenfold the economy of a hundred years ago, and motive power thus derived is the main source of modern electric currents. in metallurgy there has long been an unwitting preparation for the advent of the electrician, and here the services of fire within the nineteenth century have won triumphs upon which the later successes of electricity largely proceed. in producing alloys, and in the singular use of heat to effect its own banishment, novel and radical developments have been recorded within the past decade or two. these, also, make easier and bolder the electrician's tasks. the opening chapters of this book will, therefore, bestow a glance at the principal uses of fire as these have been revealed and applied. this glance will make clear how fire and electricity supplement each other with new and remarkable gains, while in other fields, not less important, electricity is nothing else than a supplanter of the very force which made possible its own discovery and impressment. [here follow chapters which outline the chief applications of flame and of electricity.] let us compare electricity with its precursor, fire, and we shall understand the revolution by which fire is now in so many tasks supplanted by the electric pulse which, the while, creates for itself a thousand fields denied to flame. copper is an excellent thermal conductor, and yet it transmits heat almost infinitely more slowly than it conveys electricity. one end of a thick copper rod ten feet long may be safely held in the hand while the other end is heated to redness, yet one millionth part of this same energy, if in the form of electricity, would traverse the rod in one , , th part of a second. compare next electricity with light, often the companion of heat. light travels in straight lines only; electricity can go round a corner every inch for miles, and, none the worse, yield a brilliant beam at the end of its journey. indirectly, therefore, electricity enables us to conduct either heat or light as if both were flexible pencils of rays, and subject to but the smallest tolls in their travel. we have remarked upon such methods as those of the electric welder which summon intense heat without fire, and we have glanced at the electric lamps which shine just because combustion is impossible through their rigid exclusion of air. then for a moment we paused to look at the plating baths which have developed themselves into a commanding rivalry with the blaze of the smelting furnace, with the flame which from time immemorial has filled the ladle of the founder and moulder. thus methods that commenced in dismissing flame end boldly by dispossessing heat itself. but, it may be said, this usurping electricity usually finds its source, after all, in combustion under a steam-boiler. true, but mark the harnessing of niagara, of the lachine rapids near montreal, of a thousand streams elsewhere. in the near future motive power of nature's giving is to be wasted less and less, and perforce will more and more exclude heat from the chain of transformations which issue in the locomotive's flight, in the whirl of factory and mill. thus in some degree is allayed the fear, never well grounded, that when the coal fields of the globe are spent civilization must collapse. as the electrician hears this foreboding he recalls how much fuel is wasted in converting heat into electricity. he looks beyond either turbine or shaft turned by wind or tide, and, remembering that the metal dissolved in his battery yields at his will its full content of energy, either as heat or electricity, he asks, why may not coal or forest tree, which are but other kinds of fuel, be made to do the same? one of the earliest uses of light was a means of communicating intelligence, and to this day the signal lamp and the red fire of the mariner are as useful as of old. but how much wider is the field of electricity as it creates the telegraph and the telephone! in the telegraph we have all that a pencil of light could be were it as long as an equatorial girdle and as flexible as a silken thread. in the telephone for nearly two thousand miles the pulsations of the speaker's voice are not only audible, but retain their characteristic tones. in the field of mechanics electricity is decidedly preferable to any other agent. heat may be transformed into motive power by a suitable engine, but there its adaptability is at an end. an electric current drives not only a motor, but every machine and tool attached to the motor, the whole executing tasks of a delicacy and complication new to industrial art. on an electric railroad an identical current propels the train, directs it by telegraph, operates its signals, provides it with light and heat, while it stands ready to give constant verbal communication with any station on the line, if this be desired. in the home electricity has equal versatility, at once promoting healthfulness, refinement and safety. its tiny button expels the hazardous match as it lights a lamp which sends forth no baleful fumes. an electric fan brings fresh air into the house--in summer as a grateful breeze. simple telephones, quite effective for their few yards of wire, give a better because a more flexible service than speaking-tubes. few invalids are too feeble to whisper at the light, portable ear of metal. sewing-machines and the more exigent apparatus of the kitchen and laundry transfer their demands from flagging human muscles to the tireless sinews of electric motors--which ask no wages when they stand unemployed. similar motors already enjoy favour in working the elevators of tall dwellings in cities. if a householder is timid about burglars, the electrician offers him a sleepless watchman in the guise of an automatic alarm; if he has a dread of fire, let him dispose on his walls an array of thermometers that at the very inception of a blaze will strike a gong at headquarters. but these, after all, are matters of minor importance in comparison with the foundations upon which may be reared, not a new piece of mechanism, but a new science or a new art. in the recent swift subjugation of the territory open alike to the chemist and the electrician, where each advances the quicker for the other's company, we have fresh confirmation of an old truth--that the boundary lines which mark off one field of science from another are purely artificial, are set up only for temporary convenience. the chemist has only to dig deep enough to find that the physicist and himself occupy common ground. "delve from the surface of your sphere to its heart, and at once your radius joins every other." even the briefest glance at electro-chemistry should pause to acknowledge its profound debt to the new theories as to the bonding of atoms to form molecules, and of the continuity between solution and electrical dissociation. however much these hypotheses may be modified as more light is shed on the geometry and the journeyings of the molecule, they have for the time being recommended themselves as finder-thoughts of golden value. these speculations of the chemist carry him back perforce to the days of his childhood. as he then joined together his black and white bricks he found that he could build cubes of widely different patterns. it was in propounding a theory of molecular architecture that kekulé gave an impetus to a vast and growing branch of chemical industry--that of the synthetic production of dyes and allied compounds. it was in pure research, in paths undirected to the market-place, that such theories have been thought out. let us consider electricity as an aid to investigation conducted for its own sake. the chief physical generalization of our time, and of all time, the persistence of force, emerged to view only with the dawn of electric art. when it was observed that electricity might become heat, light, chemical action, or mechanical motion, that in turn any of these might produce electricity, it was at once indicated that all these phases of energy might differ from each other only as the movements in circles, volutes, and spirals of ordinary mechanism. the suggestion was confirmed when electrical measurers were refined to the utmost precision, and a single quantum of energy was revealed a very proteus in its disguises, yet beneath these disguises nothing but constancy itself. "there is that scattereth, and yet increaseth; and there is that withholdeth more than is meet, but it tendeth to poverty." because the geometers of old patiently explored the properties of the triangle, the circle, and the ellipse, simply for pure love of truth, they laid the corner-stones for the arts of the architect, the engineer, and the navigator. in like manner it was the disinterested work of investigation conducted by ampère, faraday, henry and their compeers, in ascertaining the laws of electricity which made possible the telegraph, the telephone, the dynamo, and the electric furnace. the vital relations between pure research and economic gain have at last worked themselves clear. it is perfectly plain that a man who has it in him to discover laws of matter and energy does incomparably more for his kind than if he carried his talents to the mint for conversion into coin. the voyage of a columbus may not immediately bear as much fruit as the uncoverings of a mine prospector, but in the long run a columbus makes possible the finding many mines which without him no prospector would ever see. therefore let the seed-corn of knowledge be planted rather than eaten. but in choosing between one research and another it is impossible to foretell which may prove the richer in its harvests; for instance, all attempts thus far economically to oxidize carbon for the production of electricity have failed, yet in observations that at first seemed equally barren have lain the hints to which we owe the incandescent lamp and the wireless telegraph. perhaps the most promising field of electrical research is that of discharges at high pressures; here the leading american investigators are professor john trowbridge and professor elihu thomson. employing a tension estimated at one and a half millions volts, professor trowbridge has produced flashes of lightning six feet in length in atmospheric air; in a tube exhausted to one-seventh of atmospheric pressure the flashes extended themselves to forty feet. according to this inquirer, the familiar rending of trees by lightning is due to the intense heat developed in an instant by the electric spark; the sudden expansion of air or steam in the cavities of the wood causes an explosion. the experiments of professor thomson confront him with some of the seeming contradictions which ever await the explorer of new scientific territory. in the atmosphere an electrical discharge is facilitated when a metallic terminal (as a lightning rod) is shaped as a point; under oil a point is the form least favourable to discharge. in the same line of paradox it is observed that oil steadily improves in its insulating effect the higher the electrical pressure committed to its keeping; with air as an insulator the contrary is the fact. these and a goodly array of similar puzzles will, without doubt, be cleared up as students in the twentieth century pass from the twilight of anomaly to the sunshine of ascertained law. "before there can be applied science there must be science to apply," and it is by enabling the investigator to know nature under a fresh aspect that electricity rises to its highest office. the laboratory routine of ascertaining the conductivity, polarisability, and other electrical properties of matter is dull and exacting work, but it opens to the student new windows through which to peer at the architecture of matter. that architecture, as it rises to his view, discloses one law of structure after another; what in a first and clouded glance seemed anomaly is now resolved and reconciled; order displays itself where once anarchy alone appeared. when the investigator now needs a substance of peculiar properties he knows where to find it, or has a hint for its creation--a creation perhaps new in the history of the world. as he thinks of the wealth of qualities possessed by his store of alloys, salts, acids, alkalies, new uses for them are borne into his mind. yet more--a new orchestration of inquiry is possible by means of the instruments created for him by the electrician, through the advances in method which these instruments effect. with a second and more intimate point of view arrives a new trigonometry of the particle, a trigonometry inconceivable in pre-electric days. hence a surround is in progress which early in the twentieth century may go full circle, making atom and molecule as obedient to the chemist as brick and stone are to the builder now. the laboratory investigator and the commercial exploiter of his discoveries have been by turns borrower and lender, to the great profit of both. what leyden jar could ever be constructed of the size and revealing power of an atlantic cable? and how many refinements of measurement, of purification of metals, of precision in manufacture, have been imposed by the colossal investments in deep-sea telegraphy alone! when a current admitted to an ocean cable, such as that between brest and new york, can choose for its path either , miles of copper wire or a quarter of an inch of gutta-percha, there is a dangerous opportunity for escape into the sea, unless the current is of nicely adjusted strength, and the insulator has been made and laid with the best-informed skill, the most conscientious care. in the constant tests required in laying the first cables lord kelvin (then professor william thomson) felt the need for better designed and more sensitive galvanometers or current measurers. his great skill both as a mathematician and a mechanician created the existing instruments, which seem beyond improvement. they serve not only in commerce and manufacture, but in promoting the strictly scientific work of the laboratory. now that electricity purifies copper as fire cannot, the mathematician is able to treat his problems of long-distance transmission, of traction, of machine design, with an economy and certainty impossible when his materials were not simply impure, but impure in varying and indefinite degrees. the factory and the workshop originally took their magneto-machines from the experimental laboratory; they have returned them remodelled beyond recognition as dynamos and motors of almost ideal effectiveness. a galvanometer actuated by a thermo-electric pile furnishes much the most sensitive means of detecting changes of temperature; hence electricity enables the physicist to study the phenomena of heat with new ease and precision. it was thus that professor tyndall conducted the classical researches set forth in his "heat as a mode of motion," ascertaining the singular power to absorb terrestrial heat which makes the aqueous vapours of the atmosphere act as an indispensable blanket to the earth. and how vastly has electricity, whether in the workshop or laboratory, enlarged our conceptions of the forces that thrill space, of the substances, seemingly so simple, that surround us--substances that propound questions of structure and behaviour that silence the acutest investigator. "you ask me," said a great physicist, "if i have a theory of the _universe_? why, i haven't even a theory of _magnetism_!" the conventional phrase "conducting a current" is now understood to be mere figure of speech; it is thought that a wire does little else than give direction to electric energy. pulsations of high tension have been proved to be mainly superficial in their journeys, so that they are best conveyed (or convoyed) by conductors of tubular form. and what is it that moves when we speak of conduction? it seems to be now the molecule of atomic chemistry, and anon the same ether that undulates with light or radiant heat. indeed, the conquest of electricity means so much because it impresses the molecule and the ether into service as its vehicles of communication. instead of the old-time masses of metal, or bands of leather, which moved stiffly through ranges comparatively short, there is to-day employed a medium which may traverse , miles in a second, and with resistances most trivial in contrast with those of mechanical friction. and what is friction in the last analysis but the production of motion in undesired forms, the allowing valuable energy to do useless work? in that amazing case of long distance transmission, common sunshine, a solar beam arrives at the earth from the sun not one whit the weaker for its excursion of , , miles. it is highly probable that we are surrounded by similar cases of the total absence of friction in the phenomena of both physics and chemistry, and that art will come nearer and nearer to nature in this immunity is assured when we see how many steps in that direction have already been taken by the electrical engineer. in a preceding page a brief account was given of the theory that gases and vapours are in ceaseless motion. this motion suffers no abatement from friction, and hence we may infer that the molecules concerned are perfectly elastic. the opinion is gaining ground among physicists that all the properties of matter, transparency, chemical combinability, and the rest, are due to immanent motion in particular orbits, with diverse velocities. if this be established, then these motions also suffer no friction, and go on without resistance forever. as the investigators in the vanguard of science discuss the constitution of matter, and weave hypotheses more or less fruitful as to the interplay of its forces, there is a growing faith that the day is at hand when the tie between electricity and gravitation will be unveiled--when the reason why matter has weight will cease to puzzle the thinker. who can tell what relief of man's estate may be bound up with the ability to transform any phase of energy into any other without the circuitous methods and serious losses of to-day! in the sphere of economic progress one of the supreme advances was due to the invention of money, the providing a medium for which any salable thing may be exchanged, with which any purchasable thing may be bought. as soon as a shell, or a hide, or a bit of metal was recognized as having universal convertibility, all the delays and discounts of barter were at an end. in the world of physics and chemistry the corresponding medium is electricity; let it be produced as readily as it produces other modes of motion, and human art will take a stride forward such as when volta disposed his zinc and silver discs together, or when faraday set a magnet moving around a copper wire. for all that the electric current is not as yet produced as economically as it should be, we do wrong if we regard it as an infant force. however much new knowledge may do with electricity in the laboratory, in the factory, or in the exchange, some of its best work is already done. it is not likely ever to perform a greater feat than placing all mankind within ear-shot of each other. were electricity unmastered there could be no democratic government of the united states. to-day the drama of national affairs is more directly in view of every american citizen than, a century ago, the public business of delaware could be to the men of that little state. and when on the broader stage of international politics misunderstandings arise, let us note how the telegraph has modified the hard-and-fast rules of old-time diplomacy. to-day, through the columns of the press, the facts in controversy are instantly published throughout the world, and thus so speedily give rise to authoritative comment that a severe strain is put upon negotiators whose tradition it is to be both secret and slow. railroads, with all they mean for civilization, could not have extended themselves without the telegraph to control them. and railroads and telegraphs are the sinews and nerves of national life, the prime agencies in welding the diverse and widely separated states and territories of the union. a boston merchant builds a cotton-mill in georgia; a new york capitalist opens a copper-mine in arizona. the telegraph which informs them day by day how their investments prosper tells idle men where they can find work, where work can seek idle men. chicago is laid in ashes, charleston topples in earthquake, johnstown is whelmed in flood, and instantly a continent springs to their relief. and what benefits issue in the strictly commercial uses of the telegraph! at its click both locomotive and steamship speed to the relief of famine in any quarter of the globe. in times of plenty or of dearth the markets of the globe are merged and are brought to every man's door. not less striking is the neighbourhood guild of science, born, too, of the telegraph. the day after röntgen announced his x rays, physicists on every continent were repeating his experiments--were applying his discovery to the healing of the wounded and diseased. let an anti-toxin for diphtheria, consumption, or yellow fever be proposed, and a hundred investigators the world over bend their skill to confirm or disprove, as if the suggester dwelt next door. on a stage less dramatic, or rather not dramatic at all, electricity works equal good. its motor freeing us from dependence on the horse is spreading our towns and cities into their adjoining country. field and garden compete with airless streets. the sunny cottage is in active rivalry with the odious tenement-house. it is found that transportation within the gates of a metropolis has an importance second only to the means of transit which links one city with another. the engineer is at last filling the gap which too long existed between the traction of horses and that of steam. in point of speed, cleanliness, and comfort such an electric subway as that of south london leaves nothing to be desired. throughout america electric roads, at first suburban, are now fast joining town to town and city to city, while, as auxiliaries to steam railroads, they place sparsely settled communities in the arterial current of the world, and build up a ready market for the dairyman and the fruit-grower. in its saving of what mr. oscar t. crosby has called "man-hours" the third-rail system is beginning to oust steam as a motive power from trunk-lines. already shrewd railroad managers are granting partnerships to the electricians who might otherwise encroach upon their dividends. a service at first restricted to passengers has now extended itself to the carriage of letters and parcels, and begins to reach out for common freight. we may soon see the farmer's cry for good roads satisfied by good electric lines that will take his crops to market much more cheaply and quickly than horses and macadam ever did. in cities, electromobile cabs and vans steadily increase in numbers, furthering the quiet and cleanliness introduced by the trolley car. a word has been said about the blessings which electricity promises to country folk, yet greater are the boons it stands ready to bestow in the hives of population. until a few decades ago the water-supply of cities was a matter not of municipal but of individual enterprise; water was drawn in large part from wells here and there, from lines of piping laid in favoured localities, and always insufficient. many an epidemic of typhoid fever was due to the contamination of a spring by a cesspool a few yards away. to-day a supply such as that of new york is abundant and cheap because it enters every house. let a centralized electrical service enjoy a like privilege, and it will offer a current which is heat, light, chemical energy, or motive power, and all at a wage lower than that of any other servant. unwittingly, then, the electrical engineer is a political reformer of high degree, for he puts a new premium upon ability and justice at the city hall. his sole condition is that electricity shall be under control at once competent and honest. let us hope that his plea, joined to others as weighty, may quicken the spirit of civic righteousness so that some of the richest fruits ever borne in the garden of science and art may not be proffered in vain. flame, the old-time servant, is individual; electricity, its successor and heir, is collective. flame sits upon the hearth and draws a family together; electricity, welling from a public source, may bind into a unit all the families of a vast city, because it makes the benefit of each the interest of all. but not every promise brought forward in the name of the electrician has his assent or sanction. so much has been done by electricity, and so much more is plainly feasible, that a reflection of its triumphs has gilded many a baseless dream. one of these is that the cheap electric motor, by supply power at home, will break up the factory system, and bring back the domestic manufacturing of old days. but if this power cost nothing at all the gift would leave the factory unassailed; for we must remember that power is being steadily reduced in cost from year to year, so that in many industries it has but a minor place among the expenses of production. the strength and profit of the factory system lie in its assembling a wide variety of machines, the first delivering its product to the second for another step toward completion, and so on until a finished article is sent to the ware-room. it is this minute subdivision of labour, together with the saving and efficiency that inure to a business conducted on an immense scale under a single manager, that bids us believe that the factory has come to stay. to be sure, a weaver, a potter, or a lens-grinder of peculiar skill may thrive at his loom or wheel at home; but such a man is far from typical in modern manufacture. besides, it is very questionable whether the lamentations over the home industries of the past do not ignore evil concomitants such as still linger in the home industries of the present--those of the sweater's den, for example. this rapid survey of what electricity has done and may yet do--futile expectation dismissed--has shown it the creator of a thousand material resources, the perfector of that communication of things, of power, of thought, which in every prior stage of advancement has marked the successive lifts of humanity. it was much when the savage loaded a pack upon a horse or an ox instead of upon his own back; it was yet more when he could make a beacon-flare give news or warning to a whole country-side, instead of being limited to the messages which might be read in his waving hands. all that the modern engineer was able to do with steam for locomotion is raised to a higher plane by the advent of his new power, while the long-distance transmission of electrical energy is contracting the dimensions of the planet to a scale upon which its cataracts in the wilderness drive the spindles and looms of the factory town, or illuminate the thoroughfares of cities. beyond and above all such services as these, electricity is the corner-stone of physical generalization, a revealer of truths impenetrable by any other ray. the subjugation of fire has done much in giving man a new independence of nature, a mighty armoury against evil. in curtailing the most arduous and brutalizing forms of toil, electricity, that subtler kind of fire, carries this emancipation a long step further, and, meanwhile, bestows upon the poor many a luxury which but lately was the exclusive possession of the rich. in more closely binding up the good of the bee with the welfare of the hive, it is an educator and confirmer of every social bond. in so far as it proffers new help in the war on pain and disease it strengthens the confidence of man in an order of right and happiness which for so many dreary ages has been a matter rather of hope than of vision. are we not, then, justified in holding electricity to be a multiplier of faculty and insight, a means of dignifying mind and soul, unexampled since man first kindled fire and rejoiced? we have traced how dexterity rose to fire-making, how fire-making led to the subjugation of electricity. much of the most telling work of fire can be better done by its great successor, while electricity performs many tasks possible only to itself. unwitting truth there was in the simple fable of the captive who let down a spider's film, that drew up a thread, which in turn brought up a rope--and freedom. it was in on the threshold of the nineteenth century, that volta devised the first electric battery. in a hundred years the force then liberated has vitally interwoven itself with every art and science, bearing fruit not to be imagined even by men of the stature of watt, lavoisier, or humboldt. compare this rapid march of conquest with the slow adaptation, through age after age, of fire to cooking, smelting, tempering. yet it was partly, perhaps mainly, because the use of fire had drawn out man's intelligence and cultivated his skill that he was ready in the fulness of time so quickly to seize upon electricity and subdue it. electricity is as legitimately the offspring of fire as fire of the simple knack in which one savage in ten thousand was richer than his fellows. the principle of permutation, suggested in both victories, interprets not only how vast empire is won by a new weapon of prime dignity; it explains why such empires are brought under rule with ever-accelerated pace. every talent only pioneers the way for the richer talents which are born from it. footnotes: [ ] permutations are the various ways in which two or more different things may be arranged in a row, all the things appearing in each row. permutations are readily illustrated with squares or cubes of different colours, with numbers, or letters. permutations of two elements, and , are ( x ) two; , ; , ; or _a_, _b_; _b_, _a_. of three elements the permutations are ( x x ) six; , , ; , , ; , , ; , , ; , , ; , , ; or _a_, _b_, _c_; _a_, _c_, _b_; _b_, _a_, _c_; _b_, _c_, _a_; _c_, _a_, _b_; _c_, _b_, _a_. of four elements the permutations are ( x x x ) twenty-four; of five elements, one hundred and twenty, and so on. a new element or permutator multiplies by an increasing figure all the permutations it finds. [ ] some years ago i sent an outline of this argument to herbert spencer, who replied: "i recognize a novelty and value in your inference that the law implies an increasing width of gap between lower and higher types as evolution advances." count rumford identifies heat with motion. [benjamin thompson, who received the title of count rumford from the elector of bavaria, was born in woburn, massachusetts, in . when thirty-one years of age he settled in munich, where he devoted his remarkable abilities to the public service. twelve years afterward he removed to england; in he founded the royal institution of london, since famous as the theatre of the labours of davy, faraday, tyndall, and dewar. he bequeathed to harvard university a fund to endow a professorship of the application of science to the art of living: he instituted a prize to be awarded by the american academy of sciences for the most important discoveries and improvements relating to heat and light. in he married the widow of the illustrious chemist lavoisier: he died in . count rumford on january , , read a paper before the royal society entitled "an enquiry concerning the source of heat which is excited by friction." the experiments therein detailed proved that heat is identical with motion, as against the notion that heat is matter. he thus laid the corner-stone of the modern theory that heat light, electricity, magnetism, chemical action, and all other forms of energy are in essence motion, are convertible into one another, and as motion are indestructible. the following abstract of count rumford's paper is taken from "heat as a mode of motion," by professor john tyndall, published by d. appleton & co., new york. this work and "the correlation and conservation of forces," edited by dr. e. l. youmans, published by the same house, will serve as a capital introduction to the modern theory that energy is motion which, however varied in its forms, is changeless in its quantity.] being engaged in superintending the boring of cannon in the workshops of the military arsenal at munich, count rumford was struck with the very considerable degree of heat which a brass gun acquires, in a short time, in being bored, and with the still more intense heat (much greater than that of boiling water) of the metallic chips separated from it by the borer, he proposed to himself the following questions: "whence comes the heat actually produced in the mechanical operations above mentioned? "is it furnished by the metallic chips which are separated from the metal?" if this were the case, then the _capacity for heat_ of the parts of the metal so reduced to chips ought not only to be changed, but the change undergone by them should be sufficiently great to account for _all_ the heat produced. no such change, however, had taken place, for the chips were found to have the same capacity as slices of the same metal cut by a fine saw, where heating was avoided. hence, it is evident, that the heat produced could not possibly have been furnished at the expense of the latent heat of the metallic chips. rumford describes these experiments at length, and they are conclusive. he then designed a cylinder for the express purpose of generating heat by friction, by having a blunt borer forced against its solid bottom, while the cylinder was turned around its axis by the force of horses. to measure the heat developed, a small round hole was bored in the cylinder for the purpose of introducing a small mercurial thermometer. the weight of the cylinder was . pounds avoirdupois. the borer was a flat piece of hardened steel, . of an inch thick, four inches long, and nearly as wide as the cavity of the bore of the cylinder, namely, three and one-half inches. the area of the surface by which its end was in contact with the bottom of the bore was nearly two and one-half inches. at the beginning of the experiment the temperature of the air in the shade, and also that of the cylinder, was ° fahr. at the end of thirty minutes, and after the cylinder had made revolutions round its axis, the temperature was found to be °. having taken away the borer, he now removed the metallic dust, or rather scaly matter, which had been detached from the bottom of the cylinder by the blunt steel borer, and found its weight to be grains troy. "is it possible," he exclaims, "that the very considerable quantity of heat produced in this experiment--a quantity which actually raised the temperature of above pounds of gun-metal at least ° of fahrenheit's thermometer--could have been furnished by so inconsiderable a quantity of metallic dust and this merely in consequence of a _change_ in its capacity of heat?" "but without insisting on the improbability of this supposition, we have only to recollect that from the results of actual and decisive experiments, made for the express purpose of ascertaining that fact, the capacity for heat for the metal of which great guns are cast is _not sensibly changed_ by being reduced to the form of metallic chips, and there does not seem to be any reason to think that it can be much changed, if it be changed at all, in being reduced to much smaller pieces by a borer which is less sharp." he next surrounded his cylinder by an oblong deal-box, in such a manner that the cylinder could turn water-tight in the centre of the box, while the borer was pressed against the bottom of the cylinder. the box was filled with water until the entire cylinder was covered, and then the apparatus was set in action. the temperature of the water on commencing was °. "the result of this beautiful experiment," writes rumford, "was very striking, and the pleasure it afforded me amply repaid me for all the trouble i had had in contriving and arranging the complicated machinery used in making it. the cylinder had been in motion but a short time, when i perceived, by putting my hand into the water, and touching the outside of the cylinder, that heat was generated. "at the end of one hour the fluid, which weighed . pounds, or two and one-half gallons, had its temperature raised forty-seven degrees, being now °. "in thirty minutes more, or one hour and thirty minutes after the machinery had been set in motion, the heat of the water was °. "at the end of two hours from the beginning, the temperature was °. "at two hours and twenty minutes it was °, and at two hours and thirty minutes it _actually boiled_!" "it would be difficult to describe the surprise and astonishment expressed in the countenances of the bystanders on seeing so large a quantity of water heated, and actually made to boil, without any fire. though, there was nothing that could be considered very surprising in this matter, yet i acknowledge fairly that it afforded me a degree of childish pleasure which, were i ambitious of the reputation of a grave philosopher, i ought most certainly rather to hide than to discover." he then carefully estimates the quantity of heat possessed by each portion of his apparatus at the conclusion of the experiment, and, adding all together, finds a total sufficient to raise . pounds of ice-cold water to its boiling point, or through ° fahrenheit. by careful calculation, he finds this heat equal to that given out by the combustion of , . grains (equal to four and eight-tenths ounces troy) of wax. he then determines the "_celerity_" with which the heat was generated, summing up thus: "from the results of these computations, it appears that the quantity of heat produced equably, or in a continuous stream, if i may use the expression, by the friction of the blunt steel borer against the bottom of the hollow metallic cylinder, was _greater_ than that produced in the combustion of nine _wax-candles_, each three-quarters of an inch in diameter, all burning together with clear bright flames. "one horse would have been equal to the work performed, though two were actually employed. heat may thus be produced merely by the strength of a horse, and, in a case of necessity, this heat might be used in cooking victuals. but no circumstances could be imagined in which this method of procuring heat would be advantageous, for more heat might be obtained by using the fodder necessary for the support of a horse as fuel." [this is an extremely significant passage, intimating as it does, that rumford saw clearly that the force of animals was derived from the food; _no creation of force_ taking place in the animal body.] "by meditating on the results of all these experiments, we are naturally brought to that great question which has so often been the subject of speculation among philosophers, namely, what is heat--is there any such thing as an _igneous fluid_? is there anything that, with propriety, can be called caloric? "we have seen that a very considerable quantity of heat may be excited by the friction of two metallic surfaces, and given off in a constant stream or flux _in all directions_, without interruption or intermission, and without any signs of _diminution_ or _exhaustion_. in reasoning on this subject we must not forget _that most remarkable circumstance_, that the source of the heat generated by friction in these experiments appeared evidently to be _inexhaustible_. [the italics are rumford's.] it is hardly necessary to add, that anything which any _insulated_ body or system of bodies can continue to furnish _without limitation_ cannot possibly be a _material substance_; and it appears to me to be extremely difficult, if not quite impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in those experiments, except it be motion." when the history of the dynamical theory of heat is written, the man who, in opposition to the scientific belief of his time, could experiment and reason upon experiment, as rumford did in the investigation here referred to, cannot be lightly passed over. hardly anything more powerful against the materiality of heat has been since adduced, hardly anything more conclusive in the way of establishing that heat is, what rumford considered it to be, _motion_. victory of the "rocket" locomotive. [part of chapter xii. part ii, of "the life of george stephenson and of his son, robert stephenson," by samuel smiles new york, harper & brothers, .] the works of the liverpool and manchester railway were now approaching completion. but, strange to say, the directors had not yet decided as to the tractive power to be employed in working the line when open for traffic. the differences of opinion among them were so great as apparently to be irreconcilable. it was necessary, however, that they should, come to some decision without further loss of time, and many board meetings were accordingly held to discuss the subject. the old-fashioned and well-tried system of horse-haulage was not without its advocates; but, looking at the large amount of traffic which there was to be conveyed, and at the probable delay in the transit from station to station if this method were adopted, the directors, after a visit made by them to the northumberland and durham railways in , came to the conclusion that the employment of horse-power was inadmissible. fixed engines had many advocates; the locomotive very few: it stood as yet almost in a minority of one--george stephenson.... in the meantime the discussion proceeded as to the kind of power to be permanently employed for the working of the railway. the directors were inundated with schemes of all sorts for facilitating locomotion. the projectors of england, france, and america seemed to be let loose upon them. there were plans for working the waggons along the line by water-power. some proposed hydrogen, and others carbonic acid gas. atmospheric pressure had its eager advocates. and various kinds of fixed and locomotive steam-power were suggested. thomas gray urged his plan of a greased road with cog-rails; and messrs. vignolles and ericsson recommended the adoption of a central friction-rail, against which two horizontal rollers under the locomotive, pressing upon the sides of this rail, were to afford the means of ascending the inclined planes.... the two best practical engineers of the day concurred in reporting substantially in favour of the employment of fixed engines. not a single professional man of eminence could be found to coincide with the engineer of the railway in his preference for locomotive over fixed engine power. he had scarcely a supporter, and the locomotive system seemed on the eve of being abandoned. still he did not despair. with the profession against him, and public opinion against him--for the most frightful stories went abroad respecting the dangers, the unsightliness, and the nuisance which the locomotive would create--stephenson held to his purpose. even in this, apparently the darkest hour of the locomotive, he did not hesitate to declare that locomotive railroads would, before many years had passed, be "the great highways of the world." he urged his views upon the directors in all ways, in season, and, as some of them thought, out of season. he pointed out the greater convenience of locomotive power for the purposes of a public highway, likening it to a series of short unconnected chains, any one of which could be removed and another substituted without interruption to the traffic; whereas the fixed-engine system might be regarded in the light of a continuous chain extending between the two termini, the failure of any link of which would derange the whole. but the fixed engine party was very strong at the board, and, led by mr. cropper, they urged the propriety of forthwith adopting the report of messrs. walker and rastrick. mr. sandars and mr. william rathbone, on the other hand, desired that a fair trial should be given to the locomotive; and they with reason objected to the expenditure of the large capital necessary to construct the proposed engine-houses, with their fixed engines, ropes, and machinery, until they had tested the powers of the locomotive as recommended by their own engineer. george stephenson continued to urge upon them that the locomotive was yet capable of great improvements, if proper inducements were held out to inventors and machinists to make them; and he pledged himself that, if time were given him, he would construct an engine that should satisfy their requirements, and prove itself capable of working heavy loads along the railway with speed, regularity, and safety. at length, influenced by his persistent earnestness not less than by his arguments, the directors, at the suggestion of mr. harrison, determined to offer a prize of £ for the best locomotive engine, which, on a certain day, should be produced on the railway, and perform certain specified conditions in the most satisfactory manner.[ ] the requirements of the directors as to speed were not excessive. all that they asked for was that ten miles an hour should be maintained. perhaps they had in mind the animadversions of the _quarterly review_ on the absurdity of travelling at a greater velocity, and also the remarks published by mr. nicholas wood, whom they selected to be one of the judges of the competition, in conjunction, with mr. rastrick, of stourbridge, and mr. kennedy, of manchester. it was now felt that the fate of railways in a great measure depended upon the issue of this appeal to the mechanical genius of england. when the advertisement of the prize for the best locomotive was published, scientific men began more particularly to direct their attention to the new power which was thus struggling into existence. in the meantime public opinion on the subject of railway working remained suspended, and the progress of the undertaking was watched with intense interest. during the progress of this important controversy with reference to the kind of power to be employed in working the railway, george stephenson was in constant communication with his son robert, who made frequent visits to liverpool for the purpose of assisting his father in the preparation of his reports to the board on the subject. mr. swanwick remembers the vivid interest of the evening discussions which then took place between father and son as to the best mode of increasing the powers and perfecting the mechanism of the locomotive. he wondered at their quick perception and rapid judgment on each other's suggestions; at the mechanical difficulties which they anticipated and provided for in the practical arrangement of the machine; and he speaks of these evenings as most interesting displays of two actively ingenious and able minds stimulating each other to feats of mechanical invention, by which it was ordained that the locomotive engine should become what it now is. these discussions became more frequent, and still more interesting, after the public prize had been offered for the best locomotive by the directors of the railway, and the working plans of the engine which they proposed to construct had to be settled. one of the most important considerations in the new engine was the arrangement of the boiler, and the extension of its heating surface to enable steam enough to be raised rapidly and continuously for the purpose of maintaining high rates of speed--the effect of high pressure engines being ascertained to depend mainly upon the quantity of steam which the boiler can generate, and upon its degree of elasticity when produced. the quantity of steam so generated, it will be obvious, must chiefly depend upon the quantity of fuel consumed in the furnace, and, by necessary consequence, upon the high rate of temperature maintained there. it will be remembered that in stephenson's first killingworth engines he invited and applied the ingenious method of stimulating combustion in the furnace by throwing the waste steam into the chimney after performing its office in the cylinders, thereby accelerating the ascent of the current of air, greatly increasing the draught, and consequently the temperature of the fire. this plan was adopted by him, as we have seen, as early as , and it was so successful that he himself attributed to it the greater economy of the locomotive as compared with horse-power. hence the continuance of its use upon the killingworth railway. though the adoption of the steam blast greatly quickened combustion and contributed to the rapid production of high-pressure steam, the limited amount of heating surface presented to the fire was still felt to be an obstacle to the complete success of the locomotive engine. mr. stephenson endeavoured to overcome this by lengthening the boilers and increasing the surface presented by the flue-tubes. the "lancashire witch," which he built for the bolton and leigh railway, and used in forming the liverpool and manchester railway embankments, was constructed with a double tube, each of which contained a fire, and passed longitudinally through the boiler. but this arrangement necessarily led to a considerable increase in the weight of those engines, which amounted to about twelve tons each; and as six tons was the limit allowed for engines admitted to the liverpool competition, it was clear that the time was come when the killingworth engine must undergo a farther important modification. for many years previous to this period, ingenious mechanics had been engaged in attempting to solve the problem of the best and most economical boiler for the production of high-pressure steam. the use of tubes in boilers for increasing the heating surface had long been known. as early as , matthew boulton employed copper tubes longitudinally in the boiler of the wheal busy engine in cornwall--the fire passing _through_ the tubes--and it was found that the production of steam was thereby considerably increased. the use of tubular boilers afterwards became common in cornwall. in , woolf, the cornish engineer, patented a boiler with tubes, with the same object of increasing the heating surface. the water was _inside_ the tubes, and the fire of the boiler outside. similar expedients were proposed by other inventors. in trevithick invented his light high-pressure boiler for portable purposes, in which, to "expose a large surface to the fire," he constructed the boiler of a number of small perpendicular tubes "opening into a common reservoir at the top." in w. h. james contrived a boiler composed of a series of annular wrought-iron tubes, placed side by side and bolted together, so as to form by their union a long cylindrical boiler, in the centre of which, at the end, the fireplace was situated. the fire played round the tubes, which contained the water. in james neville took out a patent for a boiler with vertical tubes surrounded by the water, through which the heated air of the furnace passed, explaining also in his specification that the tubes might be horizontal or inclined, according to circumstances. mr. goldsworthy, the persevering adaptor of steam-carriages to travelling on common roads, applied the tubular principle in the boiler of his engine, in which the steam was generated _within_ the tubes; while the boiler invented by messrs. summer and ogle for their turnpike-road steam-carriage consisted of a series of tubes placed vertically over the furnace, through which the heated air passed before reaching the chimney. about the same time george stephenson was trying the effect of introducing small tubes in the boilers of his locomotives, with the object of increasing their evaporative power. thus, in , he sent to france two engines constructed at the newcastle works for the lyons and st. etienne railway, in the boilers of which tubes were placed containing water. the heating surface was thus considerably increased; but the expedient was not successful, for the tubes, becoming furred with deposit, shortly burned out and were removed. it was then that m. seguin, the engineer of the railway, pursuing the same idea, is said to have adopted his plan of employing horizontal tubes through which the heated air passed in streamlets, and for which he took out a french patent. in the meantime mr. henry booth, secretary to the liverpool and manchester railway, whose attention had been directed to the subject on the prize being offered for the best locomotive to work that line, proposed the same method, which, unknown to him, matthew boulton had employed but not patented, in , and james neville had patented, but not employed, in ; and it was carried into effect by robert stephenson in the construction of the "rocket," which won the prize at rainhill in october, . the following is mr. booth's account in a letter to the author: "i was in almost daily communication with mr. stephenson at the time, and i was not aware that he had any intention of competing for the prize till i communicated to him my scheme of a multitubular boiler. this new plan of boiler comprised the introduction of numerous small tubes, two or three inches in diameter, and less than one-eighth of an inch thick, through which to carry the fire instead of a single tube or flue eighteen inches in diameter, and about half an inch thick, by which plan we not only obtain a very much larger heating surface, but the heating surface is much more effective, as there intervenes between the fire and the water only a thin sheet of copper or brass, not an eighth of an inch thick, instead of a plate of iron of four times the substance, as well as an inferior conductor of heat. "when the conditions of trial were published, i communicated my multitubular plan to mr. stephenson, and proposed to him that we should jointly construct an engine and compete for the prize. mr. stephenson approved the plan, and agreed to my proposal. he settled the mode in which the fire-box and tubes were to be mutually arranged and connected, and the engine was constructed at the works of messrs. robert stephenson & co., newcastle-on-tyne. "i am ignorant of m. seguin's proceedings in france, but i claim to be the inventor in england, and feel warranted in stating, without reservation, that until i named my plan to mr. stephenson, with a view to compete for the prize at rainhill, it had not been tried, and was not known in this country." from the well-known high character of mr. booth, we believe his statement to be made in perfect good faith, and that he was as much in ignorance of the plan patented by neville as he was of that of seguin. as we have seen, from the many plans of tubular boilers invented during the preceding thirty years, the idea was not by any means new; and we believe mr. booth to be entitled to the merit of inventing the method by which the multitubular principle was so effectually applied in the construction of the famous "rocket" engine. the principal circumstances connected with the construction of the "rocket," as described by robert stephenson to the author, may be briefly stated. the tubular principle was adopted in a more complete manner than had yet been attempted. twenty-five copper tubes, each three inches in diameter, extended from one end of the boiler to the other, the heated air passing through them on its way to the chimney; and the tubes being surrounded by the water of the boiler, it will be obvious that a large extension of the heating surface was thus effectually secured. the principal difficulty was in fitting the copper tubes in the boiler ends so as to prevent leakage. they were manufactured by a newcastle coppersmith, and soldered to brass screws which were screwed into the boiler ends, standing out in great knobs. when the tubes were thus fitted, and the boiler was filled with water, hydraulic pressure was applied; but the water squirted out at every joint, and the factory floor was soon flooded. robert went home in despair; and in the first moment of grief he wrote to his father that the whole thing was a failure. by return of post came a letter from his father, telling him that despair was not to be thought of--that he must "try again;" and he suggested a mode of overcoming the difficulty, which his son had already anticipated and proceeded to adopt. it was, to bore clean holes in the boiler ends, fit in the smooth copper tubes as tightly as possible, solder up, and then raise the steam. this plan succeeded perfectly, the expansion of the copper tubes completely filling up all interstices, and producing a perfectly water-tight boiler, capable of withstanding extreme external pressure. the mode of employing the steam-blast for the purpose of increasing the draught in the chimney was also the subject of numerous experiments. when the engine was first tried, it was thought that the blast in the chimney was not sufficiently strong for the purpose of keeping up the intensity of fire in the furnace, so as to produce high-pressure steam with the required velocity. the expedient was therefore adopted of hammering the copper tubes at the point at which they entered the chimney, whereby the blast was considerably sharpened; and on a farther trial it was found that the draught was increased to such an extent as to enable abundance of steam to be raised. the rationale of the blast may be simply explained by referring to the effect of contracting the pipe of a water-hose, by which the force of the jet of water is proportionately increased. widen the nozzle of the pipe, and the jet is in like manner diminished. so it is with the steam-blast in the chimney of the locomotive. doubts were, however, expressed whether the greater draught obtained by the contraction of the blast-pipe was not counterbalanced in some degree by the negative pressure upon the piston. hence a series of experiments was made with pipes of different diameters, and their efficiency was tested by the amount of vacuum that was produced in the smoke-box. the degree of rarefaction was determined by a glass tube fixed to the bottom of the smoke-box and descending into a bucket of water, the tube being open at both ends. as the rarefaction took place, the water would, of course, rise in the tube, and the height to which it rose above the surface of the water in the bucket was made the measure of the amount of rarefaction. these experiments proved that a considerable increase of draught was obtained by the contraction of the orifice; accordingly, the two blast-pipes opening from the cylinders into either side of the "rocket" chimney, and turned up within it, were contracted slightly below the area of the steam-ports, and before the engine left the factory, the water rose in the glass tube three inches above the water in the bucket. the other arrangements of the "rocket" were briefly these: the boiler was cylindrical, with flat ends, six feet in length, and three feet four inches in diameter. the upper half of the boiler was used as a reservoir for the steam, the lower half being filled with water. through the lower part the copper tubes extended, being open to the fire-box at one end, and to the chimney at the other. the fire-box, or furnace, two feet wide and three feet high, was attached immediately behind the boiler, and was also surrounded with water. the cylinders of the engine were placed on each side of the boiler, in an oblique position, one end being nearly level with the top of the boiler at its after end, and the other pointing toward the centre of the foremost or driving pair of wheels, with which the connection was directly made from the piston-rod to a pin on the outside of the wheel. the engine, together with its load of water, weighed only four tons and a quarter; and it was supported on four wheels, not coupled. the tender was four-wheeled, and similar in shape to a waggon--the foremost part holding the fuel, and the hind part a water cask. when the "rocket" was finished it was placed upon the killingworth railway for the purpose of experiment. the new boiler arrangement was found perfectly successful. the steam was raised rapidly and continuously, and in a quantity which then appeared marvellous. the same evening robert despatched a letter to his father at liverpool, informing him, to his great joy, that the "rocket" was "all right," and would be in complete working trim by the day of trial. the engine was shortly after sent by waggon to carlisle, and thence shipped for liverpool. the time so much longed for by george stephenson had now arrived, when the merits of the passenger locomotive were about to be put to the test. he had fought the battle for it until now almost single-handed. engrossed by his daily labours and anxieties, and harassed by difficulties and discouragements which would have crushed the spirit of a less resolute man, he had held firmly to his purpose through good and through evil report. the hostility which he experienced from some of the directors opposed to the adoption of the locomotive was the circumstance that caused him the greatest grief of all; for where he had looked for encouragement, he found only carping and opposition. but his pluck never failed him; and now the "rocket" was upon the ground to prove, to use his own words, "whether he was a man of his word or not." on the day appointed for the great competition of locomotives at rainhill the following engines were entered for the prize: . messrs. braithwaite and ericsson's "novelty." . mr. timothy hackworth's "sanspareil." . messrs. r. stephenson & co.'s "rocket." . mr. burstall's "perseverance." the ground on which the engines were to be tried was a level piece of railroad, about two miles in length. each was required to make twenty trips, or equal to a journey of seventy miles, in the course of the day, and the average rate of travelling was to be not under ten miles an hour. it was determined that, to avoid confusion, each engine should be tried separately, and on different days. the day fixed for the competition was the st of october, but, to allow sufficient time to get the locomotives into good working order, the directors extended it to the th. it was quite characteristic of the stephensons that, although their engine did not stand first on the list for trial, it was the first that was ready, and it was accordingly ordered out by the judges for an experimental trip. yet the "rocket" was by no means the "favourite" with either the judges or the spectators. nicholas wood has since stated that the majority of the judges were strongly predisposed in favour of the "novelty," and that "nine-tenths, if not ten-tenths, of the persons present were against the "rocket" because of its appearance." nearly every person favoured some other engine, so that there was nothing for the "rocket" but the practical test. the first trip made by it was quite successful. it ran about twelve miles, without interruption, in about fifty-three minutes. the "novelty" was next called out. it was a light engine, very compact in appearance, carrying the water and fuel upon the same wheels as the engine. the weight of the whole was only three tons and one hundred-weight. a peculiarity of this engine was that the air was driven or _forced_ through the fire by means of bellows. the day being now far advanced, and some dispute having arisen as to the method of assigning the proper load for the "novelty," no particular experiment was made further than that the engine traversed the line by way of exhibition, occasionally moving at the rate of twenty-four miles an hour. the "sanspareil," constructed by mr. timothy hackworth, was next exhibited, but no particular experiment was made with it on this day. this engine differed but little in its construction from the locomotive last supplied by the stephensons to the stockton and darlington railway, of which mr. hackworth was the locomotive foreman. the contest was postponed until the following day; but, before the judges arrived on the ground, the bellows for creating the blast in the "novelty" gave way, and it was found incapable of going through its performance. a defect was also detected in the boiler of the "sanspareil," and some further time was allowed to get it repaired. the large number of spectators who had assembled to witness the contest were greatly disappointed at this postponement; but, to lessen it, stephenson again brought out the "rocket," and, attaching it to a coach containing thirty persons, he ran them along the line at a rate of from twenty-four to thirty miles an hour, much to their gratification and amazement. before separating, the judges ordered the engine to be in readiness by eight o'clock on the following morning, to go through its definite trial according to the prescribed conditions. on the morning of the th of october the "rocket" was again ready for the contest. the engine was taken to the extremity of the stage, the fire-box was filled with coke, the fire lighted, and the steam raised until it lifted the safety-valve loaded to a pressure of fifty pounds to the square inch. this proceeding occupied fifty-seven minutes. the engine then started on its journey, dragging after it about thirteen tons' weight in waggons, and made the first ten trips backward and forward along two miles of road, running the thirty-five miles, including stoppages, in an hour and forty-eight minutes. the second ten trips were in like manner performed in two hours and three minutes. the maximum velocity attained during the trial trip was twenty-nine miles an hour, or about three times the speed that one of the judges of the competition had declared to be the limit of possibility. the average speed at which the whole of the journeys was performed was fifteen miles an hour, or five miles beyond the rate specified in the conditions published by the company. the entire performance excited the greatest astonishment among the assembled spectators; the directors felt confident that their enterprise was now on the eve of success; and george stephenson rejoiced to think that, in spite of all false prophets and fickle counsellors, the locomotive system was now safe. when the "rocket," having performed all the conditions of the contest, arrived at the "grand stand" at the close of its day's successful run, mr. cropper--one of the directors favourable to the fixed engine system--lifted up his hands, and exclaimed, "now has george stephenson at last delivered himself...." the "rocket" had eclipsed the performance of all locomotive engines that had yet been constructed, and outstripped even the sanguine expectations of its constructors. it satisfactorily answered the report of messrs. walker and rastrick, and established the efficiency of the locomotive for working the liverpool and manchester railway, and, indeed, all future railways. the "rocket" showed that a new power had been born into the world, full of activity and strength, with boundless capability of work. it was the simple but admirable contrivance of the steam-blast, and its combination with the multitubular boiler, that at once gave locomotion a vigorous life, and secured the triumph of the railway system.[ ] [illustration: the "rocket"] footnotes: [ ] the conditions were these: . the engine must effectually consume its own smoke. . the engine, if of six tons' weight, must be able to draw after it, day by day, twenty tons' weight (including the tender and water-tank) at _ten miles_ an hour, with a pressure of steam on the boiler not exceeding fifty pounds to the square inch. . the boiler must have two safety-valves, neither of which must be fastened down, and one of them be completely out of the control of the engine-man. . the engine and boiler must be supported on springs, and rest on six wheels, the height of the whole not exceeding fifteen feet to the top of the chimney. . the engine, with water, must not weigh more than six tons; but an engine of less weight would be preferred on its drawing a proportionate load behind it; if of only four and a half tons, then it might be put on only four wheels. the company will be at liberty to test the boiler, etc., by a pressure of one hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch. . a mercurial gauge must be affixed to the machine, showing the steam pressure above forty-five pounds per square inch. . the engine must be delivered, complete and ready for trial, at the liverpool end of the railway, not later than the st of october, . . the price of the engine must not exceed £ . many persons of influence declared the conditions published by the directors of the railway chimerical in the extreme. one gentleman of some eminence in liverpool, mr. p. ewart, who afterward filled the office of government inspector of post-office steam packets, declared that only a parcel of charlatans would ever have issued such a set of conditions; that it had been _proved_ to be impossible to make a locomotive engine go at ten miles an hour; but if it ever was done, he would undertake to eat a stewed engine-wheel for his breakfast. [ ] when heavier and more powerful engines were brought upon the road, the old "rocket," becoming regarded as a thing of no value, was sold in . it has since been transferred to the museum of patents at south kensington, london, where it is still to be seen. transcriber's notes: page --imployed changed to employed. page --subsequenty changed to subsequently. page --build changed to building. page --suggestor changed to suggester. page --supgestion changed to suggestion. footnote --changed question mark for a period. inconsistencies in hyphenated words have been made consistent. obvious printer errors, including punctuation, have been corrected without note. twentieth century inventions a forecast by george sutherland, m.a. longmans, green, and co. paternoster row, london new york and bombay preface. twenty years ago the author started a career in technological journalism by writing descriptions of what he regarded as the most promising inventions which had been displayed in international exhibitions then recently held. from that time until the present it has been his constant duty and practice to take note of the advance of inventive science as applied to industrial improvement--to watch it as an organic growth, not only from a philosophical, but also from a practical, point of view. the advance towards the actual adoption of any great industrial invention is generally a more or less collective movement; and, in the course of a practice such as that referred to, the habit of watching the signs of progress has been naturally acquired. moreover, it has always been necessary to take a comprehensive, rather than a minute or detailed, view of the progress of the great industrial army of nineteenth century civilisation towards certain objectives. it is better, for some purposes of technological journalism, to be attached to the staff than to march with any individual company--for the war correspondent must ever place himself in a position from which a bird's-eye view is possible. the personal aspect of the campaign becomes merged in that which regards the army as an organic unit. it may, therefore, be claimed that, in some moderate degree, the author is fitted by training and opportunities for undertaking the necessarily difficult task of foretelling the trend of invention and industrial improvement during the twentieth century. he must, of course, expect to be wrong in a certain proportion of his prognostications; but, like the meteorologists, he will be content if in a fair percentage of his forecasts it should be admitted that he has reasoned correctly according to the available data. the questions to be answered in an inquiry as to the chances of failure or success which lie before any invention or proposed improvement are, first, whether it is really wanted; and, secondly, whether the environment in the midst of which it must make its début is favourable. these requirements generally depend upon matters which, to a large extent, stand apart from the personal qualifications of any individual inventor. in the course of a search through the vast accumulations of the patent specifications of various countries, the thought is almost irresistibly forced upon the mind of the investigator that "there is nothing new under the sun". no matter how far back he may push his inquiry in attempting to unveil the true source of any important idea, he will always find at some antecedent date the germ, either of the same inventive conception, or of something which is hardly distinguishable from it. the habit of research into the origin of improved industrial method must therefore help to strengthen the impression of the importance of gradual growth, and of general tendencies, as being the prime factors in promoting social advancement through the success of invention. the same habit will also generally have the effect of rendering the searcher more diffident in any claims which he may entertain as to the originality of his own ideas. inventive thought has been so enormously stimulated during the past two or three generations, that the public recognition of a want invariably sets thousands of minds thinking about the possible methods of ministering to it. startling illustrations of this fact are continually cropping up in the experiences of patent agents and others who are engaged in technological work and its literature. the average inventor is almost always inclined to imagine--when he finds another man working in exactly the same groove as himself--that by some means his ideas have leaked out, and have been pirated. but those who have studied invention, as a social and industrial force, know that nothing is more common than to find two or more inventors making entirely independent progress in the same direction. for example, while this book was in course of preparation the author wrote out an account of an application of wireless telegraphy to the purpose of keeping all the clocks within a given area correct to one standard time. within a few days there came to hand a copy of _engineering_ in which exactly the same suggestion was put forward, and an announcement was made to the effect that mr. richard kerr, f.g.s., had been working independently on the same lines, the details of his method of applying the hertzian waves to the purpose being practically the same as those sketched out by the author. this is only one of several instances of coincidences in independent work which have been noticed during the period while this volume was in course of preparation. it may, therefore, be readily understood that the author would hardly like to undertake the task of attempting to discriminate between those forecasts in the subsequent pages which are the results of his own original suggestions, and those which have been derived from other sources. whatever is of value has in all probability been thought of, or perhaps patented and otherwise publicly suggested, before. at any rate, the great majority of the forecasts are based on actual records of the trials of inventions which distinctly have a future lying before them in the years of the twentieth century. in declining to enter into questions relating to the original authorship of the improvements or discoveries discussed, it should not be supposed that any wish is implied to detract from the merits of inventors and promoters of inventions, either individually or collectively. many of these are the heroes and statesmen of that great nation which is gradually coming to be recognised as a true entity under the name of civilisation. their life's work is to elevate humanity, and if mankind paid more attention to them, and to what they are thinking and doing, instead of setting so much store by the veriest tittle-tattle of what is called political life, it would make much faster progress. some of the industrial improvements referred to in the succeeding pages are necessarily sketched in an indefinite manner. the outlines, as it were, have been only roughed in; and no attempt has been made to supply particulars, which in fact would be out of place in an essay towards a comprehensive survey in so small a space. it is upon the wise and skilful arrangement of details that sound and commercially profitable patents are usually founded, rather than upon the broad general principles of a proposed industrial advance or reform. during the twentieth century this latter fact, already well recognised by experts in what is known as industrial property, will doubtless force itself more and more upon the attention of inventors. every specification will require to be drawn up with the very greatest care in observing the truth taught by the fable of the boy and the jar of nuts. so rapidly does the mass of bygone patent records accumulate, that almost any kind of claim based upon very wide foundations will be found to have trenched upon ground already in some degree taken up. probably there is hardly anything indicated in this work which is not--in the strict sense of the rules laid down for examiners in those countries which make search as to originality--common public property. the labour involved in gathering the data for a forecast of the inventions likely to produce important effects during the twentieth century has been chiefly that of selecting from out of a vast mass of heterogeneous ideas those which give promise of springing up amidst favourable conditions and of growing to large proportions and bearing valuable fruit. such ideas, when planted in the soil of the collective mind through the medium of official or other records, generally require for their germination a longer time than that for which the patent laws grant protection for industrial property. many of them, indeed, have formed the subjects of patents which, from one reason or another, lapsed long before the expiration of the maximum terms. nature is ever prodigal of seeds and of "seed-thoughts" but comparatively niggardly of places in which the young plant will find exactly the kind of soil, air, rain, and sunshine which the young plant needs. if any one requires proof of this statement he will find ample evidence in support of it in the tenth chapter of smiles's work on _industrial biography_, where facts and dates are adduced to show that steam locomotion, reaping machines, balloons, gunpowder, macadamised roads, coal gas, photography, anæsthesia, and even telegraphy are inventions which, so far as concerns the germ idea on which their success has been based, are of very much older origin than the world generally supposes. the author, therefore, submits that he is justified in referring inventions to the century in which they produce successful results, not to that in which they may have been first vaguely thought of. and in this view it is obvious that many of those patents and suggestions which have been published in current literature during the nineteenth century, but which, although pregnant with mighty industrial influences, have not yet reached fruition, are essentially inventions of the twentieth century. more than this, it is extremely probable that the great majority of those ideas which will move the industrial world during the next ensuing hundred years have already been indicated, more or less clearly, by the inventive thought of the nineteenth century. george sutherland. _december_, . contents. page chapter i. inventive progress chapter ii. natural power chapter iii. storage of power chapter iv. artificial power chapter v. road and rail chapter vi. ships chapter vii. agriculture chapter viii. mining chapter ix. domestic chapter x. electric messages, etc. chapter xi. warfare chapter xii. music chapter xiii. art and news chapter xiv. invention and collectivism chapter i. inventive progress. the year , the first of the nineteenth century, was _annus mirabilis_ in the industrial history of mankind. it was in that year that the railway locomotive was invented by richard trevithick, who had studied the steam engine under a friend and assistant of james watt. his patent, which was secured during the ensuing year, makes distinct mention of the use of his locomotive driven by steam upon tramways; and in he actually had an engine running on the pen-y-darran mining tramway in cornwall. from that small beginning has grown a system of railway communication which has brought the farthest inland regions of mighty continents within easy reach of the seaboard and of the world's great markets; which has made social and friendly intercourse possible in millions of homes which otherwise would have been almost destitute of it; which has been the means of spreading a knowledge of literature, science and religion over the face of the civilised world; and which, at the present moment, constitutes the outward and visible sign of the difference between western civilisation and that of the asiatic, as seen in china. in another corner of the globe, during the year , volta was constructing his first apparatus demonstrating the material and physical nature of those mysterious electric currents which his friend professor galvani of bologna, who died just two years earlier, had at first ascribed to a physiological source. the researches of the latter, it will be remembered, were begun in an observation of the way in which the legs of a dead frog twitched under certain conditions. the voltaic pile was the first electric battery, and, therefore, the parent of the existing marvellous telegraphic and telephonic systems, while less immediately it led to the development of the dynamo and its work in electric lighting and traction. it brought into harmony much fragmentary knowledge which had lain disjointed in the armoury of the physicist since dufay in france and franklin in america had investigated their theories of positive and negative frictional electricities, and had connected them with the flash of lightning as seen in nature. thus it became a fresh starting point both for industry and for science. at the exposition of national industry, held in paris during the year , a working model of the jacquard loom was exhibited--the prototype of those remarkable pieces of mechanism by which the most elaborately figured designs are worked upon fabrics during the process of weaving by means of sets of perforated cardboards. this was the crowning achievement of the inventions relating to textile fabrics, which had rendered the latter half of the eighteenth century so noteworthy in an industrial sense. it brought artistic designs in articles of common use within the reach of even poor people, and has been the means of unconsciously improving the public taste, in matters of applied art, more rapidly than could have been accomplished by an army of trained artists. the riots in which the mob nearly drowned jacquard at lyons for attempting to set up some of his looms were very nearly a counterpart of those which had occurred in england in connection with the introduction of spinning, weaving and knitting machinery. in paris, during the first year of the nineteenth century, robert fulton, an american, and friend of the united states representative in france, was making trials on the seine with his first steam-boat--a little vessel imitated by him later on in the first successful steamers which plied on the river hudson, carrying passengers from new york. at the same time, william symongton launched the _charlotte dundas_, the steam tug-boat which, on the scottish canals, did the first actually useful work in the conveyance of goods by steam power on the water. these small experiments have initiated a movement in maritime transport which is fully comparable to that brought about on land by the invention of the railway locomotive. again, in , sir humphry davy gave his first lecture at the royal institution in london, where he had just been installed as a professor, and began that long series of investigations into the chemistry of common things which, taken up by his successor faraday, gave to the united kingdom the first start in some of those industries depending upon a knowledge of organic chemistry and the use of certain essential oils. public attention at the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, was directed anywhere but towards these small commencements of mighty forces which were to revolutionise the industrial world, and through it also the social and political. if in those days cornwall was ever referred to, it was not by any means in connection with trevithick and his steam-engine which would run on rails, but by way of reference to the relations of the prince of wales to the duchy, and the proportion of its revenues which belonged to him from birth. glancing over the pages of any history compiled in the early half of the century, the eye will trace hardly the barest allusions to forces, the discoveries in which were, in the year , still in the incipient stage. canon hughes, for instance, in his continuation of the histories of hume and smollett, devoted some forty pages to the record of that year. the space which he could spare from the demands made upon his attention by the wars in spain and egypt, and the naval conflict with france, was mainly occupied with such matters as the election of the rev. horne tooke for old sarum, and the burning question as to whether that gentleman had not rendered himself permanently ineligible for parliamentary honours through taking holy orders, and with a miscellaneous mass of topics relating to the merely evanescent politics of the day. the whole of the effects of invention and discovery in making history during the first year of the century were dismissed by this writer with a casual reference to the augmentation of the productive power of the labouring population through the use of machinery, and a footnote stating that "this was more particularly the case in the cotton manufacture". time corrects the historical perspective of the past, but it does not very materially alter the power of the historical vision to adjust itself to an examination of the present day forces which are likely to grow to importance in the making of future history. when we ask what are the inventions and discoveries which are really destined to grow from seeds of the nineteenth into trees of the twentieth century, we are at once confronted with the same kind of difficulty which would present itself to one who, standing in the midst of an ancient forest, should be requested to indicate in what spots the wide-spreading giants of the next generation of trees might be expected to grow. the company promoter labels those inventions in which he is commercially interested as the affairs which will grow to huge dimensions in the future; while the man of scientific or mechanical bent is very apt to predict a mighty future only for achievements which strike him as being peculiarly brilliant. patent experts, on the other hand, when asked by their clients to state candidly what class of inventions may be relied upon to bring the most certain returns, generally reply that "big money usually comes from small patents". in other words, an invention embodying some comparatively trivial, but yet really serviceable, improvement on a very widely used type of machine; or a little bit of apparatus which in some small degree facilitates some well known process; or a fashionable toy or puzzle likely to have a good run for a season or two, and then a moderate sale for a few years longer; these are the things to be recommended to an inventor whose main object is to make money. thus the most qualified experts in patent law and practice do not fail to disclose this fact to those who seek their professional advice in a money-making spirit, as the great majority of inventors do. the full term of fourteen years in the united kingdom, or seventeen in the united states, may be a ridiculously long period for which to grant a monopoly to the inventor of some ephemeral toy, although absolutely inadequate to secure the just reward for one who labours for many years to perfect an epoch-making invention, and then to introduce it to the public in the face of all the opposition from vested interests which such inventions almost invariably meet. thus the fact that a man has made money out of one class of patents may not be any safe guide at all to arriving at a due estimate of his ideas on industrial improvements of greater "pith and moment," but, on the contrary, it is generally exactly the reverse. the law offers an immense premium for such inventions as are readily introduced, and the inventor who has made it his business to take advantage of this fact is usually one of the last men from whom to get a trustworthy opinion on patents of a different class. of the patents taken out during the latter portion of the nineteenth century, many undoubtedly contain the germs of great ideas, and, nevertheless, have excited comparatively little attention from business men or from the general public. it was so in the latter part of the eighteenth century, and history is only repeating itself when the seeds of twentieth century industrial movements are permitted to germinate unseen. for all practical purposes each invention must be referred to the age in which it actually does useful work in the service of mankind. thus, hero of alexandria, in the third century b.c., devised a water fountain worked by the expansive power of steam. from time to time during the succeeding twenty centuries similar pieces of apparatus excited the curiosity of the inquisitive and the interest of the learned. the clever and eccentric marquis of worcester, in his little book published in , _a century of the names and scantlings of inventions_, generally known as the _century of inventions_, gave an account of one application of the power of steam to lift water which he had worked out, probably on a scale large enough to have become of practical service. thomas savery and denis papin, both of them men of high attainments and great ingenuity, made important improvements before the end of the seventeenth century. yet, if we refer to the question as to the proper age to which the steam-engine as a useful invention is to be assigned, we shall unhesitatingly speak of it as an eighteenth century invention, and this notwithstanding the fact that savery's patent for the first pumping engine which came into practical use was dated . the real introduction of steam as a factor in man's daily work was effected later on, partly by savery himself and partly by newcomen, and above all by james watt. the expiration of watt's vital patent occurred in , and he himself then retired from the active supervision of his engineering business, having virtually finished his great life's work on the last year of the century which he had marked for all time by the efforts of his genius. similarly we may confidently characterise the locomotive engine as an invention belonging to the first half of the nineteenth century, although tramways on the one hand, and steam-engines on the other hand, were ready for the application of steam transport, and the only work that remained to be accomplished in the half century indicated was the bringing of the two things together. the dynamo, as a factor in human life--or, in other words, the electric current as a form of energy producing power and light--is an invention of the second half of the nineteenth century, although the main principles upon which it was built were worked out prior to the year . it will be seen, in the course of the subsequent pages, that portable electric power has as yet won its way only into very up-to-date workshops and mines, and that the means by which it will be applied to numerous useful purposes in the field, the road, and the house will be distinctly inventions of the twentieth century. similarly the steam-engine has not really been placed upon the ordinary road, although efforts have been made for more than a century to put it there, the conception of a road locomotive being, in fact, an earlier one than that of an engine running on rails. steam automobiles and traction engines are still confined to special purposes, the natures of which prove that certain elements of adaptability are still lacking in order to render them universally useful as are the locomotive and the steam-ship. in nearly every other important line of human needs and desires it will be found that merely tentative efforts have been made by ingenious minds resulting in inventions of greater or less promise. many of the finest conceptions which have necessarily been set down as failures have missed fulfilling their intended missions, not so much by reason of inherent weakness, as through the want of accessory circumstances to assist them. as in biology, so in industrial progress the definition of fitness appended to the law of the survival of the fittest must have reference to the environment. a foolish law or public prejudice results in the temporary failure of a great invention, and the inventor's patent succumbs to the inexorable operation of the struggle for existence. yet, fortunately for mankind, if not for the individual inventor, an idea does not suffer extinction as the penalty for non-success in the struggle. "the beginning of creation," says carlyle, "is light," and the kind of light which inventors throw upon the dark problems involving man's industrial progress is providentially indestructible. twentieth century inventions--as the term is used in this book--are, therefore, those which are destined to fulfil their missions during the ensuing hundred years. they are those whose light will not only exist in hidden places, but will also shine abroad to help and to bless mankind. or, if we may revert to the former figure, they are those which have not only been planted in the seed and have germinated in the leaf, but which have grown to goodly proportions, so that none may dare to assert that they have been planted for nought. a man's age is the age in which he does his work rather than that in which he struggles to years of maturity. moore and byron were poets of the nineteenth century, although the one had attained to manhood and the other had grown from poverty to inherit a peerage before the new century dawned. the prophetic rôle--although proverbially an unsafe one--is nevertheless one which every business man must play almost every day of his life. the merchant, the manufacturer, the publisher, the director, the manager, and even the artist, must perforce stake some portion of his success in life upon the chance of his forecast as to the success of a particular speculation, article of manufacture, or artistic conception, and its prospects of proving as attractive or remunerative as he has expected it to be. the successful business man no doubt makes his plans, as far as may be practicable, upon the system indicated by the humorist, who advises people never to prophesy unless they happen to know, but the nature of his knowledge is almost always to some extent removed from certainty. he may spend much time in laborious searching; make many inquiries from persons whom he believes to be competent to advise him; diligently study the conditions upon which the problem before him depends--in short, he may take every reasonable precaution against the chances of failure, yet, in spite of all, he must necessarily incur risks. and so it is with regard to the task of forecasting the trend of industrial improvement. all who are called upon to lay their plans for a number of years beforehand must necessarily be deeply interested in the problems relating to the various directions which the course of that improvement may possibly take. meanwhile their estimates of the future, although based upon an intimate knowledge of the past and aided by naturally clear powers of insight, must be hypothetical and conditional. unfortunately for the vast majority of manufacturing experts, the thoroughness with which they have mastered the details of one particular branch of industry too often blinds them to the chances of change arising from localities beyond their own restricted fields of vision. the merriment occasioned by the first proposals for affixing pneumatic tyres to bicycles may be cited as a striking instance of the lack of forecasting insight displayed by very many of those who are best entitled to pronounce opinions on the minutiae of their particular avocations. in almost every "bike" shop and factory throughout the united kingdom and america, the suggestion of putting an air-filled hosepipe around each wheel of the machine to act as a tyre was received with shouts of ridicule! railway men, who understood the wonderful elasticity imparted by air to pieces of mechanism, such as the pneumatic brake, were not by any means so much inclined to laughter; but naturally, for the most part, they deferred to the rule which enjoins every man to stick to his trade. the rule in question--when applied to the task of estimating the worth of inventions claiming to produce revolutionary effects in any industry--is necessarily, in the majority of cases, more or less irrelevant, because such an invention should be regarded not so much as a proposed _innovation_ in an old trade as the _creation_ of a new one. george stephenson's ideas on the transport of passengers and goods were almost unanimously condemned by the experts of his day who were engaged in that line of business. on points relating to wheels of waggons and the harness of horses, the opinions of these men were probably worth something; but in relation to steam locomotives, carriages and trucks running upon rails, their judgment was not merely worthless, but a good deal worse; it was indeed actually misleading, because based on a pretence of knowledge of a trade which was to be called into existence to compete with their own. "great is diana of the ephesians" said the artificers of old; and on the strength of their expert knowledge in the making of idols they set themselves up as judges of systems of theology and morality. the argument, although based on self-interest subjectively, was nevertheless intended to carry weight even among persons who wished to judge the questions in dispute according to their merits, and most of the latter were only too ready to accept the implied dictum that men who work about a temple must be experts in theology! the principles upon which royal commissions and select committees are sometimes appointed and entrusted with the onerous duty of deciding upon far-reaching industrial problems, affecting the progress of trade and manufactures in the present day, involve exactly the same kind of fallacy. men are selected to pronounce judgment upon the proposals of their rivals in trade, and narrow-minded specialists to give their opinions upon projects which essentially belong to the border lands between two or more branches of industry, and cannot be understood by persons not possessing a knowledge of both. yet the world's work goes on apace; and as capital is accumulated and seeks to find new outlets the multiplication of industrial projects must continue in spite of every discouragement. this process will go on at a rate even faster than that which was exhibited at the beginning of the nineteenth century; but in watching the course of advancement, the world must take count of ideas rather than of the names of those who may have claims to rank as the originators of ideas. while for purposes of convenience, history labels certain great inventive movements, each with the name of one pre-eminent individual who has contributed largely to its success, nothing like a due appraisement of the services rendered by other men is ever attempted. it is not even as if the commanding general should by public acclamation receive all the applause for a successful campaign to the exclusion of his lieutenants. the pioneers in each great department of invention have generally acted as forerunners of the men whose names have become the most famous. they have borne much of the heat and burden of the day, while their successors have reaped the fruits of triumph. mr. herbert spencer's strong protest against the part assigned by some writers in the mental and industrial evolution of the human race to the influence of great men is certainly fully justified, if the attribute of greatness is to be ascribed only to those whose names figure in current histories. the parts performed by others, whose fate it may have been to have fallen into comparatively unfavourable environments, may have entitled them even more eminently to the acclamation of greatness. the world in such a matter asks, reasonably enough under the circumstances, shall we omit to honour any of the great men who have played important parts in an industrial movement, assigning as our motive the difficulty of enumerating so many names? for the encouragement of those to whom the ambition for fame acts as a great stimulus to self-devotion in the interests of human progress, it is unavoidable that some men should be singled out and made heroes, while the much more numerous class of those who have also done great work, but who have not been quite so successful, must pass out of the ken of all, excepting the few who possess an expert knowledge of the various subjects which they have taken in hand. still the distortion to which history has been subjected through its biographical mode of treatment must always be reckoned with as a factor of possible error by any one attempting to read the riddle of the past, and it may offer a still more dangerous snare to one who tries to deduce the future course of events from the evidences of the past, and the promises which they hold out. people are naturally prone to take it for granted that the world's progress during the first part of the twentieth century depends upon the future work of those inventors and industrial promoters whose names have become most famous during the latter half of the nineteenth. but this personal treatment of the subject will be found to be in the last degree unsatisfactory, when judged in the light both of past experience and of some of the utterances of those eminent inventors who have tried to forecast the future in their own particular lines of research. if, therefore, we look at the whole subject from the entirely impersonal point of view, and face the task of forecasting the progress of industry during the twentieth century, in this aspect we shall find that we have entered upon a chapter in the evolution of the human race--dealing, in fact, with a branch of anthropology. we see certain industrial and inventive forces at work, producing certain initial effects, but plainly, as yet, falling immeasurably short of an entire fulfilment of their possibilities; setting to work a multitude of busy brains, planning and arranging, and gradually preparing the minds of the more apathetic portion of humanity for the reception of new ideas and the adoption of improved methods of life and of work. whither is it all tending? will the twentieth century bring about as great a change upon the earth--man's habitat--as the nineteenth did? or have the possibilities of really great and effective industrial revolutions been practically exhausted? the belief impressed upon the author's mind, by facts and considerations evoked during the collection of materials for this book, is that the march of industrial progress is only just beginning, and that the twentieth century will witness a far greater development than the nineteenth has seen. the great majority of mankind still require to be released from the drudgery of irksome, physical exertion, which, when power has been cheapened, will be seen to be to a very large extent avoidable. pleasurable exercise will be substituted for the monotonous, manual labour which, while it continues, generally precludes the possibility of mental improvement. hygienic science will insist more strenuously than ever upon the great truth that, in order to be really serviceable in promoting the health of mind and body, physical exertion must be in some degree exhilarating, and the bad old practice of "all work and no play," which was based upon the assumption that a boy can get as much good out of chopping wood for an hour as out of a bicycle ride or a game of cricket, will be relegated to the limbo of exploded fallacies. the race, as a whole, will be athletic in the same sense in which cultured ladies and gentlemen are at present. it will, a century hence, offer a still more striking contrast to the existing state of the chinese, who bandage their women's feet in order to show that they are high born and never needed to walk or to exert themselves!--the assumption being that no one would ever move a muscle unless under fear of the lash of poverty or of actual hunger. the farther western civilisation travels from that effete eastern ideal, the greater will be the hope for human progress in physical, mental and moral well-being. chapter ii. natural power. "nature," remarked james watt when he set to work inventing his improved steam-engine, "has always a weak side if we can only find it out." many invaluable secrets have been successfully explored through the discovery of nature's "weak side" since that momentous era in the industrial history of the world; and the nineteenth century, as watt clearly foresaw, has been emphatically the age of steam power. in the condenser, the high pressure cylinder and the automatic cut-off, which utilises the expansive power of steam vapour, mankind now possesses the means of taming a monster whose capacities were almost entirely unknown to the ancients, and of bringing it into ready and willing service for the accomplishment of useful work. vaguely and loosely it is often asserted that the age of steam is now giving place to that of electricity; but these two cannot yet be logically placed in opposition to one another. no method has yet been discovered whereby the heat of a furnace can be directly converted into an electric current. the steam-engine or, as watt and his predecessors called it, the "fire-engine" is _par excellence_ the world's prime motor; and by far the greater proportion of the electrical energy that is generated to-day owes its existence primarily to the steam-engine and to other forms of reciprocating machinery designed to utilise the expansive power of vapours or gases acting in a similar manner to steam. the industrial revolutions of the coming century will, without doubt, be brought about very largely through the utilisation of nature's waste energy in the service of mankind. waterfalls, after being very largely neglected for two or three generations, are now commanding attention as valuable and highly profitable sources of power. this is only to be regarded as forming the small beginning of a movement which, in the coming century, will "acquire strength by going," and which most probably will, in less than a hundred years, have produced changes in the industrial world comparable to those brought about by the invention of the steam-engine. lord kelvin, in the year , briefly, but very significantly, classified the sources of power available to man under the five primary headings of tides, food, fuel, wind, and rain. food is the generator of animal energy, fuel that of the power obtained from steam and other mechanical expansive engines; rain, as it falls on the hill-tops and descends in long lines of natural force to the sea coasts, furnishes power to the water-wheel; while wind may be utilised to generate mechanical energy through the agency of windmills and other contrivances. the tides as a source of useful power have hardly yet begun to make their influence felt, and indeed the possibility of largely using them is still a matter of doubt. the relative advantages of reclaiming a given area of soil for purposes of cultivation, and of converting the same land into a tidal basin in order to generate power through the inward and outward flow of the sea-water, were contrasted by lord kelvin in the statement of a problem as follows: which is the more valuable--an agricultural area of forty acres or an available source of energy equal to one hundred horse-power? the data for the solution of such a question are obviously not at hand, unless the quality of the land, its relative nearness to the position at which power might be required, and several other factors in its economic application have been supplied. still, the fact remains that very large quantities of the coastal land and a considerable quantity of expensive work would be needed for the generation, by means of the tides, of any really material quantity of power. it is strange that, while so much has been written and spoken about the possibility of turning the energy of the tides to account for power in the service of man, comparatively little attention has been paid to the problem of similarly utilising the wave-power, which goes to waste in such inconceivably huge quantities. where the tidal force elevates and depresses the sea-water on a shore, through a vertical distance of say eight feet, about once in twelve hours, the waves of the ocean will perform the same work during moderate weather once in every twelve or fifteen seconds. it is true that the moon in its attraction of the sea-water produces a vastly greater sum total of effect than the wind does in raising the surface-waves, but reckoning only that part of the ocean energy which might conceivably be made available for service it is safe to calculate that the waves offer between two and three thousand times as much opportunity for the capture of natural power and its application to useful work as the tides could ever present. in no other form is the energy of the wind brought forward in so small a compass or in so concrete a form. a steam-ship of , tons gross weight which rises and falls ten times per minute through an average height of · feet is thereby subjected to an influence equal to , horse-power. in this estimate the unit of the horse-power which has been adopted is watt's arbitrary standard of " , foot pounds per minute". the work done in raising the vessel referred to is equal to ten horse-power multiplied by the number of pounds in a ton, or, in other words, , horse-power, as stated. wind-power, again, has been to a large extent neglected since the advent of the steam-engine. the mightiest work carried out in any european country in the early part of the present century was that which the dutch people most efficiently performed in the draining of their reclaimed land by means of scores of windmills erected along their seaboard. even to the present day there are no examples of the direct employment of the power of the wind which can be placed in comparison with those still to be found on the coasts of holland. but, unfortunately for the last generation of windmill builders, the intermittent character of the power to which they had to trust completely condemned it when placed in competition with the handy and always convenient steam-engine. the wind bloweth "where it listeth," but only at such times and seasons as it listeth, and its vagaries do not suit an employer whose wages list is mounting up whether he has his men fully occupied or not. the storage of power was the great thing needful to enable the windmill to hold its own. the electrical storage battery, compressed air, and other agencies which will be referred to later on, have now supplied this want of the windmill builder, but in the meantime his trade has been to a large extent destroyed. for its revival there is no doubt that, as lord kelvin remarked in the address already quoted, "the little thing wanted to let the thing be done is cheap windmills." this, however, leads to another part of the problem. the costliness of the best modern patterns of windmill as now so extensively used, particularly in america, is mainly due to the elaborate, and, on the whole, successful attempts at minimising the objection of the intermittent nature of the source of power. to put the matter in another way, it may be said that lightness, and sensitiveness to the slightest breeze, have had to be conjoined with an eminent degree of safety in the severest gale, so that the most complicated self-regulating mechanisms have been rendered absolutely imperative. once the principle of storage is applied, the whole of the conditions in this respect are revolutionised. there is no need to attempt the construction of wind-motors that shall run lightly in a soft zephyr of only five or six miles an hour, and stability is the main desideratum to be looked to. the fixed windmill, which requires no swivel mechanism and no vane to keep it up to the wind, is the cheapest and may be made the most substantial of all the forms of wind-motor. in its rudimentary shape this very elementary windmill resembles a four-bladed screw steam-ship propeller. the wheel may be constructed by simply erecting a high windlass with arms bolted to the barrel at each end, making the shape of a rectangular cross. but those at one end are fixed in such positions that when viewed from the side they bisect the angles made by those at the other side. sails of canvas or galvanised iron are then fastened to the arms, the position of which is such that the necessary obliquity to the line of the barrel is secured at once. looking at this elementary and at one time very popular form of windmill, and asking ourselves what adaptation its general principle is susceptible of in order that it may be usefully employed in conjunction with a storage battery, we find, at the outset, that, inasmuch as the electric generator requires a high speed, there is every inducement to greatly lengthen the barrel and at the same time to make the arms of the sails shorter, because short sails give in the windmill the high rate of speed required. we are confronted, in fact, with the same kind of problem which met the constructors of turbine steam-engines designed for electric lighting. the object was to get an initial speed which would be so great as to admit of the coupling of the dynamo to the revolving shaft of the turbine steam-motor, without the employment of too much reducing gear. in the case of the wind-motor the eighteenth century miller was compelled to make the arms of his mill of gigantic length, so that, while the centre of the wind pressure on each arm was travelling at somewhere near to the rate of the wind, the axis would not be running too fast and the mill stones would never be grinding so rapidly as to "set the _tems_--or the lighter parts of the corn--on fire." the dynamo for the generation of the electric current demands exactly the opposite class of conditions. we may therefore surmise that the windmill of the future, as constructed for the purposes of storing power, will have a long barrel upon which will be set numerous very short blades or sails. reducing this again to its most convenient form, it is plain that a spiral of sheet-metal wound round the barrel will offer the most convenient type of structure for stability and cheapness combined. at the end of this long barrel will be fixed the dynamo, the armature of which is virtually a part of the barrel itself, while the magnets are placed in convenient positions on the supporting uprights. from the generating dynamo the current is conveyed directly to the storage batteries, and these alone work the electric motor, which, if desired, keeps continually in motion, pumping, grinding, or driving any suitable class of machinery. it is rather surprising to find how relatively small is the advantage possessed by the vane-windmill over the fixed type in the matter of continuity of working. during about two years the author conducted a series of experiments with the object of determining this point, the fixed windmill being applied to work which rendered it a matter of indifference in which way the wheel ran. with the prevailing winds from the west it ran in one direction, and with those of next degree of frequency, namely from the east, it turned in the reverse direction. the mill, however, was effective although the breeze might veer several points from either of the locations mentioned. it was found that there were rather less than one-fourth of the points of the compass, the winds from which would bring the wheel to a standstill or cause it to swing ineffectively, but as these were the directions in which the wind least frequently blew it might safely be reckoned that not one-eighth of the possible working hours of a swivel-windmill were really lost in the fixed machine. with the type adapted to the working of a dynamo as already described, it will, in most cases, be convenient to construct two spirals on uprights set in three holes in the ground, forming lines at right angles to each other, but both engaging, by suitable gearing, with the electric current generator situated at the angle. this will be found cheaper than to go to the expense of constructing the mill on a swivel so that it may follow the direction of the wind. at the same time it should be noticed that the adoption of the high speed wind-wheel, consisting of some kind of spiral on a very long axis, may be made effective for improving even the swivel windmill itself, so as to adapt it for electric generation and conservation of power through the medium of the storage battery. supposing that a number of small oblique sails be set upon an axis lying in the direction of the wind, the popular conception of the result of such an arrangement is that the foremost sails would render those behind it almost, if not entirely, useless. the analogy followed in reaching this conclusion is that of the sails of a ship, but, as applied to wind-motors, it is quite misleading, because not more than one-third or one-fourth of the energy of the wind is expended upon the oblique sails of an ordinary wind-wheel. moreover, in the case of a number of such wheels set on a long axis, one behind the other as described, the space within which the shelter of the front sail is operative to keep the wind from driving the next one is exceedingly minute. the elasticity of the air and its frictional inertia when running in the form of wind cause the current to proceed on its course after a very slight check, which in point of time is momentary and in its effects almost infinitesimal. this being the case, and the principal expense attendant upon the construction of ordinary wind-engines being due to the need for providing a large diameter of wind-wheel, with all the attendant complications required to secure such a wheel from risk, it is obvious that as soon as the long axis and the very short sail, or the metallic spiral, have been generally introduced as adjuncts to the dynamo storage battery, an era of cheaper wind-motors will have been entered upon,--in fact, the "little want" of which lord kelvin spoke in will have been supplied. the high speed which the dynamo requires, and the more rapid rate at which windmills constructed on this very economical principle must necessarily run, both mark the two classes of apparatus as being eminently suited for mutual assistance in future usefulness. the anemometer of the "robinson" type, having four little hemispherical cups revolving horizontally, furnishes the first hint of another principle of construction adapted to the generation of electricity. some years ago a professor in one of the scottish universities set up a windmill which was simply an amplified anemometer, and connected it with several of faure's storage batteries for the purpose of furnishing the electric light to his residence. his report regarding his experience with this arrangement showed that the results of the system were quite satisfactory. in this particular type of natural motor the wind-wheel, of course, is permanently set to run no matter from what direction the wind may be blowing. tests instituted with the object of determining the pressure which the wind exerts on the cup of a "robinson" anemometer have shown that when the breeze blows into the concave side of the cup, its effect is rather more than three times as strong as when it blows against the convex side. at any given time the principal part of the work done by a windmill constructed on this principle is being carried out by one cup which has its concave side presented to the wind, while, opposite to it, there is another cup travelling in the opposite direction to that of the wind but having its convex side opposed. the facts that practically only one sail of the mill is operative at any given time, and that even the work which is done by this must be diminished by nearly one-third owing to the opposing "pull" of the cup at the opposite side, no doubt must detract from the merits of such a wind-motor, judged simply on the basis of actual area of sail employed. but when the matter of cost alone is taken as the standard, the advantages are much more evenly balanced than they might at first sight seem to be. the cup-shaped sail may be greatly improved upon for power-generating purposes by adopting a sail having a section not semicircular but triangular in shape, and by extending its length in the vertical direction to a very considerable extent. practically this cheap and efficient wind-motor then becomes a square or hexagonal upright axis of fairly large section, to each side of which is secured a board or a rigid sheet-metal sail projecting beyond the corners. the side of the axis and the projecting portion of the sail then together form the triangular section required. for the sake of safety in time of storm, an opening may be left at the apex of the angle which is closed by a door kept shut through the tension of a spring. when the wind rises to such a speed as to overbalance the force of the spring each door opens and lets the blast pass through. one collateral advantage of this type of windmill is that it may be made to act virtually as its own stand, the only necessity in its erection being that it should have a collar fitting round the topmost bearing, which collar is fastened by four strong steel ropes to stakes securely set in the ground. the dynamo is then placed at the lower bearing and protected from the weather by a metal shield through which the shaft of the axis passes. for pumping, and for other simple purposes apart from the use of the dynamo, a ready application of this form of wind-engine with a minimum of intricacy or expense may be worked out by setting the lower bearing in a round tank of water kept in circular motion by a set of small paddles working horizontally. into the water a vertically-working paddle-wheel dips, carrying on its shaft a crank which directly drives the pump. this simple wind-motor is particularly safe in a storm, because on attaining a high speed it merely "smashes" the water in the tank. solar heat is one of the principal sources of the energy to be derived from the wind. several very determined and ingenious attempts at the utilisation of the heat of sunshine for the driving of a motor have been made during the past century. as a solution of a mechanical and physical puzzle, the arrangement of a large reflector, with a small steam-boiler at the focus of the heat rays thrown by it, is full of interest. yet, when a man like the late john ericsson, who did so much to improve the caloric engine, and the steam-ship as applied to war-like purposes, meets with failure in the attempt to carry such an idea to a commercially successful issue, there is at least _prima facie_ evidence of some obstacle which places the proposed machine at a disadvantage in competition with its rivals. the solar engine, if generally introduced, would be found more intermittent in its action than the windmill--excepting perhaps in a very few localities where there is a cloudless sky throughout the year. the windmill gathers up the power generated by the expansion of the air in passing over long stretches of heated ground, while a solar engine cannot command more of the sun's heat than that which falls upon the reflector or condenser of the engine itself. the latter machine may possibly have a place assigned to it in the industrial economy of the future, but the sum total of the power which it will furnish must always be an insignificant fraction. the wave-power machine, when allied to electric transmission, will, without doubt, supply in a cheap and convenient form a material proportion of the energy required during the twentieth century for industrial purposes. easy and effective transmission is a _sine quâ non_ in this case, just as it is in the utilisation of waterfalls situated far from the busy mart and factory. hardly any natural source of power presents so near an approach to constancy as the ocean billows. shakespeare takes as his emblem of perpetual motion the dancing "waves o' th' sea". but the ocean coasts--where alone natural wave-power is constant--are exactly the localities at which, as a rule, it is the least practicable to build up a manufacturing trade. commerce needs smooth water for the havens offered to its ships, and inasmuch as this requirement is vastly more imperative during the early stages of civilisation than cheap power, the drift of manufacturing centres has been all towards the calm harbours and away from the ocean coasts. but electrical transmission in this connection abolishes space, and can bring to the service of man the power of the thundering wave just as it can that of the roaring torrent or waterfall. the simplest form of wave-motor may be suggested by the force exerted by a ferry boat or dinghy tied up to a pier. the pull exerted by the rope is equal to the inertia of the boat as it falls into the trough of each wave successively, and the amount of strain involved in rough weather may be estimated from the thickness of the rope that is generally found necessary for the security of even very small craft indeed. a similar suggestion is conveyed by the need for elaborate "fenders" to break the force of the shock when a barge is lying alongside of a steamer, or when any other vessel is ranging along a pier or jetty. a buoy of large size, moored in position at a convenient distance from a rock-bound ocean coast, will supply the first idea of a wave-motor on this primary principle as adapted for the generation of power. on the cliff a high derrick is erected. over a pulley or wheel on the top of this there is passed a wire-rope cable fastened on the seaward side to the buoy, and on the landward side to the machinery in the engine-house. the whole arrangement in fact is very similar in appearance to the "poppet-head" and surface buildings that may be seen at any well-equipped mine. the difference in principle, of course, is that while on a mine the engine-house is supplying power to the other side of the derrick, the relations are reversed in the wave-motor, the energy being passed from the sea across into the engine-house. the reciprocating, or backward and forward, movement imparted to the cable by the rising and falling of the buoy now requires to be converted into a force exerted in one direction. in the steam-engine and in other machines of similar type, the problem is simplified by the uniform length of the stroke made by the piston, so that devices such as the crank and eccentric circular discs are readily applicable to the securing of a rotatory motion for a fly-wheel from a reciprocating motion in the cylinders. in the application of wave-power provision must be made for the utilisation of the force derived from movements of _differing lengths_, as well as of _differing characters_, in the force of impact. every movement of the buoy which imparts motion to the pulley on top of the derrick must be converted into an additional impetus to a fly-wheel always running in the same direction. the spur-wheel and ratchet, as at present largely used in machinery, offer a rough and ready means of solving this problem, but two very important improvements must be effected before full advantage can be taken of the principle involved. in the first place it is obvious that if a ratchet runs freely in one direction and only catches on the tooth of the spur-wheel when it is drawn in the other, the power developed and used is concentrated on one stroke, when it might, with greater advantage, be divided between the two; and in the second place the shock occasioned by the striking of the ratchet against the tooth when it just misses catching one of the teeth and is then forced along the whole length of the tooth gathering energy as it goes, must add greatly to the wear and tear of the machinery and to the unevenness of the running. taking the first of these difficulties into consideration it is obvious that by means of a counterbalancing weight, about equal to half that of the buoy, it is possible to cause the wave-power to operate two ratchets, one doing work when the pull is to landwards and the other when it is to seawards. each, however, must be set to catch the teeth of its own separate spur-wheel; and, inasmuch as the direction of the motion in one case is different from what it is in the other, it is necessary that, by means of an intervening toothed wheel, the motion of one of these should be reversed before it is communicated to the fly-wheel. the latter is thus driven always in the same direction, both by the inward and by the outward stroke or pull of the cable from the buoy. perhaps the most convenient development of the system is that in which the spur-wheel is driven by two vertically pendant toothed bands, resembling saws, and of sufficient length to provide for the greatest possible amplitude of movement that could be imparted to them by the motion of the buoy. the teeth are set to engage in those of the spur-wheel, one band on each side, so that the effective stroke in one case is downward, while in the other it is upward. these toothed bands are drawn together at their lower ends by a spring, and they are also kept under downward tension by weights or a powerful spring beneath. the effect of this is that when both are drawn up and down the spur-wheel goes round with a continuous motion, because at every stroke the teeth of one band engage in the wheel and control it, while those of the reversed one (at the other side) slip quite freely. the shock occasioned by the blow of the ratchet on the spur-wheel, or of one tooth upon another, may be reduced almost to vanishing point by multiplying the number of ratchets or toothed bands, and placing the effective ends, which engage in the teeth of the wheel successively, one very slightly in advance of the other. in this way the machine is so arranged that, no matter at what point the stroke imparted by the movement of the buoy may be arrested, there is always one or other of the ratchets or of the teeth which will fall into engagement with the tooth of the spur-wheel, very close to its effective face, and thus the momentum acquired by the one part before it impinges upon the other becomes comparatively small. the limit to which it may be practicable to multiply ratchets or toothed bands will, of course, depend upon the thickness of the spur-wheel, and when this latter has been greatly enlarged, with the object of providing for this feature, it becomes virtually a steel drum having bevelled steps accurately cut longitudinally upon its periphery. the masts of a ship tend to assume a position at right angles to the water-line. when the waves catch the vessel on the beam the greatest degree of pendulous swing is brought about in a series of waves so timed, and of such a length, that the duration of the swing coincides with the period required for one wave to succeed another. the increasing slope of the ship's decks, due to the inertia of this continuous rhythmical motion, often amounts to far more than the angle made by the declivity of the wave as compared with the sea level; and it is, of course, a source of serious danger in the eyes of the mariner. but, for the purposes of the mechanician who desires to secure power from the waves, the problem is not how to avoid a pendulous motion but how to increase it. for each locality in which any large wave-power plant of machinery is to be installed, it will therefore be advisable to study the characteristic length of the wave, which, as observation has proved, is shorter in confined seas than in those fully open to the ocean. it is advisable then to make the beam width of the buoy, no matter how it may be turned, of such a length that when one side is well in the trough of a wave the other must be not far from the crest. practically the best design for such a floating power-generator will be one in which four buoys are placed, each of them at the end of one arm of a cross which has been braced up very firmly. from the angle of intersection projects a vertical mast, also firmly held by stays or guys. the whole must be anchored to the bottom of the sea by attachment to a large cemented block or other heavy weight having a ring let into it, from which is attached a chain of a few links connecting with an upright beam. it is the continuation of the latter above sea-level which forms the mast. on this beam the framework of the buoy must be free to move up and down. at first sight it might seem as if this arrangement rendered nugatory the attempt to take advantage of the rise and fall of the buoy; but it is not so when the relations of the four buoys to one another are considered. although the frame is free to move up and down upon the uprising shaft, still its inclination to the vertical is determined by the direction of the line drawn from a buoy in the trough of a wave to one on the crest. in order to facilitate the free movement, and to render the rocking effect more accurate and free from vibration, sets of wheels running on rails fixed to the beam are of considerable advantage. the rise and fall of the tides render necessary the adoption of some such compensating device as that which has been indicated. of course it would be possible to provide for utilising the force generated by a buoy simply moored direct to a ring at the bottom by means of a common chain cable; but this latter would require to be of a length sufficient to provide for the highest possible wave on the top of the highest tide. then, again, the loose chain at low tide would permit the buoy to drift abroad within a very considerable area of sea surface, and in order to take advantage of the rise and fall on each wave it would be essential to provide at the derrick on the shore end of the wave-power plant very long toothed bands or equivalent devices on a similarly enlarged scale. by providing three or four chains and moorings, meeting in a centre at the buoy itself but fastened to rings secured to weights at the bottom at a considerable distance apart, the lateral movement might, no doubt, be minimised; and for very simple installations this plan, associated with the device of taking a cable from the buoy and turning it several times round a drum on shore, could be used to furnish a convenient source of cheap power. the drum may carry a crank and shaft, which works the spur-wheel and toothed bands as already described, so that no matter at what stage in the revolution of the drum an upward or downward stroke may be stopped, the motion will still be communicated in a continuous rotary form to the fly-wheel. but the beam and sliding frame, with buoys, give the best practical results, especially for large installations. it is in some instances advisable, especially where the depth of the water at a convenient distance from the shore is very considerable, not to provide a single beam reaching the whole distance to the bottom, but to anchor an air-tight tank below the surface and well beneath the depth at which wave disturbance is ever felt. from this submerged tank, which approximately keeps a steady position in all tides and weathers, the upward beam is attached by a ring just as would be done if the tank itself constituted the bottom. one main reason for this arrangement is that the resistance of the beam to the water as it rocks backwards and forwards wastes to some extent the power generated by the force of the waves; and the greater the length of the beam, the longer must be the distance through which it has to travel when the buoys draw it into positions vertical to that of the framework. a thin steel pipe offers less resistance than a wooden beam of equal strength, besides facilitating the use of a simple device for enabling the frame and buoys to slide easily up and down. the generally fatal defect of those inventions which have been designed in the past with the object of utilising wave-power has arisen from the mistake of placing too much of the machinery in the sea. the device of erecting in the water an adjustable reservoir to catch the wave crests and to use the power derived from them as the water escaped through a water-wheel was patented in . nearly twenty years later another scheme was brought out depending upon the working of a large pump fixed far under the surface, and connected with the shore so that, when operated by the rising and falling of floats upon the waves, it would drive a supply of water into an elevated reservoir on shore, from which, on escaping down the cliff, the pressure of the water would be utilised to work a turbine. earlier devices included the building of a mill upon a rocking barge, having weights and pulleys adjusted to run the machinery on board; and also a revolving float so constructed that each successive wave would turn one portion, but the latter would then be held firm by a toothed wheel and ratchet until another impulse would be given to it in the same direction. this plan included certain elements of the simple system already described; but it is obvious that some of its floating parts might with advantage have been removed to the shore end, where they would not only be available for ready inspection and adjustment, but also be out of harm's way in rough weather. different wave-lengths, as already explained, correspond to various periods in the pendulous swing of floating bodies. examples have been cited by mr. vaughan cornish, m. sc., in _knowledge_, nd march, , as follows: "a wave-length of fifty feet corresponds to a period of two and a half seconds, while one of feet corresponds to five and a half seconds. it is mentioned that the swing of the steam-ship _great eastern_ took six seconds." other authorities state that during a storm in the atlantic the velocity of the wave was determined to be thirty-two miles an hour, and that nine or ten waves were included in each mile; thus about five would pass in each minute. but in average weather the number of waves to the mile is considerably larger, say, from fifteen to twenty to the mile; and in nearly calm days about double those numbers. one interesting fact, which gives to wave-power a peculiarly enhanced value as a source of stored wind-power, is that the surface of the ocean--wild as it may at times appear--is not moved by such extremes of agitation as the atmosphere. in a calm it is never so inertly still, and in a storm it is never so far beyond the normal condition in its agitation as is the wind. the ocean surface to some extent operates as the governor of a steam-engine, checking an excess in either direction. in very moderate weather the number of waves to the mile is greatly increased, while their speed is not very much diminished. indeed the rate at which they travel may even be increased. this latter phenomenon generally occurs when long ocean rollers pass out of a region of high wind into one of relative calm, the energy remaining for a long time comparatively constant by reason of the multiplication of short, low waves created out of long, high ones. on all ocean coasts the normal condition of the surface is governed by this law, and it follows that, no matter what the local weather may be at any given time, there is always plenty of power available. an attempt was made by m. c. antoine, after a long series of observations, to establish a general relation between the speed of the wind and that of the waves caused by it, the formulæ being published in the _revue nautique et coloniale_ in . the rule may be taken as correct within certain limits, although in calm weather, when the condition of the ocean surface is almost entirely ruled by distant disturbances, it has but little relevancy. approximately, the velocity of wave transmission is seven times the fourth root of the wind-speed; so that when the latter is a brisk breeze of sixteen miles an hour the waves will be travelling fourteen miles an hour, or very nearly as fast as the wind. when, on the other hand, a light breeze of nine miles an hour is driving the waves, the latter, according to the formula, should run about twelve and a half miles an hour; but, in point of fact, the influence of more distant commotion nearly always interferes with this result. as a matter of experience, the waves on an ocean coast are usually running faster than the wind, and, being so much more numerous in calm than they are in rough weather, they maintain comparatively a uniform sum total of energy. it is obvious that, so far as practical purposes are concerned, three waves of an available height of three feet each are as effective as one of nine feet. if the state of the weather be such that the average wave length is feet there will be exactly thirty waves to the mile, and if the speed be twelve miles an hour--that is to say, if an expanse of twelve miles of waves pass a given point hourly--then waves will pass every sixty minutes, or six every minute. in the wave-power plant as described, each buoy of one hundred tons displacement when raised and depressed, say, three feet by every wave will thus be capable of giving power equal to three times , or , foot-tons per minute. the unit of nominal horse-power being , foot-pounds or about fifteen foot-tons per minute, it is evident that each buoy, at its maximum, would be capable of giving about horse-power. supposing that half of the possible energy were exerted at the forward and half at the backward stroke and that each buoy were always in position to exert its full power upon the uprising shaft without deduction, the total effective duty of a machine such as has been described would be horse-power. in practice, however, the available duty would probably, according to minor circumstances, be rather more or rather less than horse-power. chapter iii. storage of power. the three principal forms of stored power which are now in sight above the horizon of the industrial outlook are the electric storage battery, compressed air, and calcium-carbide. the first of these has come largely into use owing to the demand for a regulated and stored supply of electricity available for lighting purposes. indeed the storage battery has practically rendered safe the wide introduction of electric lighting, because a number of cells, when once charged, are always available as a reserve in case of any failure in the power or in the generators at any central station; and also because, by means of the storage cells or "accumulators," the amount of available electrical energy can be subdivided into different and subordinate circuits, thus obviating the necessity for the employment of currents of very high voltage and eluding the only imperfectly-solved problem of dividing a current traversing a wire as conveniently as lighting gas is divided by taking small pipes off from the gas mains. compressed air for the storage of power has hitherto been best appreciated in mining operations, one of the main reasons for this being that the liberated air itself--apart from the power which it conveyed and stored--has been so great a boon to the miner working in ill-ventilated stopes and drives. the cooling effects of the expansion, after close compression, are also very grateful to men labouring hard at very great depths, where the heat from the country rock would become, in the absence of such artificial refrigeration, almost overpowering. for underground railway traffic exactly the same recommendations have, at one period during the fourth quarter of the nineteenth century, given an adventitious stimulus to the use of compressed air. yet it is now undoubted that, even in deep mining, the engineer's best policy is to adopt different methods for the conveyance and storage of power on the one hand, and for the ventilation of the workings on the other. few temptations are more illusory in the course of industrial progress than those presented by that class of inventions which aim at "killing two birds with one stone". if one object be successfully accomplished it almost invariably happens that the other is indifferently carried out; but the most frequent result is that both of them suffer in the attempt to adapt machinery to irreconcilable purposes. the electric rock-drill is now winning its way into the mines which are ventilated with comparative ease as well as into those which are more difficult to supply with air. it is plain, therefore, that on its merits as a conveyer and storer of power the electric current is preferable to compressed air. the heat that is generated and then dissipated in the compression of any gas for such a purpose represents a very serious loss of power; and it is altogether an insufficient excuse to point to the compensation of coolness being secured from the expansion. fans driven by electric motors already offer a better solution of the ventilation difficulty, and the advantages on this side are certain to increase rather than to diminish during the next few years. the electric rock-drill, which can already hold its own with that driven by compressed air, is therefore bound to gain ground in the future. this is a type and indication of what will happen all along the industrial line, the electric current taking the place of the majority of other means adopted for the transmission of power. even in workshops--where it is important to have a wide distribution of power and each man must be able to turn on a supply of it to his bench at any moment--shafting is being displaced by electric cables for the conveyance of power to numerous small motors. the loss of power in this system has already been reduced to less than that which occurs with shafting, unless under the most favourable circumstances; and in places where the works are necessarily distributed over a considerable area the advantage is so pronounced that hardly any factories of that kind will be erected ten years hence without resort being had to electricity, and small motors as the means of distributing the requisite supplies of power to the spots where they are needed. it was a significant fact that at the paris exposition of the electric system of distribution was adopted. in regard to compressed air, however, it seems practically certain that, notwithstanding its inferiority to electric storage of power, it is applicable to so many kinds of small and cheap installations that, on the whole, its area of usefulness, instead of being restricted, will be largely increased in the near future. there will be an advance all along the line; and although electric storage will far outstrip compressed air for the purposes of the large manufacturer, the air reservoir will prove highly useful in isolated situations, and particularly for agricultural work. for example, as an adjunct to the ordinary rural windmill for pumping water, it will prove much more handy and effective than the system at present in vogue of keeping large tanks on hand for the purpose of ensuring a supply of water during periods of calm weather. regarding a tank of water elevated above the ground and filled from a well as representing so much stored energy, and also comparing this with an equal bulk of air compressed to about pounds pressure to the square inch, it would be easy to show that--unless the water has been pumped from a very deep well--the power which its elevation indicates must be only a small fraction of that enclosed in the air reservoir. it will be one great point in favour of compressed air, as a form of stored energy for the special purpose of pumping, that by making a continuous small flow of air take the place of the water at the lowest level in the upward pipe, it is possible to cause it to do the pumping without the intervention of any motor. one means of effecting this may be simply indicated. the air under pressure is admitted from a very small air pipe and the bubbles, as they rise, fill the hollow of an inverted iron cup rising and falling on a bearing like a hinge. above and beneath the chamber containing this cup are valves opening upwards and similar to those of an ordinary force or suction pump. the cup must be weighted with adjustable weights so that it will not rise until quite full of air. when that point is reached the stroke is completed, the air having driven upwards a quantity of water of equal bulk with itself, and, as the cup falls again by its own weight, the vacuum caused by the air escaping upwards through the pipe is filled by an inrush of water through the lower valve. the function of the upper valve, at that time, is to keep the water in the pipe from falling when the pressure on the column is removed. the expansive power of the air enables it to do more lifting at the upper than at the lower level, so that a larger diameter of pipe can be used at the former place. cheap motors working on the same principle--that is to say through the upward escape of compressed air, gas or vapour filling a cup and operating it by its buoyancy, or turning a wheel in a similar manner--will doubtless be a feature in the machine work of the future; and for motors of this description it is obvious that compressed air will be very useful as the form of power-storage. excepting under very special conditions, steam is not available for such a purpose, seeing that it condenses long before it has risen any material distance in a column of cold water. "the present accumulator," remarked prof. sylvanus p. thompson in the year , referring to the faure storage batteries then in use, "probably bears as much resemblance to the future accumulator as a glass bell-jar used in chemical experiments for holding gas does to the gasometer of a city gasworks, or james watt's first model steam-engine does to the engines of an atlantic steamer." when faure, having in improved upon the storage battery of planté, sent his four-cell battery from paris to glasgow, carrying in it stored electrical energy, it was found to contain power equal to close upon a million foot-pounds, which is about the work done by a horse-power during the space of half an hour. this battery weighed very nearly lb. it nevertheless represented an immense forward step in the problem of compressing a given quantity of potential power into a small weight of accumulator. the progress made during less than twenty years to the end of the century may be estimated from the conditions laid down by the automobile club of paris for the competitive test of accumulators applicable to auto-car purposes in . it was stipulated that five cells, weighing in all lb., should give out ampere-hours of electric intensity; and that at the conclusion of the test there should remain a voltage of · volt per cell. very great improvements in the construction of electric accumulators are to be looked for in the near future. hitherto the average duration of the life of a storage cell has not been more than about two years; and where impurities have been present in the sulphuric acid, or in the litharge or "minium" employed, the term of durability has been still further shortened. it must be remembered that while the principal chemical and electrical action in the cell is a circular one,--that is to say, the plates and liquids get back to the original condition from which they started when beginning work in a given period,--there is also a progressive minor action depending upon the impurities that may be present. such a reagent, for instance, as nitric acid has an extremely injurious effect upon the plates. during the first decade after planté and faure had made their original discoveries, the main drawback to the advancement of the electric accumulator for the storage of power owed its existence to the lack of precise knowledge, among those placed in charge of storage batteries, as to the destructive effects of impurities in the cells. it is, however, now the rule that all acids and all samples of water used for the purpose must be carefully tested before adoption, and this practice, in itself, has greatly prolonged the average life of the accumulator cell. the era of the large electric accumulator of the kind foreshadowed by prof. sylvanus p. thompson has not yet arrived, the simple reason being that electric power storage--apart from the special purposes of the subdivision and transmission for lighting--has not yet been tried on a large scale. for the regulation and graduation of power it is exceedingly handy to be able to "switch-on" a number of small accumulator cells for any particular purpose; and, of course, the degree of control held in the hands of the engineer must depend largely on the smallness of each individual cell, and the number which he has at command. this fact of itself tends to keep down the size of the storage cell which is most popular. but when power storage by means of the electric accumulator really begins in earnest the cells will attain to what would at present be regarded as mammoth proportions; and the special purpose aimed at in each instance of power installation will be the securing of continuity in the working of a machine depending upon some intermittent natural force. windmills are especially marked out as the engines which will be used to put electrical energy into the accumulators. from these latter again the power will be given out and conveyed to a distance continuously. high ridges and eminences of all kinds will in the future be selected as the sites of wind-power and accumulator plants. in the eighteenth century, when the corn from the wheat-field required to be ground into flour by the agency of wind-power, it was customary to build the mill on the top of some high hill and to cart all the material laboriously to the eminence. in the installations of the future the power will be brought to the material rather than the material to the power. from the ranges or mountain peaks, and also from smaller hills, will radiate electrical power-nerves branching out into network on the plains and supplying power for almost every purpose to which man applies physical force or electro-chemical energy. the gas-engine during the twentieth century will vigorously dispute the field against electrical storage; and its success in the struggle--so far as regards its own particular province--will be enhanced owing to the fact that, in some respects, it will be able to command the services of electricity as its handmaid. gas-engines are already very largely used as the actuators of electric lighting machinery. but in the developments which are now foreshadowed by the advent of acetylene gas the relation will be reversed. in other words, the gas-engine will owe its supply of cheap fuel to the electric current derived at small expense from natural sources of power. calcium carbide, by means of which acetylene gas is obtained as a product from water, becomes in this view stored power. the marvellously cheap "water-gas" which is made through a jet of steam impinging upon incandescent carbons or upon other suitable glowing hot materials will, no doubt, for a long time command the market after the date at which coal-gas for the generation of power has been partially superseded. but it seems exceedingly probable that a compromise will ultimately be effected between the methods adopted for making water-gas and calcium carbide respectively, the electric current being employed to keep the carbons incandescent. when power is to be sold in concrete form it will be made up as calcium carbide, so that it can be conveyed to any place where it is required without the assistance of either pipes or wires. but when the laying of the latter is practicable--as it will be in the majority of instances--the gas for an engine will be obtainable without the need for forcing lime to combine with carbon as in calcium carbide. petroleum oil is estimated to supply power at just one-third the price of acetylene gas made with calcium carbide at a price of £ per ton. this calculation was drawn up before the occurrence of the material rise in the price of "petrol" in the last year of the nineteenth century; while, concurrently, the price of calcium carbide was falling. a similar process will, on the average, be maintained throughout each decade; and, as larger plants, with cheaper natural sources of energy, are brought into requisition, the costs of power, as obtained from oil and from acetylene gas, will more and more closely approximate, until, in course of time, they will be about equal; after which, no doubt, the relative positions will be reversed, although not perhaps in the same ratio. time is all on the side of the agent which depends for its cheapness of production on the utilisation of any natural source of power which is free of all cost save interest, wear and tear, and supervision. even the steam-engine itself is not exempt from the operation of the general law placing the growing advantage on the side of power that is obtainable gratis. one cubic inch of water converted into steam and at boiling point will raise a ton weight to the height of one foot; and the quantity of coal of good quality needed for the transformation of the water is very small. one pound of good coal will evaporate nine pounds of water, equal to about cubic inches, this doing foot-tons of work. but niagara performs the same amount of work at infinitely less cost. however small any quantity may be, its ratio to nothing is infinity. it has been the custom during the nineteenth century to institute comparisons between the marvellous economy of steam power and the expensive wastefulness of human muscular effort. for instance, the full day's work of an eastern porter, specially trained to carry heavy weights, will generally amount to the removal of a load of from three to five hundred-weight for a distance of one mile; but such a labourer in the course of a long day has only expended as much power as would be stored up in about five ounces of coal. still the fact remains that one of the greatest problems of the future is that which concerns the reduction in the cost of power. hundreds of millions of the human race pass lives of a kind of dull monotonous toil which develops only the muscular, at the expense of the higher, faculties of the body; they are almost entirely cut off from social intercourse with their fellow-men, and they sink prematurely into decrepitude simply by reason of the lack of a cheap and abundant supply of mechanical power, ready at hand wherever it is wanted. scores of "enterprises of great pith and moment" in the industrial advancement of the world have to be abandoned by reason of the same lack. in mining, in agriculture, in transport and in manufacture the thing that is needful to convert the "human machine" into a more or less intelligent brainworker is cheaper power. all the technical education in the world will not avail to raise the labourer in the intellectual scale if his daily work be only such as a horse or an engine might perform. the transmission of power through the medium of the electric current will naturally attain its first great development in the neighbourhoods of large waterfalls such as niagara. when the manufacturers within a short radius of the source of power in each case have begun to fully reap the benefit due to cheap power, competition will assert itself in many different ways. the values of real property will rise, and population will tend to become congested within the localities' served. it will be found, however, that facilities for shipment will to a large extent perpetuate the advantage at present held by manufactories situated on ports and harbours; and this, of course, will apply with peculiar force to the cases of articles of considerable bulk. where a very great deal of power is needed for the making of an article or material of comparatively small weight and bulk proportioned to its value--such for instance as calcium carbide or aluminium--the immediate vicinity of the source of natural power will offer superlative inducements. but an immense number of things lie between the domains of these two classes, and for the economical manufacture of these it is imperative that both cheap power and low wharfage rates should be obtainable. an increasingly intense demand must thus spring up for systems of long distance transmission, and very high voltage will be adopted as the means of diminishing the loss of power due to leakage from the cables. similarly the "polyphase" system--which is eminently adapted to installations of the nature indicated--must demand increasing attention. taking a concrete example, mention may be made of the effects to be expected from the proposed scheme for diverting some of the headwaters of the tay and its lakes from the eastern to the western shores of scotland and establishing at loch leven--the western inlet, not the inland lake of that name--a seaport town devoted to manufacturing purposes requiring very cheap supplies of power. it is obvious that the owners of mills in and around glasgow, and only forty or fifty miles distant, will make the most strenuous exertions to enable them to secure a similar advantage. it is already claimed that with the use of currents of high voltage for carrying the power, and "step-down transformers" converting these into a suitable medium for the driving of machinery, a fairly economical transmission can be ensured along a distance of miles. it therefore seems plain that the natural forces derived from such sources as waterfalls can safely be reckoned upon as friends rather than as foes of the vested interests of all the great cities of the united kingdom. the possibilities of long distance transmission are greatly enhanced by the very recent discovery that a cable carrying a current of high voltage can be most effectually insulated by encasing it in the midst of a tube filled with wet sawdust and kept at a low temperature, preferably at the freezing point of water. wireless transmission of a small amount of power has been proved to be experimentally possible. in the rarefied atmosphere at a height of five or ten miles from the earth's surface, electric discharges of very high voltage are conveyed without any other conducting medium than that of the air. by sending up balloons, carrying suspended wires, the positions of despatch and of receipt can be so elevated that the resistance of the atmosphere can be almost indefinitely diminished. in this way small motors have been worked by discharges generated at considerable distances, and absolutely without the existence of any connection by metallic conductors. possibilities of the exportation of power from suitable stations--such as the neighbourhoods of waterfalls--and its transmission for distances of hundreds or even thousands of miles have been spoken of in relation to the industrial prospects of the twentieth century. comparing any such hypothetical system with that of sending power along good metallic conductors, there is at once apparent a very serious objection in the needless dispersion of energy throughout space in every direction. if a power generator by wireless transmission, without any metallic connection, can work one motor at a distance of, say, , miles, then it can also operate millions of similar possible motors situated at the same distance; and by far the greater part of its electro-motive force must be wasted in upward dispersion. the analogy of the wireless transmitter of intelligence may be misleading if applied to the question of power. the practicability of wireless telegraphy depends upon the marvellous susceptibility of the "coherer," which enables it to respond to an impulse almost infinitesimally small, certainly very much smaller than that despatched by the generator from the receiving station. from this it follows, as already stated, that the analogy of apparatus designed merely for the despatch of intelligence by signalling cannot safely be applied to the case of the transmission of energy. making all due allowances for the prospects of advance in minimising the resistance of the atmosphere, it must nevertheless be remembered that any wireless system will be called upon to compete with improved means of conveying the electric current along metallic circuits. electrical science, moreover, is only at the commencement of its work in economising the cost of power-cables. the invention by which one wire can be used to convey the return current of two cables very much larger in sectional area is only one instance in point. the two major cables carry currents running in opposite directions, and as these currents are both caused to return along the third and smaller wire their electro-motive forces balance one another, with the result that the return wire needs only to carry a small difference-current. the return wire, in fact, is analogous to the banking clearing house, which deals with balances only, and which therefore can sometimes adjust business to the value of many millions with payments of only a few thousands. later on it may fairly be expected that duplicate and quadruplicate telegraphy will find its counterpart in systems by which different series of electrical impulses of high voltage will run along a wire, the one alternating with the other and each series filling up the gaps left between the others. chapter iv. artificial power. the steam-turbine is the most clearly visible of the revolutionary agencies in motors using the artificial sources of power. in the first attempts to introduce the principle the false analogy of the water-turbine gave rise to much waste of inventive energy and of money; but the more recent and more distinctly successful types of machine have been constructed with a clear understanding that the windmill is the true precursor of the steam-turbine. it is clearly perceived that, although it may be convenient and even essential to reduce the arms to pigmy dimensions and to enclose them in a tube, still the general principle of the machine must resemble that of a number of wind motors all running on the same shaft. it has been proved, moreover, that this multiplicity of minute wheels and arms has a very distinct advantage in that it renders possible the utilisation of the expansive power of steam. the first impact is small in area but intense in force, while those arms which receive the expanded steam further on are larger in size as suited to making the best use of a weaker force distributed over a greater amount of space. the enormous speed at which steam under heavy pressure rushes out of an orifice was not duly appreciated by the first experimenters in this direction. to obtain the best results in utilising the power from escaping steam there must be a certain definite proportion between the speed of the vapour and that of the vane or arm against which it strikes. in other words, the latter must not "smash" the jet, but must run along with it. in the case of the windmill the ratio has been stated approximately by the generalisation that the velocity of the tips of the sails is about two and a half times that of the wind. this refers to the old style of windmill as used for grinding corn. the steam turbine must, therefore, be essentially a motor of very great initial speed; and the efforts of recent inventors have been wisely directed in the first instance to the object of applying it to those purposes for which machinery could be coupled up to the motor with little, if any, necessity for slowing down the motion through such appliances as belting, toothed wheels, or other forms of intermediate gearing. the dynamo for electric lighting naturally first suggested itself; but even in this application it was found necessary to adopt a rate of speed considerably lower than that which the steam imparts to the turbine; and, unfortunately, it is exactly in the arrangement of the gear for the first slowing-down that the main difficulty comes in. nearly parallel is the case of the cream separator, to which the steam-turbine principle has been applied with a certain degree of success. by means of fine flexible steel shafts running in bearings swathed in oil it has been found possible to utilise the comparatively feeble force of a small steam jet operating at immense speed to produce one of much slower rate but enormously greater strength. some success has been achieved also in using the principle not only for cream separators, which require a comparatively high velocity, but for other purposes connected with the rural and manufacturing industries. an immense forward stride, however, was made when the idea was first conceived of a steam-turbine and a water-turbine being fixed on the same shaft and the latter being used for the propulsion of a vessel at sea. in this case it is obvious that, by a suitable adjustment of the pitch of screw adopted in both cases, a nice mathematical agreement between the vapour power and the liquid application of that power can be ensured. all previous records of speed have been eclipsed by the turbine-driven steamers engined on this principle. through the abolition of the principal causes of excessive vibration--which renders dangerous the enlargement of marine reciprocating engines beyond a certain size--the final limit of possible speed has been indefinitely extended. the comfort of the passenger, equally with the safety of the hull, demands the diminution of the vibration nuisance in modern steamships, and whether the first attempts to cater for the need by turbine-engines be fully successful or not, there is no doubt whatever that the fast mail packets of the future will be driven by steam-engines constructed on a system in which the turbine principle will form an important part. further applications will soon follow. it is clear that if the steam-turbine can be advantageously used for the driving of a vessel through the water, then, conversely, it can be similarly applied to the creation of a current of water or of any other suitable liquid. this liquid-current, again, is applicable to the driving of machinery at any rate that may be desired. in this view the slowing-down process, which involves elaborate and delicate machinery when accomplished in the purely mechanical method, can be much more economically effected through the friction of fluid particles. one method of achieving this object is an arrangement in which the escaping steam drives a turbine-shaft running through a long tube and passing into the water in a circular tank, in which, again, the shaft carries a spiral or turbine screw for propelling the water. the arrangement, it will be seen, is strictly analogous to that of the steam-turbine as used in marine propulsion, the shaft passing through the side of the tank just as it does through the stern of the vessel. one essential point, however, is that the line of the shaft must not pass through the centre of the circular tank, but must form the chord of an arc, so that when the water is driven against the side by the revolution of the screw it acts like a tangential jet. practically the water is thus kept in motion just as it would be if a hose with a strong jet of water were inserted and caused to play at an obtuse angle against the inner side. motion having been imparted to the fluid in the tank, a simple device such as a paddle-wheel immersed at its lower end, may be adopted for taking up the power and passing it on to the machinery required to be actuated. by setting both the shaft carrying the vanes for the steam-turbine and the screw for the propulsion of the water at a downward inclination it becomes practicable to drive the fluid without requiring any hole in the tank; and in this case the latter may be shaped in annular form and pivoted so that it becomes a horizontal fly-wheel. obstructing projections on the inside periphery of the annular tank assist the water to carry the latter along with it in its circular motion. for small steam motors, particularly for agricultural and domestic purposes, the turbine principle is destined to render services of the utmost importance. the prospect of its extremely economical construction depends largely upon the fact that, with the exception of two or three very small bearings carrying narrow shafts, it contains no parts demanding the same fine finish as does the cylinder of a reciprocating engine. it solves in a very simple manner the much-vexed problem of the rotary engine, upon which so much ingenuity has been fruitlessly exercised. the steam-turbine also has shown that, for taking advantage of the generation and the expansive power of steam, there is no absolute necessity for including a steam-tight chamber with moving parts in the machine. for very small motors suitable for working fans and working other household appliances, the use of a jet of steam, applied directly to drive a small annular fly-wheel filled with mercury--without the intervention of any turbine--will no doubt prove handy. but in the economy of the future such appliances will take the place of electrical machinery only in exceptional situations. one promising use of the turbine or steam-jet--used to propel a fly-wheel filled with liquid as described--has for its object the supply of the electric light in country houses. in this case the fly-wheel is fitted, on its lower side, to act as the armature of a dynamo, and the magnets are placed horizontally around it. the full effective power from a jet of steam is not communicated to a dynamo for electric lighting or other purposes unless there be a definite ratio between the speeds of the turbine and of the armature respectively. this may be conveniently provided for, with more precision and in a less elaborate way than that which has just been described, if the steam jet be made to drive a vertically pendant turbine, the lower extremity of which, carrying very small horizontal paddles, must be inserted into the centre of a circular tank. the principle upon which the reduction of speed necessary for the dynamo is then effected depends upon the fact that in a whirlpool the liquid near the centre runs nearly as fast as that on the outer periphery, and therefore--the circles being so very much smaller--the number of revolutions effected in a given time is much greater. thus a steam jet turning a pendant turbine--dipping into the middle of the whirlpool and carrying paddles--at an enormously high speed may be made to impart motion to the water in a circular tank (or, if desired, to the tank itself) at a very much slower rate; the amount of the reduction, of course, depending mainly on the ratio between the diameter of the tank and the length of the small paddles at the centre setting the liquid in motion. for special purposes it is best to substitute a spherical for an ordinary circular tank and the size may be greatly diminished by using mercury instead of water. the sphere is complete, excepting for a small aperture at the top for the admission of the steel shaft of the steam-driven turbine. no matter how high may be the speed, the liquid cannot be thrown out from a spherical revolving receptacle constructed in this way. moreover, the mercury acts not only as a transmitter of the power from the turbine to the purpose for which it is wanted, but also as a governor. whenever the speed becomes so great as to throw the liquid entirely into the sides of the sphere--so that the shaft and paddles are running free of contact with it in the middle--the machine slows down, and it cannot again attain full speed until the same conditions recur. the rate of speed which may be worked up to as a maximum is determined by the position of the paddle-wheel, which is adjustable and floats upon the liquid although controlled in its circular motion by the shaft which passes through a square aperture in it and also a sleeve extending upward from it. the duty of the latter is to economise steam by cutting off the jet as soon as, by its rapidity of motion, the paddle-wheel has thrown the mercury to the sides to such an extent as to sink to a certain level in the centre. cheap motors coupled with cheap dynamos will, in the twentieth century, go far towards lightening the labours of millions whose toil is at present far too much of a mere mechanical nature. the dynamo itself, however, requires to be greatly reduced in first cost. particularly it is necessary that the expense involved in drawing the wire, insulating it, and winding machines with it, should be diminished. this will no doubt be partly accomplished by the electrolytic producers of copper when once they get properly started on methods of depositing thin strips or wires of tough copper on to sheets of insulating material for wrapping round the magnets and other effective parts intended for dynamos. there is no fundamental reason which forbids that when electro deposition is resorted to for the recovery of a metal from its ore it should be straightway converted to the shape and to the purpose for which it is ultimately intended. this consideration has presented itself to the minds of some of the manufacturers of aluminium, who make many articles intended for household use electrolytically; and it must affect many other trades which are concerned in the output and in the working-up of metals readily susceptible of deposition--more particularly such as copper. the familiar aneroid barometer furnishes a hint for another convenient form of small steam-engine. in seeking to cheapen machinery of this class it is of the utmost importance that the necessity for boring out cylinders and for planing and other expensive work should be avoided. in the aneroid barometer a shallow circular box is fitted with a cover, which is corrugated in concentric circles, and the pressure of the superincumbent air is caused to depress the centre of this cover through the device of partially exhausting the box of air and thus diminishing the internal resistance. to the slightly moving middle part of the cover is affixed a lever which actuates, after some intermediate action, the hand which moves on the dial to indicate, by its record of variations in the weight of the atmosphere, what the prospect of the weather may be. in the aneroid form of the steam-engine the cylinder is immensely widened and flattened, and the broad circular lid, with its spiral corrugations, takes the place of the piston. the rod, which acts virtually as a piston-rod, is hollow, and it works into a bearing which permits the steam to escape when the extreme point of the stroke has been reached into a separate condensing chamber kept cool with water. the boiler itself, with corrugated top, may take the place of the cylinder. in some respects this little machine represents a retrograde movement, even from watt's original engine with its separate condenser; but its extreme economy of first cost recommends it to poor producers. in the near future no country homestead will be without its power installation of one kind or another, and there is room for many types of cheap motors. a motor like the steam-turbine is evidently the forerunner of other engines designed to utilise the force of an emission jet of vapour or gas. there are very many processes in which gases generated by chemical combinations are permitted to escape without performing any services, not even that of giving up the energy which they may be made to store up when held in compression in a closed vessel. the reciprocating forms found suitable for steam and gas engines are hardly adaptable for experiments in the direction of economising this source of power, one fatal objection in the majority of cases being the corrosive effects of the gases generated upon the insides of cylinders and other working parts. as soon as the force of the emission jet can be applied as a factor in giving motive power, the fact that no close-fitting parts are required for the places upon which the line of force impinges will alter the conditions of the whole problem. in the centrifugal sand pump, as now largely used for raising silt from rivers and harbours, the serious corrosive action of the jet of sand and water upon the inside of the pump has been successfully overcome by facing the metal with indiarubber; but nothing of the kind could have been done if the working of the apparatus had depended on the motion of close-fitting parts, as in the ordinary suction or lift pump. as an instance of the class of work for which gaseous jets, for driving turbines or similar forms of motor, may perform useful services the case of farm-made superphosphate of lime may be cited. by subjecting bones to the action of sulphuric acid the farmer may manufacture his own phosphatic manures for the enrichment of his land. but the carbonic dioxide and other gases generated as the result of the operation are wasted. therefore it at present pays better to carry the bones to the sulphuric acid than to reverse the procedure by conveying the acid to the farm, where the bones are a by-product. so bulky are the latter, however, that serious waste of labour is involved in transporting them for long distances. calculations made out by the experts of various state agricultural stations show that, as a general rule, it is now cheaper for the farmer to buy his superphosphates ready made than to make them on his farm. the difference in some cases, however, is not great; and only a comparative trifle would be needed in order to turn the balance. this may probably be found in the economic value of the service rendered by a turbine-engine or other device for utilising the expansive power of the gases which are driven from the constituents of the bones by the action of the sulphuric acid. for pumping water and other ordinary farm operations the chemical gas-engine will prove very handy; and the great point in its favour will be that instead of useless cinders the refuse from it will consist of the most valuable compost with which the farmer can dress the soil. enamelled iron will be employed for the troughs in which the bones and acid will be mixed, and a cover similar to that placed over a "papin's digester" will be clamped to the rim all round, the gases being liberated only in the form of a jet used for driving machinery. for very small motors, applicable specially to domestic purposes such as ventilation, there is one source of power which, in all places within the reticulation areas of waterworks, may be had practically for nothing. probably when the owners of water-supply works realise that they have command of something which is of commercial value, although hitherto unnoticed, they will arrange to sell not only the water which they supply, but also the power which can be generated by its escape when utilised and by the variations in the pressure from hour to hour and even from minute to minute. the latter, for such purposes as ventilation, for instance, will no doubt come to the front sooner than the intermittent power now wasted by the outflowing of water--a power which is comparatively too small an item in most cases to compensate for the outlay and trouble of arranging for the storage of energy. but in the case of the variation in the pressure, without any escape of water at all, no such disability appears. experiments conducted in several of the larger cities of england with various types of water meters--which are really motors on a small scale--have proved the practicability of obtaining a source of constant power from what may be termed the ebb and the flow of pressure within the pipes of a water supply system. at every hour of the day there is a marked variation in the quantity of water that is being drawn away by consumers, and consequently a rise and fall in the degree of pressure recorded by the meter. in an apparatus for converting the power derivable from this source to useful purposes something on a very small scale analogous to that which has already been described in connection with utilising the rise and fall of a wave will be found serviceable. a small spur-wheel is gripped on two sides by two metal laths, with edges serrated like those of saws, and held against the wheel by gentle pressure. every movement of the two saws--whether backwards or forwards--is then responded to by a continuous circular motion of the wheel, with the sole exception of those movements which may be too small in extent to include even as much as a single tooth of the wheel. on this account it is important that the teeth should be made as numerous as possible consistently with the amount of pressure which they may have to bear. resort may be had to the principle of the aneroid barometer in order to secure from the water within the pipe-system the energy by which these saw-like bands are driven up and down with reciprocal motion. a very shallow circular tank in the shape of a watch is in communication with the water in the pipes, and its top or covering is composed of a concentrically-corrugated sheet of finely tempered steel. at the centre of this is fixed the guide which pushes and pulls the saw-like laths. every rise and fall in the pressure of the water now effects a movement of the spur-wheel, and the latter may conveniently be connected with the strong spring of a clockwork attachment, so that the water pressure is really used for winding up a clockwork ventilating-fan. in the making of cheap steam and gas engines, as well as in machine work generally, rapid progress will be made when the possibilities of producing hard and smooth wearing surfaces without the need for cutting and filing rough-cast metal have been fully investigated. many parts of machinery will be electro-deposited--like the small articles already mentioned--in aluminium or hard copper at the metallurgical works where ore is being treated for the recovery of metal, or even at the mines themselves. side by side with this movement there will be one for developing the system of stamping mild steel and then tempering it. at the same time also the behaviour of various metals and alloys, not only in the cold state but also at the critical point between melting and solidification, will be much more carefully studied so as to take advantage of every means whereby accurately shaped articles may be made and finished in the casting. it has been found, for example, that certain kinds of type metal, if placed under very heavy pressure at the moment when passing from the liquid to the solid condition, not only take the exact form of the mould in which they are placed, but become extremely hard by comparison with the same alloy if permitted to solidify without pressure. the example of the cheap watch industry may be cited to convey an idea of the immensely important revolution which will take place in the production of both small and large prime-motors when all the possibilities of electrotyping, casting, and stamping the various wearing parts true to shape and size have been fully exploited. an accurate timekeeper is now practically within the reach of all; and in the twentieth century no one who requires a small prime motor to do the rough work about home or farm will be compelled to do without it by reason of poverty--unless, perhaps, he is absolutely destitute and a fit subject for public charity. many domestic industries which were crushed out of existence during the early part of the nineteenth century will therefore be resuscitated. the dear steam-engine created the factory system and brought the operatives to live close together in long rows of unsightly dwellings, but the cheap engine, in conjunction with the motor driven by transmitted electricity, will give to the working people comparative freedom again to live where they please, and to enjoy the legitimate pleasures both of town and of country. chapter v. road and rail. the existing keen motor-car rivalry presents one of the most interesting and instructive mechanical problems which are left still unsolved by the close of the nineteenth century. the question to be determined is not so much whether road locomotion by means of mechanical power is practicable and useful, for, of course, that point has been settled long ago; indeed it would have been recognised as settled years before had it not been for the crass legislation of a quarter of a century since which deliberately drove the first steam-motors off the road in order to ensure the undisturbed supremacy of horse traffic. the real point at issue is whether a motor can be made which shall furnish power for purposes of road locomotion as cheaply and conveniently as is already done for stationary purposes. horse traction, although extremely dear, possesses one qualification which until the present day has enabled it to outdistance its mechanical competitors upon ordinary roads. this is its power of adapting itself, by special effort, to the exigencies caused by the varying nature of the road. watch a team of horses pulling a waggon along an undulating highway, with level stretches of easy going and here and there a decline or a steep hill. there is a continual adjustment of the strain which each animal puts upon itself according to the character of the difficulties which must be surmounted, the effort varying from nothing at all--when going down a gentle decline--up to the almost desperate jerk with which the vehicle is taken over some stony part right on the brow of an eminence. the whip cracks and by threats and encouragements the driver induces each horse to put forth, for one brief moment, an effort which could not be sustained for many minutes save at the peril of utter exhaustion. when the unit of nominal horse-power was fixed at , foot-pounds per minute the work contemplated in the arbitrary standard was supposed to be such as a horse could go on performing for several hours. it was, of course, well recognised that any good, upstanding horse, if urged to a special effort, could perform several times the indicated amount of work in a minute. nevertheless the habit of reckoning steam-power in terms of a unit drawn from the analogy of the horse undoubtedly tended for many years to obscure the essential difference between the natures of the two sources of power. railroads were built with the object of rendering as uniform as possible the amount of power required to transport a given weight of goods or passengers over a specified distance; and consequently the application of the steam-engine to traffic conducted on the railway line was a success. many inventors at once jumped to the conclusion that, by making some fixed allowance for the greater roughness of an ordinary road, they would be able to construct a steam-traction engine that would suit exactly for road traffic. in a rough and rudimentary way an attempt to provide for the special effort required at steep or stony places was made by the introduction of a kind of fly-wheel of extraordinary weight proportionate to the size of the engine; and the same object was aimed at by increasing the power of the engine to somewhere near the limit of the possible special requirements. the consequence was the evolution of an immensely ponderous and wasteful machine, which for some years only held its ground within the domain of the heavy work of roadmaking. as a means of road traction the steam-engine was for half a century almost entirely discomfited and routed by horse-power, partly owing to this mechanical defect and partly, as we have seen, through legislative partisanship. the explosive type of engine was next called into requisition to do battle against the living competitor of the engineer's handiwork. petroleum and alcohol, when volatilised and mixed with air in due proportion, form explosive mixtures which are much more nearly instantaneous in their action than an elastic vapour like steam held under pressure in a boiler, and liberated to perform its work by comparatively slow expansion. the petroleum engine, as applied to the automobile, does its work in a series of jerks which provide for the unequal degrees of power required to cope with the unevenness of a road. as against this, however, there are certain grave defects, due mainly to the use of highly inflammable oils vapourised at high temperatures; and these have impressed a large proportion of engineers with a belief that, in the long run, either electricity or steam will win the day. storage batteries are well adapted for meeting the exigencies of the road, just as they are for those of tramway traffic, because, as soon as an extra strain is to be met, there is always the resource of coupling up fresh batteries held in reserve--a process which amounts to the same as yoking new horses to the vehicle in order to take it up a hill. in practice, however, it is found that the jerky vibratory motion of the gasoline automobile provides for this in a way almost as convenient, although not so pleasant. the chance of the steam-engine being largely adopted for automobile work and for road traffic generally depends principally on the prospects of inventing a form of cylinder--or its equivalent--which will enable the driver to couple up fresh effective working parts of his machinery at will, just as may be done with storage batteries. a new form of steam cylinder designed to provide for this need will outwardly resemble a long pipe--one being fixed on each lower side of the vehicle--but inwardly it will be divided into compartments each of which will have its own separate piston. practically there will thus be a series of cylinders having one piston-rod running through them all, but each having its own piston. normally, this machine will run with an admission of steam to only one or two of the cylinders; but when extra work has to be done the other cylinders will be called into requisition by the opening of the steam valves leading to them. provision can be made for the automatic working of this adjustment by the introduction of a spring upon the piston-rod, so arranged that, as soon as the resistance reaches a certain point, a lever is actuated which opens the valves to admit steam to the reserve cylinders of the engine. on such occasions, of course, the consumption of steam must necessarily be greatly increased; but on the other hand the automatic system of the admission to each cylinder also results in a shutting off of the steam when little or no work is required. in fact, with a fully automatic action, regulating the consumption of steam exactly according to the amount of force necessary to drive the automobile, it would be possible to work even a single cylinder to much greater advantage than is done by the machines generally in use. so heavy are the storage batteries needed for electric traction of the road motor-car that practically it is not found convenient to carry enough of cells to last for more than a twenty-mile run. the batteries must then either be replaced, or a delay of some three hours must occur while they are being recharged. the idea of establishing charging stations at almost every conceivable terminus of a run is quite chimerical; and, even if hundreds of such stations were provided for the convenience of the users of electric traction, the limitation imposed by being forced to follow the established routes would always give to the non-electric motor an advantage over its competitor. the best hope for the storage battery on the automobile rests upon its convenience as a repository of reserve power in conjunction with such a prime motor as the steam-engine. a turbine worked by a jet of steam, as already described, and moving in a magnetic field to generate electricity for storage in a few cells, is a convenient form in which steam and electricity can be yoked together in order to secure a power of just the type suitable for driving an automobile. in the machine indicated the supply of the motive power is direct from the storage batteries, which can be coupled up in any required number according to the exigencies of the road. automatic gear may be introduced by an adaptation of the principle already referred to. in a light road-motor for carrying one or two persons on holiday trips or business rounds, the quality of adaptability of the source of power to the sudden demands due to differences of level in the road is not so absolutely essential as it is in traction engines designed for the transport of goods over ordinary roads. in the former class of work the waste of power involved in employing a motor of strength sufficient to climb hills--although the bulk of the distance to be travelled is along level roads--may not be at all so serious as to overbalance the many and manifest advantages of the automobile principle. at the same time, as has already been indicated, there is no doubt whatever that when proper automatic shut-off contrivances have been applied for economising mechanical energy in the passenger road-motor, an immense impetus will be given to its advancement. in the road traction-engine the need for what may be termed _effort_ on the part of the mechanism is much greater, more especially as the competition against horse-traction is conducted on terms so much more nearly level. a team of strong draught-horses driven by one man on a well-loaded waggon is a far more economical installation of power than a two-horse buggy carrying one or two passengers. the asphalt and macadamised tracks which are now being laid down along the sides of roads for the convenience of cyclists, are the significant forerunners of an improvement destined to produce a revolution in road traffic during the twentieth century. when automobiles have become very much more numerous, and local authorities find that the settlement of wealthy or comparatively well-to-do families in their neighbourhoods may depend very largely upon the question whether light road-motor traffic may be conveniently conducted to and from the nearest city, an immense impetus will be administered to the reasonable efforts made for catering for the demand for tracks for the accommodation of automobiles, both private and public. the tyranny of the railway station will then be to a large extent mitigated, and suburban or country residents will no longer be practically compelled to crowd up close to each station on their lines of railroad. under existing conditions many of those who travel fifteen or twenty miles to business every day live just as close to one another, and with nearly as marked a lack of space for lawn and garden, as if they lived within the city. the bunchy nature of settlement promoted by railways must have excited the notice of any intelligent observer during the past twenty or thirty years--that is to say since the suburban railroad began to take its place as an important factor in determining the locating of population. to a very large extent the automobile will be rather a feeder to the railway than a rival to it; and all sorts of by-roads and country lanes will be improved and adapted so as to admit of residents running into their stations by their own motor-cars and then completing their journeys by rail. but when this point has been reached, and when fairly smooth tracks adapted for automobile and cycling traffic have been laid down all over the country, a very interesting question will crop up having reference to the practicability of converting these tracks into highways combining the capabilities both of roads and of railways. in an ordinary railroad the functions of the iron or steel rails are twofold, first to carry the weight of the load, and second to guide the engine, carriage or truck in the right direction. now the latter purpose--in the case of a rail-track never used for high speeds, especially in going round curves--might be served by the adoption of a very much lighter weight of rail, if only the carrying of the load could be otherwise provided for. in fact, if pneumatic-tyre wheels, running on a fairly smooth asphalt track, were employed to bear the weight of a vehicle, there would then be no need for more than one guide-rail, which might readily be fixed in the middle of the track; but this should preferably be made to resemble the rail of a tram rather than that of a railroad. "every man his own engine-driver" will be a rule which will undoubtedly require some little social and mechanical adjustment to carry out within the limits of the public safety. but the automobile, even in its existing form, makes the task of completing this adjustment practically a certainty of the near future; and as soon as it is seen that motor tracks with guide lines render traffic safer than it is on ordinary roads, the main objections to the innovation will be rapidly overcome. the rule of the road for such guide-line tracks will probably be based very closely on that which at present exists for ordinary thoroughfares. on those roads where two tracks have been laid down each motor will be required to keep to the left, and when a traveller coming up behind is impatient at the slow rate of speed adopted by his precursor he will be compelled to make the necessary détour himself, passing into the middle of the thoroughfare and there outstripping the party in front, without the assistance of the guide-rail, and rejoining the track. to execute this movement, of course, the motor wheels for the guide-tracks must be mounted on entirely different principles from those adapted for railroad traffic. the broad and soft tyred wheels which bear upon the asphalt track will be entrusted with the duty of carrying the machine without extraneous aid; but there will be two extra wheels, one in front and one at the rear, capable of being lifted at any time by means of a lever controlled by the driver. these guiding wheels will fit into the groove of the tram line in the centre, being made of a shape suitable for enabling the driver to pick up the groove quickly whenever he pleases. the carrying wheels of the vehicle in this system are enabled to pass over the guide-rail readily, because the latter does not stand up from the track like the line in a railroad. a simpler plan, particularly adapted for roads which are to have only a single guide-rail, is to place the rail at the off-side of the track, and to raise it a few inches from the ground. the wheels for the rail are attached to arms which can be raised and lifted off the rail by the driver operating a lever. guiding irons, forming an inverted y, are placed below the bearings of the wheels to facilitate the picking up of the rail, their effect being that, if the driver places his vehicle in approximately the position for engaging the side wheels with the rail and then goes slowly ahead, he will very quickly be drawn into the correct alignment. of course the rails for this kind of track can be very light and inexpensive in comparison with those required for railroads on which the whole weight of each vehicle, as well as the lateral strain caused by its guidance, must fall upon the rail itself. the asphalt track and its equivalent will be the means of bringing much nearer to fulfilment the dream of having "a railway to every man's door". many such tracks will be equipped with electric cables as well as guiding-rails, so that cars with electric motors will be available for running on them, and the power will be supplied from a publicly-maintained station. some difficulty may at first be experienced in adjusting the rates and modes of payment for the facilities thus offered; but a convenient precedent is present to hand in the class of enactment under which tramway companies are at present protected from having their permanent ways used by vehicles owned by other persons. practically the possession of a vehicle having a flanged wheel and a gauge exactly the same as that of the tram lines in the vicinity may be taken to indicate an intention to use the lines. similarly a certain relation between the positions of guiding wheels and those of the connections with cables may be held to furnish evidence of liability to contribute towards the maintenance of motor-tracks. roads and railways will be much more closely inter-related in the future than they have been in the past. the competition of the automobile would in itself be practically sufficient to force the owners of railways into a more adaptive mood in regard to the true relations between the world's great highways. the way in which the course of evolution will work the problem out may be indicated thus:--first, the owners of automobiles will find it convenient in many instances to run by road to the nearest railway station which suits their purposes, leaving their machines in charge of the stationmaster and going on by train. in course of time the owners of "omnibus automobiles" will desire to secure the same advantage for their customers, and on this account the road cars will await the arrival and departure of every train just as horse vehicles do at present. the next step will be taken by the railway companies, or by the local authorities, when it becomes obvious that there is much more profit in motor traffic than there ever was in catering for the public by means of vehicles drawn by horses. each important railway station will have its diverging lines of motor-traffic for the convenience of passengers, some of them owned and managed by the same authority as the railway line itself. rivalry will shortly enforce an improvement upon this system, because in the keen competition between railway lines those stations will attract the best parts of the trade at which the passengers are put to the smallest amount of inconvenience. the necessity for changing trains, with its attendant bustle of looking after luggage, perhaps during very inclement weather, always acts as a hindrance to the popularity of a line. when "motor-omnibuses" are running by road all the way into the city, setting people down almost at their doors and making wide circuits by road, the proprietors of these vehicles will make the most of their advantages in offering to travellers a cosy and comfortable retreat during the whole of their journey. road-motors, comfortably furnished, will therefore be mounted upon low railway trucks of special construction, designed to permit of their being run on and off the trucks from the level of the ground. the plan of mounting a road vehicle upon a truck suited to receive it has already been adopted for some purposes, notably for the removal of furniture and similar goods; and it is capable of immense extension. an express train will run through on the leading routes from which roads branch out in all directions, and as it approaches each station it will uncouple the truck and "motor-omnibus" intended for that destination. the latter will be shunted on to a loopline. the road-motor will be set free from its truck and will then proceed on its journey by road. when a similar system has been fully adapted for the conveyance of goods by rail and road experiments will then be commenced, on a systematic basis, with the object of rendering possible the picking up of packages, and even of vehicles, without stopping the train. the most pressing problem which now awaits solution in the railway world is how to serve roadside stations by express trains. "through" passengers demand a rapid service; while the roadside traffic goes largely to the line that offers the most frequent trains. in the violent strain and effort to combine these two desiderata the most successful means yet adopted have been those which rely upon the destruction of enormous quantities of costly engine-power by means of quick-acting brakes. the amount of power daily converted into the mischievous heat of friction by the brakes on some lines of railway would suffice to work the whole of the traffic several times over; but the sacrifice has been enforced by the public demand for a train that shall run fast and shall yet stop as frequently as possible. progress in this direction has reached its limit. a brake that shall conserve, instead of destroying, the power of the train's inertia on pulling up at a station is urgently required; but the efforts towards supplying the want have not, so far, proved very successful. each carriage or truck must be fitted with an air-pump so arranged that, on the application of the brake by the engine-driver, it shall drive back a corresponding amount of air to that which has been liberated from the reservoir, and the energy thus stored must be rendered available for re-starting the train. trials in this direction have been made through the application of strong springs which are caused to engage upon the wheels when the brake is applied, and thus are wound up, but which may then be reversed in position, so that for the starting of the vehicle the rebound of the spring offers material assistance. it is obvious, however, that the use of compressed air harmonises better with the railway system than any plan depending upon springs. the potential elasticity in an air-reservoir of portable dimensions is enormously greater than that of any metallic spring which could conveniently be carried. in picking up and setting down mail-bags a system has been for some years in operation on certain railway lines indicating in a small way the possibilities of the future in the direction of obviating the need for stopping trains at stations. the bag is hung on a sliding rod outside of the platform, and on a corresponding part of the van is affixed a strong net, which comes in contact with the bag and catches it while the train goes past at full speed. dropping a bag is, of course, a simpler matter. the occasionally urgent demand for the sending of parcels in a similar manner has set many inventive brains to work on the problem of extending the possibilities of this system, and there seems no reason to doubt that before long it will be practicable to load some classes of small, and not readily broken, articles into trucks or vans while trains are in motion. the root idea from which such an invention will spring may be borrowed from the sliding rail and tobogganing devices already introduced in pleasure grounds for the amusement of those who enjoy trying every novel excitement. a light and very small truck may be caused to run down an incline and to throw itself into one of the trucks comprising a goods train. the method of timing the descent, of course, will only be definitely ascertained after careful calculation and experiments designed to determine what length of time must elapse between the liberation of the small descending truck and the passing of the vehicle into which its contents are to be projected. foot-bridges over railway lines at wayside stations will afford the first conveniences to serve as tentative appliances for the purpose indicated. from the overway of the bridge are built out two light frameworks carrying small tram-lines which are set at sharp declivities in the directions of the up and the down trains respectively, and which terminate at a point just high enough to clear the smoke-stack of the engine. the small truck, into which the goods to be loaded are stowed with suitable packings to prevent undue concussion, is held at the top of its course by a catch, readily released by pressure on a lever from below. the guard's van is provided at its front end with a steel, upright rod carrying a cross-piece, which is easily elevated by the guard or his assistant in anticipation of passing any station where parcels are to be received by projection. at the rear of the van is an open receptacle communicating by a door or window with the van itself. at the instant when the steel cross-piece comes in contact with the lever of the catch, which holds the little truck in position on the elevated footbridge, the descent begins, and by the time that the receptacle behind the van has come directly under the end of the sloping track the truck has reached the latter point and is brought to a sudden standstill by buffers at the termination of the miniature "toboggan". the ends of the little truck being left open, its contents are discharged into the receptacle behind the van, from which the guard or assistant in charge removes them into the vehicle itself. for catching the parcels thrown out from the van a much simpler set of apparatus is sufficient. on a larger scale, no doubt in course of time, a somewhat similar plan will be brought into operation for causing loaded trucks to run from elevated sidings and to join themselves on to trains in motion. one essential condition for the attainment of this object is that the rails of the siding should be set at such a steep declivity that, when the last van of the passing train has cleared the points and set the waiting truck in motion by liberating its catch, the rate of speed attained by the pursuing vehicle should be sufficiently high to enable it to catch the train by its own impetus. it may be found more convenient on some lines to provide nearly level sidings and to impart the necessary momentum to the waiting truck, partly through the propelling agency of compressed air. any project for what will be described as "shooting a truck loaded with valuable goods after the retreating end of a train," in order to cause it to catch up with the moving vehicles, will no doubt give rise to alarm; and this feeling will be intensified when further proposals for projecting carriages full of passengers in a similar method come up for discussion. but these apprehensions will be met and answered in the light of the fact that in the earlier part of the nineteenth century critics of what was called "stephenson's mad scheme" of making trains run twenty or even thirty miles an hour were gradually induced to calm their nerves sufficiently to try the new experience of a train journey! the wire-rope tramway has hitherto been used principally in connection with mines situated in very hilly localities. trestles are erected at intervals upon which a strong steel rope is stretched and this carries the buckets or trucks slung on pulley-blocks, contrived so as to pass the supports without interference. a system of this kind can be worked electrically, the wire-rope being employed also for the conveyance of the current. but an inherent defect in the principle lies in the fact that the wire-rope dips deeply when the weight passes over it, and thus the progress from one support to another resolves itself into a series of sharp descents, followed by equally sharp ascents up a corresponding incline. the usual way of working the traffic is to haul the freight by means of a rope wound round a windlass driven by a stationary engine at the end. the constantly varying strain on the cable proves how large is the amount of power that must be wasted in jerking the buckets up one incline to let them jolt down another when the point of support has been passed. hitherto the wire-rope tramway has been usually adopted merely as presenting the lesser of two evils. if the nature of the hills to be traversed be so precipitous that ruinous cuttings and bridges would be needed for the construction of an ordinary railway or tramway line, the idea of conveyance by wire suggests itself as being, at least, a temporary mode of getting over the difficulty. but a great extension of the principle of overhead haulage may be expected as soon as the dipping of the load has been obviated, and the portion of the moving line upon which it is situated has been made rigid. a strong but light steel framework, placed in the line of the drawing-cable, and of sufficient length to reach across two of the intervals between the supports, may be drawn over enlarged pulleys and remain quite rigid all the time. the weight-carrying wire-rope is thus dispensed with, and the installation acquires a new character, becoming, in point of fact, a moving bridge which is drawn across its supports and fits into the grooves in the wheels surmounting the latter. the carriage or truck may be constructed on the plan adopted for the building of the longest type of modern bogie carriages for ordinary railways, the tensile strength of steel rods being largely utilised for imparting rigidity. we now find that instead of a railway we have the idea of what may be more appropriately called a "wheelway". the primitive application of the same principle is to be seen in the devices used in dockyards and workshops for moving heavy weights along the ground by skidding them on rollers. practically the main precaution observed in carrying out this operation is the taking care that no two rollers are put so far apart that the centre of gravity of the object to be conveyed shall have passed over one before the end has come in contact with the next just ahead of it. the "wheelway" itself will be economical in proportion as the length of the rigid carriage or truck which runs upon it is increased. the carrying of cheap freight will be the special province of the apparatus, and it will therefore be an object to secure the form of truck which will give, with the least expense, the greatest degree of rigidity over the longest stretch of span from one support to another. some modification of the tubular principle will probably supply the most promising form for the purpose. the hope of this will be greatly enhanced through the recent advances in the art of tube-constructing by which wrought-iron and tough steel tubes can be made quite seamless and jointless, being practically forged at one operation in the required tubular shape. for mining and other similar purposes, the long tubal "wheelway" trucks of this description can be drawn up an incline at the loading station so as to be partially "up-ended" in position for receiving the charges or loads of mineral or other freight. after this they can be despatched along the "wheelway" on the closing of the door at the loading end. in regard to the mode of application of the power in traction, the shorter-distance lines may serve their objects well enough by adopting the endless wire-rope system at present used on many mining properties. but it is found in practice that for heavy freight this endless cable traction does not suit over distances of more than about two miles. mining men insist upon the caution that where this length of distance has to be exceeded in the haulage of ore from the mine over wire-rope tramways, there is need for two installations, the loaded trucks being passed along from one to the other by means of suitable appliances at the termini. electric traction must, in the near future, displace such a cumbrous system, and the plan upon which it will be applied will probably depend upon the use of a steel cable along which the motor-truck must haul itself in its progress. this cable will be kept stationary, but gripped by the wheels and other appliances of the electric motors with which the long trucks are provided. besides this there must also be the conducting cables for the conveyance of the electric current. for cheap means of transport in sparsely-developed country, as well as in regions of an exceptionally hilly contour, the "wheelway" has a great future before it. ultimately the system can be worked out so as to present an almost exact converse of the railway. the rails are fixed on the lower part of the elongated truck, one on each side; while the wheels, placed at intervals upon suitable supports, constitute the permanent way. the amount of constructional work required for each mile of track under this plan is a mere fraction of that which is needed for the permanent way and rolling stock of a railway, the almost entire absence of earth-works being, of course, a most important source of economy. probably the development of transport on the principles indicated by the evolution of the ropeway or wire-rope tramway will take place primarily in connection with mining properties, and for general transport purposes in country of a nature which renders it unsuitable for railway construction. this applies not merely to hilly regions, but particularly to those long stretches of sandy country which impede the transport of traffic in many rich mining regions, and in patches separating good country from the seaboard. in the "wheelway" for land of this character the wheels need not be elevated more than a very few feet above the ground, just enough to keep them clear of the drift sand which in some places is fatal to the carrying out of any ordinary railway project. the conception of a truck or other vehicle that shall practically carry its own rail-road has been an attractive one to some inventive minds. in sandy regions, and in other places where a railway track is difficult to maintain, and where, at any rate, there would hardly be sufficient traffic to encourage expenditure in laying an iron road, a very great boon would be a kind of motor which would lay its own rails in front of its wheels and pick them up again as soon as they had passed. a carriage of this kind was worked for some time on the landes in france. the track was virtually a kind of endless band which ran round the four wheels, bearing a close resemblance to the ramp upon which the horse is made to tread in the "box" type of horse-gear. several somewhat similar devices have been brought out, and a gradual approach seems to have been made towards a serviceable vehicle. a large wheel offers less resistance to the traction of the weight upon it than a small one. the principal reason for this is that its outer periphery, being at any particular point comparatively straight, does not dip down into every hollow of the road, but strikes an average of the depressions and prominences which it meets. the pneumatic tyre accomplishes the same object, although in a different way, the weight being supported by an elastic surface which fits into the contour of the ground beneath it; and the downward pressure being balanced by the sum total of all the resistant forces offered by every part of the tyre which touches the ground, whether resting on hollows or on prominences. careful tests which have been made with pneumatic-tyred vehicles by means of various types of dynamometer have proved that, altogether apart from the question of comfort arising from absence of vibration, there is a very true and real saving of actual power in the driving of a vehicle on wheels fitted with inflated tubes, as compared with the quantity that is required to propel the same vehicle when resting on wheels having hard unyielding rims. so far as cycles and motor-cars are concerned, this is the best solution of the problem of averaging the inequalities of a road that has yet been presented; but when we come to consider the making of provision for goods traffic carried by traction engines along ordinary roadways, the difficulties which present themselves militating against the adoption of the pneumatic principle--at any rate so long as a cheap substitute for india-rubber is undiscovered--are practically insurmountable. large cart wheels of the ordinary type are much more difficult to construct than small ones, besides being more liable to get out of order. the advantages of a large over a small wheel in reducing the amount of resistance offered by rough roads have long been recognised, and the limit of height was soon attained. in looking for improvement in this direction, therefore, we must inquire what new types of wheel may be suggested, and whether an intermediate plan between the endless band, as already referred to, and the old-fashioned large wheel may not find a useful place. let the wheel consist of a very small truck-wheel running on the inside of a large, rigid steel hoop. the latter must be supported, to keep it from falling to either side, by means of a steel semi-circular framework rising from the sides of the vehicle and carrying small wheels to prevent friction. we now have a kind of rail which conforms to the condition already mentioned, namely, that of being capable of being laid down in front of the wheel of the truck or vehicle, and of being picked up again when the weight has passed over any particular part. the hoop, in fact, constitutes a rolling railway, and the larger it can with convenience be made, the nearer is the approach which it presents to a straight railway track as regards the absence of resistance to the passing of a loaded truck-wheel over it. the method of applying the rolling hoop, more particularly as regards the question whether two or four shall be used for a vehicle, will depend upon the special work to be performed. some vehicles, however, will have only two hoops, one on each side, but several small truck-wheels running on the inside of each. a vehicle of this pattern is not to be classed with a two-wheeled buggy, because it will maintain its equilibrium without being held in position by shafts or other similar means. so far as contact with the road is concerned it is two-wheeled; and yet, in its relation to the force of gravitation upon which its statical stability depends, it is a four or six-wheeler according to the number of the small truck-wheels with which it is fitted. traction engines carrying hoops twenty feet in height, or at any rate as high as may be found compatible with stability when referred to the available width on the road, will be capable of transporting goods at a cost much below that of horse traction. the limit of available height may be increased by the bringing of the two hoops closer to each other at the top than they are at the roadway, because the application of the principle does not demand that the hoops should stand absolutely erect. similar means will, no doubt, be tried for the achievement of a modified form of what has been dreamt of by cyclists under the name of a unicycle. this machine will resemble a bicycle running on the inner rim of a hoop, and will probably attain to a higher speed for show purposes than the safety high-geared bicycle of the usual pattern. but it is in the development of goods traffic along ordinary roads that the hoop-rail principle will make its most noticeable progress. by its agency not only will the transport of goods along well-made roads become less costly and more expeditious, but localities in sparsely settled countries--such as those beyond the missouri in america and the interior regions of south africa, australia and china--will become much more readily accessible. a traction-engine and automobile which can run across broad, almost trackless plains at the rate of fifteen miles an hour will bring within quick reach of civilisation many localities in which at present, for lack of such communication, rough men are apt to grow into semi-savages, while those who retain the instincts of civilisation look upon their exile as a living death. it will do more to enlighten the dark places of the earth than any other mechanical agency of the twentieth century. chapter vi. ships. the "cargo slave" and the "ocean greyhound" are already differentiated by marked characteristics, and in the twentieth century the divergence between the two types of vessels will become much accentuated. the object aimed at by the owners of cargo boats will be to secure the greatest possible economy of working, combined with a moderately good rate of speed, such as may ensure shippers against having to stand out of their capital locked up in the cargo for too long a period. hence cheap power will become increasingly a desideratum, and the possible applications of natural sources of energy will be keenly scrutinised with a view to turning any feasible plan to advantage. the sailing ship, and the economic and constructive lines upon which it is built and worked, will be carefully overhauled with a view to finding how its deficiencies may be supplemented and its good points turned to account. one result of this renewed attention will be to confirm, for some little time, the movement which showed itself during the past decade of the nineteenth century for an increase of sailing tonnage. sooner or later, however, it will be recognised that sail power must be largely supplemented, even on the "sailer," if it is to hold its own against steam. for mails and passengers, on the other hand, steam must more and more decidedly assert its supremacy. yet the mail-packet of the twentieth century will be very different from packets which have "made the running" towards the close of the nineteenth. she will carry little or no cargo excepting specie, and goods of exceptionally high value in proportion to their weight and bulk. nearly all her below-deck capacity, indeed, will be filled with machinery and fuel. she will be in other respects more like a floating hotel than the old ideal of a ship, her cellars, so to speak, being crammed with coal and her upper stories fitted luxuriously for sitting and bed rooms and brilliant with the electric light. but in size she will not necessarily be any larger than the nineteenth century type of mail steamer. indeed the probability is that, on the average, the twentieth century mail-packets will be smaller, being built for speed rather than for magnificence or carrying capacity. the turbine-engine will be the main factor in working the approaching revolution in mail steamer construction. the special reason for this will consist in the fact that only by its adoption can the conditions mentioned above be fulfilled. with the ordinary reciprocating type of marine steam machinery it would be impossible to place, in a steamer of moderate tonnage, engines of a size suitable to enable it to attain a very high rate of speed, because the strain and vibration of the gigantic steel arms, pulling and pushing the huge cranks to turn the shafting, would knock the hull to pieces in a very short time. for this very reason, in fact, the marine architect and engineer have hitherto urged, with considerable force of argument, that high speed and large tonnage must go concomitantly. practically, only a big steamer, with the old type of marine-engine, could be a very fast one, and, for ocean traffic at any rate, a smaller vessel must be regarded as out of the running. very large tonnage being thus made a prime necessity, it followed that the space provided must be utilised, and this need has tended to perpetuate the combination of mail and passenger traffic with cargo carrying. the first step towards the revolution was taken many years ago when the screw propeller was substituted for the paddle-wheel. the latter means of propulsion caused shock and vibration not only owing to the thrusts of the piston-rod from the steam-engine itself, but also from the impact of the paddles upon the water one after the other. a great increase in the smoothness of running was attained when the screw was invented--a propeller which was entirely sunk in the water and therefore exercised its force, not in shocks, but in gentle constant pressure upon the fluid around it. such as the windmill is for wind and the turbine water-wheel for water was the screw propeller, although adapted, not as a generator, but as an application of power. having made the work and stress continuous, the next thing to be accomplished was to effect a similar reform in the engines supplying the power. this is accomplished in the turbine steam-engine by causing the steam to play in strong jets continuously and steadily upon vanes which form virtually a number of small windmills. thus, while the screw outside of the hull is applying the force continuously, the steam in the inside is driving the shafting with equal evenness and regularity. the steam turbine does not appear to have by any means reached finality in its form, such questions as the angle of impact which the jet should make with the surface of the vane, and the size of the orifice through which the steam should be ejected, being still debatable points. but on one matter there is hardly any room for doubt, and that is that the best way to secure the benefit of the expansive power of steam is to permit it to escape from a pipe having a long series of orifices and to impinge upon a correspondingly numerous series of vanes, or, perhaps, upon a number of vanes arranged so that each one is long enough to receive the impact of many jets. hitherto the steam supply-pipe emitting the jet has been placed outside of the circle of the wheel; but the future form seems likely to be one in which the axis of the wheel is itself the pipe which contains the steam, but which permits it to escape outwards to the circumference of the wheel. the latter is, in this form of turbine, made in the shape of a paddle-wheel of very small circumference but considerable length, the paddles being set at such an inclination as to obtain the greatest possible rotative impulse from the outward-rushing steam. the pipe must be turned true at intervals to enable it to carry a number of diminutive wheels upon which these long vanes are mounted, and a very strong connection must be made between these wheels and the shaft of the screw. inasmuch as a high speed of rotation is to be maintained, the pitch of the screw in the water is set so as to offer but slight opposition to the water at each turn. the immense speed attained is thus due, not to the actual power with which the water is struck by the screw at each revolution, but to the extraordinary rapidity with which the shaft rotates. the twin screw, with which the best and safest of modern steam-ships are all fitted, will soon develop into what may be called "the twin stern". each screw requires a separate set of engines and the main object of the duplication is to lessen the risk of the vessel being left helpless in case of accident to one or other. the advisability of placing each engine and shafting in a separate water-tight compartment has therefore been seen. at this point there presents itself for consideration the advisability of separating the two screws by as wide a distance as may be convenient and placing the rudder between the two. practically, therefore, it will be found best to build out a steel framework from each side of the stern for holding the bearings of each screw in connection with the twin water-tight compartments holding the shafting; and thus will be evolved what will practically represent a twin, or double, stern. in the case of the turbine steamer several of the forms of screw which were first proposed when that type of propeller was invented will again come up for examination, notably the archimedean screw, wound round a fairly long piece of shafting. the larger the circular area of this screw is the less will be the risk of "smashing" the water, or of losing hold of it entirely in rough weather. with twin screws of the large archimedean type the propelling apparatus of a turbine steamer will--if the screws are left open--be objected to on the ground of liability to foul or to get broken in crowded fairways. hence will arise a demand for accommodation for each screw in a tube forming part of the lower hull itself and open at the side for the taking in of water, while the stern part is equally free. in this way there is evolved a kind of compromise between the two principles of marine propulsion, by a screw and by a jet of water thrown to sternward. the water-jet is already very successfully employed for the propulsion of steam lifeboats in which, owing to the danger of fouling the life-saving and other tackle, an open screw is objectionable. the final extermination of the sailing ship is popularly expected as one of the first developments of the twentieth century in maritime traffic. steam, which for oversea trade made its entrance cautiously in the shape of a mere auxiliary to sail power, had taken up a much more self-assertive position long before the close of the nineteenth century, and has driven its former ally almost out of the field in large departments of the shipping industry. yet a curious and interesting counter movement is now taking place on the pacific coast of america, as well as among the south sea islands and in several other places where coal is exceptionally dear. trading schooners and barques used in these localities are often fitted with petroleum oil engines, which enable them to continue their voyages during calm or adverse weather. for the owners of the smaller grade of craft it was a material point in recommendation of this movement that, having no boiler or other parts liable to explode and wreck the vessel, an oil engine may be worked without the attendance of a certificated engineer. as soon as this legal question was settled a considerable impetus was given to the extension of the auxiliary principle for sailing ships. the shorter duration of the average voyage made by the sail-and-oil power vessels had the effect of enabling shippers to realise upon the goods carried more speedily than would have been possible under the old system of sail-power alone. it is already found that in the matter of economy of working, including interest on cost of vessel and cargo, these oil-auxiliary ships can well hold their own against the ordinary steam cargo slave. up to a certain point, the policy of relying upon steam entirely, unaided by any natural cheap source of power, has been successful; but the rate of speed which the best types of marine engines impart to this kind of vessel is strictly limited, owing to considerations of the enormous increase of fuel-consumption after passing the twelve or fourteen mile grade. for ocean greyhounds carrying mails and passengers the prime necessity of high speed has to a large extent obliterated any such separating line between waste and economy. it is, however, a mistake to imagine that the cargo steamer of the future will be in any sense a replica of the mail-boat of to-day. the opposition presented by the water to the passage of a vessel increases by leaps and bounds as soon as the rate now adopted by the cargo steamer is passed, and thus presents a natural barrier beyond which it will not be economically feasible to advance much further. if then we recognise clearly that steam cargo transport across the ocean can only be done remuneratively at about one half the speed now attained by the very fastest mail-boats, we shall soon perceive also that the chances of the auxiliary principle, if wisely introduced, placing the "sailer" on a level with the cargo ship worked by steam alone, are by no means hopeless. a type of vessel which can be trusted to make some ten or twelve knots regularly, and which can also take advantage of the power of the wind whenever it is in its favour, must inevitably possess a material advantage over the steam cargo slave in economy of working, while making almost the same average passages as its rival. then, also, the sailless cargo slave, in the keen competition that must arise, will be fitted with such appliances as human ingenuity can in future devise, or has already tentatively suggested, for invoking the aid of natural powers in order to supplement the steam-engine and effect a saving in fuel. one of these will no doubt be the adoption of the heavy pendulum with universal joint movement in a special hold of the vessel so connected with an air-compression plant that its movements may continually work to fill a reservoir of air at a high pressure. the marine engines of the ordinary type will then be adapted to work with compressed air, and the true steam-engine itself will be used for operating an air compressor on the system adopted in mines. the pendulum apparatus, of course, is really a device for enabling a vessel to derive, from the power of the waves which raise her and roll her, an impetus in the desired direction of her course. inventions of this description will at first be only very cautiously and partially adopted, because if there is one thing which the master mariner fears more than another it is any heavy moving weight in the hold, the motions of which during a storm might possibly become uncontrollable. when steam was first applied to the propulsion of ships the common argument against it was that any machine worked by steam and having sufficient power to propel a vessel would also develop so much vibration as to pull her to pieces--to say nothing of the risk of having her hull shattered at one fell blow by the explosion of the steam boiler. these undoubtedly are dangers which have to be provided against, and probably the occasional lack of care has been the cause of many an unreported loss, as well as of recorded mishaps from broken tail-shafts and screws, or from explosions far out at sea. the air-compressing pendulum will no doubt be constructed on such a principle that, whenever there is any danger of its weighty movements getting beyond control or doing any damage to the vessel, its force can be instantly removed at will, and the apparatus can be brought to a standstill by the application of friction brakes and other means. the weight may be made up of comparatively small pigs of iron, which, through the opening of a valve controlled from the deck by the stem of the pendulum, can be let fall out into the hold separately. the swinging framework would then be steadied by the friction brake gripping it gradually. auxiliary machinery of this class can only be made use of, as already indicated, to a certain strictly limited extent, owing to the tendency of any swinging weight in a vessel to aggravate the rolling during heavy weather. some tentative schemes have been put forward for tapping a source of wave-power by providing a vessel with flippers, resting upon the surface of the water outside her hull, and actuating suitable internal machinery with the object of propulsion. a certain amount of encouragement has been given by the performances of small craft fitted in this way; but it is objected by sea-faring men that the behaviour of a large vessel, encumbered with outlying parts moving on the waves independently, would probably be very erratic during a storm and would endanger the safety of the ship itself. no kind of floating appendage, moving independently of the vessel, could exercise any actual force by the uprising of a wave in lifting it without being to some extent sunk in the water; and, accordingly, when the waves were running high there would be imminent risk that heavy volumes of water would get upon the apparatus and prevent the ship from righting itself. many of the schemes that have been put forward, by patent and otherwise, for the automatic propulsion of ships have entirely failed to commend themselves by reason of their taking little or no account of the behaviour of a ship, fitted with the proposed inventions, during very rough and trying weather. the swinging pendulum, with connected apparatus for compressing air or, perhaps, for generating the electric current, seems to be the most controllable and therefore the safest of the various types of apparatus which are applicable to the utilisation of wave-power for propulsion. in the construction of connecting machinery by which the movements of a pendulum hanging up from a universal joint may be transmitted to wheels or pistons operating compressors or dynamos, it is necessary to transform all motions passing in any direction through the spherical or bowl-shaped figure traced out by the end of the pendulum in the course of its swinging. this may be effected, for instance, in the case of a pendulum working air-compressors, by mounting the latter on bearings like those of the gun-carriage in a field piece, and having two of them operating one at right angles to the other. the rods which carry the air-compressing pistons are then connected to the end of the pendulum by universal joints, and the parts which have been likened to a gun-carriage are fixed on pivots so as to be able to move horizontally. air-tight joints in the pipes which lead to the compressed air reservoir are placed in the bearings of this mounting. we thus have the same kind of provision for taking advantage of a universal movement in space as is made in solid geometry by three co-ordinates at right angles to one another for measuring such movements. another plan is to have the pendulum swung in a strong steel collar and carrying at its end three or more air-compressing pumps set radially, with the piston-rods thrust outwards by a strong spring on each, but with the ends perfectly free from any attachment, yet fitted with a buffer or wheel. as the pendulum moves it throws one or more of these piston-rod ends into contact with the inner surface of the ring, driving it into the compressing pump. at the top of the pendulum there is a double or universal pipe-joint through which the air under pressure is driven to the reservoir, and by which the apparatus is also hung. this is the simplest, and in some respects the best, form. a very simple type of the wave-power motor as applied to marine propulsion is based upon an idea taken from the mode of progression adopted by certain crustaceans, namely the possession of the means for drawing in and rapidly ejecting the water. something of the kind will most probably be made available for assisting in the propulsion of sailing ships which are not furnished with machinery of any type suitable for the driving of a screw. a very much simplified form of the pendulous or rocking weight is applicable in this case. a considerable amount of cargo is stowed away in an inner hull, taking the shape of what is practically a gigantic cradle rocking upon semicircular lines of railway iron laid down in the form of ribs of the ship. to the sides of these large rocking receptacles are connected the rods carrying, at their other ends, the pistons of large force-pumps which draw the water in at one stroke and force it out to sternwards, below the water line, at the other. in this arrangement it is obvious that only the "roll" and not the "pitch" of the vessel can be utilised as the medium through which to obtain propulsive force. but it is probable that fully eighty per cent. of the movements of a vessel during a long voyage--as indicated, say, by the direction and sweep of its mast-heads--consists of the roll. each ton of goods moved through a vertical distance of one foot in relation to the hull of the vessel, has in it the potentiality of developing, when fourteen or fifteen movements occur per minute, about one horse-power. a cradle containing tons, as may therefore be imagined, can be made to afford very material assistance in helping forward a sailing ship during a calm. in such tantalising weather the "ground-swell" of the ocean usually carries past a becalmed vessel more waste energy than is ever utilised by its sails in the briskest and most propitious breeze. for sailing ships especially, the rocking form of wave-motor as an aid to propulsion will be recommended on account of the fact that when the weather is "on the beam" both of its sources of power can be kept in full use. the sailing vessel must tack at any rate with the object of giving its sail power a fair chance, and thus, when it has not a fair "wind that follows free," it must always seek to get the breeze on its beam, and therefore usually the swell must be taking it sideways. it would be only on rare occasions that a sailing vessel, if furnished with rocking gear for using the wave-power, would be set to go nearer to the teeth of the wind than she would under present conditions of using sail-power alone. the advantage of the wave-power, however, would be seen mainly during the calm and desultory weather which has virtually been the means of forcing sail-power to resign its supremacy to steam. for checking the rocker in time of heavy weather special appliances are necessary, which, of course, must be easily operated from the deck. wedge-shaped pieces with rails attached may be driven down by screws upon the sides of the vessel, thus having the effect of gradually narrowing the amplitude of the rocking motion until a condition of stability with reference to the hull has been attained. in the building of steel ships, as well as in the construction of bridges and other erections demanding much metal-work, great economies will be introduced by the reduction of the extent to which riveting will be required when the full advantages of hydraulic pressure are realised. the plates used in the building of a ship will be "knocked-up" at one side and split at the other, with the object of making joints without the need for using rivets to anything like the extent at present required. in putting the plates thus treated together to form the hull of a vessel the swollen side of one plate is inserted between the split portions of another and the latter parts are then clamped down by heavy hydraulic pressure. this important principle is already successfully used in the making of rivetless pipes, and its application to ships and bridges will be only a matter of a comparatively short time. through this reform, and the further use of steel ribs for imparting strength and thus admitting of the employment of thinner steel plates for the actual shell, the cost of shipbuilding will be very greatly reduced. hoisting and unloading machines will play a notable part in minimising the expenses of handling goods carried by sea. the grain-elevator system is only the beginning of a revolution in this department which will not end until the loading and unloading of ships have become almost entirely the work of machinery. the principle of the miner's tool known as the "sand-auger" may prove itself very useful in this connection. from a heap of tailings the miner can select a sample, by boring into it with a thin tube, inside of which revolves a shaft carrying at its end a flat steel rotary scoop. the auger, after working its way to the bottom of the heap, is raised, and, of course, it contains a fair sample of the sand at all depths from the top downwards. on a somewhat similar principle the unloading of ships laden with grain, ore, coal, and all other articles which can be handled in bulk and divided, will be carried out by machines which, by rotary action, will work their way down to the bottom of the hull and will then be elevated by powerful lifting cranes. for other classes of goods permanent packages and tramways will be provided in each ship, and trucks will be supplied at the wharf. for coastal passages across shallow but rough water like the english channel, the services of moving bridges will be called into requisition. one of these has been at work at st. malo on the french coast opposite jersey, and another was more recently constructed on the english coast near brighton. for the longer and much more important service across the channel submarine rails may be laid down as in the cases mentioned, but in addition it will be necessary to provide for static stability by fixing a flounder-shaped pontoon just below the greatest depth of wave disturbance, and just sufficient in buoyancy to take the great bulk of the weight of the structure off the rails. in this way passengers may be conveyed across straits like the channel without the discomforts of sea-sickness. the stoking difficulties on large ocean-going steamers have become so acute that they now suggest the conclusion that, notwithstanding repeated failures, a really effective mechanical stoker will be so imperatively called for as to enforce the adoption of any reasonably good device. the heat, grime, and general misery of the stoke-hole have become so deterrent that the difficulty of securing men to undertake the work grows greater year by year, and in recruiting the ranks of the stokers resort had to be had more and more to those unfortunate men whose principal motive for labour is the insatiable desire for a drinking bout. on the occasions of several shipwrecks in the latter part of the nineteenth century disquieting revelations took place showing how savagely bitter was the feeling of the stoke-hole towards the first saloon. as soon as the mechanical fuel-shifter has been adopted, and the boilers have been properly insulated in order to prevent the overheating of the stoke-hole, the stoker will be raised to the rank of a secondary engineer, and his work will cease to be looked upon as in any sense degrading. on the cargo-slave steamer and sailer a similar social revolution will be brought about by the amelioration of the conditions under which the men live and work. already some owners and masters have begun to mitigate, to a certain extent, the embargo which the choice of a sea-faring life has in times past been understood to place upon married men. positions are found for women as stewardesses and in other capacities, and it is coming to be increasingly recognised that there is a large amount of women's work to be done on board a ship. by and by, when it is found that the best and steadiest men can be secured by making some little concessions to their desire for a settled life and their objections to the crimp and the "girl at every port," and all the other squalid accessories so generally attached in the popular mind to the seaman's career, there will be a serious effort on the part of owners to remodel the community on board of a ship on the lines of a village. there will be the "ship's shop" and the "ship's school," the "ship's church" and various other institutions and societies. thus in the twentieth century the sea will no longer be regarded, to the same extent as in the past, as the refuge for the ne'er-do-well of the land-living populace; and this, more than perhaps anything else, will help to render travelling by the great ocean highways safe and comfortable. it is a common complaint on the part of owners that by far the larger part of maritime disasters are directly traceable to misconduct or neglect of duty on the part of masters, officers or crew; but they have the remedy in their own hands. chapter vii. agriculture. muscular power still carries out all the most laborious work of the farm and of the garden--work which, of course, consists, in the main, of turning the land over and breaking up the sods. in the operations of ploughing, harrowing, rolling, and so forth, the agency almost exclusively employed is the muscular power of the horse guided by man-power; with the accompaniment of a very large and exhausting expenditure of muscular effort on the part of the farmer or farm labourer. on the fruit and vegetable garden the great preponderance of the power usefully exercised must, under existing conditions, come direct from the muscles of men. spade and plough represent the badges of the rural workers' servitude, and to rescue the country residents from this old-world bondage must be one of the chief objects to which invention will in the near future apply itself. the miner has to a very large extent escaped from the thraldom of mere brute-work, or hardening muscular effort. he drills the holes in the face of the rock at which he is working by means of compressed air or power conveyed by the electric current; and then he performs the work of breaking it down by the agency of dynamite or some other high explosive. much heavy bodily labour, no doubt, remains to be done by some classes of workers in mines; but the significance of the march of improvement is shown by the fact that a larger and larger proportion of those who work under the surface of the ground, or in ore-reduction works, consists of men who are gradually being enrolled among the ranks of the more highly skilled and intelligent workers, whose duty it is to understand and to superintend pieces of mechanism driven by mechanical power. in farming and horticulture the field of labour is not so narrowly localised as it is in mining. work representing an expenditure of hundreds of thousands of pounds may be carried out in mines whose area does not exceed two or three acres; and it is therefore highly renumerative to concentrate mechanical power upon such enterprises in the most up-to-date machinery. but the farmer ranges from side to side of his wide fields, covering hundreds, or even thousands, of acres with his operations. he is better situated than the miner in respect of the economical and healthy application of horse-power, but far worse in regard to the immediate possibilities of steam-power and electrically-conducted energy. no one can feed draught stock more cheaply than he, and no one can secure able-bodied men to work from sunrise till evening at a lower wage. yet the course of industrial evolution, which has made so much progress in the mine and the factory, must very soon powerfully affect agriculture. already, in farming districts contiguous to unlimited supplies of cheap power from waterfalls, schemes have been set on foot for the supply of power on co-operative principles to the farmers of fertile land in america, germany, france, and great britain. one necessity which will most materially aid in spurring forward the movement for the distribution of power for rural work is the requirement of special means for lifting water for irrigation, more particularly in those places where good land lies very close to the area that is naturally irrigable, by some scheme already in operation but just a little too high. here it is seen at once that power means fertility and consequent wealth, while the lack of it--if the climate be really dry, as in the pacific states of america--means loss and dearth. but the presence of a source of power which can easily be shifted about from place to place on the farm for the purpose of watering the ground must very soon suggest the applicability of the same mechanical energy to the digging or ploughing of the soil. it is from this direction, rather than from the wide introduction of steam-ploughs and diggers, that the first great impetus to the employment of mechanical power on the farm may be looked for. the steam-plough, no doubt, has before it a future full of usefulness; and yet the slow progress that has been made by it during a quarter of a century suggests that, in its present form--that is to say while built on lines imitating the locomotive and the traction-engine--it cannot very successfully challenge the plough drawn by horse-power. more probable is it--as has already been indicated--that the analogy of the rock-drill in mining work will be followed. the farmer will use an implement much smaller and handier than a movable steam-engine, but supplied with power from a central station, either on his own land or in some place maintained by co-operative or public agency. just as the miner pounds away at the rock by means of compressed air or electricity, brought to his hands through a pipe or a wire, so the farmer will work his land by spades or ploughs by the same kind of mechanical power. the advantages of electrical transmission of energy will greatly favour this kind of installation on the farm, as compared with any other method of distribution which is as yet in sight. for the ploughing of a field by the electric plough a cable will be required capable of being stretched along one side of the area to be worked. on this will run loosely a link or wheel connected with another wire wound upon a drum carried on the plough and paid out as the latter proceeds across the field. for different grades of land, of course, different modes of working are advisable, the ordinary plough of a multifurrow pattern, with stump-jumping springs or weights, being used for land which is not too heavy or clayey; a disc plough or harrow being applicable to light, well-worked ground; and the mechanical spade or fork-digger--reciprocating in its motion very much like the rock-drill--having its special sphere of usefulness in wet and heavy land. in any case a wide, gripping wheel is required in front to carry the machine forward and to turn it on reaching the end of the furrow. the wire-wound drum is actuated by a spring which tends to keep it constantly wound up, and when the plough has turned and is heading again towards the cable at the side of the field, this drum automatically winds up the wire. so also when each pair of furrows has been completed, the supply-wire is automatically shifted along upon the fixed cable to a position suitable for the next pair. not only in the working, but also in the manuring, of the soil the electric current will play an important part in the revolution in agriculture. the fixing of the nitrogen from the atmosphere in order to form nitrates available as manure depends, from the physical point of view, upon the creation of a sufficient heat to set fire to it. the economic bearings of this fact upon the future of agriculture, especially in its relation to wheat-growing, seemed so important to sir william crookes that he made the subject the principal topic of his presidential address before the british association in . the feasibility of the electrical mode of fixing atmospheric nitrogen for plant-food has been demonstrated by eminent electricians, the famous hungarian inventor, nikola tesla, being among the foremost. the electric furnace is just as readily applicable for forcing the combination of an intractable element, such as nitrogen, with other materials suitable for forming a manurial base, as it is for making calcium carbide by bringing about the union of two such unsociable constituents as lime and carbon. cheap power is, in this view, the great essential for economically enriching the soil, as well as for turning it over and preparing it for the reception of seed. nor is the fact a matter of slight importance that this power is specially demanded for the production of an electric current for heating purposes, because the transmission of such a current over long distances to the places at which the manurial product is required will save the cost of much transport of heavy material. the agricultural chemist and the microbiologist of the latter end of the nineteenth century have laid considerable stress upon the prospects of using the minute organisms which attach themselves to the roots of some plants--particularly those of the leguminaceæ--as the means of fixing the nitrogen of the atmosphere, and rendering it available for the plant-food of cereals which are not endowed with the faculty of encouraging those bacteria which fix nitrogen. high hopes have been based upon the prospects of inoculating the soil over wide areas of land with small quantities of sandy loam, taken from patches cultivated for leguminous plants which have been permitted to run to seed, thus multiplying the nitrogen-fixing bacteria enormously. the main idea has been to encourage the rapid production of these minute organisms in places where they may be specially useful, but in which they do not find a particularly congenial breeding ground. the hope that any striking revolution may be brought about in the practice of agriculture by a device of this kind must be viewed in the light of the fact that, while the scientists of the nineteenth century have demonstrated, partially at least, the true reason for the beneficial effects of growing leguminous plants upon soil intended to be afterwards laid down in cereals, they were not by any means the first to observe the fact that such benefits accrued from the practice indicated. several references in the writings of ancient greek and latin poets prove definitely that the good results of a rotation of crops, regulated by the introduction of leguminous plants at certain stages, were empirically understood. in that more primitive process of reasoning which proceeds upon the assumption _post hoc, ergo propter hoc_, the ancient agriculturist was a past-master, and the chance of gleaning something valuable from the field of common observation over which he has trod is not very great. modern improvements in agriculture will probably be, in the main, such as are based upon fundamental processes unknown to the ancients. by the word "processes" it is intended to indicate not those methods the scientific reasons for which were understood--for these in ancient times were very few--but simply those which from long experience were noticed to be beneficial. good husbandry was in olden times clearly understood to include the practice of the rotation of crops, and the beneficial results to be expected from the introduction of those crops which are now discovered to act as hosts to the microbes which fix atmospheric nitrogen were not only observed, but insisted upon. from a scientific point of view this concurrence of the results of ancient and of modern observation may only serve to render the bacteriology of the soil more interesting; but, from the standpoint of an estimate of the practical openings for agriculture improvements in the near future, it greatly dwarfs the prospect of any epoch-making change actually founded upon the principle of the rotation of crops. it is, indeed, conceivable that fresh light on the life habits of the minute organisms of the soil may lead to practical results quite new; but hardly any such light is yet within the inventor's field of vision. this view of the limited prospects of practical microbiology for the fixing of nitrogen in plant-food was corroborated by sir william crookes in the presidential address already cited. he said that "practice has for a very long time been ahead of science in respect of this department of husbandry". for ages what is known as the four course rotation had been practised, the crops following one another in this order--turnips, barley, clover and wheat--a sequence which was popular more than two thousand years ago. his summing up of the position was to the effect that "our present knowledge leads to the conclusion that the much more frequent growth of clover on the same land, even with successful microbe-seeding and proper mineral supplies, would be attended with uncertainties and difficulties, because the land soon becomes what is called clover-sick, and turns barren". in regard to any practical application of microbe-seeding, the farmers of the united kingdom at the end of the nineteenth century had not, in the opinion of this eminent chemist, reached even the experimental stage, although on the continent there had been some extension of microbe cultivation. to this it may fairly be added that some of the attention attracted to the subject on the continent has been due to the natural tendency of the german mind to discover fine differences between things which are not radically distinct. under the title of "microbe-cultivation" the long-familiar practice of the rotation of crops may to some continental enthusiasts seem to be quite an innovation! in the electrical manures-factory the operations will be simply an enlargement of laboratory experiments which have been familiar to the chemist for many years. moist air, kept damp by steam, is traversed by strong electric sparks from an induction coil inside of a bottle or other liquor-tight receiver, and in a short time it is found that in the bottom of this receptacle a liquid has accumulated which, on being tested, proves to be nitric acid. there is also present a small quantity of ammonia from the atmosphere. nitrate of ammonia thus formed would in itself be a manure; but, of course, on the large scale other nitrates will be formed by mixing the acid with cheap alkalies which are abundant in nature, soda from common salt, and lime from limestone. in this process the excessive heat of the electric discharge really raises the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere to a point of temperature at which chemical union is forced; or, in other words, the nitrogen is compelled to burn and to join in chemical combination with the oxygen with which formerly it was only in mechanical mixture. when nitrogen is burning, its flame is not in itself hot enough to ignite contiguous volumes of the same element;--otherwise indeed our atmosphere, after a discharge of lightning, would burn itself out!--but the continuance of an electric discharge forces into combination just a proportionate quantity of nitrogen. practically, therefore, manure in the future will mean electricity, and therefore power; so that cheap sources of energy are of the greatest importance to the farmer. with dynamos driven by steam-engines, the price of electrically-manufactured nitrate of soda would, according to the estimate of sir william crookes, be £ per ton, but at niagara, where water power is very cheap, not more than £ per ton. thus it will be seen that the cheapness of power due to the presence of the waterfall makes such a difference in the economic aspects of the problem of the electrical manufacture of manurial nitrates as to reduce the price to less than one-fifth! it must be remembered that at the close of the nineteenth century the electric installation at niagara is by very many persons looked upon as being in itself in the nature of an experiment, but at any rate there seems to be no room for doubt that the cost of natural power for electrical installations will very soon be materially reduced. even at the price quoted, namely £ per ton, the cost of nitrate of soda made with electrically combined atmospheric nitrogen compares very favourably with commercial nitrates as now imported for agriculture purposes. "chili nitrate," in fact, is about fifty per cent. dearer. when wave-power and other forms of the stored energy of the wind have been properly harnessed in the service of mankind, the region around niagara will only be one of thousands of localities at which nitrogenous manures can be manufactured electrically at a price far below the present cost of natural deposits of nitrate of soda. from the power stations all around the coasts, as well as from those on waterfalls and windy heights among the mountains, electric cables will be employed to convey the current for fixing the nitrogen of the air at places where the manures are most wanted. the rediscovery of the art of irrigation is one of the distinguishing features of modern industrial progress in agriculture. extensive ruins and other remains in assyria, egypt, india, china and central america prove beyond question that irrigation played a vastly more important part in the industrial life of the ancients than it does in that of modern mankind. this is true in spite of the fact that power and dominion ultimately fell to the lot of those races which originally dwelt in colder and more hilly or thickly-wooded regions, where the instincts of hunting and of warfare were naturally developed, so that, by degrees, the peoples who understood irrigation fell under the sway of those who neither needed nor appreciated it. in the long interval vast forests have been cleared away and the warlike habits of the northern and mountainous races have been greatly modified, but manufacturing progress among them has enabled them to perpetuate the power originally secured by the bow and the spear. the irrigating races of mankind are now held in fear of the modern weapons which are the products of the iron and steel industries, just as they were thousands of years ago terrorised by the inroads of the wild hunting men from the north. but the future of agriculture will very largely belong to a class of men who will combine in themselves the best attributes of the irrigationist and the man who knows how to use the iron weapon and the iron implement. as the manufacturing supremacy of the north becomes more and more assured by reason of the superior healthiness of a climate encouraging activity of muscle and brain, so the agricultural prospects of the warmer regions of the earth's surface will be improved by the comparative immunity of plant and of animal life from disease in a dry atmosphere. sheep, cattle and horses thrive far better in a climate having but a scanty rainfall than in one having an abundance of wet; and so, also, does the wheat plant when the limited rains happen to be timed to suit its growth, and the best kinds of fruit trees when the same conditions prevail. all this points to an immense recrudescence of irrigation in the near future. already the californians and other americans of the pacific slope have demonstrated that irrigation is a practice fully as well suited to the requirements of a thoroughly up-to-date people as it has been for long ages to those of the "unchanging east". but here again the question of cheap power obtrudes itself. the chinese, hindoos and egyptians have long ago passed the stage at which the limited areas which were irrigable by gravitation, without advanced methods of engineering, have been occupied; and the lifting of water for the supplying of their paddy fields has been for thousands of years a laborious occupation for the poorest and most degraded of the rural population. in a system of civilisation in which transport costs so little as it does in railway and steam-ship freights, the patches of territory which can be irrigated by water brought by gravitation from the hills or from the upper reaches of rivers are comparatively easy of access to a market. this fact retards the advent of the time when colossal installations for the throwing of water upon the land will be demanded. when that epoch arrives, as it assuredly will before the first half of the twentieth century has been nearly past, the pumping plants devoted to the purposes of irrigation will present as great a contrast to the lifting appliances of the east as does a fully loaded freight train or a mammoth steam cargo-slave to a coolie carrier. at the same time there must inevitably be a great extension of the useful purposes to which small motors can be applied in irrigation. year by year the importance of the sprinkler, not only for ornamental grounds such as lawns and flower-beds, but also for the vegetable patch and the fruit garden, becomes more apparent, and efforts are being made towards the enlargement of the arms of sprinkling contrivances to such an extent as to enable them to throw a fine shower of water over a very large area of ground. sometimes a windmill is used for pumping river or well-water into high tanks from which it descends by gravitation into the sprinklers, the latter being operated by the power of the liquid as it descends. this mode of working is convenient in many cases; but a more important, because a more widely applicable, method in the future will be that in which the wind-motor not only lifts the water, but scatters it around in the same operation. long helical-shaped screws, horizontally fixed between uprights or set on a swivel on a single high tower, can be used for loading the breeze with a finely divided shower of water and thus projecting the moisture to very long distances. a windmill of the ordinary pattern, as used for gardens, may be fitted with a long perforated pipe, supported by wire guys instead of a vane, a connection being made by a water-tight swivel-joint between this pipe and that which carries the liquid from the pump. in this way every stroke of the machine sends innumerable jets of water out upon the wind, to be carried far afield. gardening properties in comparatively dry climates, fitted with machines of this description, can be laid out in different zones of cultivation, determined according to the prevailing directions of the wind and the consequent distribution of the water supply. thus if the wind most frequently blows from the west the plants which require the most water must be laid out at the eastern side, not too far from the sprinkler. facilities for shutting off the supply of spray at will are, of course, very necessary. the system of watering founded on this principle depends upon the assumption that if the gardener or the farmer could always turn on the rain when he has a fairly good wind he would never lack for seasonable moisture to nourish his crops. this will be found in practice to apply correctly to the great majority of food plants. in the dry climates, which are so eminently healthy for cereals, "the early and the latter rains," as referred to in scripture, are both needed, and one of the most important applications of cheap power will be directed to supplementing the natural supply either at one end or at the other. the "tree-doctor" will be a personage of increasing importance in the rural economy of the twentieth century. he is already well in sight; but for lack of capital and of a due appreciation of the value of his services, he occupies as yet but a comparatively subordinate position. fruits, which are nature's most elaborately worked-up edible products, must come more and more into favour as the complement to the seed food represented by bread. as the demand increases it will be more clearly seen that an enormous waste of labour is involved in the culture of an orchard unless its trees are kept in perfect health. at the same time the law of specialization must operate to set aside the tree-doctor to his separate duties, just as the physician and the veterinary surgeon already find their own distinctive spheres of work. the apparatus required for the thorough eradication of disease in fruit trees will be too expensive for the average grower to find any advantage in buying it for use only a few times during the year; but the tree-doctor, with his gangs of men, will be able to keep his special appliances at work nearly all the year round. for the destruction of almost all classes of fruit-pests, the only really complete method now in sight is the application of a poisonous gas, such as hydrocyanic acid, which is retained by means of a gas-proof tent pitched around each tree. no kind of a spray or wash can penetrate between bark and stem or into the cavities on fruit so well as a gaseous insecticide which permeates the whole of the air within the included space. but the gas-tight tent system of fumigation is as yet only in its infancy, and its growth and development will greatly help to place the fruit-growing industry on a new basis, and to bring the best kinds of fruit within the reach of the middle classes, the artisans, and ultimately even the very poor. just as wheaten bread from being a luxury reserved for the rich has become the staple of food for all grades of society, so fruits which are now commonly regarded as an indulgence, although a very desirable addition to the food of the well-to-do, must, in a short time, become practically a necessity to the great mass of the people generally. the waste of effort and of wealth involved in planting trees and assiduously cultivating the soil for the growth of poor crops decimated by disease is the prime cause of the dearness of fruit. if, therefore, it be true that the fruit diet is one which is destined to greatly improve the average health of civilised mankind, it is obvious that the tree-doctor will act indirectly as the physician for human ailments. when this fact has been fully realised the public estimation in which economic entomology and kindred sciences are held will rise very appreciably, and the capital invested in complete apparatus for fighting disease in tree life will be enormously increased. very long tents, capable of covering not merely one tree each, but of including continuous rows stretching perhaps from end to end of a large orchard, will become practically essential for up-to-date fruit-culture. an elongated tent of this description, covering a row of trees, may be filled with fumes from a position at the end of the row, where a generating plant on a trolley may be situated. at the opposite end another trolley is stationed, and each movable vehicle carries an upright mast or trestle for the support of the strong cable which passes along the row over the tops of the trees and is stretched taut by suitable contrivances. attached to this cable is a flexible tube containing a number of apertures and connected at the generating station with the small furnace or fumigating box from which the poisonous gases emanate. along the ground at each side of the row are stretched two thinner wires or cables which hold the long tent securely in position. the method of shifting from one row to another is very simple. both trolleys are moved into their new positions at the two ends of a fresh row, the fastenings of the tent at the ground on the further side having been released, so that the flap of the tent on that side is dragged over the tops of the trees and may then be drawn over the top cable and down upon the other side. seen from the end, the movements of the tent thus resemble those of a double-hinged trestle in the form of an inverted v which advances by having one leg flung over the other. for this arrangement of a fumigating tent it is best that the top cable should consist of a double wire, the fabric of the tent itself being gripped between the two wires, and a flexible tube being attached to each. as progress is made from one row to another through the drawing of one flap over the other, it is obvious that the tent turns inside out at each step, and if only one cable and one tube were used, it would be difficult to avoid permitting the gas to escape into the outer air at one stage or another. but when the tubes are duplicated in the manner described, there is always one which is actually within the tent no matter what position the latter may be in. it is then only necessary that the connection with the generating apparatus at the end of the row should be made after each movement with the tube which is inside the tent. for very long rows of trees the top cable needs to be supported by intermediate trestles besides the uprights at the ends. the gas and air-proof tent can be used for various other purposes besides those of killing pests on fruit trees. one of the regular tasks of the tree-doctor will be connected with the artificial fertilisation of trees on the wholesale scale and for a purpose such as this it is necessary that the trees to be operated upon shall not be open to the outside atmosphere, but that the pollen dust, with which the air inside the tent is to be laden, shall be strictly confined during a stated period of time. those methods of fertilisation, with which the flower-gardener has in recent years worked such wonders, can undoubtedly be utilised for many objects besides those of the variation of form and hue in ornamental plants. chapter viii. mining. exploratory telegraphy seems likely to claim a position in the twentieth century economics of mining, its particular rôle being to aid in the determination of the "strike" of mineral-bearing lodes. one main reason for this conclusion consists in the fact that the formations which carry metalliferous ores are nearly always more moist than the surrounding country, and are therefore better conductors of the electrical current. indeed there is good ground for the belief that this moistness of the fissures and lodes in which metals chiefly occur has been in part the original cause of the deposition of those metals from their aqueous solutions percolating along the routes in which gravitation carries them. in the volumes of _nature_ for and will be found communications in which the present writer has set forth some of the arguments tending to strengthen the hypothesis that earth-currents of electricity exercise an appreciable influence in determining the occurrence of gold and silver, and that they have probably been to some extent instrumental in settling the distribution of other metals. the existence of currents of electricity passing through the earth's crust and on its surface along the lines of least resistance has long been an established fact. experiments conducted at harvard, u.s.a., by professor trowbridge have proved beyond a doubt that, by means of such delicate apparatus as the telephone and microphone, it is possible for the observer to state in which direction, from a given point, the best line of conductivity runs. under certain conditions the return current is so materially facilitated when brought along the line of a watercourse or a moist patch of the earth's crust, that the words heard through a telephone are distinctly more audible than they are at a similar distance when there is no moist return circuit. deflections of the compass, due to the passing of earth-currents along the natural lines of conductivity in the soil or the rocks, are so frequently noticed as to be a source of calculation to the scientific surveyor and astronomer. it can thus be shown not only that definite lines of least electrical resistance exist in the earth, but also that natural currents of greater or less strength are almost constantly passing along these lines. some of the curious and puzzling empirical rules gained from the life-long experience of miners in regard to the varying richness and poorness of mineral lodes, according to the directions in which they strike--whether north, south, east or west--may very probably be explained, and to some extent justified, by the fuller light which science may throw upon the conditions determining the action of earth-currents in producing results similar to those of electro deposition. if, in a given region of a mineral-bearing country, the geological formation is such as to lend itself to the easy conduction of currents in one direction rather than in another, the phenomenon referred to may perhaps be partially explained. but, on the other hand, the origin of the generating force which sets the currents in motion must first be studied before the true conditions determining their direction can be understood. in other words, much that is now obscure, including the true origin of the earth's magnetism, must be to some extent cleared up before the reasons for the seemingly erratic strike of earth-currents and of richness in mineral lodes can be fully explained. practice, however, may here get some distance ahead of science, and may indeed lend some assistance to the latter by providing empirical data upon which it may proceed. when once it is clearly seen that by delicate electrical instruments, such as the telephone, the microphone and the coherer as used in wireless telegraphy, the line of least resistance on any given area of the earth's surface or any given piece of its crust may be determined, the bearing of that fact in showing the best lines of moisture and therefore the likeliest lines for mineral lodes will soon be recognised in a very practical manner. no class of men is keener or more enterprising in its applications of the latest practical science to the getting of money than mining speculators. nor have they at all missed the significance of moist bands occurring in any underground workings as a very favourable augury for the close approach of highly mineralised lodes. if, then, moisture be favourable, first to the presence of mineral-bearing country and secondly to the conductivity of electrical lines, it is obvious that there is a hopeful field for the exercise of ingenuity in bringing the one into a practical relation to the other. the occult scientific reasons for the connection may not be understood; but it is sufficient for practical purposes to know that, in a certain line from the surface outcropping of a mineral lode, there has been given a demonstration of less electrical resistance along that line than is experienced in any other direction; also to know that such a line of least resistance is proved to have been, in almost innumerable instances, coincident with the best line of mineral-bearing country. the case is similar to that of the rotation of crops in its relation to scientific microbiology. the art of mining may get ahead of the science of physiography in respect of earth-currents and lines of least resistance, as showing where mineral lodes may be expected. yet there is no doubt whatever that science will not in the one case lag so far behind as it has done in the other. the first notable service rendered by systems of the kind indicated will no doubt be in connection with the rediscovery of very valuable lodes which have been followed up for certain distances and then lost. in an instance of this description much fruitless exploration drives, winzes and "jump-ups" may have been carried out in the surrounding country rock near the place where the lode last "cut out"; but, in the absence of anything to guide the mine manager and surveyor as to the direction which the search should take, nothing but loss has been involved in the quest. several properties in the same neighbourhood have, perhaps, been abandoned or suspended in operation owing to very similar causes. the whole group may perhaps have then been bought by an exploration company whose _modus operandi_ will be as follows: the terminal of the electrical exploration plant is fixed at the end of the lode where it gave out, or else immersed in the water of the shaft which is in connection with the lode system; and another similar terminal is fixed by turns in each shaft of the contiguous group. the electrical resistances offered to the return currents, or to the wireless vibrations, are then carefully measured; and the direction of the lost lode is taken to be that which shows the least resistance in proportion to the distance traversed. the work of carrying out such an investigation must of necessity be somewhat elaborate, because it may be necessary to connect in turn each shaft, as a centre, with every one of the others as subsidiaries. but the guidance afforded even of a negative character, resulting in the avoidance of useless cutting and blasting through heavy country, will prove invaluable. many matters will require attention, in following out such a line of practical investigation, which are to some extent foreign to the usual work of the mining engineer. for example, the conditions which determine the "short-circuiting" of an earth-current require to be carefully noted, because it would be fallacious to reason that because the line of least resistance lay in a certain direction, therefore an almost continuous lode would be found. moreover, the electrical method must only be relied upon as a guide when carefully checked by other considerations. other kinds of moist formations, both metalliferous and non-metalliferous, may influence the lines of least electrical resistance, besides those containing the particular metal which is being sought for. the water difficulty has enforced the abandonment of very many valuable mines in which the positions of the lodes are still well known. sunken riches lying beneath the sea in old spanish galleons have excited the cupidity and the ingenuity of speculators and engineers; but the total amount of wealth thus hidden away from view is a mere insignificant fraction of the value of the rich metalliferous lodes which lie below the water level in flooded mines. the point in depth at which the accumulation of the water renders further following of the lode impracticable may vary in different countries. in china, throughout whole provinces, there is hardly a mine to be found in which the efforts of the miners have not been absolutely paralyzed directly the water-level was reached. but in western lands, as well as in south africa and australia, the immense capacity of the pumps employed for keeping down the water has enabled comparatively wet ground to be worked to a very considerable depth. the limit, nevertheless, has been reached in many rich mining districts. pumps of the most approved type, and driven by the largest and most economical steam-engines, have done their best in the struggle against the difficulty; and yet the water has beaten them. rich as are the lodes which lie beneath the water, the mining engineer is compelled to confess that the metal value which they contain would not leave, after extraction, a sufficient margin to pay for the enormous cost of draining the shafts. in some instances, indeed, it remains exceedingly doubtful whether pumps of the largest capacity ever attained in any part of the world would cope with the task entailed in draining the abandoned shafts. the underground workings have practically tapped subterranean rivers which, to all intents and purposes, are inexhaustible. or it may be that the mine has penetrated into some hollow basin of impermeable strata filled only with porous material which is kept constantly saturated. to drain such a piece of country would mean practically the emptying of a lake. subaqueous mining is therefore one of the big problems which the mining engineer of the twentieth century must tackle. to a certain extent he will receive guidance in his difficult task from the experiences of those who have virtually undertaken submarine mining when in search of treasure lost in sunken ships. the two methods of pumping and of subaqueous mining will in some places be carried out conjointly. in such instances the work assigned to the pumping machinery will be to keep free of water those drives in which good bodies of ore were exposed when last profitable work was being carried on. all below that level will be permitted to fill with water, and the work of boring by means of compressed air, of blasting out the rock and of filling the trucks, will all be performed under the surface. for the shallower depths large tanks, open at the top, will be constructed and slung upon trucks run on rails along the lowest drives. practically this arrangement means that an iron shaft, closed at the sides and bottom, and movable on rails laid above the surface, will be employed to keep the water out. somewhat similar appliances have been found very useful in the operations for laying the foundations of bridges. the details requiring to be worked out for the successful working of subaqueous systems of mining are numerous and important. chief among these must be the needful provision for enabling the miner to see through strong glass windows near the bottom of the iron shaft, by the aid of electric lights slung in the water outside, and thus to estimate the correct positions at which to place his drills and his explosives. for this reason the work of the day must be systematically divided so that at stated intervals the clay and other materials held in suspension by the disturbed water may be allowed to settle and the water be made comparatively clear. specially constructed strainers for the mechanical filtration of the water near the ore face, and probably, also, chemical and other precipitates, will be largely resorted to for facilitating this important operation. beside each window will be provided strong flexible sleeves, terminating in gloves into which the miner can place his hands for the purpose of adjusting the various pieces of machinery required. beyond this, of course, every possible application of mechanical power operated from above will be resorted to, not only for drilling, but also for gripping and removing the shattered pieces of rock and ore resulting from the blasting operations. from the unwatered drive or tunnel downwards, the method of working as just described may be characterised as an underground application of the "open-cut system". no elaborate honeycombing of the country below the water-level will be economically possible as it is when working in dry rock. but then, again, it is becoming plain to many experts in mining that, in working downwards from the surface itself, the future of their industry offers a wide field for the extension of the open-cut system. in proportion as power becomes cheaper, the expense attendant upon the removal of clay, sand, and rock for the purpose of laying bare the cap of a lode at a moderate depth becomes less formidable when balanced against the economy introduced by methods which admit of the miner working in the open air, although at the bottom of a kind of deep quarry. while the system of close mining will hold its own in a very large number of localities, still there are other places where the increasing cheapness of power for working an open-cut and the coincident increase in the scarcity and cost of timber for supporting the ground, will gradually shift the balance of advantage on to the side of the open method. at the same time great improvements are now foreshadowed in regard to the modes of working mines by shafts and drives. some shafts will in future be worked practically as the vertical portions of tramways, having endless wire ropes to convey the trucks direct from the face or the stope to the reduction works, and thus an immense saving will be effected in the costs incidental to mining. from the neighbourhood of the place at which it has been won, the ore will be drawn in trucks, attached to the endless wire rope, first along the drive on the horizontal, and then up an incline increasing in sharpness till the shaft is reached, where the direction of motion becomes vertical. near the surface, again, there is an incline, gradually leading to the level of the ground, or rather of the elevated tramway from which the stuff is to be tipped into the mill, or, if it be mullock, on to the waste heap. the return of each truck is effected along the reverse side of the endless wire-rope cable. ventilation is an incidental work of much importance which it becomes more practicable to carry out in a satisfactory manner when an endless system of truck conveyance has been provided, reaching from the ore-face to the mill, and thence back again. the reason is mainly that the same routes which have been prepared for this traffic are available for the supply of air and for the return current which must carry off the accumulated bad gases from the underground workings. fans, operated by the cable at various places along the line of communication, keep up a brisk exchange of air, and the coming and going of the trucks themselves help to maintain a good, healthy atmosphere, even in the most remote parts of the mine. in very deep mines, where the heat becomes unbearable after a few minutes unless a strong wind be kept going underground, the forward and backward courses for traffic and ventilation together are specially advantageous. prices during the twentieth century will depend more definitely upon the cost of gold-mining than they have ever done at any former time in the world's history. in spite of all the opposition which fanaticism and ignorance could offer to the natural trend of events in the commercial and financial life of the world, the gold standard now rests on an impregnable base; and every year witnesses some new triumph for those who accept it as the foundation of the civilised monetary system. this being the case, it is obvious that the conditions affecting the production of gold must possess a very peculiar interest even for those who have never lived within hundreds of miles of any gold mine. to all intents and purposes the habit of every man is to measure daily and even hourly the value of his efforts at producing what the economist calls "utilities," against those of the gold miner. if, therefore, the latter successfully calls to his aid mechanical giants who render his work easier and who enable him to throw into the world's markets a larger proportion of gold for a given amount of effort, the result must be that the price of gold must fall, or, in other words, the prices of general commodities must rise. if, on the other hand, all other industries have been subjected to the like improved conditions of working, the effect must be to that extent to balance the rise and keep prices comparatively steady. from this point of view it will be seen that the interests of all those who desire to see a rise in general prices are to a large extent bound up in the improvement of methods for the extraction of gold. the question of cheap power does not by any means monopolise the data upon which such a problem can be provisionally decided; and yet it may be broadly stated that in the main the increased output of gold in the future depends upon the more economical production and application of power. measured against other commodities which also depend mainly upon the same factor, gold will probably remain very steady; while, in contrast with those things which require for the production taste and skill rather than mere brute force or mechanical power, gold will fall in value. in other words, the classes of articles and services depending upon the exercise of man's higher faculties of skill, taste, and mental power will rise in price. getting gold practically means, in modern times, crushing stone. this statement is subject to fewer and fewer exceptions from one decade to another, according as the alluvial deposits in the various gold-producing countries become more or less completely worked out. a partial revival of alluvial mining has been brought about through the application of the giant dredger to cheapening the process of extracting exceedingly small quantities of gold from alluvial drift and dirt. yet on the whole it will be found that the gold-mining industry, almost all the world over, is getting down to the bed-rock of ore-treatment by crushing and by simple methods of separation. thus practically we may say that the cost of gold is the cost of power in those usually secluded localities where the precious metal is found in quantities sufficient to tempt the investment of capital. from this it may be inferred that the cheap transmission of power by the electric current will effect a more profound revolution in the gold-mining industry than in almost any other. the main deterrent to the investing of money in opening up a new gold mine consists in the fact that a very large and certain expense is involved in the conveyance of heavy machinery to the locality, while the results are very largely in the nature of a lottery. when, however, the power is supplied from a central station, and when economical types of crusher are more fully introduced, this deterrent will, to a large extent, disappear. the cables which radiate from the central electric power-house in all directions can be very readily devoted to the furnishing of power to new mines as soon as it is found that the older ones have been proved unprofitable. no one will think of carrying ore to the power when it is far more economical and profitable to carry power to the ore. in this connection the principle of the division of labour becomes very important. in its bearing upon the mining industry generally, whether in its application to the precious metals or to those which are termed the baser, and even in the work of raising coal and other non-metalliferous minerals, the fact that nearly all mines occur in groups will greatly aid in determining the separation of the work of supplying power, as a distinct industry from that of mining. ore-dressing is an art which was in a very rudimentary state at the middle of the nineteenth century, when the great discoveries of gold, silver and other metals began to influence the world's markets in so striking a manner. the ancients used the jigger in the form of a wicker basket filled with crushed ore and jerked by hand up and down in water for the purpose of causing the lighter parts to rise to the top, while the more valuable portions made their way to the bottom. in this way the copper mines of spain were worked in the days of the roman empire, and probably the system had existed from time immemorial. fifty or sixty years ago the miner had got so far as to hitch his jigging basket or sieve on to some part of his machinery, generally his pumping engine, and thus to avoid the wearing muscular effort involved in moving it in the water by hand. it was not until the obvious mistake of using a machine which permitted the finest, and sometimes the richest, parts of the ore to escape had been for many years ineffectually admitted, that the "vanner," or moving endless band with a stream of water running on it, was invented with the special object of treating the finer stuff. jiggers and vanners form the staple of the miner's ore-dressing machinery at the present day. the efficiency of the latter class of separating machines, working on certain kinds of finely crushed ore, is already so great that it may be said without exaggeration that it could hardly be much improved upon, so far as percentage of extraction is concerned; and yet the waste of power which is involved is something outrageous. for the treatment of a thin layer of slimes, perhaps no thicker than a sixpence, it is necessary to violently agitate, with a reciprocating movement, a large and heavy framework. sometimes the quantity of stuff put through as the result of one horse-power working for an hour is not more than about a hundredweight. the consequence is that in large mines the nests of vanners comprise scores or even hundreds of machines. when shaking tables are used, without the addition of the endless moving bands, good work can also be done; but the waste of power is still excessive. the vanning spade and shallow washing dish are the prototypes of this kind of ore-dressing machinery. let any one place a line of finely-crushed wet ore on a flat spade and draw the latter quickly through still water, at the same time shaking it, and the result on inspection, if the speed has not been so great as to sweep all the fine grains off the surface, will be that the heavier parts of the ore will be found to have ranged themselves on the side towards which the spade was propelled in its progress through the water. a sheet of glass serves for the purpose of this experiment even better than a metal implement; but the spade is the time-honoured appliance among miners for testing some kinds of finely crushed ore by mechanical separation. it is to be observed that, besides the shaking motion imparted to the apparatus, the only active agency in the distribution of the particles is the sidelong movement of the spade relatively to the water. but it makes little or no difference whether the water moves sidelong on the spade or the latter progresses through the liquid; the ore will range itself accurately all the same. consequently, if a circular tank be used, and if the water be set in rotary motion, the ore on a sheet of glass, held steady, will arrange itself in the same way. if the ore be fed in small streams of water down the inclined surfaces of sloping glass, or other smooth shelves set close to and parallel with one another near the periphery of such a vessel of moving water, the resultant motions of the heavy and of the light particles respectively, in passing down these shelves, will be found to be so different that the good stuff can be caught by a receptacle placed at one part, while the tailings fall into another receiver which is differently situated at the place where the lighter grains fall. the main essential in this particular application of the art of vanning is simply that the water should move or drift transversely to lines of ore passing, while held in suspension with water, down a smooth sloping surface. in dealing with some very light classes of ore, and especially such as may naturally crush very fine--that is to say, with a large proportion of impalpable "slimes"--there is a decided advantage in causing the water to drift sidelong on the smooth shelf by other means than the motion in a circular tank. adopting nearly the form of the "side delivery manner," in which the moving band is canted to the side and the stuff runs off sideways, the sloping smooth shelf can be worked for ore separation with merely the streams of water holding the fine sand in suspension running down at fixed intervals. a glass covering is placed very close to this surface on which the streams run; and between the two is driven laterally a strong current of wind by means of a blast-fan, which causes each stream of water to drift a little sidewards, carrying with it the lighter particles, but leaving on its windward side a line of nearly pure ore. these small runlets can be multiplied, on a shelf measuring six or eight feet in length, to such an extent that the machine can put through as much ore as a dozen vanners, consuming only a mere fraction of the power necessary to drive one machine of the older type. cyanide solution, instead of water, is very advantageously employed for this kind of operation in the case of extracting gold from crushed ore. the method is to pump the liquid from the tanks in which it is stored and to allow it to flow back by way of the vanning apparatus, thus providing not only for catching the grains of gold by the concentrating machine, but also for the dissolving of the fine impalpable gold dust, or natural precipitate, by the action of the cyanide of potassium. upon the use of this latter chemical will be based the main improvements in the gold-mining industry during the twentieth century; and, conversely, the applications of the old system of amalgamating with mercury, in order to catch the golden particles, will be gradually restricted. fine concentrators, worked with cyanide solution, perform three operations at once, namely, first, the catching of the free gold grains; second, the production of a rich concentrate of minerals having gold in association and intended for smelting; and, third, the dissolving of the finest particles by the continual action of the chemical. in fact it is in the treatment of complex and very refractory ores generally, whether of the precious or of the baser metals, that the finer applications of the art of the ore-dresser will receive their first great impetus. the vanner, as well as the jigger, will become an instrument of precision; and in combination with rushing appliances operated by cheap power in almost unlimited quantities it will materially assist in multiplying the world's supply of metals. this again will aid in promoting the further extension of machinery. gold will be produced in greater abundance for what is called the machinery of commerce; and the base metals, particularly the new alloys of steel and also copper and aluminium, will be more largely produced for engineering and electrical purposes. the importation--particularly to england and scotland--of large quantities of highly-concentrated iron ore will cause one of the first notable developments in the mining and ore-treatment of the twentieth century so far as the united kingdom is concerned. the urgent necessity for an extension in the manufacture of bessemer steel, and of the new and remarkable alloys in which very small quantities of other metals are employed in order to impart altogether exceptional qualities to iron, must accentuate the demand for those kinds of ore which lend themselves most readily to the special requirements of the works on hand. hence the question of the transport of special kinds of iron ore over longer distances will have to be faced (as it has been already to a limited degree), and not only in reference to ores containing a low percentage of phosphorus and therefore exceptionally suitable for the bessemerising process, but also in regard to ores which are amenable to magnetic separation. magnetite, indeed, must bulk more largely in the future as a source of iron, particularly because it is susceptible of magnetic separation, a process which as yet is only in its infancy. containing, as it does, a larger percentage of iron than any other source from which the metal is commercially extracted, its employment as an ore results in great economy of fuel, as well as a reduction in the proportionate costs of transport. when ores of iron require to be brought from oversea places, it is obvious that those which will concentrate to the purest product possible, and which are in other respects specially applicable to the production of grades of steel of exceptional tensile strength, will have the preference. magnetic concentration, or the separation of an ore from the waste gangue by the attraction of powerful electro-magnets, must therefore occupy a much more prominent place in the metallurgy of the future than it has in that of the past. not only may ironstone containing magnetite be separated from other material, but several important minerals acquire the property of becoming magnetic when subjected to the operation of roasting, sometimes through a sulphide being converted into a magnetic oxide. by the use of powerful electro-magnets, the poles of which are brought to a point or to a nearly sharp knife-edge, the intensity of the magnetic field can be so enormously increased that even minerals which are only feebly magnetic can readily be separated by being lifted away from the non-magnetic material. in some systems the crushed ore is simply permitted to fall in a continuous stream through a strong magnetic field, and the magnetic particles are diverted out of the vertical in their descent by the operation of the magnets. nor is it only those minerals that actually become themselves magnetic on being roasted which can be so differentiated from the material with which they are associated as to be amenable to magnetic separation. even differences in hygroscopic properties--that is to say, in the degree of avidity with which a mineral takes up moisture from the atmosphere--may be made available for the purpose of effecting a commercially valuable separation. this is especially the case with some complex ores in which one constituent, on being roasted, acquires a much greater hygroscopic power than the others, the grains of the crushed and roasted ore becoming damp and sticky while those of the other minerals remain comparatively dry. by mixing with an ore of this kind--after it has been allowed to "weather" for a short time--some finely-powdered magnetite the strongly hygroscopic constituents can be made practically magnetic, because the magnetic impalpable dust adheres to them, while it remains separate from the grains of the other minerals. hardness--as well as magnetic attraction--is a property of ore which has as yet been made available to only a very slight extent as the basis of a system of separation. if a quantity of mixed fragments of glass and plumbago be pounded together in a mortar with only a moderate degree of pressure, so as to avoid, as far as possible, the breaking of the glass, there will soon come a stage at which the softer material can be separated from the harder simply by means of a fine sieve. there are many naturally-existing mineral mixtures in the crushing of which a similar result occurs in a very marked degree; and, indeed, there are none which do not show the peculiarity more or less, because the constituents of an ore are never of exactly the same degree of hardness. when the worthless parts are the softer and therefore have the greater tendency to "slime," the ore is very readily dressed to a high percentage by means of water. but when the reverse is the case, and the valuable constituents through their softness get reduced to a fine pulp long before the other parts, the ordinary operations of the ore-dresser become much more difficult to carry out. most elaborate ore-reduction plants are constructed with the view to causing the crushing surfaces, whether of rolls or of jaws, to merely tap each piece of stone so as to break it in bits without creating much dust. this operation is repeated over and over again; but the stuff which is fine enough to go to the concentrator is removed by sieving after each operation of the kind; and the successive rolls or other crushers are set to a finer and finer gauge, so that there is a progressive approach to the conditions of coarse sand, which is that specially desired by the ore-dresser. much of this elaboration will be seen to be needless, and, moreover, better commercial results will be obtained when it is more clearly perceived that the recovery of a valuable ore in the form of a fine slime may be economically effected by the action of grinders specially constructed for the purpose of permitting the hard constituents of the ore to remain in comparatively large grains, while the other and softer minerals are reduced to fine slimes or dust. in other words, a grinding plant, purposely designed to carry out its work in exactly the opposite way to that which has been described as the system aimed at in ordinary crushing machinery, has its place in the future of metallurgy. light mullers are employed to pound, or to press together, the crushed grains for a given length of time, and then sieving machinery completes the operation by taking out the dust from the more palpable grains. in some cases it will be found that an improvement can be effected by bringing about the separation of a finer grade of dust than could be taken out by any kind of sieve which is commercially practicable on the large scale. this is more particularly the case in regard to sulphide ores containing very friable constituents carrying silver. a fine dry dust-separator may then be employed constructed on the principle of a vibrating sloping shelf which moves rhythmically, either in a horizontal circle or with a reciprocal motion, and which at the same time alters its degree of inclination to the horizontal. when the shelf is nearly level its vibration drives the coarser particles off; but the very finest dust does not leave it until it assumes nearly a vertical position. a large nest of similar shelves, set close to, and parallel with, one another, can separate out a great quantity of well-dried slimes in a very short space of time. chapter ix. domestic. the enormous waste involved in the common methods of heating is one of the principal defects of household economy which will be corrected during the twentieth century. different authorities have made varying estimates of the proportion between the heat which goes up the chimney of an ordinary grate, and that which actually passes out into the room fulfilling its purpose of maintaining an equable temperature; but it cannot be denied that, at the very least, something like three-fourths of the heat generated by the domestic fires of even the most advanced and civilised nations goes absolutely to waste--or rather to worse than waste--because the extra smoke produced in creating it only serves to pollute the atmosphere. in the cities some degree of progress has been made in the introduction of heating appliances which really give warmth to a room without losing at least seventy-five per cent. of their heat; but in the country districts, where open fireplaces are the rule, it is not unusual to find that more than ninety per cent. of the heat produced behind the domestic hearth goes up the chimney. sentiment has had a great deal to do with retarding progress in the direction of improved house-heating appliances. for countless ages "the hearth" has been, so to speak, the domestic altar, around which some of the most sacred associations of mankind have gathered, and popular sentiment has declared that it is not for the iconoclastic inventor or architect to improve it out of existence, or even to interfere seriously with either its shape or the position in the living room from which it sheds its genial warmth and cheerfulness around the family circle. a recognition of this ineradicable popular feeling was involved in the adoption of the grate, filled with glowing balls of asbestos composition, by the makers of gas-heating apparatus. the imitation of the coal-filled grate is in some cases almost perfect; and yet it is in this close approximation to the real article that some lovers of the domestic fuel-fire find their chief objection, just as the tricks of anthropoid animals--so strongly reminiscent of human beings and yet distinct--have the effect of repelling some people far more than the ways of creatures utterly unlike man in form and feature. taking count of the domestic attachment to a real fuel-filled fireplace or grate as one of the principal factors in the problem of domestic heating, it is plain that one way of obviating the waste of heat which is at present incurred, without doing violence to that sentiment, is by making better use of the chimney. the hot-air pipes and coils which are already so largely used for indoor heating offer in themselves a hint in this direction. long pipes or coils inserted in the course taken by the heated air in ascending a chimney become warm, and it is possible, by taking such a pipe from one part of the room up the passage and back again, to cause, by means of a small rotating fan or other ventilating apparatus, the whole of the air in the chamber to circulate up the chimney and back again every few minutes, gathering warmth as it goes. in this way, and by exposing as much heating surface to the warm air in the chimney as possible, the warmth derived by an ordinary room from a fuel fire can be more than doubled. at the same time the risk of spreading "smuts" over the room can be entirely avoided first by keeping the whole length of pipe perfectly air-tight, and attaching it in such a way as to be readily removed for inspection; and, secondly, by placing the outward vent in such a position that the gentle current must mount upwards, and any dust must fall back again into a wide funnel-shaped orifice, and by covering the latter with fine wire gauze. an apparatus of this kind acts as a remover of dust from the room instead of adding any to it. one necessity, however, is the provision of motive power, very small though it be, to work the fan or otherwise promote a draught. electric heating is, however, the method which will probably take precedence over others in all those cases where systems are tried on their actual merits apart from sentiment or usage. the wonderful facility afforded by the electric heating wire for the distribution of a moderate degree of warmth, in exactly the proportions in which it may be needed, gives the electric method an enormous advantage over its rivals. the fundamental principle upon which heating by electricity is generally arranged depends upon the fact that a thin wire offers more electrical resistance to the passage of a current than a thick one, and therefore becomes heated. in the case of the incandescent lamp, in which the carbon filament requires to be raised to a white heat and must be free to emit its light without interference from opaque matter, it is necessary to protect the resisting and glowing material by nearly exhausting the air from the hermetically sealed globe or bulb in which it is enclosed. but in electrical house-warming, for which a white heat is not required and in which the necessary protection from the air can be secured by embedding the conveying medium in opaque solid material, the problem becomes much simpler, because strong metallic wires can be used, and they may be enclosed in any kind of cement which does not corrode them and which distributes the heat while refusing to conduct the electric current. a network of wire, crossing and recrossing but always carrying the same current, may be embedded in plaster and a gentle heat may be imparted to the whole mass through the resistance of the wires to the electricity and their contact with the non-conducting material. concurrently with this method of heating there is gradually being introduced a practice of using metallic lathing for the plastering of dwelling-rooms in place of the old wooden battens generally employed for lath-and-plaster work. the solution of the practical problem which has to be faced seems to depend upon the prospect of effecting a compromise between the two systems, introducing thin resisting wire as the metallic element in such work, but making all other components from non-conducting material. in the event of any "cut-out" or "short-circuiting" occurring through accidental injury to the wall, it would be very inconvenient to be compelled to knock away the plaster. moreover, it is not necessary for ordinary warming purposes that the whole of the wall, up to the ceiling, should be heated. accordingly the system which is likely to commend itself is that of constructing panels on some such principle as the one already described, and affixing them to the wall, forming a kind of solid dado from three to four feet from the floor. these can be fastened so as to facilitate removal for examination and repairs. when the current is switched on they are slowly warmed up by the heat generated through the resistance of the wires, and the air in the room is gently heated without being vitiated or deprived of its oxygen as it is by the presence of flames, whether of fuel or of gas. warming footstools will also be provided, and a room heated in this way will be found eminently comfortable to live in. this method of house-warming having once obtained a decided lead within the cities and other localities where a cheap electric current is available, somewhat similar systems, adapted for the heating of walls by hot air in tubes, instead of by resistant wires, will be largely adopted in the rural districts, more particularly in churches and other places of public assemblage. the progress made in this direction during the last few years of the nineteenth century is already noteworthy, but when electric-heating really gets a good chance to force the pace of improvement, the day will soon arrive when it will be regarded as nothing less than barbarous to ask people to sit during the winter months in places not evenly warmed all through by methods which result in the distribution of the heat exactly as it is wanted. ventilation is another household reform which will be very greatly accelerated by the presence of electric power of low cost. the great majority of civilised people, as yet, have no idea of ventilation excepting that highly unreasonable kind which depends upon leaving their houses and other buildings partly open to the outside weather. one man is sitting in church under a down draught from an open window above him, while others, in different parts of the same building, may be weltering in the heat and feeling stifled through the vitiated air. in dwelling-houses the great majority of living rooms really have no other effective form of ventilation than the draught from the fireplace. the strength of this draught, again, is regulated to a very large extent by the speed and direction of the outside wind. in calm and sultry weather, when ventilation is most needed, the current of air from the fireplace may be very slight indeed; while in the wild and boisterous days succeeding a sudden change of weather, the living rooms are subjected to such a drop in temperature and are swept by such draughts of cold air that the inmates are very liable to catch colds and influenza. hence has arisen in the british islands, and in the colder countries of europe and america, the very general desire among the poorer classes to suppress all ventilation. rooms are closed at the commencement of winter and practically remain so until the summer season. many people whose circumstances have improved, and who pass suddenly from ill-ventilated houses to those which have better access to the outside air, find the change so severe upon their constitutions and habits that they give a bad name to everything in the shape of ventilation. meanwhile the dread of draughts causes people to exclude the fresh air to such an extent that consumption and many other diseases are fostered and engendered. all this arises mainly from the very serious mistake of imagining that it is possible to move air without the exercise of force. in the case of the draught caused by a fire no doubt an active force is employed in the energy of the heated air ascending the chimney, and in the corresponding inrush. this latter is usually drawn from below the door--the very worst place from which it can be taken, seeing that in the experience of most people it is by getting the feet chilled, through draughts along the floor, that the worst colds are generally contracted. fireplaces are not unusually regarded as a direct means for ventilation, and with regard to nearly all the devices commonly adopted in houses and public buildings, it may be said that they lack the first requisite for a scientific system of renewing the air, namely a source of power by means of which to shift it from outside to inside, and _vice versâ_. there is no direction in which a more pressing need exists for the distribution of power in small quantities than in regard to the ventilation of private and public edifices. the circular fan, placed in the centre piece of the ceiling and controlled by an electric switch on the wall, is the principal type of apparatus applicable to the purposes of ventilation. as electric lighting of dwelling-houses becomes more common, and ultimately almost universal within cities, the practice will be to arrange for lighting and for ventilation at the same time. but, unfortunately, the current now principally employed for electric lighting and consisting of a series of impulses, first in one direction and then in the opposite, "alternating" with wonderful rapidity, is not well adapted for driving small motors of the types now in use. one improvement in domestic economy greatly needed in the twentieth century consists in the invention of a really effective simple and economical "alternate-current" motor. this is a matter which will be referred to in dealing with electrical machines. that the problem will be solved before many years have passed there is no good reason to doubt. in the meantime many laudable endeavours are being made towards the application of the pressure from water pipes to the purpose of driving ventilating fans. the extreme wastefulness of power and of water involved in this method of dealing with the difficulty may be partially overlooked on account of the very small amounts required to produce an effect in the desired direction; and yet there is no doubt that a recognition of the wastefulness acts to some extent as a deterrent to artificial ventilation. the benefits of the system are not sufficiently obvious or showy to induce any class of people, excepting physicians and persons fully acquainted with the principles of hygiene, to sanction a material outlay upon the object. when an exactly suitable alternate-current motor has been invented the standard electric light installation will be practically one apparatus with the ventilating fan, and the cost of the latter will hardly be felt as a separate item. in cooking there is in existing ordinary methods the same enormous waste of heat as there is in the warming of rooms. something, no doubt, has been done in the direction of economy by the invention of new and improved forms of stoves, but a great preponderance of the heat generated in the fire of even the best stove goes up the chimney. the electric oven, as already invented, is perhaps the nearest approach to a really economical "cooker" that has yet been proposed; but even before the general adoption of such an apparatus there will be ample room for improvement in the cooking stove, first as regards insulation, and secondly in the distribution of the fuel around the objects to be heated. one principal cause of the waste that goes on arises from the fact that the fire burns away from the place at which its heat is most beneficially applied, and no means are adopted, as in the case of the candle in a carriage lamp, for keeping it up to the required level. additions of fuel are made from the top with the immediate effect of checking the heat. a great advance in economy of fuel will take place when the household coal intended for cooking purposes is ground up together with the proper proportions of certain waste products of chemistry, so as to make a "smouldering mixture" which can be kept regularly supplied to a shallow or thin fire box by pressure applied from beneath or at the parts farthest away from the objects to be heated. an oven, for instance, may be surrounded by a "jacket" filled with ground smouldering mixture having a non-conducting insulator outside and a connection with a chimney. the heat from the fuel is thus kept in close proximity to the objects requiring to be cooked, and comparatively small waste results. it is by taking advantage of their superior facilities in the same direction that gas and inflammable oils have already made their mark in the sphere of domestic cookery. regarded as fuel their initial cost may be relatively heavy; and yet, owing to their more exact method of application, they often effect a saving in the end. not only do they bring the fire closer to the articles to be heated or cooked, but they also make it easy for the fire to be turned off or on, and this in itself is an important source of economy. still, with the advent of cheaper and more accessible power in every centre of population, the cost of grinding coal and of mixing it in order to form a fuel comparable in respect of convenience and economy with gas and oil will be so greatly reduced that the "black diamond" will still continue to challenge its rivals in the arena of competition presented by the demands of domestic economy. light, as well as heat and air, requires to be evenly and equably distributed throughout the dwelling-house before anything approaching an ideal residence can be secured. as the science of hygiene advances it is demonstrated more and more clearly that sunlight--and even diffused daylight--may be used as a most effective weapon against the spread of disease. alternations of deep gloom in the dwelling-house with the superior light resulting from brighter weather produce many kinds of nervous derangement, not the least deleterious of which arise from the unnecessary strain to which the eyesight is subjected. the promise of the future is that, through the abundance of windows provided in the walls, roofs and porches of our dwelling-houses--but all supplemented with shutters and blinds of various kinds--there shall be a possibility of regulating, far more accurately than at present, the accessibility of light from outside according to the brightness or dulness of the day. it is hardly to be expected that many people will build "crystal palaces" in which to reside; but with the immense progress that is being made in the construction of dwellings with iron or steel frames, and in the adaptation of various materials so that they may serve for building purposes in conjunction with metallic frameworks, it seems clear that many roofs, as well as large portions of walls, will in future be made on the composite principle, using steel and glass. these will, to a large extent, be permanently sheltered from the direct rays of the sun when high in the heavens, by shutters constructed on the louvre principle so that they may admit the light from the sky continually, but actual rays or beams of sunlight only for a short time after sunrise and at the close of day. the ceilings, if any are provided under the roofs, will also be glazed. the obstacles presented in the way of such a reform in a city like london may at first sight seem so serious as to be practically insuperable. long rows of three or four storied houses certainly offer but few facilities for the admission of light through the roofs of any but the rooms on the top floors, and yet it is in the dwelling-houses of this type that the depression caused by gloom and the absence of light during the hours of day are most severely felt as a source of nervous depression. evolution in a matter of this sort will take place gradually and along the line of least resistance. portions of courts, areas and yards will be glazed over in the way described; and it will be found that those rooms which are thus enclosed and sheltered from the wind and rain, but left open to the daylight, constitute the most cheerful sitting places in the houses. then, as rebuilding and alterations proceed, many houses will gradually be remodelled--at least as regards some of their rooms--in the same direction. physicians will become increasingly insistent on the necessity for admitting plenty of light into the abodes of the sick, more particularly of families inclined towards consumption. a very large trade will spring up during the twentieth century in household cooling apparatus for use in hot climates. the colonial expansion towards which all european races are now tending inevitably means that very many thousands of persons whose ancestors have been accustomed to life in cold or temperate climates, will be induced to dwell in the dry and warm, or in the humid tropical regions of the earth. it will be an important task of the british, continental and american machinists of the twentieth century to turn out convenient pieces of apparatus which shall be available for ventilating houses, especially during the night, and for reducing the temperature in them to something approaching that which is natural to the inmates. the old clumsy punkah will be replaced by circular fans keeping up a gentle current of air with a minimum of noise or annoyance of any kind. at present it is only in specially favoured circumstances that these quiet-working circular punkahs can be actuated by mechanical force, that is to say where a prime motor, or an electric current, or a reticulated water supply for driving a suitable machine may be at hand. in other situations the use of compressed air or gas may be resorted to, and for this purpose small capsules, similar to those already introduced for making soda water by the liberation of compressed carbonic acid gas, will be found handy. for a very small sum of money the householder will be able to purchase a sufficient number of capsules to ensure motive power for his fan during a week of hot nights. a convenient form of small motor suitable for being driven by compressed air or gases in this way is one in which a diminutive turbine or other wheel is set at the bottom of a thin tube of mercury. the capsule, being fastened to the lower end of this apparatus, liberates at very short intervals of time bubbles of air or gas, which, in the upward ascent, drive the wheel. the arrangement depends upon the fact that a stream of gas ascending in a heavy liquid behaves in the same way as a stream of water descending by its own weight and turning a water-wheel. it supplies what is perhaps the simplest and most inexpensive small motor available for the lightest domestic work to which a gentle but continuous source of power is applicable. for actually cooling the air, as well as keeping it in motion, similar devices will be resorted to, with the addition of the circulation of the current of air through coils of pipes laid under the surface of the ground. in this way householders will have all the advantages of living in cool underground rooms without incurring the discomforts and dangers which are often inseparable from that mode of life. in the coastal regions, which usually have the most trying climates for europeans living in tropical countries, a method of cooling the houses will be based on the fact that at moderate depths in the sea the prevailing temperature is a steady one, not much above the freezing point of water. almost every seaport town within the tropics--where white residents in their houses swelter nightly in the greatest discomfort from the heat--is in close proximity to deep ocean water, in which, at all seasons of the year, the regular temperature is only about thirty-four degrees fahr. the cost of steel piping strong enough to withstand the pressure of the water in places which possess absolutely the coolest temperature of the ocean would be very heavy; but, on the other hand, the actual reduction of heat demanded for the satisfactory cooling of the air in a dwelling-room is not by any means great, and at quite shallow depths the heat of the air can be satisfactorily abstracted by the sea water surrounding coils of pipes. even in colder climates it seems likely that similar systems will be found useful in producing a preliminary reduction in the temperature of the air employed in keeping fresh foodstuffs such as meat, fruits and vegetables. fruits especially, when placed in suitable receptacles, and stored at temperatures quite steady at about the freezing point of water, will not only be readily kept on land from one season to another, but will be transported to markets thousands of miles distant from the growers, and sold in practically the same condition as if they had just been picked from the trees. during the twentieth century the proportion of the fruit eaters among the peoples of the great manufacturing countries will be very largely augmented, and this result will be brought about mainly through the instrumentality of methods of keeping perishable produce free from deterioration by maintaining it almost at the freezing point--a temperature at which, under suitable conditions as regards exclusion of moisture, and steadiness of hygrometric pressure, the germs of decay in food are practically prevented from coming to maturity. for the cooling of dwelling-rooms in places distant from the sea, various systems, depending upon the supply of dry cold air from central stations through pipes to the dwellings of subscribers, will no doubt be brought into operation. this, however, will only be practicable in the more populous localities having plenty of residents ready to contribute to the expense. for more isolated houses the cooling and ventilating apparatus of the future may be a modification of the "shower-blast" which has been successfully adapted to metallurgical purposes. when downward jets of water, as in a shower-bath, are enclosed in a large pipe connected horizontally with a room but having facilities for the escape of the water underneath, a strong draught of cool air is created, and the prevailing temperature is quickly reduced. an apparatus of this kind may be intended for application either to the ventilators or to the windows of rooms. lifts for conveying persons from one storey of a building to another will probably undergo a considerable amount of modification during the next few years. the establishment of central electric stations and the distribution of electricity for lighting and for power will offer a very great premium upon the preference for electric motors for lifts. as soon as a maximum of efficiency, combined with the minimum of cost, has been attained, there will be a demand for the introduction of lifts in positions where the traffic is not large enough to warrant the constant presence of an attendant. in fact the desire will be for some kind of elevator which shall be just as free to the use of each individual as is the staircase of an ordinary house. for this purpose, inclined planes having moving canvas or similar ramps will be extensively brought into use. the passenger steps upon what is practically an endless belt having suitable slats upon it to prevent his foot from slipping, and, as the hand-railing at the side of this moves concurrently, he is taken up, without any effort, to the landing on which he may alight quite steadily. when this idea, which has already been brought into operation, has been more fully developed, it will be seen that a large circular slowly-revolving disc, set at an angle and properly furnished, will supply a more convenient form of free elevator. one side will be used by those who are going up and the other by those who wish to come down. the "well" of the staircase for such a lift is made in elliptical form, like the shadow projection of a circle. steps can be provided so that, when not in motion, the lift will be a staircase not differing much from the old style. chapter x. electric messages, etc. the telegraphic wire in the home and street will fulfil a very important part in the economy of the twentieth century. for conveying intelligence, as well as for heating, cooking and lighting, the electric current will become one of the most familiar of all the forces called in to assist in domestic arrangements. the rapidity with which the electric bell-push has taken the place of the old-fashioned knocker and the bell-hanger's system affords one indication of the readiness with which those forms of electric apparatus which are adapted to all the purposes of communicating and reminding will recommend themselves to the public during the twentieth century. in another direction the eagerness with which every advance in the telephone is hailed by the people may well offer an augury of rapid progress in the immediate future. in this department invention will aim just as much at simplification as at elaboration; and some of the pieces of domestic electrical apparatus universally used during the twentieth century will be astonishingly cheap. the call to awake in the morning will, in cities and towns, be made by wireless telegraphy, which will also be used for the purpose of regulating the domestic clocks, so that if desired any suitable form of clock alarm may be used with the most perfect confidence. a tentative system of this kind has been adopted in connection with certain telephone exchanges, in which special officers are told off whose duty it is to call those subscribers who have paid the small fee covering the expense. these officers are required to time their intimations according to the previously expressed wishes of subscribers. this kind of service, as well as the regulation of the household clock, is eminently a department of domestic economy in which wireless telegraphy will prove itself useful, because it does not demand that a subscriber shall have gone to the expense of installing a wire to his house and of paying a rent or fee for the use of one. the clock controlled by wireless telegraphy will doubtless undergo a rapid development from the time when it is first introduced. practically the same principles which enable the electrician to utilise the "hertzian waves," or ether vibrations, for the purpose of setting a clock right once a day, or once an hour, will permit of an impulse, true to time, being sent from the central station every second, or every minute, and when this has been accomplished it will be seen that there is no more use for the maintenance of elaborate clockworks at any place excepting the central station. the domestic clock will, in fact, become mainly a "receiver" for the wireless telegraphic apparatus, and its internal mechanism will be reduced, perhaps, to a couple of wheels, which are necessary to transmit the motion of a minute-hand to that which indicates the hours. the fire-alarm of the future must be very simple and inexpensive in order to ensure its introduction, not only into offices and warehouses but also into shops and houses. the fire-insurance companies will very shortly awake to the fact that prompt telegraphic alarm in case of fire is worth far more than the majority of the prohibitions upon which they are accustomed to insist by way of rendering fires less likely. the main principles upon which the electric fire-alarm will be operated have already been worked out and partially adopted. in the system of fuses and cut-outs used in connection with electric lighting, the methods of preventing fire due to the development of excessive heat have been well studied. but simplification is particularly required in the case of those fire-alarms which are to be useful for giving intimation of a conflagration from any cause arising. as the telegraphic and telephonic wires are extended so as to traverse practically all the streets of every city, the fire-insurance companies will find it to their advantage to promote a simple plan, depending on the use of a combustible thread passing round little pulleys in the corners of all the rooms and finally out to the front, where an electrical "contact-maker" is fixed, so that on the thread being burnt and broken at any point in its circuit, an electric message will be at once sent along the nearest wire to the fire-brigade station and a bell set ringing both inside and outside the premises. somewhat similar systems will be used for checking the enterprises of the burglar. the best protected safes of the future will be enmeshed in networks of wires encased in some material which will render it impossible to determine their positions from the outside. these wires will be so related to an electric circuit that the breaking of any one of them, at any part of its course, will have the effect of ringing a bell and giving warning at the police station, as well as at other places where potential thief-catchers may be on hand. for doors and windows very simple contact devices have already been brought out, but the principal objection to their general adoption arises from the fact that so very many houses remain unconnected with any telephone system which may be made available for calling the police. even were all houses connected it is true that in some instances attempts might be made to cut the wires when a raid was in contemplation, but the risk of discovery in any such operation would prove a very powerful deterrent. in fact the telephone wire, more than any other mechanical device, is destined to aid in "improving" the burglar out of existence. with the indefinite multiplication of telephone subscribers at very cheap rates, there will come a powerful inducement towards the invention of new appliances for rendering the subscriber independent of the attention of officers at any central exchange. the duty of connecting an individual subscriber with any other with whom he may desire to converse is, after all, a purely mechanical one, and eminently of a kind which, by a combination of engineering and electrical skill, may be quite successfully accomplished. in the apparatus which will probably be in use during the twentieth century, each subscriber will have a dial carrying on its face the names and numbers of all those with whom he is in the habit of holding communication. this will be his "smaller dial," and beside it will be another, intended for only occasional use, through which, by exercising a little more patience, he may connect himself with any other subscriber whatever. corresponding dials will be fixed in the central office. under this system, when the subscriber desires to secure a connection, he moves a handle round his dial until the pointer in its circuit comes to the desired number. an electrical impulse is thus sent along the wire to the central station for every number over which the pointer passes, and the corresponding pointer or contact-maker at the central station is moved exactly in sympathy. when the correct number is reached the subscriber is in connection with the person with whom he desires to converse. if, however, the latter should be already engaged, a return impulse causes the bell of the first subscriber to ring. of course the prime cost of installing such a system as this will be greater than in the case of the simple hand-connected telephones; but the two systems can be used conjointly, and the immense convenience, especially to large firms, of being able to go straight to the parties with whom they wish to communicate, will induce many of them to adopt the automatic apparatus as soon as it has been perfected. wireless telephony must come to the front in the near future, but at first for only very special purposes. the prospect of the profits that would be attendant on working up a business unhampered by the heavy capital charges which weigh upon the owners of telephone wires must stimulate inventive enterprise to a remarkable degree in this particular line. the main difficulty, however, in the application of the system to general purposes will lie in the need for an ingenious but simple means for enabling one subscriber to call another. for this purpose probably the synchronised clock system already referred to will be found essential, each office or house being furnished with a timekeeper of this type kept in constant agreement with a central clock, and so arranged that only when the ethereal electrical impulse is given at a certain fixed point in the minute, will any particular subscriber's bell be rung. this may be effected by some such arrangement as a revolving drum, perforated at a different part of its periphery for each individual subscriber, and capable of permitting the electrical contact which makes a magnet and rings the bell only at the fraction of a moment when the subscriber's slot passes the pointer. this will mean, of course, that only at a certain almost infinitesimally small space of time in the duration of each minute will it be possible to call any particular subscriber, or rather to release the mechanism which will set his bell ringing for perhaps a minute at a time. in the presence of unscrupulous competition, resulting in the flinging out of hertzian wave vibrations promiscuously, for the purpose of destroying a rival's chances of obtaining satisfactory connections, it would be necessary to make rather more complicated arrangements of a nature analogous to those of the puzzle lock. instead of one impulse during the minute, two or three would be required, in order to release the mechanism for ringing any subscriber's bell; and no ring would take place unless the time-spaces between these impulses were exactly in accordance with the agreed form, which might be varied at convenient intervals. yet in the cases in which wireless telephony and telegraphy are taken up by local public authorities having power to forbid any one playing "dog in the manger," by preventing useful work by others while failing to promote it himself, the simpler system of wireless telephone call will be practicable. with the advance of municipalisation, and of intelligent collectivism generally, enterprises of public utility will be guarded from mere cut-throat commercial hostility much more sedulously in the twentieth century than they have been in the past. a great multitude of new applications of the telegraphic and telephonic systems will be introduced in the immediate future. not only will those subscribers who are connected by wire with central stations have the advantage of being called at any hour in the morning according to their intimated wishes, but such services as lighting the fires in winter mornings, so that rooms may be fairly warmed before they are entered, will be performed by electric messages sent from a central station. drawings will also be despatched by telegraph. for such purposes as the transmission of sketches from the scene of any stirring event, the first really practical application of drawing by telegraph will probably depend upon the use of a large number of code words divided into two groups, each of which, on the principles of co-ordinate geometry, will indicate a different degree of distance from the base line and from the side line respectively, so that from any sketch a correct message in code may be made up and the drawing may be reconstructed at the receiving end. illustrated newspapers will in this way obtain drawings exactly at the same time as their other messages, and distant occurrences will be brought before the public eye much more vividly and more correctly than has ever hitherto been practicable. for special objects, also, photographs can be sent by telegraph through the use of the photo-relief in plaster of paris, or other suitable material, which travels backwards and forwards underneath a pointer, the rising and falling of which is accurately represented by thick and thin lines--or by the darker and lighter photographic printing of a beam of light of varying intensity--at the other end, so that a shaded reproduction of the photograph is produced. relief at the sending end is in this way translated into darkness of shade at the receiving end. any general expansion of this system, if it comes, will necessarily be postponed till long after the full possibilities of the codeword plan have been exploited, because the latter works in exactly with the ordinary methods for sending telegraphic matter. the keen competition between submarine and wireless telegraphy will be one of the most exciting contests furnished by electrical progress in the first quarter of the new century. attention will be devoted to those directions on the surface of the globe in which it is possible to send messages almost entirely by land lines, and to bridge over comparatively small intervals of space from land to land by wireless telegraphy. thus the asiatic and canadian route may be expected shortly to enter into competition with the atlantic cables in telegraphic business to the united states; while australia will be reached _viâ_ singapore and java. a great impetus will be given to the wireless system as a commercial undertaking when arrangements have been perfected for causing the receiver at any particular station to translate its message into a form suitable for sending automatically. when this has been done, many of the wayside stations will be almost entirely self-working, and messages, indeed, may be despatched from island to island, or from one floating station to another across the atlantic itself. another requirement for really cheap telegraphy on the new system is a more rapid method of making the letters or signals. the irregular intervals at which the sparks from the coil of the transmitter fly from one terminal to the other render it impossible to split up the succession of flashes into intervals on the dot-and-dash principle, without providing for each dot a much longer period of time than is required for the transmission of messages on land lines. in fact the need for going slowly in the sending of the message is the principal stumbling-block which disconcerts ordinary telegraphic operators when they come to try wireless telegraphy. for remedying this defect the most hopeful outlook is in the direction of a multiplication of the pieces of apparatus for spark-making and the combining of pairs of them in such a way that, whenever the first one fails during an appreciable interval of time to emit a spark, the second is called into requisition. in this way a constant stream of sparks may be ensured, without incurring the risk of running faster than the coil will supply the electrical impulses necessary for the transmission of the message. increased rapidity in land telegraphy by the ordinary system of transmission by wire, and facility in making the records at the receiving end in easily read typewriting--these are two desiderata which at the close of the nineteenth century have been almost attained, but which will take some time to introduce to general notice. in the commercial system of the twentieth century the merchant's clerk will write his messages on a typewriter which perforates a strip of paper with holes corresponding to the various letters, while it sets down in printing, on another strip, the letters themselves. the latter will be kept as a record, but the former will be taken to the telegraph office and put through the sending machine without being read by the operator. the message will print itself at the other end and wrap itself up in secret, nothing but the address being made visible to the operator. for the use of the general public who are not possessed of the special apparatus necessary to perforate the paper another system is available. sets of movable type may be provided at the telegraph office in small compartments, the letters being on one side and indentations corresponding to the required perforations being cut or stamped into the other sides of the movable pieces. the sender of a message will set it up in a long shallow tray or "galley" like those used by printers, and he will then turn the faces of the letters downwards and see the whole passed through the machine without being read by the operator; after which he can distribute the letters if he chooses. in this way telegraphy will gradually become at once far more secret and far cheaper than it is at present, and a large amount of correspondence which at present passes through the post will be sent along the wire. many merchants will have their telephonic apparatus fitted with arrangements for setting up type or perforating strips of paper, as already described; and also with receiving apparatus for making the records in typewriting. if they fail to find a subscriber or correspondent on hand at the time when he is wanted, they can write a note to him which he will find hanging on a paper strip from his telephone when he returns. another mode of accomplishing a somewhat similar result is to provide the telephone receiver itself with a moving strip of steel, which, in its varying degrees of magnetisation, records the spoken words so that they will, at some distance of time, actuate the diaphragm of the receiver and emit spoken words. the degree of permanency which can be attained by this system is, of course, a vital point as regards its practical merits. still unsolved electrical problems are the making of a satisfactory alternate current motor suitable for running with the kind of currents generally used for electric lighting purposes--the utilisation of the glow lamp having a partial vacuum or attenuated gas for giving a cheap and soft light somewhat on the principle of the geissler tube--and last, but not least, the direct conversion of heat into electricity. with regard to the first-mentioned, the prospects have been materially altered by a discovery announced at the new york meeting of the american association for the advancement of science within a few weeks of the close of the nineteenth century. the handy and effective alternate current motor indeed seemed then as far distant as it had been in , when sir david salomons remarked, in his work on _electric light installations_ (vol. ii., p. ): "no satisfactory alternate current motor available on all circuits exists as yet, although," he added later, "the demand for such an appliance increases daily". it seems, however, that electricians have been looking in the wrong direction for the solution of using the same wire for alternate current lighting and for motive power at the same time. professor bedell, of cornell university, announced at the new york meeting referred to his discovery of the important fact that when direct and alternate currents are sent over the same line each behaves as if the other were not there, and thus the same line can be used for two distinct systems of transmitting electrical energy. no time will be lost in putting this announcement to the test, not only of scientific but also of practical verification, and the probability is that all electric lighting stations in the twentieth century will contain not only dynamos of one type for the supply of light, but also direct current generators for transmitting power in all directions over the same cables. the glow lamp having no carbon filament, but setting up a bright light with only a fraction of the resistance presented by carbon, would, if perfected, render electric lighting by far the cheapest as well as the best method of illumination. tentative work has indicated a high degree of probability that success will be achieved, and the glowing bulb is at any rate a possibility of the future which it will be well to reckon with. in reference to the conversion of heat into electricity without the intervention of machinery to provide motion, and thus to cause magnetic fields to cross one another, very little promise has yet been shown of any fundamental principle upon which a practical apparatus of the kind could be based. the electrician who works at this problem has to begin almost _de novo_, and his task is an immensely difficult one, although on every ground of analogy success certainly looks possible. in the meantime, as has already been indicated, the steam turbine and dynamo combined, working practically as a single machine for the generation of electricity, offers practically the nearest approach to direct conversion which is yet well in sight. chapter xi. warfare. the last notable war of the nineteenth century has falsified the anticipations of nearly all the makers of small arms. the magazine rifle was held to be so perfect in its trajectory, and in the rapidity with which it could discharge its convenient store of cartridges in succession, that the bayonet charge had been put outside of the region of possibility in warfare. those who reasoned thus were forgetting, to a large extent, that while small arms have been improving so also has artillery, and that a bayonet charge covered by a demoralising fire of field-pieces, mortars, and quick-firing artillery is a very different thing from one in which the assailants alone are the targets exposed to fire. given that two opposing armies are possessed of weapons of about equal capacity for striking from a distance, they may do one another a great deal of harm without coming to close quarters at all. yet victory will rest with the men who have sufficient bravery, skill and ingenuity to cross the fire-zone and tackle their enemies hand to hand. smoke-producing shells and other forms of projected cover, designed to mask the advance of cavalry and infantry, will greatly assist in the work of rendering this task of crossing the fire-zone less dangerous, notwithstanding any possible improvement that may be effected in the magazine-rifle. already it has been observed that much of the surprise and confusion which terrifies those who have no bayonets, when subjected to a cannonade and at the same time brought face to face with a bayonet charge, arises from the fact that they cannot see to shoot straight, owing to the haze produced by the smoke and its blinding effects upon the eyes. special smoke-producing shells, made for the express purpose of covering a charge, will soon be evolved from the laboratory of the chemist in pursuance of this clue. in addition to shells and other missiles, small pieces of steel-piping will be projected by mortars into the fire-swept zone, in order to supplement the defects of natural cover which, of course, are nearly always as great as possible, seeing that the ground has generally been selected by the side against which the attack is being directed. the task of enabling a rifleman to shoot straight has been taken up with extraordinary zeal and ability compared with the amount of skill and effort devoted to the corresponding or opposing object of spoiling his aim and preventing him from getting a shot in. when this latter has been to some extent accomplished, mainly by the agency of artillery, the bayonet and other weapons for use at close quarters will once more be in the ascendant. thin shields of hard steel will be affixed to the rifles of the attacking party, so as to deflect the bullets wherever possible. this baffling of the rifleman by the artillery supporting the cavalry and bayonet charge will produce momentous changes, not only in the future of war, but also in that of international relations. anything which tends to discount the value of personal bravery and to elevate the tactics of the ambuscade and the sharp-shooting expedition gives, _pro tanto_, an advantage to the meaner-spirited races of mankind, and places them more or less in a position of mastery over those who hold higher racial traditions. the man who will face the risk of being shot in the open generally belongs to a higher type of humanity than he who only shoots from behind cover. moreover, the nations which have the skill and ingenuity to manufacture new weapons of self-defence belong to a higher class than those which only acquire advanced warlike munitions by purchase. one of the early international movements of the twentieth century will be directed towards the prohibition of the sale of such weapons as magazine-rifles, quick-firing field guns, and torpedoes to any savage or barbarous race. it will be accounted as treason to civilisation for any member of the international family to permit its manufacturers to sell the latest patterns of weapons to races whose ascendency might possibly become a menace to civilisation. as factors in determining the survival of the fittest, the elements of high character, bravery, and intellectual development must be conserved in their maximum efficiency at all hazards. another potent element in the safeguards of civilisation may be seen in the increased effectiveness of weapons for coastal defence. the hideous nightmare of a barbarian irruption, such as those which almost erased culture and intellect from the face of europe during the dark ages of the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries, may occasionally be seen exercising its influence in the pessimistic writings which are from time to time issued from the press predicting the coming ascendency of the yellow man. however the case may be in regard to nations which are accessible by land to the encroachments of the asiatic, there is no doubt that those countries which are divided off by the sea have been rendered much more secure through the rapid advances which have been made in the modern appliances for defending coasts and harbours. in naval tactics, also, it will be more and more clearly seen that to possess and defend the harbours where coaling can be carried out is practically to possess and defend the trade of the high seas; and the essence of good maritime policy will be to so locate the defended harbours that they may afford the greatest amount of protection, having in view the harm that may be done by an enemy's harbours in the vicinity. the most effective naval weapon in the future will undoubtedly be the torpedo, but, like the bayonet, it requires to be in the hands of brave men before its value as the ultimate arbiter of naval conflict can be demonstrated. much fallacious teaching has arisen from what has been called the lessons of certain naval wars which occurred on the coasts of south america and china--international embroilments in which mercenaries, or only half-trained seamen and engineers, were engaged. on similar fallacious grounds it was argued that the magazine-rifle had put the bayonet out of the court of military arbitrament, and the south african war has proved conclusively how erroneous was that idea. the use of the torpedo-boat and of the weapons which it carries must always demand, like that of the bayonet, men of the strongest nerve, and of the greatest devotion to their duty and to their country. fifty miles an hour is a rate which is already in sight as the speed of the future torpedo-boat, the first turbine steamer of the british navy having achieved forty-three miles an hour before the end of the nineteenth century. it should be distinctly understood, however, that such a speed cannot be kept up for any great length of time and that long voyages are out of the question. the rôle of the turbine torpedo-boat will be to "get home" with its weapon in the shortest practicable time. hence its great value for the defence of harbours by striking at distances of perhaps two or three hours' steaming. on the high seas the battle-ships, which will virtually be the cruisers of the future, will be provided with turbine torpedo-boats, carried slung in convenient positions and ready at short notice to be let slip like greyhounds. during the hazardous run of the torpedo-boat towards the enemy, various devices will be employed for the purpose of baffling his aim, such for instance as the emission of volumes of smoke from the bows and the erection of broad network blinds covering the sight of the little craft, but capable of being shifted from side to side, so that the enemy's marksmen may never know exactly what part of the object in sight is to be aimed at. the torpedo will be carried on a mast, which at the right moment can be lowered to form a projecting spar like a bowsprit; and the explosion that will take place on its impact with the enemy's hull will be enough to blow a fatal breach in any warship afloat. for harbour defence and the safety of the battle-ship the wire-guided and propelled torpedo will form a second line behind the fast torpedo-boat. this type of weapon strikes with more unerring accuracy than any other yet included in the armoury of naval warfare, because it is under the control of the marksman from the time of its launching until it fulfils its deadly mission. its range, of course, is strictly limited; but it may be worked to advantage within the distances at which the best naval artillery can be depended upon to make good practice. the least costly and the lightest form is that in which the backward pulling of two wires, unwinding two drums on the torpedo, actuates two screws at greater or less speeds according to the rapidity of the motion imparted, any advantage of speed in one screw over the other being responded to by an alteration in the direction taken by the weapon. the torpedo may be set so as to dive from the surface at any desired interval; but, of course, an appearance in the form of at least a flash is necessary to enable the operator to judge in what direction he is sending his missile. small torpedo-boats, not manned but sticking to the surface, may be used in the same manner. each one no doubt runs a very great risk of being hit by shot or shell aimed at them; but out of half a dozen, discharged at short intervals, it would be practically impossible for an enemy to make certain that one at least did not find its billet. the submarine boat will have some useful applications in peace; but its range of utility in warfare is likely to be very limited. it is hopeless to expect the eyes of sailors to see any great distance under the water; therefore the descent must be made within sight of the enemy, who has only to surround himself with placed contact-torpedoes hanging to a depth, and to pollute the water in order to render the assault an absolutely desperate enterprise. military aeronautics, like submarine operations in naval warfare, have been somewhat overrated. visions of air-ships hovering over a doomed city and devastating it with missiles dropped from above are mere fairy tales. indeed the whole subject of aeronautics as an element in future human progress has excited far more attention than its intrinsic merits deserve. a balloon is at the mercy of the wind and must remain so, while a true flying machine, which supports itself in the air by the operation of fans or similar devices, may be interesting as a toy, but cannot have much economical importance for the future. when man has the solid earth upon which to conduct his traffic, without the necessity of overcoming the force of gravitation by costly power, he would be foolish in the extreme to attempt to abandon the advantage which this gives him, and to commit himself to such an element as the air, in which the power required to lift himself and his goods would be immeasurably greater than that needed to transport them from place to place. the amount of misdirected ingenuity that has been expended on these two problems of submarine and aerial navigation during the nineteenth century will offer one of the most curious and interesting studies to the future historian of technological progress. unfortunately that faculty of the constructive imagination upon which inventive talent depends may too frequently be indulged by its possessor without any serious reference to the question of utility. fancy paints a picture in which the inventor appears disporting himself at unheard-of depths below the surface of the sea or at extraordinary heights above the level of the land, while his friends, his rivals, and all manner of men and women besides, gaze with amazement! patent agents are only too well aware how often an inordinate desire for self-glorification goes along with real inventive talent, and how many of the brotherhood of inventors make light of the losses which may be inflicted upon trusting investors so long as they themselves may get well talked about. nations may at times be infected with this unpractical vainglory of inventiveness; and on these occasions there is need of all the restraining influence of the hard-headed business man to prevent the waste of enormous sums of money. the idea that military ascendency in the future is to be secured by the ability to fly through the air and to dive for long distances under the water has taken possession of certain sections in france, germany, russia, great britain and the united states. large numbers of voluble "boulevardiers" in paris have, during the last years of the nineteenth century, made it an article of their patriotic faith that the future success of the french navy depends upon the submarine boat. the question as to what an enemy would do with such a boat in actual warfare seems hardly ever to occur to them; and, indeed, any one who should venture to put such a query would run the risk of being set down as a traitor to his country! more important to the student of the practical details of naval preparation is the great question as to the point at which the contest between shot and armour will be brought to a standstill. that it cannot proceed indefinitely may be confidently taken for granted. the plate-makers thicken their armour while the gun-makers enlarge the size and increase the penetrative power of their weapons, until the weight that has to be carried on a battle-ship renders the attainment of speed practically impossible. meanwhile there is going forward, in the hull of the vessel itself, a gradual course of evolution which will eventually place the policy of increasing strength of armour and of guns at a discount. the division of the air-space of a warship into water-tight compartments will doubtless prove to be, in actual naval conflict, a more effectual means of keeping the vessel afloat than the indefinite increase in the thickness and consequent weight of her armour. the most advanced naval architects of modern times are bestowing more and more attention upon this feature, as affording a prospect of rendering ships unsinkable, whether through accidents or through injury in warfare. no doubt, for merchant steamers, it will be seen that development along the lines already laid down in this department will suffice for all practical purposes. the water-tight bulkheads, with readily closed or automatically shutting doorways, ensure the maintenance of buoyancy in case of any ordinary accident from collision or grounding, while the duplication of engines, shafts and propellers--without which no steamship of the middle twentieth century will be passed by marine surveyors as fit for carrying passengers on long ocean voyages--will make provision against all excepting the most extremely improbable mishaps to the machinery. if the numerical estimate of the chance of the disablement of a single engine and its propeller during a certain voyage be stated at one to a thousand, then the risk of helplessness through the break down of both systems in a vessel having twin screws and entirely separate engines will be represented by the proportion of one to a million. this mode of reckoning, of course, assumes that the two systems could be made absolutely independent in relation to all possible disasters; and some deduction must be made on account of the impossibility of attaining this ideal. yet it is evident that when every practicable device has been adopted for rendering a double accident improbable the chances against such a disaster will not be far from the proportion stated. when we come to consider the evolution of the warship as compared with that of the merchant steamer, we are at once confronted with the fact that the infliction of injury upon the boilers, the engine, or the propellers of a hostile vessel is the great object aimed at by the gunners. the evolution of the warship in the direction of ensuring safety, therefore, will not stop at the duplication of the engines, boilers and propellers. in fact it must sooner or later be apparent that the interests of a great naval power demand the working out of a type of warlike craft that shall be almost entirely destitute of armour, but constructed on such a principle--both as to hull and machinery--that she can be raked fore and aft, and shot through in all directions without becoming either water-logged or deprived of her motive power. a torpedo-boat built on this system may consist essentially of a series of steel tubes of large section grouped longitudinally, and divided into compartments like those of a bamboo cane. each of these has its own small but powerful boilers and engines, and each its separate propeller at the stern. care also is taken to place the machinery of each tube in such a position that no two are abreast. in fact, the principle of construction is such as to render just as remote as may be the possibility of any shot passing through the vessel and disabling two at the same time. if a boat of this description has each tube furnished not only with a separate screw at the stern, but also with a torpedo at the bows, it can offer a most serious menace to even the most powerful battle-ship afloat, because its power of "getting home" with a missile depends not upon its protective precautions, but upon an appeal to the law of averages, which makes it practically impossible for any gunners, however skilful, to disable all its independent sections during the run from long range to torpedo-striking distance. the attacked warship is like an animal exposed to the onslaught of one of those fabled reptiles possessing a separate life and a separate sting in each of its myriad sections; so that what would be a mortal injury to a creature having its vital organs concentrated in one spot produces only the most limited effect in diminishing its strength and powers of offence. or this class of naval fighter may be regarded as a combined fleet of small torpedo-boats, bound together for mutual purposes of offence and defence. singly, they would present defects of coal-carrying capacity, sea-going qualities, and accommodation for crew which would render them comparatively helpless and innocuous; but in combination they possess all the travelling capacities of a large warship, conjoined with the deadly powers at close quarters of a number of torpedo boats, all acting closely in concert upon a single plan. the chief naval lesson taught during the spanish-american war was the need for improving the sea-going qualities of the torpedo-boat before it can be regarded as a truly effective weapon in naval warfare. it was announced at one stage that if the spanish torpedo-boat fleet could have been coaled and re-coaled at the azores, and two or three other points on the passage across to america, it might have been brought within striking distance of the united states cruisers operating against santiago. this hypothetical statement provided but cold comfort for the spaniards, who had been persuaded to put so much of their available naval strength into a type of craft utterly unsuited for operations complying with the first great requirement of naval warfare, namely, that the proper limit of the campaign coincides with the shores of the enemy's country. but when the naval architect and the engineer have evolved a class of torpedo-using vessel which can both travel far and strike hard, and which, moreover, can stand a few well-directed shots penetrating her without succumbing to their effect, a new era will have been opened up in naval warfare--an era of high explosive weapons requiring to strike home with dash and bravery in spite of risk from shot and shell; but, like the bayonet on land, capable of overthrowing all war-machines which can only strike from a considerable distance. chapter xii. music. a perfect _sostenuto_ piano has been the dream of many a musician whose ardent desire it was to perform his music exactly as it was written. a sustained piano note is, indeed, the great mechanical desideratum for the music of the future. in music, as at present written and published for the piano, which is, and must continue to be, the real "king of instruments," there is a good deal of make-believe. a long note--or two notes tied in a certain method--is intended to be played as a continued sound, like the note of an organ; whereas there is no piano in existence which will produce anything even approximately approaching to that effect. the characteristic of the piano as an instrument is _percussion_, producing, at the moment of striking the note, a loud sound which almost immediately dies away and leaves but a faint vibration. the phonographic record of a pianoforte solo shows this very clearly to the eye, because the impression made by a long note is a deeply-marked indentation succeeded by the merest shallow scratch--not unlike the impression made by a tadpole on mud--with a big head and an attenuated body. every note marked long in pianoforte music is therefore essentially a _sforzando_ followed by a rapid _diminuendo_. anything in such music marked as a long note to be sustained _crescendo_--the most thrilling effect of orchestral, choral, and organ music--is necessarily a sham and a delusion. the genius and skill which have enabled the masters of pianoforte composition not only to cover up this defect in their instrument, but even to make amends for it, by working out effects only suitable for a percussion note, present one of the most remarkable features of musical progress in the nineteenth century. so notable is that fact in its relation to the pianoforte accompaniments of vocal music, that it seems open to question whether, even in the presence of a thoroughly satisfactory _sostenuto_ piano, much use would for many years be made of it for this particular purpose. the effects of repeated notes succeeding one another with increasing or decreasing force, and of _arpeggio_ passages, have been so fully explored and made available in standard music of every grade, that necessarily the public taste has set itself to appreciate the pianoforte solo and the accompanied song exactly as they are written and performed. these are, after all, the highest forms of music which civilisation has yet enabled one or two performers to produce. yet, in regard to solo instrumentalisation, there is no doubt that a general hope exists for the discovery of a compromise between the piano and the organ or between the piano and the string band. some inventors have aimed in the latter direction and others in the former; but no one has succeeded in really recommending his ideas to the public. combined piano-violins and piano-organs have been shown at each of the great exhibitions from the middle of the nineteenth century to its close. several of these instruments have been devised and constructed with great ingenuity; and yet practically all of them have been received by the musical profession either with indifference or with positive ridicule. the fact is that revolutionary sudden changes in musical instruments are rendered impossible owing to the near relationship which exists between each instrument and the general body of the music that is written for it. no one can divorce the two, which, as a factor in æsthetic progress, are really one and indivisible. therefore, if any man invents a musical instrument which requires for its success the sudden evolution of a new race of composers writing for it, and a new type of educated public taste to hail these composers with delight, he is asking for a miracle and he will be disappointed. what is wanted is not a new instrument, but an improved piano that shall at one and the same time correct, to some extent, the defects of the existing instrument, and leave still available all the brilliant effects which have been invented for it by a generation of musical geniuses. we want the sustained note, and yet we do not wish to lose the pretty turns and graceful devices by which the lack of it has been hidden, or atoned for, in the works of the masters. therefore our sustained note must not be too aggressive. for a long time, indeed, it must partake of the very defects which it is intended ultimately to abolish. in other words, we want to retain the percussion note with the dampers and with the loud and soft pedals, in fact, all the existing inventions for coaxing some of the notes to sustain themselves while others are cut short, as may be desired, and at the same time we have to add other and more effective means to assist the performer in achieving the same object. the more or less complicated methods aiming at the prolongation of the residual effect of the percussion have apparently been very nearly exhausted. some of the most modern pianos are really marvels of mechanical ingenuity applied to this purpose. we have now to look to something slightly resembling the principle of the violin or of the organ, in order to secure the additional _sostenuto_ effect for which we are searching. having to deal with a piano in practically its existing form, we obviously require to take special account of the fact that the note is begun by percussion, and that any attempt to bring a solid substance into contact with the wire while still vibrating, with the object of continuing its motion, is likely to produce more or less of a jarring effect. the air-blast type of note-continuer for _sostenuto_ effect therefore offers the most promising outlook for the improvement of the modern piano in the direction indicated. by directing a blast of air from a very thin nozzle on to the vibrating wire of a piano, the sound emitted may be very greatly intensified; and although naturally the decreasing amplitude of the vibration may in itself tend to create a _diminuendo_, yet it is possible to make up for this in some degree by causing the air-blast to increase in force, through the use of any suitable means, modified by an extra pedal as may be desired. delicate _pianissimo_ effects, somewhat resembling those of the eolian lyre, are produced by playing the notes with the air-blast alone, without the aid of percussion. but the louder _sostenuto_ notes depend upon the added atmospheric resistance offered by a strong current of air to those movements of the wire which have been originally set up by percussion, and the fact that this resistance gives rise to a corresponding continuance of the motion. the prolongation of a note in this way is analogous to the continual swinging of an elastic switch in a stream of water, the current by its force producing a rhythmic movement. when these eolian effects, as applied to the pianoforte, have been carefully studied, many devices for controlling them will be brought forward. the main purpose, however, must be to connect the air-blast with the percussion apparatus in such a manner that, as soon as a key is depressed, the nozzle of that particular note in the air-blast is opened exactly at the same time that the wire is struck by the hammer, and it remains open as long as the note is held down. the movement of an extra pedal, however, has the effect of throwing the whole of the air-blast apparatus out of gear and reducing the piano to a percussion instrument, pure and simple. it will be on the concert platform, no doubt, that this kind of improvement will find its first field of usefulness. performers will require, in addition to their grand pianos, reservoirs of compressed air attachable by tubes to their instruments. in private houses hydraulic air-compressors will be found more convenient. when the piano has by some such means acquired the faculty of _singing_ its notes, as well as of _ringing_ them, its ascendency, as the finest instrument adapted to solo instrumentalism, will be assured. the common domestic piano is rightly regarded by many people as being little better than an instrument of torture. one reason for this aversion is that, in the great majority of cases, the household instrument is not kept in tune. probably it is not too much to say that the man who would invent a sound cottage piano which would remain in tune would do more for the improvement of the national taste in music than the largest and finest orchestra ever assembled. the constantly vitiated sense of hearing, which is brought about by the continual jangle of notes just a fractional part of a tone out of tune, is responsible for much of the distaste for good music which prevails among the people. when the domestic instrument is but imperfectly tuned, it is natural that those pieces should be preferred which suffer least by reason of the imperfection, and these, it need hardly be remarked, generally belong to the class of music which must be rated as essentially inferior, if not vulgar. the device of winding a string round a peg and twisting it up on the latter in order to obtain tension for a vibrating note is thousands of years old. it was the method by which tension was imparted to some of the earliest harps and lyres of which history is cognisant; and it is still to be found to-day in the most elaborate and costly grand piano, with but few alterations affecting its principle of action. the pianoforte of the future will be kept in tune by more exact and scientific methods, attaining a certain balance between the thickness of the wire and the tension placed upon it by means of springs and weights. besides the ravages of the badly-tuned piano, much suffering is inflicted by the barbarous habit of permitting a sounding instrument to be used for mere mechanical exercises. the taste of the pupil is vitiated, and the nerves of other inmates of the house are subjected to a source of constant irritation when long series of notes, arranged merely as muscular exercises, and some of them violating almost every rule of musical form, are ground out hour after hour like coffee from a coffee-mill. the inconsistency of subjecting the musical ear and taste of a boy or girl to this process, and then expecting the child to develop an innate taste for the delicacies of form in melody and of the beauty of harmony, is almost as bad as would be that of asking a chinese victim of foot-binding to walk easily and gracefully. the use of the digitorium for promoting the mechanical portion of a musical education by the training of the fingers has already, to some slight extent, obviated the evils complained of. but this instrument is, as yet, only in its rudimentary stage of development. the dumb notes of the keyboard ought to be capable of emitting sounds by way of notice to the operator, in order to show when the rules have been broken. thus, for instance, the impact caused by putting a key down should have the effect of driving a small weight upwards in the direction of a metal bar, the distance of which can be adjusted. another bar, at a lower level, is also approached by a second weight, and the perfect degree of evenness in the touch is indicated by the fact that the lower bar should be made to emit a faint sound with every note, but the higher one not at all. the closer the bars the more difficult is the exercise, and remarkable evenness of touch can be acquired by a progressive training with such an instrument. the organ has been wonderfully improved during the nineteenth century. yet the decline of its popularity in comparison with the pianoforte may be accounted for on very rational grounds. while ardent organists still claim that the organ is the "king of instruments" the public generally entertain a feeling that it is a deposed king. it remains for the organ-builders of the twentieth century to attack the problem of curing its defects by methods going more directly to the root of the difficulty than any hitherto attempted. as contrasted with the pianoforte, the organ is extremely deficient in that power which the conductor of an orchestra loves to exercise--facility in accentuating and in subduing at will the work of each individual performer. for all practical purposes the ten fingers of a piano-player are the ten players in an orchestra; and, according to the force with which each finger strikes the note, is the prominence given to its effects. an air or a _motif_ may be brought out with emphasis by one set of fingers, while the others are playing an accompaniment with all sorts of delicate gradations of softness and emphasis. by multiplying the manuals, the organ-builder has endeavoured, with a certain degree of success, to make up for the unfortunate fact that the performer on his instrument possesses no similar facility in making it speak louder when he submits the note to extra pressure. one hand may be playing an air on one manual, while the second is engaged in the accompaniment on another; and the former may be connected with a louder stop, or with one of a more penetrating quality than the latter. this device, together with an elaborate arrangement of swells and pedal-notes, has greatly enlarged the capacity of the organ for producing those choral effects which mainly depend upon gradations of volume. yet the whole system, elaborate as it is, offers but a poor substitute for the marvellous range of individuality that may be expressed on the notes of the piano by instantaneous changes in the values ascribed to single notes. by the same action of his finger the pianist not only makes the note, but also gives its value; while the method of the organist is to neglect the element of finger-pressure and to rely upon other methods for imparting emphasis or softness to his work. an organ that shall emit a louder or softer note, according to the force with which the key on the manual is depressed, will no doubt be one of the musical instruments of the twentieth century. whether each key will be fitted with a resisting spring, or whether the lever will be constructed in such a way as to throw a weight to a higher or lower grade of position, according to the force with which it is struck, is a question which will depend upon the results of experiment. but the latter method is more in consonance with the conditions which have given to the piano its wonderful versatility, and it therefore seems the more probable solution of the two. upon the vigour of the finger's impact will depend the height to which a valve is thrown, and this will determine the speed and volume of the air which is liberated to rush into the pipe and make the note. the nineteenth century orchestra is a fearfully and wonderfully constructed agglomeration of ancient and modern instruments. its merits are attested by the fine musical sense of the most experienced conductors, whose aim it has been so to balance the different instruments as to produce a tastefully-blended effect, while at the same time providing for solos and also for the rendering of parts in which a small number of performers may contribute to the unfolding of the composer's ideas. the orchestra cannot therefore be examined or discussed from a mechanical point of view, however much some of the instruments of which it is composed may be thought capable of improvement. but the position of the conductor himself in the front of an orchestra is, from a purely artistic standpoint, highly anomalous. it is as if the prompter at the performance of a drama were to be seen taking the most conspicuous part and mixing among the actors upon the stage. if an orchestral piece be well played without the visible presence of a conductor, the sense of correct time reaches the audience naturally through the music itself; and any sort of gesticulations intended to mark it are under these conditions regarded as being out of place. the foremost orchestral conductors of the day are evidently impressed with this unfitness of the mechanical marking of time by the wild waving of a stick or swaying of the body; and accordingly, however much they exert themselves at the rehearsal, they purposely subdue their motions during a public performance. the time is not far distant when the object of the conductor will be to guide his band without permitting his promptings to be perceived in any way by the audience. for this purpose an "electric beat-indicator" will prove useful. various proposals for its application have been put forward, and for different purposes several of them are obviously feasible. for instance, in one system the conductor sits in a place hidden from the audience and beats time on an electric contact-maker, which admits of his sending a special message to any particular performer whenever he desires to do so. the signal which marks the time may be given to each performer, either visually by a beater concealed within a small bell-shaped cavity affixed to his desk or to his electric light; or it may be conveyed by the sense of touch through a mechanical beater within a small metal weight placed on the floor and upon which he sets one of his feet. the electric time-beater in the latter system thus taps the measure gently on the sole of the performer's foot, and special signals, as may be arranged, are sent to him by preconcerted combinations of taps. the absence of any distraction from the music itself will soon be gratefully felt by audiences, and the playing of a symphony in the twentieth century, in which the whole orchestra moves sympathetically in obedience to the "nerve-waves" of the electric current, will be the highest possible presentment of the musical art. chapter xiii. art and news. the production of pictures for the million will be practically the highest achievement of the graphic art in the twentieth century. many eminent painters do not at all relish the prospect, being strongly of opinion that when every branch of art becomes popular it will be vulgarised. this notion arises from a fallacy which has affected ideas during the nineteenth century in many matters besides art, the mistake of supposing that vulgar people all belong to one grade of society. yet every one who knows modern england, for instance, is perfectly aware that the highest standard of taste is only to be found in the elect of all classes of society. after the experience of the eighteenth century, surely it ought to have been recognised that the "upper ten thousand," when left to develop vulgarity in its true essence, can attain to a degree of perfection hardly possible in any other social grade. is there in the whole range of pictorial art anything more irredeemably vulgar than a "state portrait" by sir thomas lawrence or one of his imitators? it was under the prompting of a dread of the process of popularising art that so many eminent painters of the nineteenth century protested against the fashion set by sir j. e. millais when he sold such pictures as "cherry ripe" and "bubbles," knowing they were intended for reproduction in very large numbers by mechanical means. from a somewhat similar motive a few of the leading artists of the nineteenth century for a time stood aloof from the movement for familiarising the people with at least the form, if not the colouring, of each notable picture of the year. from small and very unpretentious beginnings, the published pictorial notes of the royal academy and other exhibitions of the year have risen to most imposing proportions; and already there is some talk of attempting a few of the best from each year's production in colours. half-tone zinco and similar processes have brought down the expenses entailed by reproductions in colour-work, so as to render an undertaking of this kind much more feasible than it was in the middle of the last half-century. "cherry ripe" cost five thousand pounds to reproduce, by the laborious processes of printing not only each colour, but almost every different shade of each colour from a different surface. in the "three-colour-zinco" process of reproduction only three printings are required, each colour with all its delicate gradations of shade being fully provided for by a single engraved block. when machines of great precision have been finally perfected for admitting of the successive blocks being printed from on paper run from the reel without any handling, a revolution will be brought about not only in artistic printing, but even in the conditions of studio work upon which the artist depends for success. first, the pictorial notes of the year will be brought out in colour; and as competition for the right of reproduction increases, the artists who have painted the most suitable and most popular pictures will find that they can get more remuneration for copyright than they can for the pictures themselves. this has already been the case in regard to a very limited number of pictures; but the exception of the past will be the rule of the future, at least as regards those pictures which possess any special merits at all. more thought will therefore be required as the motive or basis of each subject; and historical pictures will come more into favour, the affected simplicity and mental emptiness of the _plein air_ school being discarded in favour of a style which shall speak more directly to the people, and stir more deeply both their mental and their emotional natures. the artist and the printer must then confer. they can no longer afford to work in the future with such disregard of each other's ideas and methods as they have done in the past. it was at one time the custom among painters almost to despise the "black-and-white man" who drew for the press in any shape or form; but that piece of affectation has nearly been destroyed by the general ridicule with which it is now received, and by the knowledge that there are already, at the end of the nineteenth century, just as many men of talent working by methods suitable for reproduction, as there are painters who confine their attention to palette, canvas and brush. the printer will now advance a step further, and will invoke the services of the painter himself, even prescribing certain methods by which the press may be enabled to reproduce the work of the artist more faithfully than would otherwise be possible. transparency painting will no doubt be one of these methods. the artist will paint on a set of sheets of transparent celluloid or glass, mounted in frames of wood and hinged so that they can, for purposes of observation, be put aside and yet brought back to their original positions quite accurately. each different transparent sheet will be intended for one pure colour, the only pigments used being of the most transparent description obtainable. the picture may thus be built up by successive additions and alterations, not all put upon one surface, but constituting a number of "monochromes," superimposed one upon the other. when finished, each of these one-colour transparencies can then be reproduced by photo-mechanical means for multi-colour printing in the press. by what are known as the photographic "interruption" processes, a kind of converse method has achieved a certain degree of success. a landscape or a picture is photographed several times from exactly the same position, but on each occasion it is taken through a screen of a different coloured glass, which is intended for the purpose of intercepting all the rays of light, except those of one particular tint. coloured prints in transparent gelatine or other suitable medium are then made from the various negatives, each in its appropriate tint; and when all are placed together and viewed through transmitted light, the effect of the picture, with all its colours combined, is fairly well produced. more serviceable from the artistic point of view will be the method according to which the artist makes his picture by transmitted light, but the finished printed product is seen on paper, because this latter lends itself to the finest work of the artistic printer. the principal branch of the work of the photographer must continue to be portraiture. he cannot greatly reduce the cost of getting a really good negative, because so much hand-labour is required for the task of "retouching"; but he can give, perhaps, a hundred prints for the price which he now charges for a dozen, and make money by the enterprise. it has already been proved that there is no necessity for using expensive salts of gold, silver or platinum in order to secure the most artistic prints; and, as a matter of fact, some of the finest art work in the photography of the past quarter of a century has been accomplished with the cheapest of materials, such as gelatine, glue and lampblack. pigmented gelatine is, without doubt, the coming medium for photographic prints, and the methods of making them must approximate more and more closely to those of the typographic printer. by producing a "photo-relief" in gelatine--sensitised with bichromate of potash, and afterwards exposed first to the sun and then to the action of water--an impression in plastic material can be secured, from which, with the use of warm, thin, pigmented gelatine, a hundred copies or more can be printed off in a few minutes. the very general introduction of such a process has naturally been delayed owing to the extra trouble involved in the first methods which were suggested for applying it, and also, no doubt, on account of the recent fashion for platinotype and bromide of silver prints. but as soon as more convenient details for the making of pigmented gelatine prints have been elaborated, the cheapness of the material and the wonderful variety of the art shades and tints in which photographs can be executed will give the gelatine processes an advantage in the competition which it will be hopeless for other methods to challenge. the daily newspapers of a few years hence will be vividly illustrated with photographic pictures of the personages and the events of the day. the gelatine photo-relief, already alluded to, will no doubt afford the basis of the principal processes by which this will be effected. hitherto the chief drawback has been the difficulty of imparting a suitable grain to the printing blocks made from these reliefs; but this has been practically overcome by the use of sheets of metallic foil previously impressed with the form of a finely-engraved tint-block. the actual printing surface, of course, consists of an electrotype or stereotype taken from this metallic-grained photographic face. for "high-art" printing on fine paper with the more expensive kinds of ink, the half-tone zinco processes will doubtless maintain their supremacy and gradually diminish the area within which lithographic printing is required. in the case of newspaper work, however, where haste in getting ready for the press is necessarily the prime consideration, the flat and very slightly-indented surface of the zinco block is found to be unsuited to the requirements. flat blocks, which require careful "overlaying" on the machine, waste too much time for daily news work. without going into technical details it may be surmised in general terms that in the near future almost every newspaper will contain, each day, one or more photo-illustrations of events of the previous day or of the news which has come to hand from a distance. type-setting by hand is, for newspaper purposes, being so rapidly superseded, that only in the smaller towns and villages can it remain for even a few years longer. but in the machines by which this revolution has been effected, finality has been by no means reached. every line of matter which appears in any modern daily newspaper has to pass through two processes of stereotyping before it makes a beginning to effect its final work of printing upon paper. first, there is the stereotyping or casting of the line in its position in the type-setting machine after the matrices have been ranged in position by the application of the fingers to the various keys; and, secondly, when all the lines have been placed together to make a page, it is necessary to take an impression of them upon _papier mâché_, or what is technically called "flong," and then to dry it and make the full cast from it curved and ready for placing on the cylinder of the printing machine. the delay occasioned by the need for drying the wet flong is such a serious matter--particularly to evening newspapers requiring many editions during the afternoon--that several dry methods have been tried with greater or less success. but there is really no need for more than one casting process. in the twentieth century machine the matrices will be replaced by permanent type from which, when ranged in the line, an impression will be made by hard pressure on a small bar of soft metal or plastic material. all the impressed bars having been set together in a casting box having the necessary curvature, the final stereo plate for printing from will be taken at once by pouring melted metal on the combined bars. an appreciable saving, both in time and in money, will also be effected by applying the principle of the perforated strip of paper or cardboard to the purpose of operating the machine by which the necessary letters are caused to range themselves in the required order. machines similar to typewriters will be employed for perforating the strips of paper and for printing, at the same time, in ordinary letters the matter just as if it were being typewritten. the corrections can then be made by cutting off those pieces of the strips which are wrong and inserting corrected pieces in their places. no initial "justification" to the space required to make a line is needed in this system. the strips, however, are put through the setting machine, and, as they make the reading matter by the impression of bars as already described, they are divided into lines automatically. large numbers of newspapers will in future be sold from "penny-in-the-slot" machines. the system to be adopted for this particular purpose will doubtless differ in some important respects from that which has been successful in the vending of small articles such as sweetmeats and cigarettes. the newspapers may be hung on light bars within the machine, these being supported at the end by a carefully-adjusted cross piece, which, on the insertion of a penny in the slot, moves just sufficiently to permit the end of one bar with its newspaper to drop, and to precipitate the latter on to a table forming the front of the machine. when the full complement of newspapers has been exhausted the slot is automatically closed. some of the newspapers of the twentieth century will be given away gratis, and will be, for the most part, owned by the principal advertisers. this is the direction in which journalistic property is now tending, and at any juncture steps might be taken, in one or other of the great centres of newspaper enterprise, which would precipitate the ultimate movement. hardly any one who buys a half-penny paper to-day imagines for a moment that there is any actual profit on the article. it is understood on all hands that the advertisers keep the newspapers going and that the arrangement is mutually beneficial. not that either party can dictate to the other in matters outside of its own province. the effect is simply to permit the great public to purchase its news practically for the price of the paper and ink on which it is conveyed; the condition being that the said public will permit its eyes to be greeted with certain announcements placed in juxtaposition to the news and comments. sooner or later, therefore, the idea will occur to some of the leading advertisers to form a syndicate and give to the people a small broadsheet containing briefly the daily narrative. the ponderous newspapers of the latter end of the nineteenth century--filled full of enough of linotype matter to occupy more than the whole day of the subscriber in their perusal--will be to a large extent dispensed with; and the new art of journalism will consist in saying things as briefly--not as lengthily--as possible. chapter xiv. invention and collectivism. the ownership of machinery and of all the varied appliances in the evolution of which inventive genius is exercised is a matter which, strictly speaking, does not belong to the domain of this work. nevertheless, in endeavouring to forecast the progress of invention during the twentieth century, it is necessary to take count of the risks involved in the inauguration of any public and social economical systems which might tend to stifle freedom of thought and to discourage the efforts of those who have suggestions of industrial improvements to make. it is plain that those economic forces which prevent the inventor from having his ideas tested must to that extent retard the progress of industrial improvement. thousands of men, who imagine that they possess the inventive talent in a highly developed degree, are either crack-brained enthusiasts or else utterly unpractical men whose services would never be worth anything at all in the work of attacking difficult mechanical problems. it is in the task of discriminating between this class and the true inventors that many industrial organizers fail. any economic system which offers inducements to the directors of industrial enterprises to shirk the onerous, and at times very irksome, duty of sifting out the good from the bad must stand condemned not only on account of its wastefulness, but by reason of its baneful effects in the discouragement of inventive genius. considerations of this kind lead to the conclusion that during the twentieth century the spread of collectivist or socialistic ideas, and the adoption of methods of state and municipal control of production and transport may have an important bearing upon the progress of civilisation through the adoption of new inventions. many thinking men and women of the present generation are inclined to believe _the_ twentieth century invention _par excellence_ will be the bringing of all the machinery of production, transport and exchange under the official control of persons appointed by the state or by the municipality, and therefore amenable to the vote of the people. projects of collectivism are in the air, and high hopes are entertained that the twentieth century will be far more distinctively marked by the revolution which it will witness in the social and industrial organisation of the people than in the improvements effected in the mechanical and other means for extending man's powers over natural forces. the average official naturally wishes to retain his billet. that is the main motive which governs nearly all his official acts; and in the treatment which he usually accords to the inventor he shows this anxiety perhaps more clearly than in any other class of the actions of his administration. he wants to make no mistakes, but whether he ever scores a distinct and decided success is comparatively a matter of indifference to him. so long as he does not give a handle to his enemies to be used against him, he is fairly contented to go on from year to year in a humdrum style. even a man of fine feeling and progressive ideas soon experiences the numbing effects of the routine life after he has been a few years in office. he knows that he will be judged rather on the negative than on the positive principle, that is to say, for the things which it is accounted he ought not to have done rather than for the more enterprising good things which it is admitted he may have done. now any one who undertakes to encourage invention must necessarily make mistakes. he may indeed know that one case of brilliant success will make up for half a dozen comparative failures; but he reckons that at any rate the blanks in the chances which he is taking will numerically exceed the prizes. an official, however, will not dare to draw blanks. better for him to draw nothing at all. he must therefore turn his back upon the inventor and approve of nothing which has not been shown to be a great success elsewhere. this means that the socialised and municipalised enterprises must always lag behind those depending upon private effort; and the country which imposes disabilities on the latter must, for a time at least, lose its lead in the industrial race. this is what happened to england, as contrasted with the united states, when, under the influence of enthusiasm for future municipalisation, the british legislature laid heavy penalties upon those who should venture to instal electric trams in the united kingdom. the american manufacturers and tramway companies, in their keen competition with one another and perfect freedom to compete on even terms with horse traction, soon took the lead in all matters pertaining to electric traction, and the british public, at the close of the nineteenth century, have had to witness the humiliating spectacle of their own public authorities being forced to import electrical apparatus, and even steam-engines applicable to dynamos used for tramway purposes, from the other side of the atlantic! the lesson thus enforced will not in the end be missed, although it may require a considerable time to be fully understood. officialism is a foe to inventive progress; and whether it exists under a regime of collectivism or under one of autocracy, it must paralyse industrial enterprise to that extent, thus rendering the country which has adopted it liable to be outstripped by its competitors. the true friend of inventive progress is generally the rising competitor in a busy hive of industry where the difficulties of securing a profitable footing are very considerable. such a man is ever on the watch for an opportunity to gain some leverage by which he may raise himself to a level with older-established or richer competitors. if he be a good employer his workmen enter into the spirit of the competition, feeling that promotion will follow on any services they may render. they may perhaps possess the inventive talent themselves, or they may do even greater services by recognising it in others and co-operating in their work. it is thus that successful inventions are usually started on their useful careers. it is therefore upon private enterprise that the principal onus of advancing the inventions which will contribute to the progress of the human race in the twentieth century must necessarily fall. the type of man who will cheerfully work _pro bono publico_, with just as much ardour as he would exhibit when labouring to advance his own interests, may already be found here and there in civilised communities at existing stages of development; but it is not sufficiently numerous to enable the world to dispense with the powerful stimulus of competition. just as a superior type of machinery can be elaborated during the course of a single century, there is no doubt that--mainly through the use of improved appliances for lessening the amount of brute force which man needs to exert in his daily avocations--the nervous organisations of the men and women constituting the rank and file during the latter part of the twentieth century will be immensely improved in sensitiveness. a corresponding advance will then take place in the capacity for collectivism. but a human being of the high class demanded for the carrying out of any scheme of state socialism must be bred by a slow improvement during successive generations. a hundred years do not constitute a long period of time in the process of the organic evolution of the human race, and, as tennyson declared, we are far from the noon of man-- there is time for the race to grow. yet the public advantages of collectivist activities in certain particular directions cannot for a moment be denied. much waste and heavy loss are entailed by the duplication of works of general utility by rival owners, each of them, perhaps, only half utilising the full capacities of his machinery or of the other plant upon which capital has been expended. moreover, as soon as companies have become so large that their managers and other officials are brought into no closer personal relations with the shareholders than the town clerks, engineers, and surveyors of cities, and the departmental heads of state bureaus are associated with the voters and ratepayers, the systems of private and of collective ownership begin to stand much more nearly on a par as regards the non-encouragement which they offer to inventiveness. one of the greatest discoveries of the twentieth century, therefore, will be the adoption of a _via media_ which will admit of the progressiveness of private ownership in promoting industrial inventions, combined with the political progressiveness of collectivism. one direction in which an important factor assisting in the solution of this problem is to be expected is in the removal of the causes which tend to make public officials so timid and unprogressive. so long as a mere temporary outcry about the apparent non-success of some adopted improvement--whose real value perhaps cannot be proved unless by the exercise of patience--may result in the dismissal or in the disrating of the official who has recommended it, just so long will all those who are called upon to act as guides to public enterprises be compelled to stick to the most conservative lines in the exercise of their duties. more assurance of permanence in positions of public administration is needed. the man upon whose shoulders rests the responsibility of adopting, or of condemning, new proposals brought before him, ostensibly in the interests of the public welfare, ought to be regarded as being called upon to carry out _quasi_-judicial functions; and his tenure of office, and his claim to a pension after a busy career, ought not to depend upon the chances of the evanescent politics of the day. if a man has proved, by his close and successful application to the study of his profession--as evinced in the tests which he has passed as a youth and during his subsequent career in subordinate positions--that he is really a lover of hard work, and imbued with conscientious devotion to duty, he may generally be trusted, when he has attained to a position of superintendence, to do his utmost in the interests of the public whom he serves. this is the theory upon which the appointment of a judge in almost any english-speaking community is understood to be made; and, although failures in its application may occur now and then, there is no doubt whatever that on the average of cases it works out well in practice. if private manufacturers, whose success in life depends upon their appreciation of talent and inventiveness, could be assured that in dealing with public officials they would be brought into contact with men of the standing indicated, instead of being confronted so frequently with the demand for commissions and other kinds of solatium on account of the risks undertaken in recommending anything new, they would soon largely modify their distrust of what is known as collectivism. it is the duty of the public whose servant an official is, rather than of the private manufacturer, to insure him against the danger of losing his position on account of any possible mistake in the exercise of his judgment. in short, the day is not far distant when the men upon whom devolves the responsibility of examining into, and reporting upon, the claims of those who profess to have made important industrial improvements will be looked upon as exercising judicial functions of the very highest type. when the important reforms arising from this recognition have been introduced, the forces of collectivism will cease to range themselves on the side of stolid conservatism in industry, as they undoubtedly have done in the nineteenth century even while they inconsistently professed to advance the cause of progress politically. the inventor, who in the early part of the nineteenth century was generally denounced as a public enemy, will, in the latter part of the twentieth century, be hailed as a benefactor to the community, because he will be judged by the ultimate, rather than by the immediate, effects of his work, and because it will be the duty of the public authorities to see to it that the dislocation of one industry incidental the promotion of another by any invention does not, on the whole, operate to throw people out of employment, but, on the contrary, gives more constant work and better wages to all. but the slow progress of the fundamental traits of human nature will retard the attainment of this goal. the world has a long distance to travel in the uphill road of industrial and social improvement before it can succeed in obtaining a really true view of the part fulfilled by inventive genius in contributing to human happiness. the aberdeen university press limited. a classified catalogue of scientific works published by messrs. longmans, green, & co. london: paternoster row, e.c. new york: & fifth avenue. bombay: hornby road. contents. page _advanced science manuals_ agriculture astronomy bacteriology biology botany and gardening building construction chemistry dynamics electricity _elementary science manuals_ engineering geology health and hygiene heat hydrostatics light _london science class-books_ _longmans' civil engineering series_ machine drawing and design magnetism manufactures mechanics medicine and surgery metallurgy mineralogy natural history and general science naval architecture navigation optics photography physics physiography physiology _practical elementary science series_ _proctor's (r. a.) works_ sound statics steam, oil and gas engines strength of materials technology telegraphy telephone _text-books of science_ thermodynamics _tyndall's (john) works_ veterinary medicine, etc. workshop appliances zoology chemistry. _crookes._--select methods in chemical analysis, chiefly inorganic. by sir william crookes, f.r.s., etc. third edition, rewritten and enlarged. with woodcuts. vo., _s._ net. _furneaux._--elementary chemistry, inorganic and organic. by w. furneaux, f.r.g.s., lecturer on chemistry, london school board. with illustrations and experiments. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _garrett and harden._--an elementary course of practical organic chemistry. by f. c. garrett, m.sc. (vict. et dunelm.), assistant lecturer and demonstrator in chemistry, the durham college of science, newcastle-on-tyne; and arthur harden, m.sc. (vict.), ph.d., assistant lecturer and demonstrator in chemistry, the owens college, manchester. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _jago._--works by w. jago, f.c.s., f.i.c. inorganic chemistry, theoretical and practical. with an introduction to the principles of chemical analysis inorganic and organic. with woodcuts and numerous questions and exercises. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ an introduction to practical inorganic chemistry. crown vo., _s._ _d._ inorganic chemistry, theoretical and practical. a manual for students in advanced classes of the science and art department. with plate of spectra and woodcuts. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _kolbe._--a short text-book of inorganic chemistry. by dr. hermann kolbe. translated and edited by t. s. humpidge, ph.d. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _mendelÉeff._--the principles of chemistry. by d. mendelÉeff. translated from the russian (sixth edition) by george kamensky, a.r.s.m., of the imperial mint, st. petersburg; and edited by t. a. lawson, b.sc, ph.d., fellow of the institute of chemistry. with diagrams and illustrations. vols. vo., _s._ _meyer._--outlines of theoretical chemistry. by lothar meyer, professor of chemistry in the university of tübingen. translated by professors p. phillips bedson, d.sc., and w. carleton williams, b.sc. vo., _s._ _miller._--introduction to the study of inorganic chemistry. by w. allen miller, m.d., ll.d. with woodcuts, fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _muir._--a course of practical chemistry. by m. m. p. muir, m.a., fellow and prælector in chemistry of gonville and caius college, cambridge. ( parts.) part i. elementary. crown vo., _s._ _d._ part ii. intermediate. crown vo., _s._ _d._ part iii. 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(vict.), ph.d., f.r.s., professor of chemistry in the royal college of science, south kensington. assisted by eminent contributors. a dictionary of applied chemistry. vols. vo. vols. i. and ii., _s._ each. vol. iii., _s._ quantitative chemical analysis. with woodcuts. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _thorpe and muir._--qualitative chemical analysis and laboratory practice. by t. e. thorpe, c.b., ph.d., d.sc., f.r.s., and m. m. pattison muir, m.a. with plate of spectra and woodcuts. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _tilden._--works by william a. tilden, d.sc. london, f.r.s., professor of chemistry in the royal college of science, south kensington. a short history of the progress of scientific chemistry in our own times. crown vo., _s._ net. introduction to the study of chemical philosophy. the principles of theoretical and systematic chemistry. with woodcuts. with or without the answers of problems. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ practical chemistry. the principles of qualitative analysis. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ hints on the teaching of elementary chemistry in schools and science classes. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _watts'_ dictionary of chemistry. revised and entirely rewritten by h. forster morley, m.a., d.sc., fellow of, and lately assistant professor of chemistry in, university college, london; and m. m. pattison muir, m.a., f.r.s.e., fellow, and prælector in chemistry, of gonville and caius college, cambridge. assisted by eminent contributors. vols. vo. vols. i. and ii., _s._ each. vol. iii., _s._ vol. iv., _s._ _whiteley._--works by r. lloyd whiteley, f.i.c., principal of the municipal science school, west bromwich. chemical calculations. with explanatory notes, problems and answers, specially adapted for use in colleges and science schools. with a preface by professor f. clowes, d.sc. (lond.), f.i.c. crown vo., _s._ organic chemistry: the fatty compounds. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ physics, etc. _ganot._--works by professor ganot. translated and edited by e. atkinson, ph.d., f.c.s. elementary treatise on physics, experimental and applied. with coloured plates and maps, and woodcuts, and appendix of problems and examples with answers. crown vo., _s._ natural philosophy for general readers and young persons. with plates, woodcuts, and an appendix of questions. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _glazebrook and shaw._--practical physics. by r. t. glazebrook, m.a., f.r.s., and w. n. shaw, m.a. with woodcuts. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _guthrie._--molecular physics and sound. by f. guthrie, ph.d. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _helmholtz._--popular lectures on scientific subjects. by hermann von helmholtz. translated by e. atkinson, ph.d., f.c.s., formerly professor of experimental science, staff college. with illustrations. vols., crown vo., _s._ _d._ each. contents.--vol. i.--the relation of natural science to science in general--goethe's scientific researches--the physiological causes of harmony in music--ice and glaciers--the interaction of the natural forces--the recent progress of the theory of vision--the conservation of force--the aim and progress of physical science. contents.--vol. ii.--gustav magnus. in memoriam--the origin and significance of geometrical axioms--the relation of optics to painting--the origin of the planetary system--thought in medicine--academic freedom in german universities--hermann von helmholtz--an autobiographical sketch. _henderson._--elementary physics. by john henderson, d.sc. (edin.), a.i.e.e., physics department, borough road polytechnic. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _maclean._--exercises in natural philosophy. by magnus maclean, d.sc., professor of electrical engineering at the glasgow and west of scotland technical college. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _meyer._--the kinetic theory of gases. elementary treatise, with mathematical appendices. by dr. oskar emil meyer, professor of physics at the university of breslau. second revised edition. translated by robert e. baynes, m.a., student of christ church, oxford, and dr. lee's reader in physics. vo., _s._ net. _van 'thoff._--the arrangement of atoms in space. by j. h. van t'hoff. second, revised, and enlarged edition. with a preface by johannes wislicenus, professor of chemistry at the university of leipzig; and an appendix 'stereo-chemistry among inorganic substances,' by alfred werner, professor of chemistry at the university of zürich. translated and edited by arnold eiloart. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _watson._--works by w. watson, b.sc., assistant professor of physics in the royal college of science, london; assistant examiner in physics, science and art department. elementary practical physics: a laboratory manual for use in organised science schools. with illustrations and exercises. crown vo., _s._ _d._ a text-book of physics. with diagrams and illustrations. large crown vo., _s._ _d._ _worthington._--a first course of physical laboratory practice. containing experiments. by a. m. worthington, m.a., f.r.s. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _wright._--elementary physics. by mark r. wright, m.a., professor of normal education, durham college of science. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ mechanics, dynamics, statics, hydrostatics, etc. _ball._--a class-book of mechanics. by sir r. s. ball, ll.d. diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _geldard._--statics and dynamics. by c. geldard, m.a., formerly scholar of trinity college, cambridge. crown vo., _s._ _goodeve._--works by t. m. goodeve, m.a., formerly professor of mechanics at the normal school of science, and the royal school of mines. the elements of mechanism. with woodcuts. crown vo., _s._ principles of mechanics. with woodcuts and numerous examples. crown vo., _s._ a manual of mechanics: an elementary text-book for students of applied mechanics. with illustrations and diagrams and examples taken from the science department examination papers, with answers. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _goodman._--mechanics applied to engineering. by john goodman, wh. sch., a.m.i.c.e., m.i.m.e., professor of engineering in the yorkshire college, leeds (victoria university). with illustrations and numerous examples. crown vo., _s._ _d._ net. _grieve._--lessons in elementary mechanics. by w. h. grieve, late engineer, r.n., science demonstrator for the london school board, etc. stage . with illustrations and a large number of examples. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ stage . with illustrations. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ stage . with illustrations. fcp. vo., _s._ _magnus._--works by sir philip magnus, b.sc., b.a. lessons in elementary mechanics. introductory to the study of physical science. designed for the use of schools, and of candidates for the london matriculation and other examinations. with numerous exercises, examples, examination questions, and solutions, etc., from - . with answers, and woodcuts. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ key for the use of teachers only, price _s._ - / _d._ hydrostatics and pneumatics. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._; or, with answers, _s._ the worked solutions of the problems, _s._ _robinson._--works by the rev. j. l. robinson, m.a. elements of dynamics (kinetics and statics). with numerous exercises. a text-book for junior students. crown vo., _s._ a first book in statics and dynamics. with numerous examples and answers. crown vo, _s._ _d._ sold separately: statics, _s._; dynamics, _s._ _smith._--works by j. hamblin smith, m.a. elementary statics. crown vo., _s._ elementary hydrostatics. crown vo., _s._ key to statics and hydrostatics. crown vo., _s._ _tarleton._--an introduction to the mathematical theory of attraction. by francis a. tarleton, ll.d., sc.d., fellow of trinity college, and professor of natural philosophy in the university of dublin. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _taylor._--works by j. e. taylor, m.a., b.sc. (lond.). theoretical mechanics, including hydrostatics and pneumatics. with diagrams and illustrations, and examination questions and answers. crown vo., _s._ _d._ theoretical mechanics--solids. with illustrations, worked examples and over examples from examination papers, etc. crown vo., _s._ _d._ theoretical mechanics.--fluids. with illustrations, numerous worked examples, and about examples from examination papers, etc. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _thornton._--theoretical mechanics--solids. including kinematics, statics and kinetics. by arthur thornton, m.a., f.r.a.s. with illustrations, worked examples, and over examples from examination papers, etc. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _twisden._--works by the rev. john f. twisden, m.a. practical mechanics; an elementary introduction to their study. with exercises, and figures and diagrams. crown vo., _s._ _d._ theoretical mechanics. with examples, numerous exercises, and diagrams. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _williamson._--introduction to the mathematical theory of the stress and strain of elastic solids. by benjamin williamson, d.sc., f.r.s. crown vo., _s._ _williamson and tarleton._--an elementary treatise on dynamics. containing applications to thermodynamics, with numerous examples. by benjamin williamson, d.sc., f.r.s., and francis a. tarleton, ll.d. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _worthington._--dynamics of rotation: an elementary introduction to rigid dynamics. by a. m. worthington, m.a., f.r.s. crown vo., _s._ _d._ optics and photography. _abney._--a treatise on photography. by sir william de wiveleslie abney, k.c.b., f.r.s., principal assistant secretary of the secondary department of the board of education. with woodcuts. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _glazebrook._--physical optics. by r. t. glazebrook, m.a., f.r.s., principal of university college, liverpool. with woodcuts of apparatus, etc. fcp. vo., _s._ _wright._--optical projection: a treatise on the use of the lantern in exhibition and scientific demonstration. by lewis wright, author of 'light: a course of experimental optics'. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ sound, light, heat, and thermodynamics. _cumming._--heat treated experimentally. by linnÆus cumming, m.a. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _day._--numerical examples in heat. by r. e. day, m.a. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _emtage._--light. by w. t. a. emtage, m.a. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _helmholtz._--on the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music. by hermann von helmholtz. royal vo., _s._ _madan._--an elementary text-book on heat for the use of schools. by h. g. madan, m.a., f.c.s., fellow of queen's college, oxford; 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author of 'telephone lines and their properties,' etc. with full-page illustrations and diagrams. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _preece and sivewright._--telegraphy. by sir w. h. preece, k.c.b., f.r.s., v.p.inst., c.e., etc., engineer-in-chief and electrician, post office telegraphs; and sir j. sivewright, k.c.m.g., general manager, south african telegraphs. with illustrations. fcp. vo., _s._ engineering, strength of materials, etc. _anderson._--the strength of materials and structures: the strength of materials as depending on their quality and as ascertained by testing apparatus. by sir j. anderson, c.e., ll.d., f.r.s.e. with woodcuts. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _barry._--railway appliances: a description of details of railway construction subsequent to the completion of the earthworks and structures. by sir john wolfe barry, k.c.b., f.r.s., m.i.c.e. with woodcuts. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _goodman._--mechanics applied to engineering. by john goodman, wh.sch., a.m.i.c.e., m.i.m.e., professor of engineering in the yorkshire college, leeds (victoria university). with illustrations and numerous examples. crown vo., _s._ _d._ net. _low._--a pocket-book for mechanical engineers. by david allan low (whitworth scholar), m.i.mech.e., professor of engineering, east london technical college (people's palace), london. with over specially prepared illustrations. fcp. vo., gilt edges, rounded corners, _s._ _d._ _smith._--graphics, or the art of calculation by drawing lines, applied especially to mechanical engineering. by robert h. smith, professor of engineering, mason college, birmingham. part i. with separate atlas of plates containing diagrams. vo., _s._ _stoney._--the theory of stresses in girders and similar structures; 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(two volumes.) vol. i., with portrait and a reminiscence of the author, plates, and numerous illustrations. crown vo., _s._ vol. ii., with numerous illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ works by richard a. proctor. the moon: her motions, aspect, scenery, and physical condition. with many plates and charts, wood engravings, and lunar photographs. crown vo., _s._ _d._ other worlds than ours: the plurality of worlds studied under the light of recent scientific researches. with illustrations; map, charts, etc. crown vo., _s._ _d._ our place among infinities: a series of essays contrasting our little abode in space and time with the infinities around us. crown vo., _s._ _d._ myths and marvels of astronomy. crown vo., _s._ _d._ light science for leisure hours: familiar essays on scientific subjects, natural phenomena, etc. vols. i. and ii. crown vo., _s._ each. vol. i. cheap edition. crown vo., _s._ _d._ the orbs around us; essays on the moon and planets, meteors and comets, the sun and coloured pairs of suns. crown vo., _s._ _d._ the expanse of heaven: essays on the wonders of the firmament. crown vo., _s._ _d._ other suns than ours: a series of essays on suns--old, young, and dead. with other science gleanings. two essays on whist, and correspondence with sir john herschel. with star-maps and diagrams. crown vo., _s._ _d._ half-hours with the telescope: a popular guide to the use of the telescope as a means of amusement and instruction. with plates. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ new star atlas for the library, the school, and the observatory, in twelve circular maps (with two index-plates). with an introduction on the study of the stars. illustrated by diagrams. cr. vo., _s._ the southern skies: a plain and easy guide to the constellations of the southern hemisphere. showing in maps the position of the principal star-groups night after night throughout the year. with an introduction and a separate explanation of each map. true for every year. to., _s._ half-hours with the stars: a plain and easy guide to the knowledge of the constellations. showing in maps the position of the principal star-groups night after night throughout the year. with introduction and a separate explanation of each map. true for every year. to., _s._ _d._ larger star atlas for observers and students. in twelve circular maps, showing stars, double stars, nebulæ, etc. with index-plates. folio, _s._ the stars in their seasons: an easy guide to a knowledge of the star-groups. in large maps. imperial vo., _s._ rough ways made smooth. familiar essays on scientific subjects. crown vo., _s._ _d._ pleasant ways in science. crown vo., _s._ _d._ nature studies. by r. a. proctor, grant allen, a. wilson, t. foster, and e. clodd. crown vo., _s._ _d._ leisure readings. by r. a. proctor, e. clodd, a. wilson, t. foster, and a. c. ranyard. crown vo., _s._ _d._ physiography and geology. _bird._--works by charles bird, b.a. elementary geology. with geological map of the british isles, and illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ advanced geology. a manual for students in advanced classes and for general readers. with over illustrations, a geological map of the british isles (coloured), and a set of questions for examination. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _green._--physical geology for students and general readers. by a. h. green, m.a., f.g.s. with illustrations. vo., _s._ _morgan._--elementary physiography. treated experimentally. by alex. morgan, m.a., d.sc., f.r.s.e., lecturer in mathematics and science, church of scotland training college, edinburgh. with maps and diagrams. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _thornton._--works by j. thornton, m.a. elementary practical physiography. part i. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ part ii. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ elementary physiography: an introduction to the study of nature. with maps and illustrations. with appendix on astronomical instruments and measurements. crown vo., _s._ _d._ advanced physiography. with maps and illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ natural history and general science. _beddard._--the structure and classification of birds. by frank e. beddard, m.a., f.r.s., prosector and vice-secretary of the zoological society of london. with illustrations. vo., _s._ net. _furneaux._--works by william furneaux, f.r.g.s. the outdoor world; or, the young collector's hand-book. with plates, of which are coloured, and illustrations in the text. crown vo., _s._ net. life in ponds and streams. with coloured plates and illustrations in the text. crown vo., _s._ net. butterflies and moths (british). with coloured plates and illustrations in the text. crown vo., _s._ net. _hudson._--british birds. by w. h. hudson, c.m.z.s. with coloured plates from original drawings by a. thorburn, and plates and figures by c. e. lodge, and illustrations from photographs. crown vo., _s._ net. _nansen._--the norwegian north polar expedition, - : scientific results. edited by fridtjof nansen. volume i. with plates and numerous illustrations in the text. demy to, _s._ net. contents: . colin archer: the _fram_-- . j. f. pompeckj: the jurassic fauna of cape flora. with a geological sketch of cape flora and its neighbourhood by fridtjof nansen-- . a. g. nathorst: fossil plants from franz josef land-- . r. collett and f. nansen: an account of the birds-- . g. o. sars: crustacea. *** _the aim of this report (which will be published in english only) is to give, in a series of separate memoirs, a complete account of the scientific results of the norwegian polar expedition, - . the whole work is estimated to form five or six quarto volumes, which it is hoped will be finished in the course of about two years._ _stanley._--a familiar history of birds. by e. stanley, d.d., formerly bishop of norwich. with illustrations. crown vo, _s._ _d._ manufactures, technology, etc. _bell._--jacquard weaving and designing. by f. t. bell. with diagrams. vo., _s._ net. _calder._--the prevention of factory accidents: being an account of manufacturing industry and accident, and a practical guide to the law on the safe-guarding, safe-working and safe-construction of factory machinery, plant and premises. by john calder, sometime her majesty's inspector of factories for the north of scotland. with tables and illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ net. _lupton._--mining. an elementary treatise on the getting of minerals. by arnold lupton, m.i.c.e., f.g.s., etc. with diagrams and illustrations. crown vo., _s._ net. _morris and wilkinson._--the elements of cotton spinning. by john morris and f. wilkinson. with a preface by sir b. a. dobson, c.e., m.i.m.e. with diagrams and illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ net. _sharp._--bicycles and tricycles: an elementary treatise on their design and construction. with examples and tables. by archibald sharp, b.sc. with illustrations and diagrams. cr. vo., _s._ _taylor._--cotton weaving and designing. by john t. taylor. with diagrams. crown vo., _s._ _d._ net. _watts._--an introductory manual for sugar growers. by francis watts, f.c.s., f.i.c. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ health and hygiene. _ashby._--health in the nursery. by henry ashby, m.d., f.r.c.p., physician to the manchester children's hospital, and lecturer on the diseases of children at the owens college. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _buckton._--health in the house; twenty-five lectures on elementary physiology. by mrs. c. m. buckton. with woodcuts and diagrams. crown vo., _s._ _corfield._--the laws of health. by w. h. corfield, m.a., m.d. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _notter and firth._--works by j. l. notter, m.a., m.d., and r. h. firth, f.r.c.s. hygiene. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ practical domestic hygiene. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _poore._--works by george vivian poore, m.d. essays on rural hygiene. crown vo., _s._ _d._ the dwelling-house. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _wilson._--a manual of health-science: adapted for use in schools and colleges. by andrew wilson, f.r.s.e., f.l.s., etc. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ medicine and surgery. _ashby and wright._--the diseases of children, medical and surgical. by henry ashby, m.d., lond., f.r.c.p., physician to the general hospital for sick children, manchester; and g. a. wright, b.a., m.b. oxon., f.r.c.s., eng., assistant-surgeon to the manchester royal infirmary, and surgeon to the children's hospital. enlarged and improved edition. with illustrations. vo., _s._ _bennett._--works by william h. bennett, f.r.c.s., surgeon to st. george's hospital; 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and f. f. burghard, m.d. and m.s., f.r.c.s., teacher of practical surgery in king's college, london, surgeon to king's college, hospital (lond.), etc. part i. the treatment of general surgical diseases, including inflammation, suppuration, ulceration, gangrene, wounds and their complications, infective diseases and tumours; the administration of anæsthetics. with illustrations. royal vo., _s._ _d._ [ready. part ii. the treatment of the surgical affections of the tissues, including the skin and subcutaneous tissues, the nails, the lymphatic vessels and glands, the fasciæ, bursæ, muscles, tendons and tendon-sheaths, nerves, arteries and veins. deformities. with illustrations. royal vo., _s._ [ready. part iii. the treatment of the surgical affections of the bones. amputations. with illustrations. royal vo., _s._ part iv. the treatment of the surgical affections of the joints (including excisions) and the spine. with illustrations. royal vo., _s._ _other parts are in preparation._ _clarke._--works by j. jackson clarke, m.b. lond., f.r.c.s., assistant surgeon at the north-west london and city orthopædic hospitals, etc. surgical pathology and principles. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ post-mortem examinations in medico-legal and ordinary cases. with special chapters on the legal aspects of post-mortems, and on certificates of death. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ _coats._--a manual of pathology. by joseph coats, m.d., late professor of pathology in the university of glasgow. fourth edition. revised throughout and edited by lewis r. sutherland, m. d., professor of pathology, university of st. andrews. with illustrations. vo., _s._ _d._ _cooke._--works by thomas cook, f.r.c.s. eng., b.a., b.sc., m.d., paris. tablets of anatomy. being a synopsis of demonstrations given in the westminster hospital medical school. eleventh edition in three parts, thoroughly brought up to date, and with over illustrations from all the best sources, british and foreign. post to. part i. the bones. _s._ _d._ net. part ii. limbs, abdomen, pelvis. _s._ _d._ net. part iii. head and neck, thorax, brain. _s._ _d._ net. aphorisms in applied anatomy and operative surgery. including typical _vivâ voce_ questions on surface marking, etc. crown vo., _s._ _d._ dissection guides. aiming at extending and facilitating such practical work in anatomy as will be specially useful in connection with an ordinary hospital curriculum. vo., _s._ _d._ _curtis._--the essentials of practical bacteriology: an elementary laboratory book for students and practitioners. by h. j. curtis, b.s. and m.d. lond., f.r.c.s., late surgical registrar, university college hospital; 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a treatise on surgical injuries, diseases, and operations. by sir john eric erichsen, bart., f.r.s., ll.d. edin., hon. m.ch. and f.r.c.s. ireland. illustrated by nearly engravings on wood. vols. royal vo., _s._ _fowler and godlee._--the diseases of the lungs. by james kingston fowler, m.a., m.d., f.r.c.p., physician to the middlesex hospital and to the hospital for consumption and diseases of the chest, brompton, etc.; and rickman john godlee, m.s., f.r.c.s., fellow and professor of clinical surgery, university college, london, etc.; with illustrations. vo., _s._ _garrod._--works by sir alfred baring garrod, m.d., f.r.s., etc. a treatise on gout and rheumatic gout (rheumatoid arthritis). with plates, comprising figures ( coloured), and illustrations engraved on wood. vo., _s._ the essentials of materia medica and therapeutics. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _goodsall and miles._--diseases of the anus and rectum. by d. h. goodsall, f.r.c.s., senior surgeon, metropolitan hospital; senior surgeon (late house surgeon), st. mark's hospital; 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(lond.), f.g.s. with over illustrations, a geological map of the british isles (coloured), and a set of questions for examination. crown vo., _s._ _d._ human physiology: a manual for students in advanced classes of the science and art department. by john thornton, m.a. with illustrations, some of which are coloured, and a set of questions for examination. crown vo., _s._ physiography. by john thornton, m.a. with maps, illustrations, and coloured plate of spectra. crown vo., _s._ _d._ agriculture. by henry j. webb, ph.d., b.sc. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ net. hygiene. by j. lane notter, m.a., m.d., professor of hygiene in the army medical school, netley, colonel, royal army medical corps; and r. h. firth, f.r.c.s., late assistant professor of hygiene in the army medical school, netley, major, royal army medical corps. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ elementary science manuals. *** _written specially to meet the requirements of the elementary stage of science subjects as laid down in the syllabus of the directory of the science and art department._ practical, plane, and solid geometry, including graphic arithmetic. by i. h. morris. fully illustrated with drawings. crown vo., _s._ _d._ geometrical drawing for art students. embracing plane geometry and its applications, the use of scales, and the plans and elevations of solids, as required for the examinations of the science and art department. by i. h. morris. crown vo., _s._ _d._ text-book on practical, solid, or descriptive geometry. by david allan low (whitworth scholar). part i. crown vo., _s._ part ii. crown vo., _s._ an introduction to machine drawing and design. by david allan low. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ building construction and drawing. by edward j. burrell. with illustrations and working drawings. crown vo., _s._ _d._ an elementary course of mathematics. containing arithmetic; euclid (book i., with deductions and exercises); and algebra. crown vo., _s._ _d._ theoretical mechanics. including hydrostatics and pneumatics. by j. e. taylor, m.a., b.sc. with numerous examples and answers, and diagrams and illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ theoretical mechanics--solids. by j. e. taylor, m.a., b.sc. (lond.). with illustrations, worked examples, and over examples from examination papers, etc. crown vo., _s._ _d._ theoretical mechanics--fluids. by j. e. taylor, m.a., b.sc. (lond.). with illustrations, numerous worked examples, and about examples from examination papers, etc. crown vo., _s._ _d._ a manual of mechanics. with illustrations and diagrams, and examples taken from examination papers, with answers. by t. m. goodeve, m.a. crown vo., _s._ _d._ sound, light, and heat. by mark r. wright, m.a. with diagrams and illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ metallurgy: an elementary text-book. by e. l. rhead. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ physics. alternative course. by mark r. wright, m.a. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ magnetism and electricity. by a. w. poyser, m.a. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ organic chemistry: the fatty compounds. by r. lloyd whiteley, f.i.c., f.c.s. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ inorganic chemistry, theoretical and practical. by william jago, f.c.s., f.i.c. with illustrations and numerous questions and exercises. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ an introduction to practical inorganic chemistry. by william jago, f.c.s., f.i.c. crown vo., _s._ _d._ practical chemistry: the principles of qualitative analysis. by william a. tilden, d.sc. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ elementary inorganic chemistry. by william furneaux, f.r.g.s. crown vo., _s._ _d._ elementary geology. by charles bird, b.a., f.g.s. with coloured geological map of the british islands, and illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ human physiology. by william furneaux, f.r.g.s. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ a course of practical elementary biology. by j. bidgood, b.sc. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ elementary botany, theoretical and practical. by henry edmonds, b.sc. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ steam. by william ripper, member of the institution of mechanical engineers. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ elementary physiography. by j. thornton, m.a. with maps and illustrations. with appendix on astronomical instruments and measurements. crown vo., _s._ _d._ agriculture. by henry j. webb, ph.d. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ the london science class-books. edited by g. carey foster, f.r.s., and by sir philip magnus, b.sc., b.a., of the city and guilds of london institute. astronomy. by sir robert stawell ball, ll.d., f.r.s. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ mechanics. by sir robert stawell ball, ll.d., f.r.s. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ the laws of health. by w. h. corfield, m.a., m.d., f.r.c.p. with illustrations. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ molecular physics and sound. by frederick guthrie, f.r.s. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ geometry, congruent figures. by o. henrici, ph.d., f.r.s. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ zoology of the invertebrate animals. by alexander macalister, m.d. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ zoology of the vertebrate animals. by alexander macalister, m.d. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ hydrostatics and pneumatics. by sir philip magnus, b.sc., b.a. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ (to be had also _with answers_, _s._) the worked solutions of the problems, _s._ botany. outlines of the classification of plants. by w. r. mcnab, m.d. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ botany. outlines of morphology and physiology. by w. r. mcnab, m.d. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ thermodynamics. by richard wormell, m.a., d.sc. with diagrams. fcp. vo., _s._ _d._ practical elementary science series. elementary practical physiography. (section i.) by john thornton, m.a., head master of the central higher grade school, bolton. with illustrations and a coloured spectrum. crown vo., _s._ _d._ elementary practical physiography. (section ii.). a course of lessons and experiments in elementary science for the queen's scholarship examination. by john thornton, m.a. with illustrations and a series of questions. crown vo., _s._ _d._ practical domestic hygiene. by j. lane notter, m.a., m.d., professor of hygiene in the army medical school, netley, etc.; and r. h. firth, f.r.c.s., late assistant professor of hygiene in the army medical school, netley, etc. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ practical mathematics. by a. g. cracknell, m.a., b.sc. crown vo., _s._ _d._ a practical introduction to the study of botany: flowering plants. by j. bretland farmer, f.r.s., m.a., professor of botany in the royal college of science, london. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ elementary practical chemistry. by g. s. newth, f.i.c., f.c.s., demonstrator in the royal college of science, london, etc. with illustrations and experiments. crown vo., _s._ _d._ elementary practical physics. by w. watson, b.sc., assistant professor of physics in the royal college of science, london, etc. with illustrations and exercises. crown vo., _s._ _d._ elementary practical zoology. by frank e. beddard, m.a. oxon., f.r.s., prosector to the zoological society of london. with illustrations. crown vo., _s._ _d._ _other volumes in preparation._ transcriber's notes . passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_. . the word pharmacopoeia uses an oe ligature in the original. . minor changes were made for the purpose of consistency in the book list at the end, like adding period, etc. . the following misprints have been corrected: "sufficiemt" corrected to "sufficient" (page ) changed "--" to "-" in nitrogen-fixing (page ) joined words "intel lectual" split over two lines (page ) missing text "to" added after "incidental" (page ) . other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained. none tom swift and his great searchlight or on the border for uncle sam by victor appleton author of "tom swift and his motor-cycle," "tom swift and his submarine boat," "tom swift and his wireless message," "tom swift in captivity," etc. illustrated contents i a scrap of paper ii a spy in town iii queer repairs iv searching for smugglers v the raid vi the appeal to tom vii a searchlight is needed viii tom's newest invention ix "beware of the comet!" x off for the border xi andy's new airship xii warned away xiii koku saves the light xiv a false clew xv the rescue on the lake xvi koku's prisoner xvii what the indian saw xviii the pursuit xix in dire peril xx suspicious actions xxi mr. period arrives xxii hovering o'er the border xxiii ned is missing xxiv the night race xxv the capture--conclusion tom swift and his great searchlight chapter i a scrap of paper "tom, did you know andy foger was back in town?" "great scott, no, i didn't ned! not to stay, i hope." "i guess not. the old foger homestead is closed up, though i did see a man working around it to-day as i came past. but he was a carpenter, making some repairs i think. no, i don't believe andy is here to stay." "but if some one is fixing up the house, it looks as if the family would come back," remarked tom, as he thought of the lad who had so long been his enemy, and who had done him many mean turns before leaving shopton, where our hero lived. "i don't think so," was the opinion of ned newton, who was tom swift's particular chum. "you know when mr. foger lost all his money, the house was supposed to be sold. but i heard later that there was some flaw in the title, and the sale fell through. it is because he couldn't sell the place that mr. foger couldn't get money to pay some of his debts. he has some claim on the house, i believe, but i don't believe he'd come back to live in it." "why not?" "because it's too expensive a place for a poor man to keep up, and mr. foger is now poor." "yes, he didn't get any of the gold, as we did when we went to the underground city," remarked tom. "well, i don't wish anybody bad luck but i certainly hope the fogers keep poor enough to stay away from shopton. they bothered me enough. but where did you see andy?" "oh, he was with his crony, sam snedecker. you know sam said, some time ago, that andy was to pay him a visit, but andy didn't come then, for some reason or other. i suppose this call makes up for it. i met them down near parker's drug store." "you didn't hear andy say anything about coming back here?" and the young inventor's voice was a trifle anxious. "no," replied ned. "what makes you so nervous about it?" "well, ned, you know what andy is--always trying to make trouble for me, even sneaking in my shop sometimes, trying to get the secret of some of my airships and machinery. and i admit i think it looks suspicious when they have a carpenter working on the old homestead. andy may come back, and--" "nonsence, tom! if he does you and i can handle him. but i think perhaps the house may be rented, and they may be fixing it up for a tenant. it's been vacant a long time you know, and i heard the other day that it was haunted." "haunted, ned! get out! say, you don't believe in that sort of bosh, do you?" "of course not. it was eradicate who told me, and he said when he came past the place quite late the other night he heard groans, and the clanking of chains coming from it, and he saw flashing lights." "oh, wow! eradicate is getting batty in his old age, poor fellow! he and his mule boomerang are growing old together, and i guess my colored helper is 'seeing things,' as well as hearing them. but, as you say, it may be that the house is going to be rented. it's too valuable a property to let stand idle. did you hear how long andy was going to stay?" "a week, i believe." "a week! say, one day would be enough i should think." "you must have some special reason for being afraid andy will do you some harm," exclaimed ned. "out with it, tom." "well, i'll tell you what it is, ned," and tom led his chum inside the shop, in front of which the two lads had been talking. it was a shop where the young inventor constructed many of his marvelous machines, aircraft, and instruments of various sorts. "do you think some one may hear you?" asked ned. "they might. i'm not taking any chances. but the reason i want to be especially careful that andy foger doesn't spy on any of my inventions is that at last i have perfected my noiseless airship motor!" "you have!" cried ned, for he knew that his chum had been working for a long time on this motor, that would give out no sound, no matter at how high a speed it was run. "that's great, tom! i congratulate you. i don't wonder you don't want andy to get even a peep at it." "especially as i haven't it fully patented," went on the young inventor. he had met with many failures in his efforts to perfect this motor, which he intended to install on one of his airships. "if any one saw the finished parts now it wouldn't take them long to find out the secret of doing away with the noise." "how do you do it?" asked ned, for he realized that his chum had no secrets from him. "well, it's too complicated to describe," said tom, "but the secret lies in a new way of feeding gasolene into the motor, a new sparking device, and an improved muffler. i think i could start my new airship in front of the most skittish horse, and he wouldn't stir, for the racket wouldn't wake a baby. it's going to be great." "what are you going to do with it, when you get it all completed?" "i haven't made up my mind yet. it's going to be some time before i get it all put together, and installed, and in that time something may turn up. well, let's talk about something more pleasant than andy foger. i guess i won't worry about him." "no, i wouldn't. i'd like to see the motor run." "you can, in a day or so, but just now i need a certain part to attach to the sparker, and i had to send to town for it. koku has gone after it." "what, that big giant servant? he might break it on the way back, he's so strong. he doesn't realize how much muscle he has." "no, that's so. well, while we're waiting for him, come on in the house, and i'll show you some new books i got." the two lads were soon in the swift homestead, a pleasant and large old-fashioned residence, in the suburbs of shopton. tom brought out the books, and he and his chum poured over them. "mr. damon gave me that one on electricity," explained the young inventor, handing ned a bulky volume. "'bless my bookmark!' as mr. damon himself would say if he were here," exclaimed ned with a laugh. "that's a dandy. but mr. damon didn't give you this one," and ned picked up a dainty volume of verse. "'to tom swift, with the best wishes of mary--'" but that was as far as he read, for tom grabbed the book away, and closed the cover over the flyleaf, which bore some writing in a girl's hand. i think my old readers can guess whose hand it was. "wow! tom swift reading poetry!" laughed ned. "oh, cut it out," begged his chum. "i didn't know that was among the books. i got it last christmas. now here's a dandy one on lion hunting, ned," and to cover his confusion tom shoved over a book containing many pictures of wild animals. "lion hunting; eh," remarked ned. "well, i guess you could give them some points on snapping lions with your moving picture camera, tom." "yes, i got some good views," admitted the young inventor modestly. "i may take the camera along on some trips in my noiseless airship. hello! here comes koku back. i hope he got what i wanted." a man, immense in size, a veritable giant, one of two whom tom swift had brought away from captivity with him, was entering the front gate. he stopped to speak to mr. swift, tom's father, who was setting out some plants in a flower bed, taking them from a large wheel barrow filled with the blooms. mr. swift, who was an inventor of note, had failed in his health of late, and the doctor had recommended him to be out of doors as much as possible. he delighted in gardening, and was at it all day. "look!" suddenly cried ned, pointing to the giant. then tom and his chum saw a strange sight. with a booming laugh, koku picked up mr. swift gently and set him on a board that extended across the front part of the wheel barrow. then, as easily as if it was a pound weight, the big man lifted mr. swift, barrow, plants and all, in his two hands, and carried them across the garden to another flower bed, that was ready to be filled. "no use to walk when i can carry you, mr. swift," exclaimed koku with a laugh. "i overtook you quite nice; so?" "yes, you took me over in great shape, koku!" replied the aged inventor with a smile at koku's english, for the giant frequently got his words backwards. "that barrow is quite heavy for me to wheel." "you after this call me," suggested koku. "say, but he's strong all right," exclaimed ned, "and that was an awkward thing to carry." "it sure was," agreed tom. "i haven't yet seen any one strong enough to match koku. and he's gentle about it, too. he's very fond of dad." "and you too, i guess," added ned. "well, koku, did you get that attachment?" asked tom, as his giant servant entered the room. "yes, mr. tom. i have it here," and from his pocket koku drew a heavy piece of steel that would have taxed the strength of either of the boys to lift with one hand. but koku's pockets were very large and made specially strong of leather, for he was continually putting odd things in them. koku handed over the attachment, for which his master had sent him. he held it out on a couple of fingers, as one might a penknife, but tom took both hands to set it on the ground. "i the female get, also," went on koku, as he began taking some letters and papers from his pocket. "i stop in the office post, and the female get." "mail, koku, not female," corrected tom with a laugh. "a female is a lady you know." "for sure i know, and the lady in the post office gave me the female. that is i said what, did i not?" "well, i guess you meant it all right," remarked ned. "but letter mail and a male man and a female woman are all different." "oh such a language!" gasped the giant. "i shall never learn it. well, then, mr. tom, here is your mail, that the female lady gave to me for you, and you are a male. it is very strange." koku pulled out a bundle of letters, which tom took, and then the giant continued to delve for more. one of the papers, rolled in a wrapper, stuck on the edge of the pocket. "you must outcome!" exclaimed koku, giving it a sudden yank, and it "outcame" with such suddenness that the paper was torn in half, tightly wrapped as it was, and it was considerable of a bundle. "koku, you're getting too strong!" exclaimed tom, as scraps of paper were scattered about the room. "i think i'll give you less to eat." "i am your forgiveness," said koku humbly, as he stooped over to pick up the fragments. "i did not mean." "it's all right," said tom kindly. "that's only a big bundle of sunday papers i guess." "i'll give him a hand," volunteered ned, stooping over to help koku clear the rug of the litter. as he did so tom's chum gave a gasp of surprise. "hello, tom!" ned cried. "here's something new, and i guess it will interest you." "what is it?" "it's part of an account of some daring smugglers who are working goods across the canadian border into the northern part of this state. the piece is torn, but there's something here which says the government agents suspect the men of using airships to transport the stuff." "airships! smugglers using airships!" cried tom. "it doesn't seem possible!" "that's what it says here, tom. it says the custom house authorities have tried every way to catch them, and when they couldn't land 'em, the only theory they could account for the way the smuggling was going on was by airships, flying at night." "that's odd. i wonder how it would seem to chase a smuggler in an airship at night? some excitement about that; eh, ned? let's see that scrap of paper." ned passed it over, and tom scanned it closely. then in his turn, he uttered an exclamation of surprise. "what is it?" inquired his chum. "great scott, ned, listen to this! 'it is suspected that some of the smugglers have'--then there's a place where the paper is torn-'in shopton, n.y.'" finished tom. "think of that, ned. our town here, is in some way connected with the airship smugglers! we must find the rest of this scrap of paper, and paste it together. this may be a big thing! find that other scrap! koku, you go easy on papers next time," cautioned tom, good naturedly, as he and his chum began sorting over the torn parts of the paper. chapter ii a spy in town tom swift, ned newton and koku, the giant, are busy trying to piece together the torn parts of the paper, containing an account of the airship smugglers. i will take the opportunity of telling you something about the young inventor and his work, for, though many of my readers have made tom's acquaintances in previous books of this series, there may be some who pick up this one as their first volume. tom lived with his father, also an inventor of note, in the town of shopton, new york state. his mother was dead, and a mrs. baggert kept house. eradicate was an eccentric, colored helper, but of late had become too old to do much. mr. swift was also quite aged, and had been obliged to give up most of his inventive work. ned newton was tom swift's particular chum, and our hero had another friend, a mr. wakefield damon, of the neighboring town of waterford. mr. damon had the odd habit of blessing everything he saw or could think of. another of tom's friends was miss mary nestor, whom i have mentioned, while my old readers will readily recognize in andy foger a mean bully, who made much trouble for tom. the first book of the series was called "tom swift and his motor-cycle," and on that machine tom had many advances on the road, and not a little fun. after that tom secured a motor boat, and had a race with andy foger. in his airship our hero made a stirring cruise, while in his submarine boat he and his father recovered a sunken treasure. when tom swift invented a new electric run-about he did not realize that it was to be the speediest car on the road, but so it proved, and he was able to save the bank with it. in the book called "tom swift and his wireless message," i told you how he saved the castaways of earthquake island, among whom were mr. and mrs. nestor, the parents of mary. tom swift had not been long on the trail of the diamond makers before he discovered the secret of phantom mountain, and after that adventure he went to the caves of ice, where his big airship was wrecked. but he got home, and soon made another, which he called a sky racer, and in that he made the quickest flight on record. with his electric rifle tom went to elephant land, where he succeeded in rescuing two missionaries from the red pygmies. a little later he set out for the city of gold, and had marvelous adventures underground. hearing of a deposit of valuable platinum in siberia, tom started for that lonely place, and, to reach a certain part of if, he had to invent a new machine, called an air glider. it was an aeroplane without means of propulsion save the wind. in the book, "tom swift in captivity," i related the particulars of how he brought away two immense men from giant land. one, koku, he kept for himself, while the other made a good living by being exhibited in a circus. when the present story opens tom had not long been home after a series of strange adventures. a moving picture concern, with which mr. nestor was associated, wanted some views of remarkable scenes, such as fights among wild beasts, the capture of herds of elephants, earthquakes, and volcanos in action, and great avalanches in the alps. tom invented a wizard camera, and got many good views, though at times he was in great danger, even in his airship. especially was this so at the erupting volcano. but our hero came swiftly back to shopton, and there, all winter and spring, he busied himself perfecting a new motor for an airship--a motor that would make no noise. he perfected it early that summer, and now was about to try it, when the incident of the torn newspaper happened. "have you got all the pieces, tom?" asked ned, as he passed his chum several scraps, which were gathered up from the floor. "i think so. now we'll paste them together, and see what it says. we may be on the trail of a big mystery, ned." "maybe. go ahead and see what you can make of it." tom fitted together, as best he could, the ragged pieces, and then pasted them on a blank sheet of paper. "i guess i've got it all here now," he said finally. "i'll skip the first part. you read me most of that, ned. just as you told me, it relates how the government agents, having tried in vain to get a clew to the smugglers, came to the conclusion that they must be using airships to slip contraband goods over the border at night." "now where's that mention of shopton? oh, here it is," and he read: "'it is suspected that some of the smugglers have been communicating with confederates in shopton, new york. this came to the notice of the authorities to-day, when one of the government agents located some of the smuggled goods in a small town in new york on the st. lawrence. the name of this town is being kept secret for the present." "'it was learned that the goods were found in a small, deserted house, and that among them were letters from someone in shopton, relating to the disposal of the articles. they refuse to say who the letters were from, but it is believed that some of uncle sam's men may shortly make their appearance in the peaceful burg of shopton, there to follow up the clew. many thousands of dollars worth of goods have been smuggled, and the united states, as well as the dominion of canada custom authorities, say they are determined to put a stop to the daring efforts of the smugglers. the airship theory is the latest put forth.'" "well, say, that's the limit!" cried ned, as tom finished reading. "what do you know about that?" "it brings it right home to us," agreed the young inventor. "but who is there in shopton who would be in league with the smugglers?" "that's hard to say." "of course we don't know everyone in town," went on tom, "but i'm pretty well acquainted here, and i don't know of a person who would dare engage in such work." "maybe it's a stranger who came here, and picked out this place because it was so quiet," suggested ned. "that's possible. but where would he operate from?" asked tom. "there are few in shopton who would want to buy smuggled goods." "they may only ship them here, and fix them so they can't be recognized by the custom authorities, and then send them away again," went on ned. "this may be a sort of clearing-house for the smugglers." "that's so. well, i don't know as we have anything to do with it. only if those fellows are using an airship i'd like to know what kind it is. well, come on out to the shop now, and we'll see how the silent motor works." on the way tom passed his father, and, telling him not to work too hard in the sun, gave his parent the piece of paper to read, telling about the smugglers. "using airships! eh?" exclaimed mr. swift. "and they think there's a clew here in shopton? well, we'll get celebrated if we keep on, tom," he added with a smile. tom and ned spent the rest of the day working over the motor, which was set going, and bore out all tom claimed for it. it was as silent as a watch. "next i want to get it in the airship, and give it a good test," tom remarked, speeding it up, as it was connected on a heavy base in the shop. "i'll help you," promised ned, and for the next few days the chums were kept busy fitting the silent motor into one of tom's several airships. "well, i think we can make a flight to-morrow," said the young inventor, about a week later. "i need some new bolts though, ned. let's take a walk into town and get them. oh, by the way, have you seen anything more of andy foger?" "no, and i don't want to. i suppose he's gone back home after his visit to sam. let's go down the street, where the foger house is, and see if there's anything going on." as the two lads passed the mansion, they saw a man, in the kind of suit usually worn by a carpenter, come out of the back door and stand looking across the garden. in his hand he held a saw. "still at the repairs, i guess," remarked ned. "i wonder what--" "look there! look! quick!" suddenly interrupted tom, and ned, looking, saw someone standing behind the carpenter in the door. "if that isn't andy foger, i'll eat my hat!" cried tom. "it sure is," agreed ned. "what in the world is he doing there?" but his question was not answered, for, a moment later, andy turned, and went inside, and the carpenter followed, closing the door behind them. "that's queer," spoke tom. "very," agreed ned. "he didn't go back after all. i'd like to know what's going on in there." "and there's someone else who would like to know, also, i think," said tom in a low voice. "who?" asked ned. "that man hiding behind the big tree across the street. i'm sure he's watching the foger house, and when andy came to the door that time, i happened to look around and saw that man focus a pair of opera glasses on him and the carpenter." "you don't mean it, tom!" exclaimed ned. "i sure do. i believe that man is some sort of a spy or a detective." "do you think he's after andy?" "i don't know. let's not get mixed up in the affair, anyhow. i don't want to be called in as a witness. i haven't the time to spare." as if the man behind the tree was aware that he had attracted the attention of our friends, he quickly turned and walked away. tom and ned glanced up at the foger house, but saw nothing, and proceeded on to the store. "i'll wager anything that andy has been getting in some sort of trouble in the town he moved to from here," went on tom, "and he daren't go back. so he came here, and he's hiding in his father's old house. he could manage to live there for a while, with the carpenter bringing him in food. say, did you notice who that man was, with the saw?" "yes, he's james dillon, a carpenter who lives down on our street," replied ned. "a nice man, too. the next time i see him, i'm going to ask him what andy is doing in town, and what the repairs are that he's making on the house." "well, of course if andy has been doing anything wrong, he wouldn't admit it," said tom. "though mr. dillon may tell you about the carpenter work. but i'm sure that man was a detective from the town where andy moved to. you'll see." "i don't think so," was ned's opinion. "if andy was hiding he wouldn't show himself as plainly as he did." the two chums argued on this question, but could come to no decision. then, having reached tom's home with the bolts, they went hard at work on the airship. "well, now to see what happens!" exclaimed tom the next day, when everything was ready for a trial flight. "i wish mr. damon was here. i sent him word, but i didn't hear from him." "oh, he may show up any minute," replied ned, as he helped tom and koku wheel the newly-equipped airship out of the shed. "the first thing you'll hear will be him blessing something. is this far enough out, tom?" "no, a little more, and then head her up into the wind. i say, ned, if this is a success, and--" tom stopped suddenly and looked out into the road. then, in a low voice, he said, to ned: "don't move suddenly, or he'll suspect that we're onto his game, but turn around slowly, and look behind that big sycamore tree in front of our house ned. tell me what you see." "there's a man hiding there, tom," reported his chum, a little later, after a cautious observation. "i thought so. what's he doing?" "why he--by jove! tom, he's looking at us through opera glasses, like that other--" "it isn't another, it's the same fellow!" whispered tom. "it's the spy who was watching andy! i'm going to see what's up," and he strode rapidly toward the street, at the curb of which was the tree that partly screened the man behind it. chapter iii queer repairs quickly tom swift crossed the space between the airship, that was ready for a flight, and the tree. the man behind it had apparently not seen tom coming, being so interested in looking at the airship, which was a wonderful craft. he was taken completely by surprise as tom, stepping up to him, asked sharply: "who are you and what are you doing here?" the man started so that he nearly dropped the opera glasses, which he had held focused on the aeroplane. then he stepped back, and eyed tom sharply. "what do you want?" repeated our hero. "what right have you to be spying on that airship--on these premises?" the man hesitated a moment, and then coolly returned the glasses to his pocket. he did not seem at all put out, after his first start of surprise. "what are you doing?" tom again asked. he looked around to see where koku, the giant, was, and beheld the big man walking slowly toward him, for ned had mentioned what had taken place. "what right have you to question my actions?" asked the man, and there was in his tones a certain authority that made tom wonder. "every right," retorted our hero. "that is my airship, at which you have been spying, and this is where i live." "oh, it is; eh?" asked the man calmly. "and that's your airship, too?" "i invented it, and built the most of it myself. if you are interested in such things, and can assure me that you have no spying methods in view, i can show you--" "have you other airships?" interrupted the man quickly. "yes, several," answered tom. "but i can't understand why you should be spying on me. if you don't care to accept my offer, like a gentleman, tell me who you are, and what your object is, i will have my assistant remove you. you are on private property, as this street is not a public one, being cut through by my father. i'll have koku remove you by force, if you won't go peaceably, and i think you'll agree with me that koku can do it. here koku," he called sharply, and the big man advanced quickly. "i wouldn't do anything rash, if i were you," said the man quietly. "as for this being private property, that doesn't concern me. you're tom swift, aren't you; and you have several airships?" "yes, but what right have you to--" "every right!" interrupted the man, throwing back the lapel of his coat, and showing a badge. "i'm special agent william whitford, of the united states customs force, and i'd like to ask you a few questions, tom swift." he looked our hero full in the face. "customs department!" gasped tom. "you want to ask me some questions?" "that's it," went on the man, in a business-like voice. "what about?" "smuggling by airship from canada!" "what!" cried tom. "do you mean to say you suspect me of being implicated in--" "now go easy," advised the man calmly. "i didn't say anything, except that i wanted to question you. if you'd like me to do it out here, why i can. but as someone might hear us--" "come inside," said tom quietly, though his heart was beating in a tumult. "you may go, koku, but stay within call," he added significantly. "come on, ned," and he motioned to his chum who was approaching. "this man is a custom officer and not a spy or a detective, as we thought." "oh, yes, i am a sort of a detective," corrected mr. whitford. "and i'm a spy, too, in a way, for i've been spying on you, and some other parties in town. but you may be able to explain everything," he added, as he took a seat in the library between ned and tom. "i only know i was sent here to do certain work, and i'm going to do it. i wanted to make some observations before you saw me, but i wasn't quite quick enough." "would you mind telling me what you want to know?" asked tom, a bit impatiently. "you mentioned smuggling, and--" "smuggling!" interrupted ned. "yes, over from canada. maybe you have seen something in the papers about our department thinking airships were used at night to slip the goods over the border." "we saw it!" cried tom eagerly. "but how does that concern me?" "i'll come to that, presently," replied mr. whitford. "in the first place, we have been roundly laughed at in some papers for proposing such a theory. and yet it isn't so wild as it sounds. in fact, after seeing your airship, tom swift, i'm convinced--" "that i've been smuggling?" asked tom with a laugh. "not at all. as you have read, we confiscated some smuggled goods the other day, and among them was a scrap of paper with the words shopton, new york, on it." "was it a letter from someone here, or to someone here?" asked ned. "the papers intimated so." "no. they only guessed at that part of it. it was just a scrap of paper, evidently torn from a letter, and it only had those three words on it. naturally we agents thought we could get a clew here. we imagined, or at least i did, for i was sent to work up this end, that perhaps the airships for the smugglers were made here. i made inquiries, and found that you, tom swift, and one other, andy foger, had made, or owned, airships in shopton." "i came here, but i soon exhausted the possibility of andy foger making practical airships. besides he isn't at home here any more, and he has no facilities for constructing the craft as you have. so i came to look at your place, and i must say that it looks a bit suspicious, mr. swift. though, of course, as i said," he added with a smile, "you may be able to explain everything." "i think i can convince you that i had no part in the smuggling," spoke tom, laughing. "i never sell my airships. if you like you may talk with my father, the housekeeper, and others who can testify that since my return from taking moving pictures, i have not been out of town, and the smuggling has been going on only a little while." "that is true," assented the custom officer. "i shall be glad to listen to any evidence you may offer. this is a very baffling case. the government is losing thousands of dollars every month, and we can't seem to stop the smugglers, or get much of a clew to them. this one is the best we have had so far." it did not take tom many hours to prove to the satisfaction of mr. whitford that none of our hero's airships had taken any part in cheating uncle sam out of custom duties. "well, i don't know what to make of it," said the government agent, with a disappointed air, as he left the office of the shopton chief of police, who, with others, at tom's request, had testified in his favor. "this looked like a good clew, and now it's knocked into a cocked hat. there's no use bothering that foger fellow," he went on, "for he has but one airship, i understand." "and that's not much good." put in ned. "i guess it's partly wrecked, and andy has kept it out in the barn since he moved away." "well, i guess i'll be leaving town then," went on the agent. "i can't get any more clews here, and there may be some new ones found on the canadian border where my colleagues are trying to catch the rascals. i'm sorry i bothered you, tom swift. you certainly have a fine lot of airships," he added, for he had been taken through the shop, and shown the latest, noiseless model. "a fine lot. i don't believe the smugglers, if they use them, have any better." "nor as good!" exclaimed ned. "tom's can't be beat." "it's too late for our noiseless trial now," remarked tom, after the agent had gone. "let's put her back in the shed, and then i'll take you down street, and treat you to some ice cream, ned. it's getting quite summery now." as the boys were coming out of the drug store, where they had eaten their ice cream in the form of sundaes, ned uttered a cry of surprise at the sight of a man approaching them. "it's mr. dillon, the carpenter whom we saw in the foger house, tom!" exclaimed his chum. "this is the first chance i've had to talk to him. i'm going to ask him what sort of repairs he's making inside the old mansion." ned was soon in conversation with him. "yes, i'm working at the foger house," admitted the carpenter, who had done some work for ned's father. "mighty queer repairs, too. something i never did before. if andy wasn't there to tell me what he wanted done i wouldn't know what to do." "is andy there yet?" asked tom quickly. "yes, he's staying in the old house. all alone too, except now and then, he has a chum stay there nights with him. they get their own meals. i bring the stuff in, as andy says he's getting up a surprise and doesn't want any of the boys to see him, or ask questions. but they are sure queer repairs i'm doing," and the carpenter scratched his head reflectively. "what are you doing?" asked ned boldly. "fixing up andy's old airship that was once busted," was the unexpected answer, "and after i get that done, if i ever do, he wants me to make a platform for it on the roof of the house, where he can start it swooping through the air. mighty queer repairs, i call 'em. well, good evening, boys," and the carpenter passed on. chapter iv searching for smugglers. "well, of all things!" "who in the world would think such a thing?" "andy going to start out with his airship again!" "and going to sail it off the roof of his house!" these were the alternate expressions that came from tom and ned, as they stood gazing at each other after the startling information given them by mr. dillon, the carpenter. "do you really think he means it?" asked tom, after a pause, during which they watched the retreating figure of the carpenter. "maybe he was fooling us." "no, mr. dillon seldom jokes," replied ned, "and when he does, you can always tell. he goes to our church, and i know he wouldn't deliberately tell an untruth. oh. andy's up to some game all right." "i thought he must be hanging around here the way he has been, instead of being home. but i admit i may have been wrong about the police being after him. if he'd done something wrong, he would hardly hire a man to work on the house while he was hiding in it. i guess he just wants to keep out of the way of everybody but his own particular cronies. but i wonder what he is up to, anyhow; getting his airship in shape again?" "give it up, unless there's an aero meet on somewhere soon," replied ned. "maybe he's going to try a race again." tom shook his head. "i'd have heard about any aviation meets, if there were any scheduled," he replied. "i belong to the national association, and they send out circulars whenever there are to be races. none are on for this season. no, andy has some other game." "well, i don't know that it concerns us," spoke ned. "not as long as he doesn't bother me," answered the young inventor. "well, ned, i suppose you'll be over in the morning and help me try out the noiseless airship?" "sure thing. say, it was queer, about that government agent, wasn't it? suspecting you of supplying airships to the smugglers?" "rather odd," agreed tom. "he might much better suspect andy foger." "that's so, and now that we know andy is rebuilding his old airship, maybe we'd better tell him." "tell who?" "that government agent. tell him he's wrong in thinking that andy is out of the game. we might send him word that we just learned that andy is getting active again. he has as much right to suspect and question him, as he had you." "oh, i don't know," began tom slowly. he was not a vindicative youth, nor, for that matter, was ned. and tom would not go out of his way to give information about an enemy, when it was not certain that the said enemy meant anything wrong. "i don't believe there's anything in it," finished our hero. "andy may have a lot of time on his hands, and, for want of something better to do, he's fixing up his aeroplane." "look!" suddenly exclaimed ned. "there's that agent now! he's going to the depot to get a train, i guess," and he pointed to the government man, who had so lately interviewed tom. "i'm going to speak to him!" impulsively declared ned. "i wouldn't," objected tom, but his chum had already hastened on ahead, and soon was seen talking excitedly to mr. whitford. tom sauntered up in time to hear the close of the conversation. "i'm much obliged to you for your information," said the custom officer, "but i'm afraid, just as you say your chum felt about it, that there's nothing in it. this foger chap may have been bad in the past, but i hardly think he's in with the smugglers. what i'm looking for is not a lad who has one airship, but someone who is making a lot of them, and supplying the men who are running goods over the border. that's the sort of game i'm after, and if this andy foger only has one aeroplane i hardly think he can be very dangerous." "well, perhaps not," admitted ned. "but i thought i'd tell you." "and i'm glad you did. if you hear anything more, i'll be glad to have you let me know. here's my card," and thanking the boys for their interest mr. whitford passed on. tom and ned gave the noiseless airship a test the next day. the craft, which was the stanch falcon, remodeled, was run out of the shed, koku the giant helping, while mr. swift stood looking on, an interested spectator of what his son was about to do. eradicate, the old colored man, who was driving his mule boomerang, hitched to a wagon in which he was carting away some refuse that had been raked up in the garden, halted his outfit nearby. "i say, massa tom!" he called, as the young inventor passed near him, in making a tour of the ship. "well, rad, what is it?" "doan't yo'-all want fo' ma an' boomerang t' gib yo'-all a tow? mebby dat new-fangled contraption yo'-all has done put on yo' ship won't wuk, an' mebby i'd better stick around t' pull yo'-all home." "no, rad, i guess it will work all right. if it doesn't, and we get stuck out a mile or two, i'll send you a wireless message." "doan't do dat!" begged the colored man. "i neber could read dem wireless letters anyhow. jest gib a shout, an' me an' boomerang will come a-runnin'." "all right, rad, i will. now, ned, is everything in shape?" "i think so, tom." "koku, just put a little more wind in those tires. but don't pump as hard as you did the other day," tom cautioned. "what happened then?" asked ned. "oh, koku forgot that he had so much muscle, and he kept on pumping air into the bicycle wheel tires until he burst one. go easy this time, koku." "i will, mr. tom," and the giant took the air pump. "is he going along?" asked ned, as he looked to see that all the guy wires and stays were tight. "i guess so," replied tom. "he makes good ballast. i wish mr. damon was here. if everything goes right we may take a run over, and surprise him." in a little while the noiseless airship was ready for the start. tom, ned and koku climbed in, and took their positions. "good luck!" mr. swift called after them. tom waved his hand to his father, and the next moment his craft shot into the air. up and up it went, the great propeller blades beating the air, but, save for a soft whirr, such as would be made by the wings of a bird, there was absolutely no sound. "hurrah!" cried tom. "she works! i've got a noiseless airship at last!" "say, don't yell at a fellow so," begged ned, for tom had been close to his chum when he made his exulting remark. "yell! i wasn't yelling," replied tom. "oh, i see what happened. i'm so used to speaking loud on the other airships, that make such a racket, that i didn't realize how quiet it was aboard the new falcon. no wonder i nearly made you deaf, ned. i'll be careful after this," and tom lowered his voice to ordinary tones. in fact it was as quiet aboard his new craft, as if he and ned had been walking in some grass-grown country lane. "she certainly is a success," agreed ned. "you could creep up on some other airship now, and those aboard would never know you were coming." "i've been planning this for a long time," went on our hero, as he shifted the steering gear, and sent the craft around in a long, sweeping curve. "now for waterford and mr. damon." they were soon above the town where the odd man lived, and tom, picking out mr. damon's house, situated as it was in the midst of extensive grounds, headed for it. "there he is, walking through the garden," exclaimed ned, pointing to their friend down below. "he hasn't heard us, as he would have done if we had come in any other machine." "that's so!" exclaimed tom. "i'm going to give him a sensation. i'll fly right over his head, and he won't know it until he sees us. i'll come up from behind." a moment later he put this little trick into execution. along swept the airship, until, with a rush, it passed right over mr. damon's head. he never heard it, and was not aware of what was happening until he saw the shadow it cast. then, jumping aside, as if he thought something was about to fall on him, he cried: "bless my mosquito netting! what in the world--" then he saw tom and ned in the airship, which came gently to earth a few yards further on. "well of all things!" cried mr. damon. "what are you up to now, tom swift?" "it's my noiseless airship," explained our hero. "she doesn't make a sound. get aboard, and have a ride." mr. damon looked toward the house. "i guess my wife won't see me," he said with a chuckle. "she's more than ever opposed to airships, tom, since we went on that trip taking moving pictures. but i'll take a chance." and in he sprang, when the two lads started up again. they made quite a flight, and tom found that his new motor exceeded his expectations. true, it needed some adjustments, but these could easily be made. "well, what are you going to do with it, now that you have it?" asked mr. damon, as tom once more brought the machine around to the odd man's house, and stopped it. "what's it for?" "oh, i think i'll find a use for it," replied the young inventor. "will you come back to shopton with us?" "no, i must stay here. i have some letters to write. but i'll run over in a few days, and see you. then i'll go on another trip, if you've got one planned." "i may have," answered tom with a laugh. "good-bye." he and ned made a quick flight home, and tom at once started on making some changes in the motor. he was engaged at this work the next day, when he noticed a shadow pass across an open window. he looked up to see ned. "hello, tom!" cried his chum. "have you heard the news?" "no, what news? has andy foger fallen out of his airship?" "no, but there are a whole lot of custom house detectives in town, looking for clews to the smugglers." "still at it, eh? shopton can't seem to keep out of the limelight. has anything new turned up?" "yes. i just met mr. whitford. he's back on the case and he has several men with him. they received word that some smuggled goods came to shopton, and were shipped out of here again." "how, by airship?" "no, by horse and wagon. a lot of cases of valuable silks imported from england to canada, where the duty is light, were slipped over the border somehow, in airships, it is thought. then they came here by freight, labeled as calico, and when they reached this town they were taken away in a wagon." "but how did they get here?" "on the railroad, of course, but the freight people had no reason to suspect them." "and where were they taken from the freight station?" "that's what the customs authorities want to find out. they think there's some secret place here, where the goods are stored and reshipped. that's why so many detectives are here. they are after the smugglers hot-footed." chapter v the raid tom swift dropped the tool he was using, and came over to where ned stood, his chum having vaulted in through the open window. "ned," said the young inventor, "there's something queer about this business." "i'm beginning to think so myself, tom. but just what do you mean?" "i mean it's queer that the smugglers should pick out a place like shopton--a small town--for their operations, or part of them, when there are so many better places. we're quite a distance from the canadian border. say, ned, where was it that mr. foger moved to? hogan's alley, or some such name as that; wasn't it?" "logansville, this state, was the place. i once saw tom snedecker mail andy a letter addressed to there. but what has that to do with it?" tom's answer was to turn to a large map on the wall of his shop. with a long stick he pointed out the city of logansville. "that isn't very far from the canadian border; is it, ned?" he asked. "say, what are you driving at, tom? it's right on the border between new york and canada, according to that map." "well, that's a good map, and you can be sure it is nearly right. and, look here. there's the town of montford, in canada, almost opposite logansville." "well?" "oh, nothing, only i'm going to see mr. whitford." "what do you mean, tom?" "i mean that the something queer part about this business may be explained. they have traces of the smugglers sending their goods to shopton to be re-shipped here, to avoid suspicion, probably. they have a suspicion that airships are used to get the goods over the canadian border at night." "but," broke in ned, "the government agent said that it was across the st. lawrence river they brought them. montford is quite a distance from the river. i suppose the smugglers take the goods from the river steamers, land them, pack them in airships, and fly across with them. but if you're trying to connect the fogers, and logansville, and montford with the smugglers, i don't see where it comes in with the st. lawrence, and the airships, tom." "forget that part of it for a while, ned. maybe they are all off on airships, anyhow. i don't take much stock in that theory, though it may be true." "just think of the fogers," went on tom. "mr. foger has lost all his money, he lives in a town near the canadian border, it is almost certain that smuggled goods have been shipped here. mr. foger has a deserted house here, and--see the connection?" "by jove, tom, i believe you're right!" cried his chum. "maybe the airships aren't in it after all, and andy is only making a bluff at having his repaired, to cover up some other operations in the house." "i believe so." "but that would mean that mr. dillon, the carpenter is not telling the truth, and i can't believe that of him." "oh, i believe he's honest, but i think andy is fooling him. mr. dillon doesn't know much about airships, and andy may have had him doing something in the house, telling him it was repair work on an airship, when, as a matter of fact, the carpenter might be making boxes to ship the goods in, or constructing secret places in which to hide them." "i don't believe it, tom. but i agree with you that there is something queer going on in shopton. the fogers may, or may not, be connected with it. what are you going to do?" "i'm first going to have a talk with mr. whitford. then i'm going to see if i can't prove, or disprove, that the fogers are concerned in the matter. if they're not, then some one else in shopton must be guilty. but i'm interested, because i have been brought into this thing in a way, and i want it sifted to the bottom." "then you're going to see mr. whitford?" "i am, and i'm going to tell him what i think. come on, we'll look him up now." "but your noiseless airship?" "oh, that's all right. it's nearly finished anyhow, i've just got a little more work on the carburetor. that will keep. come on, we'll find the government agent." but mr. whitford was not at the hotel where he and the other custom inspectors had put up. they made no secret of their presence in shopton, and all sorts of rumors were flying about regarding them. mr. whitford, the hotel clerk said, had gone out of town for the day, and, as ned and tom did not feel like telling their suspicions to any of the other agents, they started back home. "i understand they're going to search every house in shopton, before they go away," said the clerk to the boys. "they are going to look for smuggled goods." "they are; eh?" exclaimed colonel henry denterby, who had fought in the civil war. "search my house; eh? well i guess not! a man's house is his castle, sir! that's what it is. no one shall enter mine, no matter if he is a government official, unless i give him permission, sir! and i won't do that, sir! i'll be revolutionized if i do! no, sir!" "why, you haven't any smuggled goods concealed, have you, colonel?" slyly asked a hotel lounger. "smuggled goods? what do you mean, sir?" cried the veteran, who was something of a fire-eater. "no, sir! of course not, sir! i pay my taxes, sir; and all my debts. but no government spy is going to come into my house, and upset everything, sir, looking for smuggled goods, sir. no, sir!" some were of one opinion, and some another, and there was quite a discussion underway concerning the rights of the custom officers, as the boys came out of the hotel. likewise there was talk about who might be the guilty ones, but no names were mentioned, at least openly. "let's go past the foger house on our way back," proposed ned, and as he and tom came in front of it, they heard a pounding going on within, but saw no signs of andy or the carpenter. "they're keeping mighty close," commented tom. the two boys worked that afternoon on the new airship, and in the evening, when ned came over, tom proposed that they make another attempt to see mr. whitford. "i want to get this thing off my mind," spoke the young inventor, and he and his chum started for the hotel. once more they passed the foger house. it was in darkness, but, as the two lads stood watching, they saw a flash of a light, as if it came through a crack in a shutter or a shade. "some one is in there," declared tom. "yes, probably andy is getting his own supper. it's queer he wants to lead that sort of a life. well, everyone to their notion, as the old lady said when she kissed the cow." they stood for a few minutes watching the old mansion, and then went on. as they passed down a lane, to take a short cut, they approached a small house, that, in times past, had been occupied by the gardener of the foger estate. now, that too, was closed. but, in front of it stood a wagon with a big canvass cover over it, and, as the lads came nearer, the wagon drove off quickly, and in silence. at the same time a door in the gardener's house was heard to shut softly. "did you see that?" cried ned. "yes, and did you hear that?" asked tom. "they're carting stuff away from the old gardener's house," went on ned. "maybe it's there that the smugglers are working from! let's hurry to see mr. whitford." "hold on!" exclaimed tom in a whisper. "i've got one suggestion. ned. let's tell all we know, and what we think may be the case, but don't make any rash statements. we might be held responsible. tell what we have seen, and let the government men do the rest." "all right. i'm willing." they watched the wagon as it passed on out of sight in the darkness, and then hurried on to see mr. whitford. to say that the custom officer was astonished at what the boys related to him, is putting it mildly. he was much excited. "i think we're on the right trail!" he exclaimed. "you may have done a big service for uncle sam. come on!" "where?" the boys asked him. "we'll make a raid on the old foger home, and on the gardener's house at once. we may catch the rascals red-handed. you can have the honor of representing uncle sam. i'll make you assistant deputies for the night. here are some extra badges i always carry," and he pinned one each on the two young men. mr. whitford quietly summoned several of his men to his hotel room, and imparted to them what he had learned. they were eager for the raid, and it was decided to go to the foger home, and the other house at once, first seeking to gain an entrance to the mansion. accompanied by tom and ned, mr. whitford left the hotel. there were few persons about, and no attention was attracted. the other agents left the hotel one by one, and in the darkness gathered about the seemingly deserted mansion. "stand ready now, men," whispered mr. whitford. "tom, ned and i will go up the steps first, and knock. if they don't let us in i'm going to smash the door. then you follow." rather excited by what was about to take place, the two chums accompanied the chief custom agent. he rapped loudly on the door of the house, where only darkness showed. there was a moment of silence, and then a voice which tom and ned recognized as that of andy foger, asked: "what do you want?" "we want to come in," replied mr. whitford. "but who are you?" "uncle sam's officers, from the custom house." tom distinctly heard a gasp of surprise on the other side of the portal, and then a bolt was drawn. the door was thrown back, and there, confronting the two lads and mr. whitford, were andy foger and his father. chapter vi the appeal to tom "well, what does this mean?" asked mr. foger in indignant tones, as he faced the custom officer and tom and ned. "what do you mean by coming to my house at this hour, and disturbing me? i demand an answer!" "and you shall have it," replied mr. whitford calmly. he was used to dealing with "indignant" persons, who got very much on their dignity when accused of smuggling. "we are here, mr. foger, because of certain information we have received, and we must ask you to submit to some questions, and allow your house to be searched." "what! you question me? search this house? that is an indignity to which i will not submit!" "you will have to, mr. foger. i have ample authority for what i am doing, and i am backed by the most powerful government in the world. i also have plenty of help with me." mr. whitford blew his whistle, and at once his several deputies came running up. "you see i am well prepared to meet force with force, mr. foger," said the chief agent, calmly. "force! what do you mean, sir?" "i mean that i have certain information against you. there has been smuggling going on from canada into the united states." "canada? what have i to do with canada?" "you don't live far from there," said mr. whitford significantly. "airships have been used. your son has one, but i don't believe that figured in the game. but two friends of mine saw something to-night that made me decide on this raid. tom and ned, tell mr. foger what you saw." the agent stepped back, so that the two lads could be seen. there was another gasp of surprise, this time from andy foger, who had remained in the background. "tom swift!" gasped the bully. "tell them what you saw. tom," went on the agent, and tom and ned by turns, relayed the incident of the wagon load of goods driving away from the gardener's house. "this, with what has gone before, made us suspicious," said mr. whitford. "so we decided on a raid. if you are not willing to let us in peaceably, we will come by force." "by all means come in!" was the unexpected reply of mr. foger, as he stepped back, and opened wider the door. "andy, these are some friends of yours, are they not?" "friends? i guess not!" exclaimed andy with a sneer. "i won't even speak to them." "not much lost," commented tom with a laugh. "search the house!" ordered mr. whitford sharply. "i'll show you around," offered mr. foger. "we can find our way," was the curt rejoinder of the chief agent. "the place is deserted," went on mr. foger. "my son and i are just living here until certain repairs are made, when i am going to make another effort to sell it." "yes, we knew it was being repaired, and that your son was staying here," said mr. whitford, "but we did not expect to see you." "i--er--that is--i came on unexpectedly," said mr. foger. "you may look about all you wish. you will find nothing wrong here." and they did not, strange to say. there was considerable litter in many of the rooms, and in one was andy's airship in parts. clearly work was being done on that, and mr. dillon's story was confirmed, for tools, with his initials burned in the handles, were lying about. the custom men, with tom and ned, went all over the house. andy scowled blackly at our hero, but said nothing. mr. foger seemed anxious to show everything, and let the men go where they would. finally a tour of the house had been completed, and nothing of a suspicious nature was found. "i guess we'll just take a look at the roof, and see that airship platform your son is going to use," said mr. whitford, in rather disappointed tones, when he had found nothing. "it isn't started yet," said andy. but they all went up through a scuttle, nevertheless, and saw where some posts had been made fast to the roof, to provide a platform foundation. "i'll beat you all to pieces when i get flying," said the bully to tom, as they went down the scuttle again. "i'm not in the racing game any more," replied tom coldly. "besides i only race with my friends." "huh! afraid of getting beat!" sneered andy. "well. i guess there's nothing here," said mr. whitford to mr. foger, as they stood together in the front room. "no, i knew you'd find nothing, and you have had your trouble for your pains." "oh, uncle sam doesn't mind trouble." "and you have caused me much annoyance!" said mr. foger sharply. "i'm afraid we'll have to cause you more," was the agent's comment. "i want to have a look in the gardener's house, from where tom swift saw the load going away." "there is nothing there!" declared mr. foger quickly. "that is, nothing but some old furniture. i sold a lot of it, and i suppose the man who bought it came for it to-night." "we'll take a look," repeated the agent, "i am very fond of old furniture." "very well," responded the bully's father, as he eyed tom and ned blackly. he led the way out of the house, and soon they stood before the small cottage. it was dark, and when mr. foger unlocked the door he turned on the gas, and lighted it. "i left the gas on until all the furniture should be taken out," he explained. "but you will find nothing here." it needed but a glance about the place to show that only some odds and ends of furniture was all that it contained. "where does this door lead to," asked mr. whitford, when he had made a tour of the place. "nowhere. oh, that is only down into the cellar." was the reply. "there is nothing there." "we can't take anything for granted," went on the agent with a smile. "i'll take a look down there." he descended with some of his men. tom and ned remained in the kitchen of the cottage, while andy and his father conversed in low tones, occasionally casting glances at our heroes. once tom thought mr. foger looked apprehensively toward the door, through which the custom men had descended. he also appeared to be anxiously listening. but when mr. whitford came back, with a disappointed look on his face, and said there was nothing to be found, mr. foger smiled: "what did i tell you?" he asked triumphantly. "never mind," was the retort of uncle sam's man. "we are not through with shopton yet." "i'm sorry we gave you so much trouble on a false clew," said tom, as he and ned left the foger premises with mr. whitford, the other deputies following. "that's all right, tom. we have to follow many false clews. i'm much obliged to you. either we were on the wrong track, or the fogers are more clever than i gave them credit for. but i am not done yet. i have something to propose to you. it has come to me in the last few minutes. i saw you in your airship once, and i know you know how to manage such craft. now there is no question in my mind but what the smugglers are using airships. tom, will you undertake a mission for uncle sam?" "what do you mean?" "i mean will you go to the border, in your airship, and try to catch the smugglers? i can promise you a big reward, and much fame if we catch them. an airship is just what is needed. you are the one to do it. will you?" chapter vii a searchlight is needed for a few moments after the custom officer had made his appeal, tom swift did not reply. his thoughts were busy with many things. somehow, it seemed of late, there had been many demands on him, demands that had been hard and trying. in the past he had not hesitated, but in those cases friendship, as well as a desire for adventures, had urged him. now he thought he had had his fill of adventures. "well?" asked mr. whitford, gently. "what's your answer, tom? don't you think this is a sort of duty-call to you?" "a duty-call?" repeated the young inventor. "yes. of course i realize that it isn't like a soldier's call to battle, but uncle sam needs you just the same. when there is a war the soldiers are called on to repel an enemy. now the smugglers are just as much an enemy of the united states, in a certain way, as an armed invader would be." "one strikes at the life and liberty of the people, while the smugglers try to cheat uncle sam out of money that is due him. i'm not going to enter into a discussion as to the right of the government to impose duties. people have their own opinion as to that. but, as long as the law says certain duties are to be collected, it is the duty of every citizen, not only to pay those dues, but to help collect them. that's what i'm asking you to do, tom." "i don't want to get prosy, or deliver a lecture on the work of the custom house, tom, but, honestly, i think it is a duty you owe to your country to help catch these smugglers. i admit i'm at the end of my rope. this last clew has failed. the fogers seem to be innocent of wrong doing. we need your help, tom." "but i don't see how i can help you." "of course you can! you're an expert with airships. the smugglers are using airships, of that i'm sure. you tell me you have just perfected a noiseless aircraft. that will be just the thing. you can hover on the border, near the line dividing new york state from canada, or near the st. lawrence, which is the natural division for a certain distance, and when you see an airship coming along you can slip up in your noiseless one, overhaul it, and make them submit to a search." "but i won't have any authority to do that," objected tom, who really did not care for the commission. "oh, i'll see that you get the proper authority all right," said mr. whitford significantly. "i made you a temporary deputy to-night, but if you'll undertake this work, to catch the smugglers in their airships, you will be made a regular custom official." "yes, but supposing i can't catch them?" interposed our hero. "they may have very fast airships, and--" "i guess you'll catch 'em all right!" put in ned, who was at his chum's side as they walked along a quiet shopton street in the darkness. "there's not an aeroplane going that can beat yours, tom." "well, perhaps i could get them," admitted the young inventor. "but--" "then you'll undertake this work for uncle sam?" interrupted mr. whitford eagerly. "come, tom, i know you will." "i'm not so sure of that," spoke tom. "it isn't going to be as easy as you think. there are many difficulties in the way. in the first place the smuggling may be done over such a wide area that it would need a whole fleet of airships to capture even one of the others, for they might choose a most unfrequented place to cross the border." "oh, we would be in communication with you," said the agent. "we can come pretty near telling where the contraband goods will be shipped from, but the trouble is, after we get our tips, we can't get to the place before they have flown away. but with your airship, you could catch them, after we sent you, say a wireless message, about where to look for them. so that's no objection. you have a wireless outfit on your airships, haven't you, tom?" "yes, that part is all right." "then you can't have any more objections, tom." "well, there are some. for instance you say most of this smuggling is done at night." "practically all of it, yes." "well, it isn't going to be easy to pick out a contraband airship in the dark, and chase it. but i'll tell you what i'll do, mr. whitford, i feel as if i had sort of 'fallen down' on this clew business, as the newspaper men say, and i owe it to you to make good in some way." "that's what i want--not that i think you haven't done all you could," interposed the agent. "well, if i can figure out some way, by which i think i can come anywhere near catching these smugglers, i'll undertake the work!" exclaimed tom. "i'll do it as a duty to uncle sam, and i don't want any reward except my expenses. it's going to cost considerable, but--" "don't mind the expense!" interrupted mr. whitford. "uncle sam will stand that. why, the government is losing thousands of dollars every week. it's a big leak, and must be stopped, and you're the one to stop it, tom." "well, i'll try. i'll see you in a couple of days, and let you know if i have formed any plan. now come on, ned. i'm tired and want to get to bed." "so do i," added the agent. "i'll call on you day after to-morrow, tom, and i expect you to get right on the job," he added with a laugh. "have you any idea what you are going to do, tom?" asked his chum, as they turned toward their houses. "not exactly. if i go i'll use my noiseless airship. that will come in handy. but this night business rather stumps me. i don't quite see my way to get around that. of course i could use an ordinary searchlight, but that doesn't give a bright enough beam, or carry far enough. it's going to be quite a problem and i've got to think it over." "queer about the fogers; wasn't it, tom?" "yes, i didn't think they were going to let us in." "there's something going on there, in spite of the fact that they were willing for an inspection to be made," went on ned. "i agree with you. i thought it was funny the way mr. foger acted about not wanting the men to go down in the cellar." "so did i, and yet when they got down there they didn't find anything." "that's so. well, maybe we're on the wrong track, after all. but i'm going to keep my eyes open. i don't see what andy wants with an airship platform on the roof of his house. the ground is good enough to start from and land on." "i should think so, too. but then andy always did like to show off, and do things different from anybody else. maybe it's that way now." "perhaps," agreed tom. "well, here's your house, ned. come over in the morning," and, with a good-night, our hero left his chum, proceeding on toward his own home. "why, koku, haven't you gone to bed yet?" asked the young inventor, as, mounting the side steps, he saw his giant servant sitting there on a bench he had made especially for his own use, as ordinary chairs were not substantial enough. "what is the matter?" "nothing happen yet," spoke koku significantly, "but maybe he come pretty soon, and then i get him." "get who, koku?" asked tom, with quick suspicion. "i do not know, but eradicate say he hear someone sneaking around his chicken coop, and i think maybe it be same man who was here once before." "oh, you mean the rivals, who were trying to get my moving picture camera?" "that's what!" exclaimed koku. "hum!" mused tom. "i must be on the look-out. i'll tell you what i'll do, koku. i'll set my automatic camera to take the moving pictures of any one who tries to get in my shop, or in the chicken coop. i'll also set the burglar alarm. but you may also stay on the watch, and if anything happens--" "if anything happens, i will un-happen him!" exclaimed the giant, brandishing a big club he had beside him. "all right," laughed tom. "i'm sleepy, and i'm going to bed, but i'll set the automatic camera, and fix it with fuse flashlights, so they will go off if the locks are even touched." this tom did, fixing up the wizard camera, which i have told you about in the book bearing that title. it would take moving pictures automatically, once tom had set the mechanism to unreel the films back of the shutter and lens. the lights would instantly flash, when the electrical connections on the door locks were tampered with, and the pictures would be taken. then tom set the burglar alarm, and, before going to bed he focused a searchlight, from one of his airships, on the shed and chicken coop, fastening it outside his room window. "there!" he exclaimed, as he got ready to turn in, not having awakened the rest of the household, "when the burglar alarm goes off, if it does, it will also start the searchlight, and i'll get a view of who the chicken thief is. i'll also get some pictures." then, thinking over the events of the evening, and wondering if he would succeed in his fight with the smugglers, providing he undertook it, tom fell asleep. it must have been some time after midnight that he was awakened by the violent ringing of a bell at his ear. at first he thought it was the call to breakfast, and he leaped from bed crying out: "yes, mrs. baggert, i'm coming!" a moment later he realized what it was. "the burglar alarm!" he cried. "koku, are you there? someone is trying to get into the chicken coop!" for a glance at the automatic indicator, in connection with the alarm, had shown tom that the henhouse, and not his shop, had been the object of attack. "i here!" cried koku, "i got him!" a series of startled cries bore eloquent testimony to this. "i'm coming!" cried tom. and then he saw a wonderful sight. the whole garden, his shop, the henhouse and all the surrounding territory was lighted up with a radiance almost like daylight. the beams of illumination came from the searchlight tom had fixed outside his window, but never before had the lantern given such a glow. "that's wonderful!" cried tom, as he ran to examine it. "what has happened? i never had such a powerful beam before. there must be something that i have stumbled on by accident. say, that is a light all right! why it goes for miles and miles, and i never projected a beam as far as this before." as tom looked into a circle of violet-colored glass set in the side of the small searchlight, to see what had caused the extraordinary glow, he could observe nothing out of the ordinary. the violet glass was to protect the eyes from the glare. "it must be that, by accident, i made some new connection at the dynamo," murmured tom. "hi! lemme go! lemme go, massa giant! i ain't done nuffin'!" yelled a voice. "i got you!" cried koku. "it's an ordinary chicken thief this time i guess," said tom. "but this light--this great searchlight--" then a sudden thought came to him. "by jove!" he cried. "if i can find out the secret of how i happened to project such a beam, it will be the very thing to focus on the smugglers from my noiseless airship! that's what i need--a searchlight such as never before has been made--a terrifically powerful one. and i've got it, if i can only find out just how it happened. i've got to look before the current dies out." leaving the brilliant beams on in full blast, tom ran down the stairs to get to his shop, from which the electrical power came. chapter viii tom's newest invention "i got him, mr. tom!" "oh, please, good massa swift! make him leggo me! he suah am squeezin' de liber outer me!" "shall i conflict the club upon him, mr. tom?" it was koku who asked this last question, as tom came running toward the giant. in the strange glare from the searchlight, the young inventor saw his big servant holding tightly to a rather small, colored man, while the camera, which was focused full on them, was clicking away at a great rate, taking picture after picture on the roll of films. "no, don't inflict nor conflict the club on him, koku," advised tom. "who is he?" "i don't know, mr. tom. i was in hiding, in the darkness, waiting for him to come back. he had been here once before in the evening, eradicate says. well, he came while i was waiting and i detained him. then the lights went up. they are very bright lights, mr. tom." "yes, brighter than i expected they would be. i must look and see what causes it. so you detained him, did you, koku?" "yes, and what exposition shall i make of him?" "what disposition?" corrected tom, with a laugh. "well, did he get any chickens, koku?" "oh, no, i was too tight for him." "oh, you mean too fast, or quick. well, if he didn't get any, i guess you might let him go. i have too much to attend to, to bother with him." "oh, bress yo' for dat, massa tom!" cried the negro, whom tom recognized as a worthless character about the town. "i didn't go fo' to do nuffin', massa tom. i were jest goin' t' look in de coop, t' count an' see how many fowls mah friend eradicate had, an' den--" "yes, and then i tie you!" broke in koku. "you collared him, i guess you mean to say," spoke tom with a laugh. "well, i guess, sam," speaking to the negro, "if you had counted rad's chickens he couldn't have counted as many in the morning. but be off, and don't come around again, or you might have to count the bars in a jail cell for a change." "bress yo' honey. i won't neber come back." "shall release him?" asked koku doubtfully. "yes," said tom. "and not reflict the club on him?" the giant raised his club longingly. "oh, massa tom, protect me!" cried sam. "no, don't even reflect the club on him," advised the young inventor with a laugh. "he hasn't done any harm, and he may have been the means of a great discovery. remember sam," tom went on sternly, "i have your picture, as you were trying to break into the coop, and if you come around again, i'll use it as evidence against you." "oh, i won't come. not as long as dat giant am heah, anyhow," said the negro earnestly. "besides, i were only goin' t' count eradicate's chickens, t' see ef he had as many as i got." "all right," responded tom. "now, koku, you may escort him off the premises, and be on the lookout the rest of the night, off and on. where's rad?" "he has what he says is 'de misery' in his back so that he had to go to bed," explained the giant, to account for the faithful colored man not having responded to the alarm. "all right, get rid of sam, and then come back." as tom turned to go in his shop he saw his aged father coming slowly toward him. mr. swift had hastily dressed. "what is the matter, tom?" he asked. "has anything happened? i heard your alarm go off, and i came as quickly as i could." "nothing much has happened, father, excepting a chicken thief. but something great may come of it. do you notice that searchlight, and how powerful it is?" "i do, tom. i never knew you had one as big as that." "neither did i, and i haven't, really. that's one of my smallest ones, but something seems to have happened to it to make it throw out a beam like that. i'm just going to look. come on in the shop." the two inventors, young and old, entered, and tom quickly crossed to where the wires from the automatic dynamo, extended to the searchlight outside the window of his room. he made a quick inspection. "look, father!" he cried. "the alternating current from the automatic dynamo has become crossed with direct current from the big storage battery in a funny way. it must have been by accident, for never in the world would i think of connecting up in that fashion. i would have said it would have made a short circuit at once." "but it hasn't. on the contrary, it has given a current of peculiar strength and intensity--a current that would seem to be made especially for searchlights. dad, i'm on the edge of a big discovery." "i believe you, tom," said his father. "that certainly is a queer way for wires to be connected. how do you account for it?" "i can't. that is unless some one meddled with the connections after i made them. that must be it. i'll ask rad and koku." just then the giant came in. "koku, did you touch the wires?" asked tom. "well, mr. tom, i didn't mean to. i accidentally pulled one out a while ago, when i was waiting for the thief to come, but i put it right back again. i hope i did no damage." "no, on the contrary, you did a fine thing, koku. i never would have dared make such connections myself, but you, not knowing any better, did just the right thing to make an almost perfect searchlight current. it is wonderful! probably for any other purpose such a current would be useless, but it is just the thing for a great light." "and why do you need such a powerful light, tom?" asked mr. swift. "why, it is of extraordinary brilliancy, and it goes for several miles. look how plainly you can pick out the trees on nob's hill," and he pointed to an elevation some distance away from the swift homestead, across the woods and meadows. "i believe i could see a bird perched there, if there was one!" exclaimed tom enthusiastically. "that certainly is a wonderful light. with larger carbons, better parobolic mirrors, a different resistance box, better connections, and a more powerful primary current there is no reason why i could not get a light that would make objects more plainly visible than in the daytime, even in the darkest night, and at a great distance." "but what would be the object of such a light, tom?" "to play upon the smugglers, dad, and catch them as they come over the border in the airship." "smugglers, tom! you don't mean to tell me you are going away again, and after smugglers?" "well, dad, i've had an offer, and i think i'll take it. there's no money in it, but i think it is my duty to do my best for uncle sam. the one thing that bothered me was how to get a view of the airship at night. this searchlight has solved the problem--that is if i can make a permanent invention of this accident, and i think i can." "oh, tom, i hate to think of you going away from home again," said his father a bit sadly. "don't worry, father. i'm not going far this time. only to the canadian border, and that's only a few hundred miles. but i want to see if i can cut the current off, and turn it on again. when a thing happens by accident you never know whether you can get just exactly the same conditions again." tom shut off the current from the dynamo, and the powerful beam of light died out. then he turned it on once more, and it glowed as brightly as before. he did this several times, and each time it was a success. "hurrah!" cried tom. "to-morrow i'll start on my latest invention, a great searchlight!" chapter ix "beware of the comet!" "well, tom, what are you up to now?" ned newton peered in the window of the shop at his chum, who was busy over a bench. "this is my latest invention, ned. come on in." "looks as though you were going to give a magic lantern show. or is it for some new kinds of moving pictures? say, do you remember the time we gave a show in the barn, and charged a nickel to come in? you were the clown, and--" "i was not! you were the clown. i was part of the elephant. the front end, i think." "oh. so you were. i'm thinking of another one. but what are you up to now? is it a big magic lantern?" ned came over toward the bench, in front of which tom stood, fitting together sheets of heavy brass in the form of a big square box. in one side there was a circular opening, and there were various wheels and levers on the different sides and on top. the interior contained parobolic curved mirrors. "it's a sort of a lantern, and i hope it's going to do some magic work," explained tom with a smile. "but it isn't the kind of magic lantern you mean. it won't throw pictures on a screen, but it may show some surprising pictures to us--that is if you come along, and i think you will." "talking riddles; eh?" laughed ned. "what's the answer?" "smugglers." "i thought you were talking about a lantern." "so i am, and it's the lantern that's going to show up the smugglers, so you can call it a smuggler's magic lantern if you like." "then you're going after them?" this conversation took place several days after the raid on the foger house, and after tom's accidental discovery of how to make a new kind of searchlight. in the meantime he had not seen ned, who had been away on a visit. "yes, i've made up my mind to help uncle sam," spoke tom, "and this is one of the things i'll need in my work. it's going to be the most powerful searchlight ever made--that is, i never heard of any portable electric lights that will beat it." "what do you mean, tom?" "i mean that i'm inventing a new kind of searchlight, ned. one that i can carry with me on my new noiseless airship, and one that will give a beam of light that will be visible for several miles, and which will make objects in its focus as plain as if viewed by daylight." "and it's to show up the smugglers?" "that's what. that is it will if we can get on the track of them." "but what did you mean when you said it would be the most powerful portable light ever made." "just what i said. i've got to carry this searchlight on an airship with me, and, in consequence, it can't be very heavy. of course there are stationary searchlights, such lights as are in lighthouses, that could beat mine all to pieces for candle power, and for long distance visibility. but they are the only ones." "that's the way to do things, tom! say, i'm going with you all right after those smugglers. but where are some of those powerful stationary searchlights you speak of?" "oh, there are lots of them. one was in the eiffel tower, during the paris exposition. i didn't see that, but i have read about it. another is in one of the twin lighthouses at the highlands, on the atlantic coast of new jersey, just above asbury park. that light is of ninety-five million candle power, and the lighthouse keeper there told me it was visible, on a clear night, as far as the new haven, connecticut, lighthouse, a distance of fifty miles." "fifty miles! that's some light!" gasped ned. "well, you must remember that the highlands light is up on a very high hill, and the tower is also high, so there is quite an elevation, and then think of ninety-five million candle power--think of it!" "i can't!" cried ned. "it gives me a head-ache." "well, of course i'm not going to try to beat that," went on tom with a laugh, "but i am going to have a very powerful light." and he then related how he had accidently discovered a new way to connect the wires, so as to get, from a dynamo and a storage battery a much stronger, and different, current than usual. "i'm making the searchlight now," tom continued, "and soon i'll be ready to put in the lens, and the carbons." "and then what?" "then i'm going to attach it to my noiseless airship, and we'll have a night flight. it may work, and it may not. if it does, i think we'll have some astonishing results." "i think we will, tom. can i do anything to help you?" "yes, file some of the rough edges off these sheets of brass, if you will. there's an old pair of gloves to put on to protect your hands, otherwise you'll be almost sure to cut 'em, when the file slips. that brass is extra hard." the two boys were soon working away, and were busy over the big lantern when mr. whitford came along. koku was, as usual, on guard at the outer door of the shop, but he knew the custom officer, and at once admitted him. "well, tom, how you coming on?" he asked. "pretty good. i think i've got just what i want. a powerful light for night work." "that's good. you'll need it. they've got so they only smuggle the goods over in the night now. how soon do you think you'll be able to get on the border for uncle sam?" "why, is there any great rush?" asked tom, as he noticed a look of annoyance pass over the agent's face. "yes, the smugglers have been hitting us pretty hard lately. my superiors are after me to do something, but i can't seem to do it. my men are working hard, but we can't catch the rascals." "you see, tom, they've stopped, temporarily, bringing goods over the st. lawrence. they're working now in the neighborhood of huntington, canada, and the dividing line between the british possessions and new york state, runs along solid ground there. it's a wild and desolate part of country, too, and i haven't many men up there." "don't the canadian custom officers help?" asked ned. "well, they haven't been of any aid to us so far," was the answer. "no doubt they are trying, but it's hard to get an airship at night when you're on the ground, and can't even see it." "how did they come to use airships?" asked tom. "well, it was because we were too sharp after them when they tried to run things across the line afoot, or by wagons," replied the agent. "you must know that in every principal city, at or near the border line, there is a custom house. goods brought from canada to the united states must pass through there and pay a duty." "of course if lawless people try to evade the duty they don't go near the custom house. but there are inspectors stationed at the principal roads leading from the dominion into uncle sam's territory, and they are always on the lookout. they patrol the line, sometimes through a dense wilderness, and again over a desolate plain, always on the watch. if they see persons crossing the line they stop them and examine what they have. if there is nothing dutiable they are allowed to pass. if they have goods on which there is a tax, they either have to pay or surrender the goods." "but don't the smugglers slip over in spite of all the precautions?" asked ned. "say at some lonely ravine, or stretch of woods?" "i suppose they do, occasionally," replied mr. whitford. "yet the fact that they never can tell when one of the inspectors or deputies is coming along, acts as a stop. you see the border line is divided up into stretches of different lengths. a certain man, or men, are held responsible for each division. they must see that no smugglers pass. that makes them on the alert." "why, take it out west, i have a friend who told me that he often travels hundreds of miles on horseback, with pack ponies carrying his camping outfit, patroling the border on the lookout for smugglers." "in fact uncle sam has made it so hard for the ordinary smuggler to do business on foot or by wagon, that these fellows have taken to airships. and it is practically impossible for an inspector patroling the border to be on the lookout for the craft of the air. even if they saw them, what could they do? it would be out of the question to stop them. that's why we need some one with a proper machine who can chase after them, who can sail through the air, and give them a fight in the clouds if they have to." "our custom houses on the ground, and our inspectors on horse back, traveling along the border, can't meet the issue. we're depending on you, tom swift, and i hope you don't disappoint us." "well," spoke tom, when mr. whitford had finished. "i'll do my best for you. it won't take very long to complete my searchlight, and then i'll give it a trial. my airship is ready for service, and once i find we're all right i'll start for the border." "good! and i hope you'll catch the rascals!" fervently exclaimed the custom official. "well, tom, i'm leaving it all to you. here are some reports from my deputies. i'll leave them with you, and you can look them over, and map out a campaign. when you are ready to start i'll see you again, and give you any last news i have. i'll also arrange so that you can communicate with me, or some of my men." "have you given up all suspicion of the fogers?" asked the young inventor. "yes. but i still think shopton is somehow involved in the custom violations. i'm going to put one of my best men on the ground here, and go to the border myself." "well, i'll be ready to start in a few days," said tom, as the government agent departed. for the next week our hero and his chum were busy completing work on the great searchlight, and in attaching it to the airship. koku helped them, but little of the plans, or of the use to which the big lantern was to be put, were made known to him, for koku liked to talk, and tom did not want his project to become known. "well, we'll give her a trial to-night," said tom one afternoon, following a day of hard work. "we'll go up, and flash the light down." "who's going?" "just us two. you can manage the ship, and i'll look after the light." so it was arranged, and after supper tom and his chum, having told mr. swift were they were going, slipped out to the airship shed, and soon were ready to make an ascent. the big lantern was fastened to a shaft that extended above the main cabin. the shaft was hollow and through it came the wires that carried the current. tom, from the cabin below, could move the lantern in any direction, and focus it on any spot he pleased. by means of a toggle joint, combined with what are known as "lazy-tongs," the lantern could be projected over the side of the aircraft and be made to gleam on the earth, directly below the ship. for his new enterprise tom used the falcon in which he had gone to siberia after the platinum. the new noiseless motor had been installed in this craft. "all ready, ned?" asked tom after an inspection of the searchlight. "all ready, as far as i'm concerned, tom." "then let her go!" like a bird of the night, the great aeroplane shot into the air, and, with scarcely a sound that could be heard ten feet away, she moved forward at great speed. "what are you going to do first?" asked ned. "fly around a bit, and then come back over my house. i'm going to try the lantern on that first, and see what i can make out from a couple of miles up in the air." up and up went the falcon, silently and powerfully, until the barograph registered nearly fourteen thousand feet. "this is high enough." spoke tom. he shifted a lever that brought the searchlight into focus on shopton, which lay below them. then, turning on the current, a powerful beam of light gleamed out amid the blackness. "jove! that's great!" cried ned. "it's like a shaft of daylight!" "that's what i intended it to be!" cried tom in delight. with another shifting of the lever he brought the light around so that it began to pick up different buildings in the town. "there's the church!" cried ned. "it's as plain as day, in that gleam." "and there's the railroad depot," added tom. "and andy foger's house!" "yes, and there's my house!" exclaimed tom a moment later, as the beam rested on his residence and shops. "say, it's plainer than i thought it would be. hold me here a minute, ned." ned shut off the power from the propellers, and the airship was stationary. tom took a pair of binoculars, and looked through them at his home in the focus of light. "i can count the bricks in the chimney!" he cried in eagerness at the success of his great searchlight. "it's even better than i thought it was! let's go down, ned." slowly the airship sank. tom played his light all about, picking up building after building, and one familiar spot after another. finally he brought the beam on his own residence again, when not far above it. suddenly there arose a weird cry. tom and ned knew at once that it was eradicate. "a comet! a comet!" yelled the colored man. "de end ob de world am comin'! run, chillens, run! beware ob de comet!" "eradicate's afraid!" cried tom with a laugh. "oh good mistah comet! doan't take me!" went on the colored man. "i ain't neber done nuffin', an' mah mule boomerang ain't needer. but ef yo' has t' take somebody, take boomerang!" "keep quiet, rad! it's all right!" cried tom. but the colored man continued to shout in fear. then, as the two boys looked on, and as the airship came nearer to the earth, ned, who was looking down amid the great illumination, called to tom: "look at koku!" tom glanced over, and saw his giant servant, with fear depicted on his face, running away as fast as he could. evidently eradicate's warning had frightened him. "say, he can run!" cried ned. "look at him leg it!" "yes, and he may run away, never to come back," exclaimed tom. "i don't want to lose him, he's too valuable. i know what happened once when he got frightened. he was away for a week before i could locate him, and he hid in the swamp. i'm not going to have that happen again." "what are you going to do?" "i'm going to chase after him in the airship. it will be a good test for chasing the smugglers. put me after him, ned, and i'll play the searchlight on him so we can't lose him!" chapter x off for the border "there he goes, tom!" "yes, i see him!" "look at him run!" "no wonder. consider his long legs, ned. put on a little more speed, and keep a little lower down. it's clear of trees right here." "there he goes into that clump of bushes." "i see him. he'll soon come out," and tom flashed the big light on the fleeing giant to whom fear seemed to lend more than wings. but even a giant, long legged though he be, and powerful, cannot compete with a modern airship--certainly not such a one as tom swift had. "we're almost up to him, tom!" cried ned a little later. "yes! i'm keeping track of him. oh, why doesn't he know enough to stop? koku! koku!" called tom. "it's all right! i'm in the airship! this is a searchlight, not a comet. wait for us!" they could see the giant glance back over his shoulder at them, and, when he saw how close the gleaming light was he made a desperate spurt. but it was about his last, for he was a heavy man, and did not have any too good wind. "we'll have him in another minute," predicted tom. "give me a bit more speed, ned." the lad who was managing the falcon swung the accelerating lever over another notch, and the craft surged ahead. then ned executed a neat trick. swinging the craft around in a half circle, he suddenly opened the power full, and so got ahead of koku. the next minute, sliding down to earth, tom and ned came to a halt, awaiting the oncoming of koku, who, finding the glaring light full in his face, came to a halt. "why, koku, what's the matter?" asked tom kindly, as he turned off the powerful beams, and switched on some ordinary incandescents, that were on the outside of the craft. they made an illumination by which the giant could make out his master and the latter's chum. "why did you run, koku?" asked tom. "eradicate say to," was the simple answer. "he say comet come to eat up earth. koku no want to be eaten." "eradicate is a big baby!" exclaimed tom. "see, there is no danger. it is only my new searchlight," and once more the young inventor switched it on. koku jumped back, but when he saw that nothing happened he did not run. "it's harmless," said tom, and briefly he explained how the big lantern worked. koku was reassured now, and consented to enter the airship. he was rather tired from his run, and was glad to sit down. "where to now; back home?" asked ned, as they made ready to start. "no, i was thinking of going over to mr. damon's house. i'd like him to see my searchlight. and i want to find out if he's going with us on the trip to the border." "of course he will!" predicted ned. "he hasn't missed a trip with you in a long while. he'll go if his wife will let him," and both boys laughed, for mr. damon's wife was nearly always willing to let him do as he liked, though the odd man had an idea that she was violently opposed to his trips. once more the falcon went aloft, and again the searchlight played about. it brought out with startling distinctness the details of the towns and villages over which they passed, and distant landmarks were also made plainly visible. "we'll be there in a few minutes now," said tom, as he flashed the light on a long slant toward the town of waterford, where mr. damon lived. "i can see his house," spoke ned a moment later. he changed the course of the craft, to bring it to a stop in the yard of the eccentric man, and, shortly afterward, they landed. tom who had shut off the searchlight for a minute, turned it on again, and the house and grounds of mr. damon were enveloped in a wonderful glow. "that will bring him out," predicted tom. a moment later they heard his voice. "bless my astronomy!" cried mr. damon. "there's a meteor fallen in our yard. come out, wife--everybody--call the servants. it's a chance of a lifetime to see one, and they're valuable, too! bless my star dust! i must tell tom swift of this!" out into the glare of the great searchlight ran mr. damon, followed by his wife and several of the servants. "there it is!" cried the odd man. "there's the meteor!" "first we're a comet and then we're a meteor," said ned with a laugh. "oh. i hope it doesn't bury itself in the earth before i can get tom swift here!" went on mr. damon, capering about. "bless my telephone book. i must call him up right away!" "i'm here now, mr. damon!" shouted tom, as he alighted from the airship. "that's my new searchlight you're looking at." "bless my--" began mr. damon, but he couldn't think of nothing strong enough for a moment, until he blurted out "dynamite cartridge! bless my dynamite cartridge! tom swift! his searchlight! bless my nitro-glycerine!" then tom shut off the glare, and, as mr. damon and his wife came aboard he showed them how the light worked. he only used a part of the current, as he knew if he put on the full glare toward mr. damon's house, neighbors might think it was on fire. "well, that's certainly wonderful," said mrs. damon. "in fact this is a wonderful ship." "can't you take mrs. damon about, and show her how it works," said mr. damon suddenly. "show her the ship." "i will," volunteered tom. "no, let ned," said the eccentric man. "i--er--i want to speak to you, tom." mrs. damon, with a queer glance at her husband, accompanied ned to the motor room. as soon as she was out of hearing the odd gentleman came over and whispered to the young inventor. "i say, tom, what's up?" "smugglers. you know. i told you about 'em. i'm going after 'em with my big searchlight." "bless my card case! so you did. but, i say, tom, i--i want to go!" "i supposed you would. well, you're welcome, of course. we leave in a few days. it isn't a very long trip this time, but there may be plenty of excitement. then i'll book you for a passage, and--" "hush! not another word! here she comes, tom. my wife! don't breathe a syllable of it to her. she'll never let me go." then, for the benefit of mrs. damon, who came back into the main cabin with ned at that moment, her husband added in loud tones: "yes, tom it certainly is a wonderful invention. i congratulate you," and, at the same time he winked rapidly at our hero. tom winked in return. "well, i guess we'll start back," remarked tom, after a bit. "i'll see you again, i suppose, mr. damon?" "oh yes, of course. i'll be over--soon," and once more he winked as he whispered in tom's ear: "don't leave me behind, my boy." "i won't," whispered the young inventor in answer. mrs. damon smiled, and tom wondered if she had discovered her husband's innocent secret. tom and ned, with koku, made a quick trip back to shopton, using the great searchlight part of the way. the next day they began preparations for the journey to the border. it did not take long to get ready. no great amount of stores or supplies need be taken along, as they would not be far from home, not more than a two days' journey at any time. and they would be near large cities, where food and gasolene could easily be obtained. about a week later, therefore, mr. whitford the government agent, having been communicated with in the meanwhile, tom and ned, with koku and mr. damon were ready to start. "i wonder if mr. whitford is coming to see us off?" mused tom, as he looked to see if everything was aboard, and made sure that the searchlight was well protected by its waterproof cover. "he said he'd be here," spoke ned. "well, it's past time now. i don't know whether to start, or to wait." "wait a few minutes more," advised ned. "his train may be a few minutes behind time." they waited half an hour, and tom was on the point of starting when a messenger boy came hurrying into the yard where the great airship rested on its bicycle wheels. "a telegram for you, tom," called the lad, who was well acquainted with our hero. hastily the young inventor tore open the envelope. "here's news!" he exclaimed, "what is it?" asked ned. "it's from mr. whitford," answered his chum. "he says: 'can't be with you at start. will meet you in logansville. have new clew to the fogers!'" "great scott!" cried ned, staring at his chum. chapter xi andy's new airship tom swift tossed a quarter to the messenger boy, and leaped over the rail to the deck of his airship, making his way toward the pilot house. "start the motor, ned," he called. "are you all ready, mr. damon?" "bless my ancient history, yes. but--" "are you going, tom?" asked ned. "of course. that's why we're here; isn't it? we're going to start for the border to catch the smugglers. give me full speed, i want the motor to warm up." "but that message from mr. whitford? he says he has a new clew to the fogers." "that's all right. he may have, but he doesn't ask us to work it up. he says he will meet us in logansville, and he can't if we don't go there. we're off for logansville. good-bye dad. i'll bring you back a souvenir, mrs. baggert," he called to the housekeeper. "sorry you're not coming, rad, but i'll take you next time." "dat's all right, massa tom. i doan't laik dem smugger-fellers, nohow. good-bye an' good luck!" "bless my grab bag!" gasped mr. damon. "you certainly do things, tom." "that's the only way to get things done," replied the young inventor. "how about you, ned? motor all right?" "sure." "then let her go!" a moment later ned had started the machinery, and tom, in the pilot house, had pulled the lever of the elevating rudder. whizzing along, but making scarcely any sound, the noiseless airship mounted upward, and was off on her flight to capture the men who were cheating uncle sam. "what are you going to do first, when you get there, tom?" asked ned, as he joined his chum in the pilot house, having set the motor and other apparatus to working automatically. "i mean in logansville?" "i don't know. i'll have to wait and see how things develop." "that's where mr. foger lives, you know." "yes, but i doubt if he is there now. he and andy are probably still in the old house here, though what they are doing is beyond me to guess." "what do you suppose this new clew is that mr. whitford wired you about?" "haven't any idea. if he wants us to get after it he'll let us know. it won't take us long to get there at this rate. but i think i'll slow down a bit, for the motor is warmed up now, and there's no use racking it to pieces. but we're moving nicely; aren't we, ned?" "i should say so. this is the best all-around airship you've got." "it is since i put the new motor in. well, i wonder what will happen when we get chasing around nights after the smugglers? it isn't going to be easy work, i can tell you." "i should say not. how you going to manage it?" "well, i haven't just decided. i'm going to have a talk with the customs men, and then i'll go out night after night and cruise around at the most likely place where they'll rush goods across the border. as soon as i see the outlines of an airship in the darkness, or hear the throb of her motor, i'll take after her, and--" "yes, and you can do it, too, tom, for she can't hear you coming and you can flash the big light on her and the smugglers will think the end of the world has come. cracky! its going to be great, tom! i'm glad i came along. maybe they'll fight, and fire at us! if they have guns aboard, as they probably will have, we'll--" "bless my armor plate!" interrupted mr. damon. "please don't talk about such hair-raising things, ned! talk about something pleasant." "all right," agreed tom's chum, and then, as the airship sailed along, high above the earth, they talked of many things. "i think when we sight logansville." said tom, after a while, "that i will come down in some quiet spot, before we reach the city." "don't you want to get into a crowd?" asked ned. "no, it isn't that. but mr. foger lives there you know, and, though he may not be at home, there are probably some men who are interested in the thing he is working at." "you mean smuggling?" "well, i wouldn't say that. at the same time it may have leaked out that we are after the smugglers in an airship and it may be that mr. whitford doesn't want the fogers to know i'm on the ground until he has a chance to work up his clew. so i'll just go slowly, and remain in the background for a while." "well, maybe it's a good plan," agreed ned. [original text says "tom". (note of etext transcriber.)] "of course," began tom, "it would be--" he was interrupted by a shout from koku, who had gone to the motor room, for the giant was as fascinated over machinery as a child. as he yelled there came a grinding, pounding noise, and the big ship seemed to waver, to quiver in the void, and to settle toward the earth. "something's happened!" cried ned, as he sprang for the place where most of the mechanism was housed. "bless my toy balloon!" shouted mr. damon. "we're falling, tom!" it needed but a glance at the needle of the barograph, to show this. tom followed ned at top speed, but ere either of them reached the engine room the pounding and grinding noises ceased, the airship began to mount upward again, and it seemed that the danger had passed. "what can have happened?" gasped tom. "come on, we'll soon see," said ned, and they rushed on, followed by mr. damon, who was blessing things in a whisper. the chums saw a moment later--saw a strange sight--for there was koku, the giant, kneeling down on the floor of the motor room, with his big hands clasped over one of the braces of the bed-plate of the great air pump, which cooled the cylinders of the motor. the pump had torn partly away from its fastenings. kneeling there, pressing down on the bed-plate with all his might, koku was in grave danger, for the rod of the pump, plunging up and down, was within a fraction of an inch of his head, and, had he moved, the big taper pin, which held the plunger to the axle, would have struck his temple and probably would have killed him, for the pin, which held the plunger rigid, projected several inches from the smooth side of the rod. "koku, what is the matter? why are you there?" cried tom, for he could see nothing wrong with the machinery now. the airship was sailing on as before. "bolt break," explained the giant briefly, for he had learned some engineering terms since he had been with tom. "bolt that hold pump fast to floor crack off. pump him begin to jump up. make bad noise. koku hold him down, but pretty hard work. better put in new bolt, mr. tom." they could see the strain that was put upon the giant in his swelling veins and the muscles of his hands and arms, for they stood out knotted, and in bunches. with all his great strength it was all koku could do to hold the pump from tearing completely loose. "quick, ned!" cried tom. "shut off all the power! stop the pump! i've got to bolt it fast. start the gas machine, mr. damon. you know how to do it. it works independent of the motor. you can let go in a minute, koku!" it took but a few seconds to do all this. ned stopped the main motor, which had the effect of causing the propellers to cease revolving. then the airship would have gone down but for the fact that she was now a balloon, mr. damon having started the generating machine which sent the powerful lifting gas into the big bag over head. "now you can let go, koku," said tom, for with the stooping of the motor the air pump ceased plunging, and there was no danger of it tearing loose. "bless my court plaster!" cried mr. damon. "what happened, tom?" as the giant arose from his kneeling position the cause of the accident could easily be seen. two of the big bolts that held down one end of the pump bed-plate to the floor of the airship, had cracked off, probably through some defect, or because of the long and constant vibration on them. this caused a great strain on the two forward bolts, and the pump started to tear itself loose. had it done so there would have been a serious accident, for there would have been a tangle in the machinery that might never have been repairable. but koku, who, it seems, had been watching the pump, saw the accident as soon as it occurred. he knew that the pump must be held down, and kept rigid, and he took the only way open to him to accomplish this. he pressed his big hands down over the place where the bolts had broken off, and by main strength of muscle he held the bed-plate in place until the power was shut off. "koku, my boy, you did a great thing!" cried tom, when he realized what had happened. "you saved all our lives, and the airship as well." "koku glad," was the simple reply of the giant. "but, bless my witch hazel!" cried mr. damon. "there's blood on your hands, koku!" they looked at the giant's palms. they were raw and bleeding. "how did it happen?" asked ned. "where belts break off, iron rough-like," explained koku. "rough! i should say it was!" cried tom. "why, he just pressed with all his might on the jagged end of the belts. koku you're a hero!" "hero same as giant?" asked koku, curiously. "no, it's a heap sight better," spoke tom, and there was a trace of tears in his eyes. "bless my vaseline!" exclaimed mr. damon, blowing his nose harder than seemed necessary. "come over here, koku, and i'll bandage up your hands. poor fellow, it must hurt a lot!" "oh, not so bad," was the simple reply. while mr. damon gave first aid to the injured, tom and ned put new bolts in place of the broken ones on the bed-plate, and they tested them to see that they were perfect. new ones were also substituted for the two that had been strained, and in the course of an hour the repairs were made. "now we can run as an aeroplane again," said tom. "but i'm not going to try such speed again. it was the vibration that did it i guess." they were now over a wild and desolate stretch of country, for the region lying on either side of the imaginary line dividing canada and new york state, at the point where the st. lawrence flows north-east, is sparsely settled. there were stretches of forest that seemed never to have been penetrated, and here and there patches of stunted growth, with little lakes dotted through the wilderness. there were hills and valleys, small streams and an occasional village. "just the place for smuggling," observed tom, as he looked at a map, consulted a clock and figured out that they must be near logansville. "we can go down here in one of these hollows, surrounded by this tangled forest, and no one would ever know we were here. the smugglers could do the same." "are you going to try it?" asked ned. "i think i will. we'll go up to quite a height now, and i'll see if i can pick out logansville. that isn't much of a place i guess. when i sight it i'll select a good place to lay hidden for a day or two, until mr. whitford has had a chance to work up his clew." the airship machinery was now working well again, and tom sent his craft up about three miles. from there, taking observations through a powerful telescope, he was able, after a little while, to pick out a small town. from its location and general outline he knew it to be logansville. "we'll go down about three miles from it," he said to his chum. "they won't be likely to see us then, and we'll stay concealed for a while." this plan was put into operation, and, a little later the falcon came to rest in a little grassy clearing, located in among a number of densely wooded hills. it was an ideal place to camp, though very lonesome. "now, ned, let's cut a lot of branches, and pile them over the airship," suggested tom. "cover over the airship? what for?" "so that in case anyone flies over our heads they won't look down and see us. if the fogers, or any of the smugglers, should happen to pass over this place, they'd spot us in a minute. we've got to play foxy on this hunt." "that's so," agreed his chum; and soon the three of them were busy making the airship look like a tangled mass of underbrush. koku helped by dragging big branches along under his arm, but he could not use his hands very well. they remained in the little grassy glade three days, thoroughly enjoying their camp and the rest. tom and ned went fishing in a nearby lake and had some good luck. they also caught trout in a small stream and broiled the speckled beauties with bacon inside them over live coals at a campfire. "my! but that's good!" mumbled ned, with his mouth full of hot trout, and bread and butter. "yes, i'd rather do this than chase smugglers," said tom, stretching out on his back with his face to the sky. "i wish--" but he did not finish the sentence. suddenly from the air above them came a curious whirring, throbbing noise. tom sat up with a jump! he and ned gazed toward the zenith. the noise increased and, a moment later, there came into view a big airship, sailing right over their heads. "look at that!" cried tom. "hush! they'll hear you," cautioned ned. "nonsense! they're too high up," was tom's reply. "mr. damon, bring me the big binoculars, please!" he called. "bless my spectacles, what's up?" asked the odd gentleman as he ran with the glasses toward tom. our hero focused them on the airship that was swiftly sailing across the open space in the wilderness but so high up that there was no danger of our friends being recognized. then the young inventor uttered a cry of astonishment. "it's andy foger!" he cried. "he's in that airship, and he's got two men with him. andy foger, and it's a new biplane. say, maybe that's the new clew mr. whitford wired me about. we must get ready for action! andy in a new airship means business, and from the whiteness of the canvas planes, i should say that craft was on its first trip." chapter xii warned away "tom, are you sure it's andy?" "take a look yourself," replied the young inventor, passing his chum the binoculars. "bless my bottle of ink!" cried mr. damon. "is it possible?" "quick, ned, or you'll miss him!" cried tom. the young bank clerk focused the glasses on the rapidly moving airship, and, a moment later, exclaimed: "yes, that's andy all right, but i don't know who the men are with him." "i couldn't recognize them, either," announced tom. "but say, ned, andy's got a good deal better airship than he had before." "yes. this isn't his old one fixed over. i don't believe he ever intended to repair the old one. that hiring of mr. dillon to do that, was only to throw him, and us, too, off the track." ned passed the glasses to mr. damon, who was just in time to get a glimpse of the three occupants of andy's craft before it passed out of sight over the trees. "i believe you're right," said tom to his chum. "and did you notice that there's quite a body, or car, to that craft?" "yes, room enough to carry considerable goods," commented ned. "i wonder where he's going in it?" "to logansville, most likely. i tell you what it is, ned. i think one of us will have to go there, and see if mr. whitford has arrived. he may be looking for us. i'm not sure but what we ought not to have done this first. he may think we have not come, or have met with some accident." "i guess you're right, tom. but how shall we go? it isn't going to be any fun to tramp through those woods," and ned glanced at the wilderness that surrounded the little glade where they had been camping. "no, and i've about concluded that we might as well risk it, and go in the airship. mr. whitford has had time enough to work up his clew, i guess, and andy will be sure to find out, sooner or later, that we are in the neighborhood. i say let's start for logansville." ned and mr. damon agreed with this and soon they were prepared to move. "where will you find mr. whitford?" asked ned of his chum, as the falcon arose in the air. "at the post-office. that's where we arranged to meet. there is a sort of local custom house there, i believe." straight over the forest flew tom swift and his airship, with the great searchlight housed on top. they delayed their start until the other craft had had a chance to get well ahead, and they were well up in the air; there was no sight of the biplane in which andy had sailed over their heads a short time before. "where are you going to land?" asked ned, as they came in view of the town. "the best place i can pick out," answered tom. "just on the outskirts of the place, i think. i don't want to go down right in the centre, as there'll be such a crowd. yet if andy has been using his airship here the people must be more or less used to seeing them." but if the populace of logansville had been in the habit of having andy foger sail over their heads, still they were enough interested in a new craft to crowd around when tom dropped into a field near some outlying houses. in a moment the airship was surrounded by a crowd of women and children, and there would probably been a lot of men, but for the fact that they were away at work. tom had come down in a residential section. "say, that's a beauty!" cried one boy. "let's see if they'll let us go on!" proposed another. "we're going to have our own troubles," said tom to his chum. "i guess i'll go into town, and leave the rest of you on guard here. keep everybody off, if you have to string mildly charged electrical wires about the rail." but there was no need to take this precaution, for, just as the combined juvenile population of that part of logansville was prepared to storm, and board the falcon, koku appeared on deck. "oh, look at the giant!" "say, this is a circus airship?" "wow! ain't he big!" "i'll bet he could lift a house!" these and other expressions came from the boys and girls about the airship. the women looked on open-mouthed, and murmurs of surprise and admiration at koku's size came from a number of men who had hastily run up. koku stepped from the airship to the ground, and at once every boy and girl made a bee-line for safety. "that will do the trick!" exclaimed tom with a laugh. "koku, just pull up a few trees, and look as fierce as bluebeard, and i guess we won't be troubled with curiosity seekers. you can guard the airship, koku, better than electric wires." "i fix 'em!" exclaimed the giant, and he tried to look fierce, but it was hard work, for he was very good natured. but he proved a greater attraction than the aircraft, and tom was glad of it, for he did not like meddlers aboard. "with koku to help you, and mr. damon to bless things. i guess you can manage until i come back, ned," said the young inventor, as he made ready to go in to town to see if mr. whitford had arrived. "oh, we'll get along all right," declared ned. "don't worry." tom found mr. whitford in one of the rooms over the post-office. the custom house official was restlessly pacing the floor. "well, tom!" he exclaimed, shaking hands, "i'm glad to see you. i was afraid something had happened. i was delayed myself, but when i did arrive and found you hadn't been heard from, i didn't know what to think. i couldn't get you on the wireless. the plant here is out of repair." tom told of their trip, and the wait they had decided on, and asked: "what about the new clew; the fogers?" "i'm sorry to say it didn't amount to anything. i ran it down, and came to nothing." "you know andy has a new airship?" "yes. i had men on the trail of it. they say andy is agent for a firm that manufactures them, but i have my doubts. i haven't given up yet. but say, tom, you've got to get busy. a big lot of goods was smuggled over last night." "where?" "well, quite a way from here. i got a telegram about it. can you get on the job to-night, and do some patrol work along the border? you're only half a mile from it now. over there is canada," and he pointed to a town on a hill opposite logansville. "yes, i can get right into action. what place is that?" "montford, canada. i've got men planted there, and the dominion customs officials are helping us. but i think the smugglers have changed the base of their operations for the time being. if i were you i'd head for the st. lawrence to-night." "i will. don't you want to come along?" "why, yes. i believe i'm game. i'll join you later in the day," mr. whitford added, as tom told him where the falcon was anchored. the young inventor got back to find a bigger crowd than ever around his airship. but koku and the others had kept them at a distance. with the government agent aboard tom sent his craft into the air at dusk, the crowd cheering lustily. then, with her nose pointed toward the st. lawrence, the falcon was on her way to do a night patrol, and, if possible, detect the smugglers. it was monotonous work, and unprofitable, for, though tom sent the airship back and forth for many miles along the wonderful river that formed the path from the great lakes to the sea, he had no glimpse of ghostly wings of other aircraft, nor did he hear the beat of propellers, nor the throb of motors, as his own noiseless airship cruised along. it came on to rain after midnight, and a mist crept down from the clouds, so that even with the great searchlight flashing its powerful beams, it was difficult to see for any great distance. "better give it up, i guess," suggested mr. whitford toward morning, when they had covered many miles, and had turned back toward logansville. "all right," agreed tom. "but we'll try it again to-morrow night." he dropped his craft at the anchorage he had selected in the gray dawn of the morning. all on board were tired and sleepy. ned, looking from a window of the cabin, as the falcon came to a stop, saw something white on the ground. "i wonder what that is?" he said as he hurried out to pick it up. it was a large white envelope, addressed to tom swift, and the name was in printed characters. "somebody who wants to disguise their writing," remarked tom, as he tore it open. a look of surprise came over his face. "look here! mr. whitford," he cried. "this is the work of the smugglers all right!" for, staring at tom, in big printed letters, on a white sheet of paper, was this message: "if you know what is good for you, tom swift, you had better clear out. if you don't your airship will burned, and you may get hurt. we'll burn you in mid-air. beware and quit. you can't catch us." "the committee of three." "ha! warned away!" cried tom. "well, it will take more than this to make me give up!" and he crumpled the anonymous warning in his hand. chapter xiii koku saves the light "don't do that!" cried mr. whitford. "what?" asked tom, in some surprise. "don't destroy that letter. it may give us a clew. let me have it. i'll put a man at work on that end of this game." "bless my checkerboard!" cried mr. damon. "this game has so many ends that you don't know where to begin to play it." the government man smoothed out the crumpled piece of paper, and looked at it carefully, and also gazed at the envelope. "it's pretty hard to identify plain print, done with a lead pencil," he murmured. "and this didn't came through the mail." "i wonder how it got here?" mused ned. "maybe some of the crowd that was here when we started off dropped it for the smugglers. maybe the smugglers were in that crowd!" "let's take a look outside," suggested mr. whitford. "we may be able to pick up a clew there." although our friends were tired and sleepy, and hungry as well, they forgot all this in the desire to learn more about the mysterious warning that had come to them during the night. they all went outside, and ned pointed to where he had picked up the envelope. "look all around, and see if you can find anything more," directed the custom agent. "footprints won't count," said tom. "there was a regular circus crowd out here yesterday." "i'm not looking for footprints," replied mr. whitford, "i have an idea--" "here's something!" interrupted mr. damon. "it looks like a lead weight for a deep-sea fishing line. bless my reel. no one could do fishing here." "let me see that!" exclaimed mr. whitford eagerly. then, as he looked at it, he uttered a cry of delight. "i thought so," he said. "look at this bit of cord tied to the weight." "what does that signify?" asked tom. "and see this little hole in the envelope, or, rather a place that was a hole, but it's torn away now." "i'm not much the wiser," confessed ned, with a puzzled look. "why, it's as plain as print," declared the government agent. "this warning letter was dropped from an airship, tom." "from an airship?" "yes. they sailed right over this place, and let the letter fall, with this lead weight attached, to bring it to earth just where they wanted it to fall." "bless my postage stamp!" cried mr. damon. "i never heard of such a thing." "i see it now!" exclaimed tom. "while we were off over the river, watching for the smugglers, they were turning a trick here, and giving us a warning into the bargain. we should have stayed around here. i wonder if it was andy's airship that was used?" "we can easily find that out," said mr. whitford. "i have a detective stationed in a house not far from where the fogers live. andy came back from shopton yesterday, just before you arrived here, and i can soon let you know whether he was out last night. i'll take this letter with me, and get right up to my office, though i'm afraid this won't be much of a clew after all. print isn't like handwriting for evidence." "and to think they sailed right over this place, and we weren't home," mourned tom. "it makes me mad!" but there was no use in regretting what had happened, and, after a hot breakfast in the airship, with mr. damon presiding at the electrical stove, they all felt more hopeful. mr. whitford left for his office, promising to send word to tom as to whether or not andy was abroad in the airship during the night. "i wonder if that 'committee of three' is andy and these two fellows with him in the airship?" asked ned. "hard telling," responded his chum. "now for a good sleep. koku, keep the crowd away while we have a rest," for the giant had indulged in a good rest while the airship was on patrol during the night. not so much of a crowd came out as on the first day, and koku had little trouble in keeping them far enough away so that tom and the others could get some rest. koku walked about, brandishing a big club, and looking as fierce as a giant in a fairy tale. it was afternoon when a message came from mr. whitford to the effect that andy's airship was not out the previous night, and that so far no clews had developed from the letter, or from any other source. "we'll just have to keep our eyes open," wrote mr. whitford. "i think perhaps we are altogether wrong about the fogers, unless they are deeper than i give them credit for. it might be well to let the smugglers think you are frightened, and go away for a day or so, selecting a more secluded spot to remain in. that may cause them to get bolder, and we may catch them unawares." "that's a good plan. i'll try it," decided tom. "we'll move to-morrow to a new location." "why not to-night?" asked ned. "because it's getting late, and i want to circle about in daylight and pick out a good place. morning will do all right." "then you're not going out to-night?" "no. mr. whitford writes that as goods were smuggled over last night it will hardly be likely that they will repeat the trick to-night. we'll have a little rest." "going to mount guard?" asked ned. "no, i don't think so. no one will disturb us." afterward the young inventor wished that he had kept a better watch that night, for it nearly proved disastrous for him. it must have been about midnight that tom was awakened by a movement in the airship. "who's that?" he asked suddenly. "koku," came the reassuring reply. "too hot to sleep in my bunk. i go out on deck." "all right, koku," and tom dozed off again. suddenly he was awakened by the sound of a terrific scuffle on deck. up he jumped, rushing toward the door that led from his sleeping cabin. "what is it! what's the matter!" he cried. there came the sound of a blow, a cry of pain, and then the report of a gun. "bless my cartridge belt!" cried mr. damon. "what's the matter? who is it? what happened?" yelled ned, tumbling out of his bunk. "something wrong!" answered tom, as he switched on the electric lights. he was just in time to see koku wrench a gun from a man who stood near the pedestal, on which the great searchlight was poised. tossing the weapon aside, koku caught up his club, and aimed a blow at the man. but the latter nimbly dodged and, a moment later leaped over the rail, followed by the giant. "who is he? what did he do?" cried tom after his big servant. "what happened?" "him try to shoot searchlight, but i stop him!" yelled back koku, as he rushed on in pursuit. with a leap tom sprang to the switch of his lantern, and sent a flood of light toward where koku was racing after the intruder. chapter xiv a false clew full in the glare of the powerful beam from the light there was revealed the giant and the man he was pursuing. the latter neither tom, nor any one on the airship, knew. all they could see was that he was racing away at top speed, with koku vainly swinging his club at him. "bless my chicken soup!" cried mr. damon. "is anything damaged, tom?" "no, koku was too quick for him." yelled the youth, as he, too leaped over the rail and joined in the pursuit. "stop! stop!" called koku to the man who had sought to damage the great searchlight. but the fellow knew better than to halt, with an angry giant so close behind him. he ran on faster than ever. suddenly the stranger seemed to realize that by keeping in the path of the light he gave his pursuers a great advantage. he dodged to one side, off the path on which he had been running, and plunged into the bushes. "where him go?" called koku, coming to a puzzled halt. "ned, play the light on both sides!" ordered tom to his chum, who was now on the deck of the airship, near the wheels and levers that operated the big lantern. "show him up!" obediently the young bank clerk swung the searchlight from side to side. the powerful combined electric current, hissing into the big carbons, and being reflected by the parabolic mirrors, made the growth of underbrush as brightly illuminated as in day time. tom detected a movement. "there he is, koku!" he called to his giant servant. "off there to the left. after him!" raising his club on high, koku made a leap for the place where the fugitive was hiding. as the man saw the light, and sprang forward, he was, for a moment, in the full glare of the rays. then, just as the giant was about to reach him, koku stumbled over a tree root, and fell heavily. "never mind, i'll get him!" yelled tom, but the next moment the man vanished suddenly, and was no longer to be seen in the finger of light from the lantern. he had probably dipped down into some hollow, lying there hidden, and as of course was out of the focus of the searchlight. "come on, koku, we'll find him!" exclaimed tom, and together they made a search, mr. damon joining them, while ned worked the lantern. but it was of no avail, for they did not find the stranger. "well, we might as well go back," said tom, at length. "we can't find him. he's probably far enough off by this time." "who was he?" panted mr. damon, as he walked beside tom and koku to the airship. ned had switched off the big light on a signal from the young inventor. "i don't know!" answered tom. "but what did he want? what was he doing? i don't quite understand." "he wanted to put my searchlight out of commission," responded our hero. "from that i should argue that he was either one of the smugglers, or trying to aid them." and this theory was borne out by mr. whitford, who, on calling the next morning, was told of the occurrence of the night. koku related how he had found it uncomfortable in his bunk, and had gone out on deck for air. there, half dozing, he heard a stealthy step. at once he was on the alert. he saw a man with a gun creeping along, and at first thought the fellow had evil designs on some of those aboard the falcon. then, when koku saw the man aim at the big searchlight the giant sprang at him, and there was a scuffle. the gun went off, and the man escaped. an examination of the weapon he had left behind showed that it carried a highly explosive shell, which, had it hit the lantern, would have completely destroyed it, and might have damaged the airship. "it was the smugglers, without a doubt," declared mr. whitford. "you can't get away from this place any too soon, tom. get a new hiding spot, and i will communicate with you there." "but they are on the watch," objected ned. "they'll see where we go, and follow us. the next time they may succeed in smashing the lantern." "and if they do," spoke tom, "it will be all up with trying to detect the smugglers, for it would take me quite a while to make another searchlight. but i have a plan." "what is it?" asked the government agent. "i'll make a flight to-day," went on the young inventor, "and sail over quite an area. i'll pick out a good place to land, and we'll make our camp there instead of here. then i'll come back to this spot, and after dark i'll go up, without a light showing. there's no moon to-night, and they'll have pretty good eyes if they can follow me, unless they get a searchlight, and they won't do that for fear of giving themselves away. we'll sail off in the darkness, go to the spot we have previously picked out, and drop down to it. there we can hide and i don't believe they can trace us." "but how can you find in the darkness, the spot you pick out in daylight?" mr. whitford wanted to know. "i'll arrange some electric lights, in a certain formation in trees around the landing place," said tom. "i'll fix them with a clockwork switch, that will illuminate them at a certain hour, and they'll run by a storage battery. in that way i'll have my landing place all marked out, and, as it can only be seen from above, if any of the smugglers are on the ground, they won't notice the incandescents." "but if they are in their airship they will," said mr. damon. "of course that's possible," admitted tom, "but, even if they see the lights i don't believe they will know what they mean. and, another thing, i don't imagine they'll come around here in their airship when they know that we're in the neighborhood, and when the spy who endeavored to damage my lantern reports that he didn't succeed. they'll know that we are likely to be after them any minute." "that's so," agreed ned. "i guess that's a good plan." it was one they adopted, and, soon after mr. whitford's visit the airship arose, with him on board, and tom sent her about in great circles and sweeps, now on high and again, barely skimming over the treetops. during this time a lookout was kept for any other aircraft, but none was seen. "if they are spying on us, which is probably the case," said tom, "they will wonder what we're up to. i'll keep 'em guessing. i think i'll fly low over mr. foger's house, and see if andy has his airship there. we'll give him a salute." before doing this, however, tom had picked out a good landing place in a clearing in the woods, and had arranged some incandescent lights on high branches of trees. the lights enclosed a square, in the centre of which the falcon was to drop down. of course it was necessary to descend to do this, to arrange the storage battery and the clock switch. then, so as to throw their enemies off their track, they made landings in several other places, though they did nothing, merely staying there as a sort of "bluff" as ned called it. "they'll have their own troubles if they investigate every place we stopped at," remarked tom, "and, even if they do hit on the one we have selected for our camp they won't see the lights in the trees, for they're well hidden." this work done, they flew back toward logansville, and sailed over andy's house. "there he is, on the roof, working at his airship!" exclaimed ned, as they came within viewing distance, and, surely enough, there was the bully, tinkering away at his craft. tom flew low enough down to speak to him, and, as the falcon produced no noise, it was not difficult to make their voices heard. "hello, andy!" called tom, as he swept slowly overhead. andy looked up, but only scowled. "nice day; isn't it?" put in ned. "you get on away from here!" burst out the bully. "you are trespassing, by flying over my house, and i could have you arrested for it. keep away." "all right," agreed tom with a laugh. "don't trespass by flying over our ship, andy. we also might have a gun to shoot searchlights with," he added. andy started, but did not reply, though tom, who was watching him closely, thought he saw an expression of fear come over the bully's face. "do you think it was andy who did the shooting?" asked ned. "no, he hasn't the nerve," replied tom. "i don't know what to think about that affair last night." "excepting that the smugglers are getting afraid of you, and want to get you out of the way," put in the custom official. that night, when it was very dark, the falcon noiselessly made her way upward and sailed along until she was over the square in the forest, marked out by the four lights. then tom sent her safely down. "now let 'em find us if they can!" the young inventor exclaimed, as he made the craft fast. "we'll turn in now, and see what happens to-morrow night." "i'll send you word, just as soon as i get any myself," promised mr. whitford, when he left the next morning. tom and ned spent the day in going over the airship, making some minor repairs to it, and polishing and oiling the mechanism of the searchlight, to have it in the best possible condition. it was about dusk when the wireless outfit, with which the falcon was fitted, began snapping and cracking. "here comes a message!" cried tom, as he clapped the receiver over his head, and began to translate the dots and dashes. "it's from mr. whitford!" he exclaimed, when he had written it down, and had sent back an answer, "he says: 'have a tip that smugglers will try to get goods over the border at some point near niagara falls to-morrow night. can you go there, and cruise about? better keep toward lake ontario also. i will be with you. answer.'" "what answer did you send?" asked ned. "i told him we'd be on the job. it's quite a little run to make, and we can't start until after dark, or otherwise some of the smugglers around here may see us, and tip off their confederates. but i guess we can make the distance all right." mr. whitford arrived at the airship the next afternoon, stating that he had news from one of the government spies to the effect that a bold attempt would be made that night. "they're going to try and smuggle some diamonds over on this trip," said the custom agent. "well, we'll try to nab them!" exclaimed tom. as soon as it was dark enough to conceal her movements, the falcon was sent aloft, not a light showing, and, when on high, tom started the motor at full speed. the great propellers noiselessly beat the air, and the powerful craft was headed for lake ontario. "they're pretty good, if they attempted to cross the lake to-night," observed the young inventor, as he looked at the barometer. "why so?" asked ned. "because there's a bad storm coming up. i shouldn't want to risk it. we'll keep near shore. we can nab them there as good as over the lake." this plan was adopted, and as soon as they reached the great body of water--the last in the chain of the great lakes--tom cruised about, he and ned watching through powerful night glasses for a glimpse of another airship. far into the night they sailed about, covering many miles, for tom ran at almost top speed. they sailed over niagara falls, and then well along the southern shore of ontario, working their way north-east and back again. but not a sign of the smugglers did they see. meanwhile the wind had arisen until it was a gale, and it began to rain. gently at first the drops came down, until at length there was a torrent of water descending from the overhead clouds. but those in the falcon were in no discomfort. "it's a bad storm all right!" exclaimed tom, as he looked at the barometer, and noted that the mercury was still falling. "yes, and we have had our trouble for our pains!" declared mr. whitford. "what do you mean?" "i mean i believe that we have been deceived by a false clew. the smugglers probably had no intention of getting goods across at this point to-night. they saw to it that my agent got false information, believing that we would follow it, and leave the vicinity of logansville." "so they could operate there?" asked tom. "that's it," replied the agent. "they drew us off the scent. there's no help for it. we must get back as soon as we can. my! this is a bad storm!" he added, as a blast careened the airship. chapter xv the rescue on the lake for a time the falcon shot onward through the storm and darkness, for tom did not want to give up. with but a single shaded light in the pilot house, so that he could see to read the gauges and dials, telling of the condition of the machinery in the motor room, he pushed his stanch craft ahead. at times she would be forced downward toward the angry waters of lake ontario, over which she was sailing, but the speed of her propellers and the buoyancy of the gas bag, would soon lift her again. "how much longer are you going to stay?" called ned in his chum's ear--called loudly, not to be heard above the noise of the airship, but above the racket of the gale. "oh, i guess we may as well start back," spoke tom, after a look at the clock on the wall. "we can just about make our camp by daylight, and they won't see us." "it won't be light very early," observed mr. whitford, looking in the pilot house from the cabin, just aft of it. "but there is no use waiting around here any more, tom. they gave us a false clew, all right." "bless my police badge!" cried mr. damon. "they must be getting desperate." "i believe they are," went on the custom officer. "they are afraid of us, and that's a good sign. we'll keep right after 'em, too. if we don't get 'em this week, we will next. better put back." "i will," decided the young inventor. "it certainly is a gale," declared ned, as he made his way along a dim passage, as few lights had been set aglow, for fear of the smugglers seeing the craft outlined in the air. now, however, when it was almost certain that they were on the wrong scent, tom switched on the incandescents, making the interior of the falcon more pleasant. the giant came into the pilot house to help tom, and the airship was turned about, and headed toward logansville. the wind was now sweeping from the north across lake ontario, and it was all the powerful craft could do to make headway against it. there came a terrific blast, which, in spite of all that tom and koku could do, forced the falcon down, dangerously close to the dashing billows. "hard over, koku!" called tom to his giant. as the airship began to respond to the power of her propellers, and the up-tilted rudder, tom heard, from somewhere below him, a series of shrill blasts on a whistle. "what's that?" he cried. "sounds like a boat below us," answered mr. whitford. "i guess it is," agreed the young inventor. "there she goes again." once more came the frantic tooting of a whistle, and mingled with it could be heard voices shouting in fear, but it was only a confused murmur of sound. no words could be made out. "that's a compressed air whistle!" decided tom. "it must be some sort of a motor boat in distress. quick, mr. whitford! tell ned to switch on the searchlight, and play it right down on the lake. if there's a boat in this storm it can't last long. even an ocean liner would have trouble. get the light on quick, and we'll see what we can do!" it was the work of but an instant to convey the message to ned. the latter called mr. damon to relieve him in the motor room, and, a few seconds later, ned had switched on the electricity. by means of the lazy-tongs, and the toggle joints, the bank clerk lifted the lantern over until the powerful beam from it was projected straight down into the seething waters of the lake. "do you see anything?" asked mr. damon from the motor room, at one side of which ned stood to operate the lantern. "nothing but white-caps," was the answer. "it's a fearful storm." once more came the series of shrill whistles, and the confused calling of voices. ned opened a window, in order to hear more plainly. as the whistle tooted again he could locate the sound, and, by swinging the rays of the searchlight to and fro he finally picked up the craft. "there she is!" he cried, peering down through the plate glass window in the floor of the motor room. "it's a small gasolene boat, and there are several men in her! she's having a hard time." "can we rescue them?" asked mr. damon. "if anybody can, tom swift will," was ned's reply. then came a whistle from the speaking tube, that led to the pilot house. "what is it?" asked ned, putting the tube to his ear. "stand by for a rescue!" ordered tom, who had also, through a window in the floor of the pilot house, seen the hapless motor boat. the men in it were frantically waving their hands to those on the airship. "i'm going down as close as i dare," went on tom. "you watch, and when it's time, have koku drop from the stern a long, knotted rope. that will be a sort of ladder, and they can make it fast to their boat and climb up, hand over hand. it's the only plan." "good!" cried ned. "send koku to me. can you manage alone in the pilot house?" "yes," came back the answer through the tube. koku came back on the run, and was soon tying knots in a strong rope. meanwhile ned kept the light on the tossing boat, while tom, through a megaphone had called to the men to stand by to be rescued. the whistle frantically tooted their thanks. koku went out on the after deck, and, having made the knotted rope fast, dropped the end overboard. then began a difficult feature of airship steering. tom, looking down through the glass, watched the boat in the glare of the light. now coming forward, now reversing against the rush of the wind; now going up, and now down, the young inventor so directed the course of his airship so that, finally, the rope dragged squarely across the tossing boat. in a trice the men grabbed it, and made it fast. then tom had another difficult task--that of not allowing the rope to become taut, or the drag of the boat, and the uplift of the airship might have snapped it in twain. but he handled his delicate craft of the air as confidently as the captain of a big liner brings her skillfully to the deck against wind and tide. "climb up! climb up!" yelled tom, through the megaphone, and he saw, not a man, but a woman, ascending the knotted rope, hand over hand, toward the airship that hovered above her head. chapter xvi koku's prisoner "bless my knitting needles!" cried mr. damon, as he looked down, and saw, in the glare of the great light, the figure of the woman clinging to the swaying rope. "help her, someone! tom! ned! she'll fall!" the eccentric man started to rush from the motor room, where he had been helping ned. but the latter cried: "stay where you are, mr. damon. no one can reach her now without danger to himself and her. she can climb up, i think." past knot after knot the woman passed, mounting steadily upward, with a strength that seemed remarkable. "come on!" cried tom to the others. "don't wait until she gets up. there isn't time. come on--the rope will hold you all! climb up!" the men in the tossing and bobbing motor boat heard, and at once began, one after the other, to clamber up the rope. there were five of them, as could be seen in the glare of the light, and tom, as he watched, wondered what they were doing out in the terrific storm at that early hour of the morning, and with a lone woman. "stand by to help her, koku!" called ned to the giant. "i help," was the giant's simple reply, and as the woman's head came above the rail, over which the rope ran, koku, leaning forward, raised her in his powerful arms, and set her carefully on the deck. "come into the cabin, please," ned called to her. "come in out of the wet." "oh, it seems a miracle that we are saved!" the woman gasped, as, rain-drenched and wind-tossed, she staggered toward the door which tom had opened by means of a lever in the pilot house. the young inventor had his hands full, manipulating the airship so as to keep it above the motor boat, and not bring too great a strain on the rope. the woman passed into the cabin, which was between the motor room and the pilot house, and ned saw her throw herself on her knees, and offer up a fervent prayer of thanksgiving. then, springing to her feet, she cried: "my husband? is he safe? can you save him? oh, how wonderful that this airship came in answer to our appeals to providence. whose is it?" before ned got a chance to answer her, as she came to the door of the motor room, a man's voice called: "my wife! is she safe?" "yes, here i am," replied the woman, and a moment later the two were in each other's arms. "the others; are they safe?" gasped the woman, after a pause. "yes," replied the man. "they are coming up the rope. oh, what a wonderful rescue! and that giant man who lifted us up on deck! oh, do you recall in africa how we were also rescued by airship--" "come on now, i got you!" interrupted the voice of koku out on the after deck, and there was a series of thumps that told when he had lifted the men over the rail, and set them down. "all saved!" cried the giant at last. "then cut the rope!" shouted tom. "we've got to get out of this, for it's growing worse!" there was the sound of a hatchet blow, and the airship shot upward. into the cabin came the dripping figures of the other men, and ned, as he stood by the great searchlight, felt a wave of wonder sweep over him as he listened to the voices of the first man and woman. he knew he had heard them before, and, when he listened to the remark about a rescue by airship, in africa, a flood of memory came to him. "can it be possible that these are the same missionaries whom tom and i rescued from the red pygmies?" he murmured. "i must get a look at them." "our boat, it is gone i suppose," remarked one of the other men, coming into the motor room. "i'm afraid so," answered ned, as he played the light on the doomed craft. even as he did so he saw a great wave engulf her, and, a moment later she sank. "she's gone," he said softly. "too bad!" exclaimed the man. "she was a fine little craft. but how in the world did you happen along to rescue us? whose airship is this?" "tom swift's," answered ned, and, at the sound of the name the woman uttered a cry, as she rushed into the motor room. "tom swift!" she exclaimed. "where is he? oh, can it be possible that it is the same tom swift that rescued us in africa?" "i think it is, mrs. illingway," spoke ned quietly, for he now recognized the missionary, though he wondered what she and her husband were doing so far from the dark continent. "oh, i know you--you're ned newton--tom's chum! oh, i am so glad! where is tom?" "in the pilot house. he'll be here in a moment." tom came in at that juncture, having set the automatic steering geer to take the ship on her homeward course. "are they all saved?" he asked, looking at the little group of persons who had climbed up from the motor boat. "mr. damon, you had better make some hot coffee. koku, you help. i--" "tom swift!" cried out mr. and mrs. illingway together, as they made a rush for the young inventor. "don't you know us?" to say that tom was surprised at this, would be putting it mildly. he had to lean up against the side of the cabin for support. "mrs. illingway!" he gasped. "you here--were you in that boat?" "yes. it's all very simple. my husband and i are on a vacation for a year. we got fever and had to leave africa. we are staying with friends at a resort on the lake shore. these are our friends," she went on, introducing the other gentlemen. "we went out for a trip in the motor boat," the missionary continued, "but we went too far. our motor broke down, we could get no help, and the storm came up. we thought we were doomed, until we saw your lights. i guessed it was a balloon, or some sort of an airship, and we whistled; and called for help. then you rescued us! oh, it is almost too wonderful to believe. it is a good thing i have practiced athletics or i never could have climbed that rope." "it is like a story from a book!" added mr. illingway, as he grasped tom's hand. "you rescued us in africa and again here." i may say here that the african rescue is told in detail in the volume entitled, "tom swift and his electric rifle." the shipwrecked persons were made as comfortable as possible. there was plenty of room for them, and soon they were sitting around warm electric heaters, drinking hot coffee, and telling their adventures over again. mr. and mrs. illingway said they soon expected to return to africa. tom told how he happened to be sailing over the lake, on the lookout for smugglers, and how he had been disappointed. "and it's a good thing you were--for our sakes," put in mrs. illingway, with a smile. "where do you want to be landed?" asked tom. "i don't want to take you all the way back to logansville." "if you will land us anywhere near a city or town, we can arrange to be taken back to our cottage," said one of the men, and tom sent the airship down until, in the gray dawn of the morning, they could pick out a large village on the lake shore. then, in much better condition than when they had been saved, the rescued ones alighted, showering tom and the others with thanks, and sought a hotel. "and now for our camp, and a good rest!" cried the young inventor, as he sent the airship aloft again. they reached their camp in the forest clearing without having been observed, as far as they could learn, and at once set about making things snug, for the storm was still raging. "i don't believe any of the smugglers were abroad last night," remarked mr. whitford, as he prepared to go back into town, he having come out on horseback, leaving the animal over night in an improvised stable they had made in the woods of boughs and tree branches. "i hope not," replied tom, but the next day, when the government agent called again, his face wore a look of despair. "they put a big one over on us the night of the rescue." he said. "they flew right across the border near logansville, and got away with a lot of goods. they fooled us all right." "can you find out who gave the wrong tip?" asked tom. "yes, i know the man. he pretended to be friendly to one of my agents, but he was only deceiving him. but we'll get the smugglers yet!" "that's what we will!" cried tom, determinedly. several days passed, and during the night time tom, in his airship, and with the great searchlight aglow, flew back and forth across the border, seeking the elusive airships, but did not see them. in the meanwhile he heard from mr. and mrs. illingway, who sent him a letter of thanks, and asked him to come and see them, but, much as tom would liked to have gone, he did not have the time. it was about a week after the sensational rescue, when one evening, as tom was about to get ready for a night flight, he happened to be in the pilot house making adjustments to some of the apparatus. mr. damon and ned had gone out for a walk in the woods, and mr. whitford had not yet arrived. as for mr. koku, tom did not know where his giant servant was. suddenly there was a commotion outside. a trampling in the bushes, and the breaking of sticks under feet. "i got you now!" cried the voice of the giant. tom sprang to the window of the pilot house. he saw koku tightly holding a man who was squinting about, and doing his best to break away. but it was useless. when koku got hold of any one, that person had to stay. "what is it, koku!" cried tom. "i got him!" cried the giant. "he sneaking up on airship, but i come behind and grab him," and koku fairly lifted his prisoner off his feet and started with him toward the falcon. chapter xvii what the indian saw "hello!" cried tom. "what's up, koku?" "him up!" replied the giant with a laugh, as he looked at his squirming prisoner, whose feet he had lifted from the ground. "no, i mean what was he doing?" went on tom, with a smile at the literal way in which the giant had answered his question. "i wasn't doing anything!" broke in the man. "i'd like to know if i haven't a right to walk through these woods, without being grabbed up by a man as big as a mountain? there'll be something up that you won't like, if you don't let me go, too!" and he struggled fiercely, but he was no match for giant koku. "what was he doing?" asked tom of his big servant, ignoring the man. tom looked closely at him, however, but could not remember to have seen him before. "i walking along in woods, listen to birds sing," said koku simply, taking a firmer hold on his victim. "i see this fellow come along, and crawl through grass like so a snake wiggle. i to myself think that funny, and i watch. this man he wiggle more. he wiggle more still, and then he watch. i watch too. i see him have knife in hand, but i am no afraid. i begin to go like snake also, but i bigger snake than he." "i guess so," laughed tom, as he watched the man trying in vain to get out of koku's grip. "then i see man look up at balloon bag, so as if he like to cut it with knife. i say to myself, 'koku, it is time for you to go into business for yourself.' you stand under me?" "i understand!" exclaimed tom. "you thought it was time for you to get busy." "sure," replied koku. "well, i get business, i give one jump, and i am so unlucky as to jump with one foot on him, but i did not mean it. i go as gentle as i can." "gentle? you nearly knocked the wind out of me!" snarled the prisoner. "gentle! huh!" "i guess he was the unlucky one, instead of you," put in tom. "well, what happened next?" "i grab him, and--he is still here," said koku simply. "he throw knife away though." "i see," spoke tom. "now will you give an account of yourself, or shall i hand you over to the police?" he asked sternly of the man. "what were you sneaking up on us in that fashion for?" "well, i guess this isn't your property!" blustered the man. "i have as good a right here as you have, and you can't have me arrested for that." "perhaps not," admitted tom. "you may have a right on this land, but if you are honest, and had no bad intentions, why were you sneaking up, trying to keep out of sight? and why did you have a big knife?" "that's my business, young man." "all right, then i'll make it my business, too," went on the young inventor. "hold him, koku, until i can find mr. damon, or ned, and i'll see what's best to be done. i wish mr. whitford was here." "aren't you going to let me go?" demanded the man. "i certainly am not!" declared tom firmly. "i'm going to find out more about you. i haven't any objections to any one coming to look at my airship, out of curiosity, but when they come up like a snake in the grass and with a big knife, then i get suspicious, and i want to know more about them." "well, you won't know anything more about me!" snarled the fellow. "and it will be the worse for you, if you don't let me go. you'd better!" he threatened. "don't pay any attention to him, koku," said tom. "maybe you'd better tie him up. you'll find some rope in the motor room." "don't you dare tie me up!" blustered the prisoner. "go ahead and tie him," went on tom. "you'll be free to guard the ship then. i'll go for ned and mr. damon." "tie who up? what's the matter?" asked a voice, and a moment later the government agent came along the woodland path on his horse. "what's up, tom? have you captured a wild animal?" "not exactly a wild animal. mr. whitford. but a wild man. i'm glad you came along. koku has a prisoner." and tom proceeded to relate what had happened. "sneaking up on you with a knife; eh? i guess he meant business all right, and bad business, too," said mr. whitford. "let me get a look at him, tom," for koku had taken his prisoner to the engine room, and there, amid a storm of protests and after a futile struggle on the part of the fellow, had tied him securely. tom and the custom officer went in to look at the man, just as ned and mr. damon came back from their stroll in the woods. it was rapidly getting dusk, and was almost time for the start of the usual flight, to see if any trace could be had of the smugglers. "there he is," said tom, waving his hand toward the bound man who sat in a chair in one corner of the motor room. the young inventor switched on the light, and a moment later mr. whitford exclaimed: "great scott! it's ike shafton!" "do you know him?" asked tom eagerly. "know him? i should say i did! why he's the man who pretended to give one of my men information about smugglers that drew us off on the false scent. he pretended to be for the government, and, all the while, he was in with the smugglers! know him? i should say i did!" a queer change had come over the prisoner at the sight of mr. whitford. no longer was shafton surly and blustering. instead he seemed to slink down in his chair, bound as he was, as if trying to get out of sight. "why did you play double?" demanded the government agent, striding over to him. "i--i--don't hit me!" whined shafton. "hit you! i'm not going to hit you!" exclaimed mr. whitford, "but i'm going to search you, and then i'm going to wire for one of my men to take you in custody." "i--i didn't do anything!" "you didn't; eh? well, we'll see what the courts think of giving wrong information to uncle sam with the intent to aid criminals. let's see what he's got in his pockets." the spy did not have much, but at a sight of one piece of paper mr. whitford uttered a cry of surprise. "ha! this is worth something!" he exclaimed. "it may be stale news, and it may be something for the future, but it's worth trying. i wonder i didn't think of that before." "what is it?" asked tom. for answer the custom officer held out a scrap of paper on which was written one word. st. regis. "what does it mean," asked ned, who, with mr. damon, had entered the motor room, and stood curiously regarding the scene. "bless my napkin ring!" said the odd man. "that's the name of a hotel. do you suppose the smugglers are stopping there?" "hardly," replied mr. whitford with a smile. "but st. regis is the name of an indian reservation in the upper part of new york state, right on the border, and in the corner where the st. lawrence and the imaginary dividing line between new york and canada join. i begin to see things now. the smugglers have been flying over the indian reservation, and that's why they have escaped us so far. we never thought of that spot. tom, i believe we're on the right track at last! shafton was probably given this to inform him where the next trick would be turned, so he could get us as far away as possible, or, maybe prevent us leaving at all." an involuntary start on the part of the prisoner seemed to confirm this, but he kept silent. "of course," went on mr. whitford, "they may have already flown over the st. regis reservation, and this may be an old tip, but it's worth following up." "why don't you ask him?" tom wanted to know, as he nodded toward shafton. "he wouldn't tell the truth. i'll put him where he can't get away to warn his confederates, and then we'll go to the reservation. and to think that my man trusted him!" mr. whitford was soon in communication with his headquarters by means of the wireless apparatus on tom's airship, and a little later two custom officers arrived, with an extra horse on which they were to take their prisoner back. "and now we'll try our luck once more," said mr. whitford as his men left with shafton securely bound. "can you make the reservation in good time, tom? it's quite a distance," and he pointed it out on the map. "oh, i'll do it," promised the young inventor, as he sent his powerful craft aloft in the darkness. then, with her nose pointed in the right direction, the falcon beat her way forward through the night, flying silently, with the great searchlight ready for instant use. in comparatively short time, though it was rather late at night, they reached the st. lawrence, and then it was an easy matter to drop down into the midst of the reservation grounds. though the redmen, whom the state thus quartered by themselves, had all retired, they swarmed out of their cabins as the powerful light flashed back and forth. "we want to question some of the head men of the tribe," said mr. whitford. "i know some of them, for on several occasions i've had to come here to look into rumors that tobacco and liquor and other contraband goods dear to the indian heart were smuggled into the reservation against the law. i never caught any of them at it though." with guttural exclamations, and many grunts of surprise, the redmen gathered around the big airship. it was too much even for their usual reserve, and they jabbered among themselves. "how big foot!" greeted the custom officer, to one indian who had an extremely large left foot. "how!" "how!" responded the indian, with a grunt. "plenty much fine air-bird; eh?" and the agent waved his hand toward the falcon. "yep. plenty much big." "big foot never see bird like this; eh?" "oh sure. big foot see before many times. huh!" "what! has he seen this before?" asked tom. "no. wait a minute," cautioned mr. whitford. "i'm on the track of something. big foot see air-bird like this?" he questioned. "sure. fly over indians' land many times. not same as him," and he nodded toward tom's ship, "but plenty much like. make heap noise. come down once--break wheel mebby. indians help fix. indians get firewater. you got firewater in your air-bird?" "no firewater, but maybe we've got some tobacco, if you tell us what we want to know, big foot. and so you've seen air-birds flying around here before?" "sure, heap times. we all see," and he waved his hand to indicate the redmen gathered around him. there came grunts of confirmation. "we're getting there!" exclaimed mr. whitford to tom. "we're on the right track now. which way air-birds come, big foot?" "over there," and he pointed toward canada. "which way go?" "over there," and he pointed toward the east, in the direction of shopton, as much as anywhere. "that's what we want to know. tom, we'll just hang around here for a while, until one of the smugglers' airships pass over head. i believe one is due to-night, and that's why shafton had that paper. it was sent to him to tip him off. he was sneaking up, trying to put your airship out of commission when koku caught him. these indians have used their eyes to good advantage. i think we're on the trail at last." "baccy for big foot?" asked the redman. "yes, plenty of it. tom, give them some of koku's, will you? i'll settle with you later," for the giant had formed a liking for the weed, and tom did not have the heart to stop him smoking a pipe once in a while. with his usual prodigality, the giant had brought along a big supply, and some of this was soon distributed among the indians, who grunted their thanks. chapter xviii the pursuit "what plan have you in mind?" asked tom of mr. whitford, when some of the indians had gone back to their shanties, leaving a few staring curiously at the airship, as she rested on the ground, bathed in the glow of her electric lights. "well, i think the best thing we can do is just to stay right here, tom; all night if need be. as big foot says, there have been airships passing overhead at frequent intervals. of course that is not saying that they were the smugglers, but i don't see who else they could be. there's no meet going on, and no continental race. they must be the smugglers." "i think so," put in ned. "bless my diamond ring!" exclaimed mr. damon. "but what are you going to do when you see them overhead?" "take after them, of course!" exclaimed tom. "that's what we're here for; isn't it mr. whitford?" "yes. do you think you can rise from the ground, and take after them in time to stand a chance of overhauling them, tom? you know they may go very fast." "i know, but i don't believe they can beat the falcon. i'd rather wait down here than hover in the air. it isn't as dark as it was the other night, and they might see us with their glasses. then they would turn back, and we'd have our trouble for nothing. they've actually got to cross the border with smuggled goods before the law can touch them; haven't they?" "yes, i couldn't arrest them on canadian territory, or over it. i've got to get them on this side of the border. so perhaps it will be as well to lie here. but do you suppose you can hear them or see them, as they fly over?" "i'm pretty sure i can. the sound of their motor and the whizz of the propellers carries for some distance. and then, too, i'm going to set the searchlight to play a beam up in the air. if that gets focused on 'em, we'll spot 'em all right." "but suppose they see it, and turn back?" "i don't believe they will. the beam will come from the ground straight upward you know, and they won't connect it with my ship." "but that fellow who was sneaking up when koku caught him, may find some way to warn them that you have come here," suggested ned. "he won't get much chance to communicate with his friends, while my men have him," said mr. whitford significantly. "i guess we'll take a chance here, tom." so it was arranged. everything on the airship was gotten ready for a quick flight, and then tom set his great searchlight aglow once more. its powerful beams cut upward to the clouds, making a wonderful illumination. "now all we have to do is to wait and watch," remarked tom, as he came back from a last inspection of the apparatus in the motor room. "and that is sometimes the hardest kind of work," said mr. whitford. "many a time i have been watching for smugglers for days and nights at a stretch, and it was very wearying. when i got through, and caught my man, i was more tired than if i had traveled hundreds of miles. just sitting around, and waiting is tiresome work." the others agreed with him, and then the custom officer told many stories of his experiences, of the odd places smugglers would hit upon to conceal the contraband goods, and of fights he had taken part in. "diamonds and jewels, from their smallness, and from the great value, and the high duty on them when brought into the united states, form the chief articles of the high class smugglers," he said. "in fact the ones we are after have been doing more in diamonds than anything else, though they have, of late, brought much valuable hand-made lace. that can be bought comparatively cheap abroad, and if they can evade paying uncle sam the duty on it, they can sell it in the united states at a large profit." "but the government has received so many complaints from legitimate dealers, who can not stand this unfair competition, that we have been ordered to get the smugglers at any cost." "they are sharp rascals," commented mr. damon. "they seem to be making more efforts since tom swift got on their trail." "but, just the same, they are afraid of him, and his searchlight," declared mr. whitford. "i guess they fancied that when they took to airships to get goods across the border that they would not be disturbed. but two can play at that game." the talk became general, with pauses now and then while tom swept the sky with the great searchlight, the others straining their eyes for a sight of the smugglers' airships. but they saw nothing. the young inventor had just paid a visit to the pilot house, to see that his wheels and guiding levers were all right, and was walking back toward the stern of the ship, when he heard a noise there, and the fall of a heavy body. "who's that?" he cried sharply. "is that you, koku?" a grunt was the only answer, and, as tom called the giant's name the big man came out. "what you want, mr. tom?" he asked. "i thought you were at the stern," spoke tom. "someone is there. ned, throw the light on the stern!" he called sharply. in a moment that part of the ship was in a bright glare and there, in the rays of the big lantern, was stretched out big foot, the indian, comfortably sleeping. "here! what are you doing?" demanded mr. whitford, giving him a vigorous shake. "me sleep!" murmured big foot. "lemme be! me sleep, and take ride to happy hunting grounds in air-bird. go 'way!" "you'll have to sleep somewhere else, big foot," spoke the agent with a laugh. "koku, put him down under one of the trees over there. he can finish his nap in the open, it's warm." the indian only protested sleepily, as the giant carried him off the ship, and soon big foot was snoring under the trees. "he's a queer chap," the custom officer said. "sometimes i think he's a little off in his head. but he's good natured." once more they resumed their watching. it was growing more and more wearisome, and tom was getting sleepy, in spite of himself. suddenly the silence of the night was broken by a distant humming and throbbing sound. "hark!" cried ned. they all listened intently. "that's an airship, sure enough!" cried tom. he sprang to the lever that moved the lantern, which had been shut off temporarily. an instant later a beam of light cut the darkness. the throbbing sounded nearer. "there they are!" cried ned, pointing from a window toward the sky. a moment later, right into the glare of the light, there shot a powerful biplane. "after 'em, tom!" shouted mr. whitford. like a bird the falcon shot upward in pursuit noiselessly and resistlessly, the beam of the great searchlight playing on the other craft, which dodged to one side in an endeavor to escape. "on the trail at last!" cried tom, as he shoved over the accelerator lever, sending his airship forward on an upward slant, right at the stern of the smugglers' biplane. chapter xix in dire peril upward shot the falcon. with every revolution of her big propellers she came nearer and nearer to the fleeing craft of the supposed smugglers who were using every endeavor to escape. "do you think you can catch them, tom?" asked mr. whitford as he stood at the side of our hero in the pilot house, and looked upward and forward to where, bathed in the light of the great search-lantern, the rival craft was beating the air. "i'm sure we can--unless something happens." "bless my overshoes! what can happen?" asked mr. damon, who, after finding that everything in the motor room was running smoothly, had come forward. ned was attending to the searchlight. "what can happen, tom?" "almost anything, from a broken shaft to a short-circuited motor. only, i hope nothing does occur to prevent us from catching them." "you don't mean to say that you're actually going to try to catch them, do you, tom?" asked the custom officer, "i thought if we could trail them to the place where they have been delivering the goods, before they shipped them to shopton we'd be doing well. but i never thought of catching them in mid-air." "i'm going to try it," declared the young inventor. "i've got a grappling anchor on board," he went on, "attached to a meter and windlass. if i can catch that anchor in any part of their ship i can bring them to a stop, just as a fisherman lands a trout. only i've got to get close enough to make a cast, and i want to be above them when i do it." "don't you think you can catch them, tom?" asked mr. damon. "well, i'm pretty sure i can, and yet they seem to have a faster biplane than i gave them credit for. i guess i'll have to increase our speed a little," and he shifted a lever which made the falcon shoot along at nearly doubled speed. still the other airship kept ahead, not far, but sufficiently so to prevent the grappling anchor from being tossed at her rail. "i wonder if they are the smugglers?" questioned mr. damon. "it might be possible, tom, that we're chasing the wrong craft." "possible, but not probable," put in mr. whitford. "after the clew we got, and what the indians told us, and then to have a biplane come sailing over our heads at night, it's pretty sure to be the one we want. but, tom, can't you close up on 'em?" "i'm going to try. the machinery is warmed up now, and i'll send it to the limit." once more he adjusted the wheels and levers, and at his touch the falcon seemed to gain new strength. she fairly soared through the air. eagerly those in the pilot house watched the craft they were pursuing. she could be seen, in the glare of the big searchlight, like some bird of gloom and evil omen, fluttering along ahead of them. "they certainly have a fine motor!" cried tom. "i was sure i could have caught up to them before this." "how do you account for it?" asked mr. damon. "well, they're flying a good deal lighter than we are. they probably have no load to speak of, while we carry a heavy one, to say nothing of koku." "diamonds aren't very heavy," put in mr. whitford grimly. "i think they are smuggling diamonds to-night. how i wish we could catch them, or trace them to where they have their headquarters." "we'll do it!" declared tom. "bless my stars! they've gone!" suddenly exclaimed mr. damon. "they've disappeared, tom, i can't see them." it was indeed true. those in the pilot house peering ahead through the darkness, could not get a glimpse of the airship they were pursuing. the beam of the searchlight showed nothing but a black void. all at once the beam shifted downward, and then it picked up the white-winged craft. "they went down!" cried tom. "they tried to drop out of sight." "can't you get them?" asked mr. whitford. "oh, yes, we can play that game too. i'll do a little volplaning myself," and the young inventor shut off the power and coasted earthward, while ned, who had picked up the forward craft, kept the searchlight playing on her. and now began a wonderful chase. the smugglers' craft, for such she proved later to be, did her best to dodge the falcon. those managing the mechanism of the fleeing airship must have been experts, to hold out as they did against tom swift, but they had this advantage, that their craft was much lighter, and more powerfully engined as regards her weight. then, too, there were not so many on board, and tom, having a combined balloon and aeroplane, had to carry much machinery. it was like the flight of two big birds in the air. now the smugglers' craft would be mounting upward, with the falcon after her. again she would shoot toward the earth, and tom would follow, with a great downward swoop. ned kept the great lantern going, and, though occasionally the craft they were after slipped out of the focus of the beams, the young bank clerk would pick her up again. to the right and left dodged the forward airship, vainly endeavoring to shake off tom swift, but he would not give up. he followed move for move, swoop for swoop. "she's turning around!" suddenly cried mr. damon. "she's given up the flight, tom, and is going back!" "that's so!" agreed mr. whitford. "they're headed for canada, tom. we've got to catch 'em before they get over the dominion line!" "i'll do it!" cried tom, between his clenched teeth. he swung his airship around in a big circle, and took after the fleeing craft. the wind was against the smugglers now, and they could not make such good speed, while to tom the wind mattered not, so powerful were the propellers of the falcon. "i think we're gaining on them," murmured mr. damon. suddenly, from the engine room, came a cry from ned. "tom! tom!" he shouted, "something is wrong with the gas machine! she registers over five hundred pounds pressure, and that's too much. it's going up, and i haven't touched it!" "mr. damon, take the wheel!" exclaimed the young inventor. "i've got to see what's wrong. hold her right on their trail." tom sprang to the motor room, and one glance at the gas generating machine showed him that they were in dire peril. in some manner the pressure was going up enormously, and if it went up much more the big tank would blow to pieces. "what is it?" cried ned, from his position near the light. "i don't know! something wrong." "are you going to give up the chase?" "i am not. stick to the light. koku, tell mr. damon to hold her on the course i set. i'll try to get this pressure down!" and tom swift began to work feverishly, while his ship rushed on through the night in danger, every moment, of being blown to atoms. yet the young inventor would not give up, and descend to earth. chapter xx suspicious actions the chase was kept up, and tom, when he had a chance to look up at the speed register, as he labored frantically at the clogged gas machine, saw that they were rushing along as they never had before. "are we catching them, ned?" he cried to his chum, who was not far away, playing the powerful light on the smugglers' craft. "i think we're coming closer, but it's going to be a long chase. i don't see why we can't close up on 'em." "because they've got a very fast ship, ned, and they are flying much lighter than we are. but we'll get 'em!" "how are you making out with that gas machine?" "well, i'm doing all i can, but i can't seem to get the pressure down. i can't understand it. some of the pipes must be clogged with a carbon deposit. i ought to have cleaned them out some time ago." ned gave a hasty glance at the gauge which showed the gas pressure. it registered six hundred pounds now, having risen a hundred in a short time. "and she'll go up, sure, at eight hundred," murmured ned, as he held the light steadily on the smugglers' aircraft. "well, if tom sticks to the chase, i will too, but i think it would be better to go down, open up everything, and let the gas escape. we could get the rascals later." tom, however, did not seem to think so, for he kept on with his task, working away at the pipes, trying to force the obstruction out, so that the gas from the generator would flow into the bag. at the same time he tried to shut off the generating apparatus, but that had become jammed in consequence of the pipe clogging, and the powerful vapor continued to manufacture itself automatically in spite of all that tom could do. the only safe way out of the danger, unless he could remove the obstruction, was to descend to earth, and, as ned had said, open every outlet. but to have done that in mid-air would have been dangerous, as the large volume of gas, suddenly liberated, would have hung about the airship in a cloud, smothering all on board. if they were on the earth they could run away from it, and remain away until the vapor had blown off. "is mr. damon keeping her on the course, ned?" asked tom, pausing a moment to get his breath after a series of frantic efforts. "yes, and i think we're closing in on them a little." "that's good. are they still headed for the border?" "yes, i guess they're going to take no chances to-night. they're going right back to canada where they came from." "well, we'll be hot after 'em. whistle through the tube, and tell koku to come here and give me a hand. he's with mr. damon in the pilot house." ned sent the message, and then gave his whole attention to the light. this was necessary, as the smugglers were resorting to dodging tactics, in an endeavor to escape. now they would shoot upward, and again toward the earth, varying the performance by steering to the right or left. ned had constantly to shift the light to keep them in focus, so that mr. damon could see where to steer, but, with all this handicap, the eccentric man did very well, and he was never far out in his judgment. "by jove!" suddenly murmured tom, as he tried once more in vain to open a clogged valve. "i'm afraid we can't do it. koku, lend a hand here!" he exclaimed as the giant entered. "see if you can twist this wrench around, but don't break off the handle, whatever you do." "me shove," replied the giant simply, as he grasped the big wrench. once more ned glanced at the pressure gage. it showed seven hundred pounds now, and there was only a margin of safety of one hundred pounds more, ere a terrific explosion would occur. still tom had not given the order to descend to earth. "are you going to make it, tom?" asked the government agent, anxiously, as he stood over the young inventor. "i--i think so," panted tom. "are we near the dominion line," "pretty close," was the discouraging answer. "i'm afraid we can't get 'em before they cross. can you use any more speed?" "i don't know. ned, see if you can get another notch out of her." with one hand ned reached for the accelerator lever on the wall near him, and pulled it to the last notch. the falcon shot ahead with increased speed, but, at the same instant there came a gasp from koku, and the sound of something breaking. "there! he's done it!" cried tom in despair. "i was afraid you'd be too strong for that wrench, koku. you've broken off the handle. now we'll never be able to loosen that valve." ned gave one more glance at the pressure gage. it showed seven hundred and fifty pounds, and the needle was slowly moving onward. "hadn't we better descend," asked mr. whitford in a low voice. "i--i guess so," answered tom, despairingly. "where are we?" ned flashed the light downward for an instant. "just crossing over the st. regis indian reservation again," he replied. "we'll be in canada in a few minutes more." "where are the smugglers?" "still ahead, and they're bearing off to the right." "going toward montford," commented the government man. "we've lost 'em for to-night, anyhow, but they didn't get their goods landed, at any rate." "send her down, ned!" exclaimed tom, and it was high time, for the pressure was now within twenty-five pounds of the exploding point. down shot the falcon, while her rival passed onward triumphantly in the darkness. ned held the light on the smugglers as long as he dared, and then he flashed it to earth to enable mr. damon to pick out a good landing place. in a few moments tom's silent airship came to rest on a little clearing in the forest, and tom, with ned's help, at once opened every outlet of the gas machine, a thing they had not dared do while up in the air. "come on, now, run, everybody!" cried tom. "otherwise you'll be smothered!" they leaped from the craft, about which gathered the fumes of the powerful gas, as it hissed from the pipes. running a hundred yards away they were safe, and could return in a few minutes. "we're in canada," remarked mr. whitford, as they came to a halt, watching the airship. "how do you know?" asked ned. "as we landed i saw one of the stone boundary posts," was the answer. "we're on english territory, and we can't touch the smugglers if we should see them now." "well, we'll soon be back in uncle sam's land," declared tom. "we can go back on board the falcon to sleep shortly. jove! i wish i could have caught those fellows!" "never mind, we'll get 'em yet," counseled mr. whitford. waiting until he was sure all the vapor had disappeared, tom led the way back to the falcon. no great harm had been done, save to lose considerable gas, and this could be remedied. tired and disappointed from the chase, they sought their bunks, and were soon asleep. in the morning tom and ned began work on the clogged pipes. this work was nearly accomplished by noon, when mr. damon, coming back from a stroll, announced that they were but fifteen minutes walk from the st. lawrence river, as he had seen the sparkling waters from a neighboring hill. "let's go over and have a look at it," proposed ned. "we can easily finish this when we get back. besides, tom, we don't want to get to our regular camp until after dark, anyhow." the young inventor was willing, and the two lads, with mr. whitford, strolled toward the historic stream. as they drew near the bank, they saw, anchored a little distance out, a small steamer. approaching it, as if she had just left the shore at a point near where our friends stood, was a gasolene launch, containing several men, while on shore, in front of a small shanty, stood another man. this latter individual, at the sight of tom, ned and mr. whitford, blew a shrill whistle. those in the launch looked back. the man on shore waved a red flag in a peculiar way, almost as the soldiers in the army wig-wag signals. in another moment the launch turned about, and put for shore, while the lone man hurried back into the hut. "hum!" remarked tom. "those are queer actions." "suspicious actions, i should say," said mr. whitford. "i'm going to see what this means." chapter xxi mr. period arrives greatly interested in what was about to take place, and not a little suspicious, our friends stood on the bank of the river and watched the motor boat returning. as it reached a little dock in front of the hut, the man who had waved the red flag of warning came out, and talked rapidly to those in the power craft. at the same time he pointed occasionally to tom, ned and the government agent. "this is getting interesting," remarked mr. whitford. "we may have accidentally stumbled on something important tom." "see, they're signalling to the steamer now," spoke ned, and, as he said this, his companions looked, and noted the man from the hut waving a white flag, in a peculiar manner. his signals were answered by those on the vessel anchored out in the stream, and, a little later, black smoke could be seen pouring from her funnel. "looks as if they were getting ready to leave," spoke tom. "yes, we seem to have started things moving around here," observed ned. "or else we have prevented from moving," remarked the custom agent. "what do you mean?" tom wanted to know. "i mean that these men were evidently going to do something just as we arrived, and spoiled their plans. i would say they were going to land goods from that schooner. now they are not." "what kind of goods?" asked ned. "well, of course i'm not sure, but i should say smuggled goods." "the smugglers!" cried tom. "why, they can't be smugglers, for we are on canadian territory. the river isn't the dividing line between the dominion and the united states at this point. the st. lawrence lies wholly in canada here, and the men have a right to land any goods they want to, dutiable or not." "that's just it." put in mr. whitford. "they have the right, but they are afraid to exercise it, and that's what makes me suspicious. if they were doing a straight business they wouldn't be afraid, no matter who saw them. they evidently recognize us, by description, if by no other means, and they know we are after smugglers. that's why they stopped the bringing of goods from that vessel to shore. they want to wait until we are gone." "but we couldn't stop them from landing goods, even if they know we are working for uncle sam," declared tom. "that's very true, but it is evidently their intention, not only to land goods here, which they have a perfect right to do, but to send them into the united states, which they have not a right to do without paying the duty." "then you really think they are the smugglers?" asked ned. "i'm pretty sure of it. i think we have stumbled on one of the places where the goods are landed, and where they are loaded into the airships. this is the best luck we could have, and it more than makes up for not catching the rascals last night. now we know where to get on their trail." "if they don't change the place," observed tom. "oh, of course, we've got to take that chance." "here's one of them coming over to speak to us, i guess," remarked tom in a low voice, as he observed the man, who had waved the flag approaching. there was no doubt of his intention for, as soon as he came within talking distance, the stranger called out: "what are you fellows doing here?" "looking at the river," replied mr. whitford, calmly. "well, you'd better find some other place for a view. this is private property, and we don't like trespassers. get a move on--get out!" "are we doing any harm?" asked the agent. "i didn't say you were. this is our land, and we don't like strangers snooping around. that's all." "particularly when you are going to land some goods." "what do you mean?" gasped the man. "i guess you know well enough," was mr. whitford's reply. the man suddenly turned, and gave a shrill whistle. instantly, from the hut, came several men who had been in the motor boat. one or two of them had weapons. "i guess you'd better go now," said the first man sharply. "you're not in the united states now, you know." "it's easy to see that, by the politeness of the residents of this section," put in tom. "none of your back talk! get away from here!" cried the man. "if you don't go peaceably--" "oh, we're going," interposed mr. whitford calmly. "but that isn't saying we won't come back. come on, boys. we'll get over on uncle sam's territory." the group of men stood silently watching them, as they filed back through the woods. "what do you make of it?" asked tom of the agent. "i'm positive that i'm right, and that they're the smugglers. but i can't do anything on this side of the line. if ever i can catch them across the border, though, there'll be a different story to tell." "what had we better do?" inquired ned. "go back to our airship, and leave for logansville. we don't need to land until night, though, but we can make a slow trip. is the gas machine all right again, tom?" "practically so. if that hadn't gone back on me we would have had those fellows captured by this time." "never mind. we did our best." it did not take tom and his chum long to complete the repairs, and soon they arose in the air. "let's take a flight over where those fellows are, just to show them what we can do," proposed ned, and tom and mr. whitford agreed to it. soon they were circling over the hut. the launch was just starting out again, when a cry from the man who seemed to be a sort of guard, drew the attention of his confederates to the noiseless airship. once more the launch was turned about, and sent back to shore, while those in it shook their fists at tom and his friends. "we can play tag with 'em up here!" chuckled ned. "there's the small vessel that pulled up anchor a while ago," remarked mr. whitford, pointing to the vessel which had steamed around a wooded point. "they thought we had gone for good, and they were getting ready to land the stuff. well, we'll know where to head for next time, when we watch for the smugglers at night." realizing that nothing more could be done, tom sent his airship toward the camp, just outside of loganville. but he did not land until after dark, when, making out the spot by means of the electric lights, which were set aglow automatically at dark, he descended. "we won't try anything to-night," said mr. whitford. "i doubt if the smugglers will themselves, after their experience last night. i'll get into town, see some of my men, and come out here to-morrow night again." tom and ned spent the following day in going carefully over the falcon, making some slight repairs. the great searchlight was cleaned and adjusted, and then, as dusk came on once more tom remarked: "well, we're ready for 'em any time mr. whitford is." hardly had he spoken than the tramp of horses' feet was heard coming along the bridle path through the woods, and a voice was heard to exclaim: "there, now, i understand it perfectly! you don't need to say another word. i know it may be against the regulations, but i can fix that. i'm the busiest man in the world, but i just had to come up here and see tom swift. it's costing me a thousand dollars, but the money is well spent. now don't interrupt me! i know what you're going to say! that you haven't time to bother with moving pictures. but you have! i must have some moving pictures of your chase after the smugglers. now, don't speak to me, i know all about it. you can't tell me anything. i'll talk to tom. are we most there?" "yes, we're here," answered mr. whitford's voice, and tom fancied the government agent was a bit puzzled by his strange companion. "bless my shoe string!" gasped mr. damon. "him picture man!" cried koku. "mr. period!" exclaimed tom. "i wonder what he is doing here?" and the next moment the excitable little man, for whom tom had run so many risks getting marvelous moving pictures, with the wizard camera, entered the clearing where the airship was anchored. chapter xxii hovering o'er the border "well, tom, you see i couldn't get along without you," exclaimed mr. period, as he rushed forward and grasped tom's hand, having alighted in rather an undignified manner from the horse that he had ridden. "i'm after you again." "so i see." remarked our hero. "but i'm afraid i can't--" "tut! tut! don't say that," interrupted the moving picture man. "i know what you're going to say. don't do it! don't go back on me, tom! have you the wonderful moving picture camera with you." "i have, mr. period, but--" "now! now! that'll do," broke in the excitable little man. "if you have it, that's enough. i want you to get me some films, showing you in chase of the smugglers. they'll be great to exhibit in our chain of theatres." "how did you know i was here?" asked tom. "easily enough. i called at your house. your father told me where you were. i came on. it cost me a thousand dollars--maybe more. i don't care! i've got to have those films! you'll get them for me; won't you?" "well, i--" "that's enough! i know what you're going to say. of course you will! now how soon may i expect them. they ought to make a good run. say in a week?" "it all depends on the smugglers," said mr. whitford. "yes, yes! i understand, of course. i know! this friend of yours has been very kind to me, tom. i looked him up as soon as i got to logansville, and told him what i wanted. he offered to show me the way out here, and here i am. let's have a look at the camera, to see if it's in good shape. are you going to have a try for the smugglers to-night?" "i think so," answered tom. "as for the camera, really i've been so busy i haven't had time to look at it since we started. i guess it's all right. i don't know what made me bring it along, as i didn't expect to use it." "but with your great searchlight it will be just the thing," suggested ned. "yes, i think so," added mr. whitford, who had been told about the wizard instrument. "bless my detective badge!" cried mr. damon. "it may be just the thing, tom. you can offer moving pictures of the smugglers in court, for evidence." "of course!" added mr. period. "now, tom, don't disappoint me." "well, i suppose i'll have to get the camera out, and set it up," conceded tom with a laugh. "as you say, mr. damon, the pictures may come in valuable. come, ned, you get out the camera, and set it up, while koku and i see to getting the ship in shape for a flight. you'll come along, mr. period?" "i don't know. i was thinking of going back. i'm losing about a hundred dollars a minute by being away from my business." "you'll have to go back alone," said mr. whitford, "as i have to be with tom, in case of a capture." "ride back alone, through these woods? never! the smugglers might catch me, and i'm too valuable a man to go that way! i'll take a chance in the airship." ned busied himself over the wizard camera, which had been stored away, and mr. period went with the young bank clerk to look after the apparatus. meanwhile tom and koku saw to it that the falcon was ready for a quick flight, mr. damon and mr. whitford lending whatever aid was necessary. the horses, which the agent and mr. period had ridden, were tethered in the clearing where they could get food and water. "did the smugglers rush anything over last night?" asked tom. "no, we evidently had them frightened. but i shouldn't be surprised but what they made the attempt to-night. we'll go back toward the st. regis indian reservation, where they were getting ready to unload that steamer, and hover around the border there. something is sure to happen, sooner or later." "i guess that's as good a plan as any," agreed tom, and in a little while they started. all that night they hovered over the border, sailing back and forth, flashing the great light at intervals to pick up the white wings of a smuggling airship. but they saw nothing. mr. period was in despair, as he fully counted on a capture being made while he was present, so that he might see the moving pictures made. but it was not to be. the wizard camera was all in readiness, but there was no need to start the automatic machinery. for, search as tom and his friends did for a trace of the smugglers, they could see nothing. they put on full speed, and even went as far as the limits of the indian reservation, but to no purpose. they heard no throbbing motor, no whizz of great propellers, and saw no white, canvas wings against the dark background of the sky, as tom's craft made her way noiselessly along. "i guess we've frightened them away," said mr. whitford dubiously, as it came near morning, and nothing suspicious had been seen or heard. "they're holding back their goods, tom until they think they can take us unawares. then they'll rush a big shipment over." "then's the time we must catch them," declared the young inventor. "we may as well go back now." "and not a picture!" exclaimed mr. period tragically. "well, be sure to get good ones when you do make a capture, tom." "i will," promised the young inventor. then, with a last sweep along the border he turned the nose of his craft toward logansville. he had almost reached the place, and was flying rather low over the country roads, when ned called: "hark! i hear something!" the unmistakable noise of a gasolene motor in operation could be distinguished. "there they are!" cried mr. period. "bless my honeysuckle vine!" gasped mr. damon. "the light, ned, the light!" cried tom. his chum flashed the powerful beam all around the horizon, and toward the sky, but nothing was visible. "try down below," suggested mr. whitford. ned sent the beams earthward. and there, in the glare, they saw a youth speeding along on a motor-cycle. in an instant tom grabbed up the binoculars and focussed them on the rider. "it's andy foger!" he cried. chapter xxiii ned is missing there was a period of silence, following tom's startling announcement. there were several plate glass windows in the floor of the airship, and through these they all gazed at the youth on the motor-cycle. only tom, however, by the aid of the glasses, was able to make out his features. "bless my spark plug! andy foger!" cried mr. damon. "are you going to try to catch him?" "get him and break chug-chug machine!" suggested koku. "what do you suppose he's up to, tom?" asked ned. "andy foger speeding along at this hour of the morning," remarked mr. whitford. "there must be something in the wind." "get a moving picture of him," urged mr. period. "i might be able to use that." "i hardly think it would be worth while," decided tom. "you see andy hasn't done anything criminal, as far as we know. of course i think he is capable of it, but that's a different thing. he may be out only on a pleasure jaunt, and he could stop us from showing the pictures, if we took them." "that's so," agreed mr. period. "don't run any risks of a lawsuit. it takes up too much of my time. never mind the pictures." "just capture him, tom, and see what he is doing," suggested mr. damon. "bless my chewing gum! but he must be up to something." "well, he's aware of the fact that we're watching him, at all events!" exclaimed mr. whitford, for, at that moment, andy, having seen the glare of the light, glanced up. they could see him looking at him, and, a second later, the shopton bully steered his machine down a side road where the overhanging trees were so thick that he could not be made out, even by the powerful gleams of the great searchlight. "he's gone!" gasped ned. "afraid i guess," added mr. damon. "that shows he was up to something wrong. well, what are we going to do?" "nothing, that i can see," spoke mr. whitford. "we can only go back to our camping place, and make another try. this andy foger may, or may not, be in with the smugglers. that's something we have yet to prove. however, we can't do anything now." in vain did ned try to get the bully within range of the light. they could hear the sounds of the motor cycle growing more and more faint, and then, as it was rapidly getting light, and as they did not want to be seen dropping into their camping place, they made all haste toward it, before dawn should break. "well, i can't spend any more time here," declared mr. period, when a hasty breakfast had been served. "will you ride back with me?" asked mr. whitford of the moving picture man. "will i? well, i guess i will! you can't lose me! i'm not going to be captured by those smugglers. i'd be a valuable man for them to have as a hostage. they'd probably ask a million dollars ransom for me," and mr. period carefully straightened his brilliant red necktie. soon he and mr. whitford were riding back to town, taking a roundabout way, as the agent always did, to throw any possible spies off the track. everyone, even including the giant koku was tired enough to take a sleep after dinner. it was about three o'clock when ned awoke, and he found tom already up, and at the wireless instrument, which was clicking and buzzing. "message coming?" asked the young bank clerk. tom nodded, and clasped the receiver over his ear. a moment later he began jotting down a message. "mr. whitford says he has a tip that something is going to take place to-night," read the young inventor a few minutes later. "the smugglers have accumulated a big store of goods, and they are anxious to get them over the border. there are silks, laces, diamonds, and other things on which there is a high duty, or tax for bringing into the united states. he will be here early, and we must be ready for a start at once." "all right. i guess we are ready now. say, i'm going over to that little brook, and see if i can catch a few trout for supper." "all right. good idea. don't be gone too long." "i won't. say, where is my coat, anyhow? i never can seem to keep track of that, or my cap either." "never mind. wear mine, and you won't be delayed looking for them," so ned donned tom's garment and headpiece, and set out. three hours passed, and mr. damon prepared to get supper. "i wonder why ned doesn't come back with the fish?" he said. "it's time, if we're going to cook them to-night." "that's right, he ought to be here," agreed tom. "koku take a walk over to the trout brook, and tell mr. ned to come here, whether he has any fish or not." "sure, me go, mr. tom!" koku was gone perhaps five minutes, and when he came back he was much excited. "mr. ned he no there!" the giant cried. "but fish pole all broken, and ground all full of holes. look like fight." tom started for the place where he knew ned usually went to fish. koku and mr. damon followed. on reaching it our hero saw indeed that the ground was "full of holes," as the giant described the indentations made by the heels of boots and shoes. "there's been a fight here!" cried tom. "yes, and ned is missing," added mr. damon. chapter xxiv the night race the three looked at each other. for a moment they could not understand, and then, as they stood there, the meaning came to them. "the smugglers!" whispered tom. "of course!" agreed mr. damon. "and they must have taken him for you, tom, for he had on your coat and cap. what can they have done with him?" "taken him away, that's evident," spoke tom. "let's look around, and see if we can find him." they looked, but to no purpose. ned had disappeared. there were the signs of a struggle, the fish rod was broken in several places, as if ned had used it as a club, and the ground was torn up. "bless my tin whistle!" cried mr. damon. "what shall we do?" for a moment no one knew what to say, then, as they looked at each other in silence, a voice called: "i say! what's up? what's the matter? where are you all? hey, tom swift!" "it's mr. whitford!" cried tom. "he's just in time." then he called in louder tones: "here we are! in the woods by the trout brook! come on over! ned is gone!" there was a commotion in the bushes, the trampling of a horse, and a moment later the government agent had joined the others. "what's this?" he cried. "ned gone? what do you mean?" "he's missing. the smugglers have him, i'm afraid," explained tom, and then he gave the details. "it certainly looks so," agreed mr. whitford. "his wearing of your coat and cap fooled them. they must have spied out this camping place, and they were in hiding. when they saw ned coming to fish they took him for you. having failed in their attempt to damage the airship, they decided to get her captain. probably they thought that if they did the falcon could not be run, and they would be safe. but they got the wrong man." "then we must get ned back at once!" cried tom. "come on, we'll start right away! where do you think we can nab them, mr. whitford?" "wait a minute," suggested the government agent. he seemed in deep thought, and paced up and down. it was clear that a great question was confronting him. "well!" exclaimed tom impatiently, "if we're going to get ned we must start at once." "perhaps it would be best not to try to rescue ned at once," said the custom house man after a pause. "what!" cried tom. "not rescue ned, my best chum?" "not at once," repeated mr. whitford. "look here, tom. i know it seems a hard thing to say, but perhaps if we proceed on our original plan, to hover over the border, and get on the trail of the smugglers, chasing them to where they land the goods in the united states, it will be best." "and not rescue ned?" "we can best rescue him by catching the smugglers." "then you think--" "that they have him with them--on board one of their airships very likely. if we get them we'll have ned." "then we'll get 'em!" cried tom with energy. "come on back to the falcon. we'll get ready for a big flight!" "yes, i think they'll make a desperate effort to-night," went on the agent. "they have a lot of goods ready to rush over the border, and the fact that they tried to capture you, shows that they are ready to pull off a big trick. i think if we can catch them to-night, it will put an end to their operations, and, at the same time, bring ned back to us." "where do you think they will start to cross the line?" asked tom. "near the place where we saw the man waving the flags. i have information to the effect that they have a store of valuable goods there. they imagine that they have the master of the airship, and the owner of the great searchlight in their power, and that they can not be molested, so they will be bold." "but they'll soon find out that ned isn't tom," said mr. damon. "no they won't! not if it depends on ned!" cried tom. "ned is game. he'll soon get wise to the fact that they have taken him for me, and he'll carry on the deception. none of the smugglers know me intimately." "unless andy foger should be with them," suggested mr. damon. "oh, ned can fool andy any day. come on, mr. whitford. we'll get the smugglers to-night, spoil their game, and rescue ned. somehow, i feel that we're going to succeed." "bless my tin dishpan!" cried mr. damon. "i hope we do." slowly, and with no very cheerful hearts, they filed away from the scene of ned's capture. in spite of the fact that they did not think he would be harshly treated, they worried about him, tom especially. a hasty supper was eaten, and then, tom, having seen that everything aboard the ship was in good order, sent her aloft on what he hoped would be the last chase after the smugglers. he decided to have mr. damon steer the craft, as this was comparatively easy, once she was started on her course, while the young inventor would manage the searchlight, and start the automatic wizard camera, in case there was anything to photograph. up and up went the falcon, and soon she was making her way toward the st. regis indian reservation, near which it was expected the smugglers would start. tom put out every light, as he wanted to remain in darkness, until he could see a moving glow in the sky that would tell him of a rival airship on the wing. it did not take them long to reach the desired spot, and they hovered in the air over it, every one with tense nerves, waiting for what would happen next. tom did not want to show his searchlight just yet, as he feared the gleam of it might stop the operations of the smugglers. so he waited in darkness, approaching close to the earth in his noiseless ship several times, and endeavoring to see something through the powerful night glasses. suddenly, from below them, came a subdued throb and hum of a motor. "there they are!" exclaimed mr. damon. "i think so," agreed tom. he looked below. he saw two flickering lights, rather far apart. mr. whitford observed them at the same moment. "there are two of them!" exclaimed the agent, "two airships, tom!" "so i see. koku, get out my electric rifle. we can't chase two, if they separate, so i may have to stop one. it's best to be prepared. i'm going to follow them in the dark, until they get over the border, and then i'll turn on the light and the camera. then it will be a race to the finish." the twin lights came nearer. tom stood with his mouth to the signal tube that communicated with mr. damon in the pilot house. from a side window he watched the smugglers' airships. they shot upward and then came on straight ahead, to pass to one side of him. now they were past. tom started the wizard camera. "half speed ahead!" the young inventor signalled, and the falcon shot forward. the night race was on. chapter xxv the capture--conclusion "do you think they know we are here, tom?" asked mr. whitford, as he stood at the side of the young inventor in the motor room. "i don't believe so, as yet. they can't hear us, and, unless they have pretty powerful glasses, they can't pick us up. we can soon tell however, if they are aware that we are following them." "have you made any plan about capturing them?" "no, i'm going to wait and see what turns up. i can't certainly chase two of them, if they separate, and that's why i'm going to cripple one if i have to." "but won't that be dangerous? i don't want to see any of them killed, or even hurt, though they are smugglers." "and i don't want to hurt them, either. if worst comes to worst i'm going to put a few holes in the wing planes of the smaller craft. that will cause her to lose headway, and she can't keep up. they'll have to volplane to earth, but, if they know anything at all about airships, they can do that easily, and not get a bit hurt. that will put them out of the race, and i can keep on after the big ship. i fancy that carries the more valuable cargo." "i presume so. well, don't bring the one to earth until you get over uncle sam's territory, and then maybe there will be a chance to capture them, and the goods too." "i will," promised tom. they were still over canadian territory, but were rapidly approaching the border. "i think i will send a wireless to my men in logansville, to start out and try to pick up the crippled airship after you disable her," decided mr. whitford, and as tom agreed that this was a good plan, the wireless was soon cracking away, the government agent being an adept in its use. "i've told them we'd give another signal to tell them, as nearly as possible where we made them take to earth," he said to tom, and the young inventor nodded in agreement. "ned in them ship?" asked koku, as he came back from the pilot house to report that mr. damon was all right, and needed no help. "yes, i think ned is in one of them," said tom. "the big one most likely. poor ned a prisoner! well, i'll soon have him away from them--if nothing happens," and tom looked about the motor room, to make sure that every piece of apparatus was working perfectly. the two airships of the smugglers were hanging close together, and it was evident that the larger one had to make her pace slow, so as not to get ahead of the small craft. tom followed on relentlessly, not using half his speed, but creeping on silently in the darkness. "we're over the united states now," said mr. whitford, after a glance earthward through the binoculars. "let 'em get a little farther over the line before you pop 'em with your electric rifle, tom." our hero nodded, and looked out of a side window to note the progress of the smugglers. for several miles the chase was thus kept up, and then, suddenly the smaller craft was seen to swerve to one side. "they are separating!" cried mr. whitford, at the same time mr. damon called through the tube from the pilot house: "which one shall i follow, tom?" "the big one," the youth answered. "i'll take care of the other!" with a quick motion he flashed the current into the great searchlight, and, calling to mr. whitford to hold it so that the beams played on the small aeroplane, tom leveled his wonderful electric rifle at the big stretch of canvas. he pressed the lever, a streak of blue flame shot out through an opened port, and, an instant later, the small craft of the smugglers was seen to stagger about, dipping to one side. "there they come!" cried mr. whitford. "they're done for!" "one shot more," said tom grimly. "it won't hurt 'em!" again the deadly electric rifle sent out its wireless charge, and the airship slowly fluttered toward the earth. "they're volplaning down!" cried tom. "that's the end of them. now to catch the other!" "take the lantern!" cried mr. whitford. "i'm going to send a wireless to my men to get after this disabled craft." tom swung the beam of the searchlight forward and a moment later had picked up the big aeroplane. it was some distance in advance, and going like the wind. he heard the automatic camera clicking away. "they speeded her up as soon as they saw what was on!" cried tom. "but we haven't begun to go yet!" he signalled to mr. damon, who pulled over the accelerating lever and instantly the falcon responded. now indeed the race was on in earnest. the smugglers must have understood this, for they tried all their tactics to throw the pursuing airship off the track. they dodged and twisted, now going up, and now going down, and even trying to turn back, but tom headed them off. ever the great beam of light shone relentlessly on them, like some avenging eye. they could not escape. "are we gaining?" cried mr. whitford. "a little, and slowly," answered tom. "they have a bigger load on than when we chased them before, but still they have a speed almost equal to ours. they must have a magnificent motor." faster and faster sped on the falcon. the other craft kept ahead of her, however, though tom could see that, inch by inch, he was overhauling her. "where do they seem to be heading for?" asked the government agent. "shopton, as near as i can make out," replied the youth. "they probably want to get there ahead of us, and hide the goods. i must prevent that. mr. damon is steering better than he ever did before." tom shifted the light to keep track of the smugglers, who had dipped downward on a steep slant. then they shot upward, but the falcon was after them. the hours of the night passed. the chase was kept up. try as the smugglers did, they could not shake tom off. nearer and nearer he crept. there was the gray dawn of morning in the sky, and tom knew, from the great speed they had traveled that they must be near shopton. "they're slowing up. tom!" suddenly cried mr. whitford who was watching them through an open port. "yes, i guess they must have heated some of their bearings. well, here's where i capture them, if it's ever to be. koku, let down the grappling anchor." "are you really going to capture them, tom?" asked the custom officer. "i'm going to try," was the answer, as koku came back to say that the anchor was dragging over the stern by a long rope. "you work the light, mr. whitford," cried tom. "i'm going to relieve mr. damon in the pilot house. he can help you here. it will be all over in another minute." in the pilot house tom grasped the steering levers. then in a final burst of speed he sent his craft above, and past that of the smugglers. suddenly he felt a shock. it was the grappling anchor catching in the rail of the other air craft. a shout of dismay arose from the smugglers. "you've got 'em! you've got 'em, tom!" yelled mr. whitford. "bless my hasty pudding! so he has!" gasped mr. damon. changing the course of his craft tom sent the falcon toward the earth, pulling the other aeroplane with him. down and down he went, and the frantic efforts of the smugglers to release themselves were useless. they were pulled along by the powerful airship of our hero. a few minutes later tom picked out a good landing place in the dim light of the breaking dawn, and went to earth. jamming on the brakes he leaped from the pilot house to the stern of his own craft, catching up his electric rifle. the other airship, caught by the grappling anchor at the end of a long rope, was just settling down, those in her having the good sense to shut off their power, and volplane when they found that they could not escape. as the smugglers' craft touched the earth, several figures leaped from her, and started to run away. "hold on!" cried tom. "i've got you all covered with the electric rifle! don't move! koku, you, and mr. whitford and mr. damon take care of them. tie 'em up." "bless my hat band!" cried the eccentric man. "what a great capture! where are we?" "not far from shopton," answered tom. "but look after the prisoners." there was a cry of astonishment from mr. whitford as he reached the sullen occupants of the smugglers' craft. "here are the fogers--father and son!" the agent called to tom. "they were in it after all. great scott! what a surprise. and here are a lot of men whom i've been after for some time! oh, tom swift, this is a capture." "what right have you to use these high-handed methods on us?" demanded mr. foger pompously. "yes, dad make 'em let us go; we haven't done anything!" snarled andy. "i guess you won't go yet a while," said the agent. "i'll have a look inside this craft. keep 'em covered, tom." "i will. i guess andy knows what this rifle can do. see if ned is a prisoner." there was a few moments of waiting during which koku and mr. damon securely bound the prisoners. then mr. whitford reappeared. he was accompanied by some one. "hello, tom!" called the latter. "i'm all right. much obliged for the rescue." "are you all right, ned?" asked tom, of his chum. "yes, except that they kept me gagged. the men who captured me took me for you, and, after the fogers found out the mistake, they decided to keep me anyhow. say, you've made a great haul." and so it proved, for in the airship was a quantity of valuable silks and laces, while on the persons of the smugglers, including mr. foger, were several packets of diamonds. these were taken possession of by mr. whitford, who also confiscated the bales and packages. ned was soon aboard the falcon, while the prisoners, securely tied were laid in the cabin of their own craft with koku to stand guard over them. mr. damon went to shopton, which was the nearest town, for police aid, and soon the smugglers were safe in jail, though mr. foger protested vigorously against going. ned explained how he had been pounced upon by two men when he was fishing, and told how without a chance to warn his friends, he had been gagged and bound and taken to the headquarters of the smugglers in canada, just over the border. they went by carriages. then the fogers, who, it seemed, were hand in glove with the law violators, saw him, and identified him. the smugglers had thought they were capturing tom. "it was your coat and hat that did it, tom," explained ned. "i fought against being taken away, but when i happened to think if they took me for you it might be a trick against them. and it was. the fogers didn't discover the mistake until just before we started." "they planned for a big shipment of goods last night and used two airships. i don't know what became of the other." "we've got her, and the men, too," interposed mr. whitford, as this conversation was taking place several hours later in the swift home. "i just had a wire from my deputy. they got right after the damaged airship, and reached her just as the men were hiding the goods, and preparing to dismantle the craft. we have them all, thanks to you, tom!" "and to think that the fogers were in it all the while!" remarked tom. "they certainly fooled us." "i'm not done with them yet," said mr. whitford. "i'm going to have another look at their house, and the gardener's home." "the fogers were in dire straits, that's why they went in with the smugglers," explained ned. "though they gagged me, they didn't stop up my ears, and when they hid me in a little room on the airship, i could hear them talking together. it seems that the smugglers put up the money to buy the airships, and just happened to stumble on andy to run the machinery for them. his father helped, too. they shared in the proceeds, and they must have made considerable, for the smuggling has been going on for some time." "well, they'll lose all they made," declared the agent. later he, tom and ned made another inspection of the foger premises. down in the cellar of the gardener's house they found, behind a cunningly concealed door, a tunnel leading into the old mansion. later it was learned that the smugglers had been in the habit of bringing goods across the border in airships, landing them in a lonely stretch of woods outside of shopton, and later bringing them by wagon to the mansion. inside there, in some secret rooms that had been constructed off of the main apartments, the goods would be unpacked, put in different boxes, carried through the tunnel to the gardener's house, and thence shipped as "old furniture" to various unscrupulous agents who disposed of them. the hiring of mr. dillon had been only a blind. later the smugglers, in the guise of carpenters, made the desired changes. so cunningly had the opening of the tunnel in the cellar of the gardener's house been concealed, that it was only discovered after a most careful search. there is little more to tell. with the capture of the two airships, an end was put to the smuggling operations, especially since nearly all the gang was captured. a few, those who brought the goods up the st. lawrence, from the ocean steamers, managed to escape, but they had to go into hiding. the goods captured proved very valuable, and partly made up to uncle sam's treasury the losses sustained. tom was offered a big reward, but would not take it, accepting only money for his expenses, and requesting that the reward be divided among the agents of mr. whitford's staff, who needed it more than tom did. there was no difficulty about convicting the prisoners, including the fogers, for tom's wizard camera had taken pictures of the chase and capture, and the men were easily identified. mr. period was quite delighted with the roll of films that tom gave him. some of the smugglers were sent to prison for long terms, and others, including andy and his father, had to pay heavy fines. "well, tom swift, i can't thank you enough," said mr. whitford, one day as he called to pay the young inventor a visit. "i'm ordered to the pacific coast and i may have to send for you with your airship, and great searchlight." "i don't believe i'll come," laughed the lad. "i'm going to take a long rest and settle down." "he's going to get married!" exclaimed ned, taking care to get behind a chair. "if mr. tom marry, he keep koku for servant?" asked the giant anxiously. "oh, i'm not going to get married, just yet, koku!" exclaimed tom, who was blushing furiously. "i'm going to invent something new." "bless my fountain pen!" cried mr. damon. "oh, tom, it seems good to have you home again," said aged mr. swift softly. "dat's what it do!" added eradicate. "boomerang hab been monstrous lonely sence yo'-all been gone, massa tom." "well, i'm going to stay home--for a while," said tom. and thus, surrounded as he is by his friends and relatives, we will take leave of tom swift. the end university, alev akman, and dianne bean the age of invention, a chronicle of mechanical conquest by holland thompson prefatory note this volume is not intended to be a complete record of inventive genius and mechanical progress in the united states. a bare catalogue of notable american inventions in the nineteenth century alone could not be compressed into these pages. nor is it any part of the purpose of this book to trespass on the ground of the many mechanical works and encyclopedias which give technical descriptions and explain in detail the principle of every invention. all this book seeks to do is to outline the personalities of some of the outstanding american inventors and indicate the significance of their achievements. acknowledgments are due the editor of the series and to members of the staff of the yale university press particularly, miss constance lindsay skinner, mr. arthur edwin krows, and miss frances hart--without whose intelligent assistance the book could not have been completed in time to take its place in the series. h. t. college of the city of new york, may , . contents i. benjamin franklin and his times ii. eli whitney and the cotton gin iii. steam in captivity iv. spindle, loom, and needle in new england v. the agricultural revolution vi. agents of communication vii. the story of rubber viii. pioneers of the machine shop ix. the fathers of electricity x. the conquest of the air bibliographical note the age of invention chapter i. benjamin franklin and his times on milk street, in boston, opposite the old south church, lived josiah franklin, a maker of soap and candles. he had come to boston with his wife about the year from the parish of ecton, northamptonshire, england, where his family had lived on a small freehold for about three hundred years. his english wife had died, leaving him seven children, and he had married a colonial girl, abiah folger, whose father, peter folger, was a man of some note in early massachusetts. josiah franklin was fifty-one and his wife abiah thirty-nine, when the first illustrious american inventor was born in their house on milk street, january , . he was their eighth child and josiah's tenth son and was baptized benjamin. what little we know of benjamin's childhood is contained in his "autobiography", which the world has accepted as one of its best books and which was the first american book to be so accepted. in the crowded household, where thirteen children grew to manhood and womanhood, there were no luxuries. benjamin's period of formal schooling was less than two years, though he could never remember the time when he could not read, and at the age of ten he was put to work in his father's shop. benjamin was restless and unhappy in the shop. he appeared to have no aptitude at all for the business of soap making. his parents debated whether they might not educate him for the ministry, and his father took him into various shops in boston, where he might see artisans at work, in the hope that he would be attracted to some trade. but benjamin saw nothing there that he wished to engage in. he was inclined to follow the sea, as one of his older brothers had done. his fondness for books finally determined his career. his older brother james was a printer, and in those days a printer was a literary man as well as a mechanic. the editor of a newspaper was always a printer and often composed his articles as he set them in type; so "composing" came to mean typesetting, and one who sets type is a compositor. now james needed an apprentice. it happened then that young benjamin, at the age of thirteen, was bound over by law to serve his brother. james franklin printed the "new england courant", the fourth newspaper to be established in the colonies. benjamin soon began to write articles for this newspaper. then when his brother was put in jail, because he had printed matter considered libelous, and forbidden to continue as the publisher, the newspaper appeared in benjamin's name. the young apprentice felt that his brother was unduly severe and, after serving for about two years, made up his mind to run away. secretly he took passage on a sloop and in three days reached new york, there to find that the one printer in the town, william bradford, could give him no work. benjamin then set out for philadelphia. by boat to perth amboy, on foot to burlington, and then by boat to philadelphia was the course of his journey, which consumed five days. on a sunday morning in october, , the tired, hungry boy landed upon the market street wharf, and at once set out to find food and explore america's metropolis. benjamin found employment with samuel keimer, an eccentric printer just beginning business, and lodgings at the house of read, whose daughter deborah was later to become his wife. the intelligent young printer soon attracted the notice of sir william keith, governor of pennsylvania, who promised to set him up in business. first, however, he must go to london to buy a printing outfit. on the governor's promise to send a letter of credit for his needs in london, franklin set sail; but the governor broke his word, and franklin was obliged to remain in london nearly two years working at his trade. it was in london that he printed the first of his many pamphlets, an attack on revealed religion, called "a dissertation on liberty and necessity, pleasure and pain." though he met some interesting persons, from each of whom he extracted, according to his custom, every particle of information possible, no future opened for him in london, and he accepted an offer to return to philadelphia with employment as a clerk. but early in his employer died, and benjamin went back to his trade, as printers always do. he found work again in keimer's printing office. here his mechanical ingenuity and general ability presently began to appear; he invented a method of casting type, made ink, and became, in fact, the real manager of the business. the ability to make friends was one of franklin's traits, and the number of his acquaintances grew rapidly, both in pennsylvania and new jersey. "i grew convinced," he naively says, "that truth, sincerity, and integrity in dealings between man and man were of the utmost importance to the felicity of life." not long after his return from england he founded in philadelphia the junto, a society which at its regular meetings argued various questions and criticized the writings of the members. through this society he enlarged his reputation as well as his education. the father of an apprentice at keimer's furnished the money to buy a printing outfit for his son and franklin, but the son soon sold his share, and benjamin franklin, printer, was fairly established in business at the age of twenty-four. the writing of an anonymous pamphlet on "the nature and necessity of a paper currency" called attention to the need of a further issue of paper money in pennsylvania, and the author of the tract was rewarded with the contract to print the money, "a very profitable job, and a great help to me." small favors were thankfully received. and, "i took care not only to be in reality industrious and frugal, but to avoid all appearances to the contrary. i drest plainly; i was seen at no places of idle diversion." and, "to show that i was not above my business, i sometimes brought home the paper i purchased at the stores thru the streets on a wheelbarrow." "the universal instructor in all arts and sciences and pennsylvania gazette": this was the high-sounding name of a newspaper which franklin's old employer, keimer, had started in philadelphia. but bankruptcy shortly overtook keimer, and franklin took the newspaper with its ninety subscribers. the "universal instructor" feature of the paper consisted of a page or two weekly of "chambers's encyclopedia". franklin eliminated this feature and dropped the first part of the long name. "the pennsylvania gazette" in franklin's hands soon became profitable. and it lives today in the fullness of abounding life, though under another name. "founded a.d. by benj. franklin" is the proud legend of "the saturday evening post", which carries on, in our own times, the franklin tradition. the "gazette" printed bits of local news, extracts from the london "spectator", jokes, verses, humorous attacks on bradford's "mercury", a rival paper, moral essays by the editor, elaborate hoaxes, and pungent political or social criticism. often the editor wrote and printed letters to himself, either to emphasize some truth or to give him the opportunity to ridicule some folly in a reply to "alice addertongue," "anthony afterwit," or other mythical but none the less typical person. if the countryman did not read a newspaper, or buy books, he was, at any rate, sure to own an almanac. so in franklin brought out "poor richard's almanac". three editions were sold within a few months. year after year the sayings of richard saunders, the alleged publisher, and bridget, his wife, creations of franklin's fancy, were printed in the almanac. years later the most striking of these sayings were collected and published. this work has been translated into as many as twenty languages and is still in circulation today. franklin kept a shop in connection with his printing office, where he sold a strange variety of goods: legal blanks, ink, pens, paper, books, maps, pictures, chocolate, coffee, cheese, codfish, soap, linseed oil, broadcloth, godfrey's cordial, tea, spectacles, rattlesnake root, lottery tickets, and stoves--to mention only a few of the many articles he advertised. deborah read, who became his wife in , looked after his house, tended shop, folded and stitched pamphlets, bought rags, and helped him to live economically. "we kept no idle servants," says franklin, "our table was plain and simple, our furniture of the cheapest. for instance, my breakfast was a long time bread and milk (no tea), and i ate it out of a twopenny earthen porringer with a pewter spoon." with all this frugality, franklin was not a miser; he abhorred the waste of money, not the proper use. his wealth increased rapidly. "i experienced too," he says, "the truth of the observation, 'that after getting the first hundred pound, it is more easy to get the second, money itself being of a prolific nature." he gave much unpaid public service and subscribed generously to public purposes; yet he was able, at the early age of forty-two, to turn over his printing office to one of his journeymen, and to retire from active business, intending to devote himself thereafter to such public employment as should come his way, to philosophical or scientific studies, and to amusements. from boyhood franklin had been interested in natural phenomena. his "journal of a voyage from london to philadelphia", written at sea as he returned from his first stay in london, shows unusual powers of exact observation for a youth of twenty. many of the questions he propounded to the junto had a scientific bearing. he made an original and important invention in , the "pennsylvania fireplace," which, under the name of the franklin stove, is in common use to this day, and which brought to the ill-made houses of the time increased comfort and a great saving of fuel. but it brought franklin no pecuniary reward, for he never deigned to patent any of his inventions. his active, inquiring mind played upon hundreds of questions in a dozen different branches of science. he studied smoky chimneys; he invented bifocal spectacles; he studied the effect of oil upon ruffled water; he identified the "dry bellyache" as lead poisoning; he preached ventilation in the days when windows were closed tight at night, and upon the sick at all times; he investigated fertilizers in agriculture. many of his suggestions have since borne fruit, and his observations show that he foresaw some of the great developments of the nineteenth century. his fame in science rests chiefly upon his discoveries in electricity. on a visit to boston in he saw some electrical experiments and at once became deeply interested. peter collinson of london, a fellow of the royal society, who had made several gifts to the philadelphia library, sent over some of the crude electrical apparatus of the day, which franklin used, as well as some contrivances he had purchased in boston. he says in a letter to collinson: "for my own part, i never was before engaged in any study that so engrossed my attention and my time as this has lately done." franklin's letters to collinson tell of his first experiments and speculations as to the nature of electricity. experiments made by a little group of friends showed the effect of pointed bodies in drawing off electricity. he decided that electricity was not the result of friction, but that the mysterious force was diffused through most substances, and that nature is always alert to restore its equilibrium. he developed the theory of positive and negative electricity, or plus and minus electrification. the same letter tells of some of the tricks which the little group of experimenters were accustomed to play upon their wondering neighbors. they set alcohol on fire, relighted candles just blown out, produced mimic flashes of lightning, gave shocks on touching or kissing, and caused an artificial spider to move mysteriously. franklin carried on experiments with the leyden jar, made an electrical battery, killed a fowl and roasted it upon a spit turned by electricity, sent a current through water and found it still able to ignite alcohol, ignited gunpowder, and charged glasses of wine so that the drinkers received shocks. more important, perhaps, he began to develop the theory of the identity of lightning and electricity, and the possibility of protecting buildings by iron rods. by means of an iron rod he brought down electricity into his house, where he studied its effect upon bells and concluded that clouds were generally negatively electrified. in june, , he performed the famous experiment with the kite, drawing down electricity from the clouds and charging a leyden jar from the key at the end of the string. franklin's letters to collinson were read before the royal society but were unnoticed. collinson gathered them together, and they were published in a pamphlet which attracted wide attention. translated into french, they created great excitement, and franklin's conclusions were generally accepted by the scientific men of europe. the royal society, tardily awakened, elected franklin a member and in awarded him the copley medal with a complimentary address.* * it may be useful to mention some of the scientific facts and mechanical principles which were known to europeans at this time. more than one learned essay has been written to prove the mechanical indebtedness of the modern world to the ancient, particularly to the works of those mechanically minded greeks: archimedes, aristotle, ctesibius, and hero of alexandria. the greeks employed the lever, the tackle, and the crane, the force-pump, and the suction-pump. they had discovered that steam could be mechanically applied, though they never made any practical use of steam. in common with other ancients they knew the principle of the mariner's compass. the egyptians had the water-wheel and the rudimentary blast-furnace. the pendulum clock appears to have been an invention of the middle ages. the art of printing from movable type, beginning with gutenberg about , helped to further the renaissance. the improved mariner's compass enabled columbus to find the new world; gunpowder made possible its conquest. the compound microscope and the first practical telescope came from the spectacle makers of middelburg, holland, the former about and the latter about . harvey, an english physician, had discovered the circulation of the blood in , and newton, an english mathematician, the law of gravitation in . if franklin's desire to continue his scientific researches had been gratified, it is possible that he might have discovered some of the secrets for which the world waited until edison and his contemporaries revealed them more than a century later. franklin's scientific reputation has grown with the years, and some of his views seem in perfect accord with the latest developments in electricity. but he was not to be permitted to continue his experiments. he had shown his ability to manage men and was to be called to a wider field. franklin's influence among his fellow citizens in philadelphia was very great. always ostensibly keeping himself in the background and working through others, never contradicting, but carrying his point by shrewd questions which showed the folly of the contrary position, he continued to set on foot and carry out movements for the public good. he established the first circulating library in philadelphia, and one of the first in the country, and an academy which grew into the university of pennsylvania. he was instrumental in the foundation of a hospital. "i am often ask'd by those to whom i propose subscribing," said one of the doctors who had made fruitless attempts to raise money for the hospital, "have you consulted franklin upon this business?" other public matters in which the busy printer was engaged were the paving and cleaning of the streets, better street lighting, the organization of a police force and of a fire company. a pamphlet which he published, "plain truth", showing the helplessness of the colony against the french and indians, led to the organization of a volunteer militia, and funds were raised for arms by a lottery. franklin himself was elected colonel of the philadelphia regiment, "but considering myself unfit, i declined the station and recommended mr. lawrence, a fine person and man of influence, who was accordingly appointed." in spite of his militarism, franklin retained the position which he held as clerk of the assembly, though the majority of the members were quakers opposed to war on principle. the american philosophical society owes its origin to franklin. it was formally organized on his motion in , but the society has accepted the organization of the junto in as the actual date of its birth. from the beginning the society has had among its members many leading men of scientific attainments or tastes, not only of philadelphia, but of the world. in the original society was consolidated with another of similar aims, and franklin, who was the first secretary of the society, was elected president and served until his death. the first important undertaking was the successful observation of the transit of venus in , and many important scientific discoveries have since been made by its members and first given to the world at its meetings. franklin's appointment as one of the two deputy postmasters general of the colonies in enlarged his experience and his reputation. he visited nearly all the post offices in the colonies and introduced many improvements into the service. in none of his positions did his transcendent business ability show to better advantage. he established new postal routes and shortened others. there were no good roads in the colonies, but his post riders made what then seemed wonderful speed. the bags were opened to newspapers, the carrying of which had previously been a private and unlawful perquisite of the riders. previously there had been one mail a week in summer between new york and philadelphia and one a month in winter. the service was increased to three a week in summer and one in winter. the main post road ran from northern new england to savannah, closely hugging the seacoast for the greater part of the way. some of the milestones set by franklin to enable the postmasters to compute the postage, which was fixed according to distance, are still standing. crossroads connected some of the larger communities away from the seacoast with the main road, but when franklin died, after serving also as postmaster general of the united states, there were only seventy-five post offices in the entire country. franklin took a hand in the final struggle between france and england in america. on the eve of the conflict, in , commissioners from the several colonies were ordered to convene at albany for a conference with the six nations of the iroquois, and franklin was one of the deputies from pennsylvania. on his way to albany he "projected and drew a plan for the union of all the colonies under one government so far as might be necessary for defense and other important general purposes." this statesmanlike "albany plan of union," however, came to nothing. "its fate was singular," says franklin; "the assemblies did not adopt it, as they all thought there was too much prerogative in it and in england it was judg'd to have too much of the democratic." how to raise funds for defense was always a grave problem in the colonies, for the assemblies controlled the purse-strings and released them with a grudging hand. in face of the french menace, this was governor shirley's problem in massachusetts, governor dinwiddie's in virginia, and franklin's in the quaker and proprietary province of pennsylvania. franklin opposed shirley's suggestion of a general tax to be levied on the colonies by parliament, on the ground of no taxation without representation, but used all his arts to bring the quaker assembly to vote money for defense, and succeeded. when general braddock arrived in virginia franklin was sent by the assembly to confer with him in the hope of allaying any prejudice against quakers that the general might have conceived. if that blustering and dull-witted soldier had any such prejudice, it melted away when the envoy of the quakers promised to procure wagons for the army. the story of braddock's disaster does not belong here, but franklin formed a shrewd estimate of the man which proved accurate. his account of braddock's opinion of the colonial militia is given in a sentence: "he smil'd at my ignorance, and reply'd, 'these savages may, indeed, be a formidable enemy to your raw american militia, but upon the king's regular and disciplin'd troops, sir, it is impossible they should make any impression.'" after braddock's defeat the pennsylvania assembly voted more money for defense, and the unmilitary franklin was placed in command of the frontier with full power. he built forts, as he had planned, and incidentally learned much of the beliefs of a group of settlers in the back country, the "unitas fratrum," better known as the moravians. the death struggle between english and french in america served only to intensify a lesser conflict that was being waged between the assembly and the proprietors of pennsylvania; and the assembly determined to send franklin to london to seek judgment against the proprietors and to request the king to take away from them the government of pennsylvania. franklin, accompanied by his son william, reached london in july, , and from this time on his life was to be closely linked with europe. he returned to america six years later and made a trip of sixteen hundred miles inspecting postal affairs, but in he was again sent to england to renew the petition for a royal government for pennsylvania, which had not yet been granted. presently that petition was made obsolete by the stamp act, and franklin became the representative of the american colonies against king and parliament. franklin did his best to avert the revolution. he made many friends in england, wrote pamphlets and articles, told comical stories and fables where they might do some good, and constantly strove to enlighten the ruling class of england upon conditions and sentiment in the colonies. his examination before the house of commons in february, , marks perhaps the zenith of his intellectual powers. his wide knowledge, his wonderful poise, his ready wit, his marvelous gift for clear and epigrammatic statement, were never exhibited to better advantage and no doubt hastened the repeal of the stamp act. franklin remained in england nine years longer, but his efforts to reconcile the conflicting claims of parliament and the colonies were of no avail, and early in he sailed for home. franklin's stay in america lasted only eighteen months, yet during that time he sat in the continental congress and as a member of the most important committees; submitted a plan for a union of the colonies; served as postmaster general and as chairman of the pennsylvania committee of safety; visited washington at cambridge; went to montreal to do what he could for the cause of independence in canada; presided over the convention which framed a constitution for pennsylvania; was a member of the committee appointed to draft the declaration of independence and of the committee sent on the futile mission to new york to discuss terms of peace with lord howe. in september, , franklin was appointed envoy to france and sailed soon afterwards. the envoys appointed to act with him proved a handicap rather than a help, and the great burden of a difficult and momentous mission was thus laid upon an old man of seventy. but no other american could have taken his place. his reputation in france was already made, through his books and inventions and discoveries. to the corrupt and licentious court he was the personification of the age of simplicity, which it was the fashion to admire; to the learned, he was a sage; to the common man he was the apotheosis of all the virtues; to the rabble he was little less than a god. great ladies sought his smiles; nobles treasured a kindly word; the shopkeeper hung his portrait on the wall; and the people drew aside in the streets that he might pass without annoyance. through all this adulation franklin passed serenely, if not unconsciously. the french ministers were not at first willing to make a treaty of alliance, but under franklin's influence they lent money to the struggling colonies. congress sought to finance the war by the issue of paper currency and by borrowing rather than by taxation, and sent bill after bill to franklin, who somehow managed to meet them by putting his pride in his pocket, and applying again and again to the french government. he fitted out privateers and negotiated with the british concerning prisoners. at length he won from france recognition of the united states and then the treaty of alliance. not until two years after the peace of would congress permit the veteran to come home. and when he did return in his people would not allow him to rest. at once he was elected president of the council of pennsylvania and twice reelected in spite of his protests. he was sent to the convention of which framed the constitution of the united states. there he spoke seldom but always to the point, and the constitution is the better for his suggestions. with pride he axed his signature to that great instrument, as he had previously signed the albany plan of union, the declaration of independence, and the treaty of paris. benjamin franklin's work was done. he was now an old man of eighty-two summers and his feeble body was racked by a painful malady. yet he kept his face towards the morning. about a hundred of his letters, written after this time, have been preserved. these letters show no retrospection, no looking backward. they never mention "the good old times." as long as he lived, franklin looked forward. his interest in the mechanical arts and in scientific progress seems never to have abated. he writes in october, , to a friend in france, describing his experience with lightning conductors and referring to the work of david rittenhouse, the celebrated astronomer of philadelphia. on the st of may in the following year he is writing to the reverend john lathrop of boston: "i have long been impressed with the same sentiments you so well express, of the growing felicity of mankind, from the improvement in philosophy, morals, politics, and even the conveniences of common living, and the invention of new and useful utensils and instruments; so that i have sometimes wished it had been my destiny to be born two or three centuries hence. for invention and improvement are prolific, and beget more of their kind. the present progress is rapid. many of great importance, now unthought of, will, before that period, be produced." thus the old philosopher felt the thrill of dawn and knew that the day of great mechanical inventions was at hand. he had read the meaning of the puffing of the young steam engine of james watt and he had heard of a marvelous series of british inventions for spinning and weaving. he saw that his own countrymen were astir, trying to substitute the power of steam for the strength of muscles and the fitful wind. john fitch on the delaware and james rumsey on the potomac were already moving vessels by steam. john stevens of new york and hoboken had set up a machine shop that was to mean much to mechanical progress in america. oliver evans, a mechanical genius of delaware, was dreaming of the application of high-pressure steam to both road and water carriages. such manifestations, though still very faint, were to franklin the signs of a new era. and so, with vision undimmed, america's most famous citizen lived on until near the end of the first year of george washington's administration. on april , , his unconquerable spirit took its flight. in that year, , was taken the first census of the united states. the new nation had a population of about four million people. it then included practically the present territory east of the mississippi, except the floridas, which belonged to spain. but only a small part of this territory was occupied. much of new york and pennsylvania was savage wilderness. only the seacoast of maine was inhabited, and the eighty-two thousand inhabitants of georgia hugged the savannah river. hardy pioneers had climbed the alleghanies into kentucky and tennessee, but the northwest territory--comprising ohio, michigan, indiana, illinois, and wisconsin--was not enumerated at all, so scanty were its people, perhaps not more than four thousand. though the first census did not classify the population by occupation it is certain that nine-tenths of the breadwinners worked more or less upon the soil. the remaining tenth were engaged in trade, transportation, manufacturing, fishing and included also the professional men, doctors, lawyers, clergymen, teachers, and the like. in other words, nine out of ten of the population were engaged primarily in the production of food, an occupation which today engages less than three out of ten. this comparison, however, requires some qualification. the farmer and the farmer's wife and children performed many tasks which are now done in factories. the successful farmer on the frontier had to be a jack of many trades. often he tanned leather and made shoes for his family and harness for his horses. he was carpenter, blacksmith, cobbler, and often boat-builder and fisherman as well. his wife made soap and candles, spun yarn and dyed it, wove cloth and made the clothes the family wore, to mention only a few of the tasks of the women of the eighteenth century. the organization of industry, however, was beginning. here and there were small paper mills, glass factories-though many houses in the back country were without glass windows--potteries, and iron foundries and forges. capitalists, in some places, had brought together a few handloom weavers to make cloth for sale, and the famous shoemakers of massachusetts commonly worked in groups. the mineral resources of the united states were practically unknown. the country seems to have produced iron enough for its simple needs, some coal, copper, lead, gold, silver, and sulphur. but we may say that mining was hardly practiced at all. the fisheries and the shipyards were great sources of wealth, especially for new england. the cod fishers numbered several hundred vessels and the whalers about forty. thousands of citizens living along the seashore and the rivers fished more or less to add to the local food supply. the deep-sea fishermen exported a part of their catch, dried and salted. yankee vessels sailed to all ports of the world and carried the greater part of the foreign commerce of the united states. flour, tobacco, rice, wheat, corn, dried fish, potash, indigo, and staves were the principal exports. great britain was the best customer, with the french west indies next, and then the british west indies. the principal imports came from the same countries. imports and exports practically balanced each other, at about twenty million dollars annually, or about five dollars a head. the great merchants owned ships and many of them, such as john hancock of boston, and stephen girard of philadelphia, had grown very rich. inland transportation depended on horses and oxen or boats. there were few good roads, sometimes none at all save bridle paths and trails. the settlers along the river valleys used boats almost entirely. stage-coaches made the journey from new york to boston in four days in summer and in six in winter. two days were required to go between new york and philadelphia. forty to fifty miles a day was the speed of the best coaches, provided always that they did not tumble into the ditch. in many parts of the country one must needs travel on horseback or on foot. even the wealthiest americans of those days had few or none of the articles which we regard today as necessities of life. the houses were provided with open--which, however cheerful, did not keep them warm--or else with franklin's stoves. to strike a fire one must have the flint and tinderbox, for matches were unknown until about . candles made the darkness visible. there was neither plumbing nor running water. food was cooked in the ashes or over an open fire. the farmer's tools were no less crude than his wife's. his plough had been little improved since the days of rameses. he sowed his wheat by hand, cut it with a sickle, flailed it out upon the floor, and laboriously winnowed away the chaff. in that same year, , came a great boon and encouragement to inventors, the first federal patent act, passed by congress on the th of april. every state had its own separate patent laws or regulations, as an inheritance from colonial days, but the fathers of the constitution had wisely provided that this function of government should be exercised by the nation.* the patent act, however, was for a time unpopular, and some states granted monopolies, particularly of transportation, until they were forbidden to do so by judicial decision. * the constitution (article , section , clause ) empowers congress: "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries." the first patent act provided that an examining board, consisting of the secretary of state, the secretary of war, and the attorney-general, or any two of them, might grant a patent for fourteen years, if they deemed the invention useful and important. the patent itself was to be engrossed and signed by the president, the secretary of state, and the attorney-general. and the cost was to be three dollars and seventy cents, plus the cost of copying the specifications at ten cents a sheet. the first inventor to avail himself of the advantages of the new patent act was samuel hopkins of vermont, who received a patent on the st of july for an improved method of "making pot and pearl ashes." the world knows nothing of this samuel hopkins, but the potash industry, which was evidently on his mind, was quite important in his day. potash, that is, crude potassium carbonate, useful in making soap and in the manufacture of glass, was made by leaching wood ashes and boiling down the lye. to produce a ton of potash, the trees on an acre of ground would be cut down and burned, the ashes leached, and the lye evaporated in great iron kettles. a ton of potash was worth about twenty-five dollars. nothing could show more plainly the relative value of money and human labor in those early times. two more patents were issued during the year . the second went to joseph s. sampson of boston for a method of making candles, and the third to oliver evans, of whom we shall learn more presently, for an improvement in manufacturing flour and meal. the fourth patent was granted in to francis baily of philadelphia for making punches for types. next aaron putnam of medford, massachusetts, thought that he could improve methods of distilling, and john stone of concord, massachusetts, offered a new method of driving piles for bridges. and a versatile inventor, samuel mulliken of philadelphia, received four patents in one day for threshing grain, cutting and polishing marble, raising a nap on cloth, and breaking hemp. then came improvements in making nails, in making bedsteads, in the manufacture of boats, and for propelling boats by cattle. on august , , james rumsey, john stevens, and john fitch (all three will appear again in this narrative) took out patents on means of propelling boats. on the same day nathan read received one on a process for distilling alcohol. more than fifty patents were granted under the patent act of , and mechanical devices were coming in so thick and fast that the department heads apparently found it inconvenient to hear applications. so the act of was repealed. the second patent act ( ) provided that a patent should be granted as a matter of routine to any one who swore to the originality of his device and paid the sum of thirty dollars as a fee. no one except a citizen, however, could receive a patent. this act, with some amendments, remained in force until , when the present patent office was organized with a rigorous and intricate system for examination of all claims in order to prevent interference. protection of the property rights of inventors has been from the beginning of the nation a definite american policy, and to this policy may be ascribed innumerable inventions which have contributed to the greatness of american industry and multiplied the world's comforts and conveniences. under the second patent act came the most important invention yet offered, an invention which was to affect generations then unborn. this was a machine for cleaning cotton and it was offered by a young yankee schoolmaster, temporarily sojourning in the south. chapter ii. eli whitney and the cotton gin the cotton industry is one of the most ancient. one or more of the many species of the cotton plant is indigenous to four continents, asia, africa, and the americas, and the manufacture of the fiber into yarn and cloth seems to have developed independently in each of them. we find mention of cotton in india fifteen hundred years before christ. the east indians, with only the crudest machinery, spun yarn and wove cloth as diaphanous as the best appliances of the present day have been able to produce. alexander the great introduced the "vegetable wool" into europe. the fable of the "vegetable lamb of tartary" persisted almost down to modern times. the moors cultivated cotton in spain on an extensive scale, but after their expulsion the industry languished. the east india company imported cotton fabrics into england early in the seventeenth century, and these fabrics made their way in spite of the bitter opposition of the woolen interests, which were at times strong enough to have the use of cotton cloth prohibited by law. but when the manchester spinners took up the manufacture of cotton, the fight was won. the manchester spinners, however, used linen for their warp threads, for without machinery they could not spin threads sufficiently strong from the short-fibered indian cotton. in the new world the spanish explorers found cotton and cotton fabrics in use everywhere. columbus, cortes, pizarro, magellan, and others speak of the various uses to which the fiber was put, and admired the striped awnings and the colored mantles made by the natives. it seems probable that cotton was in use in the new world quite as early as in india. the first english settlers in america found little or no cotton among the natives. but they soon began to import the fiber from the west indies, whence came also the plant itself into the congenial soil and climate of the southern colonies. during the colonial period, however, cotton never became the leading crop, hardly an important crop. cotton could be grown profitably only where there was an abundant supply of exceedingly cheap labor, and labor in america, white or black, was never and could never be as cheap as in india. american slaves could be much more profitably employed in the cultivation of rice and indigo. three varieties of the cotton plant were grown in the south. two kinds of the black-seed or long-staple variety thrived in the sea-islands and along the coast from delaware to georgia, but only the hardier and more prolific green-seed or short-staple cotton could be raised inland. the labor of cultivating and harvesting cotton of any kind was very great. the fiber, growing in bolls resembling a walnut in size and shape, had to be taken by hand from every boll, as it has to be today, for no satisfactory cotton harvester has yet been invented. but in the case of the green-seed or upland cotton, the only kind which could ever be cultivated extensively in the south, there was another and more serious obstacle in the way, namely, the difficulty of separating the fiber from the seeds. no machine yet devised could perform this tedious and unprofitable task. for the black-seed or sea-island cotton, the churka, or roller gin, used in india from time immemorial, drawing the fiber slowly between a pair of rollers to push out the seeds, did the work imperfectly, but this churka was entirely useless for the green-seed variety, the fiber of which clung closely to the seed and would yield only to human hands. the quickest and most skillful pair of hands could separate only a pound or two of lint from its three pounds of seeds in an ordinary working day. usually the task was taken up at the end of the day, when the other work was done. the slaves sat round an overseer who shook the dozing and nudged the slow. it was also the regular task for a rainy day. it is not surprising, then, that cotton was scarce, that flax and wool in that day were the usual textiles, that in wool furnished about seventy-seven per cent, flax about eighteen per cent, and cotton only about five per cent of the clothing of the people of europe and the united states. that series of inventions designed for the manufacture of cloth, and destined to transform great britain, the whole world, in fact, was already completed in franklin's time. beginning with the flying shuttle of john kay in , followed by the spinning jenny of james hargreaves in , the water-frame of richard arkwright in , and the mule of samuel crompton ten years later, machines were provided which could spin any quantity of fiber likely to be offered. and when, in , edmund cartwright, clergyman and poet, invented the self-acting loom to which power might be applied, the series was complete. these inventions, supplementing the steam engine of james watt, made the industrial revolution. they destroyed the system of cottage manufactures in england and gave birth to the great textile establishments of today. the mechanism for the production of cloth on a great scale was provided, if only the raw material could be found. the romance of cotton begins on a new england farm. it was on a farm in the town (township) of westboro, in worcester county, massachusetts, in the year , that eli whitney, inventor of the cotton gin, was born. eli's father was a man of substance and standing in the community, a mechanic as well as a farmer, who occupied his leisure in making articles for his neighbors. we are told that young eli displayed a passion for tools almost as soon as he could walk, that he made a violin at the age of twelve and about the same time took his father's watch to pieces surreptitiously and succeeded in putting it together again so successfully as to escape detection. he was able to make a table knife to match the others of a broken set. as a boy of fifteen or sixteen, during the war of independence, he was supplying the neighborhood with hand-made nails and various other articles. though he had not been a particularly apt pupil in the schools, he conceived the ambition of attending college; and so, after teaching several winters in rural schools, he went to yale. he appears to have paid his own way through college by the exercise of his mechanical talents. he is said to have mended for the college some imported apparatus which otherwise would have had to go to the old country for repairs. "there was a good mechanic spoiled when you came to college," he was told by a carpenter in the town. there was no "sheff" at yale in those days to give young men like whitney scientific instruction; so, defying the bent of his abilities, eli went on with his academic studies, graduated in , at the age of twenty-seven, and decided to be a teacher or perhaps a lawyer. like so many young new englanders of the time, whitney sought employment in the south. having received the promise of a position in south carolina, he embarked at new york, soon after his graduation, on a sailing vessel bound for savannah. on board he met the widow of general nathanael greene of revolutionary fame, and this lady invited him to visit her plantation at mulberry grove, near savannah. what happened then is best told by eli whitney himself, in a letter to his father, written at new haven, after his return from the south some months later, though the spelling master will probably send whitney to the foot of the class: "new haven, sept. th, . "... i went from n. york with the family of the late major general greene to georgia. i went immediately with the family to their plantation about twelve miles from savannah with an expectation of spending four or five days and then proceed into carolina to take the school as i have mentioned in former letters. during this time i heard much said of the extreme difficulty of ginning cotton, that is, separating it from its seeds. there were a number of very respectable gentlemen at mrs. greene's who all agreed that if a machine could be invented which would clean the cotton with expedition, it would be a great thing both to the country and to the inventor. i involuntarily happened to be thinking on the subject and struck out a plan of a machine in my mind, which i communicated to miller (who is agent to the executors of genl. greene and resides in the family, a man of respectability and property), he was pleased with the plan and said if i would pursue it and try an experiment to see if it would answer, he would be at the whole expense, i should loose nothing but my time, and if i succeeded we would share the profits. previous to this i found i was like to be disappointed in my school, that is, instead of a hundred, i found i could get only fifty guineas a year. i however held the refusal of the school until i tried some experiments. in about ten days i made a little model, for which i was offered, if i would give up all right and title to it, a hundred guineas. i concluded to relinquish my school and turn my attention to perfecting the machine. i made one before i came away which required the labor of one man to turn it and with which one man will clean ten times as much cotton as he can in any other way before known and also cleanse it much better than in the usual mode. this machine may be turned by water or with a horse, with the greatest ease, and one man and a horse will do more than fifty men with the old machines. it makes the labor fifty times less, without throwing any class of people out of business. "i returned to the northward for the purpose of having a machine made on a large scale and obtaining a patent for the invention. i went to philadelphia* soon after i arrived, made myself acquainted with the steps necessary to obtain a patent, took several of the steps and the secretary of state mr. jefferson agreed to send the patent to me as soon it could be made out--so that i apprehended no difficulty in obtaining the patent--since i have been here i have employed several workmen in making machines and as soon as my business is such that i can leave it a few days, i shall come to westboro'**. i think it is probable i shall go to philadelphia again before i come to westboro', and when i do come i shall be able to stay but few days. i am certain i can obtain a patent in england. as soon as i have got a patent in america i shall go with the machine which i am now making, to georgia, where i shall stay a few weeks to see it at work. from thence i expect to go to england, where i shall probably continue two or three years. how advantageous this business will eventually prove to me, i cannot say. it is generally said by those who know anything about it, that i shall make a fortune by it. i have no expectation that i shall make an independent fortune by it, but think i had better pursue it than any other business into which i can enter. something which cannot be foreseen may frustrate my expectations and defeat my plan; but i am now so sure of success that ten thousand dollars, if i saw the money counted out to me, would not tempt me to give up my right and relinquish the object. i wish you, sir, not to show this letter nor communicate anything of its contents to any body except my brothers and sister, enjoining it on them to keep the whole a profound secret." * then the national capital. ** hammond, "correspondence of eli whitney," american historical review, vol. iii, p. . the other citations in this chapter are from the same source, unless otherwise stated. the invention, however, could not be kept "a profound secret," for knowledge of it was already out in the cotton country. whitney's hostess, mrs. greene, had shown the wonderful machine to some friends, who soon spread the glad tidings, and planters, near and far, had come to mulberry grove to see it. the machine was of very simple construction; any blacksmith or wheelwright, knowing the principle of the design, could make one. even before whitney could obtain his patent, cotton gins based on his were being manufactured and used. whitney received his patent in march, , and entered on his new work with enthusiasm. his partner, phineas miller, was a cultivated new england gentleman, a graduate of yale college, who, like whitney, had sought his fortune as a teacher in the south. he had been a tutor in the greene household and on general greene's death had taken over the management of his estates. he afterwards married mrs. greene. the partners decided to manufacture the machines in new haven, whitney to give his time to the production, miller to furnish the capital and attend to the firm's interests in the south. at the outset the partners blundered seriously in their plan for commercializing the invention. they planned to buy seed cotton and clean it themselves; also to clean cotton for the planters on the familiar toll system, as in grinding grain, taking a toll of one pound of cotton out of every three. "whitney's plan in georgia," says a recent writer, "as shown by his letters and other evidence, was to own all the gins and gin all the cotton made in the country. it is but human nature that this sort of monopoly should be odious to any community."* miller appears to have calculated that the planters could afford to pay for the use of the new invention about one-half of all the profits they derived from its use. an equal division, between the owners of the invention on the one hand and the cotton growers on the other, of all the super-added wealth arising from the invention, seemed to him fair. apparently the full meaning of such an arrangement did not enter his mind. perhaps miller and whitney did not see at first that the new invention would cause a veritable industrial revolution, or that the system they planned, if it could be made effective, would make them absolute masters of the cotton country, with the most stupendous monopoly in the world. nor do they appear to have realized that, considering the simple construction of their machine and the loose operation of the patent law at that time, the planters of the south would never submit to so great a tribute as they proposed to exact. their attempt in the first instance to set up an unfair monopoly brought them presently into a sea of troubles, which they never passed out of, even when they afterwards changed their tack and offered to sell the machines with a license, or a license alone, at a reasonable price. * tompkins, "cotton and cotton oil", p. . misfortune pursued the partners from the beginning. whitney writes to his father from new haven in may, , that his machines in georgia are working well, but that he apprehends great difficulty in manufacturing them as fast as they are needed. in march of the following year he writes again, saying that his factory in new haven has been destroyed by fire: "when i returned home from n. york i found my property all in ashes! my shop, all my tools, material and work equal to twenty finished cotton machines all gone. the manner in which it took fire is altogether unaccountable." besides, the partners found themselves in distress for lack of capital. then word came from england that the manchester spinners had found the ginned cotton to contain knots, and this was sufficient to start the rumor throughout the south that whitney's gin injured the cotton fiber and that cotton cleaned by them was worthless. it was two years before this ghost was laid. meanwhile whitney's patent was being infringed on every hand. "they continue to clean great quantities of cotton with lyon's gin and sell it advantageously while the patent ginned cotton is run down as good for nothing," writes miller to whitney in september, . miller and whitney brought suits against the infringers but they could obtain no redress in the courts. whitney's attitude of mind during these troubles is shown in his letters. he says the statement that his machines injure the cotton is false, that the source of the trouble is bad cotton, which he ventures to think is improved fifty per cent by the use of his gin, and that it is absurd to say that the cotton could be injured in any way in the process of cleaning. "i think," he says, writing to miller, "you will be able to convince the candid that this is quite a mistaken notion and them that will not believe may be damn'd." again, writing later to his friend josiah stebbins in new england: "i have a set of the most depraved villains to combat and i might almost as well go to hell in search of happiness as apply to a georgia court for justice." and again: "you know i always believed in the 'depravity of human nature.' i thought i was long ago sufficiently 'grounded and stablished' in this doctrine. but god almighty is continually pouring down cataracts of testimony upon me to convince me of this fact. 'lord i believe, help thou,' not 'mine unbelief,' but me to overcome the rascality of mankind." his partner miller, on the other hand, is inclined to be more philosophical and suggests to whitney that "we take the affairs of this world patiently and that the little dust which we may stir up about cotton may after all not make much difference with our successors one hundred, much less one thousand years hence." miller, however, finally concluded that, "the prospect of making anything by ginning in this state [georgia] is at an end. surreptitious gins are being erected in every part of the country; and the jurymen at augusta have come to an understanding among themselves, that they will never give a verdict in our favor, let the merits of the case be as they may."* * cited in roe, "english and american tool builders", p. . miller and whitney were somewhat more fortunate in other states than in georgia though they nowhere received from the cotton gin enough to compensate them for their time and trouble nor more than a pitiable fraction of the great value of their invention. south carolina, in , voted them fifty thousand dollars for their patent rights, twenty thousand dollars to be paid down and the remainder in three annual payments of ten thousand dollars each. "we get but a song for it," wrote whitney, "in comparison with the worth of the thing, but it is securing something." why the partners were willing to take so small a sum was later explained by miller. they valued the rights for south carolina at two hundred thousand dollars, but, since the patent law was being infringed with impunity, they were willing to take half that amount; "and had flattered themselves," wrote miller, "that a sense of dignity and justice on the part of that honorable body [the legislature] would not have countenanced an offer of a less sum than one hundred thousand dollars. finding themselves, however, to be mistaken in this opinion, and entertaining a belief that the failure of such negotiation, after it commenced, would have a tendency to diminish the prospect, already doubtful, of enforcing the patent law, it was concluded to be best under existing circumstances to accept the very inadequate sum of fifty thousand dollars offered by the legislature and thereby relinquish and entirely abandon three-fourths of the actual value of the property." but even the fifty thousand dollars was not collected without difficulty. south carolina suspended the contract, after paying twenty thousand dollars, and sued miller and whitney for recovery of the sum paid, on the ground that the partners had not complied with the conditions. whitney succeeded, in , in getting the legislature to reinstate the contract and pay him the remainder of the money. miller, discouraged and broken by the long struggle, had died in the meantime. the following passage from a letter written by whitney in february, , to josiah stebbins, gives whitney's views as to the treatment he had received at the hands of the authorities. he is writing from the residence of a friend near orangeburg, south carolina. "the principal object of my present excursion to this country was to get this business set right; which i have so far effected as to induce the legislature of this state to recind all their former suspending laws and resolutions, to agree once more to pay the sum of , dollars which was due and make the necessary appropriations for that purpose. i have as yet however obtained but a small part of this payment. the residue is promised me in july next. thus you see my recompense of reward is as the land of canaan was to the jews, resting a long while in promise. if the nations with whom i have to contend are not as numerous as those opposed to the israelites, they are certainly much greater heathens, having their hearts hardened and their understanding blinded, to make, propagate and believe all manner of lies. verily, stebbins, i have had much vexation of spirit in this business. i shall spend forty thousand dollars to obtain thirty, and it will all end in vanity at last. a contract had been made with the state of tennessee which now hangs suspended. two attempts have been made to induce the state of no. carolina to recind their contract, neither of which have succeeded. thus you see brother steb. sovreign and independent states warped by interest will be rogues and misled by demagogues will be fools. they have spent much time, money and credit, to avoid giving me a small compensation, for that which to them is worth millions." meanwhile north carolina had agreed to buy the rights for the state on terms that yielded whitney about thirty thousand dollars, and it is estimated that he received about ten thousand dollars from tennessee, making his receipts in all about ninety thousand dollars, before deducting costs of litigation and other losses. the cotton gin was not profitable to its inventor. and yet no invention in history ever so suddenly transformed an industry and created enormous wealth. eight years before whitney's invention, eight bales of cotton, landed at liverpool, were seized on the ground that so large a quantity of cotton could not have been produced in the united states. the year before that invention the united states exported less than one hundred and forty thousand pounds of cotton; the year after it, nearly half a million pounds; the next year over a million and a half; a year later still, over six million; by , nearly eighteen million pounds a year. and by the united states was producing producing seven-eighths of the world's cotton. today the united states produces six to eight billion pounds of cotton annually, and ninety-nine per cent of this is the upland or green-seed cotton, which is cleaned on the whitney type of gin and was first made commercially available by whitney's invention.* * roe, "english and american tool builders", pp. - . more than half of this enormous crop is still exported in spite of the great demand at home. cotton became and has continued to be the greatest single export of the united states. in ordinary years its value is greater than the combined value of the three next largest exports. it is on cotton that the united states has depended for the payment of its trade balance to europe. other momentous results followed on the invention of the cotton gin. in slavery seemed a dying institution, north and south. conditions of soil and climate made slavery unprofitable in the north. on many of the indigo, rice, and tobacco plantations in the south there were more slaves than could be profitably employed, and many planters were thinking of emancipating their slaves, when along came this simple but wonderful machine and with it the vision of great riches in cotton; for while slaves could not earn their keep separating the cotton from its seeds by hand, they could earn enormous profits in the fields, once the difficulty of extracting the seeds was solved. slaves were no longer a liability but an asset. the price of "field hands" rose, and continued to rise. if the worn-out lands of the seaboard no longer afforded opportunity for profitable employment, the rich new lands of the southwest called for laborers, and yet more laborers. taking slaves with them, younger sons pushed out into the wilderness, became possessed of great tracts of fertile land, and built up larger plantations than those upon which they had been born. cotton became king of the south. the supposed economic necessity of slave labor led great men to defend slavery, and politics in the south became largely the defense of slavery against the aggression, real or fancied, of the free north. the rift between the sections became a chasm. then came the war of secession. though miller was dead, whitney carried on the fight for his rights in georgia. his difficulties were increased by a patent which the government at philadelphia issued in may, , to hogden holmes, a mechanic of augusta, for an improvement in the cotton gin. the holmes machines were soon in common use, and it was against the users of these that many of the suits for infringement were brought. suit after suit ran its course in the georgia courts, without a single decision in the inventor's favor. at length, however, in december, , the validity of whitney's patent was finally determined by decision of the united states circuit court in georgia. whitney asked for a perpetual injunction against the holmes machine, and the court, finding that his invention was basic, granted him all that he asked. by this time, however, the life of the patent had nearly run its course. whitney applied to congress for a renewal, but, in spite of all his arguments and a favorable committee report, the opposition from the cotton states proved too strong, and his application was denied. whitney now had other interests. he was a great manufacturer of firearms, at new haven, and as such we shall meet him again in a later chapter. chapter iii. steam in captivity for the beginnings of the enslavement of steam, that mighty giant whose work has changed the world we live in, we must return to the times of benjamin franklin. james watt, the accredited father of the modern steam engine, was a contemporary of franklin, and his engine was twenty-one years old when franklin died. the discovery that steam could be harnessed and made to work is not, of course, credited to james watt. the precise origin of that discovery is unknown. the ancient greeks had steam engines of a sort, and steam engines of another sort were pumping water out of mines in england when james watt was born. james watt, however, invented and applied the first effective means by which steam came to serve mankind. and so the modern steam engine begins with him. the story is old, of how this scottish boy, james watt, sat on the hearth in his mother's cottage, intently watching the steam rising from the mouth of the tea kettle, and of the great role which this boy afterwards assumed in the mechanical world. it was in , when he was twenty-eight and had the appointment of mathematical-instrument maker to the university of glasgow, that a model of newcomen's steam pumping engine was brought into his shop for repairs. one can perhaps imagine the feelings with which james watt, interested from his youth in mechanical and scientific instruments, particularly those which dealt with steam, regarded this newcomen engine. now his interest was vastly quickened. he set up the model and operated it, noticed how the alternate heating and cooling of its cylinder wasted power, and concluded, after some weeks of experiment, that, in order to make the engine practicable, the cylinder must be kept hot, "always as hot as the steam which entered it." yet in order to condense the steam there must be a cooling of the vessel. the problem was to reconcile these two conditions. at length the pregnant idea occurred to him--the idea of the separate condenser. it came to him on a sunday afternoon in , as he walked across glasgow green. if the steam were condensed in a vessel separate from the cylinder, it would be quite possible to keep the condensing vessel cool and the cylinder hot at the same time. next morning watt began to put his scheme to the test and found it practicable. he developed other ideas and applied them. so at last was born a steam engine that would work and multiply man's energies a thousandfold. after one or two disastrous business experiences, such as fall to the lot of many great inventors, perhaps to test their perseverance, watt associated himself with matthew boulton, a man of capital and of enterprise, owner of the soho engineering works, near birmingham. the firm of boulton and watt became famous, and james watt lived till august , --lived to see his steam engine the greatest single factor in the new industrial era that had dawned for english-speaking folk. boulton and watt, however, though they were the pioneers, were by no means alone in the development of the steam engine. soon there were rivals in the field with new types of engines. one of these was richard trevithick in england; another was oliver evans of philadelphia. both trevithick and evans invented the high-pressure engine. evans appears to have applied the high pressure principle before trevithick, and it has been said that trevithick borrowed it from evans, but evans himself never said so, and it is more likely that each of these inventors worked it out independently. watt introduced his steam to the cylinder at only slightly more than atmospheric pressure and clung tenaciously to the low-pressure theory all his life. boulton and watt, indeed, aroused by trevithick's experiments in high-pressure engines, sought to have parliament pass an act forbidding high pressure on the ground that the lives of the public were endangered. watt lived long enough, however, to see the high-pressure steam engine come into general favor, not only in america but even in his own conservative country. less sudden, less dramatic, than that of the cotton gin, was the entrance of the steam engine on the american industrial stage, but not less momentous. the actions and reactions of steam in america provide the theme for an iliad which some american homer may one day write. they include the epic of the coal in the pennsylvania hills, the epic of the ore, the epic of the railroad, the epic of the great city; and, in general, the subjugation of a continental wilderness to the service of a vast civilization. the vital need of better transportation was uppermost in the thoughts of many americans. it was seen that there could be no national unity in a country so far flung without means of easy intercourse between one group of americans and another. the highroads of the new country were, for the most part, difficult even for the man on horseback, and worse for those who must travel by coach or post-chaise. inland from the coast and away from the great rivers there were no roads of any sort; nothing but trails. highways were essential, not only for the permanent unity of the united states, but to make available the wonderful riches of the inland country, across the appalachian barrier and around the great lakes, into which american pioneers had already made their way. those immemorial pathways, the great rivers, were the main avenues of traffic with the interior. so, of course, when men thought of improving transportation, they had in mind chiefly transportation by water; and that is why the earliest efforts of american inventors were applied to the means of improving traffic and travel by water and not by land. the first men to spend their time in trying to apply steam power to the propulsion of a boat were contemporaries of benjamin franklin. those who worked without watt's engine could hardly succeed. one of the earliest of these was william henry of pennsylvania. henry, in , had the idea of applying power to paddle wheels, and constructed a boat, but his boat sank, and no result followed, unless it may be that john fitch and robert fulton, both of whom were visitors at henry's house, received some suggestions from him. james rumsey of maryland began experiments as early as and by had a boat that made four miles an hour against the current of the potomac. the most interesting of these early and unsuccessful inventors is john fitch, who, was a connecticut clockmaker living in philadelphia. he was eccentric and irregular in his habits and quite ignorant of the steam engine. but he conceived the idea of a steamboat and set to work to make one. the record of fitch's life is something of a tragedy. at the best he was an unhappy man and was always close to poverty. as a young man he had left his family because of unhappy domestic relations with his wife. one may find in the record of his undertakings which he left in the philadelphia library, to be opened thirty years after its receipt, these words: "i know of nothing so perplexing and vexatious to a man of feelings as a turbulent wife and steamboat building." but in spite of all his difficulties fitch produced a steamboat, which plied regularly on the delaware for several years and carried passengers. "we reigned lord high admirals of the delaware; and no other boat in the river could hold its way with us," he wrote. "thus has been effected by little johnny fitch and harry voight [one of his associates] one of the greatest and most useful arts that has ever been introduced into the world; and although the world and my country does not thank me for it, yet it gives me heartfelt satisfaction." the "lord high admirals of the delaware," however, did not reign long. the steamboat needed improvement to make it pay; its backers lost patience and faith, and the inventor gave up the fight and retired into the fastnesses of the kentucky wilderness, where he died. the next inventor to struggle with the problem of the steamboat, with any approach to success, was john stevens of hoboken. his life was cast in a vastly different environment from that of john fitch. he was a rich man, a man of family and of influence. his father's house--afterwards his own---at broadway, facing bowling green--was one of the mansions of early new york, and his own summer residence on castle point, hoboken, just across the hudson, was one of the landmarks of the great river. for many years john stevens crossed that river; most often in an open boat propelled by sail or by men at the oars. being naturally of a mechanical turn, he sought to make the crossing easier. to his library were coming the prints that told of james watt and the steam engine in england, and john fitch's boat had interested him. robert fulton's clermont, of which we shall speak presently, was undoubtedly the pioneer of practicable steamboats. but the phoenix, built by john stevens, followed close on the clermont. and its engines were built in america, while those of the clermont had been imported from england. moreover, in june, , the phoenix stood to sea, and made the first ocean voyage in the history of steam navigation. because of a monopoly of the hudson, which the new york legislature had granted to livingston and fulton, stevens was compelled to send his ship to the delaware. hence the trip out into the waters of the atlantic, a journey that was not undertaken without trepidation. but, despite the fact that a great storm arose, the phoenix made the trip in safety; and continued for many years thereafter to ply the delaware between philadelphia and trenton. robert fulton, like many and many another great inventor, from leonardo da vinci down to the present time, was also an artist. he was born november , , at little britain, lancaster county, pennsylvania, of that stock which is so often miscalled "scotch-irish." he was only a child when his father died, leaving behind him a son who seems to have been much more interested in his own ideas than in his schoolbooks. even in his childhood robert showed his mechanical ability. there was a firm of noted gunsmiths in lancaster, in whose shops he made himself at home and became expert in the use of tools. at the age of fourteen he applied his ingenuity to a heavy fishing boat and equipped it with paddle-wheels, which were turned by a crank, thus greatly lightening the labor of moving it. at the age of seventeen young fulton moved to philadelphia and set up as a portrait painter. some of the miniatures which he painted at this time are said to be very good. he worked hard, made many good friends, including benjamin franklin, and succeeded financially. he determined to go to europe to study--if possible under his fellow pennsylvanian, benjamin west, then rising into fame in london. the west and the fulton families had been intimate, and fulton hoped that west would take him as a pupil. first buying a farm for his mother with a part of his savings, he sailed for england in , with forty guineas in his pocket. west received him not only as a pupil but as a guest in his house and introduced him to many of his friends. again fulton succeeded, and in two of his portraits were exhibited at the royal academy, and the royal society of british artists hung four paintings by him. then came the commission which changed the course of fulton's life. his work had attracted the notice of viscount courtenay, later earl of devon, and he was invited to devonshire to paint that nobleman's portrait. here he met francis, third duke of bridgewater, the father of the english canal system, and his hardly less famous engineer, james brindley, and also earl stanhope, a restless, inquiring spirit. fulton the mechanic presently began to dominate fulton the artist. he studied canals, invented a means of sawing marble in the quarries, improved the wheel for spinning flax, invented a machine for making rope, and a method of raising canal boats by inclined planes instead of locks. what money he made from these inventions we do not know, but somewhat later ( ) he speaks hopefully of an improvement in tanning. this same year he published a pamphlet entitled "a treatise on the improvement of canal navigation", copies of which were sent to napoleon and president washington. fulton went to france in . to earn money he painted several portraits and a panorama of the burning of moscow. this panorama, covering the walls of a circular hall built especially for it, became very popular, and fulton painted another. in paris he formed a warm friendship with that singular american, joel barlow, soldier, poet, speculator, and diplomatist, and his wife, and for seven years lived in their house. the long and complicated story of fulton's sudden interest in torpedoes and submarine boats, his dealings with the directory and napoleon and with the british admiralty does not belong here. his experiments and his negotiations with the two governments occupied the greater part of his time for the years between and . his expressed purpose was to make an engine of war so terrible that war would automatically be abolished. the world, however, was not ready for diving boats and torpedoes, nor yet for the end of war, and his efforts had no tangible results.* * the submarine was the invention of david bushnell, a connecticut yankee, whose "american turtle" blew up at least one british vessel in the war of independence and created much consternation among the king's ships in american waters. during all the years after , at least, and perhaps earlier, the idea of the steamboat had seldom been out of his mind, but lack of funds and the greater urgency, as he thought, of the submarine prevented him from working seriously upon it. in , however, robert r. livingston came to france as american minister. livingston had already made some unsuccessful experiments with the steamboat in the united states, and, in , had received the monopoly of steam navigation on the waters of new york for twenty years, provided that he produced a vessel within twelve months able to steam four miles an hour. this grant had, of course, been forfeited, but might be renewed, livingston thought. fulton and livingston met, probably at barlow's house, and, in , drew up an agreement to construct a steamboat to ply between new york and albany. livingston agreed to advance five hundred dollars for experimentation in europe. in this same year fulton built a model and tested different means of propulsion, giving "the preference to a wheel on each side of the model."* the boat was built on the seine, but proved too frail for the borrowed engine. a second boat was tried in august, , and moved, though at a disappointingly slow rate of speed. * fulton to barlow, quoted in sutcliffe, "robert fulton and the clermont", p. . just at this time fulton wrote ordering an engine from boulton and watt to be transported to america. the order was at first refused, as it was then the shortsighted policy of the british government to maintain a monopoly of mechanical contrivances. permission to export was given the next year, however, and the engine was shipped in . it lay for some time in the new york customs house. meanwhile fulton had studied the watt engine on symington's steamboat, the charlotte dundas, on the forth and clyde canal, and livingston had been granted a renewal of his monopoly of the waters of new york. fulton arrived at new york in and began the construction of the clermont, so named after livingston's estate on the hudson. the building was done on the east river. the boat excited the jeers of passersby, who called it "fulton's folly." on monday, august , , the memorable first voyage was begun. carrying a party of invited guests, the clermont steamed off at one o'clock. past the towns and villages along the hudson, the boat moved steadily, black smoke rolling from her stack. pine wood was the fuel. during the night, the sparks pouring from her funnel, the clanking of her machinery, and the splashing of the paddles frightened the animals in the woods and the occupants of the scattered houses along the banks. at one o'clock tuesday the boat arrived at clermont, miles from new york. after spending the night at clermont, the voyage was resumed on wednesday. albany, forty miles away, was reached in eight hours, making a record of miles in thirty-two hours. returning to new york, the distance was covered in thirty hours. the steamboat was a success. the boat was then laid up for two weeks while the cabins were boarded in, a roof built over the engine, and coverings placed over the paddle-wheels to catch the spray--all under fulton's eye. then the clermont began regular trips to albany, carrying sometimes a hundred passengers, making the round trip every four days, and continued until floating ice marked the end of navigation for the winter. why had fulton succeeded where others had failed? there was nothing new in his boat. every essential feature of the clermont had been anticipated by one or other of the numerous experimenters before him. the answer seems to be that he was a better engineer than any of them. he had calculated proportions, and his hull and his engine were in relation. then too, he had one of watt's engines, undoubtedly the best at the time, and the unwavering support of robert livingston. fulton's restless mind was never still, but he did not turn capriciously from one idea to another. though never satisfied, his new ideas were tested scientifically and the results carefully written down. some of his notebooks read almost like geometrical demonstrations; and his drawings and plans were beautifully executed. before his death in he had constructed or planned sixteen or seventeen boats, including boats for the hudson, potomac, and mississippi rivers, for the neva in russia, and a steam vessel of war for the united states. he was a member of the commission on the erie canal, though he did not live to see that enterprise begun. the mighty influence of the steamboat in the development of inland america is told elsewhere in this series.* the steamboat has long since grown to greatness, but it is well to remember that the true ancestor of the magnificent leviathan of our own day is the clermont of robert fulton. * archer b. hulbert, "the paths of inland commerce". the world today is on the eve of another great development in transportation, quite as revolutionary as any that have preceded. how soon will it take place? how long before kipling's vision in "the night mail" becomes a full reality? how long before the air craft comes to play a great role in the world's transportation? we cannot tell. but, after looking at the nearest parallel in the facts of history, each of us may make his own guess. the airship appears now to be much farther advanced than the steamboat was for many years after robert fulton died. already we have seen men ride the wind above the sea from the new world to the old. already united states mails are regularly carried through the air from the atlantic to the golden gate. it was twelve years after the birth of fulton's clermont, and four years after the inventor's death, before any vessel tried to cross the atlantic under steam. this was in , when the sailing packet savannah, equipped with a ninety horsepower horizontal engine and paddle-wheels, crossed from savannah to liverpool in twenty-five days, during eighteen of which she used steam power. the following year, however, the engine was taken out of the craft. and it was not until that a real steamship crossed the atlantic. this time it was the royal william, which made a successful passage from quebec to london. four years more passed before the great western was launched at bristol, the first steamship to be especially designed for transatlantic service, and the era of great steam liners began. if steam could be made to drive a boat on the water, why not a wagon on the land? history, seeking origins, often has difficulty when it attempts to discover the precise origin of an idea. "it frequently happens," said oliver evans, "that two persons, reasoning right on a mechanical subject, think alike and invent the same thing without any communication with each other."* it is certain, however, that one of the first, if not the first, protagonist of the locomotive in america was the same oliver evans, a truly great inventor for whom the world was not quite ready. the world has forgotten him. but he was the first engine builder in america, and one of the best of his day. he gave to his countrymen the high-pressure steam engine and new machinery for manufacturing flour that was not superseded for a hundred years. * coleman sellers, "oliver evans and his inventions," "journal of the franklin institute", july, : vol. cxxii, p. . "evans was apprenticed at the age of fourteen to a wheelwright. he was a thoughtful, studious boy, who devoured eagerly the few books to which he had access, even by the light of a fire of shavings, when denied a candle by his parsimonious master. he says that in , when only seventeen years old, he began to contrive some method of propelling land carriages by other means than animal power; and that he thought of a variety of devices, such as using the force of the wind and treadles worked by men; but as they were evidently inadequate, was about to give up the problem as unsolvable for want of a suitable source of power, when he heard that some neighboring blacksmith's boys had stopped up the touch-hole of a gun barrel, put in some water, rammed down a tight wad, and, putting the breech into the smith's fire, the gun had discharged itself with a report like that of gunpowder. this immediately suggested to his fertile mind a new source of power, and he labored long to apply it, but without success, until there fell into his hands a book describing the old atmospheric steam engine of newcomen, and he was at once struck with the fact that steam was only used to produce a vacuum while to him it seemed clear that the elastic power of the steam if applied directly to moving the piston, would be far more efficient. he soon satisfied himself that he could make steam wagons, but could convince no one else of this possibility."* * coleman sellers, "oliver evans and his inventions," "journal of the franklin institute", july, : vol. cxxii, p. . evans was then living in delaware, where he was born, and where he later worked out his inventions in flour-milling machinery and invented and put into service the high-pressure steam engine. he appears to have moved to philadelphia about , the year of franklin's death and of the federal patent act; and, as we have seen, the third patent issued by the government at philadelphia was granted to him. about this time he became absorbed in the hard work of writing a book, the "millwright and miller's guide", which he published in , but at a heavy sacrifice to himself in time and money. a few years later he had an established engine works in philadelphia and was making steam engines of his own type that performed their work satisfactorily. the oruktor amphibolos, or amphibious digger, which came out of his shop in , was a steamdriven machine made to the order of the philadelphia board of health for dredging and cleaning the docks of the city. it was designed, as its name suggests, for service either in water or on shore. it propelled itself across the city to the river front, puffing and throwing off clouds of steam and making quite a sensation on the streets. evans had never forgotten his dream of the "steam wagon." his oruktor had no sooner begun puffing than he offered to make for the philadelphia and lancaster turnpike company steamdriven carriages to take the place of their six-horse conestoga wagons, promising to treble their profits. but the directors of the road were conservative men and his arguments fell on deaf ears. in the same year evans petitioned congress for an extension of the patent on his flour-milling machinery, which was about to expire. he had derived little profit from this important invention, as the new machinery made its way very slowly, but every year more and more millers were using it and evans received royalties from them. he felt sure that congress would renew his patent, and, with great expectations for the future, he announced a new book in preparation by himself to be called "the young engineer's guide". it was to give the most thorough treatment to the subject of the steam engine, with a profusion of drawings to illustrate the text. but evans reckoned without the millers who were opposing his petition. though they were profiting by his invention, they were unwilling to pay him anything, and they succeeded in having his bill in congress defeated. it was a hard blow for the struggling author and inventor. his income cut off, he was obliged to reduce the scale of his book "and to omit many of the illustrations he had promised." he wrote the sad story into the name of the book. it came out under the title of "the abortion of the young engineer's guide". four years later, when congress restored and extended his patent, evans felt that better days were ahead, but, as said already, he was too far ahead of his time to be understood and appreciated. incredulity, prejudice, and opposition were his portion as long as he lived. nevertheless, he went on building good engines and had the satisfaction of seeing them in extensive use. his life came to an end as the result of what to him was the greatest possible tragedy. he was visiting new york city in , when news came to him of the destruction by an incendiary of his beloved shops in philadelphia. the shock was greater than he could bear. a stroke of apoplexy followed, from which he died. the following prophecy, written by oliver evans and published in , seventeen years before the practical use of the locomotive began, tells us something of the vision of this early american inventor: "the time will come when people will travel in stages moved by steam engines from one city to another almost as fast as birds fly--fifteen to twenty miles an hour. passing through the air with such velocity--changing the scenes in such rapid succession--will be the most exhilarating, delightful exercise. a carriage will set out from washington in the morning, and the passengers will breakfast at baltimore, dine in philadelphia, and sup at new york the same day. "to accomplish this, two sets of railways will be laid so nearly level as not in any place to deviate more than two degrees from a horizontal line, made of wood or iron, on smooth paths of broken stone or gravel, with a rail to guide the carriages so that they may pass each other in different directions and travel by night as well as by day; and the passengers will sleep in these stages as comfortably as they do now in steam stage-boats."* *cited by coleman sellers, ibid., p. . another early advocate of steam carriages and railways was john stevens, the rich inventor of hoboken, who figures in the story of the steamboat. in february, , stevens addressed to the commissioners appointed by the state of new york to explore a route for the erie canal an elaborate memoir calculated to prove that railways would be much more in the public interest than the proposed canal. he wrote at the same time to robert r. livingston (who, as well as robert fulton, his partner in the steamboat, was one of the commissioners) requesting his influence in favor of railways. livingston, having committed himself to the steamboat and holding a monopoly of navigation on the waters of new york state, could hardly be expected to give a willing ear to a rival scheme, and no one then seems to have dreamed that both canal and railway would ultimately be needed. livingston, however, was an enlightened statesman, one of the ablest men of his day. he had played a prominent part in the affairs of the revolution and in the ratification of the constitution; had known franklin and washington and had negotiated with napoleon the louisiana purchase. his reply to stevens is a good statement of the objections to the railway, as seen at the time, and of the public attitude towards it. robert r. livingston to john stevens "albany, th march, . "i did not, till yesterday, receive yours of the th of february; where it has loitered on the road i am at a loss to say. i had before read your very ingenious propositions as to the rail-way communication. i fear, however, on mature reflection, that they will be liable to serious objections, and ultimately more expensive than a canal. they must be double, so as to prevent the danger of two such heavy bodies meeting. the walls on which they are placed must at least be four feet below the surface, and three above, and must be clamped with iron, and even then, would hardly sustain so heavy a weight as you propose moving at the rate of four miles an hour on wheels. as to wood, it would not last a week; they must be covered with iron, and that too very thick and strong. the means of stopping these heavy carriages without a great shock, and of preventing them from running upon each other (for there would be many on the road at once) would be very difficult. in case of accidental stops, or the necessary stops to take wood and water &c many accidents would happen. the carriage of condensed water would be very troublesome. upon the whole, i fear the expense would be much greater than that of canals, without being so convenient."* * john stevens, "documents tending to prove the superior advantages of rail-ways and steam-carriages over canal navigation" ( ). reprinted in "the magazine of history with notes and queries", extra number ( ). stevens, of course, could not convince the commissioners. "the communication from john stevens, esq.," was referred to a committee, who reported in march: "that they have considered the said communication with the attention due to a gentleman whose scientific researches and knowledge of mechanical powers entitle his opinions to great respect, and are sorry not to concur in them." stevens, however, kept up the fight. he published all the correspondence, hoping to get aid from congress for his design, and spread his propaganda far and wide. but the war of soon absorbed the attention of the country. then came the erie canal, completed in , and the extension into the northwest of the great cumberland road. from st. louis steamboats churned their way up the missouri, connecting with the santa fe trail to the southwest and the oregon trail to the far northwest. horses, mules, and oxen carried the overland travelers, and none yet dreamed of being carried on the land by steam. back east, however, and across the sea in england, there were a few dreamers. railways of wooden rails, sometimes covered with iron, on which wagons were drawn by horses, were common in great britain; some were in use very early in america. and on these railways, or tramways, men were now experimenting with steam, trying to harness it to do the work of horses. in england, trevithick, blenkinsop, ericsson, stephenson, and others; in america, john stevens, now an old man but persistent in his plans as ever and with able sons to help him, had erected a circular railway at hoboken as early as , on which he ran a locomotive at the rate of twelve miles an hour. then in horatio allen, of the delaware and hudson canal company, went over to england and brought back with him the stourbridge lion. this locomotive, though it was not a success in practice, appears to have been the first to turn a wheel on a regular railway within the united states. it was a seven days' wonder in new york when it arrived in may, . then allen shipped it to honesdale, pennsylvania, where the delaware and hudson canal company had a tramway to bring down coal from the mountains to the terminal of the canal. on the crude wooden rails of this tramway allen placed the stourbridge lion and ran it successfully at the rate of ten miles an hour. but in actual service the stourbridge lion failed and was soon dismantled. pass now to rainhill, england, and witness the birth of the modern locomotive, after all these years of labor. in the same year of , on the morning of the th of october, a great crowd had assembled to see an extraordinary race--a race, in fact, without any parallel or precedent whatsoever. there were four entries but one dropped out, leaving three: the novelty, john braithwaite and john ericsson; the sanspareil, timothy hackworth; the rocket, george and robert stephenson. these were not horses; they were locomotives. the directors of the london and manchester railway had offered a prize of five hundred pounds for the best locomotive, and here they were to try the issue. the contest resulted in the triumph of stephenson's rocket. the others fell early out of the race. the rocket alone met all the requirements and won the prize. so it happened that george stephenson came into fame and has ever since lived in popular memory as the father of the locomotive. there was nothing new in his rocket, except his own workmanship. like robert fulton, he appears to have succeeded where others failed because he was a sounder engineer, or a better combiner of sound principles into a working, whole, than any of his rivals. across the atlantic came the news of stephenson's remarkable success. and by this time railroads were beginning in various parts of the united states: the mohawk and hudson, from albany to schenectady; the baltimore and ohio; the charleston and hamburg in south carolina; the camden and amboy, across new jersey. horses, mules, and even sails, furnished the power for these early railroads. it can be imagined with what interest the owners of these roads heard that at last a practicable locomotive was running in england. this news stimulated the directors of the baltimore and ohio to try the locomotive. they had not far to go for an experiment, for peter cooper, proprietor of the canton iron works in baltimore, had already designed a small locomotive, the tom thumb. this was placed on trial in august, , and is supposed to have been the first american-built locomotive to do work on rails, though nearly coincident with it was the best friend of charleston, built by the west point foundry, new york, for the charleston and hamburg railroad. it is often difficult, as we have seen, to say which of two or several things was first. it appears as though the little tom thumb was the first engine built in america, which actually pulled weight on a regular railway, while the much larger best friend was the first to haul cars in regular daily service. the west point foundry followed its first success with the west point, which also went into service on the charleston and hamburg railroad, and then built for the newly finished mohawk and hudson (the first link in the new york central lines) the historic de witt clinton. this primitive locomotive and the cars it drew may be seen today in the grand central station in new york. meanwhile, the stevens brothers, sons of john stevens, were engaged in the construction of the camden and amboy railroad. the first locomotive to operate on this road was built in england by george stephenson. this was the john bull, which arrived in the summer of and at once went to work. the john bull was a complete success and had a distinguished career. sixty-two years old, in , it went to chicago, to the columbian exposition, under its own steam. the john bull occupies a place today in the national museum at washington. with the locomotive definitely accepted, men began to turn their minds towards its improvement and development, and locomotive building soon became a leading industry in america. at first the british types and patterns were followed, but it was not long before american designers began to depart from the british models and to evolve a distinctively american type. in the development of this type great names have been written into the industrial history of america, among which the name of matthias baldwin of philadelphia probably ranks first. but there have been hundreds of great workers in this field. from stephenson's rocket and the little tom thumb of peter cooper, to the powerful "mallets" of today, is a long distance--not spanned in ninety years save by the genius and restless toil of countless brains and hands. if the locomotive could not remain as it was left by stephenson and cooper, neither could the stationary steam engine remain as it was left by james watt and oliver evans. demands increasing and again increasing, year after year, forced the steam engine to grow in order to meet its responsibilities. there were men living in philadelphia in , who had known oliver evans personally; at least one old man at the centennial exhibition had himself seen the oruktor amphibolos and recalled the consternation it had caused on the streets of the city in . it seemed a far cry back to the oruktor from the great and beautiful engine, designed by george henry corliss, which was then moving all the vast machinery of the centennial exhibition. but since then achievements in steam have dwarfed even the great work of corliss. and to do a kind of herculean task that was hardly dreamed of in another type of engine has made its entrance: the steam turbine, which sends its awful energy, transformed into electric current, to light a million lamps or to turn ten thousand wheels on distant streets and highways. chapter iv. spindle, loom, and needle in new england the major steps in the manufacture of clothes are four: first to harvest and clean the fiber or wool; second, to card it and spin it into threads; third, to weave the threads into cloth; and, finally to fashion and sew the cloth into clothes. we have already seen the influence of eli whitney's cotton gin on the first process, and the series of inventions for spinning and weaving, which so profoundly changed the textile industry in great britain, has been mentioned. it will be the business of this chapter to tell how spinning and weaving machinery was introduced into the united states and how a yankee inventor laid the keystone of the arch of clothing machinery by his invention of the sewing machine. great britain was determined to keep to herself the industrial secrets she had gained. according to the economic beliefs of the eighteenth century, which gave place but slowly to the doctrines of adam smith, monopoly rather than cheap production was the road to success. the laws therefore forbade the export of english machinery or drawings and specifications by which machines might be constructed in other countries. some men saw a vast prosperity for great britain, if only the mystery might be preserved. meanwhile the stories of what these machines could do excited envy in other countries, where men desired to share in the industrial gains. and, even before eli whitney's cotton gin came to provide an abundant supply of raw material, some americans were struggling to improve the old hand loom, found in every house, and to make some sort of a spinning machine to replace the spinning wheel by which one thread at a time was laboriously spun. east bridgewater, massachusetts, was the scene of one of the earliest of these experiments. there in two scotchmen, who claimed to understand arkwright's mechanism, were employed to make spinning machines, and about the same time another attempt was made at beverly. in both instances the experiments were encouraged by the state and assisted with grants of money. the machines, operated by horse power, were crude, and the product was irregular and unsatisfactory. then three men at providence, rhode island, using drawings of the beverly machinery, made machines having thirty-two spindles which worked indifferently. the attempt to run them by water power failed, and they were sold to moses brown of pawtucket, who with his partner, william almy, had mustered an army of hand-loom weavers in , large enough to produce nearly eight thousand yards of cloth in that year. brown's need of spinning machinery, to provide his weavers with yarn, was very great; but these machines he had bought would not run, and in there was not a single successful power-spinner in the united states. meanwhile benjamin franklin had come home, and the pennsylvania society for the encouragement of manufactures and useful arts was offering prizes for inventions to improve the textile industry. and in milford, england, was a young man named samuel slater, who, on hearing that inventive genius was munificently rewarded in america, decided to migrate to that country. slater at the age of fourteen had been apprenticed to jedediah strutt, a partner of arkwright. he had served both in the counting-house and the mill and had had every opportunity to learn the whole business. soon after attaining his majority, he landed in new york, november, , and found employment. from new york he wrote to moses brown of pawtucket, offering his services, and that old quaker, though not giving him much encouragement, invited him to pawtucket to see whether he could run the spindles which brown had bought from the men of providence. "if thou canst do what thou sayest," wrote brown, "i invite thee to come to rhode island." arriving in pawtucket in january, , slater pronounced the machines worthless, but convinced almy and brown that he knew his business, and they took him into partnership. he had no drawings or models of the english machinery, except such as were in his head, but he proceeded to build machines, doing much of the work himself. on december , , he had ready carding, drawing, and roving machines and seventy-two spindles in two frames. the water-wheel of an old fulling mill furnished the power--and the machinery ran. here then was the birth of the spinning industry in the united states. the "old factory," as it was to be called for nearly a hundred years, was built at pawtucket in . five years later slater and others built a second mill, and in , after slater had brought out his brother to share his prosperity, he built another. workmen came to work for him solely to learn his machines, and then left him to set up for themselves. the knowledge he had brought soon became widespread. mills were built not only in new england but in other states. in there were sixty-two spinning mills in operation in the country, with thirty-one thousand spindles; twenty-five more mills were building or projected, and the industry was firmly established in the united states. the yarn was sold to housewives for domestic use or else to professional weavers who made cloth for sale. this practice was continued for years, not only in new england, but also in those other parts of the country where spinning machinery had been introduced. by , however, commerce and the fisheries had produced considerable fluid capital in new england which was seeking profitable employment, especially as the napoleonic wars interfered with american shipping; and since whitney's gins in the south were now piling up mountains of raw cotton, and slater's machines in new england were making this cotton into yarn, it was inevitable that the next step should be the power loom, to convert the yarn into cloth. so francis cabot lowell, scion of the new england family of that name, an importing merchant of boston, conceived the idea of establishing weaving mills in massachusetts. on a visit to great britain in , lowell met at edinburgh nathan appleton, a fellow merchant of boston, to whom he disclosed his plans and announced his intention of going to manchester to gain all possible information concerning the new industry. two years afterwards, according to appleton's account, lowell and his brother-in-law, patrick t. jackson, conferred with appleton at the stock exchange in boston. they had decided, they said, to set up a cotton factory at waltham and invited appleton to join them in the adventure, to which he readily consented. lowell had not been able to obtain either drawings or model in great britain, but he had nevertheless designed a loom and had completed a model which seemed to work. the partners took in with them paul moody of amesbury, an expert machinist, and by the autumn of looms were built and set up at waltham. carding, drawing, and roving machines were also built and installed in the mill, these machines gaining greatly, at moody's expert hands, over their american rivals. this was the first mill in the united states, and one of the first in the world, to combine under one roof all the operations necessary to convert raw fiber into cloth, and it proved a success. lowell, says his partner appleton, "is entitled to the credit for having introduced the new system in the cotton manufacture." jackson and moody "were men of unsurpassed talent," but lowell "was the informing soul, which gave direction and form to the whole proceeding." the new enterprise was needed, for the war of had cut off imports. the beginnings of the protective principle in the united states tariff are now to be observed. when the peace came and great britain began to dump goods in the united states, congress, in , laid a minimum duty of six and a quarter cents a yard on imported cottons; the rate was raised in and again in . it is said that lowell was influential in winning the support of john c. calhoun for the impost of . lowell died in , at the early age of forty-two, but his work did not die with him. the mills he had founded at waltham grew exceedingly prosperous under the management of jackson; and it was not long before jackson and his partners appleton and moody were seeking wider opportunities. by they were looking for a suitable site on which to build new mills, and their attention was directed to the pawtucket falls, on the merrimac river. the land about this great water power was owned by the pawtucket canal company, whose canal, built to improve the navigation of the merrimac, was not paying satisfactory profits. the partners proceeded to acquire the stock of this company and with it the land necessary for their purpose, and in december, , they executed articles of association for the merrimac manufacturing company, admitting some additional partners, among them kirk boott who was to act as resident agent and manager of the new enterprise, since jackson could not leave his duties at waltham. the story of the enterprise thus begun forms one of the brightest pages in the industrial history of america; for these partners had the wisdom and foresight to make provision at the outset for the comfort and well-being of their operatives. their mill hands were to be chiefly girls drawn from the rural population of new england, strong and intelligent young women, of whom there were at that time great numbers seeking employment, since household manufactures had come to be largely superseded by factory goods. and one of the first questions which the partners considered was whether the change from farm to factory life would effect for the worse the character of these girls. this, says appleton, "was a matter of deep interest. the operatives in the manufacturing cities of europe were notoriously of the lowest character for intelligence and morals. the question therefore arose, and was deeply considered, whether this degradation was the result of the peculiar occupation or of other and distinct causes. we could not perceive why this peculiar description of labor should vary in its effects upon character from all other occupations." and so we find the partners voting money, not only for factory buildings and machinery, but for comfortable boardinghouses for the girls, and planning that these boardinghouses should have "the most efficient guards," that they should be in "charge of respectable women, with every provision for religious worship." they voted nine thousand dollars for a church building and further sums later for a library and a hospital. the wheels of the first mill were started in september, . next year the partners petitioned the legislature to have their part of the township set off to form a new town. one year later still they erected three new mills; and in another year ( ) the town of lowell was incorporated. the year found the lowell mills in straits for lack of capital, from which, however, they were promptly relieved by two great merchants of boston, amos and abbott lawrence, who now became partners in the business and who afterwards founded the city named for them farther down on the merrimac river. the story of the lowell cotton factories, for twenty years, more or less, until the american girls operating the machines came to be supplanted by french canadians and irish, is appropriately summed up in the title of a book which describes the factory life in lowell during those years. the title of this book is "an idyl of work" and it was written by lucy larcom, who was herself one of the operatives and whose mother kept one of the corporation boarding-houses. and lucy larcom was not the only one of the lowell "factory girls" who took to writing and lecturing. there were many others, notably, harriet hanson (later mrs. w. s. robinson), harriot curtis ("mina myrtle"), and harriet farley; and many of the "factory girls" married men who became prominent in the world. there was no thought among them that there was anything degrading in factory work. most of the girls came from the surrounding farms, to earn money for a trousseau, to send a brother through college, to raise a mortgage, or to enjoy the society of their fellow workers, and have a good time in a quiet, serious way, discussing the sermons and lectures they heard and the books they read in their leisure hours. they had numerous "improvement circles" at which contributions of the members in both prose and verse were read and discussed. and for several years they printed a magazine, "the lowell offering", which was entirely written and edited by girls in the mills. charles dickens visited lowell in the winter of and recorded his impressions of what he saw there in the fourth chapter of his "american notes". he says that he went over several of the factories, "examined them in every part; and saw them in their ordinary working aspect, with no preparation of any kind, or departure from their ordinary every-day proceedings"; that the girls "were all well dressed: and that phrase necessarily includes extreme cleanliness. they had serviceable bonnets, good warm cloaks, and shawls.... moreover, there were places in the mill in which they could deposit these things without injury; and there were conveniences for washing. they were healthy in appearance, many of them remarkably so, and had the manners and deportment of young women; not of degraded brutes of burden." dickens continues: "the rooms in which they worked were as well ordered as themselves. in the windows of some there were green plants, which were trained to shade the glass; in all, there was as much fresh air, cleanliness, and comfort as the nature of the occupation would possibly admit of." again: "they reside in various boarding-houses near at hand. the owners of the mills are particularly careful to allow no persons to enter upon the possession of these houses, whose characters have not undergone the most searching and thorough enquiry." finally, the author announces that he will state three facts which he thinks will startle his english readers: "firstly, there is a joint-stock piano in a great many of the boarding-houses. secondly, nearly all these young ladies subscribe to circulating libraries. thirdly, they have got up among themselves a periodical called 'the lowell offering'... whereof i brought away from lowell four hundred good solid pages, which i have read from beginning to end." and: "of the merits of the 'lowell offering' as a literary production, i will only observe, putting entirely out of sight the fact of the articles having been written by these girls after the arduous labors of the day, that it will compare advantageously with a great many english annuals." the efficiency of the new england mills was extraordinary. james montgomery, an english cotton manufacturer, visited the lowell mills two years before dickens and wrote after his inspection of them that they produced "a greater quantity of yarn and cloth from each spindle and loom (in a given time) than was produced by any other factories, without exception in the world." long before that time, of course, the basic type of loom had changed from that originally introduced, and many new england inventors had been busy devising improved machinery of all kinds. such were the beginnings of the great textile mills of new england. the scene today is vastly changed. productivity has been multiplied by invention after invention, by the erection of mill after mill, and by the employment of thousands of hands in place of hundreds. lowell as a textile center has long been surpassed by other cities. the scene in lowell itself is vastly changed. if charles dickens could visit lowell today, he would hardly recognize in that city of modern factories, of more than a hundred thousand people, nearly half of them foreigners, the utopia of which he saw and described. the cotton plantations in the south were flourishing, and whitney's gins were cleaning more and more cotton; the sheep of a thousand hills were giving wool; arkwright's machines in england, introduced by slater into new england, were spinning the cotton and wool into yarn; cartwright's looms in england and lowell's improvements in new england were weaving the yarn into cloth; but as yet no practical machine had been invented to sew the cloth into clothes. there were in the united states numerous small workshops where a few tailors or seamstresses, gathered under one roof, laboriously sewed garments together, but the great bulk of the work, until the invention of the sewing machine, was done by the wives and daughters of farmers and sailors in the villages around boston, new york, and philadelphia. in these cities the garments were cut and sent out to the dwellings of the poor to be sewn. the wages of the laborers were notoriously inadequate, though probably better than in england. thomas hood's ballad the song of the shirt, published in , depicts the hardships of the english woman who strove to keep body and soul together by means of the needle: with fingers weary and worn, with eyelids heavy and red, a woman sat in unwomanly rags, plying her needle and thread. meanwhile, as hood wrote and as the whole english people learned by heart his vivid lines, as great ladies wept over them and street singers sang them in the darkest slums of london, a man, hungry and ill-clad, in an attic in faraway cambridge, massachusetts, was struggling to put into metal an idea to lighten the toil of those who lived by the needle. his name was elias howe and he hailed from eli whitney's old home, worcester county, massachusetts. there howe was born in . his father was an unsuccessful farmer, who also had some small mills, but seems to have succeeded in nothing he undertook. young howe led the ordinary life of a new england country boy, going to school in winter and working about the farm until the age of sixteen, handling tools every day, like any farmer's boy of the time. hearing of high wages and interesting work in lowell, that growing town on the merrimac, he went there in and found employment; but two years later, when the panic of came on, he left lowell and went to work in a machine shop in cambridge. it is said that, for a time, he occupied a room with his cousin, nathaniel p. banks, who rose from bobbin boy in a cotton mill to speaker of the united states house of representatives and major-general in the civil war. next we hear of howe in boston, working in the shop of ari davis, an eccentric maker and repairer of fine machinery. here the young mechanic heard of the desirability of a sewing machine and began to puzzle over the problem. many an inventor before him had attempted to make sewing machines and some had just fallen short of success. thomas saint, an englishman, had patented one fifty years earlier; and about this very time a frenchman named thimmonier was working eighty sewing machines making army uniforms, when needle workers of paris, fearing that the bread was to be taken from them, broke into his workroom and destroyed the machines. thimmonier tried again, but his machine never came into general use. several patents had been issued on sewing machines in the united states, but without any practical result. an inventor named walter hunt had discovered the principle of the lock-stitch and had built a machine but had wearied of his work and abandoned his invention, just as success was in sight. but howe knew nothing of any of these inventors. there is no evidence that he had ever seen the work of another. the idea obsessed him to such an extent that he could do no other work, and yet he must live. by this time he was married and had children, and his wages were only nine dollars a week. just then an old schoolmate, george fisher, agreed to support his family and furnish him with five hundred dollars for materials and tools. the attic in fisher's house in cambridge was howe's workroom. his first efforts were failures, but all at once the idea of the lock-stitch came to him. previously all machines (except hunt's, which was unknown, not having even been patented) had used the chainstitch, wasteful of thread and easily unraveled. the two threads of the lockstitch cross in the materials joined together, and the lines of stitches show the same on both sides. in short, the chainstitch is a crochet or knitting stitch, while the lockstitch is a weaving stitch. howe had been working at night and was on his way home, gloomy and despondent, when this idea dawned on his mind, probably rising out of his experience in the cotton mill. the shuttle would be driven back and forth as in a loom, as he had seen it thousands of times, and passed through a loop of thread which the curved needle would throw out on the other side of the cloth; and the cloth would be fastened to the machine vertically by pins. a curved arm would ply the needle with the motion of a pick-axe. a handle attached to the fly-wheel would furnish the power. on that design howe made a machine which, crude as it was, sewed more rapidly than five of the swiftest needle workers. but apparently to no purpose. his machine was too expensive, it could sew only a straight seam, and it might easily get out of order. the needle workers were opposed, as they have generally been, to any sort of laborsaving machinery, and there was no manufacturer willing to buy even one machine at the price howe asked, three hundred dollars. howe's second model was an improvement on the first. it was more compact and it ran more smoothly. he had no money even to pay the fees necessary to get it patented. again fisher came to the rescue and took howe and his machine to washington, paying all the expenses, and the patent was issued in september, . but, as the machine still failed to find buyers, fisher gave up hope. he had invested about two thousand dollars which seemed gone forever, and he could not, or would not, invest more. howe returned temporarily to his father's farm, hoping for better times. meanwhile howe had sent one of his brothers to london with a machine to see if a foothold could be found there, and in due time an encouraging report came to the destitute inventor. a corsetmaker named thomas had paid two hundred and fifty pounds for the english rights and had promised to pay a royalty of three pounds on each machine sold. moreover, thomas invited the inventor to london to construct a machine especially for making corsets. howe went to london and later sent for his family. but after working eight months on small wages, he was as badly off as ever, for, though he had produced the desired machine, he quarrelled with thomas and their relations came to an end. an acquaintance, charles inglis, advanced howe a little money while he worked on another model. this enabled howe to send his family home to america, and then, by selling his last model and pawning his patent rights, he raised enough money to take passage himself in the steerage in , accompanied by inglis, who came to try his fortune in the united states. howe landed in new york with a few cents in his pocket and immediately found work. but his wife was dying from the hardships she had suffered, due to stark poverty. at her funeral, howe wore borrowed clothes, for his only suit was the one he wore in the shop. then, soon after his wife had died, howe's invention came into its own. it transpired presently that sewing machines were being made and sold and that these machines were using the principles covered by howe's patent. howe found an ally in george w. bliss, a man of means, who had faith in the machine and who bought out fisher's interest and proceeded to prosecute infringers. meanwhile howe went on making machines--he produced fourteen in new york during --and never lost an opportunity to show the merits of the invention which was being advertised and brought to notice by the activities of some of the infringers, particularly by isaac m. singer, the best business man of them all. singer had joined hands with walter hunt and hunt had tried to patent the machine which he had abandoned nearly twenty years before. the suits dragged on until , when the case was decisively settled in howe's favor. his patent was declared basic, and all the makers of sewing machines must pay him a royalty of twenty-five dollars on every machine. so howe woke one morning to find himself enjoying a large income, which in time rose as high as four thousand dollars a week, and he died in a rich man. though the basic nature of howe's patent was recognized, his machine was only a rough beginning. improvements followed, one after another, until the sewing machine bore little resemblance to howe's original. john bachelder introduced the horizontal table upon which to lay the work. through an opening in the table, tiny spikes in an endless belt projected and pushed the work for ward continuously. allan b. wilson devised a rotary hook carrying a bobbin to do the work of the shuttle, and also the small serrated bar which pops up through the table near the needle, moves forward a tiny space, carrying the cloth with it, drops down just below the upper surface of the table, and returns to its starting point, to repeat over and over again this series of motions. this simple device brought its owner a fortune. isaac m. singer, destined to be the dominant figure of the industry, patented in a machine stronger than any of the others and with several valuable features, notably the vertical presser foot held down by a spring; and singer was the first to adopt the treadle, leaving both hands of the operator free to manage the work. his machine was good, but, rather than its surpassing merits, it was his wonderful business ability that made the name of singer a household word. by there were several manufacturers in the field, threatening war on each other. all men were paying tribute to howe, for his patent was basic, and all could join in fighting him, but there were several other devices almost equally fundamental, and even if howe's patents had been declared void it is probable that his competitors would have fought quite as fiercely among themselves. at the suggestion of george gifford, a new york attorney, the leading inventors and manufacturers agreed to pool their inventions and to establish a fixed license fee for the use of each. this "combination" was composed of elias howe, wheeler and wilson, grover and baker, and i. m. singer, and dominated the field until after , when the majority of the basic patents expired. the members manufactured sewing machines and sold them in america and europe. singer introduced the installment plan of sale, to bring the machine within reach of the poor, and the sewing machine agent, with a machine or two on his wagon, drove through every small town and country district, demonstrating and selling. meanwhile the price of the machines steadily fell, until it seemed that singer's slogan, "a machine in every home!" was in a fair way to be realized, had not another development of the sewing machine intervened. this was the development of the ready-made clothing industry. in the earlier days of the nation, though nearly all the clothing was of domestic manufacture, there were tailors and seamstresses in all the towns and many of the villages, who made clothing to order. sailors coming ashore sometimes needed clothes at once, and apparently a merchant of new bedford was the first to keep a stock on hand. about , george opdyke, later mayor of new york, began the manufacture of clothing on hudson street, which he sold largely through a store in new orleans. other firms began to reach out for this southern trade, and it became important. southern planters bought clothes not only for their slaves but for their families. the development of california furnished another large market. a shirt factory was established, in , on cherry and market streets, new york. but not until the coming of the power-driven sewing machine could there be any factory production of clothes on a large scale. since then the clothing industry has become one of the most important in the country. the factories have steadily improved their models and materials, and at the present day only a negligible fraction of the people of the united states wear clothes made to their order. the sewing machine today does many things besides sewing a seam. there are attachments which make buttonholes, darn, embroider, make ruffles or hems, and dozens of other things. there are special machines for every trade, some of which deal successfully with refractory materials. the singer machine of was strong enough to sew leather and was almost at once adopted by the shoemakers. these craftsmen flourished chiefly in massachusetts, and they had traditions reaching back at least to philip kertland, who came to lynn in and taught many apprentices. even in the early days before machinery, division of labor was the rule in the shops of massachusetts. one workman cut the leather, often tanned on the premises; another sewed the uppers together, while another sewed on the soles. wooden pegs were invented in and came into common use about for the cheaper grades of shoes: soon the practice of sending out the uppers to be done by women in their own homes became common. these women were wretchedly paid, and when the sewing machine came to do the work better than it could be done by hand, the practice of "putting out" work gradually declined. that variation of the sewing machine which was to do the more difficult work of sewing the sole to the upper was the invention of a mere boy, lyman r. blake. the first model, completed in , was imperfect, but blake was able to interest gordon mckay, of boston, and three years of patient experimentation and large expenditure followed. the mckay sole-sewing machine, which they produced, came into use, and for twenty-one years was used almost universally both in the united states and great britain. but this, like all the other useful inventions, was in time enlarged and greatly improved, and hundreds of other inventions have been made in the shoe industry. there are machines to split leather, to make the thickness absolutely uniform, to sew the uppers, to insert eyelets, to cut out heel tops, and many more. in fact, division of labor has been carried farther in the making of shoes than in most industries, for there are said to be about three hundred separate operations in making a pair of shoes. from small beginnings great industries have grown. it is a far cry from the slow, clumsy machine of elias howe, less than three-quarters of a century ago, to the great factories of today, filled with special models, run at terrific speed by electric current, and performing tasks which would seem to require more than human intelligence and skill. chapter v. the agricultural revolution the census of shows that hardly thirty per cent of the people are today engaged in agriculture, the basic industry of the united states, as compared with perhaps ninety per cent when the nation began. yet american farmers, though constantly diminishing in proportion to the whole population, have always been, and still are, able to feed themselves and all their fellow americans and a large part of the outside world as well. they bring forth also not merely foodstuffs, but vast quantities of raw material for manufacture, such as cotton, wool, and hides. this immense productivity is due to the use of farm machinery on a scale seen nowhere else in the world. there is still, and always will be, a good deal of hard labor on the farm. but invention has reduced the labor and has made possible the carrying on of this vast industry by a relatively small number of hands. the farmers of washington's day had no better tools than had the farmers of julius caesar's day; in fact, the roman ploughs were probably superior to those in general use in america eighteen centuries later. "the machinery of production," says henry adams, "showed no radical difference from that familiar in ages long past. the saxon farmer of the eighth century enjoyed most of the comforts known to saxon farmers of the eighteenth."* one type of plough in the united states was little more than a crooked stick with an iron point attached, sometimes with rawhide, which simply scratched the ground. ploughs of this sort were in use in illinois as late as . there were a few ploughs designed to turn a furrow, often simply heavy chunks of tough wood, rudely hewn into shape, with a wrought-iron point clumsily attached. the moldboard was rough and the curves of no two were alike. country blacksmiths made ploughs only on order and few had patterns. such ploughs could turn a furrow in soft ground if the oxen were strong enough--but the friction was so great that three men and four or six oxen were required to turn a furrow where the sod was tough. * "history of the united states", vol. i, p. . thomas jefferson had worked out very elaborately the proper curves of the moldboard, and several models had been constructed for him. he was, however, interested in too many things ever to follow any one to the end, and his work seems to have had little publicity. the first real inventor of a practicable plough was charles newbold, of burlington county, new jersey, to whom a patent for a cast-iron plough was issued in june, . but the farmers would have none of it. they said it "poisoned the soil" and fostered the growth of weeds. one david peacock received a patent in , and two others later. newbold sued peacock for infringement and recovered damages. pieces of newbold's original plough are in the museum of the new york agricultural society at albany. another inventor of ploughs was jethro wood, a blacksmith of scipio, new york, who received two patents, one in and the other in . his plough was of cast iron, but in three parts, so that a broken part might be renewed without purchasing an entire plough. this principle of standardization marked a great advance. the farmers by this time were forgetting their former prejudices, and many ploughs were sold. though wood's original patent was extended, infringements were frequent, and he is said to have spent his entire property in prosecuting them. in clay soils these ploughs did not work well, as the more tenacious soil stuck to the iron moldboard instead of curling gracefully away. in , john lane, a chicago blacksmith, faced a wooden moldboard with an old steel saw. it worked like magic, and other blacksmiths followed suit to such an extent that the demand for old saws became brisk. then came john deere, a native of vermont, who settled first in grand detour, and then in moline, illinois. deere made wooden ploughs faced with steel, like other blacksmiths, but was not satisfied with them and studied and experimented to find the best curves and angles for a plough to be used in the soils around him. his ploughs were much in demand, and his need for steel led him to have larger and larger quantities produced for him, and the establishment which still bears his name grew to large proportions. another skilled blacksmith, william parlin, at canton, illinois, began making ploughs about , which he loaded upon a wagon and peddled through the country. later his establishment grew large. another john lane, a son of the first, patented in a "soft-center" steel plough. the hard but brittle surface was backed by softer and more tenacious metal, to reduce the breakage. the same year james oliver, a scotch immigrant who had settled at south bend, indiana, received a patent for the "chilled plough." by an ingenious method the wearing surfaces of the casting were cooled more quickly than the back. the surfaces which came in contact with the soil had a hard, glassy surface, while the body of the plough was of tough iron. from small beginnings oliver's establishment grew great, and the oliver chilled plow works at south bend is today one of the largest and most favorably known privately owned industries in the united states. from the single plough it was only a step to two or more ploughs fastened together, doing more work with approximately the same man power. the sulky plough, on which the ploughman rode, made his work easier, and gave him great control. such ploughs were certainly in use as early as , perhaps earlier. the next step forward was to substitute for horses a traction engine. today one may see on thousands of farms a tractor pulling six, eight, ten, or more ploughs, doing the work better than it could be done by an individual ploughman. on the "bonanza" farms of the west a fifty horsepower engine draws sixteen ploughs, followed by harrows and a grain drill, and performs the three operations of ploughing, harrowing, and planting at the same time and covers fifty acres or more in a day. the basic ideas in drills for small grains were successfully developed in great britain, and many british drills were sold in the united states before one was manufactured here. american manufacture of these drills began about . planters for corn came somewhat later. machines to plant wheat successfully were unsuited to corn, which must be planted less profusely than wheat. the american pioneers had only a sickle or a scythe with which to cut their grain. the addition to the scythe of wooden fingers, against which the grain might lie until the end of the swing, was a natural step, and seems to have been taken quite independently in several places, perhaps as early as . grain cradles are still used in hilly regions and in those parts of the country where little grain is grown. the first attempts to build a machine to cut grain were made in england and scotland, several of them in the eighteenth century; and in henry ogle, a schoolmaster in rennington, made a mechanical reaper, but the opposition of the laborers of the vicinity, who feared loss of employment, prevented further development. in , patrick bell, a young scotch student, afterward a presbyterian minister, who had been moved by the fatigue of the harvesters upon his father's farm in argyllshire, made an attempt to lighten their labor. his reaper was pushed by horses; a reel brought the grain against blades which opened and closed like scissors, and a traveling canvas apron deposited the grain at one side. the inventor received a prize from the highland and agricultural society of edinburgh, and pictures and full descriptions of his invention were published. several models of this reaper were built in great britain, and it is said that four came to the united states; however this may be, bell's machine was never generally adopted. soon afterward three men patented reapers in the united states: william manning, plainfield, new jersey, ; obed hussey, cincinnati, ohio, ; and cyrus hall mccormick, staunton, virginia, . just how much they owed to patrick bell cannot be known, but it is probable that all had heard of his design if they had not seen his drawings or the machine itself. the first of these inventors, manning of new jersey, drops out of the story, for it is not known whether he ever made a machine other than his model. more persistent was obed hussey of cincinnati, who soon moved to baltimore to fight out the issue with mccormick. hussey was an excellent mechanic. he patented several improvements to his machine and received high praise for the efficiency of the work. but he was soon outstripped in the race because he was weak in the essential qualities which made mccormick the greatest figure in the world of agricultural machinery. mccormick was more than a mechanic; he was a man of vision; and he had the enthusiasm of a crusader and superb genius for business organization and advertisement. his story has been told in another volume of this series.* * "the age of big business", by burton j. hendrick. though mccormick offered reapers for sale in , he seems to have sold none in that year, nor any for six years afterwards. he sold two in , seven in , fifty in . the machine was not really adapted to the hills of the valley of virginia, and farmers hesitated to buy a contrivance which needed the attention of a skilled mechanic. mccormick made a trip through the middle west. in the rolling prairies, mile after mile of rich soil without a tree or a stone, he saw his future dominion. hussey had moved east. mccormick did the opposite; he moved west, to chicago, in . chicago was then a town of hardly ten thousand, but mccormick foresaw its future, built a factory there, and manufactured five hundred machines for the harvest of . from this time he went on from triumph to triumph. he formulated an elaborate business system. his machines were to be sold at a fixed price, payable in installments if desired, with a guarantee of satisfaction. he set up a system of agencies to give instruction or to supply spare parts. advertising, chiefly by exhibitions and contests at fairs and other public gatherings, was another item of his programme. all would have failed, of course, if he had not built good machines, but he did build good machines, and was not daunted by the government's refusal in to renew his original patent. he decided to make profits as a manufacturer rather than accept royalties as an inventor. mccormick had many competitors, and some of them were in the field with improved devices ahead of him, but he always held his own, either by buying up the patent for a real improvement, or else by requiring his staff to invent something to do the same work. numerous new devices to improve the harvester were patented, but the most important was an automatic attachment to bind the sheaves with wire. this was patented in , and mccormick soon made it his own. the harvester seemed complete. one man drove the team, and the machine cut the grain, bound it in sheaves, and deposited them upon the ground. presently, however, complaints were heard of the wire tie. when the wheat was threshed, bits of wire got into the straw, and were swallowed by the cattle; or else the bits of metal got among the wheat itself and gave out sparks in grinding, setting some mills on fire. two inventors, almost simultaneously, produced the remedy. marquis l. gorham, working for mccormick, and john f. appleby, whose invention was purchased by william deering, one of mccormick's chief competitors, invented binders which used twine. by the self-binding harvester was complete. no distinctive improvement has been made since, except to add strength and simplification. the machine now needed the services of only two men, one to drive and the other to shock the bundles, and could reap twenty acres or more a day, tie the grain into bundles of uniform size, and dump them in piles of five ready to be shocked. grain must be separated from the straw and chaff. the biblical threshing floor, on which oxen or horses trampled out the grain, was still common in washington's time, though it had been largely succeeded by the flail. in great britain several threshing machines were devised in the eighteenth century, but none was particularly successful. they were stationary, and it was necessary to bring the sheaves to them. the seventh patent issued by the united states, to samuel mulliken of philadelphia, was for a threshing machine. the portable horse-power treadmill, invented in by hiram a. and john a. pitts of winthrop, maine, was presently coupled with a thresher, or "separator," and this outfit, with its men and horses, moving from farm to farm, soon became an autumn feature of every neighborhood. the treadmill was later on succeeded--by the traction engine, and the apparatus now in common use is an engine which draws the greatly improved threshing machine from farm to farm, and when the destination is reached, furnishes the power to drive the thresher. many of these engines are adapted to the use of straw as fuel. another development was the combination harvester and thresher used on the larger farms of the west. this machine does not cut the wheat close to the ground, but the cutter-bar, over twenty-five feet in length, takes off the heads. the wheat is separated from the chaff and automatically weighed into sacks, which are dumped as fast as two expert sewers can work. the motive power is a traction engine or else twenty to thirty horses, and seventy-five acres a day can be reaped and threshed. often another tractor pulling a dozen wagons follows and the sacks are picked up and hauled to the granary or elevator. haying was once the hardest work on the farm, and in no crop has machinery been more efficient. the basic idea in the reaper, the cutter-bar, is the whole of the mower, and the machine developed with the reaper. previously jeremiah bailey, of chester county, pennsylvania, had patented in a machine drawn by horses carrying a revolving wheel with six scythes, which was widely used. the inventions of manning, hussey, and mccormick made the mower practicable. hazard knowles, an employee of the patent office, invented the hinged cutter-bar, which could be lifted over an obstruction, but never patented the invention. william f. ketchum of buffalo, new york, in , patented the first machine intended to cut hay only, and dozens of others followed. the modern mowing machine was practically developed in the patent of lewis miller of canton, ohio, in . several times as many mowers as harvesters are sold, and for that matter, reapers without binding attachments are still manufactured. hayrakes and tedders seem to have developed almost of themselves. diligent research has failed to discover any reliable information on the invention of the hayrake, though a horserake was patented as early as . joab center of hudson, new york, patented a machine for turning and spreading hay in . mechanical hayloaders have greatly reduced the amount of human labor. the hay-press makes storage and transportation easier and cheaper. there are binders which cut and bind corn. an addition shocks the corn and deposits it upon the ground. the shredder and husker removes the ears, husks them, and shreds shucks, stalks, and fodder. power shellers separate grain and cobs more than a hundred times as rapidly as a pair of human hands could do. one student of agriculture has estimated that it would require the whole agricultural population of the united states one hundred days to shell the average corn crop by hand, but this is an exaggeration. the list of labor-saving machinery in agriculture is by no means exhausted. there are clover hullers, bean and pea threshers, ensilage cutters, manure spreaders, and dozens of others. on the dairy farm the cream separator both increases the quantity and improves the quality of the butter and saves time. power also drives the churns. on many farms cows are milked and sheep are sheared by machines and eggs are hatched without hens. there are, of course, thousands of farms in the country where machinery cannot be used to advantage and where the work is still done entirely or in part in the old ways. historians once were fond of marking off the story of the earth and of men upon the earth into distinct periods fixed by definite dates. one who attempts to look beneath the surface cannot accept this easy method of treatment. beneath the surface new tendencies develop long before they demand recognition; an institution may be decaying long before its weakness is apparent. the american revolution began not with the stamp act but at least a century earlier, as soon as the settlers realized that there were three thousand miles of sea between england and the rude country in which they found themselves; the civil war began, if not in early virginia, with the "dutch man of warre that sold us twenty negars," at least with eli whitney and his cotton gin. nevertheless, certain dates or short periods seem to be flowering times. apparently all at once a flood of invention, a change of methods, a difference in organization, or a new psychology manifests itself. and the decade of the civil war does serve as a landmark to mark the passing of one period in american life and the beginning of another; especially in agriculture; and as agriculture is the basic industry of the country it follows that with its mutations the whole superstructure is also changed. the united states which fought the civil war was vastly different from the united states which fronted the world at the close of the revolution. the scant four million people of had grown to thirty-one and a half million. this growth had come chiefly by natural increase, but also by immigration, conquest, and annexation. settlement had reached the pacific ocean, though there were great stretches of almost uninhabited territory between the settlements on the pacific and those just beyond the mississippi. the cotton gin had turned the whole south toward the cultivation of cotton, though some states were better fitted for mixed farming, and their devotion to cotton meant loss in the end as subsequent events have proved. the south was not manufacturing any considerable proportion of the cotton it grew, but the textile industry was flourishing in new england. a whole series of machines similar to those used in great britain, but not identical, had been invented in america. american mills paid higher wages than british and in quantity production were far ahead of the british mills, in proportion to hands employed, which meant being ahead of the rest of the world. wages in america, measured by the world standard, were high, though as expressed in money, they seem low now. they were conditioned by the supply of free land, or land that was practically free. the wages paid were necessarily high enough to attract laborers from the soil which they might easily own if they chose. there was no fixed laboring class. the boy or girl in a textile mill often worked only a few years to save money, buy a farm, or to enter some business or profession. the steamboat now, wherever there was navigable water, and the railroad, for a large part of the way, offered transportation to the boundless west. steamboats traversed all the larger rivers and the lakes. the railroad was growing rapidly. its lines had extended to more than thirty thousand miles. construction went on during the war, and the transcontinental railway was in sight. the locomotive had approached standardization, and the american railway car was in form similar to that of the present day, though not so large, so comfortable, or so strong. the pullman car, from which has developed the chair car, the dining car, and the whole list of special cars, was in process of development, and the automatic air brake of george westinghouse was soon to follow. thus far had the nation progressed in invention and industry along the lines of peaceful development. but with the civil war came a sudden and tremendous advance. no result of the civil war, political or social, has more profoundly affected american life than the application to the farm, as a war necessity, of machinery on a great scale. so long as labor was plentiful and cheap, only a comparatively few farmers could be interested in expensive machinery, but when the war called the young men away the worried farmers gladly turned to the new machines and found that they were able not only to feed the union, but also to export immense quantities of wheat to europe, even during the war. suddenly the west leaped into great prosperity. and long centuries of economic and social development were spanned within a few decades. chapter vi. agents of communication communication is one of man's primal needs. there was indeed a time when no formula of language existed, when men communicated with each other by means of gestures, grimaces, guttural sounds, or rude images of things seen; but it is impossible to conceive of a time when men had no means of communication at all. and at last, after long ages, men evolved in sound the names of the things they knew and the forms of speech; ages later, the alphabet and the art of writing; ages later still, those wonderful instruments of extension for the written and spoken word: the telegraph, the telephone, the modern printing press, the phonograph, the typewriter, and the camera. the word "telegraph" is derived from greek and means "to write far"; so it is a very exact word, for to write far is precisely what we do when we send a telegram. the word today, used as a noun, denotes the system of wires with stations and operators and messengers, girdling the earth and reaching into every civilized community, whereby news is carried swiftly by electricity. but the word was coined long before it was discovered that intelligence could be communicated by electricity. it denoted at first a system of semaphores, or tall poles with movable arms, and other signaling apparatus, set within sight of one another. there was such a telegraph line between dover and london at the time of waterloo; and this telegraph began relating the news of the battle, which had come to dover by ship, to anxious london, when a fog set in and the londoners had to wait until a courier on horseback arrived. and, in the very years when the real telegraph was coming into being, the united states government, without a thought of electricity, was considering the advisability of setting up such a system of telegraphs in the united states. the telegraph is one of america's gifts to the world. the honor for this invention falls to samuel finley breese morse, a new englander of old puritan stock. nor is the glory that belongs to morse in any way dimmed by the fact that he made use of the discoveries of other men who had been trying to unlock the secrets of electricity ever since franklin's experiments. if morse discovered no new principle, he is nevertheless the man of all the workers in electricity between his own day and franklin's whom the world most delights to honor; and rightly so, for it is to such as morse that the world is most indebted. others knew; morse saw and acted. others had found out the facts, but morse was the first to perceive the practical significance of those facts; the first to take steps to make them of service to his fellows; the first man of them all with the pluck and persistence to remain steadfast to his great design, through twelve long years of toil and privation, until his countrymen accepted his work and found it well done. morse was happy in his birth and early training. he was born in , at charlestown, massachusetts. his father was a congregational minister and a scholar of high standing, who, by careful management, was able to send his three sons to yale college. thither went young samuel (or finley, as he was called by his family) at the age of fourteen and came under the influence of benjamin silliman, professor of chemistry, and of jeremiah day, professor of natural philosophy, afterwards president of yale college, whose teaching gave him impulses which in later years led to the invention of the telegraph. "mr. day's lectures are very interesting," the young student wrote home in ; "they are upon electricity; he has given us some very fine experiments, the whole class taking hold of hands form the circuit of communication and we all receive the shock apparently at the same moment." electricity, however, was only an alluring study. it afforded no means of livelihood, and morse had gifts as an artist; in fact, he earned a part of his college expenses painting miniatures at five dollars apiece. he decided, therefore, that art should be his vocation. a letter written years afterwards by joseph m. dulles of philadelphia, who was at new haven preparing for yale when morse was in his senior year, is worth reading here: "i first became acquainted with him at new haven, when about to graduate with the class of , and had such an association as a boy preparing for college might have with a senior who was just finishing his course. having come to new haven under the care of rev. jedidiah morse, the venerable father of the three morses, all distinguished men, i was commended to the protection of finley, as he was then commonly designated, and therefore saw him frequently during the brief period we were together. the father i regard as the gravest man i ever knew. he was a fine exemplar of the gentler type of the puritan, courteous in manner, but stern in conduct and in aspect. he was a man of conflict, and a leader in the theological contests in new england in the early part of this century. finley, on the contrary, bore the expression of gentleness entirely. in person rather above the ordinary height, well formed, graceful in demeanor, with a complexion, if i remember right, slightly ruddy, features duly proportioned, and often lightened with a genial and expressive smile. he was, altogether, a handsome young man, with manners unusually bland. it is needless to add that with intelligence, high culture, and general information, and with a strong bent to the fine arts, mr. morse was in an attractive young man. during the last year of his college life he occupied his leisure hours, with a view to his self-support, in taking the likenesses of his fellow-students on ivory, and no doubt with success, as he obtained afterward a very respectable rank as a portrait-painter. many pieces of his skill were afterward executed in charleston, south carolina."* * prime, "the life of samuel f. b. morse, ll.d.", p. . that morse was destined to be a painter seemed certain, and when, soon after graduating from yale, he made the acquaintance of washington allston, an american artist of high standing, any doubts that may have existed in his mind as to his vocation were set at rest. allston was then living in boston, but was planning to return to england, where his name was well known, and it was arranged that young morse should accompany him as his pupil. so in morse went to england with allston and returned to america four years later an accredited portrait painter, having studied not only under allston but under the famous master, benjamin west, and having met on intimate terms some of the great englishmen of the time. he opened a studio in boston, but as sitters were few, he made a trip through new england, taking commissions for portraits, and also visited charleston, south carolina, where some of his paintings may be seen today. at concord, new hampshire, morse met miss lucretia walker, a beautiful and cultivated young woman, and they were married in . morse then settled in new york. his reputation as a painter increased steadily, though he gained little money, and in he was in washington painting a portrait of the marquis la fayette, for the city of new york, when he heard from his father the bitter news of his wife's death in new haven, then a journey of seven days from washington. leaving the portrait of la fayette unfinished, the heartbroken artist made his way home. two years afterwards morse was again obsessed with the marvels of electricity, as he had been in college. the occasion this time was a series of lectures on that subject given by james freeman dana before the new york athenaeum in the chapel of columbia college. morse attended these lectures and formed with dana an intimate acquaintance. dana was in the habit of going to morse's studio, where the two men would talk earnestly for long hours. but morse was still devoted to his art; besides, he had himself and three children to support, and painting was his only source of income. back to europe went morse in to pursue his profession and perfect himself in it by three years' further study. then came the crisis. homeward bound on the ship sully in the autumn of , morse fell into conversation with some scientific men who were on board. one of the passengers asked this question: "is the velocity of electricity reduced by the length of its conducting wire?" to which his neighbor replied that electricity passes instantly over any known length of wire and referred to franklin's experiments with several miles of wire, in which no appreciable time elapsed between a touch at one end and a spark at the other. here was a fact already well known. morse must have known it himself. but the tremendous significance of that fact had never before occurred to him nor, so far as he knew, to any man. a recording telegraph! why not? intelligence delivered at one end of a wire instantly recorded at the other end, no matter how long the wire! it might reach across the continent or even round the earth. the idea set his mind on fire. home again in november, , morse found himself on the horns of a dilemma. to give up his profession meant that he would have no income; on the other hand, how could he continue wholeheartedly painting pictures while consumed with the idea of the telegraph? the idea would not down; yet he must live; and there were his three motherless children in new haven. he would have to go on painting as well as he could and develop his telegraph in what time he could spare. his brothers, richard and sidney, were both living in new york and they did what they could for him, giving him a room in a building they had erected at nassau and beekman streets. morse's lot at this time was made all the harder by hopes raised and dashed to earth again. congress had voted money for mural paintings for the rotunda of the capitol. the artists were to be selected by a committee of which john quincy adams was chairman. morse expected a commission for a part of the work, for his standing at that time was second to that of no american artist, save allston, and allston he knew had declined to paint any of the pictures and had spoken in his favor. adams, however, as chairman of the committee was of the opinion that the pictures should be done by foreign artists, there being no americans available, he thought, of sufficiently high standing to execute the work with fitting distinction. this opinion, publicly expressed, infuriated james fenimore cooper, morse's friend, and cooper wrote an attack on adams in the new york evening post, but without signing it. supposing morse to be the author of this article, adams summarily struck his name from the list of artists who were to be employed. how very poor morse was about this time is indicated by a story afterwards told by general strother of virginia, who was one of his pupils: i engaged to become morse's pupil and subsequently went to new york and found him in a room in university place. he had three or four other pupils and i soon found that our professor had very little patronage. i paid my fifty dollars for one-quarter's instruction. morse was a faithful teacher and took as much interest in our progress as--more indeed than--we did ourselves. but he was very poor. i remember that, when my second quarter's pay was due, my remittance did not come as expected, and one day the professor came in and said, courteously: "well strother, my boy, how are we off for money?" "why professor," i answered, "i am sorry to say that i have been disappointed, but i expect a remittance next week." "next week," he repeated sadly, "i shall be dead by that time." "dead, sir?" "yes, dead by starvation." i was distressed and astonished. i said hurriedly: "would ten dollars be of any service?" "ten dollars would save my life. that is all it would do." i paid the money, all that i had, and we dined together. it was a modest meal, but good, and after he had finished, he said: "this is my first meal for twenty-four hours. strother, don't be an artist. it means beggary. your life depends upon people who know nothing of your art and care nothing for you. a house dog lives better, and the very sensitiveness that stimulates an artist to work keeps him alive to suffering."* * prime, p. . in morse received an appointment to the teaching staff of new york university and moved his workshop to a room in the university building in washington square. "there," says his biographer*, "he wrought through the year , probably the darkest and longest year of his life, giving lessons to pupils in the art of painting while his mind was in the throes of the great invention." in that year he took into his confidence one of his colleagues in the university, leonard d. gale, who assisted him greatly, in improving the apparatus, while the inventor himself formulated the rudiments of the telegraphic alphabet, or morse code, as it is known today. at length all was ready for a test and the message flashed from transmitter to receiver. the telegraph was born, though only an infant as yet. "yes, that room of the university was the birthplace of the recording telegraph," said morse years later. on september , , a successful experiment was made with seventeen hundred feet of copper wire coiled around the room, in the presence of alfred vail, a student, whose family owned the speedwell iron works, at morristown, new jersey, and who at once took an interest in the invention and persuaded his father, judge stephen vail, to advance money for experiments. morse filed a petition for a patent in october and admitted his colleague gale; as well as alfred vail, to partnership. experiments followed at the vail shops, all the partners working day and night in their enthusiasm. the apparatus was then brought to new york and gentlemen of the city were invited to the university to see it work before it left for washington. the visitors were requested to write dispatches, and the words were sent round a three-mile coil of wire and read at the other end of the room by one who had no prior knowledge of the message. * prime, p. . in february, , morse set out for washington with his apparatus, and stopped at philadelphia on the invitation of the franklin institute to give a demonstration to a committee of that body. arrived at washington, he presented to congress a petition, asking for an appropriation to enable him to build an experimental line. the question of the appropriation was referred to the committee on commerce, who reported favorably, and morse then returned to new york to prepare to go abroad, as it was necessary for his rights that his invention should be patented in european countries before publication in the united states. morse sailed in may, , and returned to new york by the steamship great western in april, . his journey had not been very successful. he had found london in the excitement of the ceremonies of the coronation of queen victoria, and the british attorney-general had refused him a patent on the ground that american newspapers had published his invention, making it public property. in france he had done better. but the most interesting result of the journey was something not related to the telegraph at all. in paris he had met daguerre, the celebrated frenchman who had discovered a process of making pictures by sunlight, and daguerre had given morse the secret. this led to the first pictures taken by sunlight in the united states and to the first photographs of the human face taken anywhere. daguerre had never attempted to photograph living objects and did not think it could be done, as rigidity of position was required for a long exposure. morse, however, and his associate, john w. draper, were very soon taking portraits successfully. meanwhile the affairs of the telegraph at washington had not prospered. congress had done nothing towards the grant which morse had requested, notwithstanding the favorable report of its committee, and morse was in desperate straits for money even to live on. he appealed to the vails to assist him further, but they could not, since the panic of had impaired their resources. he earned small sums from his daguerreotypes and his teaching. by december, , morse was in funds again; sufficiently, at least, to enable him to go to washington for another appeal to congress. and at last, on february , , a bill appropriating thirty thousand dollars to lay the wires between washington and baltimore passed the house by a majority of six. trembling with anxiety, morse sat in the gallery of the house while the vote was taken and listened to the irreverent badinage of congressmen as they discussed his bill. one member proposed an amendment to set aside half the amount for experiments in mesmerism, another suggested that the millerites should have a part of the money, and so on; however, they passed the bill. and that night morse wrote: "the long agony is over." but the agony was not over. the bill had yet to pass the senate. the last day of the expiring session of congress arrived, march , , and the senate had not reached the bill. says morse's biographer: in the gallery of the senate professor morse had sat all the last day and evening of the session. at midnight the session would close. assured by his friends that there was no possibility of the bill being reached, he left the capitol and retired to his room at the hotel, dispirited, and well-nigh broken-hearted. as he came down to breakfast the next morning, a young lady entered, and, coming toward him with a smile, exclaimed: "i have come to congratulate you!" "for what, my dear friend?" asked the professor, of the young lady, who was miss annie g. ellsworth, daughter of his friend the commissioner of patents. "on the passage of your bill." the professor assured her it was not possible, as he remained in the senate-chamber until nearly midnight, and it was not reached. she then informed him that her father was present until the close, and, in the last moments of the session, the bill was passed without debate or revision. professor morse was overcome by the intelligence, so joyful and unexpected, and gave at the moment to his young friend, the bearer of these good tidings, the promise that she should send the first message over the first line of telegraph that was opened.* *prime, p. . morse and his partners* then proceeded to the construction of the forty-mile line of wire between baltimore and washington. at this point ezra cornell, afterwards a famous builder of telegraphs and founder of cornell university, first appears in history as a young man of thirty-six. cornell invented a machine to lay pipe underground to contain the wires and he was employed to carry out the work of construction. the work was commenced at baltimore and was continued until experiment proved that the underground method would not do, and it was decided to string the wires on poles. much time had been lost, but once the system of poles was adopted the work progressed rapidly, and by may, , the line was completed. on the twenty-fourth of that month morse sat before his instrument in the room of the supreme court at washington. his friend miss ellsworth handed him the message which she had chosen: "what hath god wrought!" morse flashed it to vail forty miles away in baltimore, and vail instantly flashed back the same momentous words, "what hath god wrought!" * the property in the invention was divided into sixteen shares (the partnership having been formed in ) of which morse held , francis o. j. smith , alfred vail , leonard d. gale . in patents to be obtained in foreign countries, morse was to hold shares, smith , vail , gale . smith had been a member of congress and chairman of the committee on commerce. he was admitted to the partnership in consideration of his assisting morse to arouse the interest of european governments. two days later the democratic national convention met in baltimore to nominate a president and vice-president. the leaders of the convention desired to nominate senator silas wright of new york, who was then in washington, as running mate to james k. polk, but they must know first whether wright would consent to run as vice-president. so they posted a messenger off to washington but were persuaded at the same time to allow the new telegraph to try what it could do. the telegraph carried the offer to wright and carried back to the convention wright's refusal of the honor. the delegates, however, would not believe the telegraph, until their own messenger, returning the next day, confirmed its message. for a time the telegraph attracted little attention. but cornell stretched the lines across the country, connecting city with city, and morse and vail improved the details of the mechanism and perfected the code. others came after them and added further improvements. and it is gratifying to know that both morse and vail, as well as cornell, lived to reap some return for their labor. morse lived to see his telegraph span the continent, and link the new world with the old, and died in full of honors. prompt communication of the written or spoken message is a demand even more insistent than prompt transportation of men and goods. by both the railroad and the telegraph had reached the old town of st. joseph on the missouri. two thousand miles beyond, on the other side of plains and mountains and great rivers, lay prosperous california. the only transportation to california was by stage-coach, a sixty days' journey, or else across panama, or else round the horn, a choice of three evils. but to establish quicker communication, even though transportation might lag, the men of st. joseph organized the pony express, to cover the great wild distance by riders on horseback, in ten or twelve days. relay stations for the horses and men were set up at appropriate points all along the way, and a postboy dashed off from st. joseph every twenty-four hours, on arrival of the train from the east. and for a time the pony express did its work and did it well. president lincoln's first inaugural was carried to california by the pony express; so was the news of the firing on fort sumter. but by . the pony express was quietly superseded by the telegraph, which in that year had completed its circuits all the way to san francisco, seven years ahead of the first transcontinental railroad. and in four more years cyrus w. field and peter cooper had carried to complete success the atlantic cable; and the morse telegraph was sending intelligence across the sea, as well as from new york to the golden gate. and today ships at sea and stations on land, separated by the sea, speak to one another in the language of the morse code, without the use of wires. wireless, or radio, telegraphy was the invention of a nineteen-year-old boy, guglielmo marconi, an italian; but it has been greatly extended and developed at the hands of four americans: fessenden, alexanderson, langmuir, and lee de forest. it was de forest's invention that made possible transcontinental and transatlantic telephone service, both with and without wires. the story of the telegraph's younger brother, and great ally in communication, the telephone of alexander graham bell, is another pregnant romance of american invention. but that is a story by itself, and it begins in a later period and so falls within the scope of another volume of these chronicles.* * "the age of big business", by burton j. hendrick, "the chronicle of america", vol. xxxix. wise newspapermen stiffened to attention when the telegraph began ticking. the new york herald, the sun, and the tribune had been founded only recently and they represented a new type of journalism, swift, fearless, and energetic. the proprietors of these newspapers saw that this new instrument was bound to affect all newspaperdom profoundly. how was the newspaper to cope with the situation and make use of the news that was coming in and would be coming in more and more over the wires? for one thing, the newspapers needed better printing machinery. the application of steam, or any mechanical power, to printing in america was only begun. it had been introduced by robert hoe in the very years when morse was struggling to perfect the telegraph. before that time newspapers were printed in the united states, on presses operated as franklin's press had been operated, by hand. the new york sun, the pioneer of cheap modern newspapers, was printed by hand in , and four hundred impressions an hour was the highest speed of one press. there had been, it is true, some improvements over franklin's printing press. the columbian press of george clymer of philadelphia, invented in , was a step forward. the washington press, patented in by samuel rust of new york, was another step forward. then had come robert hoe's double-cylinder, steamdriven printing press. but a swifter machine was wanted. and so in richard march hoe, a son of robert hoe, invented the revolving or rotary press, on the principle of which larger and larger machines have been built--machines so complex and wonderful that they baffle description; which take in reels of white paper and turn out great newspapers complete, folded and counted, at the rate of a hundred thousand copies an hour. american printing machines are in use today the world over. the london times is printed on american machines. hundreds of new inventions and improvements on old inventions followed hard on the growth of the newspaper, until it seemed that the last word had been spoken. the newspapers had the wonderful hoe presses; they had cheap paper; they had excellent type, cast by machinery; they had a satisfactory process of multiplying forms of type by stereotyping; and at length came a new process of making pictures by photo-engraving, supplanting the old-fashioned process of engraving on wood. meanwhile, however, in one important department of the work, the newspapers had made no advance whatever. the newspapers of new york in the year , and later, set up their type by the same method that benjamin franklin used to set up the type for the pennsylvania gazette. the compositor stood or sat at his "case," with his "copy" before him, and picked the type up letter by letter until he had filled and correctly spaced a line. then he would set another line, and so on, all with his hands. after the job was completed, the type had to be distributed again, letter by letter. typesetting was slow and expensive. this labor of typesetting was at last generally done away with by the invention of two intricate and ingenious machines. the linotype, the invention of ottmar mergenthaler of baltimore, came first; then the monotype of tolbert lanston, a native of ohio. the linotype is the favorite composing machine for newspapers and is also widely used in typesetting for books, though the monotype is preferred by book printers. one or other of these machines has today replaced, for the most part, the old hand compositors in every large printing establishment in the united states. while the machinery of the great newspapers was being developed, another instrument of communication, more humble but hardly less important in modern life, was coming into existence. the typewriter is today in every business office and is another of america's gifts to the commercial world. one might attempt to trace the typewriter back to the early seals, or to the name plates of the middle ages, or to the records of the british patent office, for , which mention a machine for embossing. but it would be difficult to establish the identity of these contrivances with the modern typewriter. two american devices, one of william burt in , for a "typographer," and another of charles thurber, of worcester, massachusetts, in , may also be passed over. alfred ely beach made a model for a typewriter as early as , but neglected it for other things, and his next effort in printing machines was a device for embossing letters for the blind. his typewriter had many of the features of the modern typewriter, but lacked a satisfactory method of inking the types. this was furnished by s. w. francis of new york, whose machine, in , bore a ribbon saturated with ink. none of these machines, however, was a commercial success. they were regarded merely as the toys of ingenious men. the accredited father of the typewriter was a wisconsin newspaperman, christopher latham sholes, editor, politician, and anti-slavery agitator. a strike of his printers led him to unsuccessful attempts to invent a typesetting machine. he did succeed, however, in making, in collaboration with another printer, samuel w. soule, a numbering machine, and a friend, carlos glidden, to whom this ingenious contrivance was shown, suggested a machine to print letters. the three friends decided to try. none had studied the efforts of previous experimenters, and they made many errors which might have been avoided. gradually, however, the invention took form. patents were obtained in june, , and again in july of the same year, but the machine was neither strong nor trustworthy. now appeared james densmore and bought a share in the machine, while soule and glidden retired. densmore furnished the funds to build about thirty models in succession, each a little better than the preceding. the improved machine was patented in , and the partners felt that they were ready to begin manufacturing. wisely they determined, in , to offer their machine to eliphalet remington and sons, then manufacturing firearms, sewing machines, and the like, at ilion, new york. here, in well-equipped machine shops it was tested, strengthened, and improved. the remingtons believed they saw a demand for the machine and offered to buy the patents, paying either a lump sum, or a royalty. it is said that sholes preferred the ready cash and received twelve thousand dollars, while densmore chose the royalty and received a million and a half. the telegraph, the press, and the typewriter are agents of communication for the written word. the telephone is an agent for the spoken word. and there is another instrument for recording sound and reproducing it, which should not be forgotten. it was in that thomas alva edison completed the first phonograph. the air vibrations set up by the human voice were utilized to make minute indentations on a sheet of tinfoil placed over a metallic cylinder, and the machine would then reproduce the sounds which had caused the indentations. the record wore out after a few reproductions, however, and edison was too busy to develop his idea further for a time, though later he returned to it. the phonograph today appears under various names, but by whatever name they are called, the best machines reproduce with wonderful fidelity the human voice, in speech or song, and the tones of either a single instrument or a whole orchestra. the most distinguished musicians are glad to do their best for the preservation and reproduction of their art, and through these machines, good music is brought to thousands to whom it could come in no other way. the camera bears a large part in the diffusion of intelligence, and the last half century in the united states has seen a great development in photography and photoengraving. the earliest experiments in photography belong almost exclusively to europe. morse, as we have seen, introduced the secret to america and interested his friend john w. draper, who had a part in the perfection of the dry plate and who was one of the first, if not the first, to take a portrait by photography. the world's greatest inventor in photography is, however, george eastman, of rochester. it was in that eastman introduced a new camera, which he called by the distinctive name kodak, and with it the slogan: "you press the button, we do the rest." this first kodak was loaded with a roll of sensitized paper long enough for a hundred exposures. sent to the makers, the roll could itself be developed and pictures could be printed from it. eastman had been an amateur photographer when the fancy was both expensive and tedious. inventing a method of making dry plates, he began to manufacture them in a small way as early as . after the first kodak, there came others filled with rolls of sensitized nitro-cellulose film. priority in the invention of the cellulose film, instead of glass, which has revolutionized photography, has been decided by the courts to belong to the reverend hannibal goodwin, but the honor none the less belongs to eastman, who independently worked out his process and gave photography to the millions. the introduction by the eastman kodak company of a film cartridge which could be inserted or removed without retiring to a dark room removed the chief difficulty in the way of amateurs, and a camera of some sort, varying in price from a dollar or two to as many hundreds, is today an indispensable part of a vacation equipment. in the development of the animated pictures thomas alva edison has played a large part. many were the efforts to give the appearance of movement to pictures before the first real entertainment was staged by henry heyl of philadelphia. heyl's pictures were on glass plates fixed in the circumference of a wheel, and each was brought and held for a part of a second before the lens. this method was obviously too slow and too expensive. edison with his keen mind approached the difficulty and after a prolonged series of experiments arrived at the decision that a continuous tape-like film would be necessary. he invented the first practical "taking" camera and evoked the enthusiastic cooperation of george eastman in the production of this tape-like film, and the modern motion picture was born. the projecting machine was substantially like the "taking" camera and was so used. other inventors, such as paul in england and lumiere in france, produced other types of projecting machines, which differed only in mechanical details. when the motion picture was taken up in earnest in the united states, the world stared in astonishment at the apparent recklessness of the early managers. the public responded, however, and there is hardly a hamlet in the nation where there is not at least one moving-picture house. the most popular actors have been drawn from the speaking stage into the "movies," and many new actors have been developed. in the small town, the picture theater is often a converted storeroom, but in the cities, some of the largest and most attractive theaters have been given over to the pictures, and others even more luxurious have been specially built. the eastman company alone manufactures about ten thousand miles of film every month. besides affording amusement to millions, the moving picture has been turned to instruction. important news events are shown on the screen, and historical events are preserved for posterity by depositing the films in a vault. what would the historical student not give for a film faithfully portraying the inauguration of george washington! the motion picture has become an important factor in instruction in history and science in the schools and this development is still in its infancy. chapter vii. the story of rubber one day in , at trenton, new jersey, there appeared in the circuit court of the united states two men, the legal giants of their day, to argue the case of goodyear vs. day for infringement of patent. rufus choate represented the defendant and daniel webster the plaintiff. webster, in the course of his plea, one of the most brilliant and moving ever uttered by him, paused for a moment, drew from himself the attention of those who were hanging upon his words, and pointed to his client. he would have them look at the man whose cause he pleaded: a man of fifty-two, who looked fifteen years older, sallow, emaciated from disease, due to long privations, bitter disappointments, and wrongs. this was charles goodyear, inventor of the process which put rubber into the service of the world. said webster: "and now is charles goodyear the discoverer of this invention of vulcanized rubber? is he the first man upon whose mind the idea ever flashed, or to whose intelligence the fact ever was disclosed, that by carrying heat to a certain height it would cease to render plastic the india rubber and begin to harden and metallize it? is there a man in the world who found out that fact before charles goodyear? who is he? where is he? on what continent does he live? who has heard of him? what books treat of him? what man among all the men on earth has seen him, known him, or named him? yet it is certain that this discovery has been made. it is certain that it exists. it is certain that it is now a matter of common knowledge all over the civilized world. it is certain that ten or twelve years ago it was not knowledge. it is certain that this curious result has grown into knowledge by somebody's discovery and invention. and who is that somebody? the question was put to my learned opponent by my learned associate. if charles goodyear did not make this discovery, who did make it? who did make it? why, if our learned opponent had said he should endeavor to prove that some one other than mr. goodyear had made this discovery, that would have been very fair. i think the learned gentleman was very wise in not doing so. for i have thought often, in the course of my practice in law, that it was not very advisable to raise a spirit that one could not conveniently lay again. now who made this discovery? and would it not be proper? i am sure it would. and would it not be manly? i am sure it would. would not my learned friend and his coadjutor have acted a more noble part, if they had stood up and said that this invention was not goodyear's, but it was an invention of such and such a man, in this or that country? on the contrary they do not meet goodyear's claim by setting up a distinct claim of anybody else. they attempt to prove that he was not the inventor by little shreds and patches of testimony. here a little bit of sulphur, and there a little parcel of lead; here a little degree of heat, a little hotter than would warm a man's hands, and in which a man could live for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour; and yet they never seem to come to the point. i think it is because their materials did not allow them to come to the manly assertion that somebody else did make this invention, giving to that somebody a local habitation and a name. we want to know the name, and the habitation, and the location of the man upon the face of this globe, who invented vulcanized rubber, if it be not he, who now sits before us. "well there are birds which fly in the air, seldom lighting, but often hovering. now i think this is a question not to be hovered over, not to be brooded over, and not to be dealt with as an infinitesimal quantity of small things. it is a case calling for a manly admission and a manly defense. i ask again, if there is anybody else than goodyear who made this invention, who is he? is the discovery so plain that it might have come about by accident? it is likely to work important changes in the arts everywhere. it introduces quite a new material into the manufacture of the arts, that material being nothing less than elastic metal. it is hard like metal and as elastic as pure original gum elastic. why, that is as great and momentous a phenomenon occurring to men in the progress of their knowledge, as it would be for a man to show that iron and gold could remain iron and gold and yet become elastic like india rubber. it would be just such another result. now, this fact cannot be denied; it cannot be secreted; it cannot be kept out of sight; somebody has made this invention. that is certain. who is he? mr. hancock has been referred to. but he expressly acknowledges goodyear to be the first inventor. i say that there is not in the world a human being that can stand up and say that it is his invention, except the man who is sitting at that table." the court found for the plaintiff, and this decision established for all time the claim of the american, charles goodyear, to be the sole inventor of vulcanized rubber. this trial may be said to be the dramatic climax in the story of rubber. it celebrated the hour when the science of invention turned a raw product--which had tantalized by its promise and wrought ruin by its treachery--into a manufacture adaptable to a thousand uses, adding to man's ease and health and to the locomotion, construction, and communication of modern life. when columbus revisited hayti on his second voyage, he observed some natives playing with a ball. now, ball games are the oldest sport known. from the beginning of his history man, like the kitten and the puppy, has delighted to play with the round thing that rolls. the men who came with columbus to conquer the indies had brought their castilian wind-balls to play with in idle hours. but at once they found that the balls of hayti were incomparably superior toys; they bounced better. these high bouncing balls were made, so they learned, from a milky fluid of the consistency of honey which the natives procured by tapping certain trees and then cured over the smoke of palm nuts. a discovery which improved the delights of ball games was noteworthy. the old spanish historian, herrera, gravely transcribed in his pages all that the governors of hayti reported about the bouncing balls. some fifty years later another spanish historian related that the natives of the amazon valley made shoes of this gum; and that spanish soldiers spread their cloaks with it to keep out the rain. many years later still, in , a french astronomer, who was sent by his government to peru to measure an arc of the meridian, brought home samples of the gum and reported that the natives make lights of it, "which burn without a wick and are very bright," and "shoes of it which are waterproof, and when smoked they have the appearance of leather. they also make pear-shaped bottles on the necks of which they fasten wooden tubes. pressure on the bottle sends the liquid squirting out of the tube, so they resemble syringes." their name for the fluid, he added, was "cachuchu"--caoutchouc, we now write it. evidently the samples filled no important need at the time, for we hear no more of the gum until thirty-four years afterward. then, so an english writer tells us, a use was found for the gum--and a name. a stationer accidentally discovered that it would erase pencil marks, and, as it came from the indies and rubbed, of course it was "india rubber." about the year american merchantmen, plying between brazil and new england, sometimes carried rubber as ballast on the home voyage and dumped it on the wharves at boston. one of the shipmasters exhibited to his friends a pair of native shoes fancifully gilded. another, with more foresight, brought home five hundred pairs, ungilded, and offered them for sale. they were thick, clumsily shaped, and heavy, but they sold. there was a demand for more. in a few years half a million pairs were being imported annually. new england manufacturers bid against one another along the wharves for the gum which had been used as ballast and began to make rubber shoes. european vessels had also carried rubber home; and experiments were being made with it in france and britain. a frenchman manufactured suspenders by cutting a native bottle into fine threads and running them through a narrow cloth web. and macintosh, a chemist of glasgow, inserted rubber treated with naphtha between thin pieces of cloth and evolved the garment that still bears his name. at first the new business in rubber yielded profits. the cost of the raw material was infinitesimal; and there was a demand for the finished articles. in roxbury, massachusetts, a firm manufacturing patent leather treated raw rubber with turpentine and lampblack and spread it on cloth, in an effort to produce a waterproof leather. the process appeared to be a complete success, and a large capital was employed to make handsome shoes and clothing out of the new product and in opening shops in the large cities for their sale. merchants throughout the country placed orders for these goods, which, as it happened, were made and shipped in winter. but, when summer came, the huge profits of the manufacturers literally melted away, for the beautiful garments decomposed in the heat; and loads of them, melting and running together, were being returned to the factory. and they filled roxbury with such noisome odors that they had to be taken out at dead of night and buried deep in the earth. and not only did these rubber garments melt in the heat. it presently transpired that severe frost stiffened them to the rigidity of granite. daniel webster had had some experience in this matter himself. "a friend in new york," he said, "sent me a very fine cloak of india rubber, and a hat of the same material. i did not succeed very well with them. i took the cloak one day and set it out in the cold. it stood very well by itself. i surmounted it with the hat, and many persons passing by supposed they saw, standing by the porch, the farmer of marshfield." it was in the year , shortly after the roxbury manufacturers had come to realize that their process was worthless and that their great fortune was only a mirage, and just before these facts became generally known, that charles goodyear made his entrance on the scene. he appeared first as a customer in the company's store in new york and bought a rubber life-preserver. when he returned some weeks later with a plan for improving the tube, the manager confided to him the sad tragedy of rubber, pointing out that no improvement in the manufactured articles would meet the difficulty, but that fame and fortune awaited the inventor of a process that would keep rubber dry and firm and flexible in all weathers. goodyear felt that he had a call from god. "he who directs the operations of the mind," he wrote at a later date, "can turn it to the development of the properties of nature in his own way, and at the time when they are specially needed. the creature imagines he is executing some plan of his own, while he is simply an instrument in the hands of his maker for executing the divine purposes of beneficence to the race." it was in the spirit of a crusader, consecrated to a particular service, that this man took up the problem of rubber. the words quoted are a fitting preface for the story of the years that followed, which is a tale of endurance and persistent activity under sufferings and disappointments such as are scarcely paralleled even in the pages of invention, darkened as they often are by poverty and defeat. charles goodyear was born at new haven, december , , the son of amasa goodyear and descendant of stephen goodyear who was associated with theophilus eaton, the first governor of the puritan colony of new haven. it was natural that charles should turn his mind to invention, as he did even when a boy; for his father, a pioneer in the manufacture of american hardware, was the inventor of a steel hayfork which replaced the heavy iron fork of prior days and lightened and expedited the labor of the fields. when charles was seven his father moved to naugatuck and manufactured the first pearl buttons made in america; during the war of the goodyear factory supplied metal buttons to the government. charles, a studious, serious boy, was the close companion of his father. his deeply religious nature manifested itself early, and he joined the congregational church when he was sixteen. it was at first his intention to enter the ministry, which seemed to him to offer the most useful career of service, but, changing his mind, he went to philadelphia to learn the hardware business and on coming of age was admitted to partnership in a firm established there by his father. the firm prospered for a time, but an injudicious extension of credit led to its suspension. so it happened that goodyear in , when he became interested in rubber, was an insolvent debtor, liable, under the laws of the time, to imprisonment. soon afterward, indeed, he was lodged in the debtor's prison in philadelphia. it would seem an inauspicious hour to begin a search which might lead him on in poverty for years and end nowhere. but, having seen the need for perfect rubber, the thought had come to him, with the force of a religious conviction, that "an object so desirable and so important, and so necessary to man's comfort, as the making of gum-elastic available to his use, was most certainly placed within his reach." thereafter he never doubted that god had called him to this task and that his efforts would be crowned with success. concerning his prison experiences, of which the first was not to be the last, he says that "notwithstanding the mortification attending such a trial," if the prisoner has a real aim "for which to live and hope over he may add firmness to hope, and derive lasting advantage by having proved to himself that, with a clear conscience and a high purpose, a man may be as happy within prison walls as in any other (even the most fortunate) circumstances in life." with this spirit he met every reverse throughout the ten hard years that followed. luckily, as he says, his first experiments required no expensive equipment. fingers were the best tools for working the gum. the prison officials allowed him a bench and a marble slab, a friend procured him a few dollars' worth of gum, which sold then at five cents a pound, and his wife contributed her rolling pin. that was the beginning. for a time he believed that, by mixing the raw gum with magnesia and boiling it in lime, he had overcome the stickiness which was the inherent difficulty. he made some sheets of white rubber which were exhibited, and also some articles for sale. his hopes were dashed when he found that weak acid, such as apple juice or vinegar, destroyed his new product. then in he found that the application of aqua fortis, or nitric acid, produced a "curing" effect on the rubber and thought that he had discovered the secret. finding a partner with capital, he leased an abandoned rubber factory on staten island. but his partner's fortune was swept away in the panic of , leaving goodyear again an insolvent debtor. later he found another partner and went to manufacturing in the deserted plant at roxbury, with an order from the government for a large number of mail bags. this order was given wide publicity and it aroused the interest of manufacturers throughout the country. but by the time the goods were ready for delivery the first bags made had rotted from their handles. only the surface of the rubber had been "cured." this failure was the last straw, as far as goodyear's friends were concerned. only his patient and devoted wife stood by him; she had labored, known want, seen her children go hungry to school, but she seems never to have reproached her husband nor to have doubted his ultimate success. the gentleness and tenderness of his deportment in the home made his family cling to him with deep affection and bear willingly any sacrifice for his sake; though his successive failures generally meant a return of the inventor to the debtor's prison and the casting of his family upon charity. the nitric acid process had not solved the problem but it had been a real step forward. it was in the year , by an accident, that he discovered the true process of vulcanization which cured not the surface alone but the whole mass. he was trying to harden the gum by boiling it with sulphur on his wife's cookstove when he let fall a lump of it on the red hot iron top. it vulcanized instantly. this was an accident which only goodyear could have interpreted. and it was the last. the strange substance from the jungles of the tropics had been mastered. it remained, however, to perfect the process, to ascertain the accurate formula and the exact degree of heat. the goodyears were so poor during these years that they received at any time a barrel of flour from a neighbor thankfully. there is a tradition that on one occasion, when goodyear desired to cross between staten island and new york, he had to give his umbrella to the ferry master as security for his fare, and that the name of the ferry master was cornelius vanderbilt, "a man who made much money because he took few chances." the incident may easily have occurred, though the ferry master could hardly have been vanderbilt himself, unless it had been at an earlier date. another tradition says that one of goodyear's neighbors described him to an inquisitive stranger thus: "you will know him when you see him; he has on an india rubber cap, stock, coat, vest, and shoes, and an india rubber purse without a cent in it!" goodyear's trials were only beginning. he had the secret at last, but nobody would believe him. he had worn out even the most sanguine of his friends. "that such indifference to this discovery, and many incidents attending it, could have existed in an intelligent and benevolent community," wrote goodyear later, "can only be accounted for by existing circumstances in that community the great losses that had been sustained in the manufacture of gum-elastic: the length of time the inventor had spent in what appeared to them to be entirely fruitless efforts to accomplish anything with it; added to his recent misfortunes and disappointments, all conspired, with his utter destitution, to produce a state of things as unfavorable to the promulgation of the discovery as can well be imagined. he, however, felt in duty bound to beg in earnest, if need be, sooner than that the discovery should be lost to the world and to himself.... how he subsisted at this period charity alone can tell, for it is as well to call things by their right names; and it is little else than charity when the lender looks upon what he parts with as a gift. the pawning or selling some relic of better days or some article of necessity was a frequent expedient. his library had long since disappeared, but shortly after the discovery of this process, he collected and sold at auction the schoolbooks of his children, which brought him the trifling sum of five dollars; small as the amount was, it enabled him to proceed. at this step he did not hesitate. the occasion, and the certainty of success, warranted the measure which, in other circumstances, would have been sacrilege." his itinerary during those years is eloquent. wherever there was a man, who had either a grain of faith in rubber or a little charity for a frail and penniless monomaniac, thither goodyear made his way. the goal might be an attic room or shed to live in rent free, or a few dollars for a barrel of flour for the family and a barrel of rubber for himself, or permission to use a factory's ovens after hours and to hang his rubber over the steam valves while work went on. from woburn in , the year of his great discovery, he went to lynn, from lynn back to the deserted factory at roxbury. again to woburn, to boston, to northampton, to springfield, to naugatuck; in five years as many removes. when he lacked boat or railway fare, and he generally did, he walked through winds and rains and drifting snow, begging shelter at some cottage or farm where a window lamp gleamed kindly. goodyear took out his patent in . the process he invented has been changed little, if at all, from that day to this. he also invented the perfect india rubber cloth by mixing fiber with the gum a discovery he considered rightly as secondary in importance only to vulcanization. when he died in he had taken out sixty patents on rubber manufactures. he had seen his invention applied to several hundred uses, giving employment to sixty thousand persons, producing annually eight million dollars' worth of merchandise--numbers which would form but a fraction of the rubber statistics of today. everybody, the whole civilized world round, uses rubber in one form or another. and rubber makes a belt around the world in its natural as well as in its manufactured form. the rubber-bearing zone winds north and south of the equator through both hemispheres. in south america rubber is the latex of certain trees, in africa of trees and vines. the best "wild" rubber still comes from para in brazil. it is gathered and prepared for shipment there today by the same methods the natives used four hundred years ago. the natives in their canoes follow the watercourses into the jungles. they cut v-shaped or spiral incisions in the trunks of the trees that grow sheer to sixty feet before spreading their shade. at the base of the incisions they affix small clay cups, like swallows' nests. over the route they return later with large gourds in which they collect the fluid from the clay cups. the filled gourds they carry to their village of grass huts and there they build their smoky fires of oily palm nuts. dipping paddles into the fluid gum they turn and harden it, a coating at a time, in the smoke. the rubber "biscuit" is cut from the paddle with a wet knife when the desired thickness has been attained. goodyear lived for sixteen years after his discovery of the vulcanization process. during the last six he was unable to walk without crutches. he was indifferent to money. to make his discoveries of still greater service to mankind was his whole aim. it was others who made fortunes out of his inventions. goodyear died a poor man. in his book, a copy of which was printed on gumelastic sheets and bound in hard rubber carved, he summed up his philosophy in this statement: "the writer is not disposed to repine and say that he has planted and others have gathered the fruits. the advantages of a career in life should not be estimated exclusively by the standard of dollars and cents, as it is too often done. man has just cause for regret when he sows and no one reaps." chapter viii. pioneers of the machine shop there is a tinge of melancholy about the life of such a pioneer as oliver evans, that early american mechanic of great genius, whose story is briefly outlined in a preceding chapter. here was a man of imagination and sensibility, as well as practical power; conferring great benefits on his countrymen, yet in chronic poverty; derided by his neighbors, robbed by his beneficiaries; his property, the fruit of his brain and toil, in the end malevolently destroyed. the lot of the man who sees far ahead of his time, and endeavors to lead his fellows in ways for which they are not prepared, has always been hard. john stevens, too, as we have seen, met defeat when he tried to thrust a steam railroad on a country that was not yet ready for it. his mechanical conceptions were not marked by genius equal to that of evans, but they were still too far advanced to be popular. the career of stevens, however, presents a remarkable contrast to that of evans in other respects. evans was born poor (in delaware, ) and remained poor all his life. stevens was born rich (in new york city, ) and remained rich all his life. of the family of evans nothing is known either before or after him. stevens, on the contrary, belonged to one of the best known and most powerful families in america. his grandfather, john stevens i, came from england in and made himself a lawyer and a great landowner. his father, john stevens ii, was a member from new jersey of the continental congress and presided at the new jersey convention which ratified the constitution. john stevens iii was graduated at king's college (columbia) in . he held public offices during the revolution. to him, perhaps more than to any other man, is due the patent act of , for the protection of american inventors, for that law was the result of a petition which he made to congress and which, being referred to a committee, was favorably reported. thus we may regard john stevens as the father of the american patent law. john stevens owned the old dutch farm on the hudson on which the city of hoboken now stands. the place had been in possession of the bayard family, but william bayard, who lived there at the time of the revolution, was a loyalist, and his house on castle point was burned down and his estate confiscated. after the revolution stevens acquired the property. he laid it out as a town in , made it his summer residence, and established there the machine shops in which he and his sons carried on their mechanical experiments. these shops were easily the largest and bestequipped in the union when in john stevens died at the age of ninety. the four brothers, john cox, robert livingston, james alexander, and edwin augustus, worked harmoniously together. "no one ever heard of any quarrel or dissension in the stevens family. they were workmen themselves, and they were superior to their subordinates because they were better engineers and better men of business than any other folk who up to that time had undertaken the business of transportation in the united states."* * abram s. hewitt. quoted in iles, "leading american inventors", p. . the youngest of these brothers, edwin augustus stevens, dying in , left a large part of his fortune to found the stevens institute of technology, afterwards erected at hoboken not far from the old family homestead on castle point. the mechanical star of the family, however, was the second brother, robert livingston stevens, whose many inventions made for the great improvement of transportation both by land and water. for a quarter of a century, from to , he was the foremost builder of steamboats in america, and under his hand the steamboat increased amazingly in speed and efficiency. he made great contributions to the railway. the first locomotives ran upon wooden stringers plated with strap iron. a loose end--"a snakehead" it was called--sometimes curled up and pierced through the floor of a car, causing a wreck. the solid metal t-rail, now in universal use, was designed by stevens and was first used on the camden and amboy railroad, of which he was president and his brother edwin treasurer and manager. the swivel truck and the cow-catcher, the modern method of attaching rails to ties, the vestibule car, and many improvements in the locomotive were also first introduced on the stevens road. the stevens brothers exerted their influence also on naval construction. a double invention of robert and edwin, the forced draft, to augment steam power and save coal, and the air-tight fireroom, which they applied to their own vessels, was afterwards adopted by all navies. robert designed and projected an ironclad battleship, the first one in the world. this vessel, called the stevens battery, was begun by authority of the government in ; but, owing to changes in the design and inadequate appropriations by congress, it was never launched. it lay for many years in the basin at hoboken an unfinished hulk. robert died in . on the outbreak of the civil war, edwin tried to revive the interest of the government, but by that time the design of the stevens battery was obsolete, and edwin stevens was an old man. so the honors for the construction of the first ironclad man-of-war to fight and win a battle went to john ericsson, that other great inventor, who built the famous monitor for the union government. carlyle's oft-quoted term, "captains of industry," may fittingly be applied to the stevens family. strong, masterful, and farseeing, they used ideas, their own and those of others, in a large way, and were able to succeed where more timorous inventors failed. without the stimulus of poverty they achieved success, making in their shops that combination of men and material which not only added to their own fortunes but also served the world. we left eli whitney defeated in his efforts to divert to himself some adequate share of the untold riches arising from his great invention of the cotton gin. whitney, however, had other sources of profit in his own character and mechanical ability. as early as he had turned his talents to the manufacture of firearms. he had established his shops at whitneyville, near new haven; and it was there that he worked out another achievement quite as important economically as the cotton gin, even though the immediate consequences were less spectacular: namely, the principle of standardization or interchangeability in manufacture. this principle is the very foundation today of all american large-scale production. the manufacturer produces separately thousands of copies of every part of a complicated machine, confident that an equal number of the complete machine will be assembled and set in motion. the owner of a motor car, a reaper, a tractor, or a sewing machine, orders, perhaps by telegraph or telephone, a broken or lost part, taking it for granted that the new part can be fitted easily and precisely into the place of the old. though it is probable that this idea of standardization, or interchangeability, originated independently in whitney's mind, and though it is certain that he and one of his neighbors, who will be mentioned presently, were the first manufacturers in the world to carry it out successfully in practice, yet it must be noted that the idea was not entirely new. we are told that the system was already in operation in england in the manufacture of ship's blocks. from no less an authority than thomas jefferson we learn that a french mechanic had previously conceived the same idea.* but, as no general result whatever came from the idea in either france or england, the honors go to whitney and north, since they carried it to such complete success that it spread to other branches of manufacturing. and in the face of opposition. when whitney wrote that his leading object was "to substitute correct and effective operations of machinery for that skill of the artist which is acquired only by long practice and experience," in order to make the same parts of different guns "as much like each other as the successive impressions of a copper-plate engraving," he was laughed to scorn by the ordnance officers of france and england. "even the washington officials," says roe, "were sceptical and became uneasy at advancing so much money without a single gun having been completed, and whitney went to washington, taking with him ten pieces of each part of a musket. he exhibited these to the secretary of war and the army officers interested, as a succession of piles of different parts. selecting indiscriminately from each of the piles, he put together ten muskets, an achievement which was looked on with amazement."** * see the letter from jefferson to john jay, of april , , cited in roe, "english and american tool builders", p. . ** roe, "english and american tool builders", p. . while whitney worked out his plans at whitneyville, simeon north, another connecticut mechanic and a gunmaker by trade, adopted the same system. north's first shop was at berlin. he afterwards moved to middletown. like whitney, he used methods far in advance of the time. both whitney and north helped to establish the united states arsenals at springfield, massachusetts, and at harper's ferry, virginia, in which their methods were adopted. both the whitney and north plants survived their founders. just before the mexican war the whitney plant began to use steel for gun barrels, and jefferson davis, colonel of the mississippi rifles, declared that the new guns were "the best rifles which had ever been issued to any regiment in the world." later, when davis became secretary of war, he issued to the regular army the same weapon. the perfection of whitney's tools and machines made it possible to employ workmen of little skill or experience. "indeed so easy did mr. whitney find it to instruct new and inexperienced workmen, that he uniformly preferred to do so, rather than to combat the prejudices of those who had learned the business under a different system."* this reliance upon the machine for precision and speed has been a distinguishing mark of american manufacture. a man or a woman of little actual mechanical skill may make an excellent machine tender, learning to perform a few simple motions with great rapidity. * denison olmstead, "memoir", cited by roe, p. . whitney married in miss henrietta edwards, daughter of judge pierpont edwards, of new haven, and granddaughter of jonathan edwards. his business prospered, and his high character, agreeable manners, and sound judgment won. for him the highest regard of all who knew him; and he had a wide circle of friends. it is said that he was on intimate terms with every president of the united states from george washington to john quincy adams. but his health had been impaired by hardships endured in the south, in the long struggle over the cotton gin, and he died in , at the age of fifty-nine. the business which he founded remained in his family for ninety years. it was carried on after his death by two of his nephews and then by his son, until , when it was sold to the winchester repeating arms company of new haven. here then, in these early new england gunshops, was born the american system of interchangeable manufacture. its growth depended upon the machine tool, that is, the machine for making machines. machine tools, of course, did not originate in america. english mechanics were making machines for cutting metal at least a generation before whitney. one of the earliest of these english pioneers was john wilkinson, inventor and maker of the boring machine which enabled boulton and watt in to bring their steam engine to the point of practicability. without this machine watt found it impossible to bore his cylinders with the necessary degree of accuracy.* from this one fact, that the success of the steam engine depended upon the invention of a new tool, we may judge of what a great part the inventors of machine tools, of whom thousands are unnamed and unknown, have played in the industrial world. * roe, "english and american tool builders", p. et seq. so it was in the shops of the new england gunmakers that machine tools were first made of such variety and adaptability that they could be applied generally to other branches of manufacturing; and so it was that the system of interchangeable manufacture arose as a distinctively american development. we have already seen how england's policy of keeping at home the secrets of her machinery led to the independent development of the spindles and looms of new england. the same policy affected the tool industry in america in the same way and bred in the new country a race of original and resourceful mechanics. one of these pioneers was thomas blanchard, born in on a farm in worcester county, massachusetts, the home also of eli whitney and elias howe. tom began his mechanical career at the age of thirteen by inventing a device to pare apples. at the age of eighteen he went to work in his brother's shop, where tacks were made by hand, and one day took to his brother a mechanical device for counting the tacks to go into a single packet. the invention was adopted and was found to save the labor of one workman. tom's next achievement was a machine to make tacks, on which he spent six years and the rights of which he sold for five thousand dollars. it was worth far more, for it revolutionized the tack industry, but such a sum was to young blanchard a great fortune. the tack-making machine gave blanchard a reputation, and he was presently sought out by a gun manufacturer, to see whether he could improve the lathe for turning the barrels of the guns. blanchard could; and did. his next problem was to invent a lathe for turning the irregular wooden stocks. here he also succeeded and produced a lathe that would copy precisely and rapidly any pattern. it is from this invention that the name of blanchard is best known. the original machine is preserved in the united states armory at springfield, to which blanchard was attached for many years, and where scores of the descendants of his copying lathe may be seen in action today. turning gunstocks was, of course, only one of the many uses of blanchard's copying lathe. its chief use, in fact, was in the production of wooden lasts for the shoemakers of new england, but it was applied to many branches of wood manufacture, and later on the same principle was applied to the shaping of metal. blanchard was a man of many ideas. he built a steam vehicle for ordinary roads and was an early advocate of railroads; he built steamboats to ply upon the connecticut and incidentally produced in connection with these his most profitable invention, a machine to bend ship's timbers without splintering them. the later years of his life were spent in boston, and he often served as a patent expert in the courts, where his wide knowledge, hard common sense, incisive speech, and homely wit made him a welcome witness. we now glance at another new england inventor, samuel colt, the man who carried whitney's conceptions to transcendent heights, the most dashing and adventurous of all the pioneers of the machine shop in america. if "the american frontier was elizabethan in quality," there was surely a touch of the elizabethan spirit on the man whose invention so greatly affected the character of that frontier. samuel colt was born at hartford in and died there in at the age of forty-eight, leaving behind him a famous name and a colossal industry of his own creation. his father was a small manufacturer of silk and woolens at hartford, and the boy entered the factory at a very early age. at school in amherst a little later, he fell under the displeasure of his teachers. at thirteen he took to sea, as a boy before the mast, on the east india voyage to calcutta. it was on this voyage that he conceived the idea of the revolver and whittled out a wooden model. on his return he went into his father's works and gained a superficial knowledge of chemistry from the manager of the bleaching and dyeing department. then he took to the road for three years and traveled from quebec to new orleans lecturing on chemistry under the name of "dr. coult." the main feature of his lecture was the administration of nitrous oxide gas to volunteers from the audience, whose antics and the amusing showman's patter made the entertainment very popular. colt's ambition, however, soared beyond the occupation of itinerant showman, and he never forgot his revolver. as soon as he had money enough, he made models of the new arm and took out his patents; and, having enlisted the interest of capital, he set up the patent arms company at paterson, new jersey, to manufacture the revolver. he did not succeed in having the revolver adopted by the government, for the army officers for a long time objected to the percussion cap (an invention, by the way, then some twenty years old, which was just coming into use and without which colt's revolver would not have been practicable) and thought that the new weapon might fail in an emergency. colt found a market in texas and among the frontiersmen who were fighting the seminole war in florida, but the sales were insufficient, and in the company was obliged to confess insolvency and close down the plant. colt bought from the company the patent of the revolver, which was supposed to be worthless. nothing more happened until after the outbreak of the mexican war in . then came a loud call from general zachary taylor for a supply of colt's revolvers. colt had none. he had sold the last one to a texas ranger. he had not even a model. yet he took an order from the government for a thousand and proceeded to construct a model. for the manufacture of the revolvers he arranged with the whitney plant at whitneyville. there he saw and scrutinized every detail of the factory system that eli whitney had established forty years earlier. he resolved to have a plant of his own on the same system and one that would far surpass whitney's. next year ( ) he rented premises in hartford. his business prospered and increased. at last the government demanded his revolvers. within five years he had procured a site of two hundred and fifty acres fronting the connecticut river at hartford, and had there begun the erection of the greatest arms factory in the world. colt was a captain of captains. the ablest mechanic and industrial organizer in new england at that time was elisha k. root. colt went after him, outbidding every other bidder for his services, and brought him to hartford to supervise the erection of the new factory and set up its machinery. root was a great superintendent, and the phenomenal success of the colt factory was due in a marked degree to him. he became president of the company after colt's death in , and under him were trained a large number of mechanics and inventors of new machine tools, who afterwards became celebrated leaders and officers in the industrial armies of the country. the spectacular rise of the colt factory at hartford drew the attention of the british government, and in colt was invited to appear in london before a parliamentary committee on small arms. he lectured the members of the committee as if they had been school boys, telling them that the regular british gun was so bad that he would be ashamed to have it come from his shop. speaking of a plant which he had opened in london the year before he criticized the supposedly skilled british mechanic, saying: "i began here by employing the highest-priced men that i could find to do difficult things, but i had to remove the whole of these high-priced men. then i tried the cheapest i could find, and the more ignorant a man was, the more brains he had for my purpose; and the result was this: i had men now in my employ that i started with at two shillings a day, and in one short year i can not spare them at eight shillings a day."* colt's audacity, however, did not offend the members of the committee and they decided to visit his american factory at hartford. they did; and were so impressed that the british government purchased in america a full set of machines for the manufacture of arms in the royal small arms factory at enfield, england, and took across the sea american workmen and foremen to set up and run these machines. a demand sprang up in europe for blanchard copying lathes and a hundred other american tools, and from this time on the manufacture of tools and appliances for other manufacturers, both at home and abroad, became an increasingly important industry of new england. * henry barnard, "armsmear", p. . the system which the gunmakers worked out and developed to meet their own requirements was capable of indefinite expansion. it was easily adapted to other kinds of manufacture. so it was that as new inventions came in the manufacturers of these found many of the needed tools ready for them, and any special modifications could be quickly made. a manufacturer, of machine tools will produce on demand a device to perform any operation, however difficult or intricate. some of the machines are so versatile that specially designed sets of cutting edges will adapt them to almost any work. standardization, due to the machine tool, is one of the chief glories of american manufacturing. accurate watches and clocks, bicycles and motor cars, innumerable devices to save labor in the home, the office, the shop, or on the farm, are within the reach of all, because the machine tool, tended by labor comparatively unskilled, does the greater part of the work of production. in the crisis of the world war, american manufacturers, turning from the arts of peace, promptly adapted their plants to the manufacture of the most complicated engines of destruction, which were produced in europe only by skilled machinists of the highest class. chapter ix. the fathers of electricity it may startle some reader to be told that the foundations of modern electrical science were definitely established in the elizabethan age. the england of elizabeth, of shakespeare, of drake and the sea-dogs, is seldom thought of as the cradle of the science of electricity. nevertheless, it was; just as surely as it was the birthplace of the shakespearian drama, of the authorized version of the bible, or of that maritime adventure and colonial enterprise which finally grew and blossomed into the united states of america. the accredited father of the science of electricity and magnetism is william gilbert, who was a physician and man of learning at the court of elizabeth. prior to him, all that was known of these phenomena was what the ancients knew, that the lodestone possessed magnetic properties and that amber and jet, when rubbed, would attract bits of paper or other substances of small specific gravity. gilbert's great treatise "on the magnet", printed in latin in , containing the fruits of his researches and experiments for many years, indeed provided the basis for a new science. on foundations well and truly laid by gilbert several europeans, like otto von guericke of germany, du fay of france, and stephen gray of england, worked before benjamin franklin and added to the structure of electrical knowledge. the leyden jar, in which the mysterious force could be stored, was invented in holland in and in germany almost simultaneously. franklin's important discoveries are outlined in the first chapter of this book. he found out, as we have seen, that electricity and lightning are one and the same, and in the lightning rod he made the first practical application of electricity. afterwards cavendish of england, coulomb of france, galvani of italy, all brought new bricks to the pile. following them came a group of master builders, among whom may be mentioned: volta of italy, oersted of denmark, ampere of france, ohm of germany, faraday of england, and joseph henry of america. among these men, who were, it should be noted, theoretical investigators, rather than practical inventors like morse, or bell, or edison, the american joseph henry ranks high. henry was born at albany in and was educated at the albany academy. intending to practice medicine, he studied the natural sciences. he was poor and earned his daily bread by private tutoring. he was an industrious and brilliant student and soon gave evidence of being endowed with a powerful mind. he was appointed in an assistant engineer for the survey of a route for a state road, three hundred miles long, between the hudson river and lake erie. the experience he gained in this work changed the course of his career; he decided to follow civil and mechanical engineering instead of medicine. then in he became teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy in the albany academy. it was in the albany academy that he began that wide series of experiments and investigations which touched so many phases of the great problem of electricity. his first discovery was that a magnet could be immensely strengthened by winding it with insulated wire. he was the first to employ insulated wire wound as on a spool and was able finally to make a magnet which would lift thirty-five hundred pounds. he first showed the difference between "quantity" magnets composed of short lengths of wire connected in parallel, excited by a few large cells, and "intensity" magnets wound with a single long wire and excited by a battery composed of cells in series. this was an original discovery, greatly increasing both the immediate usefulness of the magnet and its possibilities for future experiments. the learned men of europe, faraday, sturgeon, and the rest, were quick to recognize the value of the discoveries of the young albany schoolmaster. sturgeon magnanimously said: "professor henry has been enabled to produce a magnetic force which totally eclipses every other in the whole annals of magnetism; and no parallel is to be found since the miraculous suspension of the celebrated oriental imposter in his iron coffin."* * philosophical magazine, vol. xi, p. (march, ). henry also discovered the phenomena of self induction and mutual induction. a current sent through a wire in the second story of the building induced currents through a similar wire in the cellar two floors below. in this discovery henry anticipated faraday though his results as to mutual induction were not published until he had heard rumors of faraday's discovery, which he thought to be something different. the attempt to send signals by electricity had been made many times before henry became interested in the problem. on the invention of sturgeon's magnet there had been hopes in england of a successful solution, but in the experiments that followed the current became so weak after a few hundred feet that the idea was pronounced impracticable. henry strung a mile of fine wire in the academy, placed an "intensity" battery at one end, and made the armature strike a bell at the other. thus he discovered the essential principle of the electric telegraph. this discovery was made in , the year before the idea of a working electric telegraph flashed on the mind of morse. there was no occasion for the controversy which took place later as to who invented the telegraph. that was morse's achievement, but the discovery of the great fact, which startled morse into activity, was henry's achievement. in henry's own words: "this was the first discovery of the fact that a galvanic current could be transmitted to a great distance with so little a diminution of force as to produce mechanical effects, and of the means by which the transmission could be accomplished. i saw that the electric telegraph was now practicable." he says further, however: "i had not in mind any particular form of telegraph, but referred only to the general fact that it was now demonstrated that a galvanic current could be transmitted to great distances, with sufficient power to produce mechanical effects adequate to the desired object."* * deposition of joseph henry, september , , printed in morse, "the electra-magnetic telegraph", p. . henry next turned to the possibility of a magnetic engine for the production of power and succeeded in making a reciprocating-bar motor, on which he installed the first automatic pole changer, or commutator, ever used with an electric battery. he did not succeed in producing direct rotary motion. his bar oscillated like the walking beam of a steamboat. henry was appointed in . professor of natural philosophy in the college of new jersey, better known today as princeton university. there he repeated his old experiments on a larger scale, confirmed steinheil's experiment of using the earth as return conductor, showed how a feeble current would be strengthened, and how a small magnet could be used as a circuit maker and breaker. here were the principles of the telegraph relay and the dynamo. why, then, if the work of henry was so important, is his name almost forgotten, except by men of science, and not given to any one of the practical applications of electricity? the answer is plain. henry was an investigator, not an inventor. he states his position very clearly: "i never myself attempted to reduce the principles to practice, or to apply any of my discoveries to processes in the arts. my whole attention exclusive of my duties to the college, was devoted to original scientific investigations, and i left to others what i considered in a scientific view of subordinate importance--the application of my discoveries to useful purposes in the arts. besides this i partook of the feeling common to men of science, which disinclines them to secure to themselves the advantages of their discoveries by a patent." then, too, his talents were soon turned to a wider field. the bequest of james smithson, that farsighted englishman, who left his fortune to the united states to found "the smithsonian institution, for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men," was responsible for the diffusion of henry's activities. the smithsonian institution was founded at washington in , and henry was fittingly chosen its secretary, that is, its chief executive officer. and from that time until his death in , over thirty years, he devoted himself to science in general. he studied terrestrial magnetism and building materials. he reduced meteorology to a science, collecting reports by telegraph, made the first weather map, and issued forecasts of the weather based upon definite knowledge rather than upon signs. he became a member of the lighthouse board in and was the head after . the excellence of marine illuminants and fog signals today is largely due to his efforts. though he was later drawn into a controversy with morse over the credit for the invention of the telegraph, he used his influence to procure the renewal of morse's patent. he listened with attention to alexander graham bell, who had the idea that electric wires might be made to carry the human voice, and encouraged him to proceed with his experiments. "he said," bell writes, "that he thought it was the germ of a great invention and advised me to work at it without publishing. i said that i recognized the fact that there were mechanical difficulties in the way that rendered the plan impracticable at the present time. i added that i felt that i had not the electrical knowledge necessary to overcome the difficulties. his laconic answer was, 'get it!' i cannot tell you how much these two words have encouraged me." henry had blazed the way for others to work out the principles of the electric motor, and a few experimenters attempted to follow his lead. thomas davenport, a blacksmith of brandon, vermont, built an electric car in , which he was able to drive on the road, and so made himself the pioneer of the automobile in america. twelve years later moses g. farmer exhibited at various places in new england an electric-driven locomotive, and in charles grafton page drove an electric car, on the tracks of the baltimore and ohio railroad, from washington to bladensburg, at the rate of nineteen miles an hour. but the cost of batteries was too great and the use of the electric motor in transportation not yet practicable. the great principle of the dynamo, or electric generator, was discovered by faraday and henry but the process of its development into an agency of practical power consumed many years; and without the dynamo for the generation of power the electric motor had to stand still and there could be no practicable application of electricity to transportation, or manufacturing, or lighting. so it was that, except for the telegraph, whose story is told in another chapter, there was little more american achievement in electricity until after the civil war. the arc light as a practical illuminating device came in . it was introduced by charles f. brush, a young ohio engineer and graduate of the university of michigan. others before him had attacked the problem of electric lighting, but lack of suitable carbons stood in the way of their success. brush overcame the chief difficulties and made several lamps to burn in series from one dynamo. the first brush lights used for street illumination were erected in cleveland, ohio, and soon the use of arc lights became general. other inventors improved the apparatus, but still there were drawbacks. for outdoor lighting and for large halls they served the purpose, but they could not be used in small rooms. besides, they were in series, that is, the current passed through every lamp in turn, and an accident to one threw the whole series out of action. the whole problem of indoor lighting was to be solved by one of america's most famous inventors. the antecedents of thomas alva edison in america may be traced back to the time when franklin was beginning his career as a printer in philadelphia. the first american edisons appear to have come from holland about and settled on the passaic river in new jersey. edison's grandfather, john edison, was a loyalist in the revolution who found refuge in nova scotia and subsequently moved to upper canada. his son, samuel edison, thought he saw a moral in the old man's exile. his father had taken the king's side and had lost his home; samuel would make no such error. so, when the canadian rebellion of broke out, samuel edison, aged thirty-three, arrayed himself on the side of the insurgents. this time, however, the insurgents lost, and samuel was obliged to flee to the united states, just as his father had fled to canada. he finally settled at milan, ohio, and there, in , in a little brick house, which is still standing, thomas alva edison was born. when the boy was seven the family moved to port huron, michigan. the fact that he attended school only three months and soon became self-supporting was not due to poverty. his mother, an educated woman of scotch extraction, taught him at home after the schoolmaster reported that he was "addled." his desire for money to spend on chemicals for a laboratory which he had fitted up in the cellar led to his first venture in business. "by a great amount of persistence," he says, "i got permission to go on the local train as newsboy. the local train from port huron to detroit, a distance of sixty-three miles, left at a.m. and arrived again at . p.m. after being on the train for several months i started two stores in port huron--one for periodicals, and the other for vegetables, butter, and berries in the season. they were attended by two boys who shared in the profits." moreover, young edison bought produce from the farmers' wives along the line which he sold at a profit. he had several newsboys working for him on other trains; he spent hours in the public library in detroit; he fitted up a laboratory in an unused compartment of one of the coaches, and then bought a small printing press which he installed in the car and began to issue a newspaper which he printed on the train. all before he was fifteen years old. but one day edison's career as a traveling newsboy came to a sudden end. he was at work in his moving laboratory when a lurch of the train jarred a stick of burning phosphorus to the floor and set the car on fire. the irate conductor ejected him at the next station, giving him a violent box on the ear, which permanently injured his hearing, and dumped his chemicals and printing apparatus on the platform. having lost his position, young edison soon began to dabble in telegraphy, in which he had already become interested, "probably," as he says, "from visiting telegraph offices with a chum who had tastes similar to mine." he and this chum strung a line between their houses and learned the rudiments of writing by wire. then a station master on the railroad, whose child edison had saved from danger, took edison under his wing and taught him the mysteries of railway telegraphy. the boy of sixteen held positions with small stations near home for a few months and then began a period of five years of apparently purposeless wandering as a tramp telegrapher. toledo, cincinnati, indianapolis, memphis, louisville, detroit, were some of the cities in which he worked, studied, experimented, and played practical jokes on his associates. he was eager to learn something of the principles of electricity but found few from whom he could learn. edison arrived in boston in , practically penniless, and applied for a position as night operator. "the manager asked me when i was ready to go to work. 'now,' i replied." in boston he found men who knew something of electricity, and, as he worked at night and cut short his sleeping hours, he found time for study. he bought and studied faraday's works. presently came the first of his multitudinous inventions, an automatic vote recorder, for which he received a patent in . this necessitated a trip to washington, which he made on borrowed money, but he was unable to arouse any interest in the device. "after the vote recorder," he says, "i invented a stock ticker, and started a ticker service in boston; had thirty or forty subscribers and operated from a room over the gold exchange." this machine edison attempted to sell in new york, but he returned to boston without having succeeded. he then invented a duplex telegraph by which two messages might be sent simultaneously, but at a test the machine failed because of the stupidity of the assistant. penniless and in debt, edison arrived again in new york in . but now fortune favored him. the gold indicator company was a concern furnishing to its subscribers by telegraph the stock exchange prices of gold. the company's instrument was out of order. by a lucky chance edison was on the spot to repair it, which he did successfully, and this led to his appointment as superintendent at a salary of three hundred dollars a month. when a change in the ownership of the company threw him out of the position he formed, with franklin l. pope, the partnership of pope, edison, and company, the first firm of electrical engineers in the united states. not long afterwards edison brought out the invention which set him on the high road to great achievement. this was the improved stock ticker, for which the gold and stock telegraph company paid him forty thousand dollars. it was much more than he had expected. "i had made up my mind," he says, "that, taking into consideration the time and killing pace i was working at, i should be entitled to $ , but could get along with $ ." the money, of course, was paid by check. edison had never received a check before and he had to be told how to cash it. edison immediately set up a shop in newark and threw himself into many and various activities. he remade the prevailing system of automatic telegraphy and introduced it into england. he experimented with submarine cables and worked out a system of quadruplex telegraphy by which one wire was made to do the work of four. these two inventions were bought by jay gould for his atlantic and pacific telegraph company. gould paid for the quadruplex system thirty thousand dollars, but for the automatic telegraph he paid nothing. gould presently acquired control of the western union; and, having thus removed competition from his path, "he then," says edison, "repudiated his contract with the automatic telegraph people and they never received a cent for their wires or patents, and i lost three years of very hard labor. but i never had any grudge against him because he was so able in his line, and as long as my part was successful the money with me was a secondary consideration. when gould got the western union i knew no further progress in telegraphy was possible, and i went into other lines."* * quoted in dyer and martin. "edison", vol. , p. . in fact, however, the need of money forced edison later on to resume his work for the western union telegraph company, both in telegraphy and telephony. his connection with the telephone is told in another volume of this series.* he invented a carbon transmitter and sold it to the western union for one hundred thousand dollars, payable in seventeen annual installments of six thousand dollars. he made a similar agreement for the same sum offered him for the patent of the electro-motograph. he did not realize that these installments were only simple interest upon the sums due him. these agreements are typical of edison's commercial sense in the early years of his career as an inventor. he worked only upon inventions for which there was a possible commercial demand and sold them for a trifle to get the money to meet the pay rolls of his different shops. later the inventor learned wisdom and associated with himself keen business men to their common profit. * hendrick, "the age of big business". edison set up his laboratories and factories at menlo park, new jersey, in , and it was there that he invented the phonograph, for which he received the first patent in . it was there, too, that he began that wonderful series of experiments which gave to the world the incandescent lamp. he had noticed the growing importance of open arc lighting, but was convinced that his mission was to produce an electric lamp for use within doors. forsaking for the moment his newborn phonograph, edison applied himself in earnest to the problem of the lamp. his first search was for a durable filament which would burn in a vacuum. a series of experiments with platinum wire and with various refractory metals led to no satisfactory results. many other substances were tried, even human hair. edison concluded that carbon of some sort was the solution rather than a metal. almost coincidently, swan, an englishman, who had also been wrestling with this problem, came to the same conclusion. finally, one day in october, , after fourteen months of hard work and the expenditure of forty thousand dollars, a carbonized cotton thread sealed in one of edison's globes lasted forty hours. "if it will burn forty hours now," said edison, "i know i can make it burn a hundred." and so he did. a better filament was needed. edison found it in carbonized strips of bamboo. edison developed his own type of dynamo, the largest ever made up to that time, and, along with the edison incandescent lamps, it was one of the wonders of the paris electrical exposition of . the installation in europe and america of plants for service followed. edison's first great central station, supplying power for three thousand lamps, was erected at holborn viaduct, london, in , and in september of that year the pearl street station in new york city, the first central station in america, was put into operation. the incandescent lamp and the central power station, considered together, may be regarded as one of the most fruitful conceptions in the history of applied electricity. it comprised a complete generating, distributing, and utilizing system, from the dynamo to the very lamp at the fixture, ready for use. it even included a meter to determine the current actually consumed. the success of the system was complete, and as fast as lamps and generators could be produced they were installed to give a service at once recognized as superior to any other form of lighting. by the edison lighting system was commercially developed in all its essentials, though still subject to many improvements and capable of great enlargement, and soon edison sold out his interests in it and turned his great mind to other inventions. the inventive ingenuity of others brought in time better and more economical incandescent lamps. from the filaments of bamboo fiber the next step was to filaments of cellulose in the form of cotton, duly prepared and carbonized. later ( ) came the metalized carbon filament and finally the employment of tantalum or tungsten. the tungsten lamps first made were very delicate, and it was not until w. d. coolidge, in the research laboratories of the general electric company at schenectady, invented a process for producing ductile tungsten that they became available for general use. the dynamo and the central power station brought the electric motor into action. the dynamo and the motor do precisely opposite things. the dynamo converts mechanical energy into electric energy. the motor transforms electric energy into mechanical energy. but the two work in partnership and without the dynamo to manufacture the power the motor could not thrive. moreover, the central station was needed to distribute the power for transportation as well as for lighting. the first motors to use edison station current were designed by frank j. sprague, a graduate of the naval academy, who had worked with edison, as have many of the foremost electrical engineers of america and europe. these small motors possessed several advantages over the big steam engine. they ran smoothly and noiselessly on account of the absence of reciprocating parts. they consumed current only when in use. they could be installed and connected with a minimum of trouble and expense. they emitted neither smell nor smoke. edison built an experimental electric railway line at menlo park in and proved its practicability. meanwhile, however, as he worked on his motors and dynamos, he was anticipated by others in some of his inventions. it would not be fair to say that edison and sprague alone developed the electric railway, for there were several others who made important contributions. stephen d. field of stockbridge, massachusetts, had a patent which the edison interests found it necessary to acquire; c. j. van depoele and leo daft made important contributions to the trolley system. in cleveland in an electric railway on a small scale was opened to the public. but sprague's first electric railway, built at richmond, virginia, in , as a complete system, is generally hailed as the true pioneer of electric transportation in the united states. thereafter the electric railway spread quickly over the land, obliterating the old horsecars and greatly enlarging the circumference of the city. moreover, on the steam roads, at all the great terminals, and wherever there were tunnels to be passed through, the old giant steam engine in time yielded place to the electric motor. the application of the electric motor to the "vertical railway," or elevator, made possible the steel skyscraper. the elevator, of course, is an old device. it was improved and developed in america by elisha graves otis, an inventor who lived and died before the civil war and whose sons afterward erected a great business on foundations laid by him. the first otis elevators were moved by steam or hydraulic power. they were slow, noisy, and difficult of control. after the electric motor came in; the elevator soon changed its character and adapted itself to the imperative demands of the towering, skeleton-framed buildings which were rising in every city. edison, already famous as "the wizard of menlo park," established his factories and laboratories at west orange, new jersey, in , whence he has since sent forth a constant stream of inventions, some new and startling, others improvements on old devices. the achievements of several other inventors in the electrical field have been only less noteworthy than his. the new profession of electrical engineering called to its service great numbers of able men. manufacturers of electrical machinery established research departments and employed inventors. the times had indeed changed since the day when morse, as a student at yale college, chose art instead of electricity as his calling, because electricity afforded him no means of livelihood. from edison's plant in came a new type of the storage battery, which he afterwards improved. the storage battery, as every one knows, is used in the propulsion of electric vehicles and boats, in the operation of block-signals, in the lighting of trains, and in the ignition and starting of gasoline engines. as an adjunct of the gas-driven automobile, it renders the starting of the engine independent of muscle and so makes possible the general use of the automobile by women as well as men. the dynamo brought into service not only light and power but heat; and the electric furnace in turn gave rise to several great metallurgical and chemical industries. elihu thomson's process of welding by means of the arc furnace found wide and varied applications. the commercial production of aluminum is due to the electric furnace and dates from . it was in that year that h. y. castner of new york and c. m. hall of pittsburgh both invented the methods of manufacture which gave to the world the new metal, malleable and ductile, exceedingly light, and capable of a thousand uses. carborundum is another product of the electric furnace. it was the invention of edward b. acheson, a graduate of the edison laboratories. acheson, in , was trying to make artificial diamonds and produced instead the more useful carborundum, as well as the acheson graphite, which at once found its place in industry. another valuable product of the electric furnace was the calcium carbide first produced in by thomas l. wilson of spray, north carolina. this calcium carbide is the basis of acetylene gas, a powerful illuminant, and it is widely used in metallurgy, for welding and other purposes. at the same time with these developments the value of the alternating current came to be recognized. the transformer, an instrument developed on foundations laid by henry and faraday, made it possible to transmit electrical energy over great distances with little loss of power. alternating currents were transformed by means of this instrument at the source, and were again converted at the point of use to a lower and convenient potential for local distribution and consumption. the first extensive use of the alternating current was in arc lighting, where the higher potentials could be employed on series lamps. perhaps the chief american inventor in the domain of the alternating current is elihu thomson, who began his useful career as professor of chemistry and mechanics in the central high school of philadelphia. another great protagonist of the alternating current was george westinghouse, who was quite as much an improver and inventor as a manufacturer of machinery. two other inventors, at least, should not be forgotten in this connection: nicola tesla and charles s. bradley. both of them had worked for edison. the turbine (from the latin turbo, meaning a whirlwind) is the name of the motor which drives the great dynamos for the generation of electric energy. it may be either a steam turbine or a water turbine. the steam turbine of curtis or parsons is today the prevailing engine. but the development of hydro-electric power has already gone far. it is estimated that the electric energy produced in the united states by the utilization of water powers every year equals the power product of forty million tons of coal, or about one-tenth of the coal which is consumed in the production of steam. yet hydro-electricity is said to be only in its beginnings, for not more than a tenth of the readily available water power of the country is actually in use. the first commercial hydro-station for the transmission of power in america was established in at telluride, colorado. it was practically duplicated in the following year at brodie, colorado. the motors and generators for these stations came from the westinghouse plant in pittsburgh, and westinghouse also supplied the turbo-generators which inaugurated, in , the delivery of power from niagara falls. chapter x. the conquest of the air the most popular man in europe in the year was still the united states minister to france. the figure of plain benjamin franklin, his broad head, with the calm, shrewd eyes peering through the bifocals of his own invention, invested with a halo of great learning and fame, entirely captivated the people's imagination. as one of the american commissioners busy with the extraordinary problems of the peace, franklin might have been supposed too occupied for excursions into the paths of science and philosophy. but the spaciousness and orderly furnishing of his mind provided that no pursuit of knowledge should be a digression for him. so we find him, naturally, leaving his desk on several days of that summer and autumn and posting off to watch the trials of a new invention; nothing less indeed than a ship to ride the air. he found time also to describe the new invention in letters to his friends in different parts of the world. on the st of november franklin set out for the gardens of the king's hunting lodge in the bois de boulogne, on the outskirts of paris, with a quickened interest, a thrill of excitement, which made him yearn to be young again with another long life to live that he might see what should be after him on the earth. what bold things men would attempt! today two daring frenchmen, pilatre de rozier of the royal academy and his friend the marquis d'arlandes, would ascend in a balloon freed from the earth--the first men in history to adventure thus upon the wind. the crowds gathered to witness the event opened a lane for franklin to pass through. at six minutes to two the aeronauts entered the car of their balloon; and, at a height of two hundred and seventy feet, doffed their hats and saluted the applauding spectators. then the wind carried them away toward paris. over passy, about half a mile from the starting point, the balloon began to descend, and the river seine seemed rising to engulf them; but when they fed the fire under their sack of hot air with chopped straw they rose to the elevation of five hundred feet. safe across the river they dampened the fire with a sponge and made a gentle descent beyond the old ramparts of paris. at five o'clock that afternoon, at the king's chateau in the bois de boulogne, the members of the royal academy signed a memorial of the event. one of the spectators accosted franklin. "what does dr. franklin conceive to be the use of this new invention?" "what is the use of a new-born child?" was the retort. a new-born child, a new-born republic, a new invention: alike dim beginnings of development which none could foretell. the year that saw the world acknowledge a new nation, freed of its ancient political bonds, saw also the first successful attempt to break the supposed bonds that held men down to the ground. though the invention of the balloon was only five months old, there were already two types on exhibition: the original montgolfier, or fireballoon, inflated with hot air, and a modification by charles, inflated with hydrogen gas. the mass of the french people did not regard these balloons with franklin's serenity. some weeks earlier the danger of attack had necessitated a balloon's removal from the place of its first moorings to the champ de mars at dead of night. preceded by flaming torches, with soldiers marching on either side and guards in front and rear, the great ball was borne through the darkened streets. the midnight cabby along the route stopped his nag, or tumbled from sleep on his box, to kneel on the pavement and cross himself against the evil that might be in that strange monster. the fear of the people was so great that the government saw fit to issue a proclamation, explaining the invention. any one seeing such a globe, like the moon in an eclipse, so read the proclamation, should be aware that it is only a bag made of taffeta or light canvas covered with paper and "cannot possibly cause any harm and which will some day prove serviceable to the wants of society." franklin wrote a description of the montgolfier balloon to sir joseph banks, president of the royal society of london: "its bottom was open and in the middle of the opening was fixed a kind of basket grate, in which faggots and sheaves of straw were burnt. the air, rarefied in passing through this flame, rose in the balloon, swelled out its sides, and filled it. the persons, who were placed in the gallery made of wicker and attached to the outside near the bottom, had each of them a port through which they could pass sheaves of straw into the grate to keep up the flame and thereby keep the balloon full.... one of these courageous philosophers, the marquis d'arlandes, did me the honor to call upon me in the evening after the experiment, with mr. montgolfier, the very ingenious inventor. i was happy to see him safe. he informed me that they lit gently, without the least shock, and the balloon was very little damaged." franklin writes that the competition between montgolfier and charles has already resulted in progress in the construction and management of the balloon. he sees it as a discovery of great importance, one that "may possibly give a new turn to human affairs. convincing sovereigns of the folly of war may perhaps be one effect of it, since it will be impracticable for the most potent of them to guard his dominions." the prophecy may yet be fulfilled. franklin remarks that a short while ago the idea of "witches riding through the air upon a broomstick and that of philosophers upon a bag of smoke would have appeared equally impossible and ridiculous." yet in the space of a few months he has seen the philosopher on his smoke bag, if not the witch on her broom. he wishes that one of these very ingenious inventors would immediately devise means of direction for the balloon, a rudder to steer it; because the malady from which he is suffering is always increased by a jolting drive in a fourwheeler and he would gladly avail himself of an easier way of locomotion. the vision of man on the wing did not, of course, begin with the invention of the balloon. perhaps the dream of flying man came first to some primitive poet of the stone age, as he watched, fearfully, the gyrations of the winged creatures of the air; even as in a later age it came to langley and maxim, who studied the wing motions of birds and insects, not in fear but in the light and confidence of advancing science. crudely outlined by some ancient egyptian sculptor, a winged human figure broods upon the tomb of rameses iii. in the hebrew parable of genesis winged cherubim guarded the gates of paradise against the man and woman who had stifled aspiration with sin. fairies, witches, and magicians ride the wind in the legends and folklore of all peoples. the greeks had gods and goddesses many; and one of these greek art represents as moving earthward on great spreading pinions. victory came by the air. when demetrius, king of macedonia, set up the winged victory of samothrace to commemorate the naval triumph of the greeks over the ships of egypt, greek art poetically foreshadowed the relation of the air service to the fleet in our own day. man has always dreamed of flight; but when did men first actually fly? we smile at the story of daedalus, the greek architect, and his son, icarus, who made themselves wings and flew from the realm of their foes; and the tale of simon, the magician, who pestered the early christian church by exhibitions of flight into the air amid smoke and flame in mockery of the ascension. but do the many tales of sorcerers in the middle ages, who rose from the ground with their cloaks apparently filled with wind, to awe the rabble, suggest that they had deduced the principle of the aerostat from watching the action of smoke as did the montgolfiers hundreds of years later? at all events one of these alleged exhibitions about the year inspired the good bishop agobard of lyons to write a book against superstition, in which he proved conclusively that it was impossible for human beings to rise through the air. later, roger bacon and leonardo da vinci, each in his turn ruminated in manuscript upon the subject of flight. bacon, the scientist, put forward a theory of thin copper globes filled with liquid fire, which would soar. leonardo, artist, studied the wings of birds. the jesuit francisco lana, in , working on bacon's theory sketched an airship made of four copper balls with a skiff attached; this machine was to soar by means of the lighter-than-air globes and to be navigated aloft by oars and sails. but while philosophers in their libraries were designing airships on paper and propounding their theories, venturesome men, "crawling, but pestered with the thought of wings," were making pinions of various fabrics and trying them upon the wind. four years after lana suggested his airship with balls and oars, besnier, a french locksmith, made a flying machine of four collapsible planes like book covers suspended on rods. with a rod over each shoulder, and moving the two front planes with his arms and the two back ones by his feet, besnier gave exhibitions of gliding from a height to the earth. but his machine could not soar. what may be called the first patent on a flying machine was recorded in when bartholomeo de gusmao, a friar, appeared before the king of portugal to announce that he had invented a flying machine and to request an order prohibiting other men from making anything of the sort. the king decreed pain of death to all infringers; and to assist the enterprising monk in improving his machine, he appointed him first professor of mathematics in the university of coimbra with a fat stipend. then the inquisition stepped in. the inventor's suave reply, to the effect that to show men how to soar to heaven was an essentially religious act, availed him nothing. he was pronounced a sorcerer, his machine was destroyed, and he was imprisoned till his death. many other men fashioned unto themselves wings; but, though some of them might glide earthward, none could rise upon the wind. while the principle by which the balloon, father of the dirigible, soars and floats could be deduced by men of natural powers of observation and little science from the action of clouds and smoke, the airplane, the winged victory of our day, waited upon two things--the scientific analysis of the anatomy of bird wings and the internal combustion engine. these two things necessary to convert man into a rival of the albatross did not come at once and together. not the dream of flying but the need for quantity and speed in production to take care of the wants of a modern civilization compelled the invention of the internal combustion engine. before it appeared in the realm of mechanics, experimenters were applying in the construction of flying models the knowledge supplied by cayley in , who made an instrument of whalebone, corks, and feathers, which by the action of two screws of quill feathers, rotating in opposite directions, would rise to the ceiling; and the full revelation of the structure and action of bird wings set forth by pettigrew in . "the wing, both when at rest and when in motion," pettigrew declared, "may not inaptly be compared to the blade of an ordinary screw propeller as employed in navigation. thus the general outline of the wing corresponds closely with the outline of the propeller, and the track described by the wing in space is twisted upon itself propeller fashion." numerous attempts to apply the newly discovered principles to artificial birds failed, yet came so close to success that they fed instead of killing the hope that a solution of the problem would one day ere long be reached. "nature has solved it, and why not man?" from his boyhood days samuel pierpont langley, so he tells us, had asked himself that question, which he was later to answer. langley, born in roxbury, massachusetts, in , was another link in the chain of distinguished inventors who first saw the light of day in puritan new england. and, like many of those other inventors, he numbered among his ancestors for generations two types of men--on the one hand, a line of skilled artisans and mechanics; on the other, the most intellectual men of their time such as clergymen and schoolmasters, one of them being increase mather. we see in langley, as in some of his brother new england inventors, the later flowering of the puritan ideal stripped of its husk of superstition and harshness--a high sense of duty and of integrity, an intense conviction that the reason for a man's life here is that he may give service, a reserved deportment which did not mask from discerning eyes the man's gentle qualities of heart and his keen love of beauty in art and nature. langley first chose as his profession civil engineering and architecture and the years between and were chiefly spent in prosecuting these callings in st. louis and chicago. then he abandoned them; for the bent of his mind was definitely towards scientific inquiry. in he was appointed director of the allegheny observatory at pittsburgh. here he remained until , when, having made for himself a world-wide reputation as an astronomer, he became secretary of the smithsonian institution at washington. it was about this time that he began his experiments in "aerodynamics." but the problem of flight had long been a subject of interested speculation with him. ten years later he wrote: "nature has made her flying-machine in the bird, which is nearly a thousand times as heavy as the air its bulk displaces, and only those who have tried to rival it know how inimitable her work is, for the "way of a bird in the air" remains as wonderful to us as it was to solomon, and the sight of the bird has constantly held this wonder before men's minds, and kept the flame of hope from utter extinction, in spite of long disappointment. i well remember how, as a child, when lying in a new england pasture, h watched a hawk soaring far up in the blue, and sailing for a long time without any motion of its wings, as though it needed no work to sustain it, but was kept up there by some miracle. but, however sustained, i saw it sweep in a few seconds of its leisurely flight, over a distance that to me was encumbered with every sort of obstacle, which did not exist for it.... how wonderfully easy, too, was its flight! there was not a flutter of its pinions as it swept over the field, in a motion which seemed as effortless as that of its shadow. after many years and in mature life, i was brought to think of these things again, and to ask myself whether the problem of artificial flight was as hopeless and as absurd as it was then thought to be"... in three or four years langley made nearly forty models. "the primary difficulty lay in making the model light enough and sufficiently strong to support its power," he says. "this difficulty continued to be fundamental through every later form; but, beside this, the adjustment of the center of gravity to the center of pressure of the wings, the disposition of the wings themselves, the size of the propellers, the inclination and number of the blades, and a great number of other details, presented themselves for examination." by langley had a model light enough to fly, but proper balancing had not been attained. he set himself anew to find the practical conditions of equilibrium and of horizontal flight. his experiments convinced him that "mechanical sustenation of heavy bodies in the air, combined with very great speeds, is not only possible, but within the reach of mechanical means we actually possess." after many experiments with new models langley at length fashioned a steam-driven machine which would fly horizontally. it weighed about thirty pounds; it was some sixteen feet in length, with two sets of wings, the pair in front measuring forty feet from tip to tip. on may , , this model was launched over the potomac river. it flew half a mile in a minute and a half. when its fuel and water gave out, it descended gently to the river's surface. in november langley launched another model which flew for three-quarters of a mile at a speed of thirty miles an hour. these tests demonstrated the practicability of artificial flight. the spanish-american war found the military observation balloon doing the limited work which it had done ever since the days of franklin. president mckinley was keenly interested in langley's design to build a power-driven flying machine which would have innumerable advantages over the balloon. the government provided the funds and langley took up the problem of a flying machine large enough to carry a man. his initial difficulty was the engine. it was plain at once that new principles of engine construction must be adopted before a motor could be designed of high power yet light enough to be borne in the slender body of an airplane. the internal combustion engine had now come into use. langley went to europe in , seeking his motor, only to be told that what he sought was impossible. his assistant, charles m. manly, meanwhile found a builder of engines in america who was willing to make the attempt. but, after two years of waiting for it, the engine proved a failure. manly then had the several parts of it, which he deemed hopeful, transported to washington, and there at the smithsonian institution he labored and experimented until he evolved a light and powerful gasoline motor. in october, , the test was made, with manly aboard of the machine. the failure which resulted was due solely to the clumsy launching apparatus. the airplane was damaged as it rushed forward before beginning to soar; and, as it rose, it turned over and plunged into the river. the loyal and enthusiastic manly, who was fortunately a good diver and swimmer, hastily dried himself and gave out a reassuring statement to the representatives of the press and to the officers of the board of ordnance gathered to witness the flight. a second failure in december convinced spectators that man was never intended to fly. the newspapers let loose such a storm of ridicule upon langley and his machine, with charges as to the waste of public funds, that the government refused to assist him further. langley, at that time sixty-nine years of age, took this defeat so keenly to heart that it hastened his death, which occurred three years later. "failure in the aerodrome itself," he wrote, "or its engines there has been none; and it is believed that it is at the moment of success, and when the engineering problems have been solved, that a lack of means has prevented a continuance of the work." it was truly "at the moment of success" that langley's work was stopped. on december , , the wright brothers made the first successful experiment in which a machine carrying a man rose by its own power, flew naturally and at even speed, and descended without damage. these brothers, wilbur and orville, who at last opened the long besieged lanes of the air, were born in dayton, ohio. their father, a clergyman and later a bishop, spent his leisure in scientific reading and in the invention of a typewriter which, however, he never perfected. he inspired an interest in scientific principles in his boys' minds by giving them toys which would stimulate their curiosity. one of these toys was a helicopter, or cayley's top, which would rise and flutter awhile in the air. after several helicopters of their own, the brothers made original models of kites, and orville, the younger, attained an exceptional skill in flying them. presently orville and wilbur were making their own bicycles and astonishing their neighbors by public appearances on a specially designed tandem. the first accounts which they read of experiments with flying machines turned their inventive genius into the new field. in particular the newspaper accounts at that time of otto lilienthal's exhibitions with his glider stirred their interest and set them on to search the libraries for literature on the subject of flying. as they read of the work of langley and others they concluded that the secret of flying could not be mastered theoretically in a laboratory; it must be learned in the air. it struck these young men, trained by necessity to count pennies at their full value, as "wasteful extravagance" to mount delicate and costly machinery on wings which no one knew how to manage. they turned from the records of other inventors' models to study the one perfect model, the bird. said wilbur wright, speaking before the society of western engineers, at chicago: "the bird's wings are undoubtedly very well designed indeed, but it is not any extraordinary efficiency that strikes with astonishment, but rather the marvelous skill with which they are used. it is true that i have seen birds perform soaring feats of almost incredible nature in positions where it was not possible to measure the speed and trend of the wind, but whenever it was possible to determine by actual measurements the conditions under which the soaring was performed it was easy to account for it on the basis of the results obtained with artificial wings. the soaring problem is apparently not so much one of better wings as of better operators."* * cited in turner, "the romance of aeronautics". when the wrights determined to fly, two problems which had beset earlier experimenters had been partially solved. experience had brought out certain facts regarding the wings; and invention had supplied an engine. but the laws governing the balancing and steering of the machine were unknown. the way of a man in the air had yet to be discovered. the starting point of their theory of flight seems to have been that man was endowed with an intelligence at least equal to that of the bird; and, that with practice he could learn to balance himself in the air as naturally and instinctively as on the ground. he must and could be, like the bird, the controlling intelligence of his machine. to quote wilbur wright again: "it seemed to us that the main reason why the problem had remained so long unsolved was that no one had been able to obtain any adequate practice. lilienthal in five years of time had spent only five hours in actual gliding through the air. the wonder was not that he had done so little but that he had accomplished so much. it would not be considered at all safe for a bicycle rider to attempt to ride through a crowded city street after only five hours' practice spread out in bits of ten seconds each over a period of five years, yet lilienthal with his brief practice was remarkably successful in meeting the fluctuations and eddies of wind gusts. we thought that if some method could be found by which it would be possible to practice by the hour instead of by the second, there would be a hope of advancing the solution of a very difficult problem." the brothers found that winds of the velocity they desired for their experiments were common on the coast of north carolina. they pitched their camp at kitty hawk in october, , and made a brief and successful trial of their gliding machine. next year, they returned with a much larger machine; and in they continued their experiments with a model still further improved from their first design. having tested their theories and become convinced that they were definitely on the right track, they were no longer satisfied merely to glide. they set about constructing a power machine. here a new problem met them. they had decided on two screw propellers rotating in opposite directions on the principle of wings in flight; but the proper diameter, pitch, and area of blade were not easily arrived at. on december , , the first wright biplane was ready to navigate the air and made four brief successful flights. subsequent flights in demonstrated that the problem of equilibrium had not been fully solved; but the experiments of banished this difficulty. the responsibility which the wrights placed upon the aviator for maintaining his equilibrium, and the tailless design of their machine, caused much headshaking among foreign flying men when wilbur wright appeared at the great aviation meet in france in . but he won the michelin prize of eight hundred pounds by beating previous records for speed and for the time which any machine had remained in the air. he gave exhibitions also in germany and italy and instructed italian army officers in the flying of wright machines. at this time orville was giving similar demonstrations in america. transverse control, the warping device invented by the wright brothers for the preservation of lateral balance and for artificial inclination in making turns, has been employed in a similar or modified form in most airplanes since constructed. there was no "mine" or "thine" in the diction of the wright brothers; only "we" and "ours." they were joint inventors; they shared their fame equally and all their honors and prizes also until the death of wilbur in . they were the first inventors to make the ancient dream of flying man a reality and to demonstrate that reality to the practical world. when the nc flying boats of the united states navy lined up at trepassey in may, , for their atlantic venture, and the press was full of pictures of them, how many hasty readers, eager only for news of the start, stopped to think what the initials nc stood for? the seaplane is the chief contribution of glenn hammond curtiss to aviation, and the navy curtiss number four, which made the first transatlantic flight in history, was designed by him. the spirit of cooperation, expressed in pooling ideas and fame, which the wright brothers exemplified, is seen again in the association of curtiss with the navy during the war. nc is a fraternity badge signifying equal honors. curtiss, in , was--like the wrights--the owner of a small bicycle shop. it was at hammondsport, new york. he was an enthusiastic cyclist, and speed was a mania with him. he evolved a motor cycle with which he broke all records for speed over the ground. he started a factory and achieved a reputation for excellent motors. he designed and made the engine for the dirigible of captain thomas s. baldwin; and for the first united states army dirigible in . curtiss carried on some of his experiments in association with alexander graham bell, who was trying to evolve a stable flying machine on the principle of the cellular kite. bell and curtiss, with three others, formed in , the aerial experimental association at bell's country house in canada, which was fruitful of results, and curtiss scored several notable triumphs with the craft they designed. but the idea of a machine which could descend and propel itself on water possessed his mind, and in he exhibited at the aviation meet in chicago the hydroaeroplane. an incident there set him dreaming of the life-saving systems on great waters. his hydroaeroplane had just returned to its hangar, after a series of maneuvers, when a monoplane in flight broke out of control and plunged into lake michigan. the curtiss machine left its hangar on the minute, covered the intervening mile, and alighted on the water to offer aid. the presence of boats made the good offices of the hydroaeroplane unnecessary on that occasion; but the incident opened up to the mind of curtiss new possibilities. in the first years of the world war curtiss built airplanes and flying boats for the allies. the united states entered the arena and called for his services. the navy department called for the big flying boat; and the nc type was evolved, which, equipped with four liberty motors, crossed the atlantic after the close of the war. the world war, of course, brought about the magical development of all kinds of air craft. necessity not only mothered invention but forced it to cover a normal half century of progress in four years. while curtiss worked with the navy, the dayton-wright factory turned out the famous dh fighting planes under the supervision of orville wright. the second initial here stands for havilland, as the dh was designed by geoffrey de havilland, a british inventor. the year saw the first transatlantic flights. the nc , with lieutenant commander albert cushing read and crew, left trepassey, newfoundland, on the th of may and in twelve hours arrived at horta, the azores, more than a thousand miles away. all along the course the navy had strung a chain of destroyers, with signaling apparatus and searchlights to guide the aviators. on the twenty-seventh, nc took off from san miguel, azores, and in nine hours made lisbon--lisbon, capital of portugal, which sent out the first bold mariners to explore the sea of darkness, prior to columbus. on the thirtieth, nc took off for plymouth, england, and arrived in ten hours and twenty minutes. perhaps a phantom ship, with sails set and flags blowing, the name mayflower on her hull, rode in plymouth harbor that day to greet a new england pilot. on the th of june the vickers-vimy rolls-royce biplane, piloted by john alcock and with arthur whitten brown as observer-navigator, left st. john's, newfoundland, and arrived at clifden, ireland, in sixteen hours twelve minutes, having made the first non-stop transatlantic flight. hawker and grieve meanwhile had made the same gallant attempt in a single-engined sopwith machine; and had come down in mid-ocean, after flying fourteen and a half hours, owing to the failure of their water circulation. their rescue by slow danish mary completed a fascinating tale of heroic adventure. the british dirigible r , with major g. h. scott in command, left east fortune, scotland, on the d of july, and arrived at mineola, new york, on the sixth. the r made the return voyage in seventy-five hours. in november, , captain sir ross smith set off from england in a biplane to win a prize of ten thousand pounds offered by the australian commonwealth to the first australian aviator to fly from england to australia in thirty days. over france, italy, greece, over the holy land, perhaps over the garden of eden, whence the winged cherubim drove adam and eve, over persia, india, siam, the dutch east indies to port darwin in northern australia; and then southeastward across australia itself to sydney, the biplane flew without mishap. the time from hounslow, england, to port darwin was twenty-seven days, twenty hours, and twenty minutes. early in the boer airman captain van ryneveld made the flight from cairo to the cape. commercial development of the airplane and the airship commenced after the war. the first air service for united states mails was, in fact, inaugurated during the war, between new york and washington. the transcontinental service was established soon afterwards, and a regular line between key west and havana. french and british companies began to operate daily between london and paris carrying passengers and mail. airship companies were formed in australia, south africa, and india. in canada airplanes were soon being used in prospecting the labrador timber regions, in making photographs and maps of the northern wilderness, and by the northwest mounted police. it is not for history to prophesy. "emblem of much, and of our age of hope itself," carlyle called the balloon of his time, born to mount majestically but "unguidably" only to tumble "whither fate will." but the aircraft of our day is guidable, and our age of hope is not rudderless nor at the mercy of fate. bibliographical note general a clear, non-technical discussion of the basis of all industrial progress is "power", by charles e. lucke ( ), which discusses the general principle of the substitution of power for the labor of men. many of the references given in "colonial folkways", by c. m. andrews ("the chronicles of america", vol. ix), are valuable for an understanding of early industrial conditions. the general course of industry and commerce in the united states is briefly told by carroll d. wright in "the industrial evolution of the united states" ( ), by e. l. bogart in "the economic history of the united states" ( ), and by katharine coman in "the industrial history of the united states" ( ). "a documentary history of american industrial society", vols. ( - ), edited by john r. commons, is a mine of material. see also emerson d. fite, "social and industrial conditions in the north during the civil war" ( ). the best account of the inventions of the nineteenth century is "the progress of invention in the nineteenth century" by edward w. byrn ( ). george iles in "leading american inventors" ( ) tells the story of several important inventors and their work. the same author in "flame, electricity and the camera" ( ) gives much valuable information. chapter i the primary source of information on benjamin franklin is contained in his own writings. these were compiled and edited by jared sparks, "the works of... franklin... with notes and a life of the author", vols. ( - ); and later by john bigelow, "the complete works of benjamin franklin; including his private as well as his official and scientific correspondence, and numerous letters and documents now for the first time printed, with many others not included in any former collection, also, the unmutilated and correct version of his autobiography", vols. ( - ). consult also james parton, "the life and times of benjamin franklin", vols. ( ); s. g. fisher, "the true benjamin franklin" ( ); paul leicester ford, "the many-sided franklin" ( ); john t. morse, "benjamin franklin" ( ) in the "american statesmen" series; and lindsay swift, "benjamin franklin" ( ) in "beacon biographies. on the patent office: henry l. ellsworth, a digest of patents issued by the united states from to january , " (washington, ); also the regular reports and publications of the united states patent office. chapter ii the first life of eli whitney is the "memoir" by denison olmsted ( ), and a collection of whitney's letters about the cotton gin may be found in "the american historical review", vol. iii ( ). "eli whitney and his cotton gin," by m. f. foster, is included in the "transactions of the new england cotton manufacturers' association", no. (october, ). see also dwight goddard, "a short story of eli whitney" ( ); d. a. tompkins, "cotton and cotton oil" ( ); james a. b. scherer, "cotton as a world power" ( ); e. c. bates, "the story of the cotton gin" ( ), reprinted from "the new england magazine", may, ; and eugene clyde brooks, "the story of cotton and the development of the cotton states" ( ). chapter iii for an account of james watt's achievements, see j. cleland, "historical account of the steam engine" ( ) and john w. grant, "watt and the steam age" ( ). on fulton: r. h. thurston, "robert fulton" ( ) in the "makers of america" series; a. c. sutcliffe, "robert fulton and the 'clermont'" ( ); h. w. dickinson, "robert fulton, engineer and artist; his life and works" ( ). for an account of john stevens, see george iles, "leading american inventors" ( ), and dwight goddard, "a short story of john stevens and his sons in eminent engineers" ( ). see also john stevens, "documents tending to prove the superior advantages of rail-ways and steam-carriages over canal navigation" ( .), reprinted in "the magazine of history with notes and queries", extra number ( ). on evans: "oliver evans and his inventions," by coleman sellers, in "the journal of the franklin institute", july, , vol. cxxii. chapter iv on the general subject of cotton manufacture and machinery, see: j. l. bishop, "history of american manufactures from to ", vols. ( - ); samuel batchelder, "introduction and early progress of the cotton manufacture in the united states" ( ); james montgomery, "a practical detail of the cotton manufacture of the united states of america" ( ); melvin t. copeland, "the cotton manufacturing industry of the united states" ( ); and john l. hayes, "american textile machinery" ( ). harriet h. robinson, "loom and spindle" ( ), is a description of the life of girl workers in the early factories written by one of them. charles dickens, "american notes", chapter iv, is a vivid account of the life in the lowell mills. see also nathan appleton, "introduction of the power loom and origin of lowell" ( ); h. a. miles, "lowell, as it was, and as it is" ( ), and g. s. white, "memoir of samuel slater" ( ). on elias howe, see dwight goddard, "a short story of elias howe in eminent engineers" ( ). chapter v the story of the reaper is told in: herbert n. casson, "cyrus hall mccormick; his life and work" ( ), and "the romance of the reaper" ( ), and merritt f. miller, "evolution of reaping machines" ( ), u. s. experiment stations office, bulletin . other farm inventions are covered in: william macdonald, "makers of modern agriculture" ( ); emile guarini, "the use of electric power in plowing" in the "electrical review", vol. xliii; a. p. yerkes, "the gas tractor in eastern farming" ( ), u. s. department of agriculture, farmer's bulletin ; and herbert n. casson and others, "horse, truck and tractor; the coming of cheaper power for city and farm" ( ). chapter vi an account of an early "agent of communication" is given by w. f. bailey, article on the "pony express" in "the century magazine", vol. xxxiv ( ). for the story of the telegraph and its inventors, see: s. i. prime, "life of samuel f. b. morse" ( ); s. f. b. morse, "the electro-magnetic telegraph" ( ) and "examination of the telegraphic apparatus and the process in telegraphy" ( ); guglielmo marconi, "the progress of wireless telegraphy" ( ) in the "transactions of the new york electrical society", no. ; and ray stannard baker, "marconi's achievement" in mcclure's magazine, vol. xviii ( ). on the telephone, see herbert n. casson, "history of the telephone" ( ); and alexander graham bell, "the telephone" ( ). on the cable: charles bright, "the story of the atlantic cable" ( ). for facts in the history of printing and descriptions of printing machines, see: edmund g. gress, "american handbook of printing" ( ); robert hoe, "a short history of the printing press and of the improvements in printing machinery" ( ); and otto schoenrich, "biography of ottmar mergenthaler and history of the linotype" ( ), written under mr. mergenthaler's direction. on the best-known new york newspapers, see: h. hapgood and a. b. maurice, "the great newspapers of the united states; the new york newspapers," in "the bookman", vols. xiv and xv ( ). on the typewriter, see charles edward weller, "the early history of the typewriter" ( ). on the camera, paul lewis anderson, "the story of photography" ( ) in "the mentor", vol. vi, no. .; and on the motion picture, colin n. bennett, "the handbook of kinematography"; "the history, theory and practice of motion photography and projection", london: "kinematograph weekly" ( ). chapter vii for information on the subject of rubber and the life of charles goodyear, see: h. wickham, "on the plantation, cultivation and curing of para indian rubber", london ( ); francis ernest lloyd, "guayule, a rubber plant of the chihuahuan desert", washington ( ), carnegie institute publication no. ; charles goodyear, "gum elastic and its varieties" ( ); james parton, "famous americans of recent times" ( ); and "the rubber industry, being the official report of the proceedings of the international rubber congress" (london, ), edited by joseph torey and a. staines manders. chapter viii j. w. roe, "english and american tool builders" ( ), and j. v. woodworth, "american tool making and interchangeable manufacturing" ( ), give general accounts of great american mechanics. for an account of john stevens and robert l. and e. a. stevens, see george iles, "leading american inventors" ( ); dwight goddard, "a short story of john stevens and his sons" in "eminent engineers" ( ), and r. h. thurston, "the messrs. stevens, of hoboken, as engineers, naval architects and philanthropists" ( ), "journal of the franklin institute", october, . for whitney's contribution to machine shop methods, see olmsted's "memoir" already cited and roe and woodworth, already cited. for blanchard, see dwight goddard, "a short story of thomas blanchard" in "eminent engineers" ( ), and for samuel colt, see his own "on the application of machinery to the manufacture of rotating chambered-breech fire arms, and their peculiarities" ( ), an excerpt from the "minutes of proceedings of the institute of civil engineers", vol. xi ( ), and henry barnard, "armsmear; the home, the arm, and the armory of samuel colt" ( ). chapter ix "the story of electricity" ( ) is a popular history edited by t. c. martin and s. l. coles. a more specialized account of electrical inventions may be found in george bartlett prescott's "the speaking telephone, electric light, and other recent electrical inventions" ( ). for joseph henry's achievements, see his own "contributions to electricity and galvanism" ( - ) and "on the application of the principle of the galvanic multiplier to electromagnetic apparatus" ( ), and the accounts of others in henry c. cameron's "reminiscences of joseph henry" and w. b. taylor's "historical sketch of henry's contribution to the electro-magnetic telegraph" ( ), smithsonian report, . "a list of references on the life and inventions of thomas a. edison" may be found in the division of bibliography, u. s. library of congress ( ). see also f. l. dyer and t. c. martin, "edison; his life and inventions" ( ), and "mr. edison's reminiscences of the first central station" in "the electrical review", vol. xxxviii. on other special topics see: f. e. leupp, "george westinghouse, his life and achievements" ( ); elihu thomson, "induction of electric currents and induction coils" ( ), "journal of the franklin institute", august, ; and alex dow, "the production of electricity by steam power" ( ). chapter x charles c. turner, "the romance of aeronautics" ( ); "the curtiss aviation book", by glenn h. curtiss and augustus post ( ); samuel pierpont langley and charles m. manly, "langley memoir on mechanical flight" (smithsonian institution, ); "our atlantic attempt", by h. g. hawker and k. mackenzie grieve ( ); "flying the atlantic in sixteen hours", by sir arthur whitten brown ( ); "practical aeronautics", by charles b. hayward, with an introduction by orville wright ( ); "aircraft; its development in war and peace", by evan j. david ( ). accounts of the flights across the atlantic are given in "the aerial year book and who's who in the air" ( ), and the story of nc is told in "the flight across the atlantic", issued by the department of education, curtiss aeroplane and motor corporation ( ). marvels of modern science by paul severing edited by theodore waters contents chapter i flying machines early attempts at flight. the dirigible. prof. langley's experiments. the wright brothers. count zeppelin. recent aeroplane records. chapter ii wireless telegraphy primitive signalling. principles of wireless telegraphy. ether vibrations. wireless apparatus. the marconi system. chapter iii radium experiments of becquerel. work of the curies. discovery of radium. enormous energy. various uses. chapter iv moving pictures photographing motion. edison's kinetoscope. lumiere's cinematographe. before the camera. the mission of the moving picture. edison's latest triumph. chapter v sky-scrapers and how they are built evolution of the sky-scraper. construction. new york's giant buildings. dimensions. chapter vi ocean palaces ocean greyhounds. present day floating palaces. regal appointments. passenger accommodation. food consumption. the one thousand foot boat. chapter vii wonderful creations in plant life mating plants. experiments of burbank. what he has accomplished. chapter viii latest discoveries in archaeology prehistoric time. earliest records. discoveries in bible lands. american explorations. chapter ix great tunnels of the world primitive tunnelling. hoosac tunnel. croton aqueduct. great alpine tunnels. new york subway. mcadoo tunnels. how tunnels are built. chapter x electricity in the household electrically equipped houses. cooking by electricity. comforts and conveniences. chapter xi harnessing the water-fall electric energy. high pressure. transformers. development of water-power. chapter xii wonderful war ships dimensions, displacements, cost and description of battleships. capacity and speed. preparing for the future. chapter xiii a talk on big guns the first projectiles. introduction of cannon high pressure guns. machine guns. dimensions and cost of big guns. chapter xiv mystery of the stars wonders of the universe. star photography. the infinity of space. chapter xv can we communicate with other worlds? vastness of nature. star distances. problem of communicating with mars. the great beyond. introduction the purpose of this little book is to give a general idea of a few of the great achievements of our time. within such a limited space it was impossible to even mention thousands more of the great inventions and triumphs which mark the rushing progress of the world in the present century; therefore, only those subjects have been treated which appeal with more than passing interest to all. for instance, the flying machine is engaging the attention of the old, the young and the middle-aged, and soon the whole world will be on the wing. radium, "the revealer," is opening the door to possibilities almost beyond human conception. wireless telegraphy is crossing thousands of miles of space with invisible feet and making the nations of the earth as one. 'tis the same with the other subjects,--one and all are of vital, human interest, and are extremely attractive on account of their importance in the civilization of today. mighty, sublime, wonderful, as have been the achievements of past science, as yet we are but on the verge of the continents of discovery. where is the wizard who can tell what lies in the womb of time? just as our conceptions of many things have been revolutionized in the past, those which we hold to-day of the cosmic processes may have to be remodeled in the future. the men of fifty years hence may laugh at the circumscribed knowledge of the present and shake their wise heads in contemplation of what they will term our crudities, and which we now call _progress_. science is ever on the march and what is new to-day will be old to-morrow. we cannot go back, we must go forward, and although we can never reach finality in aught, we can improve on the _past_ to enrich the _future_. if this volume creates an interest and arouses an enthusiasm in the ordinary men and women into whose hands it may come, and stimulates them to a study of the great events making for the enlightenment, progress and elevation of the race, it shall have fulfilled its mission and serve the purpose for which it was written. chapter i flying machines early attempts at flight--the dirigible--professor langley's experiment--the wright brothers--count zeppelin--recent aeroplane records. it is hard to determine when men first essayed the attempt to fly. in myth, legend and tradition we find allusions to aerial flight and from the very dawn of authentic history, philosophers, poets, and writers have made allusion to the subject, showing that the idea must have early taken root in the restless human heart. aeschylus exclaims: "oh, might i sit, sublime in air where watery clouds the freezing snows prepare!" ariosto in his "orlando furioso" makes an english knight, whom he names astolpho, fly to the banks of the nile; nowadays the authors are trying to make their heroes fly to the north pole. some will have it that the ancient world had a civilization much higher than the modern and was more advanced in knowledge. it is claimed that steam engines and electricity were common in egypt thousands of years ago and that literature, science, art, and architecture flourished as never since. certain it is that the pyramids were for a long time the most solid "skyscrapers" in the world. perhaps, after all, our boasted progress is but a case of going back to first principles, of history, or rather tradition repeating itself. the flying machine may not be as new as we think it is. at any rate the conception of it is old enough. in the thirteenth century roger bacon, often called the "father of philosophy," maintained that the air could be navigated. he suggested a hollow globe of copper to be filled with "ethereal air or liquid fire," but he never tried to put his suggestion into practice. father vasson, a missionary at canton, in a letter dated september , , mentions a balloon that ascended on the occasion of the coronation of the empress fo-kien in , but he does not state where he got the information. the balloon is the earliest form of air machine of which we have record. in a dr. black of edinburgh suggested that a thin bladder could be made to ascend if filled with inflammable air, the name then given to hydrogen gas. in cavallo succeeded in sending up a soap bubble filled with such gas. it was in the same year that the montgolfier brothers of annonay, near lyons in france, conceived the idea of using hot air for lifting things into the air. they got this idea from watching the smoke curling up the chimney from the heat of the fire beneath. in they constructed the first successful balloon of which we have any description. it was in the form of a round ball, feet in circumference and, with the frame weighed pounds. it was filled with , cubic feet of vapor. it rose to a height of , feet and proceeded almost , feet, when it gently descended. france went wild over the exhibition. the first to risk their lives in the air were m. pilatre de rozier and the marquis de arlandes, who ascended over paris in a hot-air balloon in november, . they rose five hundred feet and traveled a distance of five miles in twenty-five minutes. in the following december messrs. charles and robert, also frenchmen, ascended ten thousand feet and traveled twenty-seven miles in two hours. the first balloon ascension in great britain was made by an experimenter named tytler in . a few months later lunardi sailed over london. in three englishmen, green, mason and holland, went from london to germany, five hundred miles, in eighteen hours. the greatest balloon exhibition up to then, indeed the greatest ever, as it has never been surpassed, was given by glaisher and coxwell, two englishmen, near wolverhampton, on september , . they ascended to such an elevation that both lost the power of their limbs, and had not coxwell opened the descending valve with his teeth, they would have ascended higher and probably lost their lives in the rarefied atmosphere, for there was no compressed oxygen then as now to inhale into their lungs. the last reckoning of which they were capable before glaisher lost consciousness showed an elevation of twenty-nine thousand feet, but it is supposed that they ascended eight thousand feet higher before coxwell was able to open the descending valve. in in the city of berlin two germans rose to a height of thirty-five thousand feet, but the two englishmen of almost fifty years ago are still given credit for the highest ascent. the largest balloon ever sent aloft was the "giant" of m. nadar, a frenchman, which had a capacity of , cubic feet and required for a covering , yards of silk. it ascended from the champ de mars, paris, in , with fifteen passengers, all of whom came back safely. the longest flight made in a balloon was that by count de la vaulx, miles in . a mammoth balloon was built in london by a. e. gaudron. in with three other aeronauts gaudron crossed from the crystal palace to the belgian coast at ostend and then drifted over northern germany and was finally driven down by a snow storm at mateki derevni in russia, having traveled , miles in - / hours. the first attempt at constructing a dirigible balloon or airship was made by m. giffard, a frenchman, in . the bag was spindle-shaped and feet from point to point. though it could be steered without drifting the motor was too weak to propel it. giffard had many imitations in the spindle-shaped envelope construction, but it was a long time before any good results were obtained. it was not until that m. gaston tissandier constructed a dirigible in any way worthy of the name. it was operated by a motor driven by a bichromate of soda battery. the motor weighed lbs. the cells held liquid enough to work for - / hours, generating - / horse power. the screw had two arms and was over nine feet in circumference. tissandier made some successful flights. the first dirigible balloon to return whence it started was that known as _la france_. this airship was also constructed in . the designer was commander renard of the french marine corps assisted by captain krebs of the same service. the length of the envelope was feet, its diameter - / feet. the screw was in front instead of behind as in all others previously constructed. the motor which weighed - / lbs. was driven by electricity and developed - / horse power. the propeller was feet in diameter and only made revolutions to the minute. this was the first time electricity was used as a motor force, and mighty possibilities were conceived. in a young brazilian, santos-dumont, made a spectacular flight. m. deutch, a parisian millionaire, offered a prize of $ , for the first dirigible that would fly from the parc d'aerostat, encircle the eiffel tower and return to the starting point within thirty minutes, the distance of such flight being about nine miles. dumont won the prize though he was some forty seconds over time. the length of his dirigible on this occasion was feet, the diameter - / feet. it had a -cylinder petroleum motor weighing lbs., which generated horse power. the screw was feet in diameter and made three hundred revolutions to the minute. from this time onward great progress was made in the constructing of airships. government officials and many others turned their attention to the work. factories were put in operation in several countries of europe and by the year the dirigible had been fairly well established. zeppelin, parseval, lebaudy, baidwin and gross were crowding one another for honors. all had given good results, zeppelin especially had performed some remarkable feats with his machines. in the construction of the dirigible balloon great care must be taken to build a strong, as well as light framework and to suspend the car from it so that the weight will be equally distributed, and above all, so to contrive the gas contained that under no circumstances can it become tilted. there is great danger in the event of tilting that some of the stays suspending the car may snap and the construction fall to pieces in the air. in deciding upon the shape of a dirigible balloon the chief consideration is to secure an end surface which presents the least possible resistance to the air and also to secure stability and equilibrium. of course the motor, fuel and propellers are other considerations of vital importance. the first experimenter on the size of wing surface necessary to sustain a man in the air, calculated from the proportion of weight and wing surface in birds, was karl meerwein of baden. he calculated that a man weighing lbs. would require square feet. in he made a spindle-shaped apparatus presenting such a surface to the resistance of the air. it was collapsible on the middle and here the operator was fastened and lay horizontally with his face towards the earth working the collapsible wings by means of a transverse rod. it was not a success. during the first half of the th century there were many experiments with wing surfaces, none of which gave any promise. in fact it was not until that any advance was made, when francis wenham showed that the lifting power of a plane of great superficial area could be obtained by dividing the large plane into several parts arranged on tiers. this may be regarded as the germ of the modern aeroplane, the first glimmer of hope to filter through the darkness of experimentation until then. when wenham's apparatus went against a strong wind it was only lifted up and thrown back. however, the idea gave thought to many others years afterwards. in the brothers lilienthal in germany discovered the possibility of driving curved aeroplanes against the wind. otto lilienthal held that it was necessary to begin with "sailing" flight and first of all that the art of balancing in the air must be learned by practical experiments. he made several flights of the kind now known as _gliding_. from a height of feet he glided a distance of feet and found he could deflect his flight from left to right by moving his legs which were hanging freely from the seat. he attached a light motor weighing only lbs. and generating - / horse power. to sustain the weight he had to increase the size of his planes. unfortunately this pioneer in modern aviation was killed in an experiment, but he left much data behind which has helped others. his was the first actual flyer which demonstrated the elementary laws governing real flight and blazed the way for the successful experiments of the present time. his example made the gliding machine a continuous performance until real practical aerial flight was achieved. as far back as maxim built a giant aeroplane but it was too cumbersome to be operated. in america the wonderful work of professor langley of the smithsonian institution with his aerodromes attracted worldwide attention. langley was the great originator of the science of aerodynamics on this side of the water. langley studied from artificial birds which he had constructed and kept almost constantly before him. to langley, chanute, herring and manly, america owes much in the way of aeronautics before the wrights entered the field. the wrights have given the greatest impetus to modern aviation. they entered the field in and immediately achieved greater results than any of their predecessors. they followed the idea of lilienthal to a certain extent. they made gliders in which the aviator had a horizontal position and they used twice as great a lifting surface as that hitherto employed. the flights of their first motor machine was made december , , at kitty hawk, n.c. in with a new machine they resumed experiments at their home near dayton, o. in september of that year they succeeded in changing the course from one dead against the wind to a curved path where cross currents must be encountered, and made many circular flights. during they rested for a while from practical flight, perfecting plans for the future. in the beginning of september, , orville wright made an aeroplane flight of one hour, and a few days later stayed up one hour and fourteen minutes. wilbur wright went to france and began a series of remarkable flights taking up passengers. on december , of that year, he startled the world by making the record flight of two hours and nineteen minutes. it was on sept. , , that santos-dumont made the first officially recorded european aeroplane flight, leaving the ground for a distance of yards. on november , of same year, he remained in the air for seconds and traveled a distance of yards. these feats caused a great sensation at the time. while the wrights were achieving fame for america, henri farman was busy in england. on october , , he flew yards in - / seconds. on july , , he remained in the air for - / minutes. on october , same year, in france, he flew from chalons to rheims, a distance of sixteen miles, in twenty minutes. the year witnessed mighty strides in the field of aviation. thousands of flights were made, many of which exceeded the most sanguine anticipations. on july , bleriot flew from etampes to chevilly, miles, in minutes and seconds, and on july he made the first flight across the british channel, miles, in minutes. orville wright made several sensational flights in his biplane around berlin, while his brother wilbur delighted new yorkers by circling the statue of liberty and flying up the hudson from governor's island to grant's tomb and return, a distance of miles, in minutes and seconds during the hudson-fulton celebration. on november louis paulhan, in a biplane, flew from mourmelon to chalons, france, and return, miles in minutes, rising to a height of feet. the dirigible airship was also much in evidence during , zeppelin, especially, performing some remarkable feats. the zeppelin v., subsequently re-numbered no. , of the rigid type, feet long, diameter - / feet and capacity , cubic feet, on march , rose to a height of , , and on april , started with a crew of nine passengers from frederickshafen to munich. in a mile gale it was carried beyond munich, but zeppelin succeeded in coming to anchor. other zeppelin balloons made remarkable voyages during the year. but the latest achievements ( ) of the old german aeronaut have put all previous records into the shade and electrified the whole world. his new passenger airship, the _deutschland_, on june , made a mile trip from frederickshafen to dusseldorf in hours, carrying passengers. this was at the rate of . miles per hour. during one hour of the journey a speed of - / miles was averaged. the passengers were carried in a mahogany finished cabin and had all the comforts of a pullman car, but most significant fact of all, the trip was made on schedule and with all regularity of an express train. two days later zeppelin eclipsed his own record air voyage when his vessel carried passengers, ten of whom were women, in a mile trip from dusseldorf to essen, dortmund and bochum and back. at one time on this occasion while traveling with the wind the airship made a speed of - / miles. it passed through a heavy shower and forced its way against a strong headwind without difficulty. the passengers were all delighted with the new mode of travel, which was very comfortable. this last dirigible masterpiece of zeppelin may be styled the leviathan of the air. it is feet long with a total lifting power of , lbs. it has three motors which total horse power and it drives at an average speed of about miles an hour. a regular passenger service has been established and tickets are selling at $ . the present year can also boast some great aeroplane records, notably by curtiss and hamilton in america and farman and paulhan in europe. curtiss flew from albany to new york, a distance of miles, at an average speed of miles an hour and hamilton flew from new york to philadelphia and return. the first night flight of a dirigible over new york city was made by charles goodale on july . he flew from palisades park on the hudson and return. from a scientific toy the flying machine has been developed and perfected into a practical means of locomotion. it bids fair at no distant date to revolutionize the transit of the world. no other art has ever made such progress in its early stages and every day witnesses an improvement. the air, though invisible to the eye, has mass and therefore offers resistance to all moving bodies. therefore air-mass and air resistance are the first principles to be taken into consideration in the construction of an aeroplane. it must be built so that the air-mass will sustain it and the motor, and the motor must be of sufficient power to overcome the air resistance. a ship ploughing through the waves presents the line of least resistance to the water and so is shaped somewhat like a fish, the natural denizen of that element. it is different with the aeroplane. in the intangible domain it essays to overcome, there must be a sufficient surface to compress a certain volume of air to sustain the weight of the machinery. the surfaces in regard to size, shape, curvature, bracing and material, are all important. a great deal depends upon the curve of the surfaces. two machines may have the same extent of surface and develop the same rate of speed, yet one may have a much greater lifting power than the other, provided it has a more efficient curve to its surface. many people have a fallacious idea that the surfaces of an aeroplane are planes and this doubt less arises from the word itself. however, the last syllable in _aeroplane_ has nothing whatever to do with a flat surface. it is derived from the greek _planos_, wandering, therefore the entire word signifies an air wanderer. the surfaces are really aero curves arched in the rear of the front edge, thus allowing the supporting surface of the aeroplane in passing forward with its backward side set at an angle to the direction of its motion, to act upon the air in such a way as to tend to compress it on the under side. after the surfaces come the rudders in importance. it is of vital consequence that the machine be balanced by the operator. in the present method of balancing an aeroplane the idea in mind is to raise the lower side of the machine and make the higher side lower in order that it can be quickly righted when it tips to one side from a gust of wind, or when making angle at a sudden turn. to accomplish this, two methods can be employed. . changing the form of the wing. . using separate surfaces. one side can be made to lift more than the other by giving it a greater curve or extending the extremity. in balancing by means of separate surfaces, which can be turned up or down on each side of the machine, the horizontal balancing rudders are so connected that they will work in an opposite direction--while one is turned to lift one side, the other will act to lower the other side so as to strike an even balance. the motors and propellers next claim attention. it is the motor that makes aviation possible. it was owing in a very large measure to the introduction of the petrol motor that progress became rapid. hitherto many had laid the blame of everything on the motor. they had said,--"give us a light and powerful engine and we will show you how to fly." the first very light engine to be available was the _antoinette_, built by leon levavasseur in france. it enabled santos-dumont to make his first public successful flights. nearly all aeroplanes follow the same general principles of construction. of course a good deal depends upon the form of aeroplane--whether a monoplane or a biplane. as these two forms are the chief ones, as yet, of heavier than-air machines, it would be well to understand them. the monoplane has single large surfaces like the wings of a bird, the biplane has two large surfaces braced together one over the other. at the present writing a triplane has been introduced into the domain of american aviation by an english aeronaut. doubtless as the science progresses many other variations will appear in the field. most machines, though fashioned on similar lines, possess universal features. for instance, the wright biplane is characterized by warping wing tips and seams of heavy construction, while the surfaces of the herring-curtiss machine, are slight and it looks very light and buoyant as if well suited to its element. the voisin biplane is fashioned after the manner of a box kite and therefore presents vertical surfaces to the air. farman's machine has no vertical surfaces, but there are hinged wing tips to the outer rear-edges of its surfaces, for use in turning and balancing. he also has a combination of wheels and skids or runners for starting and landing. the position to be occupied by the operator also influences the construction. some sit on top of the machine, others underneath. in the _antoinette_, latham sits up in a sort of cockpit on the top. bleriot sits far beneath his machine. in the latest construction of santos-dumont, the _demoiselle_, the aviator sits on the top. aeroplanes have been constructed for the most part in europe, especially in france. there may be said to be only one factory in america, that of herring-curtiss, at hammondsport, n.y., as the wright place at dayton is very small and only turns out motors and experimenting machines, and cannot be called a regular factory. the wright machines are now manufactured by a french syndicate. it is said that the wrights will have an american factory at work in a short time. the french-made aeroplanes have given good satisfaction. these machines cost from $ , to $ , , and generally have three cylinder motors developing from to horse power. the latest model of bleriot known as no. has beaten the time record of glenn curtiss' biplane with its horse power motor. the farman machine or the model in which he made the world's duration record in his three hour and sixteen minutes flight at rheims, is one of the best as well as the cheapest of the french makes. without the motor it cost but $ , . it has a surface twenty-five meters square, is eight meters long and seven-and-a-half meters wide, weighs kilos, and has a motor which develops from to horse power. the wright machines cost $ , . they have four cylinder motors of horse power, are - / meters long, meters wide and have a surface of square meters. they weigh kilos. in this country they cost $ , exclusive of the duty on foreign manufacture. the impetus being given to aviation at the present time by the prizes offered is spurring the men-birds to their best efforts. it is prophesied that the aeroplane will yet attain a speed of miles an hour. the quickest travel yet attained by man has been at the rate of miles an hour. that was accomplished by marriott in a racing automobile at ormond beach in , when he went one mile in - seconds. it is doubtful, however, were it possible to achieve a rate of miles an hour, that any human being could resist the air pressure at such a velocity. at any rate there can be no question as to the aeroplane attaining a much greater speed than at present. that it will be useful there can be little doubt. it is no longer a scientific toy in the hands of amateurs, but a practical machine which is bound to contribute much to the progress of the world. of course, as a mode of transportation it is not in the same class with the dirigible, but it can be made to serve many other purposes. as an agent in time of war it would be more important than fort or warship. the experiments of curtiss, made a short time ago over lake keuka at hammondsport, n.y., prove what a mighty factor would have to be reckoned with in the martial aeroplane. curtiss without any practice at all hit a mimic battle ship fifteen times out of twenty-two shots. his experiment has convinced the military and naval authorities of this country that the aeroplane and the aerial torpedo constitute a new danger against which there is no existing protection. aerial offensive and defensive strategy is now a problem which demands the attention of nations. chapter ii wireless telegraphy primitive signalling--principles of wireless telegraphy--ether vibrations--wireless apparatus--the marconi system. at a very early stage in the world's history, man found it necessary to be able to communicate with places at a distance by means of signals. fire was the first agent employed for the purpose. on hill-tops or other eminences, what were known as beacon fires were kindled and owing to their elevation these could be seen for a considerable distance throughout the surrounding country. these primitive signals could be passed on from one point to another, until a large region could be covered and many people brought into communication with one another. these fires expressed a language of their own, which the observers could readily interpret. for a long time they were the only method used for signalling. indeed in many backward localities and in some of the outlying islands and among savage tribes the custom still prevails. the bushmen of australia at night time build fires outside their huts or kraals to attract the attention of their followers. even in enlightened ireland the kindling of beacon fires is still observed among the people of backward districts especially on may eve and the festival of mid-summer. on these occasions bonfires are lit on almost every hillside throughout that country. this custom has been handed down from the days of the druids. for a long time fires continued to be the mode of signalling, but as this way could only be used in the night, it was found necessary to adopt some method that would answer the purpose in daytime; hence signal towers were erected from which flags were waved and various devices displayed. flags answered the purposes so very well that they came into general use. in course of time they were adopted by the army, navy and merchant marine and a regular code established, as at the present time. the railroad introduced the semaphore as a signal, and field tactics the heliograph or reflecting mirror which, however, is only of service when there is a strong sunlight. then came the electric telegraph which not only revolutionized all forms of signalling but almost annihilated distance. messages and all sorts of communications could be flashed over the wires in a few minutes and when a cable was laid under the ocean, continent could converse with continent as if they were next door neighbors. the men who first enabled us to talk over a wire certainly deserve our gratitude, all succeeding generations are their debtors. to the man who enabled us to talk to long distances without a wire at all it would seem we owe a still greater debt. but who is this man around whose brow we should twine the laurel wreath, to the altar of whose genius we should carry frankincense and myrrh? this is a question which does not admit of an answer, for to no one man alone do we owe wireless telegraphy, though hertz was the first to discover the waves which make it possible. however, it is to the men whose indefatigable labors and genius made the electric telegraph a reality, that we also owe wireless telegraphy as we have it at present, for the latter may be considered in many respects the resultant of the former, though both are different in medium. radio or wireless telegraphy in principle is as old as mankind. adam delivered the first wireless when on awakening in the garden of eden he discovered eve and addressed her in the vernacular of paradise in that famous sentence which translated in english reads both ways the same,--"madam, i'm adam." the oral words issuing from his lips created a sound wave which the medium of the air conveyed to the tympanum of the partner of his joys and the cause of his sorrows. when one person speaks to another the speaker causes certain vibrations in the air and these so stimulate the hearing apparatus that a series of nerve impulses are conveyed to the sensorium where the meaning of these signals is unconsciously interpreted. in wireless telegraphy the sender causes vibrations not in the air but in that all-pervading impalpable substance which fills all space and which we call the ether. these vibrations can reach out to a great distance and are capable of so affecting a receiving apparatus that signals are made, the movements of which can be interpreted into a distinct meaning and consequently into the messages of language. let us briefly consider the underlying principles at work. when we cast a stone into a pool of water we observe that it produces a series of ripples which grow fainter and fainter the farther they recede from the centre, the initial point of the disturbance, until they fade altogether in the surrounding expanse of water. the succession of these ripples is what is known as _wave_ motion. when the clapper strikes the lip of a bell it produces a sound and sends a tremor out upon the air. the vibrations thus made are air waves. in the first of these cases the medium communicating the ripple or wavelet is the water. in the second case the medium which sustains the tremor and communicates the vibrations is the air. let us now take the case of a third medium, the substance of which puzzled the philosophers of ancient time and still continues to puzzle the scientists of the present. this is the ether, that attenuated fluid which fills all inter-stellar space and all space in masses and between molecules and atoms not otherwise occupied by gross matter. when a lamp is lit the light radiates from it in all directions in a wave motion. that which transmits the light, the medium, is ether. by this means energy is conveyed from the sun to the earth, and scientists have calculated the speed of the ether vibrations called light at , miles per second. thus a beam of light can travel from the sun to the earth, a distance of between , , and , , miles (according to season), in a little over eight minutes. the fire messages sent by the ancients from hill to hill were ether vibrations. the greater the fires, the greater were the vibrations and consequently they carried farther to the receiver, which was the eye. if a signal is to be sent a great distance by light the source of that light must be correspondingly powerful in order to disturb the ether sufficiently. the same principle holds good in wireless telegraphy. if we wish to communicate to a great distance the ether must be disturbed in proportion to the distance. the vibrations that produce light are not sufficient in intensity to affect the ether in such a way that signals can be carried to a distance. other disturbances, however, can be made in the ether, stronger than those which create light. if we charge a wire with an electric current and place a magnetic needle near it we find it moves the needle from one position to another. this effect is called an electro-magnetic disturbance in the ether. again when we charge an insulated body with electricity we find that it attracts any light substance indicating a material disturbance in the ether. this is described as an electro-static disturbance or effect and it is upon this that wireless telegraphy depends for its operations. the late german physicist, dr. heinrich hertz, ph.d., was the first to detect electrical waves in the ether. he set up the waves in the ether by means of an electrical discharge from an induction coil. to do this he employed a very simple means. he procured a short length of wire with a brass knob at either end and bent around so as to form an almost complete circle leaving only a small air gap between the knobs. each time there was a spark discharge from the induction coil, the experimenter found that a small electric spark also generated between the knobs of the wire loop, thus showing that electric waves were projected through the ether. this discovery suggested to scientists that such electric waves might be used as a means of transmitting signals to a distance through the medium of the ether without connecting wires. when hertz discovered that electric waves crossed space he unconsciously became the father of the modern system of radio-telegraphy, and though he did not live to put or see any practical results from his wonderful discovery, to him in a large measure should be accorded the honor of blazoning the way for many of the intellectual giants who came after him. of course those who went before him, who discovered the principles of the electric telegraph made it possible for the hertzian waves to be utilized in wireless. it is easy to understand the wonders of wireless telegraphy when we consider that electric waves transverse space in exactly the same manner as light waves. when energy is transmitted with finite velocity we can think of its transference only in two ways: first by the actual transference of matter as when a stone is hurled from one place to another; second, by the propagation of energy from point to point through a medium which fills the space between two bodies. the body sending out energy disturbs the medium contiguous to it, which disturbance is communicated to adjacent parts of the medium and so the movement is propagated outward from the sending body through the medium until some other body is affected. a vibrating body sets up vibrations in another body, as for instance, when one tuning fork responds to the vibrations of another when both have the same note or are in tune. the transmission of messages by wireless telegraphy is effected in a similar way. the apparatus at the sending station sends out waves of a certain period through the ether and these waves are detected at the receiving station, by apparatus attuned to this wave length or period. the term electric radiation was first employed by hertz to designate waves emitted by a leyden jar or oscillator system of an induction coil, but since that time these radiations have been known as hertzian waves. these waves are the underlying principles in wireless telegraphy. it was found that certain metal filings offered great resistance to the passage of an electric current through them but that this resistance was very materially reduced when electric waves fell upon the filings and remained so until the filings were shaken, thus giving time for the fact to be observed in an ordinary telegraphic instrument. the tube of filings through which the electric current is made to pass in wireless telegraphy is called a coherer signifying that the filings cohere or cling together under the influence of the electric waves. almost any metal will do for the filings but it is found that a combination of ninety per cent. nickel and ten per cent. silver answers the purpose best. the tube of the coherer is generally of glass but any insulating substance will do; a wire enters at each end and is attached to little blocks of metal which are separated by a very small space. it is into this space the filings are loosely filled. another form of coherer consists of a glass tube with small carbon blocks or plugs attached to the ends of the wires and instead of the metal filings there is a globule of mercury between the plugs. when electric waves fall upon this coherer, the mercury coheres to the carbon blocks, and thus forms a bridge for the battery current. marconi and several others have from time to time invented many other kinds of detectors for the electrical waves. nearly all have to serve the same purpose, viz., to close a local battery circuit when the electric waves fall upon the detector. there are other inventions on which the action is the reverse. these are called anti-coherers. one of the best known of these is a tube arranged in a somewhat similar manner to the filings tube but with two small blocks of tin, between which is placed a paste made up of alcohol, tin filings and lead oxide. in its normal state the paste allows the battery current to get across from one block to another, but when electric waves touch it a chemical action is produced which immediately breaks down the bridge and stops the electric waves, the paste resumes its normal condition and allows the battery current to pass again. therefore by this arrangement the signals are made by a sudden breaking and making of the battery circuit. then there is the magnetic detector. this is not so easy of explanation. when we take a piece of soft iron and continuously revolve it in front of a permanent magnet, the magnetic poles of the soft iron piece will keep changing their position at each half revolution. it requires a little time to effect this magnetic change which makes it appear as if a certain amount of resistance was being made against it. (if electric waves are allowed to fall upon the iron, resistance is completely eliminated, and the magnetic poles can change places instantly as it revolves.) from this we see that if we have a quickly changing magnetic field it will induce or set up an electric current in a neighboring coil of wire. in this way we can detect the changes in the magnetic field, for we can place a telephone receiver in connection with the coil of wire. in a modern wireless receiver of this kind it is found more convenient to replace the revolving iron piece by an endless band of soft iron wire. this band is kept passing in front of a permanent magnet, the magnetism of the wire tending to change as it passes from one pole to the other. this change takes place suddenly when the electric waves form the transmitting station, fall upon the receiving aerial conductor and are conducted round the moving wire, and as the band is passing through a coil of insulated wire attached to a telephone receiver, this sudden change in the magnetic field induces an electric current in the surrounding coil and the operator hears a sound in the telephone at his ear. the morse code may thus be signalled from the distant transmitter. there are various systems of wireless telegraphy for the most part called after the scientists who developed or perfected them. probably the foremost as well as the best known is that which bears the name of marconi. a popular fallacy makes marconi the discoverer of the wireless method. marconi was the first to put the system on a commercial footing or business basis and to lead the way for its coming to the front as a mighty factor in modern progress. of course, also, the honor of several useful inventions and additions to wireless apparatus must be given him. he started experimenting as far back as when but a mere boy. in the beginning he employed the induction coil, morse telegraph key, batteries, and vertical wire for the transmission of signals, and for their reception the usual filings coherer of nickel with a very small percentage of silver, a telegraph relay, batteries and a vertical wire. in the marconi system of the present time there are many forms of coherers, also the magnetic detector and other variations of the original apparatus. other systems more or less prominent are the lodge-muirhead of england, braun-siemens of germany and those of deforest and fessenden of america. the electrolytic detector with the paste between the tin blocks belongs to the system of deforest. besides these the names of popoff, jackson, armstrong, orling, lepel, and poulsen stand high in the wireless world. a serious drawback to the operations of wireless lies in the fact that the stations are liable to get mixed up and some one intercept the messages intended for another, but this is being overcome by the adoption of a special system of wave lengths for the different wireless stations and by the use of improved apparatus. in the early days it was quite a common occurrence for the receivers of one system to reply to the transmitters of a rival system. there was an all-round mix-up and consequently the efficiency of wireless for practical purposes was for a good while looked upon with more or less suspicion. but as knowledge of wave motions developed and the laws of governing them were better understood, the receiver was "tuned" to respond to the transmitter, that is, the transmitter was made to set up a definite rate of vibrations in the ether and the receiver made to respond to this rate, just like two tuning forks sounding the same note. in order to set up as energetic electric waves as possible many methods have been devised at the transmitting stations. in some methods a wire is attached to one of the two metal spheres between which the electric charge takes place and is carried up into the air for a great height, while to the second sphere another wire is connected and which leads into the earth. another method is to support a regular network of wires from strong steel towers built to a height of two hundred feet or more. long distance transmission by wireless was only made possible by grounding one of the conductors in the transmitter. the hertzian waves were provided without any earth connection and radiated into space in all directions, rapidly losing force like the disappearing ripples on a pond, whereas those set up by a grounded transmitter with the receiving instrument similarly connected to earth, keep within the immediate neighborhood of the earth. for instance up to about two hundred miles a storage battery and induction coil are sufficient to produce the necessary ether disturbance, but when a greater distance is to be spanned an engine and a dynamo are necessary to supply energy for the electric waves. in the most recent marconi transmitter the current produced is no longer in the form of intermittent sparks, but is a true alternating current, which in general continues uniformly as long as the key is pressed down. there is no longer any question that wireless telegraphy is here to stay. it has passed the juvenile stage and is fast approaching a lusty adolescence which promises to be a source of great strength to the commerce of the world. already it has accomplished much for its age. it has saved so many lives at sea that its installation is no longer regarded as a scientific luxury but a practical necessity on every passenger vessel. practically every steamer in american waters is equipped with a wireless station. even freight boats and tugs are up-to-date in this respect. every ship in the american navy, including colliers and revenue cutters, carries wireless operators. so important indeed is it considered in the navy department that a line of shore stations have been constructed from maine on the atlantic to alaska on the pacific. in a remarkably short interval wireless has come to exercise an important function in the marine service. through the shore stations of the commercial companies, press despatches, storm warnings, weather reports and other items of interest are regularly transmitted to ships at sea. captains keep in touch with one another and with the home office; wrecks, derelicts and storms are reported. every operator sends out regular reports daily, so that the home office can tell the exact position of the vessel. if she is too far from land on the one side to be reached by wireless she is near enough on the other to come within the sphere of its operations. weather has no effect on wireless, therefore the question of meteorology does not come into consideration. fogs, rains, torrents, tempests, snowstorms, winds, thunder, lightning or any aerial disturbance whatsoever cannot militate against the sending or receiving of wireless messages as the ether permeates them all. submarine and land telegraphy used to look on wireless, the youngest sister, as the cinderella of their name, but she has surpassed both and captured the honors of the family. it was in that marconi made his first remarkable success in sending messages from england to france. the english station was at south foreland and the french near boulogne. the distance was thirty-two miles across the british channel. this telegraphic communication without wires was considered a wonderful feat at the time and excited much interest. during the following year marconi had so much improved his first apparatus that he was able to send out waves detected by receivers up to the one hundred mile limit. in communication was established between the isle of wight and the lizard in cornwall, a distance of two hundred miles. up to this time the only appliances employed were induction coils giving a ten or twenty inch spark. marconi and others perceived the necessity of employing greater force to penetrate the ether in order to generate stronger electrical waves. oil and steam engines and other appliances were called into use to create high frequency currents and those necessitated the erection of large power stations. several were erected at advantageous points and the wireless system was fairly established as a new agent of communication. in december, , at st. john's, newfoundland, marconi by means of kites and balloons set up a temporary aerial wire in the hope of being able to receive a signal from the english station in cornwall. he had made an arrangement with poldhu station that on a certain date and at a fixed hour they should attempt the signal. the letter s, which in the morse code consists of three successive dots, was chosen. marconi feverishly awaited results. true enough on the day and at the time agreed upon the three dots were clicked off, the first signal from europe to the american continent. marconi with much difficulty set up other aerial wires and indubitably established the fact that it was possible to send electric waves across the atlantic. he found, however, that waves in order to traverse three thousand miles and retain sufficient energy on their arrival to affect a telephonic wave-detecting device must be generated by no inordinate power. these experiments proved that if stations were erected of sufficient power transatlantic wireless could be successfully carried on. they gave an impetus to the erection of such stations. on december , , from a station at glace bay, nova scotia, marconi sent the first message by wireless to england announcing success to his colleagues. the following january from wellsfleet, cape cod, president roosevelt sent a congratulatory message to king edward. the electric waves conveying this message traveled , miles over the atlantic following round an arc of forty-five degrees of the earth on a great circle, and were received telephonically, by the marconi magnetic receiver at poldhu. most ships are provided with syntonic receivers which are tuned to long distance transmitters, and are capable of receiving messages up to distances of , miles or more. wireless communication between europe and america is no longer a possibility but an accomplishment, though as yet the system has not been put on a general business basis. [footnote: as we go to press a new record has been established in wireless transmission. marconi, in the argentine republic, near buenos ayres, has received messages from the station at clifden, county galway, ireland, a distance of , miles. the best previous record was made when the united states battleship _tennessee_ in picked up a message from san francisco when , miles distant.] chapter iii radium experiments of becquerel--work of the curies--discovery of radium--enormous energy--various uses. early in just a few months after roentgen had startled the scientific world by the announcement of the discovery of the x-rays, professor henri becquerel of the natural history museum in paris announced another discovery which, if not as mysterious, was more puzzling and still continues a puzzle to a great degree to the present time. studying the action of the salts of a rare and very heavy mineral called uranium becquerel observed that their substances give off an invisible radiation which, like the roentgen rays, traverse metals and other bodies opaque to light, as well as glass and other transparent substances. like most of the great discoveries it was the result of accident. becquerel had no idea of such radiations, had never thought of their possibility. in the early days of the roentgen rays there were many facts which suggested that phosphorescence had something to do with the production of these rays it then occurred to several french physicists that x-rays might be produced if phosphorescent substances were exposed to sunlight. becquerel began to experiment with a view to testing this supposition. he placed uranium on a photographic plate which had first been wrapped in black paper in order to screen it from the light. after this plate had remained in the bright sunlight for several hours it was removed from the paper covering and developed. a slight trace of photographic action was found at those parts of the plate directly beneath the uranium just as becquerel had expected. from this it appeared evident that rays of some kind were being produced that were capable of passing through black paper. since the x-rays were then the only ones known to possess the power to penetrate opaque substances it seemed as though the problem of producing x-rays by sunlight was solved. then came the fortunate accident. after several plates had been prepared for exposure to sunlight a severe storm arose and the experiments had to be abandoned for the time being. at the end of several days work was again resumed, but the plates had been lying so long in the darkroom that they were deemed almost valueless and it was thought that there would not be much use in trying to use them. becquerel was about to throw them away, but on second consideration thinking that some action might have possibly taken place in the dark, he resolved to try them. he developed them and the result was that he obtained better pictures than ever before. the exposure to sunlight which had been regarded as essential to the success of the former experiments had really nothing at all to do with the matter, the essential thing was the presence of uranium and the photographic effects were not due to x-rays but to the rays or emanations which becquerel had thus discovered and which bear his name. there were many tedious and difficult steps to take before even our present knowledge, incomplete as it is, could be reached. however, becquerel's fortunate accident of the plate developing was the beginning of the long series of experiments which led to the discovery of radium which already has revolutionized some of the most fundamental conceptions of physics and chemistry. it is remarkable that we owe the discovery of this wonderful element to a woman, mme. sklodowska curie, the wife of a french professor and physicist. mme. curie began her work in with a systematic study of several minerals containing uranium and thorium and soon discovered the remarkable fact that there was some agent present more strongly radio-active than the metal uranium itself. she set herself the task of finding out this agent and in conjunction with her husband, professor pierre curie, made many tests and experiments. finally in the ore of pitchblende they found not only one but three substances highly radio-active. pitchblende or uraninite is an intensely black mineral of a specific gravity of . and is found in commercial quantities in bohemia, cornwall in england and some other localities. it contains lead sulphide, lime silica, and other bodies. to the radio-active substance which accompanied the bismuth extracted from pitchblende the curies gave the name _polonium_. to that which accompanied barium taken from the same ore they called _radium_ and to the substance which was found among the rare earths of the pitchblende debierne gave the name _actinium_. none of these elements have been isolated, that is to say, separated in a pure state from the accompanying ore. therefore, _pure radium_ is a misnomer, though we often hear the term used. [footnote: since the above was written madame curie has announced to the paris academy of sciences that she has succeeded in obtaining pure radium. in conjunction with professor debierne she treated a decegramme of bromide of radium by electrolytic process, getting an amalgam from which was extracted the metallic radium by distillation.] all that has been obtained is some one of its simpler salts or compounds and until recently even these had not been prepared in pure form. the commonest form of the element, which in itself is very far from common, is what is known to chemistry as chloride of radium which is a combination of chlorin and radium. this is a grayish white powder, somewhat like ordinary coarse table salt. to get enough to weigh a single grain requires the treatment of , pounds of pitchblende. the second form of radium is as a bromide. in this form it costs $ , a grain and could a pound be obtained its value would be three-and-a-half million dollars. radium, as we understand it in any of its compounds, can communicate its property of radio-activity to other bodies. any material when placed near radium becomes radio-active and retains such activity for a considerable time after being removed. even the human body takes on this excited activity and this sometimes leads to annoyances as in delicate experiments the results may be nullified by the element acting upon the experimenter's person. despite the enormous amount of energy given off by radium it seems not to change in itself, there is no appreciable loss in weight nor apparently any microscopic or chemical change in the original body. professor becquerel has stated that if a square centimeter of surface was covered by chemically pure radium it would lose but one thousandth of a milligram in weight in a million years' time. radium is a body which gives out energy continuously and spontaneously. this liberation of energy is manifested in the different effects of its radiation and emanation, and especially in the development of heat. now, according to the most fundamental principles of modern science, the universe contains a certain definite provision of energy which can appear under various forms, but which cannot be increased. according to sir oliver lodge every cubic millimeter of ether contains as much energy as would be developed by a million horse power station working continuously far forty thousand years. this assertion is probably based on the fact that every corpuscle in the ether vibrates with the speed of light or about , miles a second. it was formerly believed that the atom was the smallest sub-division in nature. scientists held to the atomic theory for a long time, but at last it has been exploded, and instead of the atom being primary and indivisible we find it a very complex affair, a kind of miniature solar system, the centre of a varied attraction of molecules, corpuscles and electrons. had we held to the atomic theory and denied smaller sub-divisions of matter there would be no accounting for the emissions of radium, for as science now believes these emissions are merely the expulsion of millions of electrons. radium gives off three distinct types of rays named after the first three letters of the greek alphabet--alpha, beta, gamma--besides a gas emanation as does thorium which is a powerfully radio-active substance. the alpha rays constitute ninety-nine per cent, of all the rays and consist of positively electrified particles. under the influence of magnetism they can be deflected. they have little penetrative power and are readily absorbed in passing through a sheet of paper or through a few inches of air. the beta rays consist of negatively charged particles or corpuscles approximately one thousandth the size of those constituting the alpha rays. they resemble cathode rays produced by an electrical discharge inside of a highly exhausted vacuum tube but work at a much higher velocity; they can be readily deflected by a magnet, they discharge electrified bodies, affect photographic plates, stimulate strongly phosphorescent bodies and are of high penetrative power. the radiations are a million times more powerful than those of uranium. they have many curious properties. if a photographic plate is placed in the vicinity of radium it is almost instantly affected if no screen intercepts the rays; with a screen the action is slower, but it still takes place even through thick folds, therefore, radiographs can be taken and in this way it is being utilized by surgery to view the anatomy, the internal organs, and locate bullets and other foreign substances in the system. a glass vessel containing radium spontaneously charges itself with electricity. if the glass has a weak spot, a scratch say, an electric spark is produced at that point and the vessel crumbles, just like a leyden jar when overcharged. radium liberates heat spontaneously and continuously. a solid salt of radium develops such an amount of heat that to every single gram there is an emission of one hundred calories per hour, in other words, radium can melt its weight in ice in the time of one hour. as a result of its emission of heat radium has always a temperature higher by several degrees than its surroundings. when a solution of a radium salt is placed in a closed vessel the radio-activity in part leaves the solution and distributes itself through the vessel, the sides of which become radio-active and luminous. radium acts upon the chemical constituents of glass, porcelain and paper, giving them a violet tinge, changes white phosphorous into yellow, oxygen into ozone and produces many other curious chemical changes. we have said that it can serve the surgeon in physical examinations of the body after the manner of x-rays. it has not, however, been much employed in this direction owing to its scarcity and prohibitive price. it has given excellent results in the treatment of certain skin diseases, in cancer, etc. however it can have very baneful effects on animal organisms. it has produced paralysis and death in dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, guinea-pigs and other animals, and undoubtedly it might affect human beings in a similar way. professor curie said that a single gram of chemically pure radium would be sufficient to destroy the life of every man, woman and child in paris providing they were separately and properly exposed to its influence. radium destroys the germinative power of seeds and retards the growth of certain forms of life, such as larvae, so that they do not pass into the chrysalis and insect stages of development, but remain in the state of larvae. at a certain distance it causes the hair of mice to fall out, but on the contrary at the same distance it increases the hair or fur on rabbits. it often produces severe burns on the hands and other portions of the body too long exposed to its activity. it can penetrate through gases, liquids and all ordinary solids, even through many inches of the hardest steel. on a comparatively short exposure it has been known to partially paralyze an electric charged bar. heat nor cold do not affect its radioactivity in the least. it gives off but little light, its luminosity being largely due to the stimulation of the impurities in the radium by the powerful but invisible radium rays. radium stimulates powerfully various mineral and chemical substances near which it is placed. it is an infallible test of the genuineness of the diamond. the genuine diamond phosphoresces strongly when brought into juxtaposition, but the paste or imitation one glows not at all. it is seen that the study of the properties of radium is of great interest. this is true also of the two other elements found in the ores of uranium and thorium, viz., polonium and actinium. polonium, so-called, in honor of the native land of mme. curie, is just as active as radium when first extracted from the pitchblende but its energy soon lessens and finally it becomes inert, hence there has been little experimenting or investigation. the same may be said of actinium. the process of obtaining radium from pitchblende is most tedious and laborious and requires much patience. the residue of the pitchblende from which uranium has been extracted by fusion with sodium carbonate and solution in dilute sulphuric acid, contains the radium along with other metals, and is boiled with concentrated sodium carbonate solution, and the solution of the residue in hydrochloric acid precipitated with sulphuric acid. the insoluble barium and radium sulphates, after being converted into chlorides or bromides, are separated by repeated fractional crystallization. one kilogram of impure radium bromide is obtained from a ton of pitchblende residue after processes continued for about three months during which time, five tons of chemicals and fifty tons of rinsing water are used. as has been said the element has never been isolated or separated in its metallic or pure state and most of the compounds are impure. radium banks have been established in london, paris and new york. whenever radium is employed in surgery for an operation about fifty milligrams are required at least and the banks let out the amount for about $ a day. if purchased the price for this amount would be $ , . chapter iv moving pictures photographing motion--edison's kinetoscope--lumiere's cinematographe--before the camera--the mission of the moving picture. few can realize the extent of the field covered by moving pictures. in the dual capacity of entertainment and instruction there is not a rival in sight. as an instructor, science is daily widening the sphere of the motion picture for the purpose of illustration. films are rapidly superseding text books in many branches. every department capable of photographic demonstration is being covered by moving pictures. negatives are now being made of the most intricate surgical operations and these are teaching the students better than the witnessing of the real operations, for at the critical moment of the operation the picture machine can be stopped to let the student view over again the way it is accomplished, whereas at the operating table the surgeon must go on with his work to try to save life and cannot explain every step in the process of the operation. there is no doubt that the moving picture machine will perform a very important part in the future teaching of surgery. in the naturalist's domain of science it is already playing a very important part. a device for micro-photography has now been perfected in connection with motion machines whereby things are magnified to a great degree. by this means the analysis of a substance can be better illustrated than any way else. for instance a drop of water looks like a veritable zoo with terrible looking creatures wiggling and wriggling through it, and makes one feel as if he never wanted to drink water again. the moving picture in its general phase is entertainment and instruction rolled into one and as such it has superseded the theatre. it is estimated that at the present time in america there are upwards of , moving picture shows patronized daily by almost ten million people. it is doubtful if the theatre attendance at the best day of the winter season reaches five millions. the moving picture in importance is far beyond the puny functions of comedy and tragedy. the grotesque farce of vaudeville and the tawdry show which only appeals to sentiment at highest and often to the base passions at lowest. despite prurient opposition it is making rapid headway. it is entering very largely into the instructive and the entertaining departments of the world's curriculum. millions of dollars are annually expended in the production of films. companies of trained and practiced actors are brought together to enact pantomimes which will concentrate within the space of a few minutes the most entertaining and instructive incidents of history and the leading happenings of the world. at all great events, no matter where transpiring, the different moving picture companies have trained men at the front ready with their cameras to "catch" every incident, every movement even to the wink of an eyelash, so that the "stay-at-homes" can see the _show_ as well, and with a great deal more comfort than if they had traveled hundreds, or even thousands, of miles to be present in _propria persona_. how did moving pictures originate? what and when were the beginning? it is popularly believed that animated pictures had their inception with edison who projected the biograph in , having based it on that wonderful and ingenious toy, the zoetrope. long before , however, several men of inventive faculties had turned their attention to a means of giving apparent animation to pictures. the first that met with any degree of success was edward muybridge, a photographer of san francisco. this was in . a revolution had been brought about in photography by the introduction of the instantaneous process. by the use of sensitive films of gelatine bromide of silver emulsion the time required for the action of ordinary daylight in producing a photograph had been reduced to a very small fraction of a second. muybridge utilized these films for the photographic analysis of animal motion. beside a race-track he placed a battery of cameras, each camera being provided with a spring shutter which was controlled by a thread stretched across the track. a running horse broke each thread the moment he passed in front of the camera and thus twenty or thirty pictures of him were taken in close succession within one or two seconds of time. from the negatives secured in this way a series of positives were obtained in proper order on a strip of sensitized paper. the strip when examined by means of the zoetrope furnished a reproduction of the horse's movements. the zoetrope was a toy familiar to children; it was sometimes called the wheel of life. it was a contrivance consisting of a cylinder some ten inches wide, open at the top, around the lower and interior rim of which a series of related pictures were placed. the cylinder was then rapidly rotated and the spectator looking through the vertical narrow slits on its outer surface, could fancy that the pictures inside were moving. muybridge devised an instrument which he called a zoopraxiscope for the optical projection of his zoetrope photographs. the succession of positives was arranged in proper order upon a glass disk about inches in diameter near its circumference. this disk was mounted conveniently for rapid revolution so that each picture would pass in front of the condenser of an optical lantern. the difficulties involved in the preparation of the disk pictures and in the manipulation of the zoopraxiscope prevented the instrument from attracting much attention. however, artistically speaking, it was the forerunner of the numerous "graphs" and "scopes" and moving picture machines of the present day. it was in that edison conceived an idea of associating with his phonograph, which had then achieved a marked success, an instrument which would reproduce to the eye the effect of motion by means of a swift and graded succession of pictures, so that the reproduction of articulate sounds as in the phonograph, would be accompanied by the reproduction of the motion naturally associated with them. the principle of the instrument was suggested to edison by the zoetrope, and of course, he well knew what muybridge had accomplished in the line of motion pictures of animals almost ten years previously. edison, however, did not employ a battery of cameras as muybridge had done, but devised a special form of camera in which a long strip of sensitized film was moved rapidly behind a lens provided with a shutter, and so arranged as to alternately admit and cut off the light from the moving object. he adjusted the mechanism so that there were exposures a second, the film remaining stationary during the momentary time of exposure, after which it was carried forward far enough to bring a new surface into the proper position. the time of the shifting was about one-tenth of that allowed for exposure, so that the actual time of exposure was about the one-fiftieth of a second. the film moved, reckoning shiftings and stoppages for exposures, at an average speed of a little more than a foot per second, so that a length of film of about fifty feet received between and impressions in a circuit of seconds. edison named his first instrument the kinetoscope. it came out in . it was hailed with delight at the time and for a short period was much in demand, but soon new devices came into the field and the kinetoscope was superseded by other machines bearing similar names with a like signification. a variety of cameras was invented. one consisted of a film-feeding mechanism which moves the film step by step in the focus of a single lens, the duration of exposure being from twenty to twenty-five times as great as that necessary to move an unexposed portion of the film into position. no shutter was employed. as time passed many other improvements were made. an ingenious frenchman named lumiere, came forward with his cinematographe which for a few years gave good satisfaction, producing very creditable results. success, however, was due more to the picture ribbons than to the mechanism employed to feed them. of other moving pictures machines we have had the vitascope, vitagraph, magniscope, mutoscope, panoramagraph, theatograph and scores of others all derived from the two greek roots _grapho_ i write and _scopeo_ i view. the vitascope is the principal name now in use for moving picture machines. in all these instruments in order that the film projection may be visible to an audience it is necessary to have a very intense light. a source of such light is found in the electric focusing lamp. at or near the focal point of the projecting lantern condenser the film is made to travel across the field as in the kinetoscope. a water cell in front of the condenser absorbs most of the heat and transmits most of the light from the arc lamp, and the small picture thus highly illuminated is protected from injury. a projecting lens of rather short focus throws a large image of each picture on the screen, and the rapid succession of these completes the illusion of life-like motion. hundreds of patents have been made on cameras, projecting lenses and machines from the days of the kinetoscope to the present time when clear-cut moving pictures portray life so closely and so well as almost to deceive the eye. in fact in many cases the counterfeit is taken for the reality and audiences as much aroused as if they were looking upon a scene of actual life. we can well believe the story of the irishman, who on seeing the stage villain abduct the young lady, made a rush at the canvas yelling out,--"let me at the blackguard and i'll murder him." though but fifteen years old the moving picture industry has sent out its branches into all civilized lands and is giving employment to an army of thousands. it would be hard to tell how many mimic actors and actresses make a living by posing for the camera; their name is legion. among them are many professionals who receive as good a salary as on the stage. some of the large concerns both in europe and america at times employ from one hundred to two hundred hands and even more to illustrate some of the productions. they send their photographers and actors all over the world for settings. most of the business, however, is done near home. with trapping and other paraphernalia a stage setting can be effected to simulate almost any scene. almost anything under the sun can be enacted in a moving picture studio, from the drowning of a cat to the hanging of a man; a horse race or fire alarm is not outside the possible and the aviator has been depicted "flying" high in the heavens. the places where the pictures are prepared must be adapted for the purpose. they are called studios and have glass roofs and in most of them a good section of the walls are also glass. the floor space is divided into sections for the setting or staging of different productions, therefore several representations can take place at the same time before the eyes of the cameras. there are "properties" of all kinds from the ragged garments of the beggar to kingly ermine and queenly silks. paste diamonds sparkle in necklaces, crowns and tiaras, seeming to rival the scintillations of the kohinoor. at the first, objections were made to moving pictures on the ground that in many cases they had a tendency to cater to the lower instincts, that subjects were illustrated which were repugnant to the finer feelings and appealed to the gross and the sensual. burglaries, murders and wild western scenes in which the villain-heroes triumphed were often shown and no doubt these had somewhat of a pernicious influence on susceptible youth. but all such pictures have for the most part been eliminated and there is a strict taboo on anything with a degrading influence or partaking of the brutal. prize fights are often barred. in many large cities there is a board of censorship to which the different manufacturing firms must submit duplicates. this board has to pass on all the films before they are released and if the pictures are in any way contrary to morals or decency or are in any respect unfit to be displayed before the public, they cannot be put in circulation. thus are the people protected and especially the youth who should be permitted to see nothing that is not elevating or not of a nature to inspire them with high and noble thoughts and with ambitions to make the world better and brighter. let us hope that the future mission of the moving picture will be along educational and moral lines tending to uplift and ennoble our boys and girls so that they may develop into a manhood and womanhood worthy the history and best traditions of our country. * * * * * * the wizard of menlo park has just succeeded after two years of hard application to the experiment in giving us the talking picture, a real genuine talking picture, wholly independent of the old device of having the actors talk behind the screen when the films were projected. by a combination of the phonograph and the moving picture machine working in perfect synchronism the result is obtained. wires are attached to the mechanism of both the machines, the one behind the screen and the one in front, in such a way that the two are operated simultaneously so that when a film is projected a corresponding record on the phonograph acts in perfect unison supplying the voice suitable to the moving action. men and women pass along the canvas, act, talk, laugh, cry and "have their being" just as in real life. of course, they are immaterial, merely the reflection of films, but the one hundred thousandth of an inch thick, yet they give forth oral sounds as creatures of flesh and blood. in fact every sound is produced harmoniously with the action on the screen. an iron ball is dropped and you hear its thud upon the floor, a plate is cracked and you can hear the cracking just the same as if the material plate were broken in your presence. an immaterial piano appears upon the screen and a fleshless performer discourses airs as real as those heard on broadway. melba and tettrazini and caruso and bonci appear before you and warble their nightingale notes, as if behind the footlights with a galaxy of beauty, wealth and fashion before them for an audience. true it is not even their astral bodies you are looking at, only their pictured representations, but the magic of their voices is there all the same and there is such an atmosphere of realism about the representations that you can scarcely believe the actors are not present in _propriae personae_. mr. edison had much study and labor of experiment in bringing his device to a successful issue. the greatest obstacle he had to overcome was in getting a phonograph that could "hear" far enough. at the beginning of the experiments the actor had to talk directly into the horn, which made the right kind of pictures impossible to get. bit by bit, however, a machine was perfected which could "hear" so well that the actor could move at his pleasure within a radius of twenty feet. that is the machine that is being used now. this new combination of the moving picture machine and the phonograph edison has named the _kinetophone_. by it he has made possible the bringing of grand opera into the hamlets of the west, and through it also our leading statesmen may address audiences on the mining camps and the wilds of the prairies where their feet have never trodden. chapter v sky-scrapers and how they are built evolution of the sky-scraper--construction--new york's giant buildings--dimensions. the sky-scraper is an architectural triumph, but at the same time it is very much of a commercial enterprise, and it is indigenous, native-born to american soil. it had its inception here, particularly in new york and chicago. the tallest buildings in the world are in new york. the most notable of these, the metropolitan life insurance building with fifty stories towering up to a height of seven hundred feet and three inches, has been the crowning achievement of architectural art, the highest building yet erected by man. how is it possible to erect such building--how is it possible to erect a sky-scraper at all? a partial answer may be given in one word--_steel_. generally speaking the method of building all these huge structures is much the same. massive piers or pillars are erected, inside which are usually strong steel columns; crosswise from column to column great girders are placed forming a base for the floor, and then upon the first pillars are raised other steel columns slightly decreased in size, upon which girders are again fixed for the next floor; and so on this process is continued floor after floor. there seems no reason why buildings should not be reared like this for even a hundred stories, provided the foundations are laid deep enough and broad enough. the walls are not really the support of the buildings. the essential elements are the columns and girders of steel forming the skeleton framework of the whole. the masonry may assist, but the piers and girders carry the principal weight. if, therefore, everything depends upon these piers, which are often of steel and masonry combined, the immense importance will be seen of basing them upon adequate foundations. and thus it comes about that to build high we must dig deep, which fact may be construed as an aphorism to fit more subjects than the building of sky-scrapers. to attempt to build a sky-scraper without a suitable foundation would be tantamount to endeavoring to build a house on a marsh without draining the marsh,--it would count failure at the very beginning. the formation depends on the height, the calculated weight the frame work will carry, the amount of air pressure, the vibrations from the running of internal machines and several other details of less importance than those mentioned, but of deep consequence in the aggregate. instead of being carried on thick walls spread over a considerable area of ground, the sky-scrapers are carried wholly on steel columns. this concentrates many hundred tons of load and develops pressure which would crush the masonry and cause the structures to penetrate soft earth almost as a stone sinks in water. in the first place the weight of the proposed building and contents is estimated, then the character of the soil determined to a depth of one hundred feet if necessary. in new york the soil is treacherous and difficult, there are underground rivers in places and large deposits of sand so that to get down to rock bottom or pan is often a very hard undertaking. generally speaking the excavations are made to about a depth of thirty feet. a layer of concrete a foot or two thick is spread over the bottom of the pit and on it are bedded rows of steel beams set close together. across the middle of these beams deep steel girders are placed on which the columns are erected. the heavy weight is thus spread out by the beams, girders and concrete so as to cause a reduced uniform pressure on the soil. cement is filled in between the beams and girders and packed around them to seal them thoroughly against moisture; then clean earth or sand is rammed in up to the column bases and covered with the concrete of the cellar floor. in some cases the foundation loads are so numerous that nothing short of masonry piers on solid rock will safely sustain them. to accomplish this very strong airtight steel or wooden boxes with flat tops and no bottoms are set on the pier sites at ground water level and pumped full of compressed air while men enter them and excavating the soil, undermine them, so they sink, until they land on the rock and are filled solid with concrete to form the bases of the foundation piers. on the average the formation should have a resisting power of two tons to the square foot, dead load. by dead load is meant the weight of the steelwork, floors and walls, as distinguished from the office furniture and occupants which come under the head of living load. some engineers take into consideration the pressure of both dead and live loads gauging the strength of the foundation, but the dead load pressure of tons to the square foot will do for the reckoning, for as a live load only exerts a pressure of lbs. to the square foot it may be included in the former. the columns carry the entire weights including dead and live loads and the wind pressure, into the footings, these again distributing the loads on the soil. the aim is to have an equal pressure per square foot of soil at the same time, for all footings, thus insuring an even settlement. the skeleton construction now almost wholly consists of wrought steel. at first cast-iron and wrought-iron were used but it was found they corroded too quickly. there are two classes of steel construction, the cage and the skeleton. in the cage construction the frame is strengthened for wind stresses and the walls act as curtains. in the skeleton, the frame carries only the vertical loads and depends upon the walls for its wind bracing. it has been found that the wind pressure is about lbs. for every square foot of exposed surface. the steel columns reach from the foundation to the top, riveted together by plates and may be extended to an indefinite height. in fact there is no engineering limit to the height. the outside walls of the sky-scraper vary in thickness with the height of the building and also vary in accordance with the particular kind of construction, whether cage or skeleton. if of the cage variety, the walls, as has been said, act as curtains and consequently they are thinner than in the skeleton type of construction. in the latter case the walls have to resist the wind pressure unsupported by the steel frame and therefore they must be of a sufficient width. brick and terra-cotta blocks are used for construction generally. terra-cotta blocks are also much used in the flooring, and for this purpose have several advantages over other materials; they are absolutely fire-proof, they weigh less per cubic foot than any other kind of fire-proof flooring and they are almost sound-proof. they do equally well for flat and arched floors. it is of the utmost importance that the sky-scraper be absolutely fire-proof from bottom to top. these great buzzing hives of industry house at one time several thousand human beings and a panic would entail a fearful calamity, and, moreover, their height places the upper stories beyond reach of a water-tower and the pumping engines of the street. the sky-scrapers of to-day are as fireproof as human ingenuity and skill can make them, and this is saying much; in fact, it means that they cannot burn. of course fires can break out in rooms and apartments in the manufacturing of chemicals or testing experiments, etc., but these are easily confined to narrow limits and readily extinguished with the apparatus at hand. steel columns will not burn, but if exposed to heat of sufficient degree they will warp and bend and probably collapse, therefore they should be protected by heat resisting agents. nothing can be better than terra-cotta and concrete for this purpose. when terra-cotta blocks are used they should be at least inches thick with an air space running through them. columns are also fire-proofed by wrapping expanded metal or other metal lathing around them and plastering. then a furring system is put on and another layer of metal, lathing and plastering. this if well done is probably safer than the layer of hollow tile. the floor beams should be entirely covered with terra-cotta blocks or concrete, so that no part of them is left exposed. as most office trimmings are of wood care should be taken that all electric wires are well insulated. faulty installation of dynamos, motors and other apparatus is frequently the cause of office fires. the lighting of a sky-scraper is a most elaborate arrangement. some of them use as many lights as would well supply a good sized town. the singer building in new york has , incandescent lamps and it is safe to say the metropolitan life insurance building has more than twice this number as the floor area of the latter is - / times as great. the engines and dynamos are in the basement and so fixed that their vibrations do not affect the building. as space is always limited in the basements of sky-scrapers direct connected engines and dynamos are generally installed instead of belt connected and the boilers operated under a high steam pressure. besides delivering steam to the engines the boilers also supply it to a variety of auxiliary pumps, as boiler-feed, fire-pump, blow-off, tank-pump and pump for forcing water through the building. the heating arrangement of such a vast area as is covered by the floor space of a sky-scraper has been a very difficult problem but it has been solved so that the occupant of the twentieth story can receive an equal degree of heat with the one on the ground floor. both hot water and steam are utilized. hot water heating, however, is preferable to steam, as it gives a much steadier heat. the radiators arc proportioned to give an average temperature of degrees f. in each room during the winter months. there are automatic regulating devices attached to the radiators, so if the temperature rises above or falls below a certain point the steam or hot water is automatically turned on or off. some buildings are heated by the exhaust steam from the engines but most have boilers solely for the purpose. the sanitary system is another important feature. the supplying of water for wash-stands, the dispositions of wastes and the flushing of lavatories tax all the skill of the mechanical engineer. several of these mighty buildings call for upwards of a thousand lavatories. in considering the sky-scraper we should not forget the role played by the electric elevator. without it these buildings would be practically useless, as far as the upper stories are concerned. the labor of stair climbing would leave them untenanted. no one would be willing to climb ten, twenty or thirty flights and tackle a day's work after the exertion of doing so. to climb to the fiftieth story in such a manner would be well-nigh impossible or only possible by relays, and after one would arrive at the top he would be so physically exhausted that both mental and manual endeavor would be out of the question. therefore the elevator is as necessary to the skyscraper as are doors and windows. indeed were it not for the introduction of the elevator the business sections of our large cities would still consist of the five and six story structures of our father's time instead of the towering edifices which now lift their heads among the clouds. regarded less than half a century ago as an unnecessary luxury the elevator to-day is an imperative necessity. sky-scrapers are equipped with both express and local elevators. the express elevators do not stop until about the tenth floor is reached. they run at a speed of about ten feet per second. there are two types of elevators in general use, one lifting the car by cables from the top, and the other with a hydraulic plunger acting directly upon the bottom of the car. the former are operated either by electric motors or hydraulic cylinders and the latter by hydraulic rams, the cylinders extending the full height of the building into the ground. america is pre-eminently the land of the sky-scraper, but england and france to a degree are following along the same lines, though nothing as yet has been erected on the other side of the water to equal the towering triumphs of architectural art on this side. in no country in the world is space at such a premium as in new york city, therefore, new york _per se_ may be regarded as the true home of the tall building, although chicago is not very much behind the metropolis in this respect. as figures are more eloquent than words in description the following data of the two giant structures of the western world may be interesting. the singer building at the corner of broadway and liberty street, new york city, has a total height from the basement floor to the top of the flagstaff of feet; the height from street to roof is feet, inch. there are stories. the weight of the steel in the entire building is , tons. it has elevators, steam engines, dynamos, boilers and steam pumps. the length of the steam and water piping is miles. the cubical contents of the building comprise , , cubic feet, there are , square feet of floor area or about - / acres. the weight of the tower is , tons. little danger from a collapse will be apprehended when it is learned that the columns are securely bolted and caissons which have been sunk to rock-bed feet below the curb. the other campanile which has excited the wonder and admiration of the world is the colossal pile known as the metropolitan building. this occupies the entire square or block as we call it from rd st. to th st. and from madison to fourth avenue. it is feet and inches above the sidewalk and has stories. the main building which has a frontage of feet by feet is ten stories in height. it is built in the early italian renaissance style the materials being steel and marble. the campanile is carried up in the same style and is also of marble. it stands on a base measuring by feet and the architectural treatment is chaste, though severe, but eminently agreeable to the stupendous proportions of the structure. the tower is quite different from that of the singer building. it has twelve wall and eight interior columns connected at every fourth floor by diagonal braces; these columns carry , pounds to the linear foot. the wind pressure calculated at the rate of lbs. to the square foot is enormous and is provided for by deep wall girders and knee braces which transfer the strain to the columns and to the foundation. the average cross section of the tower is by feet, the floor space of the entire building is , , square feet or about acres. the tower of this surpassing cloud-piercing structure can be seen for many miles from the surrounding country and from the bay it looks like a giant sentinel in white watching the mighty city at its feet and proclaiming the ceaseless activity and progress of the western world. chapter vi ocean palaces ocean greyhounds--present day floating palaces--regal appointments--passenger accommodation--food consumption--the one thousand foot boat. the strides of naval architecture and marine engineering have been marvelous within the present generation. to-day huge leviathans glide over the waves with a swiftness and safety deemed absolutely impossible fifty years ago. in view of the luxurious accommodations and princely surroundings to be found on the modern ocean palaces, it is interesting to look back now almost a hundred years to the time when the _savannah_ was the first steamship to cross the atlantic. true the voyage of this pioneer of steam from savannah to liverpool was not much of a success, but she managed to crawl across the sails very materially aiding the engines, and heralded the dawn of a new day in transatlantic travel. no other steamboat attempted the trip for almost twenty years after, until in the _great western_ made the run in fifteen days. this revolutionized water travel and set the whole world talking. it was the beginning of the passing of the sailing ship and was an event for rejoicing. in the old wooden hulks with their lazily flapping wings, waiting for a breeze to stir them, men and women and children huddled together like so many animals in a pen, had to spend weeks and months on the voyage between europe and america. there was little or no room for sanitation, the space was crowded, deadly germs lurked in every cranny and crevice, and consequently hundreds died. to many indeed the sailing ship became a floating hearse. in those times, and they are not so remote, a voyage was dreaded as a calamity. only necessity compelled the undertaking. it was not travel for pleasure, for pleasure under such circumstances and amid such surroundings was impossible. the poor emigrants who were compelled through stress and poverty to leave their homes for a foreign country feared not toil in a new land, but they feared the long voyage with its attending horrors and dangers. dangerous it was, for most of the sailing vessels were unseaworthy and when a storm swept the waters, they were as children's toys, at the mercy of wind and wave. when the passenger stepped on board he always had the dread of a watery grave before him. how different to-day. danger has been eliminated almost to the vanishing point and the mighty monsters of steel and oak now cut through the waves in storms and hurricanes with as much ease as a duck swims through a pond. from the time the _great western_ was launched, steamships sailing between american and english ports became an established institution. soon after the _great western's_ first voyage a sturdy new england quaker from nova scotia named samuel cunard went over to london to try and interest the british government in a plan to establish a line of steamships between the two countries. he succeeded in raising , pounds, and built the _britannia_, the first cunard vessel to cross the atlantic. this was in . as ships go now she was a small craft indeed. her gross tonnage was , and her horse power . she carried only first-class passengers and these only to the limit of one hundred. there was not much in the way of accommodation as the quarters were cramped, the staterooms small and the sanitation and ventilation defective. it was on the _britannia_ that charles dickens crossed over to america in and he has given us in his usual style a pen picture of his impressions aboard. he stated that the saloon reminded him of nothing so much as of a hearse, in which a number of half-starved stewards attempted to warm themselves by a glimmering stove, and that the staterooms so-called were boxes in which the bunks were shelves spread with patches of filthy bed-clothing, somewhat after the style of a mustard plaster. this criticism must be taken with a little reservation. dickens was a pessimist and always censorious and as he had been feted and feasted with the fat of the land, he expected that he should have been entertained in kingly quarters on shipboard. but because things did not come up to his expectations he dipped his pen in vitriol and began to criticise. at any rate the _britannia_ in her day was looked upon as the _ne plus ultra_ in naval architecture, the very acme of marine engineering. the highest speed she developed was eight and one-half knots or about nine and three-quarters miles an hour. she covered the passage from liverpool to boston in fourteen and one-half days, which was then regarded as a marvellous feat and one which was proclaimed throughout england with triumph. for a long time the _britannia_ remained queen of the seas for speed, but in the atlantic record was reduced to nine and a half days by the _arctic_. in the _city of paris_ cut down the time to eight days and four hours. twelve years later in the _arizona_ still further reduced it to seven days and eight hours. in the _alaska_, the first vessel to receive the title of "_ocean greyhound_," made the trip in six days and twenty-one hours; in the _umbria_ bounded over in six days and two hours, in the _teutonic_ of the white star line came across in five days, eighteen hours and twenty-eight minutes, which was considered the limit for many years to come. it was not long however, until the cunard lowered the colors of the white star, when the _lucania_ in brought the record down to five days and twelve hours. for a dozen years or so the limit of speed hovered round the five-and-a-half day mark, the laurels being shared alternately by the vessels of the cunard and white star companies. then the germans entered the field of competition with steamers of from , to , tons register and from , to , horse power. the _deutschland_ soon began setting the pace for the ocean greyhounds, while other vessels of the north german lloyd line that won transatlantic honors were the _kaiser wilhelm ii., kaiser wilhelm der grosse, kronprinz wilhelm and kronprinzessin cecilie_, all remarkably fast boats with every modern luxury aboard that science could devise. these vessels are equipped with wireless telegraphy, submarine signalling systems, water-tight compartments and every other safety appliance known to marine skill. the _kaiser wilhelm der grosse_ raised the standard of german supremacy in by making the passage from cherbourg to sandy hook lightship in five days and fifteen hours. in , however, the sister steamships _mauretania_ and _lusitania_ of the cunard line lowered all previous ocean records, by making the trip in a little over four and a half days. they have been keeping up this speed to the present time, and are universally regarded as the fastest and best equipped steamships in the world,--the very last word in ocean travel. on her last mid-september voyage the _mauretania_ has broken all ocean records by making the passage from queenstown to new york in days hours and minutes. but they are closely pursued by the white star greyhounds such as the _oceanic_, the _celtic_ and the _cedric_, steamships of world wide fame for service, appointments, and equipment. yet at the present writing the cunard company has another vessel on the stocks, to be named the _falconia_ which in measurements will eclipse the other two and which they are confident will make the atlantic trip inside four days. the white star company is also building two immense boats to be named the _olympic_ and _titanic_. they will be feet in length and will be the largest ships afloat. however, it is said that freight and passenger-room is being more considered in the construction than speed and that they will aim to lower no records. each will be able to accommodate , passengers besides a crew of . all the great liners of the present day may justly be styled ocean palaces, as far as luxuries and general appointments are concerned, but as the _mauretania_ and _lusitania_ are best known, a description of either of these will convey an idea to stay-at-homes of the regal magnificence and splendors of the floating hotels which modern science places at the disposal of the traveling public. though sister ships and modeled on similar lines, the _mauretania_ and _lusitania_ differ somewhat in construction. of the two the _mauretania_ is the more typical ship as well as the more popular. this modern triumph of the naval architect and marine engineer was built by the firm of swan, hunter & co. at wellsend on the tyne in . the following are her dimensions: length over all feet. length between perpendiculars feet. breadth feet. depth, moulded . feet. gross tonnage , . draught . feet. displacement , tons. she has accommodation space for first cabin, second cabin, and , third class passengers. she carries a crew of engineers, sailors, stewards, a couple of score of stewardesses, cooks, the officers and captain, besides a maritime band, a dozen or so telephone and wireless telegraph operators, editor and printers for the wireless bulletin published on board and two attendants for the elevator. the type of engine is what is known as the parsons turbine. there are double ended and single ended boilers. the engines develop , horse power; they are fed by furnaces; the heating surface is , square feet; the grate surface is , square feet; the steam pressure is lbs. to the square inch. the highest speed attained has been almost knots or miles an hour. at this rate the number of revolutions is to the minute. the coal daily consumed by the fiery maw of the furnaces is enormous. on one trip between liverpool and new york more than , tons is required which is a consumption of over , tons daily. there are nine decks, seven of which are above the water line. corticine has been largely used for deck covering, instead of wood as it is much lighter. on the boat deck which extends over the greater part of the centre of the ship are located several of the beautiful _en suite_ cabins. abaft these at the forward end are the grand entrance hall, the library, the music-room and the lounging-room and smoking-room for the first cabin passengers. there is splendid promenading space on the boat deck where passengers can exercise to their hearts' content and also indulge in games and sports with all the freedom of field life. many life boats swing on davits and instead of being a hindrance or obstacle, act as shades from the sunshine and as breaks from the wind. in the space for first-class passengers are arranged a large number of cabins. what are known as the regal suites are on both port and starboard, and along each side of the main deck are more _en suite_ rooms. on the shelter deck there are no first-class cabin quarters. at the forward end of this deck are the very powerful napier engines for working the anchor gear. abaft this on the starboard side is the general lounging room for third-class passengers, while on the port-side is their smoking room with a companion way leading to the third-class dining saloon below and to the third-class cabins on the main and lower decks. the third-class galleys are accommodated on the main deck house and close by is a set of the refrigerating machinery used in connection with the rooms for the storage of supplies for the kitchen department. the side of the ship for a considerable distance aft of this is plated up to the promenade deck level so that the third-class passengers have not only convenient rooms but a protected promenade. abaft this promenade is another open one. indeed the accommodations for the third class are as good as what the first-class were accustomed to on most of the liners some dozen years ago. to the left of the grand staircase on the deck house is a children's dining saloon and nursery. on the top deck are dining saloons for all three classes of passengers, that for the third being forward, for the first amidships and for the second near the stern; first-class passengers can be seated at a time, second class and more than of the third class. the main deck is given up entirely to staterooms. the whole of the lower deck forward is also arranged for third-class staterooms. the firemen and other engine room and stokehold workers are located in rooms above the machinery with separate entrances and exits to and from their work. promenade and exercise space is provided for them on the shelter deck which is fenced off from the space of the second and third class passenger. amidships is a coal bunker with a compartment under the engines for the storage of supplies. the coal trimmers are accommodated alongside the engine casing and abaft this are the mailrooms with accommodation for the stewards and other helpers. the "orlop" or eighth deck is devoted entirely to machinery with coal bunkers on each side of the boilers to provide against the effect of collisions. the general scheme of color throughout the ship is pleasing and harmonious. the wood for the most part is oak and mahogany. there are over , square feet of oak in parquet flooring. all the carving and tracing is done in the wood, no superpositions or stucco work whatever being used to show reliefs. the grand stairway shows the italian renaissance style of the th century; the panels are of french walnut; the carving of columns and pilasters is of various designs but the aggregate is pleasing in effect. the library extends across the deck house, by feet; the walls of the deck house are bowed out to form bay windows. when you first enter the library the effect is as though you were looking at shimmering marble, this is owing to the lightness of the panels which are sycamore stained in light gray. the mantelpiece is of white statuary marble. the great swing doors which admit you, have bevelled glass panels set in bronze casings. the chairs have mahogany frames done in light plush. the first class lounging room is probably the most artistic as well as the most sumptuous apartment in the ship. the panels are of beautiful ingrained mahogany dully polished a rich brown. the white ceiling is of simple design with boldly carved mouldings and is supported by columns embossed in gold of exquisite workmanship. some of the panels are of curiously woven tapestries, the fruit of oriental looms. chandeliers of beautiful design in rich bronze and crystal depend from the ceiling. the curtains, hanging with their soft folds against the dull gold of the carved curtainboxes, are of a charming cream silk and with their flower borders lend a tone both sumptuous and refined. the carpet is of a slender trellis design with bluish pink roses trailing over a pearl grey ground and forms a perfect foil to the splendid furniture. the chairs are of polished beech covered with th century brocade. the smoking-room of the first-class is done in rich oak carving with an inlaid border around the panels. an unusual feature in the main part of the room is a jube passageway extending the whole length and divided into recesses with divans and card tables. writing tables may be found in secluded nooks free from interruption. the windows of unusual size, are semicircular and give a home-like appearance to the room. the dining saloon is in light oak with all carvings worked in the wood. a children's nursery off the main stairway in the deck house is done in mahogany. enameled white panels depict the old favorite of the four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie. an air of delicate refinement and rich luxury hangs about the regal rooms. a suite consists of drawing-room, dining-room, two bedrooms, bathroom and a private corridor. the drawing- and dining-rooms of these suites are paneled in east india satin-wood, probably the hardest and most durable of all timber. the bedrooms are in georgian style finished in white with satin hangings. the special staterooms are also finished in rich woods on white and gold and have damask and silk hangings and draperies. an idea of the richness and magnificence of the interior decorations may be obtained when it is learned that the cost of these decorations exceeded three million dollars. the galleys, pantries, bakery, confectionery and utensil cleaning rooms extend the full length of the ship. electricity plays an important part in the culinary department. electric motors mix dough, run grills and roasters, clean knives and manipulate plate racks and other articles of the kitchen. the main cooking range for the saloon is by feet, heated by coal. there are four steam boilers and steam ovens. there are extensive cold storage compartments and refrigerating chambers. in connection with the commissariat department it is interesting to note the food supply carried for a trip of this floating caravansary. here is a list of the leading supplies needed for a trip, but there are hundreds of others too numerous to mention: forty thousand pounds of fresh beef, , lbs. of corned beef, , lbs. of mutton, lbs. of lamb, lbs. of veal, lbs. of pork, , lbs. of fish, , fowls, geese, turkeys, ducks, pigeons, partridges, grouse, pheasants, quail, snipe, tons of potatoes, hampers of vegetables, quarts ice ream, , quarts of milk, , eggs and in addition many thousand bottles of mineral water and spirituous liquors. the health of the passengers is carefully guarded during the voyage. the science of thermodynamics has been brought to as great perfection as possible. not alone is the heating thoroughly up to modern science requirements but the ventilation as well, by means of thermo tanks, suction valves and exhaust fans. all foul air is expelled and fresh currents sent through all parts of the ship. there is an electric generating station abaft the main engine room containing four turbo-generators each of kilowatts capacity. there are more than , electric lights and every room is connected by an electric push-bell. there is a telephone exchange through which one can be connected with any department of the vessel. when in harbor, either at liverpool or new york, the wires are connected to the city central exchange so that the ships can be communicated with either by local or long distance telephone. by means of wireless telegraphy voyagers can communicate with friends during almost the entire trip and learn the news of the world the same as if they were on land. a bulletin is published daily on board giving news of the leading happenings of the world. there is a perfect fire alarm system on board with fire mains on each side of the ship from which connections are taken to every separate department. there are boxes with hydrant and valve in each room and a system of break glass fire alarms with a drop indicator box in the chartroom and also one in the engine-room to notify in case of any outbreak. the sanitation is all that could be desired. there are flush lavatories on all decks in marble and onyx and with all the sanitary contrivances in apparatus of the best design. the vessel is propelled by four screws, rotated by turbine engines and the power developed is equal to that of , horses. now , horses placed head to tail in a single line would reach a distance of miles or as far as from new york to philadelphia; and if the steeds were harnessed twenty abreast there would be no fewer than , rows of powerful horses. such is the steamship of to-day but there is no doubt that the thousand foot boat is coming, which probably will cross the atlantic ocean in less than four days if not in three. but the question is, where shall we put her, that is, where shall we dock her? to build a thousand foot pier to accommodate her, appears like a good answer to this question, but the great difficulty is that there are united states government regulations restricting the length of piers to feet. docking space along the shore of new york harbor is too valuable to permit the ship being berthed parallel to the shore, therefore vessels must dock at right angles to the shore. some provisions must soon be made and the regulations as to dock lengths revised. the thousand footer may be here in a couple of years or so. in the meantime the two footers are already on the stocks at belfast and are expected to arrive early in . before they come changes and improvements must be made in the docking and harbor facilities of the port of new york. if higher speed is demanded, increased size is essential, since with even the best result every horse-power added involves an addition to machinery weight of approximately tons and to the area occupied of about square feet. to accomplish this the ship must be as much larger in proportion. the ship designer has to work within circumscribed limits. if he could make his vessel of any depth he might build much larger and there would be theoretically no limit to his speed: knots an hour might be obtained as easily as the present maximum of , but in designing his ship he must remember that in the harbors of new york or liverpool the channels are not much beyond feet in depth. high speed necessitates powerful engines, but if the engines be too large there will not be space enough for coal to feed the furnaces. if the breadth of the ship is increased the speed is diminished, while on the other hand, if too powerful engines are put in a narrow vessel she will break her back. the proper proportions must be carefully studied as regards length, breadth, depth and weight so that the vessel will derive the greatest speed from her engines. chapter vii wonderful creations in plant life mating plants--experiments of burbank--what he has accomplished. in california lives a wonderful man. he has succeeded in doing more than making two blades of grass grow where grew but one. yearly, daily in fact, this wizard of plant life is playing tricks on old mother nature, transforming her vegetable children into different shapes and making them no longer recognizable in their original forms. like the fairies in irish mythology, this man steals away the plant babies, but instead of leaving sickly elves in their places, he brings into the world exceedingly healthy or lusty youngsters which grow up into a full maturity, and develop traits of character superior to the ones they supplant. for instance he took away the ugly, thorny insipid cactus and replaced it by a beautiful smooth juicy one which is now making the western deserts blossom as the rose. the name of this man is luther burbank whose fame as a creator of new plants has become world wide. the basic principle of burbank's plant magic comes under two heads, viz.: breeding and selection. he mates two different species in such a way that they will propagate a type partaking of the natures of both but superior to either in their qualities. in order to effect the best results from mating, he is choice in his selection of species--the best is taken and the worst rejected. it is a universal law that the bad can never produce the good; consequently when good is desired, as is universally the case, bad must be eliminated. in his method, burbank gives the good a chance to assert itself and at the same time takes away all opportunity from the bad. so that the latter cannot thrive but must decay and pass out of being. he takes two plants--they may be of the same species, but as a general rule he prefers to experiment with those of different species; he perceives that neither one in its present surroundings is putting forth what is naturally expected from it, that each is either retrograding in the scale of life or standing still for lack of encouragement to go forward. he knows that back of these plants is a long history of evolutions from primitive beginnings to their present stage just as in the case of man himself. 'tis a far cry from the cliff-dweller wielding his stone-axe and roaming nude through the fields and forests after his prey--the wild beast--to the lordly creature of to-day--the product of long ages of civilization and culture, yet high as the state is to which man has been brought, in many cases he is hemmed in and surrounded by circumstances which preclude him from putting forth the best that is in him and showing his full possibilities to the world. the philosopher is often hidden in the ploughman and many a poor laborer toiling in corduroys and fustian at the docks, in the mills, or sweeping the streets may have as good a brain as edison, but has not the opportunity to develop it and show its capabilities. the same analogy is applicable to plant life. under adverse conditions a plant or vegetable cannot put forth its best efforts. in a scrawny, impoverished soil, and exhausted atmosphere, lacking the constituents of nurture, the plant will become dwarfed and unproductive, whereas on good ground and in good air, which have the succulent properties to nourish it the best results may be expected. the soil and the air, therefore, from which are derived the constituents of plant life, are indispensably necessary, but they are not the primal principles upon which that life depends for its being. the basis, the foundation, the origin of the life is the seed which germinates in the soil and evolves itself into the plant. a dead seed will not germinate, a contaminated seed may, but the plant it produces will not be a healthy one and it will only be after a long series of transplantings, with patience and care, that at length a really sound plant will be obtained. the same principle holds good in regard to the human plant. it is hard to offset an evil ancestry. the contamination goes on from generation to generation, just as in the case of the notorious juke family which cost new york state hundreds of thousands of dollars in consequence of criminality and idiocy. it requires almost a miracle to divert an individual sprung from a corrupt stem into a healthy, moral course of living. there must be some powerful force brought to bear to make him break the ligatures which bind him to ancestral nature and enable him to come forth on a plane where he will be susceptible to the influence of what is good and noble. such can be done and has been accomplished. burbank is accomplishing such miracles in the vegetable kingdom, in fact he is recreating species as it were and developing them to a full fruition. of course as in the case of the conversion of a sinner from his evil instincts, much opposition is met and the progress at first is slow, but finally the plant becomes fixed in its new ways and starts forward on its new course in life. it requires patience to await the development burbank is a man of infinite patience. he has been five, ten, fifteen, twenty years in producing a desired blossom, but he considers himself well rewarded when his object has been obtained. thousands of experiments are going on at the same time, but in each case years are required to achieve results, so slow is the work of selection, the rejecting of the seemingly worthless and the eternal choosing of the best specimens to continue the experiments. when two plants are united to produce a third, no human intelligence can predict just what will be the result of the union. there may be no result at all; hence it is that burbank does not depend on one experiment at a time. if he did the labors of a life-time would have little to show for their work. in breeding lilies he has used as high as five hundred thousand plants in a single test. such an immense quantity gave him a great variety of selection. he culled and rejected, and culled and rejected until he made his final selection for the last test. sometimes he is very much disappointed in his anticipations. for instance, he marks out a certain life for a flower and breeds and selects to that end. for a time all may go according to his plans, but suddenly some new trait develops which knocks those plans all out of gear. the new flower may have a longer stem and narrower leaves than either parent, while a shorter stem and broader leaves are the desideratum. the experimenter is disappointed, but not disheartened; he casts the flower aside and makes another selection from the same species and again goes ahead, until his object is attained. it may be asked how two plants are united to procure a third. the act is based on the procreative law of nature. plant-breeding is simply accomplished by sifting the pollen of one plant upon the stigma of another, this act--pollenation--resulting in fertilization, nature in her own mysterious ways bringing forth the new plant. in order to get an idea of the burbank method, let us consider some of his most famous experiments, for instance, that in which by uniting the potato with the tomato he has produced a new variety which has been very aptly named the pomato. mr. burbank, from the beginning of his wonderful career, has experimented much with the potato. it was this vegetable which first brought the plant wizard into worldwide prominence. the burbank potato is known in all lands where the tuber forms an article of food. it has been introduced into ireland and promises to be the salvation of that distressed island of which the potato constitutes the staple diet. the burbank potato is the hardiest of all varieties and in this respect is well suited for the colder climates of the temperate zone. apart from this potato which bears his name, mr. burbank has produced many other varieties. he has blended wild varieties with tame ones, getting very satisfactory results. mr. burbank believes that a little wild blood, so to speak, is often necessary to give tone and vigor to the tame element which has been long running in the same channels. probably it was emerson, his favorite author, who gave him the cue for this idea. emerson pointed out that the city is recruited from the country. "the city would have died out, rotted and exploded long ago," wrote the new england sage, "but that it was reinforced from the fields. it is only country that came to town day before yesterday, that is city and court to-day." in burbank's greenhouses are mated all kinds of wild and tame varieties of potatoes, producing crosses and combinations truly wonderful as regards shape, size, and color. one of the most palatable potatoes he has produced is a magenta color approaching crimson, so distributed throughout that when the tuber is cut, no matter from what angle, it presents concentric geometric figures, some having a resemblance to human and animal faces. before entering on any experiment to produce a new creation, burbank always takes into consideration the practical end of the experiment, that is, what the value of the result will be as a practical factor in commerce, how much it will benefit the race. he does not experiment for a pastime or a novelty, but for a purpose. his object in regard to the potato is to make it a richer, better vegetable for a food supply and also to make it more important for other purposes in the commerce of the nations. the average potato consists of seventy-five per cent. water and twenty-five per cent. dry matter, almost all of which is starch. now starch is a very important article from a manufacturing standpoint, but only one-fourth of the potato is available for manufacturing, the other three-fourths, being water, is practically waste matter. now if the water could be driven out to a great extent and starchy matter increased it is easy to understand that the potato would be much increased in value as an article of manufacture. burbank has not overlooked this fact in his potato experiments. he has demonstrated that it is as easy to breed potatoes for a larger amount of starch, and he has really developed tubers which contain at least twenty-five per cent. more starch than the normal varieties; in other words, he has produced potatoes which yield fifty per cent. of starch instead of twenty-five per cent. the united states uses about $ , , worth of starch every year, chiefly obtained from indian corn and potatoes. when the potato is made to yield double the amount of starch, as burbank has proved it can yield and more, it will be understood what a large part it can be made to play in this important manufacture. also for the production of alcohol the potato is gaining a prominent place. the potato starch is converted into maltose by the diastase of malt, the maltose being easily acted upon by ferment for the actual production of the alcohol. therefore an increase in the starch of the potato for this purpose alone is much to be desired. of course the chief prominence of the potato will still consist in its adaptability as an article of food. burbank does not overlook this. he has produced and is producing potatoes with better flavor, of larger and uniform size and which give a much greater yield to the area. palatability in the end decides the permanence of a food, and the burbank productions possess this quality in a high degree. burbank labored long and studied every characteristic of the potato before attempting any experiments with the tomato. though closely related by family ties, the potato and the tomato seemed to have no affinity for each other whatever. in many other instances it has also been found that two varieties which from a certain relation might naturally be expected to amalgamate easily have been repellant to each other and refused to unite. in his first experiment in trying to cross the potato and tomato, burbank produced tomatoes from the seeds of plants pollenated from potato pollen only. he next produced what he called "aerial potatoes" of very peculiar twisted shapes from a potato vine grafted on a ponderosa or large tomato plant. then reversing this operation he grafted the same kind of tomato plant upon the same kind of potato plant and produced underground a strange-looking potato with marked tomato characteristics. he saw he was on the right road to the production of a new variety of vegetable, but before experimenting further along this line he crossed two distinct species of tomatoes and obtained a most ornamental plant, different from the parent stems, about twelve inches high and fifteen inches across with large unusual leaves and producing clusters of uniform globular fruit, the whole giving a most pleasing and unique appearance. the fruit were more palatable than the ordinary tomatoes, had better nutritive qualities and were more suitable for preserving and canning. very pleased with this result he went back to his experiments with the potato-tomato, and succeeded in producing the most wonderful and unique fruit in the world, one which by a happy combination of the two names, he has aptly called the pomato. it may be considered as the evolution of a potato seed-ball. it first appears as a tiny green ball on the potato top and as the season progresses it gradually enlarges and finally develops into a fruit about the size and shape of the ordinary tomato. the flesh is white and the marrow, which contains but a few tiny white seeds, is exceedingly pleasant to the taste, possessing a combination of several different fruit flavors, though it cannot be identified with any one. it may be eaten either raw or cooked after the manner of the common tomato. in either case it is most palatable, but especially so when cooked. it is exceptionally well adapted to preserving purposes. the production of such a fruit from a vegetable is one of the crowning triumphs of the california wizard. probably it is the most novel of all the wonderful crosses and combinations he has given to the world. it would be impossible here to go into detail in regard to some of the other wonders accomplished in the plant world by this modern magician. there is only space to merely mention a few more of his successful achievements. he has given the improved thornless and spiculess cactus, food for man and beast, converting it into a beautifier and reclaimer of desert wastes; the plum-cot which is an amalgamation of the plum and the apricot with a flavor superior to both; many kinds of plums, some without pits, others having the taste of bartlett pears, and still others giving out a fragrance as sweet as the rose; several varieties of walnuts, one with a shell as thin as paper and which was so easily broken by the birds that burbank had to reverse his experiment somewhat in order to get a thicker shell; another walnut has no tannin in the meat, which is the cause of the disagreeable flavor of the ordinary fruit; the world-famed shasta daisy, which is a combination of the japanese daisy, the english daisy and the common field daisy, and which has a blossom seven inches in diameter; a dahlia deprived of its unpleasant odor and the scent of the magnolia blossom substituted; a gladiolus which blooms around the entire stem like a hyacinth instead of the old way on one side only; many kinds of lilies with chalices and petals different from the ordinary, and exhaling perfumes as varied as those of oriental gardens; a poppy of such dimension that it is from ten to twelve inches across its brilliant bloom; an amaryllis bred up from a couple of inches to over a foot in diameter; several kinds of fruit trees which withstand frost in bud and in flower; a chestnut tree which bears nuts in eighteen months from the time of seed-planting; a white blackberry (paradoxical as it may appear), a rare and beautiful fruit and as palatable as it is beautiful; the primusberry, a union of the raspberry and the blackberry; another wonderful and delicious berry produced from the california dewberry and the cuthbert-raspberry; pieplants four feet in diameter, bearing every day in the year; prunes, three, four, and five times as large as the ordinary and enriched in flavor; blackberries without their prickly thorns and hundreds of other combinations and crosses of fruits and flowers too numerous to mention. he has improved plums, pears, apples, apricots, quinces, peaches, cherries, grapes, in short, all kinds of fruit which grow in our latitude and many even that have been introduced. he has developed hundreds of varieties of flowers, improving them in color, hardiness and yield. thus he has not only added to the food and manufacturing products of the world, but he has enriched the aesthetic side in his beautiful flower creations. chapter viii latest discoveries in archaeology prehistoric time--earliest records--discoveries in bible lands-- american explorations. for the earliest civilization and culture we must go to that part of the world, which according to the general belief, is the cradle of the human race. the civilization of the mesopotamian plain is not only the oldest but the first where man settled in great city communities, under an orderly government, with a developed religion, practicing agriculture, erecting dwellings and using a syllabified writing. all modern civilization had its source there. for , years the cuneiform or wedge-shaped writing of the assyrians was the literary script of the whole civilized ancient world, from the shores of the mediterranean to india and even to china, for chinese civilization, old as it is, is based upon that which obtained in mesopotamia. in egypt, too, at an early date was a high form of neolithic civilization. six thousand years before christ, a white-skinned, blond-haired, blue-eyed race dwelt there, built towns, carried on commerce, made woven linen cloth, tanned leather, formed beautiful pottery without the wheel, cut stone with the lathe and designed ornaments from ivory and metals. these were succeeded by another great race which probably migrated into egypt from arabia. among them were warriors and administrators, fine mechanics, artisans, artists and sculptors. they left us the pyramids and other magnificent monumental tombs and great masses of architecture and sculptured columns. of course, they declined and passed away, as all things human must; but they left behind them evidences to tell of their prestige and power. the scientists and geologists of our day are busy unearthing the remains of the ancient peoples of the eastern world, who started the waves of civilization both to the orient and the occident. vast stores of knowledge are being accumulated and almost every day sees some ancient treasure trove brought to light. especially in biblical lands is the explorer busy unearthing the relics of the mighty past and throwing a flood of light upon incidents and scenes long covered by the dust of centuries. babylon, the mightiest city of ancient times, celebrated in the bible and in the earliest human records as the greatest centre of sensual splendor and sinful luxury the world has ever seen, is at last being explored in the most thorough manner by the german oriental society, of which the kaiser is patron. babylon rose to its greatest glory under nebuchadnezzar, the most famous monarch of the babylonian empire. at that period it was the great centre of arts, learning and science, astronomy and astrology being patronized by the babylonian kings. the city finally came to a terrible end under belshazzar, as related in the bible. the palace of the impious king has been uncovered and its great piles of masonry laid bare. the great hall, where the young prophet daniel read the handwriting on the wall, can now be seen. the palace stood on elevated ground and was of majestic dimensions. a winding chariot road led up to it. the lower part was of stone and the upper of burned bricks. all around on the outside ran artistic sculptures of men hunting animals. the doors were massive and of bronze and swung inward, between colossal figures of winged bulls. from the hall a stairway led to the throne room of the king, which was decorated with gold and precious stones and finished in many colors. the hall in which the infamous banquet was held was feet by feet. for a ceiling it was spanned by the cedars of lebanon which exhaled a sweet perfume. at night a myriad lights lent brilliancy to the scene. there were over rooms all gorgeously furnished, most of them devoted to the inmates of the king's harem. the ruins as seen to-day impress the visitor and excite wonder and admiration. the germans have also uncovered the great gate of ishtar at babylon, which nebuchadnezzar erected in honor of the goddess of love and war, the most renowned of all the mythical deities of the babylonian pantheon. it is a double gateway with interior chambers, flanked by massive towers and was erected at the end of the sacred road at the northeast corner of the palace. its most unique feature consists in the scheme of decoration on its walls, which are covered with row upon row of bulls and dragons represented in the brilliant enamelled bricks. some of these creatures are flat and others raised in relief. those in relief are being taken apart to be sent to berlin, where they will be again put together for exhibition. the friezes on this gate of ishtar are among the finest examples of enamelled brickwork that have been uncovered and take their place beside "the lion frieze" from sargon's palace at khorsabad and the still more famous "frieze of arches of king darius" in the paris louvre. the german party have already established the claim of herodotus as to the thickness of the walls of the city. herodotus estimated them at two hundred royal cubits ( feet) high and fifty royal cubits ( - / feet) thick. at places they have been found even thicker. so wide were they that on the top a four-horse chariot could easily turn. the hanging gardens of babylon, said to have been built to please amytis the consort of nebuchadnezzar, were classed as among the seven wonders of the world. terraces were constructed feet square, of huge stones which cost millions in that stoneless country. these were supported by countless columns, the tallest of which were feet high. on top of the stones were layers of brick, cemented and covered with pitch, over which was poured a layer of lead to make all absolutely water-tight. finally, on the top of this, earth was spread to such a depth that the largest trees had room for their roots. the trees were planted in rows forming squares and between them were flower gardens. in fact, these gardens constituted an eden in the air, which has never since been duplicated. new discoveries have been recently made concerning the tower of babel, the construction of which, as described in the book of genesis, is one of the most remarkable occurrences of the first stage of the world's history. it has been found that the tower was square and not round, as represented by all bible illustrators, including dore. the ruins cover a space of about , square feet and are about ten miles from the site of babylon. the ruins of the celebrated synagogue of capernaum, believed to be the very one in which the saviour preached, have been unearthed and many other biblical sites around the ancient city have been identified. capernaum was the home of jesus during nearly the whole of his galilean ministry and the scene of many of his most wonderful miracles. the site of capernaum is now known as tell hum. there are ruins scattered about over a radius of a mile. the excavating which revealed the ruins of the synagogue was done under supervision of a german archaeologist named kohl. this synagogue was composed of white limestone blocks brought from a distance and in this respect different from the others which were built of the local black volcanic rock. the carvings unearthed in the ruins are very beautiful and most of them in high relief work, representing trailing vines, stately palms, clusters of dates, roses and acanthus. various animal designs are also shown and one of the famous seven-branched candlesticks which accompanied the ark of the covenant. most of the incidents at capernaum mentioned in the bible were connected with the synagogue, the ruins of which have just been uncovered. the centurion who came to plead with jesus about the servant was the man who built the synagogue (luke vii: - ). in the synagogue, jesus healed the man with the unclean spirit (mark i: - ). in this synagogue, the man with the withered hand received health on the sabbath day (matthew xii: - ). jairus, whose daughter was raised from the dead, was a ruler of the synagogue (luke viii: ) and it was in this same synagogue of capernaum that jesus preached the discourse on the bread of life (john vi: - ). the hill near capernaum where jesus fed the multitude with five loaves and two fishes is also identified. the stoning of st. stephen and the conversion of st. paul are two great events of the new testament which lend additional interest to the explorations now being carried on at the ancient city of damascus. damascus lays claim to being the most ancient city in the world and its appearance sustains the claim. unlike jerusalem and many other ancient cities, it has never been completely destroyed by a conqueror. the assyrian monarch, tiglath pileser, swept down on it, , years ago, but he did not succeed in wiping it out. other cities came into being long after damascus, they flourished, faded and passed away; but damascus still remains much the same as in the early time. among the famous places which have been identified in this ancient city is the house of ananias the priest and the place in the wall where paul was let down by a basket is pointed out. the scene of the conversion of st. paul is shown and also the "street called straight" referred to in acts ix:ii. jerusalem, birthplace and cradle of christianity, offers a vast and interesting field to the archaeologist. one of the most remarkable of recent discoveries relates to the building known as david's castle. major conder, a british engineer in charge of the palestine survey, has proved that this building is actually a part of the palace of king herod who ordered the massacre of the innocents in order to encompass the destruction of the infant saviour. the tomb of hiram is another relic discovered at the village of hunaneh on the road from safed to tyre; it recalls the days of david. hiram was king of tyre in the time of david. the tomb is a limestone structure of extraordinary massiveness unfortunately the mosque of omar stands on the site of solomon's temple and there is no hope of digging there. as for the palace of solomon, it should be easy to find the foundations, for jerusalem has been rebuilt several times upon the ruins of earlier periods and vast ancient remains must be still buried there. the work is being pushed vigorously at present and the future should bring to light many interesting relics. at last the real site of the crucifixion may be found with many mementoes of the saviour, and the apostles. professor flinders petrie, the famous english archaeologist, has recently explored the sinaitic peninsula and has found many relics of the hebrews' passage through the country during the exodus and also many of a still earlier period. he found a remarkable number of altars and tombs belonging to a very early form of religion. on the mount where moses received the tables of the law is a monastery erected by the emperor justinian a.d. although the conquering wave of islam has swept over the peninsula, leaving it bare and desolate, this monastery still survives, the only christian landmark, not only in sinai but in all arabia. the original tables of stone on which the commandments were written, were placed in the ark of the covenant and taken all through the wilderness to palestine and finally placed in the temple of solomon. what became of it when the temple was plundered and destroyed by the babylonians is not known. clay tablets have been found at nineveh of the creation and the flood as known to the assyrians. these tablets formed part of a great epic poem of which nimrod, the mighty hunter, was the hero. explorers are now looking for the palace of nimrod, also that of sennacherib, the assyrian monarch who besieged jerusalem. the latter despoiled the temple of many of its treasures and it is believed that his palace, when found, may reveal the tables of the law, the ark of the covenant, the seven-branched candlestick, and many of the golden vessels used in israelitish worship. ur of the chaldees, birthplace of abraham, father and founder of the hebrew race, is a rich field for the archaeologist to plough. some tablets have already been discovered, but they are only a mere suggestion as to future possibilities. it is believed by some eminent investigators that we owe to abraham the early part of the book of genesis describing the creation, the tower of babel and the flood, and the quest of archaeologists is to find, if not the original tablets, at least some valuable records which may be buried in this neighborhood. excavators connected with the american school at jerusalem are busy at samaria and they believe they have uncovered portions of the great temple of baal, which king ahab erected in honor of the wicked deity b.c. when the remains of this temple are fully uncovered it will be learned just how far the israelites forsook the worship of the true god for that of baal. the germans have begun work on the site of jericho, once the royal capital of canaan, and historic chiefly from the fact that joshua led the israelites up to its walls, reported to be impregnable, but which "fell down at the blast of the trumpet." great piles have been unearthed here which it is thought formed a part of the original masonry. one excavator believes he has unearthed the ruins of the house of rahab, the woman who sheltered joshua's spies. another thinks he has discovered the site of the translation of elijah, the prophet, from whence he was carried up to heaven in a fiery chariot. every christian will be interested in learning what is to be found in nazareth where jesus spent his boyhood. archaeologists have located the "fount of the virgin," and the rock from which the infuriated inhabitants attempted to hurl christ. in the "land of goshen" where the israelites in a state of servitude worked for the oppressing pharaoh (rameses ii), excavators have found bricks made without straw as mentioned in scripture, undoubtedly the work of hebrew slaves, also glazed bead necklaces. they are looking for the house of amran, the father of moses, where the great leader was born. the site of arbela, where alexander the great won his mightiest victory over darius, has been discovered. it is a series of mounds on the western bank of the tigris river between nineveh and bagdad. all the treasures of darius were taken and alexander erected a great palace. bronze swords, cups and pieces of sculpture have been unearthed and it is supposed there are vast stores of other remains awaiting the tool and patience of the excavator. the famous sultan saladin took up his residence here in and doubtless many relics of his royal time will be discovered. the remains of the city of pumbaditha have been identified with the immense mound of abnar some twenty miles from babylon, on the banks of the euphrates. this was the centre of jewish scholarship during the babylonian exile. one of the great schools in which the talmud was composed was located here. the great psalm, "by the waters of babylon, we sat down and wept." was also composed on this spot, and here, too, jeremiah and isaiah thundered their impassioned eloquence. broken tombs and a few inscribed bowls have been brought to light. probably the original scrolls of the talmud will be found here. several curiously wrought vases and ruins have been also unearthed. several monuments bearing inscriptions which are sorely puzzling the archaeologists have recently been unearthed at the site of boghaz-keni which was the ancient, if not original capital, of the mysterious people called the hittites who have been for so long a worry to bible students. archaeology has now revealed the secret of this people. there is no doubt they were of mongolian origin, as the monuments just discovered represent them with slant eyes and pigtails. no one as yet has been able to read the inscriptions. they were great warriors, great builders and influenced the fate of many of the ancient nations. in many other places throughout these lands, deep students of biblical lore are pushing on the work of excavation and daily adding to our knowledge concerning the peoples and nations in whom posterity must ever take a vital interest. a short time ago, professor doerpfeld announced to the world that he had discovered on the island of ithaca, off the west coast of greece, the ruins of the palace of ulysses, homer's half-mythical hero of the _odyssey_. the german archaeologist has traced the different rooms of the palace and is convinced that here is the very place to which the hero returned after his wanderings. near it several graves were found from which were exhumed silver amulets, curiously wrought necklaces, bronze swords and metal ornaments bearing date , b.c., which is the date at which investigators lay the siege of troy. if the ruins be really those of the palace of ulysses, some interesting things may be found to throw a light on the homeric epic. as the schoolboys know, when ulysses set sail from troy for home, adverse winds wafted him to the coast of africa and he beat around in the adjacent seas and visited islands and spent a considerable time meeting many kinds of curious and weird adventures, dallying at one time with the lotus-eaters, at another braving the cyclops, the one-eyed monsters, until he arrived at ithaca where "he bent his bow and slew the suitors of penelope, his harassed wife." in north america are mounds, earthworks, burial sites, shell heaps, buildings of stone and adobe, pictographs sculptured in rocks, stone implements, objects made of bone, pottery and other remains which arouse the enthusiasm of the archaeologist. as the dead were usually buried in america, investigators try to locate the ancient cemeteries because, besides skeletons, they usually contain implements, pottery and ornaments which were buried with the corpses. the most characteristic implement of early man in america was the grooved axe, which is not found in any other country. stone implements are plentiful everywhere. knives, arrow-points and perforators of chipped stone are found in all parts of the continent. beads and shells and pottery are also found in almost every state. the antiquity of man in europe has been determined in a large measure by archaeological remains found in caves occupied by him in different ages, but the exploration of caves in north america has so far failed to reveal traces of different degrees of civilization. chapter ix great tunnels of the world primitive tunneling--hoosac tunnel--croton aqueduct--great alpine tunnels--new york subway--mcadoo tunnels--how tunnels are built. the art of tunnel construction ranks among the very oldest in the world, if not the oldest, for almost from the beginning of his advent on the earth man has been tunneling and boring and making holes in the ground. even in pre-historic time, the ages of which we have neither record nor tradition, primitive man scooped out for himself hollows in the sides of hills, and mountains, as is evidenced by geological formations and by the fossils that have been unearthed. the forming of these hollows and holes was no indication of a superior intelligence but merely manifested the instincts of nature in seeking protection from the fury of the elements and safety from hostile forces such as the onslaughts of the wild and terrible beasts that then existed on the earth. the cave dwellers were real tunnelers, inasmuch as in construction of their rude dwellings they divided them into several compartments and in most cases chose the base of hills for their operations, boring right through from side to side as recent discoveries have verified. the ancient egyptians built extensive tunnels for the tombs of their dead as well as for the temples of the living. when a king of thebes ascended the throne he immediately gave orders for his tomb to be cut out of the solid rock. a separate passage or gallery led to the tomb along which he was to be borne in death to the final resting place. some of the tunnels leading to the mausoleums of the ancient egyptian kings were upwards of a thousand feet in length, hewn out of the hard solid rock. a similar custom prevailed in assyria, mesopotamia, persia and india. the early assyrians built a tunnel under the euphrates river which was feet wide by high. the course of the river was diverted until the tunnel was built, then the waters were turned into their former channel, therefore it was not really a subaqueous tunnel. the sinking of tunnels under water was to be one of the triumphs of modern science. unquestionably the romans were the greatest engineers of ancient times. much of their masonry work has withstood the disintegrating hand of time and is as solid and strong to-day as when first erected. the "fire-setting" method of tunneling was originated by them, and they also developed the familiar principle of prosecuting the work at several points at the same time by means of vertical shafts. they heated the rock to be excavated by great fires built against the face of it. when a very high temperature was reached they turned streams of cold water on the heated stone with the result that great portions were disintegrated and fell off under the action of the water. the romans being good chemists knew the effect of vinegar on lime, therefore when they encountered calcareous rock instead of water they used vinegar which very readily split up and disintegrated this kind of obstruction. the work of tunneling was very severe on the laborers, but the romans did not care, for nearly all the workmen were slaves and regarded in no better light than so many cattle. one of the most notable tunnels constructed by the old romans was that between naples and pozzuoli through the posilipo hills. it was excavated through volcanic tufa and was , feet long, feet wide, and of the pointed arch style. the longest of the roman tunnels, - / miles, was built to drain lake fucino. it was driven through calcareous rock and is said to have cost the labor of , men for years. only hand labor was employed by the ancient people in their tunnel work. in soft ground the tools used were picks, shovels and scoops, but for rock work they had a greater variety. the ancient egyptians besides the hammer, chisel and wedges had tube drills and saws provided with cutting edges of corundum or other hard gritty material. for centuries there was no progress in the art of tunneling. on the contrary there was a decline from the earlier construction until late in the th century when gunpowder came into use as an explosive in blasting rock. the first application of gunpowder was probably at malpas, france, - , in the construction of the tunnel on the line of the languedoc canal feet long, feet wide and feet high. it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century that the art of tunnel construction, through sand, wet ground or under rivers was undertaken so as to come rightly under the head of practical engineering. in a tunnel was built through very soft soil for the san quentin canal in france. timbering or strutting was employed to support the walls and roof of the excavation as fast as the earth was removed and the masonry lining was built closely following it. from the experience gained in this tunnel were developed the various systems of soft ground subterranean tunneling in practice at the present day. the first tunnel of any extent built in the united states was that known as the auburn tunnel near auburn, pa., for the water transportation of coal. it was several hundred feet long, feet wide and feet high. the first railroad tunnel in america was also in pennsylvania on the allegheny-portage railroad, built in - . it was feet long, feet wide and feet high. what may be called the epoch making tunnel, the construction of which first introduced high explosives and power drills in this country, was the hoosac in massachusetts commenced in and after many interruptions brought to completion in . it is a double-track tunnel nearly miles in length. it was quickly followed by the commencement of the erie tunnel through bergen hill near hoboken, n.j. this tunnel was commenced in and finished in . it is , feet long, feet wide and feet high. other remarkable engineering feats of this kind in america are the croton aqueduct tunnel, the hudson river tunnel, and the new york subway. the great rock tunnels of europe are the four alpine cuts known as mont cenis, st. gothard, the arlberg and the simplon. the mont cenis is probably the most famous because at the time of its construction it was regarded as the greatest engineering achievement of the modern world, yet it is only a simple tunnel miles long, while the simplon is a double tunnel, each bore of which is - / miles. the chief engineer of the mont cenis tunnel was m. sommeiler, the man who devised the first power drill ever used in such work. in addition to the power drill the building of this tunnel induced the invention of apparatus to suck up foul air, the air compressor, the turbine and several other contrivances and appliances in use at the present time. great strides in modern tunneling developed the "shield" and brought metal lining into service. the shield was invented and first used by sir m. i. brunel, a london engineer, in excavating the tunnel under the river thames, begun in and finished in . in another english engineer, peter barlow, used an iron lining in connection with a shield in driving the second tunnel under the thames at london. from a use of the shield and metal lining has grown the present system of tunneling which is now universally known as the shield system. great advancement has been made in the past few years in the nature and composition of explosives as well as in the form of motive power employed in blasting. powerful chemical compositions, such as nitroglycerine and its compounds, such as dynamite, etc., have supplanted gunpowder, and electricity, is now almost invariably the firing agent. it also serves many other purposes in the work, illumination, supplying power for hoisting and excavating machinery, driving rock drills, and operating ventilating fans, etc. in this field, in fact, as everywhere else in the mechanical arts, the electric current is playing a leading part. to the english engineer, peter barlow, above mentioned, must be given the credit of bringing into use the first really serviceable circular shield for soft ground tunneling. in he took out a patent for such a shield with a cylindrical cast iron lining for the completed tunnel. of course james henry greathead very materially improved the shield, so much so indeed that the present system of tunneling by means of circular shields is called the greathead not the barlow system. greathead and barlow entered into a partnership in . they constructed the tunnel under the tower of london , feet in length and seven feet in diameter which penetrated compact clay and was completed within a period of eleven months. this was a remarkable record in tunnel building for the time and won for these eminent engineers a world wide fame. from thenceforth their system came into vogue in all soft soil and subaqueous tunneling. except for the development in steel apparatus and the introduction of electricity as a motive agent, there has not been such a great improvement on the greathead shield as one would naturally expect in thirty years. the method of excavating a tunnel depends altogether on the nature of the obstruction to be removed for the passage. in the case of solid rock the work is slow but simple; dry, hard, firm earth is much the same as rock. the difficulties of tunneling lie in the soft ground, subaqueous mud, silt, quicksand, or any treacherous soil of a shifting, unsteady composition. when the rock is to be removed it is customary to begin the work in sections of which there may be seven or eight. first one section is excavated, then another and so on to completion. the order of the sections depends upon the kind of rock and upon the time allotted for the job and several other circumstances known to the engineer. if the first section attacked be at the top immediately beneath the arch of the proposed tunnel, next to the overlying matter, it is called a heading, but if the first cutting takes place at the bottom of the rock to form the base of the tunnel it is called a drift. driving a heading is the most difficult operation of rock tunneling. sometimes a heading is driven a couple of thousand feet ahead of the other sections. in soft rock it is often necessary to use timber props as the work proceeds and follow up the excavating by lining roof and sides with brick, stone or concrete. the rock is dislodged by blasting, the holes being drilled with compressed air, water force or electricity, and, as has been said, powerful explosives are used, nitroglycerine or some nitro-compound being the most common. many charges can be electrically fired at the same time. if the tunnel is to be long, shafts are sunk at intervals in order to attack the work at several places at once. sometimes these shafts are lined and left open when the tunnel is completed for purposes of ventilation. in soft ground and subaqueous soil the "shield" is the chief apparatus used in tunneling. the most up-to-date appliance of this kind was that used in constructing the tunnels connecting new york city with new jersey under the hudson river. it consisted of a cylindrical shell of steel of the diameter of the excavation to be made. this was provided with a cutting edge of cast steel made up of assembled segments. within the shell was arranged a vertical bulkhead provided with a number of doors to permit the passage of workmen, tools and explosives. the shell extended to the rear of the bulkhead forming what was known as the "tail." the lining was erected within this tail and consisted of steel plates lined with masonry. the whole arrangement was in effect a gigantic circular biscuit cutter which was forced through the earth. the tail thus continually enveloped the last constructed portion of this permanent lining. the actual excavation took place in advance of the cutting edge. the method of accomplishing this, varied with conditions. at times the material would be rock for a few feet from the bottom, overlaid with soft earth. in such case the latter would be first excavated and then the roof would be supported by temporary timbers, after which the rock portion would be attacked. when the workmen had excavated the material in front of the shield it was passed through the heavy steel plate diaphragm in center of the shell out to the rear and the shield was then moved forward so as to bring its front again up to the face of the excavation. as the shell was very unwieldy, weighing about eighty tons, and, moreover, as the friction or pressure of the surrounding material on its side had to be overcome it was a very difficult matter to move it forward and a great force had to be expended to do so. this force was exerted by means of hydraulic jacks so devised and placed around the circumference of the diaphragm as to push against the completed steel plate lining of the tunnel. there were sixteen of these jacks employed with cylinders eight inches in diameter and they exerted a pressure of from one thousand to four thousand pounds per square inch. by such means the shield was pushed ahead as soon as room was made in front for another move. the purpose of the shield is to prevent the inrush of water and soft material while excavating is going on; the diaphragm of the shields acts as a bulkhead and the openings in it are so devised as to be quickly closed if necessary. the extension of the shield in front of the diaphragm is designed to prevent the falling or flowing in of the exposed face of the new excavation. the extension of the shell back from the diaphragm is for the purpose of affording opportunity to put in place the finished tunnel lining whatever it may be, masonry, cast-iron, cast-iron and masonry, or steel plates and masonry. where the material is saturated with water as is the case in all subaqueous tunneling it is necessary to use compressed air in connection with the shield. the intensity of air pressure is determined by the depth of the tunnel below the surface of the water above it. the tunnelers work in what are called caissons to which they have access through an air lock. in many cases quick transition from the compressed air in the caisson to the open air at the surface results fatally to the workers. the caisson disease is popularly called "the bends" a kind of paralysis which is more or less baffling to medical science. some men are able to bear a greater pressure than others. it depends on the natural stamina of the worker and his state of health. the further down the greater the pressure. the normal atmospheric pressure at the surface is about fourteen pounds to the square inch. men in normal health should be able to stand a pressure of seventy-six pounds to the square inch and this would call for a depth of feet under water surface, which far exceeds any depth worked under compressed air. for a long time one hundred feet were regarded as a maximum depth and at that depth men were not permitted to work more than an hour in one shift. the ordinary subaqueous tunnel pressure is about forty-five pounds and this corresponds to a head of feet. in working in the hudson tunnels the pressure was scarcely ever above thirty-three pounds, yet many suffered from the "bends." what is called a freezing method is now proposed to overcome the water in soft earth tunneling. its chief feature is the excavating first of a small central tunnel to be used as a refrigerating chamber or ice box in freezing the surrounding material solid so that it can be dug out or blasted out in chunks the same as rock. it is very doubtful however, if such a plan is feasible. the greatest partly subaqueous tunnels in the world are now to be found in the vicinity of new york. the first to be opened to the public is known as the subway and extends from the northern limits of the city in westchester county to brooklyn. the oldest, however, of the new york tunnels counting from its origin is the "mcadoo" tunnel from christopher street, in manhattan borough, under the hudson to hoboken. this was begun in and continued at intervals as funds could be obtained until , when the work was abandoned after about two thousand feet had been constructed. for a number of years the tunnel remained full of water until it was finally acquired by the hudson companies who completed and opened it to the public in . another tunnel to the foot of cortlandt street was constructed by the same concern and opened in . both tunnels consist of parallel but separate tubes. the railway tunnels to carry the pennsylvania r. r. under the hudson into new york and thence under the east river to long island have been finished and are great triumphs of engineering skill besides making new york the most perfectly equipped city in the world as far as transit is concerned. the greatest proposed subaqueous tunnel is that intended to connect england with france under the english channel a distance of twenty-one miles. time and again the british parliament has rejected proposals through fear that such a tunnel would afford a ready means of invasion from a foreign enemy. however, it is almost sure to be built. another projected british tunnel is one which will link ireland and scotland under the irish sea. if this is carried out then indeed the emerald isle will be one with britain in spite of her unwillingness for such a close association. england already possesses a famous subaqueous tunnel in that known as the severn tunnel under the river of that name. it is four and a half miles long, although it was built largely through rock. water gave much trouble in its construction which occupied thirteen years from to . pumps were employed to raise the water through a side heading connecting with a shaft twenty-nine feet in diameter. the greatest amount of water raised concurrently was twenty-seven million gallons in twenty-four hours but the pumps had a capacity of sixty-six million gallons for the same time. the greatest tunnel in europe is the simplon which connects switzerland with italy under the simplon pass in the alps. it has two bores twelve and one-fourth miles each and at places it is one and one-half miles below the surface. the st. gothard also connecting switzerland and italy under the lofty peak of the col de st. gothard is nine and one-fourth miles in length. the third great alpine tunnel, the arlberg, which is six and one-half miles long, forms a part of the austrian railway between innsbruck and bluedenz in the tyrol and connects westward with the swiss railroads and southward with those of italy. two great tunnels at the present time are being constructed in the united states, one of these which is piercing the backbone of the rockies is on the atlantic and pacific railway. it begins near georgetown, will pass under gray's peak and come out near decatur, colorado, in all a length of twelve miles. the other american undertaking is a tunnel under the famous pike's peak in colorado which when completed will be twenty miles long. it can clearly be seen that in the way of tunnel engineering uncle sam is not a whit behind his european competitors. chapter x electricity in the household electrically equipped houses--cooking by electricity--comforts and conveniences. science has now pressed the invisible wizard of electricity into doing almost every household duty from cleaning the windows to cooking the dinner. there are many houses now so thoroughly equipped with electricity from top to bottom that one servant is able to do what formerly required the service of several, and in some houses servants seem to be needed hardly at all, the mistresses doing their own cooking, ironing, and washing by means of electricity. in respect to taking advantage of electricity to perform the duties of the household our friends in europe were ahead of us, though america is pre-eminently the land of electricity--the natal home of the science. we are waking up, however, to the domestic utility of this agent and throughout the country at present there are numbers of homes in which electricity is employed to perform almost every task automatically from feeding the baby to the crimping of my lady's hair in her scented boudoir. there is now no longer any use for chimneys on electrically equipped houses, for the fires have been eliminated and all heat and light drawn from the electric street mains. a description of one of these houses is most interesting as showing what really can be accomplished by this wonderful source of power. before the visitor to such a house reaches the gate or front door his approach is made known by an annunciator in the hall, which is connected with a hidden plate in the entrance path, which when pressed by the feet of the visitor charges the wire of the annunciator. a voice comes through the horn of a phonograph asking him what he wishes and telling him to reply through the telephone which hangs at the side of the door. when he has made his wants known, if he is welcome or desired, there is a click and the door opens. as he enters an electrically operated door mat cleans his shoes and if he is aware of the equipments of the house, he can have his clothes brushed by an automatic brush attached to the hat-rack in the hall. an escalator or endless stairway brings him to the first floor where he is met by the host who conducts him to the den sacred to himself. if he wishes a preprandial cigar, the host touches a segment of the wall, apparently no different in appearance from the surrounding surface, and a complete cigar outfit shoots out to within reach of the guest. when the gong announces dinner he is conducted to the dining hall where probably the uses to which electricity can be put are better exemplified than in any other part of the house. between this room and the kitchen there is a perfect electric understanding. the apartments are so arranged that electric dumbwaiter service is operated between the centre of the dining table itself and the serving table in the kitchen. the latter is equipped with an electric range provided with electrically heated ovens, broilers, vegetable cookers, saucepans, dishes, etc., sufficient for the preparation of the most elaborate house banquet. the chef or cook in charge of the kitchen prepares each dish in its proper oven and has it ready waiting on the electric elevator at the appointed time when the host and his guest or guests, or family, as the case may be, are seated at the dining table. the host or whoever presides at the head of the table merely touches a button concealed on the side of the mahogany and the elevator instantly appears through a trap-door in the table, which is ordinarily closed by two silver covers which look like a tray. in this way the dish seemingly miraculously appears right on top of the table. when each guest is served it returns to the kitchen by the way it came and a second course is brought on the table in a similar manner and so on until the dinner is fully served. fruits and flowers tastefully arranged adorn the centre of the dining table and minute electric incandescent lamps of various colors are concealed in the roses and petals and these give a very pretty effect, especially at night. beneath the table nothing is to be seen but two nickel-plated bars which serve to guide the elevators. down in the kitchen the cooking is carried on almost mechanically by means of an electric clock controlling the heating circuits to the various utensils. the cook, knowing just how long each dish will require to be cooked, turns on the current at the proper time and then sets the clock to automatically disconnect that utensil when sufficient time, so many minutes to the pound, has elapsed. when this occurs a little electric bell rings, calling attention to the fact, that the heat has been shut off. another kitchen accessory is a rotating table on which are mounted various household machines such as meat choppers, cream whippers, egg beaters and other apparatus all electrically operated. there is also an electric dishwasher and dryer and plate rack manipulator which places the dishes in position when clean and dried. the advantages of cooking by electricity are apparent to all who have tested them. food cooked in an electric baking oven is much superior than when cooked by any other method because of the better heat regulation and the utter cleanliness, there being absolutely no dust whatever as in the case when coal is used. the electric oven does not increase the temperature nor does it exhaust the pure air in the room by burning up the oxygen. the time required for cooking is about the same as with coal. the perfect cleanliness of an electric plate warmer is sufficient to warrant its use. it keeps dishes at a uniform temperature and the food does not get scorched and become tough. steaks prepared on electric gridirons and broilers are really delicious as they are evenly done throughout and retain all the natural juices of the meat; there is no odor of gas or of the fire and portions done to a crisp while others are raw on the inside. in toasting there is no danger of the bread burning on one side more than on the other, or of its burning on either side and a couple of dozen slices can be done together on an ordinary instrument at the same time. the electric diskstove, flat on the top, like a ball cut in two, can be also utilized as a toaster or for heating any kettles or pots or vessels with flat bottoms. very appetizing waffles are made with electric waffle irons, because the bottom and top irons are uniformly heated, so that the irons cook the waffles from both sides at the same time. electric potato peeling machines consist of a stationary cylinder opened at the top for the reception of the potatoes and having a revolving disk at the bottom. the cylinder has a rough surface or is coated with diamond flint, so that when the disk revolves the potatoes are thrown against the sides of the cylinder and the skin is scraped off. there is no deep cutting as when peeled by a knife, therefore, much waste is avoided. while the potatoes are being scraped, a stream of water plays upon them taking away the skins and thoroughly cleansing the tubers. among other electric labor savers connected with the culinary department may be mentioned floor-scrubbers, dish-washers, coffee-grinders, meat choppers, dough-mixers and cutlery-polishers, all of which give complete satisfaction at a paltry cost and save much time and labor. a small motor can drive any of these instruments or several can be attached and run by the same motor. the operation of an ordinary snap switch will supply energy to electric water-heaters attached to the kitchen boiler or to the faucet. the instantaneous water heater also purifies the water by killing the bacteria contained in it. the electric tea kettle makes a brew to charm the heart of a connossieur. in fact all cooking done by electricity whether it is the frying of an egg or the roasting of a steak is superior in every way to the old methods and what accentuates its use is the cleanliness with which it can be performed. and it should be taken into consideration that in electric cooking there is no bending over hot stoves and ranges or a stuffy evil smelling smoky atmosphere, but on the contrary, fresh air, cleanliness and coolness which make cooking not the drudgery it has ever been, but a real pleasure. let us take a glance at the laundry in the electrically equipped house. there is a large tub with a wringer attached to it and a simple mechanism by which a small motor can either be connected with the tub or the wringer as required. the washing is performed entirely by the motor and in a way prevents the wear and tear associated with the old method of scrubbing and rubbing done at the expense of much "elbow grease." the motor turns the tub back and forth and in this way the soapy water penetrates the clothes, thus removing the dirt without injuring or tearing the fabric. in the old way, the clothes were moved up and down in the water and torn and worn in the process. by the new way it is the water which moves while the clothes remain stationary. when the clothes are thoroughly washed, the motor is attached to the wringer and they are passed through it; they are completely dried by a specially constructed electric fan. whatever garments are to be ironed are separated and fed to a steel roll mangle operated by a motor which gives them a beautiful finish. the electric flat iron plays also an important part in the laundry as it is clean and never gets too hot nor too cold and there is no rushing back to replenish the heaters. one is not obliged to remain in the room with a hot stove, and suffer the inconveniences. no heat is felt at all from the iron as it is all concentrated on the bottom surface. it is a regular blessing to the laundress especially in hot weather. there is a growing demand in all parts of the country for these electric flat-irons. electricity plays an important role in the parlor and drawing-room. the electric fireplace throws out a ruddy glow, a perfect imitation of the wide-open old-fashioned fireplaces of the days of our grandmothers. there are small grooves at certain sections in the flooring over which chairs and couches can be brought to a desired position. when the master drops into his favorite chair by the fireplace if he wishes a tune to soothe his jangled nerves, there is an electric attachment to the piano and he can adjust it to get the air of his choice without having to ask any one to play for him. in the drawing-room an electric fountain may be playing, its jets reflecting the prismatic colors of the rainbow as the waters fall in iridescent sparkle among the lights. such a fountain is composed of a small electric motor and a centrifugal pump, the latter being placed in the interior of a basin and connected directly to the motor shaft. the pump receives the water from the basin and conveys it through pipes and a number of small nozzles thus producing cascades. the water falling upon an art glass dome, beneath which are small incandescent lamps, returns to the basin and thence again to the pump. there is no necessity of filling the fountain until the water gets low through evaporation. when the lights are not in colored glass, the water may be colored and this gives the same effect. to produce the play of the fountain and its effects, it is only necessary to connect it to any circuit and turn on the switch. the dome revolves by means of a jet of water driven against flanges on the under side of the rim of the dome and in this way beautiful and prismatic effects are produced. the motor is noiseless in operation. in addition to the pretty effect the fountain serves to cool and moisten the air of the room. the sleeping chambers are thoroughly equipped. not only the rooms may be heated by electricity but the beds themselves. an electric pad consisting of a flexible resistance covered with soft felt is connected by a conductor cord to a plug and is used for heating beds or if the occupant is suffering from rheumatism or indigestion or any intestinal pain this pad can be used in the place of the hot water bottle and gives greater satisfaction. there is a heat controlling device and the circuit can be turned on or off at will. there are many more curious devices in the electrically equipped house which could they have been exhibited a generation or so ago, would have condemned the owner as a sorcerer and necromancer of the dark ages, but which now only place him in the category of the smart ones who are up to date and take advantage of the science and progress of the time. chapter xi harnessing the water-fall electric energy--high pressure--transformers--development of water-power. the electrical transmission of power is exemplified in everything which is based on the generation of electricity. the ordinary electric light is power coming from a generator in the building or a public street-dynamo. however, when we talk in general terms of electric transmission we mean the transmission of energy on a large scale by means of overhead or underground conductors to a considerable distance and the transformation of this energy into light and heat and chemical or mechanical power to carry on the processes of work and industry. when the power or energy is conveyed a long distance from the generator, say over miles or more, we usually speak of the system of supply as long distance transmission of electric energy. in many cases power is conveyed over distances of miles and more. when water power is available as at niagara, the distance to which electric energy can be transmitted is considerably increased. the distance to a great extent depends on the cost of coal required for generation at the distributing point and on the amount of energy demanded at the receiving point. of course the farther the distance the higher must be the voltage pressure. electrical engineers say that under proper conditions electric energy may be transmitted in large quantity to a distance of miles and more at a pressure of about , volts. if such right conditions be established then new york, chicago and several other of our large cities can get their power from niagara. in our cities and towns where the current has only to go a short distance from the power house, the conductors are generally placed in cables underground and the maximum electro-motive force scarcely ever exceeds , volts. this pressure is generated by a steam-driven alternating-current generator and is transmitted over the conductors to sub-stations, where by means of step-down transformers, the pressure is dropped to, say, volts alternating current which by rotary converters is turned into direct current for the street mains, for feeders of railways and for charging storage batteries which in turn give out direct current at times of heavy demand. that electric transmission of energy to long distances may be successfully carried out transformers are necessary for raising the pressure on the transmission line and for reducing it at the points of distribution. the transformer consists of a magnetic circuit of laminated iron or mild steel interlinked with two electric circuits, one, the primary, receiving electrical energy and the other the secondary, delivering it to the consumer. the effect of the iron is to make as many as possible of the lines of force set up by the primary current, cut the secondary winding and there set up an electromotive force of the same frequency but different voltage. the transformer has made long distance the actual achievement that it is. it is this apparatus that brought the mountain to mohammed. without it high pressure would be impossible and it is on high pressure that success of long distance transmission depends. to convey electricity to distant centres at a low pressure would require thousands of dollars in copper cables alone as conductors. to illustrate the service of the transformer in electricity it is only necessary to consider water power at a low pressure. in such a case the water can only be transmitted at slow speed and through great openings, like dams or large canals, and withal the force is weak and of little practical efficiency, whereas under high pressure a small quantity can be forced through a small pipe and create an energy beyond comparison to that developed when under low pressure. the transformer raises the voltage and sends the electrical current under high pressure over a small wire and so great is this pressure that thousands of horse-power can be sent to great distances over small wires with very little loss. water power is now changed to electrical power and transmitted over slender copper wires to the great manufacturing centres of our country to turn the wheels of industry and give employment to thousands. nearly one hundred cities in the united states alone are today using electricity supplied by transmitted water-power. ten years ago niagara falls were regarded only as a great natural curiosity of interest only to the sightseer, today those falls distribute over , horse-power to buffalo, syracuse, rochester, toronto and several smaller cities and towns. wild niagara has at last indeed been harnessed to the servitude of man. spier falls north of saratoga, practically unheard of before, is now supplying electricity to the industrial communities of schenectady, troy, amsterdam, albany and half a dozen or so smaller towns. rivers and dams, lakes and falls in all parts of the country are being utilized to supply energy, though at the present time only about one-fortieth of the horse-power available through this agent is being made productive. the water conditions of the united states are so favorable that , , horse-power could be easily developed, but as it is we have barely enough harnessed to supply million horse-power. eighty per cent. of the power used at the present time is produced from fuel. this percentage is sure to decrease in the future for fuel will become scarcer and the high cost will drive fuel power altogether out of the market. new york state has the largest water power development in the union, the total being , horsepower; this fact is chiefly owing to the energy developed by niagara. the second state in water-power development is california, the total development being , horsepower over , wheels or a unit installation of about h.p. the third state is maine with , horse-power, over , wheels or an average of about horse-power per wheel. lack of space makes it impossible to enter upon a detailed description of the structural and mechanical features of the various plants and how they were operated for the purpose of turning water into an electric current. the best that can be done is to outline the most noteworthy features which typify the various situations under which power plants are developed and operated. the water power available under any condition depends principally upon two factors: first, the amount of fall or hydrostatic head on the wheels; second, the amount of water that can be turned over the wheels. the conditions vary according to place, there are all kinds of fall and flow. to develop a high power it is necessary to discharge a large volume of water upon properly designed wheels. in many of the western plants where only a small amount of water is available there is a great fall to make up for the larger volume in force coming down upon the wheels. so far as actual energy is concerned it makes no difference whether we develop a certain amount of power by allowing twenty cubic feet of water per second to fall a distance of one foot or allow one cubic foot of water per second to fall a distance of twenty feet. in one place we may have a plant developing say , horse-power with a fall of anywhere from twenty to forty feet and in another place a plant of the same capacity with a fall of , , , or , feet. in the former case the short fall is compensated by a great volume of water to produce such a horse-power, while in the latter converse conditions prevail. in many cases the power house is located some distance from the source of supply and from the point where the water is diverted from its course by artificial means. the shawinigan falls of st. maurice river in canada occur at two points a short distance apart, the fall at one point being about and at the other feet high. a canal , feet long takes water from the river above the upper of these falls and delivers it near to the electric power house on the river bank below the lower falls. in this way a hydrostatic head of feet is obtained at the power house. the canal in this case ends on high ground feet from the power house and the water passes down to the wheels through steel penstocks feet in diameter. in a great many cases in level country the water power can only be developed by means of such canals or pipe lines and the generating stations must be situated away from the points where the water is diverted from its course. in mountainous country where rivers are comparatively small and their courses are marked by numerous falls and rapids, it is generally necessary to utilize the fall of a stream through some miles of its length in order to get a satisfactory development of power. to reach this result rather long canals, flumes, or pipe lines must be laid to convey the water to the power stations and deliver it at high pressure. california offers numerous examples of electric power development with the water that has been carried several miles through artificial channels. an illustration of this class of work exists at the electric power house on the bank of the mokelumne river in the sierra nevada mountains. water is supplied to the wheels in this station under a head of , feet through pipes , feet long leading to the top of a near-by hill. to reach this hill the water after its diversion from the mokelumne river at the dam, flows twenty miles through a canal or ditch and then through , feet of wooden stave pipe. although california ranks second in water-power development it is easily the first in the number of its stations, and also be it said, california was the first to realize the possibilities of long distance electrical energy. the line from the , horsepower plant at colgate in this state to san francisco by way of mission san jose, where it is supplied with additional power, has a length of miles and is the longest transmission of electrical energy in the world. the power house at colgate has a capacity of , kilowatts in generators, but it is uncertain what part of the output is transmitted to san francisco, as there are more than substations on the , miles of circuit in this system. another system, even greater than the foregoing which has just been completed is that of the stanislaus plant in tuolumme county, california, from which a transmission line on steel towers has been run in tuolumme, calaveras, san joaquin, alameda and contra costa counties for the delivery of power to mines and to the towns lying about san francisco bay. the rushing riotous waters of the stanislaus wasted for so many centuries have been saved by the steel paddles of gigantic turbine water wheels and converted into electricity which carries with the swiftness of thought thousands of horse power energy to the far away cities and towns to be transformed into light and heat and power to run street cars and trains and set in motion the mechanism of mills and factories and make the looms of industry hum with the bustle and activity of life. it is said that the greatest long distance transmission yet attempted will shortly be undertaken in south africa where it is proposed to draw power from the famous victoria falls. the line from the falls will run to johannesburg and through the rand, a length of miles. it is claimed the falls are capable of developing , electric horse power at all times. should this undertaking be accomplished it will be a crowning achievement in electrical science. chapter xii wonderful warships dimensions, displacements, cost and description of battleships-- capacity and speed--preparing for the future. all modern battleships are of steel construction. the basis of all protection on these vessels is the protective deck, which is also common to the armored cruiser and many varieties of gunboats. this deck is of heavy steel covering the whole of the vessel a little above the water-line in the centre; it slopes down from the centre until it meets the sides of the vessel about three feet below the water; it extends the entire length of the ship and is firmly secured at the ends to the heavy stem and stern posts. underneath this deck are the essentials of the vessel, the boilers and machinery, the magazines and shell rooms, the ammunition cells and all the explosive paraphernalia which must be vigilantly safe-guarded against the attacks of the enemy. every precaution is taken to insure safety. all openings in the protective deck above are covered with heavy steel gratings to prevent fragments of shell or other combustible substances from getting through to the magazine or powder cells. the heaviest armor is usually placed at the water line because it is this part of the ship which is the most vulnerable and open to attack and where a shell or projectile would do the most harm. if a hole were torn in the side at this place the vessel would quickly take in water and sink. on this account the armor is made thick and is known as the water-line belt. at the point where the protective deck and the ship's side meet, there is a projection or ledge on which this armor belt rests. thus it goes down about three feet below the water and it extends to the same distance above. the barbettes, that is, the parapets supporting the gun turrets, are one forward and one aft. they rest upon the protective deck at the bottom and extend up about four feet above the upper deck. at the top of the barbettes, revolving on rollers, are the turrets, sometimes called the hoods, containing the guns and the leading mechanism and all of the machinery in connection with the same. the turret ammunition hoists lead up from the magazine below, delivering the charges and projectiles for the guns at the very breach so that they can be loaded immediately. an athwartship line of armor runs from the water line to the barbettes, resting upon the protective deck. in fact, the space between the protective and upper deck is so closed in with armor, with a barbette at each end, that it is like a citadel or fort or some redoubt well-guarded from the enemy. resting upon the water-belt and the athwartship or diagonal armor, and following the same direction is a layer of armor usually somewhat thinner which is called the lower case-mate armor; it extends up to the lower edge of the broadside gun ports, and resting upon it in turn is the upper case-mate armor, following the same direction, and forming the protection for the broadside battery. the explosive effect of the modern shell is so tremendous that were one to get through the upper case-mate and explode immediately after entering, it would undoubtedly disable several guns and kill their entire crews; it is, therefore, usual to isolate each broadside gun from its neighbors by light nickel steel bulkheads a couple of inches or so thick, and to prevent the same disastrous result among the guns on the opposite side, a fore-and-aft bulkhead of about the same thickness is placed on the centre line of the ship. each gun of the broadside battery is thus mounted in a space by itself somewhat similar to a stall. abaft the forward turret there is a vertical armored tube resting on the protective deck and at its upper end is the conning tower, from which the ship is worked when in action and which is well safe-guarded. the tube protects all the mechanical signalling gear running into the conning tower from which communication can be had instantly with any part of the vessel. to build a battleship that will be practically unsinkable by the gun fire of an enemy it is only necessary to make the water belt armor thick enough to resist the shells, missiles and projectiles aimed at it. there is another essential that is equally important, and that is the protection of the batteries. the experience of modern battles has made it manifest, that it is impossible for the crew to do their work when exposed to a hail of shot and shell from a modern battery of rapid fire and automatic guns. and so in all more recently built battleships and armored cruisers and gunboats, the protection of broadside batteries and exposed positions has been increased even at the expense of the water-line belt. armor plate has been much improved in recent years. during the civil war the armor on our monitors was only an inch thick. through such an armor the projectiles of our time would penetrate as easily as a bullet through a pine board. it was the development of gun power and projectiles that called forth the thick armor, but it was soon found that it was impossible for the armor to keep pace with the deadliness of the guns as it was utterly impossible to carry the weight necessary to resist the force of impact. then came the use of special plates, the compound armor where a hard face to break up the projectile was welded to a softer back to give the necessary strength. this was followed by the steel armor treated by the harvey process; it was like the compound armor in having a hard face and a soft back, but the plates were made from a single ingot without any welding. the harvey process enabled an enormously greater resistance to be obtained with a given weight of armor, but even it has been surpassed by the krupp process which enables twelve inches of thickness to give the same resistance as fifteen of harveyized plates. the armament or battery of warships is divided into two classes, viz., the main and the second batteries. the main battery comprises the heaviest guns on the ship, those firing large shell and armor-piercing projectiles, while the second battery consists of small rapid fire and machine guns for use against torpedo boats or to attack the unprotected or lightly protected gun positions of an enemy. the main battery of our modern battleships consists usually of ten twelve-inch guns, mounted in pairs on turrets in the centre of the ship. in addition to these heavy guns it is usual to mount a number of smaller ones of from five to eight inches diameter of bore on each broadside, although sometimes they are mounted on turrets like the larger guns. a twelve-inch breech-loading gun, fifty calibers long and weighing eighty-three tons, will propel a shell weighing eight hundred and eighty pounds, by a powder charge of six hundred and twenty-four pounds, at a velocity of over two thousand six hundred and twenty feet per second, giving an energy at the muzzle of over forty thousand foot-tons and is capable of penetrating at the muzzle, forty-five inches of iron. during the last few years, very large increases have been made in the dimensions, displacements and costs of battleships and armored cruisers as compared with vessels of similar classes previously constructed. both england and the united states have constructed enormous war vessels within the past decade. the british _dreadnought_ built in nineteen hundred and five has a draft of thirty-one feet six inches and a displacement of twenty-two thousand and two hundred tons. later, vessels of the _dreadnought_ type have a normal draft of twenty-seven feet and a naval displacement of eighteen thousand and six hundred tons. armored cruisers of the british _invincible_ class have a draft of twenty-six feet and a displacement of seventeen thousand two hundred and fifty tons with a thousand tons of coal on board. these cruisers have engines developing forty-one thousand horse-power. within the past two years the united states has turned out a few formidable battleships, which it is claimed surpass the best of those of any other navy in the world. the _delaware_ and _north dakota_ each have a draft of twenty-six feet, eleven inches and a displacement of twenty thousand tons. great interest attached to the trials of these vessels because they were sister ships fitted with different machinery and it was a matter of much speculation which would develop the greater speed. in addition to the consideration of the battleship as a fighting machine at close quarters, uncle sam is trying to have her as fleet as an ocean greyhound should an enemy heave in sight so that the latter would not have much opportunity to show his heels to a broadside. the _delaware_, which has reciprocating engines, exceeded her contract speed of twenty-one knots on her runs over a measured mile course in penobscot bay on october and , . three runs were made at the rate of nineteen knots, three at . knots, and five at . knots. the _north dakota_ is furnished with curtis turbine engines. here is a comparison of the two ships: north delaware dakota fastest run over measured mile......... . . average of five high runs.............. . . full power trial speed................. . . full power trial horsepower............ , . , . full power trial, coal consumption, tons per day............ . . nineteen-knot trial coal consumption, tons per day....... . . twelve-knot trial coal consumption, tons per day............. . . the _florida_, a , ton boat, was launched from the brooklyn navy yard last may . her sister ship, the _utah_, took water the previous december at camden. here is a comparison of the _north dakota_ of and the _florida_ of : n. dakota florida length ft. in. ft. in. beam ft. - / in. ft. - / in. draft, mean ft. in. ft. in. displacement , tons , tons coal supply , tons , tons oil tons tons belt armor in. to in. in. to in. turret armor inches inches battery armor in. - / in. smoke stack protection inches - / inches l -inch guns ten ten -inch guns fourteen sixteen speed knots . knots the _florida_ has parsons turbines working on four shafts and generates , horse-power. the united states navy has planned to lay down next year ( ) two ships of , tons armed with l -inch guns, each to cost eighteen million dollars as compared with the $ , , ships of . the following are to be some of the features of the projected ships, which are to be named the _arkansas_ and _wyoming_. ft. long, ft. in. beam, ft. in. draft, , tons displacement, , horse-power, / knots speed, , to , tons coal supply, armament of twelve l -inch guns, twenty-one -inch, four -pounders and two torpedo tubes. fittings in recent united states battleships are for -inch torpedoes. the armor is to be inch on belt and barbettes and on sides inches, and each ship is to carry a complement of , officers and men. two of the turrets will be set forward on the forecastle deck, which will have feet, freeboard, the guns in the first turret being feet above the water and those of the second about feet. aft of the second turret will be the conning tower, and then will come the fore fire-control tower or lattice mast, with searchlight towers carried on it. next will come the forward funnel, on each side of which will be two small open rod towers with strong searchlights. then will come the main fire-control tower and the after funnel and another open tower with searchlight. the two lattice steel towers are to be feet high and feet apart. the four remaining turrets will be abaft the main funnel, the third turret having its guns feet above water; those in the other turrets about feet above the water. the guns will be the new -calibre type. all twelve will have broadside fire over a wide arc and four can be fired right ahead and four right astern. chapter xiii a talk on big guns the first projectiles--introduction of cannon--high pressure guns--machine guns--dimensions and cost of big guns. the first arms and machines employing gunpowder as the propelling agency, came into use in the fourteenth century. prior to this time there were machines and instruments which threw stones and catapults and large arrows by means of the reaction of a tightly twisted rope made up of hemp, catgut or hair. slings were also much employed for hurling missiles. the first cannons were used by the english against the scots in . they were short and thick and wide in the bore and resembled bowls or mortars; in fact this name is still applied to this kind of ordnance. by the end of the fifteenth century a great advancement was shown in the make of these implements of warfare. bronze and brass as materials came into general use and cannon were turned out with twenty to twenty-five inch bore weighing twenty tons and capable of hurling to a considerable distance projectiles weighing from two hundred pounds to one thousand pounds with powder as the propelling force. in a short time these large guns were mounted and carriages were introduced to facilitate transportation with troops. meantime stone projectiles were replaced by cast iron shot, which, owing to its greater density, necessitated a reduction in calibre, that is a narrowing of the bore, consequently lighter and smaller guns came into the field, but with a greater propelling force. when the cast iron balls first came into use as projectiles, they weighed about twelve pounds, hence the cannons shooting them were known as twelve-pounders. it was soon found, however, that twelve pounds was too great a weight for long distances, so a reduction took place until the missiles were cut down to four pounds and the cannon discharging these, four pounders as they were called, weighed about one-quarter of a ton. they were very effective and handy for light field work. the eighteenth century witnessed rapid progress in gun and ammunition manufacture. "grape" and "canister" were introduced and the names still cling to the present day. grape consisted of a number of tarred lead balls, held together in a net. canister consisted of a number of small shot in a tin can, the shots being dispersed by the breaking of the can on discharge. grape now consists of cast iron balls arranged in three tiers by means of circular plates, the whole secured by a pin which passes through the centre. the number of shot in each tier varies from three to five. grape is very destructive up to three hundred yards and effective up to six hundred yards. canister shot as we know it at present, is made up of a number of iron balls, placed in a tin cylinder with a wooden bottom, the size of the piece of ordnance for which it is intended. towards the close of the eighteenth century, short cast-iron guns called "carronades" were introduced by gascoigne of the cannon iron works, scotland. they threw heavy shots at low velocity with great battery effect. they were for a long time in use in the british navy. the sailors called them "smashers." the entire battery of the victory, nelson's famous flag-ship at the battle of trafalgar, amounting to a total of guns, was composed of "carronades" varying in size from thirty-two to sixty-eight pounders. they were mounted on wooden truck carriages and were given elevation by handspikes applied under the breech, a quoin or a wedge shaped piece of wood being pushed in to hold the breech up in position. they were trained by handspikes with the aid of side-tackle and their recoil was limited by a stout rope, called the breeching, the ends of which were secured to the sides of the ship. the slow match was used for firing, the flint lock not being applied to naval guns until . about the middle of the nineteenth century, the design of guns began to receive much scientific thought and consideration. the question of high velocities and flat trajectories without lightening the weight of the projectile was the desideratum; the minimum of weight in the cannon itself with the maximum in the projectile and the force with which it could be propelled were the ends to be attained. in admiral dahlgren of the united states navy designed the _dahlgren_ gun with shape proportioned to the "curve of pressure," which is to say that the gun was heavy at the breech and light at the muzzle. this gun was well adapted to naval use at the time. from this, onward, guns of high pressure were manufactured until the pressure grew to such proportions that it exceeded the resisting power, represented by the tensile strength of cast iron. when cast, the gun cooled from the outside inwardly, thus placing the inside metal in a state of tension and the outside in a state of compression. general rodman, chief of ordnance of the united states army, came forward with a remedy for this. he suggested the casting of guns hollow and the cooling of them from the inside outwardly by circulating a stream of cold water in the bore while the outside surface was kept at a high temperature. this method placed the metal inside in a state of compression and that on the outside in a state of tension, the right condition to withstand successfully the pressure of the powder gas, which tended to expand the inner portions beyond the normal diameter and throw the strain of the supporting outer layers. this system was universally employed and gave the best results obtainable from cast iron for many years and was only superseded by that of "built up" guns, when iron and steel were made available by improved processes of production. the great strides made in the manufacture and forging of steel during the past quarter of a century, the improved tempering and annealing processes have resulted in the turning out of big guns solely composed of steel. the various forms of modern ordnance are classified and named according to size and weight, kind of projectiles used and their velocities; angle of elevation at which they are fired; use; and mode of operation. the guns known as breechloading rifles are from three inches to fourteen inches in calibre, that is, across the bore, and in length from twelve to over sixty feet. they weigh from one ton to fifty tons. they fire solid shot or shells weighing up to eleven hundred pounds at high velocities, from twenty-three to twenty-five hundred feet per second. they can penetrate steel armor to a depth of fifteen to twenty inches at , yards distance. rapid fire guns are those in which the operation of opening and closing the breech is performed by a single motion of a lever actuated by the hand, and in which the explosive used is closed in a metallic case. these guns are made in various forms and are operated by several different systems of breech mechanism generally named after their respective inventors. the vickers-maxim and the nordenfeldt are the best known in america. a new type of the vickers-maxim was introduced in in which a quick working breech mechanism automatically ejects the primer and draws up the loading tray into position as the breech is opened. this type was quickly adopted by the united states navy and materially increased the speed of fire in all calibres. what are known as machine guns are rapid fire guns in which the speed of firing is such that it is practically continuous. the best known make is the famous gatling gun invented by dr. r. j. gatling of indianapolis in . this gun consists of ten parallel barrels grouped around and secured firmly to a main central shaft to which is also attached the grooved cartridge carrier and the lock cylinder. each barrel is provided with its own lock or firing mechanism, independent of the other, but all of them revolve simultaneously with the barrels, carrier and inner breech when the gun is in operation. in firing, one end of the feed case containing the cartridges is placed in the hopper on top and the operating crank is turned. the cartridges drop one by one into the grooves of the carrier and are loaded and fired by the forward motion of the locks, which also closes the breech while the backward motion extracts and expels the empty shells. in its present state of efficiency the gatling gun fires at the rate of , shots per minute, a speed, by separate discharges, not equaled by any other gun. much larger guns were constructed in times past than are being built now. in the english made guns weighing from to tons, from to inches bore and which fired projectiles weighing over , pounds at a velocity of almost , feet per second. at the same time the united states fashioned a monster rifle of tons which had a bore of sixteen inches and fired a projectile of , pounds with a velocity of , feet per second. the largest guns ever placed on board ship were the armstrong one- hundred-and-ten-ton guns of the english battleships, _sanspareil_, _benbow_ and _victoria_. they were sixteen and one-fourth inch calibre. the newest battleships of england, the _dreadnought_ and the _temeraire_, are equipped with fourteen-inch guns, but they are not one- half so heavy as the old guns. many experts in naval ordnance think it a mistake to have guns over twelve inch bore, basing their belief on the experience of the past which showed that guns of a less calibre carrying smaller shells did more effective work than the big bore guns with larger projectiles. the two titanic war-vessels now in course of construction for the united states navy will each carry a battery of ten fourteen-inch rifles, which will be the most powerful weapons ever constructed and will greatly exceed in range and hitting power the twelve-inch guns of the _delaware_ or _north dakota_. each of the new rifles will weigh over sixty-three tons, the projectiles will each weigh , pounds and the powder charge will be pounds. at the moment of discharge each of these guns will exert a muzzle energy of , foot tons, which simply means that the energy will be so great that it could raise , tons a foot from the ground. the fourteen-hundred-pound projectiles shall be propelled through the air at the rate of half a mile a second. it will be plainly seen that the metal of the guns must be of enormous resistance to withstand such a force. the designers have taken this into full consideration and will see to it that the powder chamber in which the explosion takes place as well as the breech lock on which the shock is exerted is of steel so wrought and tempered as to withstand the terrific strain. at the moment of detonation the shock will be about equal to that of a heavy engine and a train of pullman coaches running at seventy miles an hour, smashing into a stone wall. on leaving the muzzle of the gun the shell will have an energy equivalent to that of a train of cars weighing tons and running at sixty miles an hour. such energy will be sufficient to send the projectile through twenty-two and a half inches of the hardest of steel armour at the muzzle, while at a range of , yards, the projectile moving at the rate of , feet per second will pierce eighteen and a half inches of steel armor at normal impact. the velocity of the projectile leaving the gun will be , feet per second, a speed which if maintained would carry it around the world in less than fifteen hours. each of the mammoth guns will be a trifle over fifty-three feet in length and the estimated cost of each will be $ , . judging from the performance of the twelve-inch guns it is figured that these greater weapons should be able to deliver three shots a minute. if all ten guns of either of the projected _dreadnoughts_ should be brought into action at one time and maintain the three shot rapidity for one hour, the cost of the ammunition expended in that hour would reach the enormous sum of $ , , . very few, however, of the big guns are called upon for the three shots a minute rate, for the metal would not stand the heating strain. the big guns are expensive and even when only moderately used their "life" is short, therefore, care is taken not to put them to too great a strain. with the smaller guns it is different. some of six-inch bore fire as high as eight aimed shots a minute, but this is only under ideal conditions. great care is being taken now to prolong the "life" of the big guns by using non-corrosive material for the charges. the united states has adopted a pure gun-cotton smokeless powder in which the temperature of combustion is not only lower than that of nitro-glycerine, but even lower than that of ordinary gunpowder. with the use of this there has been a very material decrease in the corrosion of the big guns. the former smokeless powder, containing a large percentage of nitro-glycerine such as "cordite," produced such an effect that the guns were used up and practically worthless, after firing fifty to sixty rounds. now it is possible for a gun to be as good after two or even three hundred rounds as at the beginning, but certainly not if a three minute rate is maintained. at such a rate the "life" of the best gun made would be short indeed. chapter xv mystery of the stars wonders of the universe--star photography--the infinity of space. in another chapter we have lightly touched upon the greatness of the universe, in the cosmos of which our earth is but an infinitesimal speck. even our sun, round which a system of worlds revolve and which appears so mighty and majestic to us, is but an atom, a very small one, in the infinitude of matter and as a cog, would not be missed in the ratchet wheel which fits into the grand machinery of nature. if our entire solar system were wiped out of being, there would be left no noticeable void among the countless systems of worlds and suns and stars; in the immensity of space the sun with all his revolving planets is not even as a drop to the ocean or a grain of sand to the composition of the earth. there are millions of other suns of larger dimensions with larger attendants wheeling around them in the illimitable fields of space. those stars which we erroneously call "fixed" stars are the centers of other systems vastly greater, vastly grander than the one of which our earth forms so insignificant a part. of course to us numbers of them appear, even when viewed through the most powerful telescopes, only as mere luminous points, but that is owing to the immensity of distance between them and ourselves. but the number that is visible to us even with instrumental assistance can have no comparison with the number that we cannot see; there is no limit to that number; away in what to us may be called the background of space are millions, billions, uncountable myriads of invisible suns regulating and illuminating countless systems of invisible worlds. and beyond those invisible suns and worlds is a region which thought cannot measure and numbers cannot span. the finite mind of man becomes dazed, dumbfounded in contemplation of magnitude so great and distance so amazing. we stand not bewildered but lost before the problem of interstellar space. its length, breadth, height and circumference are illimitable, boundless; the great eternal cosmos without beginning and without end. in order to get some idea of the vastness of interstellar space we may consider a few distances within the limits of human conception. we know that light travels at the rate of , miles a second, yet it requires light over four years to reach us from the nearest of the fixed stars, travelling at this almost inconceivable rate, and so far away are some that their light travelling at the same rate from the dawn of creation has never reached us yet or never will until our little globule of matter disintegrates and its particles, its molecules and corpuscles, float away in the boundless ether to amalgamate with the matter of other flying worlds and suns and stars. the nearest to us of all the stars is that known as _alpha centauri_. its distance is computed at , , , , miles, which in our notation reads twenty-five trillion miles. it takes light over four years to traverse this distance. it would take the "empire state express," never stopping night or day and going at the rate of a mile a minute, almost , , years to travel from the earth to this star. the next of the fixed stars and the brightest in all the heavens is that which we call _sirius_ or the dog star. it is double the distance of alpha centauri, that is, it is eight "light years" away. the distances of about seventy other stars have been ascertained ranging up to seventy or eighty "light years" away, but of the others visible to the naked eye they are too far distant to come within the range of trigonometrical calculation. they are out of reach of the mathematical eye in the depth of space. but we know for certain that the distance of none of these visible stars, without a measurable parallax, is less than four million times the distance of our sun from the earth. it would be useless to express this in figures as it would be altogether incomprehensible. what then can be said of the telescopic stars, not to speak at all of those beyond the power of instruments to determine. if a railroad could be constructed to the nearest star and the fare made one cent a mile, a single passage would cost $ , , , , that is two hundred and fifty billion dollars, which would make a -foot cube of pure gold. all of the coined gold in the world amounts to but $ , , , (four billion dollars), equal to a gold cube of feet. therefore it would take sixty times the world's stock of gold to pay the fare of one passenger, at a cent a mile from the earth to alpha centauri. the light from numbers, probably countless numbers, of stars is so long in coming to us that they could be blotted out of existence and we would remain unconscious of the fact for years, for hundreds of years, for thousands of years, nay to infinity. thus if _sirius_ were to collide with some other space traveler and be knocked into smithereens as an irishman would say, we would not know about it for eight years. in fact if all the stars were blotted out and only the sun left we should still behold their light in the heavens and be unconscious of the extinction of even some of the naked-eye stars for sixty or seventy years. it is vain to pursue farther the unthinkable vastness of the visible universe; as for the invisible it is equally useless for even imagination to try to grapple with its never-ending immensity, to endeavor to penetrate its awful clouded mystery forever veiled from human view. in all there are about , stars visible to the naked eye in each hemisphere. a three-inch pocket telescope brings about one million into view. the grand and scientifically perfected instruments of our great observatories show incalculable multitudes. every improvement in light-grasping power brings millions of new stars into the range of instrumental vision and shows the "background" of the sky blazing with the light of eye-invisible suns too far away to be separately distinguished. great strides are daily being made in stellar photography. plates are now being attached to the telescopic apparatus whereby luminous heavenly bodies are able to impress their own pictures. groups of stars are being photographed on one plate. complete sets of these star photographs are being taken every year, embracing every nook and corner of the celestial sphere and these are carefully compared with one another to find out what changes are going on in the heavens. it will not be long before every star photographically visible to the most powerful telescope will have its present position accurately defined on these photographic charts. when, the sensitized plate is exposed for a considerable time even invisible stars photograph themselves, and in this way a great number of stars have been discovered which no telescope, however powerful, can bring within the range of vision. tens of thousands of stars have registered themselves thus on a single plate, and on one occasion an impression was obtained on one plate of more than , . astronomers are of the opinion that for every star visible to the naked eye there are more than , visible to the camera of the telescope. if this is so, then the number of visible stars exceeds , , (three hundred millions). but the picture taking power of the finest photographic lens has a limit; no matter how long the exposure, it cannot penetrate beyond a certain boundary into the vastness of space, and beyond its limits as george sterling, the californian poet, says are-- "fires of unrecorded suns that light a heaven not our own." what is the limit? answer philosopher, answer sage, answer astronomer, and we have the solution of "the riddle of the universe." as yet the riddle still remains, the veil still hangs between the knowable and the unknowable, between the finite and the infinite. science stands baffled like a wailing creature outside the walls of knowledge importuning for admission. there is little, in truth no hope at all, that she will ever be allowed to enter, survey all the fields of space and set a limit to their boundaries. although the riddle of the universe still remains unsolved because unsolvable, no one can deny that astronomy has made mighty strides forward during the past few years. what has been termed the "old astronomy," which concerns itself with the determination of the positions and motions of the heavenly bodies, has been rejuvenated and an immense amount of work has been accomplished by concerted effort, as well as by individual exertions. the greatest achievements have been the accurate determination of the positions of the fixed stars visible to the eye. their situation is now estimated with as unerring precision as is that of the planets of our own system. millions upon millions of stars have been photographed and these photographs will be invaluable in determining the future changes and motions of these giant suns of interstellar space. of our own system we now know definitely the laws governing it. fifty years ago much of our solar machinery was misunderstood and many things were enveloped in mystery which since has been made very plain. the spectroscope has had a wonderful part in astronomical research. it first revealed the nature of the gases existing in the sun. it next enabled us to study the prominences on any clear day. then by using it in the spectro-heliograph we have been enabled to photograph the entire visible surface of the sun, together with the prominences at one time. through the spectro-heliograph we know much more about what the central body of our system is doing than our theories can explain. fresh observations are continually bringing to light new facts which must soon be accounted for by laws at present unknown. spectroscopic observations are by no means confined to the sun. by them we now study the composition of the atmospheres of the other planets; through them the presence of chemical elements known on the earth is detected in vagrant comets, far-distant stars and dimly-shining nebulae. the spectroscope also makes it possible to measure the velocities of objects which are approaching or receding from us. for instance we know positively that the bright star called aldebaran near the constellation of the pleiades is retreating from us at a rate of almost two thousand miles a minute. the greatest telescopes in the world are now being trained on stars that are rushing away towards the "furthermost" of space and in this way astronomers are trying to get definite knowledge as to the actual velocity with which the celestial bodies are speeding. it is only within the past few years that photography has been applied to astronomical development. in this connection, more accurate results are obtained by measuring the photographs of stellar spectra than by measuring the spectra themselves. photography with modern rapid plates gives us, with a given telescope, pictures of objects so faint that no visual telescope of the same size will reveal them. it is in this way that many of the invisible stars have impressed themselves upon exposed plates and given us a vague idea of the immensity in number of those stars which we cannot view with eye or instrument. though we have made great advancement, there are many problems yet even in regard to our own little system of sun worlds which clamor loudly for solution. the sun himself represents a crowd of pending problems. his peculiar mode of rotation; the level of sunspots; the constitution of the photospheric cloud-shell, its relation to faculae which rise from it, and to the surmounting vaporous strata; the nature of the prominences; the alternations of coronal types; the affinities of the zodiacal light--all await investigation. a great telescope has recently shown that one star in eighteen on the average is a visual double--is composed of two suns in slow revolution around their common center of mass. the spectroscope using the photographic plate, has established within the last decade that one star in every five or six on the average is attended by a companion so near to it as to remain invisible in the most powerful telescopes, and so massive as to swing the visible star around in an elliptic orbit. the photography of comets, nebulae and solar coronas has made the study of these phenomena incomparably more effective than the old visual methods. there is no longer any necessity to make "drawings" of them. the old dread of comets has been relegated into the shade of ignorance. the long switching tails regarded so ominously and from which were anticipated such dire calamities as the destruction of worlds into chaos have been proven to be composed of gaseous vapors of no more solidity than the "airy nothingness of dreams." the earth in the circle of its orbit passed through the tail of halley's comet in may, , and we hadn't even a pyrotechnical display of fire rockets to celebrate the occasion. in fact there was not a single celestial indication of the passage and we would not have known only for the calculations of the astronomer. the passing of a comet now, as far as fear is concerned, means no more, in fact not as much, as the passing of an automobile. science no doubt has made wonderful strides in our time, but far as it has gone, it has but opened for us the first few pages of the book of the heavens--the last pages of which no man shall ever read. for aeons upon aeons of time, worlds and suns, and systems of worlds and suns, revolved through the infinity of space, before man made his appearance on the tiny molecule of matter we call the earth, and for aeons upon aeons, for eternity upon eternity, worlds and suns shall continue to roll and revolve after the last vestige of man shall have disappeared, nay after the atoms of earth and sun and all his attending planets of our system shall have amalgamated themselves with other systems in the boundlessness of space; destroyed, obliterated, annihilated, they shall never be, for matter is indestructible. when it passes from one form it enters another; the dead animal that is cast into the earth lives again in the trees and shrubs and flowers and grasses that grow in the earth above where its body was cast. our earth shall die in course of time, that is, its particles will pass into other compositions and it will be so of the other planets, of the suns, of the stars themselves, for as soon as the old ones die there will ever be new forms to which to attach themselves and thus the process of world development shall go on forever. the nebulae which astronomers discover throughout the stellar space are extended masses of glowing gases of different forms and are worlds in process of formation. such was the earth once. these gases solidify and contract and cool off until finally an inhabited world, inhabited by some kind of creatures, takes its place in the whirling galaxy of systems. the stars which appear to us in a yellow or whitish yellow light are in the heyday of their existence, while those that present a red haze are almost burnt out and will soon become blackened, dead things disintegrating and crumbling and spreading their particles throughout space. it is supposed this little earth of ours has a few more million years to live, so we need not fear for our personal safety while in mortal form. to us ordinary mortals the mystery as well as the majesty of the heavens have the same wonderful attraction as they had for the first of our race. thousands of years ago the black-bearded shepherds of eastern lands gazed nightly into the vaulted dome and were struck with awe as well as wonder in the contemplation of the glittering specks which appeared no larger than the pebbles beneath their feet. we in our time as we gaze with unaided eye up at the mighty disk of the so called milky way, no longer regard the scintillating points glittering like diamonds in a jeweler's show-case, with feelings of awe, but the wonder is still upon us, wonder at the immensity of the works of him who built the earth and sky, who, "throned in height sublime, sits amid the cherubim," king of the universe, king of kings and lord of lords. with a deep faith we look up and adore, then reverently exclaim,--"lord, god! wonderful are the works of thy hands." chapter xvi can we communicate with other worlds? vastness of nature--star distances--problem of communicating with mars--the great beyond. a story is told of a young lady who had just graduated from boarding school with high honors. coming home in great glee, she cast her books aside as she announced to her friends;--"thank goodness it is all over, i have nothing more to learn. i know latin and greek, french and german, spanish and italian; i have gone through algebra, geometry, trigonometry, conic sections and the calculus; i can interpret beethoven and wagner, and--but why enumerate?--in short, '_i know everything_.'" as she was thus proclaiming her knowledge her hoary-headed grandfather, a man whom the universities of the world had honored by affixing a score of alphabetical letters to his name, was experimenting in his laboratory. the lines of long and deep study had corrugated his brow and furrowed his face. wearily he bent over his retorts and test tubes. at length he turned away with a heavy sigh, threw up his hands and despairingly exclaimed,--"alas, alas! after fifty years of study and investigation, i find _i know nothing_." there is a moral in this story that he who runs may read. most of us are like the young lady,--in the pride of our ignorance, we fancy we know almost everything. we boast of the progress of our time, of what has been accomplished in our modern world, we proclaim our triumphs from the hilltops,--"ha!" we shout, "we have annihilated time and distance; we have conquered the forces of nature and made them subservient to our will; we have chained the lightning and imprisoned the thunder; we have wandered through the fields of space and measured the dimensions and revolutions of stars and suns and planets and systems. we have opened the eternal gates of knowledge for all to enter and crowned man king of the universe." vain boasting! the gates of knowledge have been opened, but we have merely got a peep at what lies within. and man, so far from being king of the universe, is but as a speck on the fly-wheel that controls the mighty machinery of creation. what we know is infinitesimal to what we do not know. we have delved in the fields of science, but as yet our ploughshares have merely scratched the tiniest portion of the surface,--the furrow that lies in the distance is unending. in the infinite book of knowledge we have just turned over a few of the first pages; but as it is infinite, alas! we can never hope to reach the final page, for there is no final page. what we have accomplished is but as a mere drop in the ocean, whose waves wash the continents of eternity. no scholar, no scientist can bound those continents, can tell the limits to which they stretch, inasmuch as they are illimitable. ask the most learned _savant_ if he can fix the boundaries of space, and he will answer,--no! ask him if he can define _mind_ and _matter_, and you will receive the same answer. "what is mind? it is no matter." "what is matter? never mind." the atom formerly thought to be indivisible and the smallest particle of matter has been reduced to molecules, corpuscles, ions, and electrons; but the nature, the primal cause of these, the greatest scientists on earth are unable to determine. learning is as helpless as ignorance when brought up against this stone-wall of mystery. _the effect_ is seen, but the _cause_ remains indeterminable. the scientist, gray-haired in experience and experiment, knows no more in this regard than the prattling child at its mother's knee. the child asks,--"who made the world?" and the mother answers, "god made the world." the infant mind, suggestive of the future craving for knowledge, immediately asks,--"who is god?" question of questions to which the philosopher and the peasant must give the same answer,--"god is the infinite, the eternal, the source of all things, the _alpha_ and _omega_ of creation, from him all came, to him all must return." he is the beginning of science, the foundation on which our edifice of knowledge rests. we hear of the conflict between science and religion. there is no conflict, can be none, for all science must be based on faith,--faith in him who holds worlds and suns "in the hollow of his hand." all our great scientists have been deeply religious men, acknowledging their own insignificance before him who fills the universe with his presence. what is the universe and what place do we hold in it? the mind of man becomes appalled in consideration of the question. the orb we know as the sun is centre of a system of worlds of which our earth is almost the most insignificant; yet great as is the sun when compared to the little bit of matter on which we dwell and have our being, it is itself but a mote, as it were, in the beam of the universe. formerly this sun was thought to be fixed and immovable, but the progress of science demonstrated that while the earth moves around this luminary, the latter is moving with mighty velocity in an orbit of its own. tis the same with all the other bodies which we erroneously call "fixed stars." these stars are the suns of other systems of worlds, countless systems, all rushing through the immensity of space, for there is nothing fixed or stationary in creation,--all is movement, constant, unvarying. suns and stars and systems perform their revolutions with unerring precision, each unit-world true to its own course, thus proving to the soul of reason and the consciousness of faith that there must needs be an omnipotent hand at the lever of this grand machinery of the universe, the hand that fashioned it, that of god. addison beautifully expresses the idea in referring to the revolutions of the stars: "in reason's ear they all rejoice, and utter forth one glorious voice, forever singing as they shine- 'the hand that made us is divine.'" our sun, the centre of the small system of worlds of which the earth is one, is distant from us about ninety-three million miles. in winter it is nearer; in summer farther off. light travels this distance in about eight minutes, to be exact, the rate is , miles per second. to get an idea of the immensity of the distance of the so-called fixed stars, let us take this as a base of comparison. the nearest fixed star to us is _alpha centauri_, which is one of the brightest as seen in the southern heavens. it requires four and one-quarter years for a beam of light to travel from this star to earth at the rate of , miles a second, thus showing that alpha centauri is about two hundred and seventy-five thousand times as far from us as is the sun, in other words, more than , , , , miles, which, expressed in our notation, reads twenty-five trillion, five hundred and seventy- five billion miles, a number which the mind of man is incapable of grasping. to use the old familiar illustration of the express train, it would take the "twentieth century limited," which does the thousand mile trip between new york and chicago in less than twenty-four hours, some one million two hundred and fifty thousand years at the same speed to travel from the earth to _alpha centauri_. _sirius_, the dog-star, is twice as far away, something like eight or nine "light" years from our solar system; the pole-star is forty-eight "light" years removed from us, and so on with the rest, to an infinity of numbers. from the dawn of creation in the eternal cosmos of matter, light has been travelling from some stars in the infinitude of space at the rate of , miles per second, but so remote are they from our system that it has not reached us as yet. the contemplation is bewildering; the mind sinks into nothingness in consideration of a magnitude so great and distance so confusing. what lies beyond?--a region which numbers cannot measure and thought cannot span, and beyond that?--the eternal answer,--god. in face of the contemplation of the vastness of creation, of its boundlessness the question ever obtrudes itself,--what place have we mortals in the universal cosmos? what place have we finite creatures, who inhabit this speck of matter we call the earth, in this mighty scheme of suns and systems and never-ending space. does the creator of all think us the most important of his works, that we should be the particular objects of revelation, that for us especially heaven was built, and a god-man, the son of the eternal, came down to take flesh of our flesh and live among us, to show us the way, and finally to offer himself as a victim to the father to expiate our transgressions. mystery of mysteries before which we stand appalled and lost in wonder. self-styled rationalists love to point out the irrationality and absurdity of supposing that the creator of all the unimaginable vastness of suns and systems, filling for all we know endless space, should take any special interest in so mean and pitiful a creature as man, inhabiting such an infinitesimal speck of matter as the earth, which depends for its very life and light upon a second or third-rate or hundred-rate sun. from the earliest times of our era, the sneers and taunts of atheism and agnosticism have been directed at the humble believer, who bows down in submission and questions not. the fathers of the church, such as augustine and chrysostom and thomas of aquinas and, at a later time, luther, and calvin, and knox, and newman, despite the war of creeds, have attacked the citadel of the scoffers; but still the latter hurl their javelins from the ramparts, battlements and parapets and refuse to be repulsed. if there are myriads of other worlds, thousands, millions of them in point of magnitude greater than ours, what concern say they has the creator with our little atom of matter? are other worlds inhabited besides our own. this is the question that will not down--that is always begging for an answer. the most learned savants of modern time, scholars, sages, philosophers and scientists have given it their attention, but as yet no one has been able to conclusively decide whether a race of intelligent beings exists in any sphere other than our own. all efforts to determine the matter result in mere surmise, conjecture and guesswork. the best of scientists can only put forward an opinion. professor simon newcomb, one of the most brilliant minds our country has produced, says: "it is perfectly reasonable to suppose that beings, not only animated but endowed with reason, inhabit countless worlds in space." professor mitchell of the cincinnati observatory, in his work, "popular astronomy," says,--"it is most incredible to assert, as so many do, that our planet, so small and insignificant in its proportions when compared with the planets with which it is allied, is the only world in the whole universe filled with sentient, rational, and intelligent beings capable of comprehending the grand mysteries of the physical universe." camille flammarion, in referring to the utter insignificance of the earth in the immensity of space, puts forward his view thus: "if advancing with the velocity of light we could traverse from century to century the unlimited number of suns and spheres without ever meeting any limit to the prodigious immensity where god brings forth his worlds, and looking behind, knowing not in what part of the infinite was the little grain of dust called the earth, we would be compelled to unite our voices with that universal nature and exclaim--'almighty god, how senseless were we to believe that there was nothing beyond the earth and that our abode alone possessed the privilege of reflecting thy greatness and honor.'" the most distinguished astronomers and scientists of a past time, as well as many of the most famous divines, supported the contention of world life beyond the earth. among these may be mentioned kepler and tycho, giordano bruno and cardinal cusa, sir william and sir john herschel, dr. bentley and dr. chalmers, and even newton himself subscribed in great measure to the belief that the planets and stars are inhabited by intelligent beings. those who deny the possibility of other worlds being inhabited, endeavor to show that our position in the universe is unique, that our solar system is quite different from all others, and, to crown the argument, they assert that our little world has just the right amount of water, air, and gravitational force to enable it to be the abode of intelligent life, whereas elsewhere, such conditions do not prevail, and that on no other sphere can such physical habitudes be found as will enable life to originate or to exist. it can be easily shown that such reasoning is based on untenable foundations. other worlds have to go through processes of evolution, and there can be no doubt that many are in a state similar to our own. it required hundreds of thousands, perhaps hundreds of millions of years, before this earth was fit to sustain human life. the same transitions which took place on earth are taking place in other planets of our system, and other systems, and it is but reasonable to assume that in other systems there are much older worlds than the earth, and that these have arrived at a more developed state of existence, and therefore have a life much higher than our own. as far as physical conditions are concerned, there are suns similar to our own, as revealed by the spectroscope, and which have the same eruptive energy. astronomical science has incontrovertibly demonstrated, and evidence is continually increasing to show that dark, opaque worlds like ours exist and revolve around their primaries. why should not these worlds be inhabited by a race equal or even superior in intelligence to ourselves, according to their place in the cosmos of creation? leaving out of the question the outlying worlds of space, let us come to a consideration of the nearest celestial neighbor we have in our own system, the planet mars: is there rational life on mars and if so can we communicate with the inhabitants? though little more than half the earth's size, mars has a significance in the public eye which places it first in importance among the planets. it is our nearest neighbor on the outer side of the earth's path around the sun and, viewed through a telescope of good magnifying power, shows surface markings, suggestive of continents, mountains, valleys, oceans, seas and rivers, and all the varying phenomena which the mind associates with a world like unto our own. indeed, it possesses so many features in common with the earth, that it is impossible to resist the conception of its being inhabitated. this, however, is not tantamount to saying that if there is a race of beings on mars they are the same as we on earth. by no means. whatever atmosphere exists on mars must be much thinner than ours and far too rare to sustain the life of a people with our limited lung capacity. a race with immense chests could live under such conditions, and folk with gills like fish could pass a comfortable existence in the rarefied air. besides the tenuity of the atmosphere, there are other conditions which would cause life to be much different on mars. attraction and gravitation are altogether different. the force with which a substance is attracted to the surface of mars is only a little more than one-third as strong as on the earth. for instance one hundred pounds on earth would weigh only about thirty-eight pounds on mars. a man who could jump five feet here could clear fifteen feet on mars. paradoxical as it may seem, the smaller a planet, in comparison with ours and consequently the less the pull of gravity at its centre, the greater is the probability that its inhabitants, if any, are giants when compared with us. professor lowell has pointed out that to place the martians (if there are such beings) under the same conditions as those in which we exist, the average inhabitant must be considered to be three times as large and three times as heavy as the average human being; and the strength of the martians must exceed ours to even a greater extent than the bulk and weight; for their muscles would be twenty-seven times more effective. in fact, one martian could do the work of fifty or sixty men. it is idle, however, to speculate as to what the forms of life are like on mars, for if there are any such forms our ideas and conceptions of them must be imaginary, as we cannot see them on mars we do not know. there is yet no possibility of seeing anything on the planet less than thirty miles across, and even a city of that size, viewed through the most powerful telescope, would only be visible as a minute speck. great as is the perfection to which our optical instruments have been brought, they have revealed nothing on the planet save the so-called canals, to indicate the presence of sentient rational beings. the canals discovered by schiaparelli of the milan observatory in are so regular, outlined with such remarkable geometrical precision, that it is claimed they must be artificial and the work of a high order of intelligence. "the evidence of such work," says professor lowell, "points to a highly intelligent mind behind it." can this intelligence in any way reach us, or can we express ourselves to it? can the chasm of space which lies between the earth and mars be bridged--a chasm which, at the shortest, is more than thirty-five million miles across or one hundred and fifty times greater than the distance between the earth and the moon? can the inhabitants of the earth and mars exchange signals? to answer the question, let us institute some comparisons. suppose the fabled "man in the moon" were a real personage, we would require a telescope times more powerful than the finest instrument we now have to see him, for the space penetrating power of the best telescope is not more than miles and the moon is , miles distant. an object to be visible on the moon would require to be as large as the metropolitan insurance building in new york, which is over feet high. to see, therefore, an object on mars by means of the telescope the object would need to have dimensions one hundred and fifty times as great as the object on the moon; in other words, before we could see a building on mars, it would have to be one hundred and fifty times the size of the metropolitan building. even if there are inhabitants there, it is not likely they have such large buildings. assuming that there _are_ martians, and that they are desirous of communicating with the earth by waving a flag, such a flag in order to be seen through the most powerful telescopes and when mars is nearest, would have to be miles long and miles wide and be flung from a flagpole miles high. the consideration of such a signal only belongs to the domain of the imagination. as an illustration, it should conclusively settle the question of the possibility or rather impossibility of signalling between the two planets. let us suppose that the signalling power of wireless telegraphy had been advanced to such perfection that it was possible to transmit a signal across a distance of , miles, equal to the diameter of the earth, or - the distance to the moon. now, in order to be appreciable at the moon it would require the intensity of the , mile ether waves to be raised not merely times, but times , for to use the ordinary expression, the intensity of an effect spreading in all directions like the ether waves, decreases inversely as the square of the distance. if the whole earth were brought within the domain of wireless telegraphy, the system would still have to be improved times as much again before the moon could be brought within the sphere of its influence. a wireless telegraphic signal, transmitted across a distance equal to the diameter of the earth, would be reduced to a mere sixteen-millionth part if it had to travel over the distance to mars; in other words, if wireless telegraphy attained the utmost excellence now hoped for it--that is, of being able to girdle the earth--it would have to be increased a thousandfold and then a thousandfold again, and finally multiplied by , before an appreciable _signal_ could be transmitted to mars. this seems like drawing the long bow, but it is a scientific truth. there is no doubt that ether waves can and do traverse the distance between the earth and mars, for the fact that sunlight reaches mars and is reflected back to us proves this; but the source of waves adequate to accomplish such a feat must be on such a scale as to be hopelessly beyond the power of man to initiate or control. electrical signalling to mars is much more out of the question than wireless. even though electrical phenomena produced in any one place were sufficiently intense to be appreciable by suitable instruments all over the earth, that intensity would have to be enhanced another sixteen million-fold before they would be appreciable on the planet mars. it is absolutely hopeless to try to span the bridge that lies between us and mars by any methods known to present day science. yet men styling themselves scientists say it can be done and will be done. this is a prophecy, however, which must lie in the future. as has been pointed out, we have as yet but scratched the outer surface in the fields of knowledge. what visions may not be opened to the eyes of men, as they go down deeper and deeper into the soil. secrets will be exhumed undreamt of now, mysteries will be laid bare to the light of day, and perhaps the psychic riddle of life itself may be solved. then indeed, mars may come to be looked on as a next-door neighbor, with whose life and actions we are as well acquainted as with our own. the thirty-five million miles that separate him from us may be regarded as a mere step in space and the most distant planets of our system as but a little journey afield. distant uranus may be looked upon as no farther away than is, say, australia from america at the present time. it is vain, however, to indulge in these premises. the veil of mystery still hangs between us and suns and stars and systems. one fact lies before us of which there is no uncertainty--_we die_ and pass away from our present state into some other. we are not annihilated into nothingness. suns and worlds also die, after performing their allotted revolutions in the cycle of the universe. suns glow for a time, and planets bear their fruitage of plants and animals and men, then turn for aeons into a dreary, icy listlessness and finally crumble to dust, their atoms joining other worlds in the indestructibility of matter. after all, there really is no death, simply change--change from one state to another. when we say we die, we simply mean that we change our state. there is a life beyond the grave. as longfellow beautifully expresses it: "life is real, life is earnest, and the grave is not its goal, dust thou art, to dust returnest, was not spoken of the soul." but whither do we go when we pass on? where is the soul when it leaves the earthly tenement called the body? we, christians, in the light of revelation and of faith, believe in a heaven for the good; but it is not a material place, only a state of being. where and under what conditions is that state? this leads us to the consideration of another question which is engrossing the minds of many thinkers and reasoners of the present day. can we communicate with the spirit world? despite the tenets and beliefs and experiences of learned and sincere investigators, we are constrained, thus far, to answer in the negative. yet, though we cannot communicate with it, we know there is a spirit world; the inner consciousness of our being apprises us of that fact, we know our loved ones who have passed on are not dead but gone before, just a little space, and that soon we shall follow them into a higher existence. as talmage said, the tombstone is not the terminus, but the starting post, the door to the higher life, the entrance to the state of endless labor, grand possibilities, and eternal progression. the end description of a warship.--the deutschland.--torpedo boats.-- franklin and oil on the waves.--air ships.--count zeppelin's boat.--other plans of air navigation.--the problems to be solved. chapter xxx. illuminating gas. what artificial light has done for man.--its condition before the nineteenth century.--experiments of dr clayton, hon. r. boyle, dr. hales, bishop watson, lord dundonald, dr. rickel, and william murdock in eighteenth century.-- , le bon makes gas, proposes to light paris.-- , english periodicals discuss the subject.-- , melville of newport, u. s., lights house and street.-- , first lighthouse lit by gas.--the beaver tail on atlantic coast.--parliament in , london streets lit in , paris, , american cities - .-- gas processes.--chemistry.--priestley and dalton.--berthollet, graham, and others.--clegg of england and his gas machines.-- art revolutionised by invention of water gas, - .-- donovan, lowe, white.--t. s. c. lowe, anthracite process, .--competition with electricity.--siemens' regenerative system.--the generators, carburetors, retorts, mixers, purifiers, meters, scrubbers, holders, condensers, governors, indicators, registers, chargers, pressure regulators, etc.-- portable gas apparatus.--argand burners.--acetylene gas.-- calcium carbide.--magnesium.--bunsen burner and welsbach mantle. chapter xxxi. pottery, plastics, porcelains, stoneware, glass, rubber, celluloid. brickmaking from the earliest ages to nineteenth century.-- pottery, its origin unknown.--its evolution.--women the first inventors in ceramic and textile arts.--progress of man traced in pottery.--review of pottery from time of homer to the wedgwood ware of eighteenth century.--labour-saving devices of nineteenth.--operations in brickmaking and machinery.--the celebrated pug mill, the pioneer.--moulding and pressing.-- drying and burning.--the slow growth of methods.--useful contrivances never wholly supplanted.--modern heat distributors.--hoffman's kilns.--wedgwood's pottery in eighteenth.--siemens' regenerators in nineteenth, and other kilns.--susan frackelton's.--the filter press.--chinese and french porcelains--battam's imitations of marbles and plaster moulds.--faience.--porcelain moulding and colours.--atomisers and backgrounds.--rookwood pottery and miss fry.--enamelled ware.--artificial stone.--modern cements.--glass the sister of pottery.--the inventors of blowing, cutting, trimming by shears and diamond cutting, ancient and unknown.--glass windows and mirrors unknown to the poor prior to eighteenth century.-- the nineteenth century the scientific age of glass.--its commercial development.--crystal palace of .--description of modern discoveries.--materials.--colours and faraday's discovery in .--gaffield's extensive experiments in producing colours.--the german glass works at jena of abbe and schott.--methods followed for different varieties.-- machines for different purposes.--cut glass and other beautiful ware.--cameo cutting.--porcelain electroplating.-- rubber, history of, in seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.--sketch of goodyear.--his inventions and present state of the art.--glass wool of volcano of kilauea and krupp's blast furnaces. inventions in the century. chapter i. introductory--inventions and discoveries--their development. in treating of the subject of inventions it is proper to distinguish them from their scientific kindred--discoveries. the history of inventions is the history of new and useful contrivances made by man for practical purposes. the history of scientific discoveries is the record of new things found in nature, its laws, forces, or materials, and brought to light, as they exist, either singly, or in relation, or in combination. thus galileo invented the telescope, and newton discovered the law of gravitation. the practical use of the invention when turned to the heavenly bodies served to confirm the truth of the discovery. discovery and invention may be, and often are, united as the soul is to the body. the union of the two produces one or more inventions. thus the invented electro-telegraph consists of the combination of discoveries of certain laws of electricity with an apparatus, by which signs are communicated to distances by electrical influence. inventions and discoveries do not precede or follow each other in order. the instrument may be made before the laws which govern its operation are discovered. the discovery may long precede its adaptation in physical form, and both the discovery and adaptation may occur together. among the great _inventions_ of the past are alphabetical writing, arabic notation, the mariner's compass, the telescope, the printing-press, and the steam-engine. among the great _discoveries_ of the past are the attraction of gravitation, the laws of planetary motion, the circulation of the blood, and velocity of light. among the great inventions of the nineteenth century are the spectroscope, the electric telegraph, the telephone, the phonograph, the railways, and the steam-ships. among the great discoveries of this century are the correlation and conservation of forces, anæsthetics, laws of electrical energy, the germ theory of disease, the molecular theory of gases, the periodic law of mendeljeff in chemistry, antiseptic surgery, and the vortex theory of matter. this short enumeration will serve to indicate the different roads along which inventions and the discoveries of science progress. by many it is thought that the inventions and discoveries of the nineteenth century exceed in number and importance all the achievements of the kind in all the ages of the past. so marvellous have been these developments of this century that, not content with sober definitions, men have defined _invent_, even when speaking only of mechanical productions, as "creating what had not before existed;" and this period has been described as an age of new creations. the far-off cry of the royal preacher, "there is no new thing under the sun: is there anything whereof it may be said, see this is new, it hath been already of old time which was before us," is regarded as a cry of satiety and despair, finding no responsive echo in the array of inventions of this bright age. but in one sense the preacher's words are ever profoundly true. the forces and materials of nature always exist, awaiting man's discovery, and at best he can but vary their relations, re-direct their course, or change their forms. in a still narrower sense the truth of the preacher's declaration is apparent:-- in an address before the anthropological society of washington in , the late prof. f. a. seely, of the united states patent office, set forth that it was one of the established laws of invention, that, "every human invention has sprung from some prior invention, or from some prior known expedient." inventions, he said, do not, like their protectress, pallas athene, spring forth full grown from the heads of their authors; that both as to modern inventions and as to those whose history is unrecorded, each exhibits in itself the evidence of a similar sub-structure; and that, "in the process of elimination we go back and back and find no resting place till we reach the rude set of expedients, the original endowment of men and brutes alike." inventions, then, are not creations, but the evolution of man-made contrivances. it may be remarked, however, as was once said by william h. seward: "the exercise of the inventive faculty is the nearest akin to that of the creator of any faculty possessed by the human mind; for while it does not create in the same sense that the creator did, yet it is the nearest approach to it of anything known to man." there is no history, rock-record, or other evidence of his existence as man, which discloses a period when he was not an inventor. invention is that divine spark which drove, and still drives him to the production of means to meet his wants, while it illuminates his way. from that inward spark must have soon followed the invention of that outer fire to warm and cheer him, and to melt and mould the earth to his desires. formed for society, the necessity of communication with his fellows developed the power of speech. speech developed written characters and alphabets. common communication developed concert of action, and from concert of action sprung the arts of society. but the evolution of invention has not been uniform. long periods of slowness and stagnation have alternated with shorter or longer periods of prolific growth, and these with seasons of slumber and repression. thus, prof. langley has said that man was thousands of years, and possibly millions, in evolving a cutting edge by rubbing one stone on another; but only a few thousand years to next develop bronze tools, and a still shorter period tools of iron. we cannot say how long the period was from the age of iron tools to the building of the pyramids, but we know that before those stupendous structures arose, the six elementary mechanical powers, the lever, the wheel, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge and the screw, were invented. and without those powers, what mechanical tool or machine has since been developed? the age of inventions in the times of the ancients rested mainly upon simple applications of these mechanical powers. the middle ages slumbered, but on the coming of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the inventions of the ancients were revived, new ones added, and their growth and development extended with ever-increasing speed to the present time. the inventions of the nineteenth century, wonderful and innumerable as they are, and marvellous in results produced, are but the fruit of the seed sown in the past, and the blossom of the buds grown upon the stalks of former generations. the early crude stone hatchet has become the keen finished metal implement of to-day, and the latter involves in itself the culmination of a long series of processes for converting the rough ore into the hard and glistening steel. the crooked and pointed stick with which the egyptian turned the sands of the nile has slowly grown to be the finished plough that is now driven through the sod by steam. the steam-operated toys of hero of alexandria were revived in principle and incorporated in the engines of papin and the marquis of worcester in the seventeenth century; and the better engines of savery, newcomen, and more especially of james watt in the eighteenth century, left the improvements in steam-engines of the nineteenth century--great as they are--inventions only in matter of detail. it has been said that electrical science began with the labours of dr. gilbert, published in . these, with the electrical discoveries and inventions of gray, franklin, galvani, and others in the next century, terminating with the invention of his battery by volta in , constituted the framework on which was built that world of flashing light and earth-circling messages in which we now live. the study of inventions in any one or all eras cannot proceed intelligently unless account is taken not only of their mode of construction, and of their evolution one from another, but of the evolution of distinct arts, their relation, their interdependence in growth, and their mutual progress. the principles adopted by the ancients in weaving and spinning by hand are those still in force; but so great was the advance of inventions from hand-operated mechanisms to machines in these and other arts, and especially in steam, in the last half of the eighteenth century, that it has been claimed that the age of machine production or invention then for the first time really began. when the humble lift became the completed elevator of to-day, the "sky-scraper" buildings appeared; but these buildings waited upon the invention of their steel skeletons, and the steel was the child of the bessemer process. the harp with which david stirred the dead soul of saul was the prototype of the sweet clavichord, the romantic virginal, the tinkling harpsichord, and the grand piano. the thrumming of the chords by the fingers was succeeded by the striking keys; and the more perfect rendition of tones awaited the application of new discoveries in the realm of musical sounds. the keys and the levers in the art of musical instruments were transferred to the art of printing, and are found to-day striking a more homely music on the type-writer and on those other and more wonderful printing instruments that mould, and set, and distribute the type. but these results of later days did not reach their perfected operations and forms until many other arts had been discovered and developed, by which to treat and improve the wood, and the wire, and all the other materials of which those early instruments were composed, and by which the underlying principles of their operations became known. admitting that man possesses the faculty of invention, what are the motives that induce its exercise? why so prolific in inventions now? and will they continue to increase in number and importance, or decrease? an interesting treatise of bulky dimensions might be written in answer to these queries, and the answers might not then be wholly satisfactory. space permits the submission of but a few observations and suggestions on these points:---- _necessity_ is still the mother of inventions, but not of all of them. the pressing needs of man in fighting nakedness and hunger, wild beasts and storms, may have driven him to the production of most of his early contrivances; but as time went on and his wants of every kind multiplied, other factors than mere necessity entered into the problem, and now it is required to account for the multiplicity of inventions under the general head of _wants_. to-day it is the want of the luxuries, as well as of the necessities of life, the want of riches, distinction, power, and place, the wants of philanthropy and the wants of selfishness, and that restless, inherent, unsatisfied, indescribable want which is ever pushing man onward on the road of progress, that must be regarded as the springs of invention. _accident_ is thought to be the fruitful source of great inventions. it is a factor that cannot be ignored. but accidents are only occasional helps, rarely occurring,--flashes of light suddenly revealing the end of the path along which the inventor has been painfully toiling, and unnoticed except by him alone. they are sudden discoveries which for the most part simply shorten his journey. the rare complete contrivance revealed by accident is not an invention at all, but a discovery. the greatest incentive in modern times to the production of inventions is governmental protection. when governments began to recognize the right of property in inventions, and to devise and enforce means by which their author should hold and enjoy the same, as he holds his land, his house, or his horse, then inventions sprung forth as from a great unsealed fountain. this principle first found recognition in england in , when parliament, stung by the abuse of the royal prerogative in the grant of exclusive personal privileges that served to crush the growth of inventions and not to multiply them, by its celebrated statute of monopolies, abolished all such privileges, but excepted from its provisions the grant of patents "for the sole working or making of any manner of new manufactures within this realm to the true and first inventor" thereof. this statute had little force, however, in encouraging and protecting inventors until the next century, and until after the great inventions of arkwright in spinning and james watt in steam-engines had been invaded, and the attention of the courts called more seriously thereby to the property rights of inventors, and to the necessity of a liberal exposition of the law and its proper enforcement. then followed in the incorporation of that famous provision in the constitution of the united states, declaring that congress shall have the power "to promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries." in followed the law of the national assembly of france for the protection of new inventions, setting forth in the preamble, among other things, "that not to regard an industrial invention as the property of its author would be to attack the essential rights of man." these fundamental principles have since been adopted and incorporated in their laws by all the nations of the earth. inventions in their nature being for the good of all men and for all time, it has been deemed wise by all nations in their legislation not to permit the inventor to lock up his property in secret, or confine it to his own use; and hence the universal practice is to enact laws giving him, his heirs, and assigns, exclusive ownership to this species of his property for a limited time only, adjudged sufficient to reward him for his efforts in its production, and to encourage others in like productions; while he, in consideration for this protection, is to fully make known his invention, so that the public may be enabled to freely make and use it after its exclusive ownership shall have expired. in addition to the motives and incentives mentioned inducing this modern mighty outflow of inventions, regard must be had to the conditions of personal, political and intellectual freedom, and of education. there is no class of inventors where the mass of men are slaves; and when dense ignorance abounds, invention sleeps. in the days of the greatest intellectual freedom of greece, archimedes, euclid, and hero, its great inventors, flourished; but when its political _status_ had reduced the mass of citizens to slaves, when the work of the artisan and the inventor was not appreciated beyond the gift of an occasional crown of laurel, when manual labour and the labourer were scorned, inventions were not born, or, if born, found no nourishment to prolong their lives. in rome, the labourer found little respect beyond the beasts of burden whose burdens he shared, and the inventor found no provision of fostering care or protection in her mighty jurisprudence. the middle ages carefully repressed the minds of men, and hid away in dark recesses the instruments of learning. when men at length awoke to claim their birthright of freedom, they invented the printing-press and rediscovered gunpowder, with which to destroy the tyranny of both priests and kings. then arose the modern inventor, and with him came the freedom and the arts of civilisation which we now enjoy. what the exercise of free and protected invention has brought to this century is thus summarised by macaulay: "it has lengthened life; it has mitigated pain; has extinguished diseases; has increased the fertility of the soil; given new security to the mariner; furnished new arms to the warrior; spanned great rivers and estuaries with bridges of form unknown to our fathers; it has guided the thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth; it has lighted up the night with splendour of the day; it has extended the range of human vision; it has multiplied the power of the human muscles; it has accelerated motion; it has annihilated distance; it has facilitated intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, all despatch of business; it has enabled man to descend to the depths of the sea, to soar into the air, to penetrate securely into the noxious recesses of the earth; to traverse the land in carts which whirl along without horses; to cross the ocean in ships which run many knots an hour against the wind. those are but a part of its fruits, and of its first fruits, for it is a philosophy which never rests, which is never perfect. its law is progress. a point which yesterday was invisible is its goal to-day, and will be its starting point to-morrow." the onward flow of inventions may be interrupted, if not materially stayed, by the cessation of some of the causes and incentives which now give them life. when comfort for all and rest for all, and a suitable division of labour, and an equal distribution of its fruits are reached, in that state of society which is pictured in the visions of the social philosopher, or as fast as such conditions are reached, so soon will cease the pricking of those spurs of invention,--individual rewards, the glorious strife of competition, the harrowing necessities, and the ambitions for place and power. if all are to co-operate and share alike, what need of exclusive protection and fierce and individual struggle? why not sit down now and break the loaf and share it, and pour the wine, and enjoy things as they are, without a thought for the morrow? the same results as to inventions may be reached in different but less pleasant ways: when all the industries are absorbed by huge combinations of capital the strife of competition among individuals, and the making of individual inventions to meet such competition, will greatly disappear. or, the same results may be effected by stringent laws of labour organisations, in restricting or repressing all individual independent effort, prescribing what shall be done or what shall not be done along certain lines of manufacture or employment. so that the progress of future inventions depends on the outcome of the great economic, industrial, and social battles which are now looming on the pathway of the future. but what the inventions of the nineteenth century were and what they have done for humanity, is a chapter that must be read by all those now living or to come who wish to learn the history of their race. it is a story which gathers up all the threads of previous centuries and weaves them into a fabric which must be used in all the coming ages in the attainment of their comforts, their adornments, and their civilisations. to enumerate all the inventions of the century would be like calling up a vast army of men and proclaiming the name of each. the best that can be done is to divide the wide field into chapters, and in these chapters give as best one may an idea of the leading inventions that have produced the greatest industries of the world. chapter ii. agriculture and its implements. the egyptians were the earliest and greatest agriculturists, and from them the art was learned by the greeks. greece in the days of her glory greatly improved the art, and some of her ablest men wrote valuable treatises on its different topics. its farmers thoroughly ploughed and fertilised the soil, used various implements for its cultivation, paid great attention to the raising of fruits,--the apple, pear, cherry, plum, quince, peach, lemon, fig and many other varieties suitable to their climate, and improved the breeds of cattle, horse and sheep. when, however, social pride and luxurious city life became the dominant passions, agriculture was left to menials, and the art gradually faded with the state. rome in her best days placed farming in high regard. her best writers wrote voluminously on agricultural subjects, a tract of land was allotted to every citizen, which was carefully cultivated, and these citizen farmers were her worthiest and most honoured sons. the condition and needs of the soil were studied, its strength replenished by careful fertilisation, and it was worked with care. there were ploughs which were made heavy or light as the different soils required, and there were a variety of farm implements, such as spades, hoes, harrows and rakes. grains, such as wheat, barley, rye and oats, were raised, a variety of fruits and vegetables, and great attention paid to the breeding of stock. cato and varro, virgil and columella, pliny and palladius delighted to instruct the farmer and praise his occupation. but as the roman empire grew, its armies absorbed its intelligent farmers, the tilling of the soil was left to the menial and the slave, and the empire and agriculture declined together. then came the hordes of northern barbarians pouring in waves over the southern countries and burying from sight their arts and civilisation. the gloom of the middle ages then closed down upon the european world. whatever good may have been accomplished in other directions by the crusades, agriculture reached its lowest ebb, save in those instances where the culture of the soil received attention from monastic institutions. the sixteenth century has been fixed upon as the time when europe awoke from its long slumber. then it was after the invention of the printing press had become well established that publications on agriculture began to appear. the _boke of husbandrie_, in , by sir anthony fitzherbert; thomas tusser's _five hundred points of good husbandry_; barnaby googe's _the whole art of husbandry_; _the jewel house of art and nature_, by sir hugh platt; the _english improver_ of walter blithe, and the writings of sir richard weston on the husbandry of brabant and flanders, were the principal torches by which the light on this subject was handed down through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. further awakening was had in the eighteenth century, the chief part of which was given by jethro tull, an english agriculturist, who lived, and wrote, and laboured in the cause between and . tull's leading idea was the thorough pulverisation of the soil, his doctrines being that plants derived their nourishment from minute particles of soil, hence the need of its pulverisation. he invented and introduced a horse hoe, a grain drill, and a threshing machine. next appeared arthur young, of england, born in , whose life was extended into the th century, and to whom the world was greatly indebted for the spread of agricultural knowledge. he devoted frequent and long journeys to obtaining information on agricultural subjects, and his writings attracted the attention and assistance of the learned everywhere. his chief work was the making known widely of the beneficial effects of ammonia and ammoniacal compounds on vegetation. many other useful branches of the subject, clearly treated by him, are found in his _annals of agriculture_. it was this same arthur young with whom washington corresponded from his quiet retreat at mount vernon. after the close of the war of independence in and before the adoption of the constitution in and his elevation to the presidency in that year, washington devoted very much of his time to the cultivation of his large estate in virginia. he took great interest in every improvement in agriculture and its implements. he invented a plough and a rotary seed drill, improved his harrows and mills, and made many inquiries relative to the efficacy of ploughs and threshing machines made in england and other parts of europe. it was during this period that he opened an interesting correspondence with young on improvements in agriculture, which was carried on even while he was president, and he availed himself of the proffer of young's services to fill an order for seeds and two ploughs from a london merchant. he also wrote to robert cary & co., merchants in london, concerning an engine he had heard of as being constructed in switzerland, for pulling up trees and their stumps by the roots, and ordered one to be sent him if the machine were efficient. jefferson, washington's great contemporaneous statesman and virginia planter, and to whom has been ascribed the chief glory of the american patent system, himself also an inventor, enriched his country by the full scientific knowledge he had gained from all europe of agricultural pursuits and improvements. the progress of the art, in a fundamental sense, that is in a knowledge of the constituents, properties, and needs of the soil, commenced with the investigations of sir humphry davy at the close of the th century, resulting in his celebrated lectures before the board of agriculture from to , and his practical experiments in the growth of plants and the nature of fertilisers. agricultural societies and boards were a characteristic product of the eighteenth century in europe and america. but this birth, or revival of agricultural studies, the enthusiastic interest taken therein by its great and learned men, and all its valuable publications and discoveries, bore comparatively little fruit in that century. the ignorance and prejudice of the great mass of farmers led to a determined, and in many instances violent resistance to the introduction of labour-saving machinery and the practical application of what they called "book-farming." a fear of driving people out of employment led them to make war upon new agricultural machines and their inventors, as they had upon weaving and spinning inventions. this war was more marked in england than elsewhere, because there more of the new machines were first introduced, and the number of labourers in those fields was the greatest. in america the ignorance took the milder shape of contempt and prejudice. farmers refused, for instance, to use cast-iron ploughs as it was feared they would poison the soil. so slow was the invention and introduction of new devices, that if ruth had revisited the earth at the beginning of the nineteenth century, she might have seen again in the fields of the husbandmen everywhere the sickle of the reapers behind whom she gleaned in the fields of boaz, heard again the beating on the threshing floor, and felt the old familiar rush of the winnowing wind. cincinnatus returning then would have recognised the plough in common use as about the same in form as that which he once abandoned on his farm beyond the tiber. but with the spread of publications, the extension of learning, the protection now at last obtained and enforced for inventions, and with the foundations laid and the guide-posts erected in nearly every art and science by previous discoverers, inventors and writers, the century was now ready to start on that career of inventions which has rendered it so glorious. as the turning over and loosening of the sod and the soil for the reception of seed was, and still is the first step in the art of agriculture, the plough is the first implement to be considered in this review. a plough possesses five essential features,--a frame or beam to which the horses are attached and which is provided with handles by which the operator guides the plough, a share to sever the bottom of a slice of land--the furrow--from the land beneath, a mould board following the share to turn the furrow over to one side, and a landside, the side opposite the mould board and which presses against the unploughed ground and steadies the plough. to these have been commonly added a device called the coulter, which is a knife or sharp disk fastened to the frame in advance of the share and adapted to cut the sod or soil so that the furrow may be more easily turned, an adjustable gauge wheel secured to the beam in advance of the coulter, and which runs upon the surface of the soil to determine by the distance between the perimeter of the wheel at the bottom and the bottom of the plough share the depth of the furrow, and a clevis, which is an adjustable metal strap attached to the end of the beam to which the draught is secured, and by which the pitch of the beam and the depth and width of the furrow are regulated. the general features, the beam, handles, and share, have existed in ploughs from the earliest ages in history. a plough with a metal share was referred to by the prophecy of isaiah seven centuries before christ, "they shall beat their swords into plough-shares;" and such a plough with the coulter and gauge wheel added is found in the caylus collection of greek antiquities. the inventions of centuries in ploughs have proceeded along the lines of the elements above enumerated. the leading features of the modern plough with a share and mould board constructed to run in a certain track and turn its furrows one over against the other, appear to have originated in holland in the th century, and from there were made known to england. james small of scotland wrote of and made ploughs having a cast-iron mould board and cast and wrought iron shares in - . in america, about the same time, thos. jefferson studied and wrote upon the proper shape to be given to the mould board. charles newbold in took out the first patent in the united states for a plough--all parts cast in one piece of solid iron except the beam and handles. it is a favourite idea with some writers and with more talkers, that when the necessity really arises for an invention the natural inventive genius of man will at once supply it. nothing was more needed and sought after for thirty centuries among tillers of the soil than a good plough, and what finally supplied it was not necessity alone, but improved brains. long were the continued efforts, stimulated no doubt in part by necessity, but stimulated also by other motives, to which allusion has already been made, and among which are the love of progress, the hope of gain, and legislative protection in the possession of inventive property. the best plans of writers and inventors of the eighteenth century were not fully developed until the nineteenth, and it can be safely said that within the last one hundred years a better plough has been produced than in all of the thousands of years before. the defects which the nineteenth century's improvements in ploughs were designed to remedy can best be understood by first realising what was the condition of ploughs in common use when the century opened. different parts of the plough, such as the share and coulter, were constructed of iron, but the general practice among farmers was to make the beam and frame, handles and mould board of strong and heavy timber. the beam was straight, long, and heavy, and that and the mould generally hewed from a tree. the mould board on both sides to prevent its wearing out too rapidly was covered with more or less thick plates of iron. the handles were made from crooked branches of trees. "the beam," it is said, "was set at any pitch that fancy might dictate, with the handles fastened on almost at right angles with it, thus leaving the ploughman little control over his implement which did its work in a very slow and imperfect manner." it was some such plough that lord kames complained about in the _gentleman farmer_ in , as being used in scotland--two horses and two oxen were necessary to pull it, "the ridges in the fields were high and broad, in fact enormous masses of accumulated earth, that could not admit of cross ploughing or cultivation; shallow ploughing universal; ribbing, by which half the land was left untilled, a general practice over the greater part of scotland; a continual struggle between the corn and weeds for superiority." as late as an american writer was making the same complaint. "your furrows," he said, "stand up like the ribs of a lean horse in the month of march. a lazy ploughman may sit on the beam and count every bout of his day's work; besides the greatest objection to all these ploughs is that they do not perform the work well and the expense is enormous for blacksmith work." it was complained by another that it took eight or ten oxen to draw it, a man to ride upon the beam to keep it on the ground, and a man followed the plough with a heavy iron hoe to dig up the "baulks." the improvements made in the plough during the century have had for their object to lessen the great friction between the wide, heavy, ill-formed share and mould board, and the ground, which has been accomplished by giving to the share a sharp clean tapering form, and to the mould board a shape best calculated to turn the furrow slice; to improve the line of draught so that the pull of the team may be most advantageously employed, which has been effected after long trials, study and experiment in the arrangement of beam, clevis and draft rod, setting the coulter at a proper angle and giving the landside a plane and parallel surface; to increase the wear and lessen the weight of the parts, which has been accomplished by ingenious processes in treating the metal of which the parts are composed, and lessening the number of parts; to render the plough easily repairable by casting the parts in sets and numbering them, by which any part may be replaced by the manufacturer without resort to the blacksmith. in short there is no part of the plough but what has received the most careful attention of the inventor. this has been evidenced by the fact that in the united states alone nearly eleven thousand patents on ploughs were issued during the nineteenth century. when it is considered that all the applications for these patents were examined as to their novelty, before the grant of the patent, the enormous amount of study and invention expended on this article can be appreciated. among the century's improvements in this line is the use of disks in place of the old shovel blades to penetrate the earth and revolve in contact therewith. cutting disks are harnessed to steam motors and are adapted to break up at one operation a wide strip of ground. the long-studied problem of employing a gang of ploughs to plough back and forth and successfully operated by steam has been solved, and electricity is now being introduced as a motor in place of steam. thus millions of broad acres which never would have been otherwise turned are now cultivated. the tired muscle-strained ploughman who homeward plodded his weary way at night may now comfortably ride at his ease upon the plough, while at the same time the beasts that pull it have a lighter load than ever before. next to the plough among the implements for breaking, clearing and otherwise preparing the soil for the reception of seed, comes the _harrow_. from time immemorial it has been customary to arm some sort of a frame with wooden or iron spikes to scratch the earth after the ploughing. but this century has greatly improved the old constructions. harrows are now found everywhere made in sections to give flexibility to the frame; collected in gangs to increase the extent of operation; made with disks instead of spikes, with which to cut the roots of weeds and separate the soil, instead of merely scratching them. a still later invention, curved spring teeth, has been found far superior to spikes or disks in throwing up, separating and pulverising the soil. a harrow comprising two ranks of oppositely curved trailing teeth is especially popular in some countries. these three distinct classes of harrows, the disk type, the curved spring tooth type, and gangs of sections of concavo-convex disks, particularly distinguish this class of implements from the old forms of previous ages. chapter iii. agricultural implements. it is wonderful for how many generations men were contented to throw grain into the air as the parable relates: "behold, a sower went forth to sow, and when he sowed some seeds fell by the way side, and the fowls came and devoured them up: some fell on stony places where they had not much earth, and forthwith they sprung up, because they had no deepness of earth; and when the sun was up they were scorched; and because they had no root they withered away. and some fell among thorns and the thorns sprung up and choked them. but others fell into good ground and brought forth fruit, some a hundredfold, some sixtyfold, and some thirtyfold." here are indicated the defects in depositing the seed that only the inventions of the century have fully corrected. the equal distribution of the seed and not its wide scattering, its sowing in regular drills or planting at intervals, at certain and uniform depths, the adaptation of devices to meet the variations in the land to be planted, and in short the substitution of quick, certain, positive mechanisms for the slow, uncertain, variable hand of man. not only has the increase an hundredfold been obtained, but with the machines of to-day the sowing and planting of a hundredfold more land has been made possible, the employment of armies of men where idleness would have reigned, and the feeding of millions of people among whom hunger would otherwise have prevailed. not only did this machinery not exist at the beginning of the century, but the agricultural machines and devices in this line of the character existing fifty years ago are now discarded as useless and worthless. it is true that, as in the case of the ploughs, attempts had been made through the centuries to invent and improve seeding implements. the assyrians years b. c. had in use a rude plough in which behind the sharp wooden plough point was fixed a bowl-shaped hopper through which seed was dropped into the furrow, and was covered by the falling back of the furrow upon it. the chinese, probably before that time, had a wheelbarrow arrangement with a seed hopper and separate seed spouts. in india a drilling hopper had been attached to a plough. italy claims the honour among european nations of first introducing a machine for sowing grain. it was invented about the beginning of the seventeenth century and is described by zanon in his _work on agriculture_ printed at venice in . it was a machine mounted on two wheels, that had a seed box in the bottom of which was a series of holes opening into a corresponding number of metal tubes or funnels. at their front these tubes at their lower ends were sharpened to make small furrows into which the seed dropped. similar single machines were in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries devised in austria and england. the one in austria was invented by a spaniard, one don joseph de lescatello, tested in luxembourg in . the inventor was rewarded by the emperor, recommended to the king of spain, and in and his machines were made and sold at madrid. the knowledge of this spaniard's invention was made known in england in by the earl of sandwich and john evelyn. jethro tull in england shortly after invented and introduced a combined system of drilling, ploughing and cultivating. he sowed different seeds from the same machine, and arranged that they might be covered at different depths. tull's machines were much improved by james cooke, a clergyman of lancashire, england; and also in the last decade of the eighteenth century by baldwin and wells of norfolk, england. washington and others in america had also commenced to invent and experiment with seeding machines. but as before intimated, the nineteenth century found the great mass of farmers everywhere sowing their wheat and other grains by throwing them into the air by hand, to be met by the gusts of wind and blown into hollows and on ridges, on stones and thorny places,--requiring often a second and third repetition of the same tedious process. in mr. coffin, a distinguished journalist of boston, in an address before the patent committee of the u. s. senate, set forth the advantages obtained by the modern improvements in seeders as follows: "the seeder covers the soil to a uniform depth. it sows evenly, and sows a specific quantity. you may graduate it so that, after a little experience, you can determine the amount per acre even to a quart of wheat. they sow all kinds of grain,--wheat, clover, and superphosphate, if need be, at once. they harrow at the same time. they make the crop more certain. it is the united testimony of manufacturers and farmers alike that the crop is increased from one-eighth to one-fourth, especially in the winter wheat. winter wheat, you are aware, in the freezing and thawing season, is apt to heave out. it is desirable to bury the seed a uniform and proper depth and to throw over the young plant such an amount of soil that it shall not heave with the freezing and thawing. of the , , bushels of wheat raised last year i suppose more than , , was winter wheat. one-eighth of this is , , bushels." it would seem to many that after the adoption of a seed hopper, and spouts with sharpened ends that cut the drill rows in the furrows and deposited the seed therein, that little was left to be done in this class of inventions; but a great many improvements were necessary. gravity alone could not be depended upon for feeding the seed. means had to be devised for a continuous and regular discharge from each grain tube; for varying the quantity of the seed fed by varying the escape openings, or by positive mechanical movements variable in speed; for fixing accurately the quantity of seed discharged; for changing the apparatus to feed coarse or fine seed; and for rendering the apparatus efficient on different surfaces--steep hillsides, level plains, irregular lands. an important step was the substitution of what is called the "force feed" for the gravity feed. there is a variety of devices for this purpose, the principle of one of them being a revolving feed wheel located beneath the hopper, and above each spout, the two casings between which the feed wheel revolves forming the outer walls of a complete measuring channel, or throat, through which the grain is carried by the rotary motion of the wheel, thus providing the means of measuring the seed with as much accuracy as could be done by a small measure. the quantity sown per acre is governed by simply increasing or diminishing the speed of the feed wheel. in one form of device this change of speed is altered by a system of cone gearing. a graduated flow of the seed has also been effected by the employment of a cylinder having a smooth and fluted part working in a cup beneath the hopper with provision for adjustment of the smooth part towards and from the fluted part to cut off or increase the flow. to avoid the use of a separate apparatus for separate sizes of grain and other seed, the seed holder has been divided into parts--one part for containing wheat, barley and other medium-sized grains, and another for corn, peas and the larger seeds. and as these parts are used on separate occasions, the respective apertures are opened or closed by a sliding bottom and by a single movement of the hand. rubber tubes for conducting the seed through the hollow holes were introduced in place of the metal spouts that answered both as a spout and a hoe. in place of the common hoe drill of a form used in the early part of the century, the hoes being forced into the soil by the use of levers and weights, what are known as "shoe drills" have largely succeeded. a series of shoes are pivoted to the frame, extend beneath the seed box, and are provided with springs for depressing or raising them. all kinds of seeds and fertilisers, separately or together, may be now sown, and the broadcast sowing of a larger area than that covered by the throw of the hand can now be given by machinery. corn and cotton seed are thus also planted, mixed or unmixed with the fertilising material. not only have light ploughs been combined with small seed boxes and one or more seed tubes, for easy work in gardens, but the arrangements varied and graded for different uses until is reached that great machine run by steam power, in which is assembled a gang of heavy harrows in front to loosen and pulverise the soil, then the seed and fertilising drill of capacious width for sowing the grain in rows, followed by a lighter broad harrow to cover the seed, and all so arranged that the steam lifts the heavy frames on turning, and all controlled easily by the man who rides upon the machine. in planting at intervals or in hills, as corn and potatoes, and other like larger seeds, no longer is the farmer required to trudge across the wide field carrying a heavy load in bag or box, or compel his boys or women folk to drop the seed while he follows on laboriously with the hoe. he may now ride, if he so choose, and the machine which carries him furnishes the motive power for operating the supply and cut-off of the grain at intervals. the object of the farmer in planting corn is to plant it in straight lines about four feet apart each way, putting from three to five grains into each spot in a scattered and not huddled condition. these objects are together nicely accomplished by a variety of modern machines. the planting of great fields of potatoes has been greatly facilitated by machinery that first slices them and then sows the slices continuously in a row, or drops them in separate spots or hills, as may be desired. the finest seeds, such as grass and clover, onion and turnip seed, and delicate seed like rice, are handled and sown by machines without crushing or bruising, and with the utmost exactness. just what seed is necessary to be supplied to the machine for a given area is decided upon, and the machine distributes the same with the same nicety that a doctor distributes the proper dose of pellets upon the palm of his patient. transplanters as well as planters have been devised. these transplanters will dig the plant trench, distribute the fertiliser, set the plant, pack the earth and water the plant, automatically. the class of machines known as cultivators are those only, properly speaking, which are employed to cultivate the plant after the crop is above the ground. the duties which they perform are to loosen the earth, destroy the weeds, and throw the loosened earth around the growing plant. here again the laborious hoe has been succeeded by the labour-saving machine. cultivators have names which indicate their construction and the crop with which they are adapted to be used. thus there are "corn cultivators," "cotton cultivators," "sugar-cane cultivators," etc. riding cultivators are known as "sulky cultivators" where they are provided with two wheels and a seat for the driver. if worked between two rows they are termed single, and when between three rows, double cultivators. a riding cultivator adapted to work three rows has an arched axle to pass over the rows of the growing plants and cultivate both sides of the plants in each row. double cultivators are constructed so that their outside teeth may be adjusted in and out from the centre of the machine to meet the width of the rows between which they operate. a "walking cultivator" is when the operator walks and guides the machine with the hands as with ploughs. ordinary ploughs are converted into cultivators by supplying them with double adjustable mould boards. ingenious arrangements generally exist for widening or narrowing the cultivator and for throwing the soil from the centre of the furrow to opposite sides and against the plant. the depth to which the shares or cultivator blades work in the ground may be adjusted by a gauge wheel upon the draught beam, or a roller on the back of the frame. disk cultivators are those in which disk blades instead of ploughs are used with which to disturb the soil already broken. as with ploughs, so with cultivators, steam-engines are employed to draw a gang of cultivating teeth or blades, their framework, and the operator seated thereon, to and fro across the field between two or more rows, turning and running the machine at the end of the rows. millet's recent celebrated painting represents a brutal, primitive type of a man leaning heavily on a hoe as ancient and woful in character as the man himself. it is a picture of hopeless drudgery and blank ignorance. markham, the poet, has seized upon this picture, dwelt eloquently on its horrors, and apostrophised it as if it were a condition now existing. he exclaims, "o masters, lords and rulers in all lands how will the future reckon with this man?" the present has already reckoned with him, and he and his awkward implement of drudgery nowhere exist, except as left-over specimens of ancient and pre-historic misery occasionally found in some benighted region of the world. the plough and the hoe are the chief implements with which man has subdued the earth. their use has not been confined to the drudge and the slave, but men, the leaders and ornaments of their race, have stood behind them adding to themselves graces, and crowning labor with dignity. cincinnatus is only one of a long line of public men in ancient and modern times who have served their country in the ploughfield as well as on the field of battle and in the halls of legislation. we hear the song of the poet rising with that of the lark as he turns the sod. burns, lamenting that his share uptears the bed of the "wee modest crimson-tipped flower" and sorrowing that he has turned the "mousie" from its "bit o' leaves and stibble" by the cruel coulter. the finest natures, tuned too fine to meet the rude blasts of the world, have shrunk like cowper to rural scenes, and sought with the hoe among flowers and plants for that balm and strength unfound in crowded marts. but the dignity imparted to the profession of agriculture by a few has now by the genius of invention become the heritage of all. while prophets have lamented, and artists have painted, and poets sorrowed over the drudgeries of the tillers of the soil, the tillers have steadily and quietly and with infinite patience and toil worked out their own salvation. they no longer find themselves "plundered and profaned and disinherited," but they have yoked the forces of nature to their service, and the cultivation of the earth, the sowing of the seed, the nourishment of the plant, have become to them things of pleasurable labour. with the aid of these inventions which have been turned into their hands by the prolific developments of the century they are, so far as the soil is concerned, no longer "brothers of the ox," but king of kings and lord of lords. chapter iv. agricultural inventions. if the farmer, toward the close of the th century, tired with the sickle and the scythe for cutting his grass and grain, had looked about for more expeditious means, he would have found nothing better for cutting his grass; and for harvesting his grain he would have been referred to a machine that had existed since the beginning of the christian era. this machine was described by pliny, writing about a. d. , who says that it was used on the plains of rhætia. the same machine was described by palladius in the fourth century. that machine is substantially the machine that is used to-day for cutting and gathering clover heads to obtain the seed. it is now called a header. a machine that has been in use for eighteen centuries deserves to be described, and its inventor remembered; but the name of the inventor has been lost in oblivion. the description of palladius is as follows: "in the plains of gaul, they use this quick way of reaping, and without reapers cut large fields with an ox in one day. for this purpose a machine is made carried upon two wheels; the square surface has boards erected at the side, which, sloping outward, make a wider space above. the board on the fore part is lower than the others. upon it there are a great many small teeth, wide set in a row, answering to the height of the ears of corn (wheat), and turned upward at the ends. on the back part of the machine two short shafts are fixed like the poles of a litter; to these an ox is yoked, with his head to the machine, and the yoke and traces likewise turned the contrary way. when the machine is pushed through the standing corn all the ears are comprehended by the teeth and cut off by them from the straw and drop into the machine. the driver sets it higher or lower as he finds it necessary. by a few goings and returnings the whole field is reaped. this machine does very well in plain and smooth fields." as late as improvements were being attempted in england on this old gallic machine. at that time pitt, in that country, arranged a cylinder with combs or ripples which tore off the heads of the grain-stalks and discharged them into a box on the machine. from that date until followed attempts to make a cutting apparatus consisting of blades on a revolving cylinder rotated by the rotary motion of the wheels on which the machine was carried. in , a scotchman invented the grain cradle. above the blade of a scythe were arranged a set of fingers projecting from a post in the scythe snath. this was considered a wonderful implement. a report of a scottish highland agricultural society about that time said of this new machine: "with a common sickle, seven men in ten hours reaped one and one-half acres of wheat,--about one-quarter of an acre each. with the new machine a man can cut one and one-half acres in ten hours, to be raked, bound, and stacked by two others." it was with such crude and imperfect inventions that the farmers faced the grain and grass fields of the nineteenth century. the seven wonders of the ancient world have often been compared with the wonders of invention of this present day. senator platt in an address at the patent centennial celebration in washington, in , made such a contrast: "the old wonders of the world were the pyramids, the hanging gardens of babylon, the phidian statue of jupiter, the mausoleum, the temple of diana at ephesus, the colossus of rhodes, and the pharos of alexandria. two were tombs of kings, one was the playground of a petted queen, one was the habitat of the world's darkest superstition, one the shrine of a heathen god, another was a crude attempt to produce a work of art solely to excite wonder, and one only, the lighthouse at alexandria, was of the slightest benefit to mankind. they were created mainly by tyrants; most of them by the unrequited toil of degraded and enslaved labourers. in them was neither improvement nor advancement for the people." with some excess of patriotic pride, he contrasts these with what he calls "the seven wonders of american invention." they were the cotton-gin; the adaptation of steam to methods of transportation; the application of electricity to business pursuits; the harvester; the modern printing-press; the ocean cable; and the sewing machine. "how wonderful," he adds, "in conception, in construction, in purpose, these great inventions are; how they dwarf the pyramids and all the wonders of antiquity; what a train of blessings each brought with its entrance into social life; how wide, direct and far-reaching their benefits. each was the herald of a social revolution; each was a human benefactor; each was a new goddess of liberty; each was a great emancipator of man from the bondage of labour; each was a new teacher come upon earth; each was a moral force." of these seven wonders, the harvester and the cotton-gin will only be described in this chapter. "harvester" has sometimes been used as a broad term to cover both mowers and reapers. in a recent and more restricted sense, it is applied to a machine that cuts grain, separates it into gavels, and binds it. the difficulty that confronted the invention of mowers was the construction, location and operation of the cutting part. to convert the scythe or the sickle, or some other sharp blade into a fast reciprocating cutter, to hang such cutter low so that it would cut near the ground, to protect it from contact with stones by a proper guard, to actuate it by the wheels of the vehicle, to hinge the cutter-bar to the frame so that its outer end might be raised, and to arrange a seat on the machine so that the driver could control the operating parts by means of a lever, or handles, were the main problems to be solved. in , boyce, of england, had a vertical shaft with six rotating scythes beneath the frame of the implement. this died with the century. in , meares, his countryman, tried to adapt shears. he was followed there, in , by plucknett, who introduced a horizontal, rotating, circular blade. others, subsequently, adopted this idea, both in england and america. it had been customary, as in olden times, to push the apparatus forward by a horse or horses hitched behind. but, in , gladstone had patented a front draft machine, with a revolving wheel armed with knife-blades cutting at one side of the machine and a segment-bar with fingers which gathered the grain and held the straw while the knife cut it. then, in , salonen introduced vibrating knifes over stationary blades, fingers to gather grain to the cutters, and a rake to carry the grain off to one side. in , ogle, also of england, was the first to invent the _reciprocating_ knife-bar. this is the movement that has been given in all the successful machines since. ogle's was a crude machine, but it furnished the ideas of projecting the cutter-bar at the side of a reel to gather the grain to the cutter and of a grain platform which was tilted to drop the sheaf. the world is indebted also to the rev. patrick bell, of scotland, who had invented and built as early as - , a machine which would cut an acre of grain in an hour, and is thus described by knight: "the machine had a square frame on two wheels which ran loose on the axle, except when clutched thereto to give motion to the cutters. the cutter-bar had fixed triangular cutters between each of which was a movable vibrating cutter, which made a shear cut against the edge of the stationary cutter, on each side. it had a reel with twelve vanes to press the grain toward the cutters, and cause it to fall upon a travelling apron which carried away cut grain and deposited it at the side of the machine. the reel was driven by bevel-gearing." it was used but a few years and then revived again at the world's fair in london, in . in the united states, inventions in mowers and reapers began to make their appearance about . in , bailey was the first to patent a mowing machine. it was a circular revolving scythe on a vertical axis, rotated by gearing from the main axle, and so that the scythe was self-sharpened by passing under a whet-stone fixed on an axis and revolving with the scythe and was pulled by a horse in front. in , lane, of maine, combined the reaper and thresher. in , manning had a row of fingers and a reciprocating knife, and in , schnebly introduced the idea of a horizontal endless apron on which the grain fell, constructed to travel intermittently so as to divide the grain into separate parts or gavels, and deliver the gavels at one side. hussey, of maryland, in , produced the most useful harvester up to that time. it had open guard fingers, a knife made of triangular sections, reciprocating in the guard, and a cutter-bar on a hinged frame. then came the celebrated reaper of mccormick, of virginia, in , and his improvements of - , and by he had built hundreds of his machines. other inventors, too numerous to mention, from that time pushed forward with their improvements. then came many public trials and contests between rival manufacturers and inventors. one of the earliest and most notable was the contest at the world's fair, in london, in . this exhibition, the first of the kind the world had seen, giving to the nations taking part such an astonishing revelation of each other's productions, and stimulating in each such a surprising growth in all the industrial and fine arts, revealed nothing more gratifying to the lover of his kind than those inventions of the preceding half-century that had so greatly lifted the farm labourer from his furrow of drudgery. among the most conspicuous of such inventions were the harvesters. bell's machine, previously described, and hussey's and mccormick's were the principal contesting machines. they were set to work in fields of grain, and to mccormick was finally awarded the medal of honour. this contest also opened the eyes of the world to the fact that vast tracts of idle land, exceeding in extent the areas of many states and countries, could now be sown and reaped--a fact impossible with the scythe and the sickle. it was the herald of the admission into the family of nations of new territories and states, which, without these machines, would unto this day be still wild wildernesses and trackless deserts. this great trial also was followed by many others, state and international. in , there was in the united states a general trial of reapers and mowers at geneva, new york; in , at the french exposition, at paris, where again mccormick met with a triumph; in , at syracuse, new york, and subsequently at all the great state and international expositions. these contests served to bring out the failures, and the still-existing wants in this line of machinery. the earlier machines were clumsy. they were generally one-wheeled machines, lacked flexibility of parts and were costly. they cut, indeed, vast tracts of grain and grass, but the machines had to be followed by an army of men to bind and gather the fallen grain. this army demanded high wages and materially increased the cost of reaping the crop, and sadly diminished the profits. when the vienna exposition, in , was held, a great advance was shown in this and all other classes of agricultural machinery. reapers and mowers were lighter in construction, and far less in cost, and stronger and more effective in every way. the old original machines of mccormick on which he had worked for twenty years prior to the triumph, had been succeeded by another of his machines, on which an additional twenty years of study, experiment and improvement had been expended. an endless number of inventors had in the meantime entered the lists. the frame, the motive gearing, the hinged cutter-bar and knives, the driver's seat, the reel, the divider, for separating the swath of grain to be cut from the uncut, the raising and depressing lever, the self-raker, and the material of which all the parts were composed had all received the greatest attention, and now was awaiting the coming of a perfect mechanical binder that would roll the grain on the machine into a bundle, automatically bind it, and drop the bound bundles on the ground. the latter addition came in an incomplete shape to vienna. the best form was a crude wire binder. in at the centennial exhibition at philadelphia, the mowers and reapers blossomed still more fully, but not into full fruition; for it was not until two or three years thereafter that the celebrated _twine_ binders, which superseded the wire, were fully developed. think of the almost miraculous exercise of invention in making a machine to automatically cut the grain, elevate it to a platform, separate and roll it into sheaves, seize a stout cord from a reel, wrap it about the sheaf, tie a knot that no sailor could untie, cut the cord, and throw the bound sheaf to one side upon the ground! so great became the demand for this binders' twine that great corporations engaged in its manufacture, and they in turn formed a great trust to control the world's supply. this one item of twine, alone, amounted to millions of dollars every year, and from its manufacture arose economic questions considered by legislators, and serious litigation requiring the attention of the courts. at this centennial exhibition, besides twenty or more great manufacturing firms of the united states who exhibited reapers and mowers, canada, far-away australia, and russia brought each a fine machine of this wonderful class. and not only these countries, but nearly all of europe sent agricultural machines and implements in such numbers and superior construction that they surpassed the wildest dreams of the farmer of a quarter of a century before. up to this time, about eleven thousand patents have been granted in the united states, all presumably on separate improvements in mowers and reapers alone. this number includes, of course, many patents issued to inventors of other countries. before leaving this branch of the subject the lawn-mower should not be overlooked, with its spiral blades on a revolving cylinder, a hand lever by which it can be pushed over a lawn and the grass cut as smooth as the green rug upon a lady's chamber. it is the law of inventions that one invention necessitates and generates another. thus the vastly increased facilities for cutting grass necessitated new means for taking care of it when cut. and these new means were the hay tedder to stir it, the horse hay-rake, the great hay-forks to load, and the hay-stackers. harvesters for grass and grain have been supplemented by corn, cotton, potato and flax harvesters. the threshing-floor still resounds to the flail as the grain is beaten from the heads of the stalks. men and horses still tread it out, the wooden drag and the heavy wain with its gang of wheels, and all the old methods of threshing familiar to the egyptians and later among the romans may still be found in use in different portions of the world. menzies of scotland, about the middle of the eighteenth century, was the first to invent a threshing machine. it was unsuccessful. then came leckie, of stirlingshire, who improved it. but the type of the modern threshing machine was the invention of a scotchman, one meikle, of tyningham, east lothian, in . meikle threw the grain on to an inclined board, from whence it was fed between two fluted rollers to a cylinder armed with blades which beat it, thence to a second beating cylinder operating over a concave grating through which the loosened grain fell to a receptacle beneath; thence the straw was carried over a third beating cylinder which loosened the straw and shook out the remaining grain to the same receptacle, and the beaten straw was then carried out of the machine. meikle added many improvements, among which was a fan-mill by which the grain was separated and cleaned from both straw and chaff. this machine, completed and perfected about the year , has seen no departure in principle in england, and in the united states the principal change has been the substitution of a spiked drum running at a higher speed for meikle's beater drum armed with blades. in countries like california, says the u.s. commissioner of patents in his report for , "where the climate is dry and the grain is ready for threshing as soon as it is cut, there is in general use a type of machine known as a combined harvester and thresher in which a thresher and a harvester machine of the header type are mounted on a single platform, and the heads of grain are carried directly from the harvester by elevators into the threshing machine, from which the threshed grain is delivered into bags and is then ready for shipment. some of these machines are drawn by horses and some have a portable engine mounted on the same truck with the harvester propelling the machine, while furnishing power to drive the mechanism at the same time. combined harvesters and threshers have been known since , but they have been much improved and are now built on a much larger scale." flax-threshers for beating the grain from the bolls of the cured flax plant, removing the bolls, releasing and cleaning the seed, are also a modern invention. flax and hemp brakes, machines by which the woody and cellular portion of the flax is separated from the fibrous portion, produced in practical shape in the century, and flanked by the improved pullers, cutters, threshers, scutchers, hackles, carders, and rovers, have supplanted egyptian methods of , years' standing, for preparing the flax for spinning, as well as the crude improvements of the th century. after the foundation of cotton manufacture had been laid "as one of the greatest of the world's industries," in the th century by those five great english inventors, kay, who invented the fly-shuttle, hargreaves, the "spinning jenny," arkwright, the water-frame, crompton, the spinning-mule, and cartwright, the power-loom, came eli whitney in , a young school teacher from massachusetts located in georgia, who invented the _cotton-gin_. his crude machine, worked by a single person, could clean more cotton in a single day than could be done by a man in several months, by hand. the enormous importance of such a machine began to be appreciated at the beginning of the century, and it set cotton up as a king whose dominion has extended across the seas. prior to , inventions in this art were mainly directed to perfecting the structure of this primary gin. by that machine only the long staple fibre was secured, leaving the cotton seed covered with a short fibre, which with the seed was regarded as a waste product. to reclaim this short fibre and secure the seed in condition for use, have been the endeavours of many inventors during the last twenty years. these objects have been attained by a machine known as the _delinter_, one of the first practical forms of which appeared about . in a bulletin published by the u.s. department of agriculture in , entitled, "production and price of cotton for one hundred years," the period commences with the introduction of whitney's saw gin, and ends with the year mentioned and with the production in that year of the largest crop the world had ever seen. no other agricultural crop commands such universal attention. millions of people are employed in its production and manufacture. how insignificant compared with the wonder wrought by this one machine seems indeed any of the old seven wonders of the world! although the displacement of labour occasioned by the introduction of the cotton-gin was not severely felt, as it was slave labour, yet that invention affords a good illustration of the fact that labour-saving machines increase the supply of the article, the increased supply lowers its price, the lower price increases the demand, the increased demand gives rise to more machines and develops other inventions and arts, all of which results in the employment of ten thousand people to every one thousand at work on the product originally. chapter v. agricultural inventions (_continued_). when the harvest is ended and the golden stores of grains and fruits are gathered, then the question arises what shall be next done to prepare them for food and for shipment to the distant consumer. if the cleaning of the grain and separating it from the chaff and dirt are not had in the threshing process, separate machines are employed for fanning and screening. it was only during the th century that fanning mills were introduced; and it is related by sir walter scott in one of his novels that some of his countrymen considered it their religious duty to wait for a natural wind to separate the chaff from the wheat; that they were greatly shocked by an invention which would raise a whirlwind in calm weather, and that they looked upon the use of such a machine as rebellion against god. as to the grinding of the grain, the rudimentary means still exist, and are still used by rudimentary peoples, and to meet exceptional necessities; these are the primeval hollowed stone and mortar and pestle, and they too were "the mills of the gods" in egyptian, hebrew and early greek days: the _quern_--that is, the upper running stone and the lower stationary grooved one--was a later roman invention and can be found described only a century or two before the christian era. crude as these means were they were the chief ones used in milling until within a century and a quarter ago. in a very recent bright work published in london, by richard bennett and john elton, on corn mills, etc., they say on this point: "the mill of the last century, that, by which, despite its imperfections, the production of flour rose from one of the smallest to one of the greatest and most valuable industries of the world, was essentially a structure of few parts, whether driven by water or wind, and its processes were exceedingly simple. the wheat was cleaned by a rude machine consisting of a couple of cylinders and screens, and an air blast passed through a pair of mill-stones, running very close together, in order that the greatest amount of flour might be produced at one grinding. the meal was then bolted, and the tailings, consisting of bran, middlings and adherent flour, again sifted and re-ground. it seems probable that the miller of the time had a fair notion of the high grade of flour ground from middlings, but no systematic method of procedure for its production was adopted." the upper and the nether mill-stone is still a most useful device. the "dress," which consists of the grooves which are formed in the meeting faces of the stones, has been changed in many ways to meet the requirements in producing flour in varying degrees of fineness. machines have been invented to make such grooves. a swiss machine for this purpose consists of two disks carrying diamonds in their peripheries, which, being put in rapid revolution, cut parallel grooves in the face of the stone. a great advance in milling was made both in america and europe by the inventions of oliver evans. evans was born in the state of delaware, u.s., in , and died in . he was a poor boy and an apprentice to a wheelwright, and while thus engaged his inventive powers were developed. he had an idea of a land carriage propelled without animal power. at the age of he invented a machine for making card teeth, which superseded the old method of making them by hand. later he invented steam-engines and steam-boats, to which attention will hereafter be called. entering into business with his brothers within the period extending from to , he produced those inventions in milling which by the opening of the th century had revolutionised the art. a description of the most important of these inventions was published by him in in a book entitled _the young millwright and miller's grist_. patents were granted evans by the states of delaware, maryland and pennsylvania in , and by the u.s. government in and . as these inventions formed the basis of the most important subsequent devices of the century, a brief statement of his system is proper: from the time the grain was emptied from the waggon to the final production of the finest flour at the close of the process, all manual labour was dispensed with. the grain was first emptied into a box hung on a scale beam where it was weighed, then run into an elevator which raised it to a chamber over cleaning machines through which it was passed, and reclaimed by the same means if desired; then it was run down into a chamber over the hoppers of the mill-stones; when ground it fell from the mill-stones into conveyors and as carried along subjected to the heated air of a kiln drier; then carried into a meal elevator to be raised and dropped on to a cooling floor where it was met by what is called a hopper boy, consisting of a central round upright shaft revolving on a pivot, and provided with horizontal arms and sweeps adapted to be raised and lowered and turned, by which means the meal was continually stirred around, lifted and turned on the floor and then gathered on to the bolting hoppers, the bolts being cylindrical sieves of varying degrees of fineness to separate the flour from its coarser impurities, and when not bolted sufficiently, carried by a conveyor called a drill to an elevator to be dumped again into the bolting hoppers and be re-bolted. when not sufficiently ground the same drill was used to carry the meal to the grind stones. it was the design of the process to keep the meal in constant motion from first to last so as to thoroughly dry and cool it, to heat it further in the meantime, and to run the machines so slowly as to prevent the rise and waste of the flour in the form of dust. the evans system, with minor modifications and improvements, was the prevailing one for three-quarters of a century. new mills, when erected, were provided with this system, and many mills in their quiet retreats everywhere awoke from their drowsy methods and were equipped with the new one. but the whole system of milling has undergone another great change within the last thirty years: during that time it has been learned that the coarser portion or kernel of wheat which lies next to the skin of the berry and between the skin and the heart is the most valuable and nutritious part, as it consists largely of gluten, while the interior consists of starch, which when dry becomes a pearly powder. under the old systems this coarser part, known as middlings, was eliminated, and ground for feed for cattle, or into what was regarded as an inferior grade of flour from which to make coarse bread. it was customary, therefore, under the old method to set the grinding surfaces very close with keen sharp burrs, so that this coarser part was cut off and mixed with the small particles of bran, fine fuzz and other foreign substances, which was separated from the finer part of the kernel by the bolting. the new process consists of removing the outer skin and adherent impurities from the middlings, then separating the middlings from the central finer part and then regrinding the middlings into flour. this middlings flour being superior, as stated, to what was called straight grade, it became desirable to obtain as much middlings as possible, and to this end it was necessary to set the grinding surfaces further apart so as to grind _high_, hence the _high_ milling process as distinguished from _low_ milling. for the better performance of the high rolling process, roller mills were invented. it was found that the cracking process by which the kernel could be cracked and the gluten middlings separated from the starchy heart could best be had by the employment of rollers or cylinders in place of face stones, and at the same time the heating of the product, which injures it, be avoided. the rollers operate in sets, and successive crackings are obtained by passing and repassing, if necessary, the grain through these rollers, set at different distances apart. the operation on grains of different qualities, whether hard or soft, or containing more or less of the gluten middlings, or starchy parts, and their minute and graded separation, thus are obtained with the greatest nicety. the hungarians, the germans, the austrians, the swiss, the english and the americans have all invented useful forms of these rollers. this process was accompanied by the invention of new forms of middlings separators and purifiers, in which upward drafts of air are made to pass up through flat, graded shaking bolts, in an enclosed case, by which the bran specks and fuzz are lifted and conveyed away from the shaken material. in some countries, such as the great wheat state of minnesota, u.s., where the wheat had before been of inferior market value owing to the poorer grade of flour obtained by the old processes, that same wheat was made to produce the most superior flour under the new processes, thus increasing the yearly value of the crops by many millions of dollars. disastrous flour dust explosions in some of the great mills at minneapolis, in - , developed the invention of dust collectors, by which the suspended particles of flour dust are withdrawn from the machinery and the mill, and the air is cleared for respiration and for the production of the finest flour, while the mill is kept closed and comfortable in cold seasons. one of the latest forms of such a collector has for its essential principle the vertical or rotatory air current, which it is claimed moves and precipitates the finest particles. the inventions in the class of mills have so multiplied in these latter days, that nearly every known article that needs to be cleaned and hulled, or ground, or cracked or pulverized, has its own specially designed machine. wind and water as motive powers have been supplanted by steam and electricity. it would be impossible in one volume to describe this great variety. knight, in his mechanical dictionary, gives a list under "mills," of more than a hundred distinct machines and processes relating to grinding, hulling, crushing, pulverising and mixing products. _vegetable cutters._--modern ingenuity has not neglected those more humble devices which save the drudgery of hand work in the preparation of vegetables and roots for food for man and beasts, and for use especially when large quantities are to be prepared. thus, we find machines armed with blades and worked by springs and a lever, for chopping, others for cutting stalks, other machines for paring and slicing, such as apple and potato parers and slicers, others for grating and pulping, others for seeding fruits, such as cherries and raisins, and an entire range of mechanisms, from those which handle delicately the tenderest pod and smallest seed, to the ponderous machines for cutting and crushing the cane in sugar making. _pressing and baling._--the want of pressing loose materials and packing bulky ones, like hay, wool, cotton, hops, etc, and other coarser products, into small, compact bales and bodies, to facilitate their transportation, was immediately felt on the great increase of such products in the century. from this arose pressing and baling machines of a great variety, until nearly every agricultural product that can be pressed, packed or baled has its special machine for that operation. besides those above indicated relating to agricultural products, we have cane presses, cheese presses, butter presses, cigar and tobacco presses, cork presses, and flour packers, fruit and lard presses, peat presses, sugar presses and others. leading mechanical principles in presses are also indicated by name, as screw presses, toggle presses, beater press, revolving press, hydraulic press, rack and pinion press, and rolling pressure press and so on. there are the presses also that are used in compressing cotton. when it is remembered that cotton is raised in about twenty different countries, and that the cotton crop of the united states of - was , , bales, of about lbs. each; of india, (estimated) for the same period, , , , of lbs each; of china about , , , of lbs each, and between two and three million bales in the other countries, it is interesting to consider how the world's production of this enormous mass of elastic fibre, amounting to seventeen or eighteen million bales, of four and five hundred pounds each, is compressed and bound. the screw press was the earliest form of machine used, and then came the hydraulic press. later it has been customary to press the cotton by screw presses or small hydraulic presses at the plantation, bind it with ropes or metal bands and then transport it to some central or seaboard station where an immense establishment exists, provided with a great steam-operated press, in which the bale from the country is placed and reduced to one-fourth or one-third its size, and while under pressure new metallic bands applied, when the bale is ready for shipment. this was a gain of a remarkable amount of room on shipboard and on cars, and solved a commercial problem. but now this process, and the commercial rectangular bale, seem destined to be supplanted by roller presses set up near the plantations themselves, into which the cotton is fed directly from the gin, rolled upon itself between the rollers and compressed into round bales of greater density than the square bale, thus saving a great amount of cost in dispensing with the steam and hydraulic plants, with great additional advantages in convenience of handling and cost of transportation. it is so arranged also that the cotton may be rolled into clean, uniform dense layers, so that the same may be unwound at the mill and directly applied to the machines for its manufacture into fabrics, without the usual tedious and expensive preliminary operations of combing and re-rolling. it has also remained for the developed machine of the century to convert hay into an export commodity to distant countries by the baling process. bale ties themselves have received great attention from inventors, and the most successful have won fortunes for their owners. most ingenious machines have been devised for picking cotton in the fields, but none have yet reached that stage of perfection sufficient to supplant the human fingers. _fruits and foods._--to prepare and transport fruits in their natural state to far distant points, while preserving them from decay for long times, is, in the large way demanded by the world's great appetites, altogether a success of modern invention. to gather the fruit without bruising by mechanical pickers, and then to place the fruit, oranges for instance, in the hands of an intelligent machine which will automatically, but delicately and effectually, wrap the same in a paper covering, and discharge them without harm, are among the recent inventive wonders. in the united states alone patents had been granted up to for fruit wrapping machines. inventions relating to drying and evaporating fruit, and having for their main object to preserve as much as possible the natural taste and colour of the fruit, have been numerous. spreading the fruit in the air and letting the sun and air do the rest is now a crude process. these are the general types of drying and evaporating machines: first, those in which trays of fruit are placed upon stationary ledges within a heated chamber; second, those in which the trays are raised and lowered by mechanical means toward or farther from the source of heat as the drying progresses; third, those in which the fruit is placed in imperforate steam jacketed pans. many improvements, of course, have been made in detail of form, in ventilation, the supplying and regulating of heat and the moving of trays. the hermetically sealed glass or earthenware fruit jar, the lids of which can be screwed or locked down upon a rubber band, after the jar is filled and the small remainder of air drawn out by a convenient steam heater, now used by the million, is an illustration of the many useful modern contrivances in this line. _sterilisation._--in preserving, the desirability of preventing disease and keeping foods in a pure state has developed in the last quarter of a century many devices by which the food is subjected to a steam heat in chambers, and, by devices operated from the outside, the cans or bottles are opened and shut while still within the steam-filled chamber. _diastase._--by heating starchy matters with substances containing diastase, a partial transformation is effected, which will materially shorten and aid its digestion, and this fact has been largely made use of in the preparation of soluble foods, especially those designed for infants and invalids, such as malted milk and lactated food. _milkers._--invention has not only been exercised in the preservation and transportation of milk, but in the task of milking itself. since inventors have been seeking patents for milkers, some having tubes operated by air-pumps, others on the same principle in which the vacuum is made to increase and decrease or pulsate, and others for machines in which the tubes are mechanically contracted by pressure plates. _slaughtering._--great improvements have been made in the slaughtering of animals, by which a great amount of its repulsiveness and the unhealthfulness of its surroundings have been removed. these improvements relate to the construction of proper buildings and appliances for the handling of the animals, the means for slaughtering, and modes of taking care of the meat and transporting the same. villages, towns, and even many cities, are now relieved of the formerly unsavoury slaughter-houses, and the work is done from great centres of supply, where meats in every shape are prepared for food and shipment. it would be impossible in a bulky volume, much less in a single chapter, to satisfactorily enumerate those thousands of inventions which, taking hold of the food products of the earth, have spread them as a feast before the tribes of men. _tobacco._--some of the best inventive genius of the century has been exercised in providing for man's comfort, not a food, but what he believes to be a solace. "sublime tobacco! which from east to west cheers the tar's labour or the turkman's rest." in the united states alone, in the year , there were , acres of land devoted to the production of tobacco, the amount in pounds grown being , , , and the value of which was estimated as $ , , . these amounts have been somewhat less in years since then, but the appetite continues, and any deficiency in the supply is made up by enormous importation. thus, in , there were imported into the united states, , , pounds of tobacco, of various kinds, valued at $ , , . there are no reliable statistics showing that, man for man, the people of that country are greater lovers of the weed than the people of other countries, but the annual value of tobacco raised and imported by them being thus about $ , , , it indicates the strength of the habit and the interest in the nurture of the plant throughout the world. neither the "counterblaste to tobacco" of king james i., and the condemnations of kings, popes, priests and sultans, that followed its early introduction into europe, served to choke the weed in its infancy or check its after growth. now it is attended from the day of its planting until it reaches the lips of the consumer by contrivances of consummate skill to fit it for its destined purpose. besides the ploughs, the cultivators and the weeders of especial forms used to cultivate the plant, there are, after the grown plant is cut in the field, houses of various designs for drying it, machines for rolling the leaves out smoothly in sheets; machines for removing the stems from the leaves and for crushing the stem; machines for pressing it into shape, and for pressing it, whether solid or in granular form, into boxes, tubs and bags; machines for granulating it and for grinding it into snuff; machines for twisting it into cords; machines for flavouring the leaf with saccharine and other matters; machines for making cigars, and machines of a great variety and of the most ingenious construction for making cigarettes and putting them in packages. samples of pipes made by different ages and by different peoples would form a collection of wonderful art and ingenuity, second only to an exhibition of the means and methods of making them. chapter vi. chemistry. chemistry, having for its field the properties and changes of matter, has excited more or less attention ever since men had the power to observe, to think, and to experiment. some knowledge of chemistry must have existed among the ancients to have enabled the egyptians to smelt ores and work metals, to dye their cloths, to make glass, and to preserve their dead from decomposition; so, too, to this extent among the ph[oe]nicians, the israelites, the greeks and the romans; and perhaps to a greater extent among the chinese, who added powder to the above named and other chemical products. aristotle speculated, and the alchemists of the middle ages busied themselves in magic and guess-work. it reached the dignity of a science in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by the labours of such men, in the former century, as libavius, van helmont, glauber, tachenius, boyle, lémery and becher; stahl, boerhaave and hamberg in both; and of black, cavendish, lavoisier, priestley and others in the eighteenth. but so great have been the discoveries and inventions in this science during the nineteenth century that any chemist of any previous age, if permitted to look forward upon them, would have felt "like some watcher of the skies when a new planet swims into his ken." indeed, the chemistry of this century is a new world, of which all the previous discoveries in that line were but floating nebulæ. so vast and astonishingly fast has been the growth and development of this science that before the century was two-thirds through its course watts published his _dictionary of chemistry_ in five volumes, averaging a thousand closely printed pages, followed soon by a thousand-page supplement; and it would have required such a volume every year since to adequately report the progress of the science. nomenclatures, formulas, apparatuses and processes have all changed. it was deemed necessary to publish works on _the new chemistry_, and professor j. p. cooke is the author of an admirable volume under that title. we can, therefore, in this chapter only step from one to another of some of the peaks that rise above the vast surrounding country, and note some of the lesser objects as they appear in the vales below. the leading discoveries of the century which have done so much to aid chemistry in its giant strides are the atomic and molecular theories, the mechanics of light, heat, and electricity, the correlation and conservation of forces, their invariable quantity, and their indestructibility, spectrum analysis and the laws of chemical changes. john dalton, that humble child of english north-country quaker stock, self-taught and a teacher all his life, in gave to the world his atomic theory of chemistry, whereby the existence of matter in ultimate atoms was removed from the region of the speculation of certain ancient philosophers, and established on a sure foundation. the question asked and answered by dalton was, what is the relative weight of the atoms composing the elementary bodies? he discovered that one chemical element or compound can combine with another chemical element, to form a new compound, in two different proportions by weight, which stand to each other in the simple ratio of one to two; and at the same time he published a table of the _relative weight of the ultimate particles of gaseous and other bodies_. although the details of this table have since been changed, the principles of his discovery remain unchanged. says professor roscoe: "chemistry could hardly be said to exist as a science before the establishment of the laws of combination in multiple proportions, and the subsequent progress of chemical science materially depended upon the determination of these combined proportions or atomic weights of the elements first set up by dalton. so that among the founders of our science, next to the name of the great french philosopher, lavoisier, will stand in future ages the name of john dalton, of manchester." less conspicuous but still eminently useful were his discoveries and labours in other directions, in the expansion of gases, evaporation, steam, etc. wollaston and gay-lussac, both great chemists, applied dalton's discovery to wide and most important fields in the chemical arts. also contemporaneous with dalton was the great german chemist, berzelius, who confirmed and extended the discoveries of dalton. more than this, it has been said of berzelius: "in him were united all the different impulses which have advanced the science since the beginning of the present epoch. the fruit of his labors is scattered throughout the entire domain of the science. hardly a substance exists to the knowledge of which he has not in some way contributed. a direct descendant of the school of his countryman, bergman, he was especially renowned as an analyst. no chemist has determined by direct experiment the composition of a greater number of substances. no one has exerted a greater influence in extending the field of analytical chemistry." as to light, the great huygens, the astronomer and mathematician, the improver of differential calculus and of telescopes, the inventor of the pendulum clock, chronometers, and the balance wheel to the watch, and discoverer of the laws of the double refraction of light and of polarisation, had in the th century clearly advanced the idea that light was propagated from luminous bodies, not as a stream of particles through the air but in waves or vibrations of ether, which is a universal medium extending through all space and into all bodies. this fundamental principle now enters into the explanation of all the phenomena of light. newton in the next century, with the prism, decomposed light, and in a darkened chamber reproduced all the colours and tints of the rainbow. but there were dark lines in that beam of broken sunlight which newton did not notice. it was left to joseph von fraunhofer, a german optician, and to the th century, and nearly one hundred years after newton's experiments with the prism, to discover, with finer prisms that he had made, some of these black lines crossing the solar spectrum. what they were he did not know, but conjectured that they were caused by something which existed in the sun and stars and not in our air. but from that time they were called fraunhofer's dark lines. from the vantage ground of these developments we are now enabled to step to that mountain peak of discovery from which the sun and stars were looked into, their elements portrayed, their very motions determined, and their brotherhood with the earth, in substance, ascertained. the great discovery of the cause of fraunhofer's dark bands in the broken sunlight was made by gustave robert kirchoff, a german physician, in his laboratory in heidelberg, in , in conjunction with his fellow worker, robert bunsen. kirchoff happened to let a solar ray pass through a flame coloured with sodium, and through a prism, so that the spectrum of the sun and the flame fell one upon another. it was expected that the well known yellow line of sodium would come out in the solar spectrum, but it was just the opposite that took place. where the bright yellow line should have fallen appeared a dark line. with this observation was coupled the reflection that heat passes from a body of a higher temperature to one of a lower, and not inversely. experiments followed: iron, sodium, copper, etc., were heated to incandescence and their colours prismatically separated. these were transversed with the same colours of other heated bodies, and the latter were absorbed and rendered black. kirchoff then announced his law that all bodies absorb chiefly those colours which they themselves emit. therefore these vapours of the sun which were rendered in black lines were so produced by crossing terrestrial vapors of the same nature. thus by the prism and the blowpipe were the same substances found in the sun, the stars, and the earth. the elements of every substance submitted to the process were analysed, and many secrets in the universe of matter were revealed. young, of america, invented a splendid combination of spectroscope and telescope, and huggins of england was the first to establish by spectrum analysis the approach and retreat of the stars. it was prior to this time that those wonderful discoveries and labours were made which developed the true nature of heat, which demonstrated the kinship and correlation of the forces of nature, their conservation, or property of being converted one into another, and the indestructibility of matter, of which force is but another name. the first demonstrations as to the nature of heat were given by the american count rumford, and then by sir humphry davy, just at the close of the th century, and then followed in this the brilliant labours and discoveries of mayer and helmholtz of germany, colding of denmark, and joule, grove, faraday, sir william thomson of england, of henry, le conte and martin of america, as to the correlation and convertibility of all the forces. the french revolution, and the napoleonic wars, isolating france and exhausting its resources, its chemists were appealed to devote their genius and researches to practical things; to the munitions of war, the rejuvenation of the soil, the growing of new crops, like the sugar beet, and new manufacturing products. lavoisier had laid deep and broad in france the foundations of chemistry, and given the science nomenclature that lasted a century. so that the succeeding great teachers, berthollet, guyton, fourcroy and their associates, and the institutions of instruction in the sciences fostered by them, and inspired in that direction by napoleon, bent their energies in material directions, and a tremendous impulse was thus given to the practical application of chemistry to the arts and manufactures of the century. the same spirit, to a less extent, however, manifested itself in england, and as early as we find sir humphry davy beginning his celebrated lectures on the _elements of agricultural chemistry_ before a board of agriculture, a work that has passed through many editions in almost every modern language. when the fact is recalled that agricultural chemistry embraces the entire natural science of vegetable and animal production, and includes, besides, much of physics, meteorology and geology, the extent and importance of the subject may be appreciated; and yet such appreciation was not manifested in a practical manner until the th century. it was only toward the end of the th century that the vague and ancient notions that air, water, oil and salt formed the nutrition of plants, began to be modified. davy recognized and explained the beneficial fertilizing effects of ammonia, and analysed and explained numerous fertilizers, including guano. it is due to his discoveries and publications, combined with those of the eminent men on the continent, above referred to, that agricultural chemistry arose to the dignity of a science. the most brilliant, eloquent and devoted apostle of that science who followed davy was justus von liebig of germany, who was born in darmstadt in , the year after davy commenced his lectures in england. it was in response to the british association for the advancement of science that he gave to the world his great publications on _chemistry in its application to agriculture, commerce, physiology, and pathology_, from which great practical good resulted the world over. one of his favorite subjects was that of fermentation, and this calls up the exceedingly interesting discoveries in the nature of alcohol, yeast, mould--aging malt, wines and beer--and their accompanying beneficial results. in one of huxley's charming lectures--such as he delighted to give before a popular audience--delivered in , at manchester, on the subject of "yeast," he tells how any liquid containing sugar, such as a mixture of honey and water, if left to itself undergoes the peculiar change we know as fermentation, and in the process the scum, or thicker muddy part that forms on top, becomes yeast, carbonic acid gas escapes in bubbles from the liquid, and the liquid itself becomes spirits of wine or alcohol. "alcohol" was a term used until the th century to designate a very fine subtle powder, and then became the name of the subtle spirit arising from fermentation. it was leeuwenhoek of holland who, two hundred years ago, by the use of a fine microscope he invented, first discovered that the muddy scum was a substance made up of an enormous multitude of very minute grains floating separately, and in lumps and in heaps, in the liquid. then, in the next century the frenchman, cagniard de la tour, discovered that these bodies grew to a certain size and then budded, and from the buds the plant multiplied; and thus that this yeast was a mass of living plants, which received in science the name of "torula," that the yeast plant was a kind of fungus or mould, growing and multiplying. then came fabroni, the french chemist, at the end of the th century, who discovered that the yeast plant was of bag-like form, or a cell of woody matter, and that the cell contained a substance composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. this was a vegeto-animal substance, having peculiarities of "animal products." then came the great chemists of the th century, with their delicate methods of analysis, and decided that this plant in its chief part was identical with that element which forms the chief part of our own blood. that it was protein, a substance which forms the foundation of every animal organism. all agreed that it was the yeast plant that fermented or broke up the sugar element, and produced the alcohol. helmholtz demonstrated that it was the minute particles of the solid part of the plant that produced the fermentation, and that such particles must be growing or alive, to produce it. from whence sprang this wonderful plant--part vegetable, part animal? by a long series of experiments it was found that if substances which could be fermented were kept entirely closed to the outer air, no plant would form and no fermentation take place. it was concluded then, and so ascertained, that the torulae in the plant proceeded from the torulae in the atmosphere, from "gay motes that people the sunbeams." concerning just how the torulae broke up or fermented the sugar, great chemists have differed. after the discovery that the yeast was a plant having cells formed of the pure matter of wood, and containing a semi-fluid mass identical with the composition which constitutes the flesh of animals, came the further discovery that all plants, high and low, are made up of the same kind of cells, and their contents. then this remarkable result came out, that however much a plant may otherwise differ from an animal, yet, in essential constituents the cellular constructure of animal and plant is the same. to this substance of energy and life, common in the minute plant cell and the animal cell, the german botanist, hugo von mohl, about fifty years ago gave the name "protoplasm." then came this astounding conclusion, that this _protoplasm_ being common to both plant and animal life, the essential difference consisted only in the manner in which the cells are built up and are modified in the building. and from that part of these great discoveries which revealed the fact that the sugary element was infected, as it were, from the germs of the air, producing fermentation and its results, arose that remarkable theory of many diseases known as the "germ theory." and, as it was found in the yeast plant that only the solid part or particle of the plant germinated fermentation and reaction, so, too, it has been found by the germ theory that only the solid particle of the contagious matter can germinate or grow the disease. in this unfolding of the wonders of chemistry in the nineteenth century, the old empirical walls between forces and organisms, and organic and inorganic chemistry, are breaking down, and celestial and terrestrial bodies and vapours, living beings, and growing plants are discovered to be the evolution of one all-pervading essence and force. one is reminded of the lines of tennyson: "large elements in order brought and tracts of calm from tempest made, and world fluctuation swayed in vassal tides that followed thought. * * * * * one god, one law, one element, and one far-off divine event to which the whole creation moves." in the class of alcohol and in the field of yeast, the work of pasteur, begun in france, has been followed by improvements in methods for selecting proper ferments and excluding improper ones, and in improved processes for aging and preserving alcoholic liquors by destroying deleterious ferments. takamine, in using as ferment, koji, motu and moyashi, different forms of mould, and proposing to do entirely away with malt in the manufacture of beer and whiskey, has made a noteworthy departure. manufacturing of malt by the pneumatic process, and stirring malt during germination, are among the improvements. _carbonating._--the injecting of carbonic acid gas into various waters to render them wholesome, and also into beers and wines during fermentation, and to save delay and prevent impurities, are decided improvements. the immense improvements and discoveries in the character of soils and fertilisers have already been alluded to. hundreds of instruments have been invented for measuring, analysing, weighing, separating, volatilising and otherwise applying chemical processes to practical purposes. to the chemistry of the century the world is indebted for those devices and processes for the utilisation and manufacture of many useful products from the liquids and oils, sugar from cane and beets, revivifying bone-black, centrifugal machinery for refining sugar, in defecating it by chemicals and heat, in evaporating it in pans, in separating starch and converting it into glucose, etc. _oils and fats._--up to within this century the vast amount of cotton seed produced with that crop was a waste. then by the process, first of steaming the seed and expressing the oil, now by the process of extraction by the aid of volatile solvents, and casting off the solvents by distillation, an immensely valuable product has been obtained. the utilising of oils in the manufacture of oilcloth and linoleum and rubber, has become of great commercial value. formerly sulphur was the vulcanising agent, now chloride of sulphur has been substituted for pure sulphur. steam and the distillation processes have been applied with great success to the making of glycerine from fat and from soap underlye and in extracting fat from various waste products. _bleaching and dyeing._--of course these arts are very old, but the old methods would not be recognised in the modern processes; and those who lived before the century knew nothing of the magnificent colours, and certain essences, and sweet savours that can be obtained from the black, hand-soiling pieces of coal. in the making of illuminating gas, itself a finished chemical product of the century, a vast amount of once wasted products, especially coal tar, are now extensively used; and from coal tar and the residuum of petroleum oils, now come those splendid aniline dyes which have produced such a revolution in the world of colours. the saturation of sand by a dye and its application to fabrics by an air blast; the circulation of the fluid colors, or of fluids for bleaching or drying, or oxidising, through perforated cylinders or cops on which the cloths are wound; devices for the running of skeins through dyes, the great improvements in carbon dyes and kindred colours, the processes of making the colours on the fibre, and the perfumes made by the synthetic processes, are among the inventions in this field. the space that a list of the new chemical products of this age and their description would fill, has already been indicated by reference to the great dictionary of watts. some of the electro-chemical products will be hereinafter referred to in the chapter on electricity, and the chemistry of metallurgy will be treated under the latter topic. _electro-chemical methods._--space will only permit it to be said that these methods are now employed in the production of a large number of elements, by means of which very many of them which were before mere laboratory specimens, have now become cheap and useful servants of mankind in a hundred different ways; such as aluminium, that light and non-corrosive metal, reduced from many dollars an ounce a generation ago, to and cents a pound now; carborundum, largely superseding emery and diamond dust as an abradant; artificial diamonds; calcium carbide, from which the new illuminating acetylene gas is made; disinfectants of many kinds; pigments, chromium, manganese, and chlorates by the thousand tons. the most useful new chemical processes are those used in purifying water sewage and milk, in electroplating metals and other substances, in the application of chemicals to the fine arts, in extracting grease from wool, and the making of many useful products from the waste materials of the dumps and garbage banks. _medicines and surgery._--one hundred years ago, the practice of medicine was, in the main, empirical. certain effects were known to usually follow the giving of certain drugs, or the application of certain measures, but why or how these effects were produced, was unknown. the great steps forward have been made upon the true scientific foundation established by the discoveries and inventions in the fields of physics, chemistry and biology. the discovery of anaesthetics and their application in surgery and the practice of medicine, no doubt constitutes the leading invention of the century in this field. sir humphry davy suggested it in , and dr. w. t. morton was the first to apply an anaesthetic to relieve pain in a surgical operation, which he did in a hospital in boston in . both its original suggestion and application were also claimed by others. not only relief from intense pain to the patient during the operation, but immense advantages are gained by the long and careful examination afforded of injured or diseased parts, otherwise difficult or impossible in a conscious patient. the exquisite pain and suffering endured previous to the use of anaesthetics often caused death by exhaustion. many delicate operations can now be performed for the relief of long-continued diseases which before would have been hazardous or impossible. how many before suffered unto death long-drawn-out pain and disease rather than submit to the torture of the knife! how many lives have been saved, and how far advanced has become the knowledge of the human body and its painful diseases, by this beneficent remedy! inventions in the field of medicine consist chiefly in those innumerable compositions and compounds which have resulted from chemical discoveries. gelatine capsules used to conceal unpalatable remedies may be mentioned as a most acceptable modern invention in this class. inventions and discoveries in the field of surgery relate not only to instrumentalities but processes. the antiseptic treatment of wounds, by which the long and exhausting suppuration is avoided, is among the most notable of the latter. in instruments vast improvements have been made; special forms adapted for operation in every form of injury; in syringes, especially hypodermic, those used for subcutaneous injections of liquid remedies; inhalers for applying medicated vapours and devices for applying volatile anaesthetics, and devices for atomising and spraying liquids. in the united states alone about four thousand patents have been granted for inventions in surgical instruments. _dentistry._--this art has been revolutionised during the century. even in the time of herodotus, one special set of physicians had the treatment of teeth; and artificial teeth have been known and used for many ages, but all seems crude and barbarous until these later days. in addition to the use of anaesthetics, improvements have been made in nearly every form of dental instruments, such as forceps, dental engines, pluggers, drills, hammers, etc., and in the means and materials for making teeth. later leading inventions have reference to utilising the roots of destroyed teeth as supports on which to form bridges to which artificial teeth are secured, and to crowns for decayed teeth that still have a solid base. there exists no longer the dread of the dentist's chair unless the patient has neglected too long the visit. pain cannot be all avoided, but it is ameliorated; and the new results in workmanship in the saving and in the making of teeth are vast improvements over the former methods. chapter vii. steam and steam engines. "soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car; or in wide waving wings expanded bear the flying chariot through the field of air." thus sang the poet prophet, the good dr. darwin of lichfield, in the eighteenth century. newcomen and watt had not then demonstrated that steam was not unconquerable, but the hitching it to the slow barge and the rapid car was yet to come. it has come, and although the prophecy is yet to be rounded into fulfilment by the driving of the "flying chariot through the field of air," that too is to come. the prophecy of the doctor poet was as suggestive of the practical means of carrying it into effect as were all the means proposed during the first seventeen centuries of the christian era for conquering steam and harnessing it as a useful servant to man. toys, speculations, dreams, observations, startling experiments, these often constitute the framework on which is hung the title of inventor; but the nineteenth century has demanded a better support for that proud title. he alone who first transforms his ideas into actual work and useful service in some field of man's labor, or clearly teaches others to do so, is now recognised as the true inventor. tested by this rule there was scarcely an inventor in the field of steam in all the long stretches of time preceding the seventeenth century. and if there were, they had no recording scribes to embalm their efforts in history. we shall never know how early man learned the wonderful power of the spirit that springs from heated water. it was doubtless from some sad experience in ignorantly attempting to put fetters on it. the history of steam as a motor generally commences with reference to that toy called the aeolipile, described by hero of alexandria in a treatise on pneumatics about two centuries before christ, and which was the invention of either himself or ctesibius, his teacher. this toy consisted of a globe pivoted on two supports, one of which was a communicating pipe leading into a heated cauldron of water beneath. the globe was provided with two escape pipes on diametrically opposite sides and bent so as to discharge in opposite directions. steam admitted into the globe from the cauldron escaped through the side pipes, and its pressure on these pipes caused the globe to rotate. hero thus demonstrated that water can be converted into steam and steam into work. since that ancient day hero's apparatus has been frequently reinvented by men ignorant of the early effort, and the principle of the invention as well as substantially the same form have been put into many practical uses. hero in his celebrated treatise described other devices, curious siphons and pumps. many of them are supposed to have been used in the performance of some of the startling religious rites at the altars of the greek priests. from hero's day the record drops down to the middle ages, and still it finds progress in this art confined to a few observations and speculations. william of malmesbury in wrote something on the subject and called attention to some crude experiments he had heard of in germany. passing from the slumber of the middle ages, we are assured by some spanish historians that one blasco de garay, in , propelled a ship having paddle wheels by steam at barcelona. but the publication was long after the alleged event, and is regarded as apocryphal. observations became more acute in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, experiments more frequent, and publications more full and numerous. cardan ramelli and leonardo da vinci, learned italians, and the accomplished prof. jacob besson of orleans, france, all did much by their writings to make known theoretically the wonderful powers of steam, and to suggest modes of its practical operation, in the latter part of the sixteenth century. giambattista della porta, a gentleman of naples, possessing high and varied accomplishments in all the sciences as they were known at that day, , and who invented the magic-lantern and _camera obscura_, in a work called _spiritalia_, described how steam pressure could be employed to raise a column of water, how a vacuum was produced by the condensation of steam in a closed vessel, and how the condensing vessel should be separated from the boiler. revault in france showed in how a bombshell might be exploded by steam. salomon de caus, engineer and architect to louis xiii, in described how water might be raised by the expansion of steam. in the italian, branco, published at rome an account of the application of a steam jet upon the vanes of a small wheel to run it, and told how in other ways hero's engine might be employed for useful purposes. the first english publication describing a way of applying steam appeared in in a patent granted to david ramseye, for a mode of raising water thereby. this was followed by patents to grant in and to one ford in . during that century these crude machines were called "fire engines." it seems to have been common in some parts of europe during the seventeenth century to use a blast of steam to improve the draft of chimneys and of blast furnaces. this application of steam to smoke and smelting has been frequently revived by modern inventors with much flourish of originality. it is with a certain feeling of delight and relief, after a prolonged search through the centuries for some evidence of harnessing this mighty agent to man's use, that we come to the efforts of the good marquis of worcester--edward somerset. he it was who in wrote of the _inventions of the sixteenth century_. he afterwards amplified this title by calling his book _a century of names and scantlings of such inventions as at present i call to mind to have tried and perfected_, etc. there are about one hundred of these "scantlings," and his descriptions of them are very brief but interesting. some, if revived now and put to use, would throw proposed flying machines into the background, as they involved perpetual motion. but to his honor be it said that he was the first steam-engine builder. a patent was issued to him in . it was about that he built and put in successful operation at raglan castle at vauxhall, near london, a steam engine to force water upward. he made separate boilers, which he worked alternately, and conveyed the steam from them to a vessel in which its pressure operated to force the water up. unfortunately he did not leave a description of his inventions sufficiently full to enable later mechanics to make and use them. he strove in vain to get capital interested and a company formed to manufacture his engines. the age of fear and speculation as to steam ceased when the marquis set his engine to pumping water, and from that time inventors went on to put the arm of steam to work. in sir samuel morland commenced the construction of the worcester engines for use and sale; hautefeuille of france taught the use of gas, described how gas as well as steam engines might be constructed, and was the first to propose the use of the piston. the learned writings of the great dutch scientist and inventor, huygens, on heat and light steam and gas, also then came forth, and his assistant, the french physicist and doctor, denis papin, in , proposed steam as a universal motive power, invented a steam engine having a piston and a safety valve, and even a crude paddle steamer, which it is said was tried in on the river fulda. then in came thomas savery, who patented a steam engine that was used in draining mines. the eighteenth century thus commenced with a practical knowledge of the power of steam and of means for controlling and working it. then followed the combined invention of newcomen, cawley and savery, in , of the most successful pumping engine up to that time. in this engine a cylinder was employed for receiving the steam from a separate boiler. there was a piston in the cylinder driven up by the steam admitted below it, aided by a counterpoise at one end of an engine beam. the steam was then cut off from the boiler and condensed by the introduction beneath the piston of a jet of water, and the condensed steam and water drawn off by a pipe. atmospheric pressure forced the piston down. the piston and pump rods were connected to the opposite ends of a working beam of a pumping engine, as in some modern engines. gauge cocks to indicate the height of water, and a safety valve to regulate the pressure of steam, were employed. then came the ingenious improvement of the boy humphrey potter, connecting the valve gear with the engine beam by cords, so as to do automatically what he was set to do by hand, and the improvement on that of the beighton plug rod. still further improved by others, the newcomen engine came into use through out europe. jonathan hulls patented in england in a marine steam engine, and in published a description of a newcomen engine applied to his system for towing ships. william henry, of pennsylvania, tried a model steamboat on the conestoga river in . this was practically the state of the art, in , when james watt entered the field. his brilliant inventions harnessed steam to more than pumping engines, made it a universal servant in manifold industries, and started it on a career which has revolutionized the trade and manufactures of the world. to understand what the nineteenth century has done in steam motive power we must first know what watt did in the eighteenth century, as he then laid the foundation on which the later inventions have all been built. taking up the crude but successful working engine of newcomen, a model of which had been sent to him for repairs, he began an exhaustive study of the properties of steam and of the means for producing and controlling it. he found it necessary to devise a new system. watt saw that the alternate heating and cooling of the cylinder made the engine work slowly and caused an excessive consumption of steam. he concluded that "the cylinder should always be as hot as the steam that entered it." he therefore closed the cylinder and provided a separate condensing vessel into which the steam was led after it raised the piston. he provided an air-tight jacket for the cylinder, to maintain its heat. he added a tight packing in the cylinder-head for the piston-rod to move through, and a steam-tight stuffing-box on the top of the cylinder. he caused the steam to alternately enter below and above the piston and be alternately condensed to drive the piston down as well as up, and this made the engine double-acting, increasing its power and speed. he converted the reciprocating motion of the piston into a rotary motion by the adoption of the crank, and introduced the well-known parallel motion, and many other improvements. in short, he demonstrated for the first time by a practical and efficient engine that the expansive force of steam could be used to drive all ordinary machinery. he then secured his inventions by patents against piracy, and sustained them successfully in many a hard-fought battle. it had taken him the last quarter of the th century to do all these things. watt was the proper precursor of the nineteenth century inventions, as in him were combined the power and attainments of a great scientist and the genius of a great mechanic. the last eighteen years of his life were passed in the th century, and he was thus enabled to see his inventions brought within its threshold and applied to those arts which have made this age so glorious in mechanical achievements. watt so fitly represents the class of modern great inventors in his character and attainments that the description of him by sir walter scott is here pertinent as a tribute to that class, and as a delineation of the general character of those benefactors of his race of which he was so conspicuous an example:-- says sir walter:-- "amidst this company stood mr. watt, the man whose genius discovered the means of multiplying our national resources to a degree, perhaps, even beyond his own stupendous powers of calculation and combination; bringing the treasures of the abyss to the summit of the earth--giving to the feeble arm of man the momentum of an afrite--commanding manufactures to rise--affording means of dispensing with that time and tide which wait for no man--and of sailing without that wind which defied the commands and threats of xerxes himself. this potent commander of the elements--this abridger of time and space--this magician, whose cloudy machinery has produced a change in the world, the effects of which, extraordinary as they are, are perhaps only beginning to be felt--was not only the most profound man of science, the most successful combiner of powers and calculator of numbers, as adapted to practical purposes, was not only one of the most generally well-informed, but one of the best and kindest of human beings." the first practical application of steam as a working force was to pumping, as has been stated. after watt's system was devised, suggestions and experiments as to road locomotives and carriages were made, and other applications came thick and fast. a french officer, cugnot, in and , was the first to try the road carriage engine. other prominent frenchmen made encouraging experiments on small steamboats--followed in - by james rumsey and john fitch in america in the same line. watt patented a road engine in . about the same time his assistant, murdock, completed and tried a model locomotive driven by a "grasshopper" engine. oliver evans, the great american contemporary of watt, had in devised a high-pressure non-condensing steam engine in a form still used. in - he obtained in pennsylvania and maryland patents for applying steam to driving flour mills and propelling waggons. also about this time, symington, the scotchman, constructed a working model of a steam carriage, which is still preserved in the museum at south kensington, london. symington and his fellow scotchmen, miller and taylor, in - also constructed working steamboats. in richard trevithick, a cornish marine captain, was producing a road locomotive. the century thus opened with activity in steam motive power. the "scantlings" of the marquis of worcester were now being converted into complete structures. and so great was the activity and the number of inventors that he is a daring man who would now decide priority between them. the earliest applications in this century of steam power were in the line of road engines. on christmas eve of , trevithick made the initial trip with the first successful steam road locomotive through the streets of camborne in cornwall, carrying passengers. in one of his trips he passed into the country roads and came to a tollgate through which a frightened keeper hastily passed him without toll, hailing him as the devil. persistent efforts continued to be made to introduce a practical steam road carriage in england until . after trevithick followed blenkinsop, who made a locomotive which ran ten miles an hour. then came julius griffith, in , of brompton, who patented a steam carriage which was built by joseph bramah, one of the ablest mechanics of his time. gordon, brunton and gurney attempted a curious and amusing steam carriage, resembling a horse in action--having jointed legs and feet, but this animal was not successful. walter hancock, in , was one of the most persistent and successful inventors in this line; but bad roads and an unsympathetic public discouraged inventors in their efforts to introduce steam road carriages, and their attention was turned to the locomotive to run on rails or tracks especially prepared for them. wooden and iron rails had been introduced a century before for heavy cars and wagons in pulling loads from mines and elsewhere, but when at the beginning of the century it had been found that the engines of watt could be used to drag such loads, it was deemed necessary to make a rail having its top surface roughened with ridges and the wheels of the engine and cars provided with teeth or cogs to prevent anticipated slipping. in england, blackett and george stephenson discovered that the adhesion of smooth wheels to smooth rails was sufficient. without overlooking the fact that william hendley built and operated a locomotive called the _puffing billy_ in , and hackworth one a little later, yet to the genius of stephenson is due chiefly the successful introduction of the modern locomotive. his labours and inventions continued from for twenty years, and culminated at two great trials: the first one on the liverpool and manchester railway in , when he competed with hackworth and braithwaite and ericsson, and with the _rocket_ won the race; and the second at the opening of the same road in , when with the _northumbrian_, at the head of seven other locomotives and a long train of twenty-eight carriages, in which were seated six hundred passengers, he ran the train successfully between the two towns. on this occasion mr. huskisson, home secretary in the british cabinet, while the cars were stopping to water the engines, and he was out on the track talking with the duke of wellington, was knocked down by one of the engines and had one of his legs crushed. placed on board of the _northumbrian_, it was driven at the rate of thirty-six miles an hour by stephenson to eccles. mr. huskisson died there that night. this was its first victim, and the greatest speed yet attained by a locomotive. the year therefore can be regarded as the commencement of the life of the locomotive for transportation of passengers. the steam blast thrown into the smokestack by hackworth, the tubular boiler of seguin and the link motion of stephenson were then, as they now are, the essential features of locomotives. in the meantime america had not been idle. the james watt of america, oliver evans, in completed a flat-bottomed boat to be used in dredging at the philadelphia docks, and mounting it on wheels drove it by its own steam engine through the streets to the river bank. launching the craft, he propelled it down the river by using the same engine to drive the paddle wheels. he gave to this engine the strange name of _oruktor amphibolos_. john c. stevens of new jersey was, in , urging the legislature of the state of new york to build railways, and asserting that he could see nothing to hinder a steam carriage from moving with a velocity of one hundred miles an hour. in george stephenson in england had made for american parties a locomotive called _the stourbridge lion_, which in that year was brought to america and used on the delaware and hudson r. r. by horatio allen. peter cooper in the same year constructed a locomotive for short curves, for the baltimore and ohio railroad. returning now to steam navigation:--symington again entered the field in - and constructed for lord dundas a steamboat, named after his wife, the _charlotte dundas_, for towing on a canal, which was successfully operated. robert fulton, an american artist, and subsequently a civil engineer, built a steamboat on the seine in , assisted by r. livingston, then american minister to france. then in fulton, having returned to the united states, commenced to build another steamboat, in which he was again assisted by livingston, and in which he placed machinery made by boulton and watt in england. this steamboat, named the _clermont_, was ft. long, ft. beam, ft. depth and tons burden. it made its first trip on the hudson, from new york to albany and return, in august, , and subsequently made regular trips. it was the first commercially successful steamboat ever made, as george stephenson's was the first commercially successful locomotive. in the meantime col. john stevens of new jersey was also at work on a steamboat, and had in built such a boat at his shops, having a screw propeller and a flue boiler. almost simultaneously with fulton he brought out the _ph[oe]nix_, a side-wheel steamer having hollow water lines and provided with feathering paddle wheels, and as fulton and livingston had a monopoly of the hudson, stevens took his boat by sea from new york around to delaware bay and up the delaware river. this was in , and was the first sea voyage ever made by a steam vessel. transatlantic steamship navigation was started in . a mr. scarborough of savannah, ga., in purchased a ship of about three hundred and fifty tons burden, which was named the _savannah_. equipped with engine and machinery it steamed out of new york harbour on the th day of march, , and successfully reached savannah, georgia. on the th of may in the same year she left savannah for liverpool, making the trip in days. from liverpool she went to copenhagen, stockholm, st. petersburg, cronstadt and arundel, and from the latter port returned to savannah, making the passage in twenty-five days. but scottish waters, and the waters around other coasts of the british islands, had been traversed by steamboats before this celebrated trip of the _savannah_. bell's steamboat between glasgow and greenock in was followed by five others in ; and seven steamboats plied on the thames in . so the locomotives and the steamboats and steamships continued to multiply, and when the first forty years of the century had been reached the iron horse was fairly installed on the fields of europe and america, and the rivers and the oceans were ploughed by its sisters, the steam vessels. it was in that the famous cunard line of transatlantic steamers was established, soon followed by the collins line and others. a few years before, john c. stevens in america and john ericsson in england had brought forward the screw propeller; and ericsson was the first to couple the engine to the propeller shaft. it succeeded the successful paddle wheels of fulton in america and bell in england. the nineteenth century is the age of kinetic energy: the energy of either solid, liquid, gaseous or electrical matter transformed into useful work. it has been stated by that eminent specialist in steam engineering, prof. r. h. thurston, that "the steam engine is a machine which is especially designed to transform energy originally dormant or potential into active and useful available kinetic energy;" and that the great problem in this branch of science is "to construct a machine which shall in the most perfect manner possible convert the kinetic energy of heat into mechanical power, the heat being derived from the combustion of fuel, and steam being the receiver and conveyor of that heat." watt and his contemporaries regarded heat as a material substance called "phlogiston." the modern kinetic theory of heat was a subsequent discovery, as elsewhere explained. the inventors of the last part of the eighteenth century and of the nineteenth century have directed their best labours to construct an engine as above defined by thurston. first as to the boiler: efforts were made first to get away from the little old spherical boiler of hero. in the th century smeaton devised the horizontal lengthened cylindrical boiler traversed by a flue. oliver evans followed with two longitudinal flues. nathan read of salem, massachusetts, in , invented a tubular boiler in which the flues and gases are conducted through tubes passing through the boiler into the smokestack. such boilers are adapted for portable stationary engines, locomotives, fire and marine engines, and the fire is built within the boiler frame. then in the th century came the use of sectional boilers--a combination of small vessels instead of a large common one, increasing the strength while diminishing capacity--to obtain high pressure of steam. then came improved weighted and other safety valves to regulate and control this pressure. the compound or double cylinder high-pressure engine of hornblower of england, in , and the high-pressure non-condensing steam engine devised by evans in , were reconstructed and improved in the early part of the century. to give perfect motion and the slightest friction to the piston; to regulate the supply of steam to the engine by proper valves; to determine such supply by many varieties of governors and thus control the speed; to devise valve gear which distributes the steam through its cycles of motion by which to admit the steam alternately to each end of the steam cylinder as the piston moves backward and forward, and exhaust valves to open and close the parts through which the steam escapes; to automatically operate such valves; to condense the escaping steam and to remove the water of condensation; to devise powerful steam brakes--these are some of the important details on which inventors have exercised their keenest wits. then again the extensive inventions of the century have given rise to a great classification to designate their forms or their uses: condensing and non-condensing, high-pressure or low-pressure--the former term being applied to engines supplied with steam of lbs. pressure to the square inch and upward, and the latter to engines working under lbs. pressure--and the low pressure are nearly always the condensing and the high pressure the non-condensing; reciprocating and rotary--the latter having a piston attached to a shaft and revolving within a cylinder of which the axis is parallel with the axis of rotation of the piston. direct acting, where the piston rod acts directly upon the connecting rod and through it upon the crank, without the intervention of a beam or lever; oscillating, in which the piston rods are attached directly to the crank pin and as the crank revolves the cylinder oscillates upon trunnions, one on each side of it, through which the steam enters and leaves the steam chest. then as to their use, engines are known as stationary, pumping, portable, locomotive or marine. the best-known engine of the stationary kind is the corliss, which is very extensively used in the united states and europe. among other later improvements is the duplex pumping engine, in which one engine controls the valve of the other; compensating devices for steam pumping, by which power is accumulated by making the first half of the stroke of the steam piston assist in moving the piston the other half of the stroke during the expansion of steam; steam or air hand hammers on which the piston is the hammer and strikes a tool projecting through the head into the cylinder; rock drilling, in which the movement of the valves is operated by the piston at any portion of its stroke; shaft governors, in which the eccentric for operating the engine valves is moved around or across the main or auxiliary shaft; multiple cylinders, in which several cylinders, either single or double, are arranged to co-operate with a common shaft; impact rotary, known as steam turbines, a revival in some respects of hero's engine. and then, finally, the delicate and ingenious bicycle and automobile steam engines. then there are steam sanding devices for locomotives by which sand is automatically fed to the rails at the same time the air brake is applied. starting valves used for starting compound locomotives on ascending steep grades, in which both low and high pressure cylinders are supplied with live steam, and when the steam, exhausted from either high or low pressure cylinders into the receivers, has reached a predetermined pressure, the engine works on the compound principle. single acting compound engines, in which two or more cylinders are arranged tandem, the steam acting only in one direction, and the exhaust steam of one acting upon the piston in the cylinder next of the series, are arranged in pairs, so that while one is acting downward the other is acting upward. throttle valves automatically closed upon the bursting of a pipe, or the breaking of machinery, are operated by electricity, automatically, or by hand at a distance. napoleon, upon his disastrous retreat from moscow, anxious to reach paris as soon as possible, left his army on the way, provided himself with a travelling and sleeping carriage, and with relays of fresh horses at different points managed, by extraordinary strenuous efforts day and night, to travel from smorgoni to paris, a distance of miles, between the th and th of december, . this was at the average rate of about two hundred miles a day, or eight or nine miles an hour. it was a most remarkable ride for any age by horse conveyance. within the span of a man's life after that event any one could take a trip of that distance in twenty-four hours, with great ease and comfort, eating and sleeping on the car, and with convenient telegraph and telephone stations along the route by which to comunicate by pen, or word of mouth, with distant friends at either end of the journey. if napoleon had deemed it best to have continued his journey across the atlantic to america he would have been compelled to pass several weeks on an uncomfortable sailing vessel. now, a floating palace would await him which would carry him across in less than six days. should mankind be seized with a sudden desire to replace all the locomotives in the world by horse power it would be utterly impossible to do it. it was recently estimated that there were one hundred and fifty thousand locomotives in use on the railroads of the world; and as a fair average would give them five hundred horse power each, it will be seen that they are the equivalent of seventy-five million horses. space and time will not admit of minute descriptions, or hardly a mention, of the almost innumerable improvements of the century in steam. having seen the principles on which these inventions have been constructed, enumerated the leading ones and glanced at the most prominent facts in their history, we must refer the seeker for more particulars to those publications of modern patent offices, in which each regiment and company of this vast army is embalmed in its own especial and ponderous volume. a survey of the field will call to mind, however, the eloquent words of daniel webster:-- "and, last of all, with inimitable power, and with a 'whirlwind sound' comes the potent agency of steam. in comparison with the past, what centuries of improvement has this single agent compressed in the short compass of fifty years! everywhere practicable, everywhere efficient, it has an arm a thousand times stronger than that of hercules, and to which human ingenuity is capable of fitting a thousand times as many hands as belonged to briareus. steam is found triumphant in operation on the seas; and under the influence of its strong propulsion, the gallant ship, 'against the wind, against the tide still steadies with an upright keel.' it is on the rivers, and the boatman may repose upon his oars; it is on highways, and exerts itself along the courses of land conveyances; it is at the bottom of mines, a thousand feet below the earth's surface; it is in the mills and in the workshops of the trades. it rows, it pumps, it excavates, it carries, it draws, it lifts, it hammers, it spins, it weaves, it prints. it seems to say to men, at least to the class of artisans: 'leave off your manual labour, give up your bodily toil; bestow but your skill and reason to the directing of my power and i will bear the toil, with no muscle to grow weary, no nerve to relax, no breast to feel faintness!' what further improvement may still be made in the use of this astonishing power it is impossible to know, and it were vain to conjecture. what we do know is that it has most essentially altered the face of affairs, and that no visible limit yet appears beyond which its progress is seen to be impossible." chapter viii. engineering and transportation. the field of service of a civil engineer has thus been eloquently stated by a recent writer in _chambers's journal_: "his duties call upon him to devise the means for surmounting obstacles of the most formidable kind. he has to work in the water, over the water, and under the water; to cause streams to flow; to check them from overflowing; to raise water to a great height; to build docks and walls that will bear the dashing of waves; to convert dry land into harbours, and low water shores into dry land; to construct lighthouses on lonely rocks; to build lofty aqueducts for the conveyance of water, and viaducts, for the conveyance of railway trains; to burrow into the bowels of the earth with tunnels, shafts, pits and mines; to span torrents and ravines with bridges; to construct chimneys that rival the loftiest spires and pyramids in height; to climb mountains with roads and railways; to sink wells to vast depths in search of water. by untiring patience, skill, energy and invention, he produces in these several ways works which certainly rank among the marvels of human power." the pyramids of egypt, the roads, bridges and aqueducts built by the chinese and by rome; the great bridges of the middle ages, and especially those built by that strange fraternal order known as the "brothers of the bridge"; the ocean-defying lighthouses of a later period--these, and more than these, attest the fact that there were great engineers before the nineteenth century. but the engineering of to-day is the hand-maid of all the sciences; and as they each have advanced during the century beyond all that was imagined, or dreamed of as possible in former times, so have the labours of engineering correspondingly multiplied. no longer are such labours classified and grouped in one field, called civil engineering, but they have been necessarily divided into great additional new and independent fields, known as steam engineering, mining engineering, hydraulic engineering, electrical engineering and marine engineering. within each of these fields are assembled innumerable appliances which are the offspring of the inventive genius of the century just closed. we have seen how one discovery, or the development of a certain art, brings in its train and often necessitates other inventions and discoveries. the development and dedication of the steam engine to the transportation of goods and men called for improvements in the roads and rails on which the engine and its load were to travel, and this demand brought forth those modern railway bridges which are the finest examples in the art of bridge making that the world has ever seen. the greatest bridges of former ages were built of stone and solid masonry. now iron and steel have been substituted, and these light but substantial frameworks span wide rivers and deep ravines with almost the same speed and gracefulness that the spider spins his silken web from limb to limb. these, too, waited for their construction on that next turn in the wheel of evolution, which brought better processes in the making of iron and steel, and better tools and appliances for working metals, and in handling vast and heavy bodies. the first arched iron bridge was over the severn at coalbrookdale, england, erected by abraham darby in . in one was erected by telford at buildwas, and in the same year burden completed an arch across the weir at sunderland. the most prominent classes of bridges in which the highest inventive and constructive genius of the engineers of the century are illustrated are known as the _suspension_, the _tubular_ and the _tubular arch_, the _truss and cantilever_. suspension bridges consisting of twisted vines, of iron chains, or of bamboo, or cane, or of ropes, have been known in different parts of the world from time immemorial, but they bear only a primitive and suggestive resemblance to the great iron cable bridges of the nineteenth century. the first notable structure of this kind was constructed by sir samuel brown, across the tweed at berwick, england, in . brown was born in london in and died in . he entered the navy at the age of , was made commander in , and retired as captain in . we have alluded to the spider's web, and smiles, in his _self help_, relates as an example of intelligent observation that while capt brown was occupied in studying the character of bridges with the view of constructing one of a cheap description to be thrown across the tweed, near which he lived, he was walking in his garden one dewy autumn morning when he saw a tiny spider's web suspended across his path. the idea immediately occurred to him of a bridge of iron wires. in brown also was the engineer for suspension bridges built over the esk at montrose and over the thames at hammersmith. before that time, a span in a bridge of feet was considered remarkably long. suspension bridges are best adapted for long spans, and have been constructed with spans more than twice as long as any other form. sir samuel brown's bridge had a span of feet. this class of bridges is usually constructed with chains or cables passing over towers, with the roadway suspended beneath. the ends of the chains or cables are securely anchored. the cables are then passed over towers, on which they are supported in movable saddles, so that the towers are not overthrown by the strain on the cables. nice calculations have to be made as to the tension to be placed on the cables, the allowance for deflection, and the equal distribution of weight. the floor-way in the earlier bridges of this type was supported by means of a series of equidistant vertical rods, and was lacking stiffness, but this was remedied by trussing the road bed, using inclined stays extending from the towers and partially supporting the roadway for some distance out from the tower. the next finest suspension bridge was constructed by thomas telford and finished in , across the menai strait to connect the island of anglesea with the mainland of wales. telford was born in dumfriesshire, scotland, in , and died in westminster in . beginning life as a stone mason, he rose by his own industry to be a master among architects and a prince among builders of iron bridges, aqueducts, canals, tunnels, harbours and docks. the menai bridge was composed of chains or wire ropes, each nearly a third of a mile in length, and which descended feet into sloping pits or drifts, where they were screwed to cast-iron frames embedded in the rocks. the span of the suspended central arch was feet, and the platform was feet above high water. seven stone arches of ½ feet span make up the rest of the bridge. but a suspension bridge was completed in by m. challey of lyon over the saane at fribourg, switzerland, which greatly surpassed the menai bridge. the span is feet from pier to pier, and the roadway is feet above the river. it is supported by four iron wire cables, each consisting of wires. it was tested by placing pieces of artillery, drawn by horses and accompanied by men crowded together as closely as possible, first at the centre, and then at each extreme, causing a depression of ½ inches, but no sensible oscillation was experienced. isambard k. brunel was another great engineer, who constructed a suspension bridge at the isle of bourbon in , and the charing cross over the thames at hungerford in , which was a footbridge, having a span of feet, the longest span of any bridge in england. then followed finer and larger suspension bridges in other parts of the world. it was across the niagara in front of the great falls that in british america and the united states were joined by a magnificent suspension bridge, one of the finest in the world, and the two english speaking countries were then physically and commercially united. at the opening of the bridge, one portion of which was for a railway, the shriek of the locomotive and the roar of the train mingled with the roar of the wild torrent feet below. the bridge, feet long, is a single span, supported by four enormous cables of wire stretching from the canadian cliff to the opposite united states cliff. the cables pass over the tops of lofty stone towers arising from these cliffs, and each cable consists of no less than , distinct wires. the roadway hangs from these cables, suspended by vertical rods. the engineer of this bridge was john a. roebling, a native of prussia, born there in , and who died in new york in . he was educated at the polytechnic school in berlin, and emigrated to america at the age of . his labors were first as a canal and railway engineer, then he became the inventor and manufacturer of a new form of wire rope, and then turned his attention to the construction of aqueducts and suspension bridges. after the niagara bridge, above described, he commenced another bridge of greater dimensions over the same river, which was finished within two or three years. his next work was the splendid suspension bridge at cincinnati, ohio, which has a clear span of feet. in , in connection with his son, washington a. roebling, he commenced that magnificent suspension bridge to unite the great cities of new york and brooklyn, and which, by its completion, resulted in the consolidation of those cities as greater new york. the roeblings, father and son, were to the engineering of america what george stephenson and his son robert were to the locomotive and railway and bridge engineering of great britain. the brooklyn bridge, known also as the east river bridge, was formally opened to the public on the th of may . most enormous and unexpected technical difficulties were met and overcome in its construction. its total length is nearly , feet. the length of the suspended structure from anchorage to anchorage is , feet. a statement of the general features of this bridge indicates the nature of the construction of such bridges as a class, and distinguishes them from the comparatively simple forms of past ages. this structure is supported by two enormous towers, having a height of feet above the surface of the water, carrying at their tops the saddles which support the cables, and having a span between them of , feet. the towers are each pierced by two archways, ½ feet wide, and ½ feet high, through which openings passes the floor of the bridge at the height of feet above high water mark. there are four supporting cables, each inches in diameter, and each composed of about , single wires. the wire is one-eighth size; single wires are grouped into a rope, and ropes bunched to form a cable. the iron saddles at the top of the lofty towers, and on which the cables rest, are made movable to permit its expansion and compression--and they glide through minute distances on iron rollers in saddle plates embedded and anchored in the towers, in response to strains and changes of temperature. the enormous cables pass from the towers shoreward to their anchorages feet away, and which are solid masses of masonry, each x feet at base and top, feet high, and weighing , tons. the bridge is divided into five avenues: one central one for foot passengers, two outer ones for vehicles, and the others for the street cars. the cost of the bridge was nearly $ , , . twenty fatal and many disabling accidents occurred during the construction of the bridge. the great engineer roebling was the first victim to an accident. he had his foot crushed while laying the foundation of one of the stone piers, and died of lockjaw. it was necessary to build up the great piers by the aid of caissons, which are water-tight casings built of timber and metal and sunk to the river bed and sometimes far below it, within which are built the foundations of piers or towers, and into which air is pumped for the workmen. a fire in one of the caissons, which necessitated its flooding by water, and to which the son, washington roebling, was exposed, resulted in prostrating him with a peculiar form of caisson disease, which destroyed the nerves of motion without impairing his intellectual faculties. but, although disabled from active work, mr. roebling continued to superintend the vast project through the constant mediation of his wife. _tubular bridges._--these are bridges formed by a great tube or hollow beam through the center of which a roadway or railway passes. the name would indicate that the bridge was cylindrical in form, and this was the first idea. but it was concluded after experiment that a rectangular form was the best, as it is more rigid than either a cylindrical or elliptical tube. the adoption of this form was due to fairbairn, the celebrated english inventor and engineer of iron structures. the menai tubular railway bridge, adjacent to the suspension bridge of telford across the same strait, and already described, was the first example of this type of bridge. robert stephenson was the engineer of this great structure, aided by the suggestions of fairbairn and other eminent engineers. this bridge was opened for railway traffic in march, . it was built on three towers and shore abutments. the width of the strait is divided by these towers into four spans--two of feet each, and two of feet. in appearance, the bridge looked like one huge, long, narrow iron box, but it consisted really of four bridges, each made of a pair of rectangular tubes, and through one set of tubes the trains passed in going in one direction, and through the other set in going the opposite direction. these ponderous tubes were composed of wrought-iron plates, from three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch thick, the largest feet in length, riveted together and stiffened by angle irons. they varied in height--the central ones being the highest and those nearest the shore the lowest. the central ones are feet high, and the inner ones about feet. their width was about feet. they were built upon platforms on the caernarvon shore, and the great problem was how to lift them and put them in place, especially the central ones, which were feet in length. each tube weighed , pounds, and they were to be raised feet. this operation has been described as "the grandest lift ever effected in engineering." it was accomplished by means of powerful hydraulic presses. another and still grander example of this style of bridge is the victoria at montreal, canada. this also was designed by robert stephenson and built under his direction by james hodges of montreal. work was commenced in and it was completed in december, , and opened for travel in . it consists of piers, feet apart, except the centre one, from which the span is feet. the tube is in sections and quadrangular in form. every plate and piece of iron was made and punched in england and brought across the atlantic. in canada little remained to be done but to put the parts together and in position. this, however, was in itself a herculean task. the enormous structure was to be placed sixty feet above the swift current of the broad st. lawrence, and wherein huge masses of ice, each block from three to five feet in thickness, accumulated every winter. the work was accomplished by the erection of a vast rigid stage of timber, on which the tubes were built up plate by plate. when all was completed the great staging was removed, and the mighty tube rested alone and secure upon its massive wedge-faced piers rising from the bedrock of the flood below. _the tubular arch bridge._--this differs from the tubular bridge proper, in that the former consists of a bridge the body of which is supported by a tubular archway of iron and steel, whereas in the latter the body of the bridge itself is a tube. the tubular arch is also properly classed as a girder bridge because the great tube which covers the span is simply an immense beam or girder, which supports the superstructure on which the floor of the bridge is laid. a fine illustration of this style of bridge is seen in what is known as the aqueduct bridge over rock creek at washington, d. c., in which the arch consists of two cast-iron jointed pipes, supporting a double carriage and a double street car way, and through which pipes all the water for the supply of the city of washington passes. general m. c. meigs was the engineer. another far grander illustration of such a structure, in combination with the truss system, is that of the illinois and st. louis bridge, across the mississippi, of which captain james b. eads was the engineer. there are three great spans, the central one of which has a length of about feet, and the others a few feet less. four arches form each span, each arch consisting of an upper and lower curved member or rib, extending from pier to pier, and each member composed of two parallel steel tubes. _truss and truss arched bridges._--these, for the most part, are those quite modern forms of iron or wooden bridges in which a supplementary frame work, consisting of iron rods placed obliquely, vertically or diagonally, and cemented together, and with the main horizontal beams either above or below the same, to produce a stiff and rigid structure, calculated to resist strain from all directions. previous to the th century, the greatest bridges being constructed mostly of solid masonry piers and arches, no demand for a bridge of this kind existed; but after the use of wrought iron and steel became extensive in bridge making, and as these apparently light and airy frames may be extended, piece by piece across the widest rivers, straits, and arms of the sea, a substitute for the great, expensive, and frequent supporting piers became a want, and was supplied by the system of trusses and truss arches. the truss system has also been applied to the construction of vast modern bridges in places where timber is accessible and cheap. each different system invented bears the name of its inventor. thus, we have the rider, the fink, the bollman, the whipple, the howe, the jones, the linville, the mccallum, towne's lattice and other systems. what is called the cantilever system has of late years to a great extent superseded the suspension construction. this consists of beams or girders extending out from the opposite piers at an upward diagonal angle, and meeting at the centre over the span, and there solidly connected together, or to horizontal girders, in such manner that the compression load is thrown on to the supporting piers, upward strains received at the centre, and side deflections provided against. it is supposed that greater rigidity is obtained by this means than by the suspension, and, like the suspension, great widths may be spanned without an under supporting frame work. two fine examples of this type are found, one in a bridge across the niagara adjacent to the suspension bridge above described and one across the river forth at queens ferry in scotland. the niagara bridge is a combination of cast steel and iron. it was designed by c. c. schneider and edmund hayes. it was built for a double-track railroad. the total length of the bridge is feet between the centres of the anchorage piers. the cantilevers rest on two gigantic steel towers, standing on massive stone piers feet high. the clear span between the towers is feet, and the height of the bridge, from the mad rush of waters to the car track is feet. messrs fowler and baker were the engineers of the forth railway bridge. it was begun in and finished in . it is built nearly all of steel, and is one of the most stupendous works of the kind. it crosses two channels formed by the island of inchgarvie, and each of the channel spans is feet in the clear and a clear headway of feet under the bridge. three balanced cantilevers are employed, poised on four gigantic steel tube legs supported on four huge masonry piers. the height of the bridge above the piers is feet. the cantilever portion has the appearance of a vast elongated diamond. steel lattice work of girders, forms the upper side of the cantilever, while the under side consists of a hollow curve approaching in form a quadrant of a circle drawn from the base of the legs or struts to the ends of the cantilever. such is the growth of these great bridges with their tremendous spans across which man is spinning his iron webs, that when seen at night with a fiery engine pulling its thundering train across in the darkness, one is reminded of milton's description, "over the dark abyss whose boiling gulf tamely endured a bridge of wondrous length, from hell continued, reaching the utmost orb of this frail world." the _lighthouses_ of the century, in masonry, do not greatly excel in general principles those of preceding ones, as at eddystone, designed by smeaton. nicholas douglass, however, invented a new system of dovetailing, and great improvements have been made in the system of illuminating. lighthouses are also distinguished from those of preceding centuries by the substitution of iron and cast steel for masonry. the first cast-iron lighthouse was put up at point morant, jamaica, in . since then they have taken the form of iron skeleton towers. one of the latest and most picturesque of lighthouses is that of bartholdi's statue of liberty enlightening the world, the gift of the french government to the united states, framed by m. eiffel, the great french engineer, and set up by the united states at bedloe's island in new york harbor. it consists of copper plates on a network of iron. although the statue is larger than any in the world of such composite construction, its success as a lighthouse is not as notable as many farther seaward. in _excavating_, _dredging_ and _draining_, the inventions of the century have been very numerous, but, like numerous advances in the arts, such inventions, so far as great works are concerned, have developed from and are closely related to steam engineering. the making of roads, railroads, canals and tunnels has called forth thousands of ingenious mechanisms for their accomplishment. a half dozen men with a steam-power excavator or dredger can in one day perform a greater extent of work than could a thousand men and a thousand horses in a single day a few generations ago. an excavating machine consisting of steel knives to cut the earth, iron scoops, buckets and dippers to scoop it up, endless chains or cranes to lift them, actuated by steam, and operated by a single engineer, will excavate cubic yards of earth by the minute and at a cost of but a few dollars a day. dredging machines of a great variety have been constructed. drags and scoops for elevating, and buckets, scrapers and shovels, and rotating knives to first loosen the earth, suction pumps and pipes, which will suck great quantities of the loosened earth through pipes to places to be filled--these and kindred devices are now constantly employed to dig and excavate, to deepen and widen rivers, to drain lands, to dig canals, to make harbours, to fill up the waste places and to make courses for water in desert lands. inventions for the excavating of clay, piling and burning it in a crude state for ballast for railways, are important, especially for those railways which traverse areas where clay is plentiful, and stones and gravel are lacking. sinking shafts through quicksands by artificially freezing the sand, so as to form a firm frozen wall immediately around the area where the shaft is to be sunk, is a recent new idea. modern countries especially are waking up to the necessity of good roads, not only as a necessary means of transportation, but as a pre-requisite to decent civilisation in all respects. and, therefore, great activity has been had in the last third of a century in invention of machines for finishing and repairing roads. in the matter of sewer construction, regarded now so necessary in all civilised cities and thickly-settled communities as one of the means of proper sanitation, great improvements have been made in deep sewerage, in which the work is largely performed below the surface and with little obstruction to street traffic. in connection with excavating and dredging machines, mention should be made of those great works in the construction of which they bore such important parts, as drainage and land reclamation, such as is seen in the modern extensions of land reclamation in holland, in the haarlem lake district in the north part of england, the swamps of florida and the drainage of the london district; in modern tunnels such as the hoosac in america and the three great ones through the alps: the mont cenis, st. gothard, and arlberg, the work in which developed an entirely new system of engineering, by the application of newly-discovered explosives for blasting, new rock-drilling machinery, new air-compressing machines for driving the drill machines and ventilating the works, and new hydraulic and pumping machinery for sinking shafts and pumping out the water. the great canals, especially the suez, developed a new system of canal engineering. thus by modern inventions of devices for digging and blasting, dredging and draining and attendant operations, some of the greatest works of man on earth have been produced, and evinced the exercise of his highest inventive genius. if one wishes an ocular demonstration of the wonders wrought in the th century in the several domains of engineering, let him take a pullman train across the continent from new york to san francisco. the distance is , miles and the time is four days and four nights. the car in which the passenger finds himself is a marvel of woodwork and upholstery--a description of the machinery and processes for producing which belongs to other arts. the railroad tracks upon which the vehicle moves are in themselves the results of many inventions. there is the width of the track, and it was only after a long and expensive contest that countries and corporations settled upon a uniform gauge. the common gauge of the leading countries and roads is now feet ½ inches. a greater width is known as a broad gauge, a less width as a narrow gauge. then as to the rail: first the wooden, then the iron and now the steel, and all of many shapes and weights. the t-rail invented by birkensaw in , having two flanges at the top to form a wide berth for the wheels of the rolling stock, the vertical portion gripped by chairs which are spiked to the ties, is the best known. then the frogs, a v-shaped device by which the wheels are guided from one line of rails to another, when they form angles with each other; the car wheel made with a flange or flanges to fit the rail, and the railway gates, ingenious contrivances that guard railway crossings and are operated automatically by the passing trains, but more commonly by watchmen. the car may be lighted with electricity, and as the train dashes along at the rate of to miles an hour, it may be stopped in less than a minute by the touch of the engineer on an air brake. is it midwinter and are mountains of snow encountered? they disappear before the railway snow-plough more quickly than they came. it passes over bridges, through tunnels, across viaducts, around the edges of mountain peaks, every mile revealing the wondrous work of man's inventive genius for encompassing the earth with speed, safety and comfort. over one-half million miles of these railway tracks are on the earth's surface to-day! not only has the railway superseded horse power in the matter of transportation to a vast extent, but other modes of transportation are taking the place of that useful animal. the old-fashioned stage coach, and then the omnibus, were successively succeeded by the street car drawn by horses, and then about twenty years ago the horse began to be withdrawn from that work and the cable substituted. _cable transportation_ developed from the art of making iron wire and steel wire ropes or cables. and endless cables placed underground, conveyed over rollers and supported on suitable yokes, and driven from a great central power house, came into use, and to which the cars were connected by ingeniously contrived lever grips--operated by the driver on the car. these great cable constructions, expensive as they were, were found more economical than horse power. in fact, there is no modernly discovered practical motive power but what has been found less expensive both as to time and money than horse power. but the cable for this purpose is now in turn everywhere yielding to electricity, the great motor next to steam. the overhead cable system for the transportation of materials of various descriptions in carriers, also run by a central motor, is still very extensively used. the cable plan has also been tried with some success in the propelling of canal boats. _canals_, themselves, although finding a most serious and in some localities an entirely destructive rival in the railroad, have grown in size and importance, and in appliances that have been substituted for the old-style locks. the latest form of this device is what is known as the pneumatic balance lock system. it has been said by octave chanute that "progress in civilisation may fairly be said to be dependent upon the facilities for men to get about, upon their intercourse with other men and nations, not only in order to supply their mutual needs cheaply, but to learn from each other their wants, their discoveries and their inventions." next to the power and means for moving people, come the immense and wonderful inventions for lifting and loading, such as cranes and derricks, means for coaling ships and steamers, for handling and storing the great agricultural products, grain and hay, and that modern wonder, the _grain elevator_, that dots the coasts of rivers, lakes and seas, receives the vast stores of golden grain from thousands of steam cars that come to it laden from distant plains and discharges it swiftly in mountain loads into vessels and steamers to be carried to the multitudes across the seas, and to satisfy that ever-continuing cry, "give us this day our daily bread." chapter ix. electricity. in the real nature of electricity appears to be as unknown as it was in . franklin in the eighteenth century defined electricity as consisting of particles of matter incomparably more subtle than air, and which pervaded all bodies. at the close of the nineteenth century electricity defined as "simply a form of energy which imparts to material substances a peculiar state or condition, and that all such substances partake more or less of this condition." these theories and the late discovery of hertz that electrical energy manifests itself in the form of waves, oscillations or vibrations, similar to light, but not so rapid as the vibrations of light, constitute about all that is known about the nature of this force. franklin believed it was a single fluid, but others taught that there were two kinds of electricity, positive and negative, that the like kinds were repulsive and the unlike kinds attractive, and that when generated it flowed in currents. such terms are not now regarded as representing actual varieties of this force, but are retained as convenient modes of expression, for want of better ones, as expressing the conditions or states of electricity when produced. electricity produced by friction, that is, developed upon the surface of a body by rubbing it with a dissimilar body, and called frictional or static electricity, was the only kind produced artificially in the days of franklin. what is known as galvanism, or animal electricity, also takes its date in the th century, to which further reference will be made. since there have been discovered additional sources, among which are voltaic electricity, or electricity produced by chemical action, such as is manifested when two dissimilar metals are brought near each other or together, and electrical manifestations produced by a decomposing action, one upon the other through a suitable medium; inductive electricity, or electricity developed or induced in one body by its proximity to another body through which a current is flowing; magnetic electricity, the conversion of the power of a magnet into electric force, and the reverse of this, the production of magnetic force by a current of electricity; and thermal electricity, or that generated by heat. electricity developed by these, or other means in contra-distinction to that produced by friction, has been called dynamic; but all electric force is now regarded as dynamic, in the sense that forces are always in motion and never at rest. many of the manifestations and experiments in later day fields which, by reason of their production by different means, have been given the names of discovery and invention, had become known to franklin and others, by means of the old methods in frictional electricity. they are all, however, but different routes leading to the same goal. in the midst of the brilliant discoveries of modern times confronting us on every side we should not forget the honourable efforts of the fathers of the science. we need not dwell on what the ancients produced in this line. it was a single fact only:--the greeks discovered that amber, a resinous substance, when rubbed would attract lighter bodies to it. in appeared the father of modern electricity--dr. gilbert of colchester, physician to queen elizabeth. he revived the one experiment of antiquity, and added to it the further fact that many substances besides amber, when rubbed, would manifest the same electric condition, such as sulphur, sapphire, wax, glass and other bodies. and thus he opened the field of electrodes. he was the first to use the terms, electricity, electric and electrode, which he derived from the word _elektron_, the greek name for amber. he observed the actions of magnets, and conjectured the fundamental identity of magnetism and electricity. he arranged an electrometer, consisting of an iron needle poised on a pivot, by which to note the action of the magnet. this was about the time that otto von guericke of magdeburg, germany, was born. he became a "natural" philosopher, and for thirty-five years was burgomaster of his native town. he invented the air-pump, and he it was who illustrated the force of atmospheric pressure by fitting together two hollow brass hemispheres which, after the air within them had been exhausted, could not be pulled apart. he also invented a barometer, and as an astronomer suggested that the return of comets might be calculated. he invented and constructed the first machine for generating electricity. it consisted of a ball of sulphur rotated on an axis, and which was electrified by friction of the hand, the ball receiving negative electricity while the positive flowed through the person to the earth. with this machine "he heard the first sound and saw the first light in artificially excited electricity." the machine was improved by sir isaac newton and others, and before the close of that century was put into substantially its present form of a round glass plate rotated between insulated leather cushions coated with an amalgam of tin and zinc, the positive or vitreous electricity thus developed being accumulated on two large hollow brass cylinders with globular ends, supported on glass pillars. gray in discovered the conductive power of certain substances, and that the electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance by means of an insulated wire. this was the first step towards the electric telegraph. dufay, the french philosopher and author, who in - wrote the _memoirs of the french academy_, was, it seems, the first to observe electrical attractions and repulsions; that electrified resinous substances repelled like substances while they attracted bodies electrified by contact with glass; and he, therefore, to the latter applied the term _vitreous_ electricity and to the former the term _resinous_ electricity. in prof. muschenbroeck of leyden university developed the celebrated leyden jar. this is a glass jar coated both inside and outside with tinfoil for about four-fifths of its height. its mouth is closed with a cork through which is passed a metallic rod, terminating above in a knob and connected below with the inner coating by a chain or a piece of tinfoil. if the inner coating be connected with an electrical machine and the outer coating with the earth, a current of electricity is established, and the inner coating receives what is called a positive and the outer coating a negative charge. on connecting the two surfaces by means of a metallic discharger having a non-conducting handle a spark is obtained. thus the leyden jar is both a collector and a condenser of electricity. on arranging a series of such jars and joining their outer and inner surfaces, and connecting the series with an electrical machine, a battery is obtained of greater or less power according to the number of jars employed and the extent of supply from the machine. the principle of the leyden jar was discovered by accident. cuneus, a pupil of muschenbroeck, was one day trying to charge some water in a glass bottle with electricity by connecting it with a chain to the sparking knob of an electrical machine. holding the bottle in one hand he arranged the chain with the other, and received a violent shock. his teacher then tried the experiment himself, with a still livelier and more convincing result, whereupon he declared that he would not repeat the trial for the whole kingdom of france. when the science of static electricity was thus far developed, with a machine for generating it and a collector to receive it, many experiments followed. charles morrison in , in the _scots magazine_, proposed a telegraph system of insulated wires with a corresponding number of characters to be signalled between two stations. other schemes were proposed at different times down to the close of the century. franklin records among several other experiments with frictional electricity accumulated by the leyden jar battery the following results, produced chiefly by himself: the existence of an attractive and a repulsive action of electricity; the restoration of the equilibrium of electrical force between electrified and non-electrified bodies, or between bodies differently supplied with the force; the electroscope, a body charged with electricity and used to indicate the presence and condition of electricity in another body; the production of work, as the turning of wheels, by which it was proposed a spit for roasting meat might be formed, and the ringing of chimes by a wheel, which was done; the firing of gunpowder, the firing of wood, resin and spirits; the drawing off a charge from electrified bodies at a near distance by pointed rods; the heating and melting of metals; the production of light; the magnetising of needles and of bars of iron, giving rise to the analogy of magnetism and electricity. franklin, who had gone thus far, and who also had drawn the lightning from the clouds, identified it as electricity, and taught the mode of its subjection, felt chagrined that more had not been done with this subtle agent in the service of man. he believed, however, that the day-spring of science was opening, and he seemed to have caught some reflection of its coming light. observing the return to life and activity of some flies long imprisoned in a bottle of madeira wine and which he restored by exposure to the sun and air, he wrote that he should like to be immersed at death with a few friends in a cask of madeira, to be recalled to life a hundred years thence to observe the state of his country. it would not have been necessary for him to have been embalmed that length of time to have witnessed some great developments of his favorite science. he died in , and it has been said that there was more real progress in this science in the first decade of the nineteenth century than in all previous centuries put together. before opening the door of the th century, let us glance at one more experiment in the th: while the aged franklin was dying, dr luigi galvani of bologna, an italian physician, medical lecturer, and learned author, was preparing for publication his celebrated work, _de viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius_, in which he described his discovery made a few years before of the action of the electric current on the legs and spinal column of a frog hung on a copper nail. this discovery at once excited the attention of scientists, but in the absence of any immediate practical results the multitude dubbed him the "frog philosopher." he proceeded with his experiments on animals and animal matter, and developed the doctrine and theories of what is known as animal or galvanic electricity. his fellow countryman and contemporary, prof. volta of pavia, took decided issue with galvani and maintained that the pretended animal electricity was nothing but electricity developed by the contact of two different metals. subsequent investigations and discoveries have established the fact that both theories have truth for their basis, and that electricity is developed both by muscular and nervous energy as well as by chemical action. in volta invented his celebrated pile, consisting of alternate disks of copper and zinc separated by a cloth moistened with a dilute acid; and soon after an arrangement of cups--each containing a dilute acid and a copper and a zinc plate placed a little distance apart, and thus dispensing with the cloth. in both instances he connected the end plate of one kind with the opposite end plate of the other kind by a wire, and in both arrangements produced a current of electricity. to the discoveries, experiments, and disputes of galvani and volta and to those of their respective adherents, the way was opened to the splendid electrical inventions of the century, and the discovery of a new world of light, heat, speech and power. the discoveries of galvani and volta at once set leading scientists at work. fabroni of florence, and sir humphry davy and wollaston of england, commenced interesting experiments, showing that rapid oxidation and chemical decomposition of the metals took place in the voltaic pile. by the discoveries of galvani the physicians and physiologists were greatly excited, and believed that by this new vital power the nature of all kinds of nervous diseases could be explored and the remedy applied. volta's discovery excited the chemists. if two dissimilar metals could be decomposed and power at the same time produced they contended that practical work might be done with the force. in nicholson and carlisle decomposed water by passing the electric current through the same; ritter decomposed copper sulphate, and davy decomposed the alkalies, potash and soda. thus the art of electrolysis--the decomposition of substances by the galvanic current, was established. later faraday laid down its laws. naturally inventions sprung up in new forms of batteries. the pile and cup battery of volta had been succeeded by the trough battery--a long box filled with separated plates set in dilute acid. the trough battery was used by sir humphry davy in his series of great experiments-- - --in which he isolated the metallic bases, calcium, sodium, potassium, etc. it consisted of double plates of copper and zinc, each having a surface of square inches. with this same trough battery davy in produced the first electric carbon light, the bright herald of later glories. among the most noted new batteries were daniell's, grove's and bunsen's. they are called the "two fluid batteries," because in place of a single acidulated bath in which the dissimilar metals were before placed, two different liquid solutions were employed. john frederick daniell of london, noted for his great work, _meteorological essays_, and other scientific publications, and as professor of chemistry in king's college, in , described how a powerful and constant current of electricity may be continued for an unlimited period by a battery composed of zinc standing in an acid solution and a sheet of copper in a solution of sulphate of copper. sir william robert grove, first an english physician, then an eminent lawyer, and then a professor of natural philosophy, and the first to announce the great theory of the correlation of physical forces, in produced his battery, much more powerful than any previous one, and still in general use. in it zinc and platinum are the metals used--the zinc bent into cylindrical form and placed in a glass jar containing a weak solution of sulphuric acid, while the platinum stands in a porous jar holding strong nitric acid and surrounded by the zinc. among the electrical discoveries of grove were the decomposition by electricity of water into free oxygen and hydrogen, the electricity of the flame of the blow-pipe, electrical action produced by proximity, without contact, of dissimilar metals, molecular movements induced in metals by the electric current, and the conversion of electricity into mechanical force. robert wilhelm bunsen, a german chemist and philosopher and scientific writer, who invented some of the most important aids to scientific research of the century, who constructed the best working chemical laboratory on the continent and founded the most celebrated schools of chemistry in europe, invented a battery, sometimes called the carbon battery, in which the expensive pole of platinum in the grove battery is replaced by one of carbon. it was found that this combination gave a greater current than that of zinc and platinum. a great variety of useful voltaic batteries have since been devised by others, too numerous to be mentioned here. there is another form of battery having for its object the storing of energy by electrolysis, and liberating it when desired, in the form of an electric current, and known as an accumulator, or secondary, polarization, or storage battery. prof. ritter had noticed that the two plates of metal which furnished the electric current, when placed in the acid liquid and united, could in themselves furnish a current, and the inventing of _storage_ batteries was thus produced. the principal ones of this class are gustave planté's of and m. camille faure's of . these have still further been improved. still another form are the _thermo-electric batteries_, in which the electro-motive force is produced by the joining of two different metals, connecting them by a wire and heating their junctions. thus, an electric current is obtained directly from heat, without going through the intermediate processes of boiling water to produce steam, using this steam to drive an engine, and using this engine to turn a dynamo machine to produce power. but let us retrace our steps:--as previously stated, franklin had experimented with frictional electricity on needles, and had magnetised and polarised them and noticed their deflection; and lesage had established an experimental telegraph at geneva by the same kind of electricity more than a hundred years ago. but frictional electricity could not be transmitted with power over long distances, and was for practical purposes uncontrollable by reason of its great diffusion over surfaces, while voltaic electricity was found to be more intense and could be developed with great power along a wire for any distance. fine wires had been heated and even melted by franklin by frictional electricity, and now ritter, pfaff and others observed the same effect produced on the conducting wires by a voltaic current; and curtet, on closing the passage with a piece of charcoal, produced a brilliant light, which was followed by davy's light already mentioned. as early as an italian savant, gian d. romagnosi of trent, learning of volta's discovery, observed and announced in a public print the deflection of the magnetic needle when placed near a parallel conductor of the galvanic current. in the years and so many brilliant discoveries and inventions were made by eminent men, independently and together, and at such near and distant places, that it is hard telling who and which was first. it was in that the celebrated danish physicist, oersted of copenhagen, rediscovered the phenomena that the voltaic current would deflect a magnetic needle, and that the needle would turn at right angles to the wire. in prof. s. c. schweigger of halle discovered that this deflecting force was increased when the wire was wound several times round the needle, and thus he invented the magnetising helix. he also then invented a galvano-magnetic indicator (a single-wire circuit) by giving the insulated wire a number of turns around an elongated frame longitudinally enclosing the compass needle, thus multiplying the effect of the current upon the sensitive needle, and converting it into a practical _measuring_ instrument--known as the galvanometer, and used to observe the strength of currents. in the same year arago found that iron filings were attracted by a voltaic charged wire; and arago and davy that a piece of soft iron surrounded spirally by a wire through which such a current was passed would become magnetic, attract to it other metals while in that condition, immediately drop them the instant the current ceased, and that such current would permanently magnetise a steel bar. the elements of the _electro-magnet_ had thus been produced. it was in that year that ampère discovered that magnetism is the circulation of currents of electricity at right angles to the axis of the needle or bar joining the two poles of the magnet. he then laid down the laws of interaction between magnets and electrical currents, and in this same year he proposed an electric-magneto telegraph consisting of the combination of a voltaic battery, conducting wires, and magnetic needles, one needle for each letter of the alphabet. the discoveries of ampère as to the laws of electricity have been likened to the discovery of newton of the law of gravitation. still no practical result, that is, no useful machine, had been produced by the electro-magnet. in sturgeon of england bent a piece of wire into the shape of a horse-shoe, insulated it with a coating of sealing wax, wound a fine copper wire around it, thus making a helix, passed a galvanic current through the helix, and thus invented the first practical electro-magnet. but sturgeon's magnet was weak, and could not transmit power for more than fifty feet. already, however, it had been urged that sturgeon's magnet could be used for telegraphic purposes, and a futile trial was made. in the field during this decade also labored the german professors gauss and weber, and baron schilling of russia. in prof. barlow of england published an article in which he summarised what had been done, and scientifically demonstrated to his own satisfaction that an electro-magnetic telegraph was impracticable, and his conclusion was accepted by the scientific world as a fact. this was, however, not the first nor the last time that scientific men had predicted impracticabilities with electricity which afterwards blossomed into full success. but even before prof. barlow was thus arriving at his discouraging conclusion, prof. joseph henry at the albany institute in the state of new york had commenced experiments which resulted in the complete and successful demonstration of the power of electro-magnetism for not only telegraph purposes but for almost every advancement that has since been had in this branch of physics. in march he exhibited at his institute the magnetic "spool" or "bobbin," that form of coil composed of tightly-wound, silk-covered wire which he had constructed, and which since has been universally employed for nearly every application of electro-magnetism, of induction, or of magneto-electrics. and in the same year and in he produced those powerful magnets through which the energy of a galvanic battery was used to lift hundreds of tons of weight. in view of all the facts now historically established, there can be no doubt that previous to henry's experiments the means for developing magnetism in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and that, as found by prof. barlow, the electro-magnet which then existed was inapplicable and impracticable for the transmission of power to a distance. prof. henry was the first to prove that a galvanic battery of "intensity" must be employed to project the current through a long conductor, and that a magnet of one long wire must be used to receive this current; the first to magnetise a piece of soft iron at a distance and call attention to its applicability to the telegraph; the first to actually sound a bell at a distance by means of the electro-magnet; and the first to show that the principles he developed were applicable and necessary to the practical operation of an effective telegraph system. sturgeon, the parent of the electro-magnet, on learning of henry's discoveries and inventions, wrote: "professor henry has been enabled to produce a magnetic force which totally eclipses every other in the whole annals of magnetism; and no parallel is to be found since the miraculous suspension of the celebrated oriental impostor in his iron coffin." (_philosophical magazine and annals_, .) the third decade was now prepared for the development of the telegraph. as to the telegraph in its broadest sense, as a means for conveying intelligence to a distance quickly and without a messenger, successful experiments of that kind have existed from the earliest times:--from the signal fires of the ancients; from the flag signals between ships at sea, introduced in the seventeenth century by the duke of york, then admiral of the english fleet, and afterwards james ii of england; from the semaphore telegraph of m. chappe, adopted by the french government in , consisting of bars pivoted to an upright stationary post, and made to swing vertically or horizontally to indicate certain signals; and from many other forms of earlier and later days. as to electricity as an agent for the transmission of signals, the idea dates, as already stated, from the discovery of stephen gray in , that the electrical influence could be conveyed to a distance by the means of an insulated wire. this was followed by the practical suggestions of franklin and others. but when, as we have seen, voltaic electricity entered the field, electricity became a more powerful and tractable servant, and distant intelligent signals became one of its first labors. the second decade was also made notable by the discovery and establishment by george simon ohm, a german professor of physics, of the fundamental mathematical law of electricity: it has been expressed in the following terms: (a) the current strength is equal to the electro-motive force divided by the resistance; (b) the force is equal to the current strength multiplied by the resistance; (c) the resistance is equal to the force divided by the current strength. the historical development and evolution of the telegraph may be now summarized:-- . the discovery of galvanic electricity by galvani-- - . . the galvanic or voltaic battery by volta in . . the galvanic influence on a magnetic needle by romagnosi ( ) oersted ( ). . the galvanometer of schweigger, --the parent of the needle system. . the electro-magnet by arago and sturgeon-- - --the parent of the magnet system. then followed in the third decade the important series of steps in the evolution, consisting of:-- _first_, and most vital, henry's discovery in and of the "intensity" or spool-wound magnet, and its intimate relation to the "intensity" battery, and the subordinate use of an armature as the signalling device. _second_, gauss's improvement in (or probably schilling's considerably earlier) of reducing the electric conductors to a single circuit by the ingenious use of a dual sign so combined as to produce a true alphabet. _third_, weber's discovery in that the conducting wires of an electric telegraph could be efficiently carried through the air without any insulation except at their points of support. _fourth_, daniell's invention of a "constant" galvanic battery in . _fifth_, steinheil's remarkable discovery in that the earth may form the returning half of a closed galvanic circuit, so that a single conducting wire is sufficient for all telegraphic purposes. _sixth_, morse's adaptation of the armature and electro-magnet of henry as a recording instrument in in connection with his improvement in on the schilling, gauss and steinheil alphabets by employing the simple "dot and dash" alphabet in a single line. he was also assisted by the suggestions of profs. dana and gale. to which must be added his adoption of alfred vail's improved alphabet, and vail's practical suggestions in respect to the recording and other instrumentalities. to these should be added the efforts in england, made almost simultaneously with those of morse, of wheatstone and cook and davy, who were reaching the same goal by somewhat different routes. morse in commenced to put the results of his experiments and investigations in the form of caveats, applications and letters patent in the united states and in europe. he struggled hard against indifference and poverty to introduce his invention to the world. it was not until that he reduced it to a commercial practical success. he then laid a telegraph from washington to baltimore under the auspices of the united states government, which after long hesitation appropriated $ , for the purpose. it was on the th day of may, , that the first formal message was transmitted on this line between the two cities and recorded by the electro-magnet in the dot and dash alphabet, and this was immediately followed by other messages on the same line. morse gathered freely from all sources of which he could avail himself knowledge of what had gone before. he was not a scientific discoverer, but an inventor, who, adding a few ideas of his own to what had before been discovered, was the first to combine them in a practical useful device. what he did as an inventor, and what anyone may do to constitute himself an inventor, by giving to the world a device which is useful in the daily work of mankind, as distinguished from the scientific discoverer who stops short of successful industrial work, is thus stated by the united states supreme court in an opinion sustaining the validity of his patents, after all the previous art had been produced before it:-- "neither can the inquiries he made nor the information or advice he received from men of science in the course of his researches impair his right to the character of an inventor. no invention can possibly be made, consisting of a combination of different elements of power, without a thorough knowledge of the properties of each of them, and the mode in which they operate on each other. and it can make no difference in this respect, whether he derives his information from books, or from conversation with men skilled in the science. if it were otherwise, no patent in which a combination of different elements is used would ever be obtained, for no man ever made such an invention without having first obtained this information, unless it was discovered by some fortunate accident. and it is evident that such an invention as the electro-magnetic telegraph could never have been brought into action without it; for a very high degree of scientific knowledge and the nicest skill in the mechanic arts are combined in it, and were both necessary to bring it into successful operation. the fact that morse sought and obtained the necessary information and counsel from the best sources, and acted upon it, neither impairs his rights as an inventor nor detracts from his merits."--_o'reilly vs. morse, howard_. the combination constituting morse's invention comprised a main wire circuit to transmit the current through its whole length whenever closed; a main galvanic battery to supply the current; operating keys to break and close the main circuit; office circuits; a circuit of conductors and batteries at each office to record the message there; receiving spring lever magnets to close an office circuit when a current passes through the main circuit; adjusting screws to vary the force of the main current; marking apparatus, consisting of pointed pieces of wire, to indent dots and lines upon paper; clockwork to move the paper indented; and magnet sounders to develop the power of the pointer and of the armatures to produce audible distinguishable sounds. it was soon learned by operators how to distinguish the signs or letters sent by the length of the "click" of the armature, and by thus reading by sound the reading of the signs on paper was dispensed with, and the device became an electric-magnetic acoustic telegraph. what is known as the morse system has been improved, but its fundamental principles remain, and their world-wide use constitute still the daily evidence of the immense value of the invention to mankind. before the reduction to practice, morse had originated and laid the first submarine telegraph. this was in new york harbour in . in a letter to the secretary of the united states treasury, august , , he also suggested the project of an atlantic telegraph. while henry was busy with his great magnets and morse struggling to introduce his telegraph, michael faraday was making those investigations and discoveries which were to result in the application of electricity to the service of man in still wider and grander fields. faraday was a chemist, and davy's most brilliant pupil and efficient assistant. his earliest experiments were in the line of electrolysis. this was about , but it was not until that he began to devote his brilliant talents as an experimentalist and lecturer wholly to electrical researches, and for a quarter of a century his patient, wonderful labours and discoveries continued. it has been said that "although oersted was the discoverer of electro-magnetism and ampère its expounder, faraday made the science of magnets electrically what it is at the present day." great magnetic power having been developed by passing a galvanic current around a bar of soft iron, faraday concluded that it was reasonable to suppose that as mechanical action is accompanied by an equal amount of reaction, electricity ought to be evolved from magnetism. "it was in that faraday demonstrated before the royal society that if a magnetized bar of steel be introduced into the centre of a helix of insulated wire, there is at the moment of introduction of the magnet a current of electricity set up in a certain direction in the insulated wire forming the helix, while on the withdrawal of the magnet from the helix a current in an opposite direction takes place. "he also discovered that the same phenomenon was to be observed if for the magnet was substituted a coil of insulated wire, through which the current from a voltaic element was passing; and further that when an insulated coil of wire was made to revolve before the poles of a permanent magnet, electric currents were induced in the wires of the coil."--_journal of the society of arts._ on these discoveries were based the action of all magneto-dynamo electric machines--machines that have enabled the world to convert the energy of a steam engine in its stall, or a distant waterfall, into electric energy for the performance of the herculean labours of lighting a great city, or an ocean-bound lighthouse, or transporting quickly heavy loads of people or freight up and down and to and fro upon the earth. as before stated, faraday was also the first to proclaim the laws of electrolysis, or electro-chemical decomposition. he expressed conviction that the forces termed chemical affinity and electricity are one and the same. subsequently the great helmholtz, having proved by experiment that in the phenomena of electrolysis no other force acts but the mutual attractions of the atomic electric charges, came to the conclusion, "that the very mightiest among the chemical forces are of electric origin." faraday having demonstrated by his experiments that chemical decomposition, electricity, magnetism, heat and light, are all inter-convertible and correlated forces, the inventors of the age were now ready to step forward and put these theories at work in machines in the service of man. faraday was a leader in the field of discovery. he left to inventors the practical application of his discoveries. prof. henry in america was, contemporaneously with faraday, developing electricity by means of magnetic induction. in , pixii, a philosophical instrument-maker of paris, and joseph saxton, an american then residing in london, invented and constructed magneto-machines on faraday's principle of rendering magnetic a core of soft iron surrounded with insulated wire from a permanent magnet, and rapidly reversing its polarity, which machines were used to produce sparks, decompose liquids and metals, and fire combustible bodies. saxton's machine was the well-known electric shock machine operated by turning a crank. a similar device is now used for ringing telephone call bells. prof. c. g. page of washington and ruhmkorff of paris each made a machine, well known as the ruhmkorff coil, by which intense electro-magnetic currents by induction were produced. the production of electrical illumination was now talked of more than ever. scientists and inventors now had two forms of electrical machines to produce light: the voltaic battery and the magneto-electric apparatus. but a period of comparative rest took place in this line until , when prof. nollet of brussels made an effort to produce a powerful magneto-electric machine for decomposing water into its elements of hydrogen and oxygen, which gases were then to be used in producing the lime light; and a company known as "the alliance" was organized at paris to make large machines for the production of light. we have seen that davy produced a brilliant electric light with two pieces of charcoal in the electric circuit of a voltaic battery. greener and staite revived this idea in a patent in . shortly after nollet's machine, f. h. holmes of england improved it and applied the current directly to the production of electric light between carbon points. and holmes and faraday in prepared this machine for use. on the evening of december , , the first practical electric light, the work of faraday and holmes, flashed over the troubled sea from the south foreland lighthouse. on june , , this light was also introduced into the lighthouse at dungeness, england. the same light was introduced in french lighthouses in december, , and also in the work on the docks of cherbourg. at this time germany was also awake to the importance of this invention, and dr. werner siemens of berlin was at work developing a machine for the purpose into one of less cost and of greater use. inventors were not yet satisfied with the power developed from either the voltaic battery or the magneto-electric machine, and continued to improve the latter. in , the same year that faraday died, and too late for him to witness its glory, came out the most powerful magneto-electric machine that had yet been produced. it was invented by wilde of london, and consisted of very large electro-magnets, or field magnets, receiving their electric power from the "lines of force" discovered by faraday, radiating from the poles of a soft iron magnet, combined with a small magneto-electric machine having permanent magnets, and by which the current developed in the smaller machine was sent through the coils of the larger magnets. by this method the magnetic force was vastly multiplied, and electricity was produced in such abundance as to fuse thick iron wire fifteen inches long and one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and to develop a magnificent arc light. quickly succeeding the wilde machine came independent inventions in the same direction from messrs. g. farmer of salem, mass., alfred yarley and prof. charles wheatstone of england, and dr. siemens of berlin, and ladd of america. these inventors conceived and put in practice the great idea of employing the current from an electro-magnetic machine to excite its own electric magnet. they were thus termed "self-exciting." the idea was that the commutator (an instrument to change the direction, strength or circuit of the current) should be so connected with the coils of the field magnets that all or a part of the current developed in the armature would flow through these coils, so that all permanent magnets might be dispensed with, and the machine used to excite itself or charge its own field magnets without the aid of any outside charging or feeding mechanism. mr. z. gramme, of france, a little later than wilde made a great improvement. previously, machines furnished only momentary currents of varying strength and polarity; and these intermittent currents were hard to control without loss in the strength of current and the frequent production of sparks. gramme produced a machine in which, although as in other machines the magnetic field of force was created by a powerful magnet, yet the armature was a ring made of soft iron rods, and surrounded by an endless coil of wire, and made to revolve between the poles of the magnet with great rapidity, producing a constant current in one direction. by faraday's discovery, when the coil of the closed circuit was moved before the poles of the magnet, the current was carried half the time in one direction and half in the other, constituting what is called an alternating current. gramme employed the commutator to make the current direct instead of alternating. dynamo-electric machines for practical work of many kinds had now been born and grown to strength. in addition to these and many other electrical machines this century has discovered several ways by which the electricity developed by such machines may be converted into light. i. by means of two carbon conductors between which passes a series of intensely brilliant sparks which form a species of flame known as the _voltaic arc_, and the heat of which is more intense than that from any other known artificial source. ii. by means of a rod of carbon or kaolin, strip of platinum or iridium, a carbon filament, or other substance placed between two conductors, the resistance opposed by such rod, strip, or filament to the passage of the current being so great as to develop heat to the point of incandescence, and produce a steady white and pure light. attempts also have been made to produce illumination by what is called stratified light produced by the electric discharge passing through tubes containing various gases. these tubes are known as geissler tubes, from their inventor. still another method is the production of a continuous light from a vibratory movement of carbon electrodes to and from each other, producing a bright flash at each separation, and maintaining the separations at such a rate that the effect of the light produced is continuous. but these additional methods do not appear as yet to be commercially successful. it must not be overlooked that before dynamo-magneto-electric machines were used practically in the production of the electric light for the purposes of illumination, the voltaic battery was used for the same purpose, but not economically. the first private dwelling house ever lighted in america, or doubtless anywhere else, by electricity, was that of moses g. farmer, in salem, massachusetts, in the year . a voltaic battery furnished the current to conducting wires which led to two electric lamps on the mantel-piece of the drawing-room, and in which strips of platinum constituted the resisting and lighting medium. a soft, mild, agreeable light was produced, which was more delightful to read or sew by than any artificial light ever before known. either or both lamps could be lighted by turning a button, and they were maintained for several weeks, but were discontinued for the reason that the cost of maintaining them was much greater than of gas light. it was in connection with the effective dynamo-electric apparatus of m. gramme above referred to that the electric candle invented by m. paul jablochoff became soon thereafter extensively employed for electric lighting in paris, and elsewhere in europe. this invention, like the great majority of useful inventions, is noted for its simplicity. it consists of two carbon pencils placed side by side and insulated from each other by means of a thin plate of some refractory material which is a non-conductor at ordinary temperatures, but which becomes a conductor, and consequently a light, when fused by the action of a powerful current. plaster of paris was found to be the most suitable material for this purpose, and the light produced was soft, mellow, slightly rose-coloured, and quite agreeable to the eye. it having been found that carbon was better adapted for lighting purposes than platinum or other metals, by reason of its greater radiating power for equal temperatures, and still greater infusibility at high temperatures, inventors turned their attention to the production of the best carbon lamp. the two pointed pieces of hard conducting carbon used for the separated terminals constitute the voltaic arc light--a light only excelled in intense brilliancy by the sun itself. it is necessary in order to make such a light successful that it should be continuous. but as it is found that both carbons waste away under the consuming action of the intense heat engendered by their resistance to the electric current, and that one electrode, the positive, wastes away twice as fast as the opposite negative electrode, the distance between the points soon becomes too great for the current longer to leap over it, and the light is then extinguished. many ingenious contrivances have been devised for correcting this trouble, and maintaining a continuously uniform distance between the carbons by giving to them a self-adjusting automatic action. such an apparatus is called a _regulator_, and the variety of regulators is very great. the french were among the first to contrive such regulators,--duboscq, foucault, serrin, houdin, and lontin invented most useful forms of such apparatus. other early inventors were hart of scotland, siemens of germany, thompson and houston of england, and farmer, brush, wallace, maxim, and weston and westinghouse of america. gramme made his armature of iron rods to prevent its destruction by heat. weston in improved this method by making the armature of separate and insulated sheets of iron around which the coil is wound. the arc light is adapted for streets and great buildings, etc.; but for indoor illumination, when a milder, softer light is desirable, the _incandescent_ light was invented, and this consists of a curved filament of carbon about the size of a coarse horsehair, seated in a bulb of glass from which the air has been exhausted. in exhausted air carbon rods or filaments are not consumed, and so great ingenuity was exercised on that line. among the early noted inventors of incandescent carbon filament lamps were edison and maxim of new york, swan, and lane-fox of england. another problem to be solved arose in the proposed use of arc lamps upon an extended scale, or in series, as in street lighting, wherein the current to all lamps was supplied by a single wire, and where it was found that owing to the unequal consumption of the carbons some were burning well, some poorly, and some going out. it was essential, therefore, to make each lamp independent of the resistance of the main circuit and of the action of the other lamps, and to have its regulating mechanism governed entirely by the resistance of its own arc. the solution of this difficult problem was the invention by heffner von alteneck of germany, and his device came into use wherever throughout the world arc lamps were operated. westinghouse also improved the direct alternating system of lighting by one wire by the introduction of two conducting wires parallel to each other, and passing an interrupted or alternating current through one, thereby inducing a similar and always an alternating current through the other. brush adopted a three-wire system; and both obtained a uniform consumption of the carbons. in a volume like this, room exists for mention only of those inventions which burn as beacon lights on the tallest hills--and so we must now pass on to others. just as faraday was bringing his long series of experimental researches to a close in - , and introducing the fruits of his labours into the lighthouses of england, cyrus w. field of new york had commenced his trials in the great scheme of an ocean cable to "moor the new world alongside the old," as john bright expressed it. after crossing the ocean from new york to england fifty times, and baffled often by the ocean, which broke his cables, and by the incredulous public of both hemispheres, who laughed at him, and by electricity, which refused to do his bidding, he at last overcame all obstacles, and in the cable two thousand miles in length had been successfully stretched and communication perfected. to employ currents of great power, the cable insulation would have been disintegrated and finally destroyed by heat. therefore only feeble currents could be used. but across that long distance these currents for many reasons grew still weaker. the inventor, sir william thomson, was at hand to provide the remedy. first, by his _mirror galvanometer_. a needle in the shape of a small magnet and connected to the current wires, is attached to the back of a small concave mirror having a hole in its centre; opposite the mirror is placed a graduated scale board, having slits through it, and a lighted lamp behind it. the light is thrown through the slits across to the hole at the center of the mirror and upon the needle. the feeblest imaginable current suffices to deflect the needle in one direction, which throws back the little beam of light upon it to the graduated front of the scale. when the current is reversed the needle and its shadow are deflected in the other direction, and so by a combination of right and left motions, and pauses, of the spots of light to represent letters, the message is spelled out. second, a more expeditious instrument called the _syphon recorder_. in this the galvanometer needle is connected to a fine glass syphon tube conducting ink from a reservoir on to a strip of paper which is drawn under the point of the tube with a uniform motion. the irregular movements given the galvanometer needle by the varying current are clearly delineated on the paper. or in writing very long cables the point of the syphon may not touch the paper, but the ink by electrical attraction from the paper is ejected from the syphon upon the paper in a succession of fine dots. the irregular lines of dots and dashes were translated into words in accordance with the principles of the morse telegraph. an instrument was exhibited at the centennial international exhibition at philadelphia in , which was considered by the judges "the greatest marvel hitherto achieved by the electric telegraph." such was the language used both by prof. joseph henry and sir wm. thomson, and concurred in by the other eminent judges from america, germany, france, austria and switzerland. this instrument was the _telephone_. it embodied, for the practical purpose of transmitting articulate speech to distances, the union of the two great forces,--sound and electricity. it consisted of a method and an apparatus. the apparatus or means consisted of an electric battery circuit, a transmitting cone placed at one end of the line into which speech and other vocal sounds were uttered, a diaphragm against which the sounds were projected, an armature secured to or forming a part of the diaphragm, an electro-magnet loosely connected to the armature, a wire connecting this magnet with another precisely similar arrangement of magnet, armature, diaphragm, and cone, at the receiving end. when speech was uttered in the transmitter the sound vibrations were received on the diaphragm, communicated to the electricised armature, from thence by induction to the magnet and the connecting wire current, which, undulating with precisely the same form of sound vibrations, carried them in exactly the same form to the receiving magnet. they were then carried through the receiving armature and reproduced on the receiving diaphragm, with all the same characteristics of pitch, loudness and quality. the inventor was alexander graham bell, by nativity a scotchman, then a resident of canada, and finally a citizen of the united states. his father was a teacher of vocal physiology at edinburgh, and he himself became a teacher of deaf mutes. this occupation naturally led him to a thorough investigation of the laws of sound. he acknowledged the aid he received from the great work of helmholtz on the _theory of tone_. his attention was called to sounds transmitted and reproduced by the electric current, especially by the ease with which telegraph operators read their messages by the duration of the "click" of their instruments. he knew of the old device of a tightly-stretched string or wire between two little boxes. he had read the publication of prof. c. g. page, of america, in , on the _production of galvanic music_, in which was described how musical notes were transmitted and reproduced by an interrupted magnetic circuit. he became acquainted with the experimental musical telephonic and acoustic researches of reis, and others of germany, and those of celebrated scientists in france, especially the phonautograph of scott, a delicate instrument having a cone membrane and pointer, and used to reproduce on smoked glass the waves of sound. he commenced his experiments with magneto instruments in , continued them in , when he succeeded in reproducing speech, but poorly, owing to his imperfect instruments, and then made out his application, and obtained a patent in the united states in july, . like all the other remarkable inventions recorded in these pages, this "marvel" did not spring forth as a sudden creation, but was a slow growth of a plant derived from old ideas, although it blossomed out suddenly one day when audible sounds were accidentally produced upon an apparatus with which he was experimenting. it is impossible here to narrate the tremendous conflict that bell now encountered to establish his title as first inventor, or to enumerate the multitude of improvements and changes made which go to make up the successful telephone of to-day. the messages of the voice are carried on the wings of electricity wherever any messages are carried, except under the widest seas, and this difficulty inventors are now seeking to overcome. the story of the marvellous inventions of the century in electricity is a fascinating one, but in length and details it is also marvellous, and we must hasten unwillingly to a close. numerous applications of it will be mentioned in chapters relating to other arts. in the generation of this mighty force improvements have been made, but those of greatest power still involve the principles discovered by faraday and henry seventy years ago. the ideas of faraday of the "lines of force"--the magnetic power streaming from the poles of the magnet somewhat as the rays of heat issue on all sides from a hot body, forming the magnetic field--and that a magnet behaves like an electric current, producing an electric wave by its approach to or recession from a coil of wire, joined with henry's idea of increasing the magnetising effect by increasing the number of coils around the magnet, enter into all powerful dynamo electric machines of to-day. in them the lines of force must flow around the frame and across the path of the armature; and there must be a set of conductors to cut the lines of force twice in every revolution of the cylinder carrying the armature from which the current is taken. when machines had been produced for generating with some economy powerful currents of electricity, their use for the world's business purposes rapidly increased. among such applications, and following closely the electric lighting, came the _electric railway_. a substitute for the slow animal, horse, and for the dangerous, noisy steam horse and its lumbering locomotive and train, was hailed with delight. inventors came forward with adaptations of all the old systems they could think of for the purpose, and with many new ones. one plan was to adapt the storage battery--that silent chemical monster which carries its own power and its own machine--and place one on each car to actuate a motor connected to the driving wheels. another plan was to conduct the current from the dynamo machine at its station along the rails on one side of the track to the motor on the car and the return current on the opposite track; another was to carry the current to the car on a third rail between the track, using both the other rails for the return; another to use an overhead wire for the current from the dynamo, and connect it with the car by a rod, one end of which had a little wheel or trolley running on the overhead wire, to take up the current, the other end being connected by a wire to the car motor; another plan to have a trench made leading from the central station underneath the track the whole length of the line, and put into this trench conducting wires from the dynamo, to one of which the car motor should be connected by a trolley rod or "brush," extending down through a central slot between the rails of the track to carry the electric supply into the motor. in all these cases a lever was supplied to cut off communication between the conducting wire and the motor, and a brake lever to stop the car. all of these plans have been tried, and some of them are still being tried with many improvements in detail, but not in principle. the first electrical railway was constructed and operated at berlin in , by messrs siemens and halske. it was two thousand seven hundred feet long and built on the third rail system. this was an experiment but a successful one. it was followed very soon by another line near berlin for actual traffic; then still another in saxony. at the paris exposition in , sir wm. siemens had in operation a road about one thousand six hundred feet in length, on which it is estimated ninety-five thousand passengers were conveyed in seven weeks. then in the next year in london; and then in the following year one in the united states near new york, constructed by edison. and thus they spread, until every important town and city in the world seems to have its electric plant, and its electric car system, and of course its lighting, telephone and telegraph systems. in prof. fleeming jenkin of england invented and has put to use a system called _telpherage_, by which cars are suspended on an overhead wire which is both the track and electrical conductor. it has been found to be advantageous in the transportation of freight from mines and other places to central stations. with the coming of the electric railway, the slow, much-abused horse, the puffing steam engine blowing off smoke and cinders through the streets, the great heavy cars, rails and roadbeds, the dangerous collisions and accidents, have disappeared. the great problems to solve have related to generation, form, distribution and division of the electric current at the dynamos at the central stations for the purposes of running the distant motors and for furnishing independent supplies of light, heat, sound and power. these problems have received the attention of the keenest inventors and electrical engineers and have been solved. the description of the inventions made by such electrical magicians as thomas edison and nikola tesla would fill volumes. the original plan of sending but one message over a wire at a time has also been improved; and duplex, quadruplex and multiplex systems have been invented (by stearns, farmer, edison and others) and applied, which have multiplied the capacity of the telegraphs, and by which even the alleged all-talk-at-the-same-time habit of certain members of the great human family can be carried on in opposite directions on the same wire at the same time between their gatherings in different cities and without a break. to understand the manner of multiplying messages or signals on the same line, and using apparently the same electric current to perform different operations, the mind must revert to the theory already referred to, that a current of electricity does not consist of a stream of matter flowing like water through a conductor in one direction, but of particles of subtle ether, vibrating or oscillating in waves from and around the conductor which excites them; that the vibration of this line of waves proceeds at the rate of many thousand miles per second, almost with the velocity of waves of light, with which they are so closely related; that this wave current is susceptible of being varied in direction and in strength, according to the impulse given by the initial pressure of the transmitting and exciting instrument; and that some wave currents have power by reason of their form or strength to penetrate or pass others coming from an opposite direction. so that in the multiplex process, for instance, each transmission having a certain direction or strength and its own set of transmitting and receiving instruments, will have power to give its own peculiar and independent signal or message. apparently there is but one continuous current, but in reality each transmission is separated from the others by an almost inconceivably short interval of time. among the inventions in the class of telegraphy should also be mentioned the dial and the printing systems. ever since the electric telegraph was invented, attempts have been made to use the electric influence to operate either a pointer to point out the letters of the message sent on a dial, or to print them on a moving strip of paper; and also to automatically reproduce on paper the handwriting of the sender or writer of the message. the earliest efforts were by cooke and prof. wheatstone of london, in - ; but it was not until , after prof. henry had succeeded in perfecting the electromagnet, that dial and printing telegraphs were successfully produced. dial telegraphs consist of the combination with magnets, armatures and printed dial plate of a clock-work and a pointer, means to set the pointer at the communicating end (which in some instances has been a piano keyboard) to any letter, the current operating automatically to indicate the same letters at the receiving end. these instruments have been modified and improved by brequet and froment of france, dr. siemens and kramer, and siemens and halske of germany, prof. wheatstone of england, chester and hamblet of america, and others. they have been used extensively upon private and municipal lines both in europe and the united states. the type-printing telegraph was coeval with the dial, and originated with morse and vail as early as . the printing of the characters is effected in various ways; sometimes by clockwork mechanism and sometimes by the direct action of an electromagnet. wheatstone exhibited one in . house of vermont invented in - the first printing telegraph that was brought into any extensive use in the united states. then followed that of david e. hughes of kentucky in , aided by his co-inventor george m. phelps of troy, new york, and which was subsequently adopted by the french government, by the united kingdom telegraph co. of great britain, and by the american telegraph co in the united states. the system was subsequently greatly improved by hughes and others. alexander bain of edinburgh in - originated the modern automatic chemical telegraph. in this system a kind of punch was used to perforate two rows of holes grouped to represent letters on a strip of paper conducted over a metal cylinder and arranged so as to permit spring levers to drop through the perforations and touch the cylinder, thus forming an electrical contact; and a recording apparatus consisting of a strip of paper carried through a chemical solution of an acid and potash and over a metal roller, and underneath one or two styles, or pens, which pens were connected by live wires with the poles of two batteries at the sending station. the operation is such that colored marks upon the paper were made by the pens corresponding precisely to the perforations in the strip at the sending station. siemens, wheatstone and others also improved this system; but none of these systems have as yet replaced or equalled in extensive use the morse key and sounder system, and its great acoustic advantage of reading the messages by the click of the instrument. the type-printing system, however, has been recently greatly improved by the inventions of howe, c. l. buckingham, fiske and others in the united states. special contrivances and adaptations of the telegraph for printing stock reports and for transmitting fire alarm, police, and emergency calls, have been invented. the erection of tall office and other buildings, some to the height of more than twenty stories, made practicable by the invention of the elevator system, has in turn brought out most ingenious devices for operating and controlling the elevators to insure safety and at the same time produce economy in the motive power. the utility of the telephone has been greatly increased by the inventions of hughes and edison of the _microphone_. this consists, in one form, of pieces of carbon in loose contact placed in the circuit of a telephone. the very slightest vibrations communicated to the wood are heard distinctly in the telephone. by these inventions and certain improvements not only every sound and note of an opera or concert has been carried to distant places, but the slightest whispers, the minute movements of a watch, even the tread of a fly, and the pressure of a finger, have been rendered audible. by the aid of the electric current certain rays of light directed upon the mineral selenium, and some other substances, have been discovered to emit musical sounds. so wonderful and mysterious appear these communications along the electric wire that each and every force in the universe seems to have a voice awaiting utterance to man. the hope is indulged that by some such means we may indeed yet receive the "touch of a vanished hand and the sound of a voice that is still." in that eminent english scientist, prof. wm. crookes, published his extensive researches in electrical discharges as manifested in glass tubes from which the air had been exhausted. these same tubes have already been referred to as geissler tubes, from the name of a young artist of bonn who invented them. in these tubes are inclosed various gases through which the sparks from an induction coil can be passed by means of platinum electrodes fused into the glass, and on the passage of the current a soft and delicately-tinted light is produced which streams through the tube from pole to pole. in , wm. konrad roentgen, professor of physics in the royal university of würzburg, while experimenting with these crookes and geissler tubes, discovered with one of them, which he had covered with a sort of black cardboard, that the rays emanating from the same and impinging on certain objects would render them self-luminous, or fluorescent; and on further investigation that such rays, unlike the rays of sunlight, were not deflected, refracted or condensed; but that they proceeded in straight lines from the point at which they were produced, and penetrated various articles, such as flesh, blood, and muscle, and thicknesses of paper, cloth and leather, and other substances which are opaque to ordinary light; and that thus while penetrating such objects and rendering them luminous, if a portion of the same were of a character too dense to admit of the penetration, the dark shadow of such obstacle would appear in the otherwise luminous mass. unable to explain the nature or cause of this wonderful revelation, roentgen gave to the light an algebraic name for the unknown--the x rays. this wonderful discovery, at first regarded as a figment of scientific magic, soon attracted profound attention. at first the experiments were confined to the gratification of curiosity--the interior of the hand was explored, and on one occasion the little mummified hand of an egyptian princess folded in death three or four thousand years ago, was held up to this light, and the bones, dried blood, and muscle of the ancient pharaohs exhibited to the startled eyes of the present generation. but soon surgery and medicine took advantage of the unknown rays for practical purposes. the location of previously unreachable bullets, and the condition of internal injuries, were determined; the cause of concealed disease was traced, the living brain explored, and the pulsations of the living heart were witnessed. retardation of the strength of the electric current by the inductive influence of neighboring wires and earth currents, together with the theory that the electric energy pervades all space and matter, gave rise to the idea that if the energy once established could be set in motion at such point above the ordinary surface of the earth as would free this upper current from all inductive disturbance, impulses of such power might be conveyed from one high point and communicated to another as to produce signals without the use of a conducting wire, retaining only the usual batteries and the earth connection. on july th, , mahlen loomis of washington, d. c., took out a patent for "the utilization of natural electricity from elevated points" for telegraphic purposes, based on the principle mentioned, and made successful experiments on the blue ridge mountains in virginia near washington, accounts of which were published in washington papers at the time; but being poor and receiving no aid or encouragement he was compelled to give it up. marconi of italy has been more successful in this direction, and has sent electric messages and signals from high stations over the english channel from the shores of france to england. so that now wireless telegraphy is an established fact. it is certainly thrilling to realize that there is a mysterious, silent, invisible and powerful mechanical agent on every side of us, waiting to do our bidding, and to lend a hand in every field of human labour, and yet unable to be so used without excitement to action and direction in its course by some master, intermediate between itself and man. the principal masters for this purpose are steam and water power. a small portion of the power of the resistless niagara has been taken, diverted to turn the machinery which excites electricity to action, and this energy in turn employed to operate a multitude of the most powerful motors and machines of many descriptions. so great is the might of this willing agent that at a single turn of the hand of man it rushes forth to do work for him far exceeding in wonder and extent any labour of the gods of mythological renown. chapter x. hoisting, conveying and storing. allusion has been made to the stupendous buildings and works of the ancients and of the middle ages; the immense multitude of workers and great extent of time and labour employed in their construction; and how the awful drudgery involved in such undertakings was relieved by the invention of modern engineering devices--the cranes, the derricks, and the steam giants to operate them, so that vast loads which required large numbers of men and beasts to move, and long periods of time in which to move them, can now be lifted with ease and carried to great heights and distances in a few minutes by the hands of one or of a few men. but outside of the line of such undertakings there is an immense field of labor-saving appliances adapted for use in transportation of smaller loads from place to place, within and without buildings, and for carrying people and freight from the lower to the upper stories of tall structures. in fact the tall buildings which we see now in almost every great city towering cloudward from the ground to the height of fifteen, twenty and twenty-five stories, would have been extravagant and useless had not the invention of the modern elevator rendered their highest parts as easy of access as their lowest, and at the same time given to the air space above the city lot as great a commercial value in feet and inches as the stretch of earth itself. many of the "sky-scrapers" so called, are splendid monuments of the latest inventions of the century. it is by means of the modern elevator that the business of a whole town may be transacted under a single roof. in the multiplicity of modern human contrivances by which the sweat and drudgery of life are saved, and time economised for worthier objects, we are apt to overlook the painful and laborious steps by which they were reached, and to regard with impatience, or at least with indifference, the story of their evolution; and yet no correct or profound knowledge of the growth of humanity to its higher planes can be obtained without noting to what extent the minor inventions, as well as the startling ones, have aided the upward progress. for instance, consider how few and comparatively awkward were the mechanical means before this century. the innumerable army of men when men were slaves, and when blood and muscle and brain were cheap, who, labouring with the beast, toiled upward for years on inclined ways to lay the stones of the stupendous pyramids, still had their counterpart centuries later in the stream of men carrying on their shoulders the loads of grain and other freight and burdens from the shore to the holds of vessels, from vessels to the shore, from the ground to high buildings and from one part of great warehouses to another. now look at a vessel moved to a wharf, capable of holding fifty thousand or one hundred thousand bushels of grain and having that amount poured into it in three hours from the spouts of an elevator, to which the grain has been carried in a myriad buckets on a chain by steam power in about the same time; or to those arrangements of carriers, travelling on ropes, cords, wires, or cables, by which materials are quickly conveyed from one part of some structure or place to another, as hay and grain in barns or mows, ores from mines to cars, merchandise of all kinds from one part of a great store to another; or shot through pipes underground from one section of a city or town to their destination by a current of air. true, as it has before been stated, the ancients and later generations had the wedge, the pulley, the inclined plane, the screw and the windlass, and by these powers, modified in form and increased in size as the occasion demanded, in the form of cranes, derricks, and operated by animal power, materials were lifted and transported; but down to the time of the practical and successful application of steam by watt in the latter part of the th century, and until a much later period in most places in the world, these simple means actuated alone by men or animals were the best means employed for elevating and conveying loads, and even they were employed to a comparatively limited extent. the century was well started before it was common to employ cups on elevator bands in mills, invented by oliver evans in , to carry grain to the top of the mill, from whence it was to fall by gravity to the grinding and flouring apparatus below. it was not until that that powerful modern apparatus--the hydraulic, or hydrostatic, press was patented by bramah in england. the model he then made is now in the museum of the commissioner of patents, london. in this a reservoir for water is provided, on which is placed a pump having a piston rod worked by a hand lever. the water is conveyed from the reservoir to a cylinder by a pipe, and this cylinder is provided with a piston carrying at its top a table, which rises between guides. the load to be carried is placed on this table, and as the machine was at first designed to compress materials the load is pressed by the rising table against an upper stationary plate. the elevation of the table is proportionate to the quantity of water injected, and the power proportionate to the receptive areas of the pump and the cylinder. the first great application of machines built on this principle was by robert stephenson in the elevation of the gigantic tubes for the tubular bridge across the menai straits, already described in the chapter on civil engineering. the century was half through with before it was proposed to use water and steam for passenger elevators. in j. t. slade in england patented a device consisting of a drum to be actuated by steam, water, or compressed air, around which drum ropes were wound, and to which ropes were attached separate cages in separate wells, to counterbalance each other, the cages moving in guides, and provided with brakes and levers to stop and control the cages and the movement of the drum. louis t. van elvean, also of england, in invented counterbalance weights for such lifts. otis, an american, invented and patented in america and england in the first approach to the modern passenger elevator for hotels, warehouses, and other structures. the motive power was preferably a steam engine; and the elevating means was a large screw placed vertically and made to revolve by suitable gearing, and a cylinder to which the car was attached, having projections to work in the threads of the screw. means were provided to start and to stop the car, and to retard its otherwise sudden fall and stoppage. elevators, which are now so largely used to raise passengers and freight from the lower to the upper stories of high edifices, have for their motive power steam, water, compressed air, and electricity. with steam a drum is rotated over which a hoisting wire-rope is wound, to which the elevator car is attached. the car for passengers may be a small but elegantly furnished room, which is carried on guide blocks, and the stationary guides are provided with ratchet teeth with which pawls on the car are adapted to engage should the hoisting rope give way. to the hoisting rope is attached a counterbalance weight to partly meet the weight of the car in order to prevent the car from sticking fast on its passage, and also to prevent a sudden dropping of the car should the rope become slack. a hand rope for the operator is provided, which at its lower end is connected with a starting lever controlling the valves of the cylinders into which steam is admitted to start the piston shaft, which in turn actuates the gear wheels, by which movement the ropes are wound around the drums. in another form of steam elevator the drums are turned in opposite directions, by right and left worms driven by a belt. in the hydraulic form of elevator, a motor worked by water is employed to lift the car, although steam power is also employed to raise the water. the car is connected to wire cables passing over large sheaves at the top of the well room to a counterbalancing bucket. this bucket fits closely in a water-tight upright tube, or stand-pipe, about two feet in diameter, extending from the basement to the upper story. near this stand-pipe in the upper story is placed a water supply tank. a pipe discharges the water from the tank into the bucket, which moves up and down in the stand pipe. there is a valve in the tank which is opened by stepping on a treadle in the car, and this action admits to the bucket just enough weight of water to overbalance the load on the car. as soon as the bucket is heavier than the car it descends, and of course draws the car upward, thus using the minimum power required to raise each load, rather than, when steam is employed, the full power of the engine each and every time. the speed is controlled by means of brakes or clamps that firmly clasp wrought-iron slides secured to posts on each side of the well room, the operator having control of these brakes by a lever on the car. when the car has ascended as far as desired, the operator steps upon another treadle in the car connected with a valve in the bottom of the bucket and thus discharges the water into the receiving tank below until the car is heavier than the bucket, when it then of course descends. the water is thus taken from the upper tank into the bucket, discharged through the stand-pipe into the receiving tank under the floor of the basement and then pumped back again to the upper tank, so that it is used over and over again without loss. various modifications have been made in the hydraulic forms. in place of steam, electricity was introduced to control the hydraulic operation. again, an electric motor has been invented to be placed on the car itself, with connected gearing engaging rack bars in the well. elevators have been contrived automatically controlled by switch mechanisms on the landings; and in connection with the electric motor safety devices are used to break the motor circuit and thus stop the car the moment the elevator door is opened; and there are devices to break the circuit and stop the car at once, should an obstruction, the foot for instance, be accidentally thrust out into the path of the car frame. columns of water and of air have been so arranged that should the car fall the fall will be broken by the water or air cushion made to yield gradually to the pressure. so many safety devices have been invented that there is now no excuse for accidents. they result by a criminal neglect of builders or engineers to provide themselves with such devices, or by a most ignorant or careless management and operation of simple actuating mechanisms. between and there was great activity in the invention of what is known as store service conveyors. one of the earliest forms, and one which had been partly selected from other arts, was to suspend from a rigid frame work connected to the floor, roof, or side of the building, a long platform in the direction through the building it was desired the road to run, giving this platform a slight inclination. on this platform were placed tracks, and from the tracks were suspended trucks, baskets, or other merchandise receptacles, having wheels resting on and adapted to roll on the tracks. double or single tracks could be provided as desired. the cars ran on these tracks by gravity, and considerable ingenuity was displayed in the feature alone of providing the out-going and returning inclined tracks; in hand straps and levers for raising and lowering the carriage, part or all of it, to or from the tracks, and in buffers to break the force of the blow of the carriages when arriving at their stopping places. then about - it was found by some inventors if moderately fine wires were stretched level, and as tight as possible, they would afford such little friction and resistance to light and nicely balanced wheels, that no inclination of the tracks was necessary, and that the carriages mounted on such wheels and tracks would run the entire length of a long building and turn corners not too sharp by a single initial push of the hand. in other arrangements a carrier is self-propelled by means of a coiled spring on the carrier, which begins its operation as soon as the carrier is given a start; and to meet the exhausted strength of such spring, coiled springs at different points on the line are arranged to engage and give the carrier an additional push. before the carrier is stopped its action is such as to automatically rewind its spring. a system of pneumatic transmission was invented, by which a carrier is caused to travel through a tube by the agency of an air current, created therein by an air compressor, blower, or similar device. the device is so arranged that the air current is caused to take either direction through the tube; and in some instances gravity may be used to assist a vacuum formed behind the carrier. the tube is controlled at each end by one or more sliding gates or valves, and the carrier is made to actuate the gates, and close the one behind it, so that the carrier may be discharged without permitting the escape of the air and consequent reduction of pressure. an interesting invention has been made by james m. dodge of philadelphia in the line of conveyors, whereby pea coal and other quite heavy materials introduced by a hopper into a trough are subjected to a powerful air blast which pushes the material forward; and as the trough is provided with a series of frequently occurring slots or perforations open to the outer air and inclined opposite the direction of travel, the powerful current from the blower in escaping through such outlets tends to lift or buoy the material and carry it forward in the air current, thereby greatly reducing frictional contact and increasing the impelling operation. the inventor claims that with such an apparatus many tons of material per hour may be conveyed with a comparatively small working air pressure. in order that a conveyor carriage may be automatically switched off at a certain place or station on the line, one mode adopted was to arrange at a gate or station a sort of pin or projection or other deflector to engage some recess or corresponding feature on the carriage, so as to arrest and turn the carriage in its new direction at that point. another mode was the adoption of electro-magnets, which would operate at a certain place to arrest or divert the carriage; and in either case the carriage was so constructed that its engaging features would operate automatically only in conjunction with certain features at a particular place on the line. signals have been also adopted, in some cases operated by an electric current, by which the operator can determine whether or not the controlling devices have operated to stop the carrier at the desired place. by electric or mechanical means it is also provided that one or more loop branches may be connected with or disconnected from the main circuit. the "lazy tongs" principle has been introduced, by which a long lazy-tongs is shot forth through a tube or box to carry forward the carriage; and the same principle is employed in fire-escapes to throw up a cage to a great height to a window or other point, which cage is lowered gently and safely by the same means to the ground. buffers of all kinds have been devised to effect the stoppage of the carrier without injury thereto under the different degrees of force with which it is moved upon its way, to prevent rebounding, and to enable the carrier to be discharged with facility at the end of its route. among the early mechanical means of transporting the carriage was an endless cable moved continuously by an engine, and this adoption of cable principle in store service was co-eval with its adoption for running street cars. also the system of switching the cars from the main line to a branch, and in different parts of a city, at the same time that all lines are receiving their motive power from the main line, corresponds to the manner of conveying cash to all parts of a building at the same time from many points. to the great department store or monstrous building wherein, as we have said, the whole business of a town may be transacted, the assemblage and conjoint use of elevators and conveyors seem to be actually necessary. a very useful and important line of inventions consists in means for forming connections between rotary shafts and their pulleys and mechanisms to be operated thereby, by which such mechanism can be started or stopped at once, or their motion reversed or retarded; or by which an actuating shaft may be automatically stopped. these means are known as _clutches_. they are designed often to afford a yielding connection between the shaft and a machine which shall prevent excessive strain and wear upon starting of the shaft. they are also often provided with a spring connection, which, in the rotation of the shaft in either direction, will operate to relieve the strain upon the shaft, or shafts, and its driving motor. safety clutches are numerous, by which the machine is quickly and automatically stopped by the action of electro-magnets should a workman or other obstruction be caught in the machinery. electric auxiliary mechanism has also been devised to start or stop the main machine slowly, and thus prevent injury to small or delicate parts of complicated machines, like printing presses for instance. clutches are arranged sometimes in the form of weights, resembling the action of the weights in steam governors, whereby centrifugal action is relied upon for swinging the weights outward to effect a clutching and coupling of the shaft, or other mechanism, so that two lines of shafting are coupled, or the machine started, or speeded, at a certain time during the operation. in order to avoid the great mischief arising sometimes from undue strain upon and the breaking of a shaft, a weak coupling composed of a link is sometimes employed between the shaft and the driven machine, whereby, should the force become suddenly too great, the link of weaker metal is broken, and the connection between the shaft thereby destroyed and the machine stopped. to this class of inventions, as well as to many others, the phrase, "labour-saving", is applied as a descriptive term, and as it is a correct one in most instances, since they save the labour of many human hands, they are regarded by many as detrimental to a great extent, as they result in throwing out of employment a large number of persons. this derangement does sometimes occur, but the curtailment of the number of labourers is but temporary after all. the increased production of materials, resulting from cheaper and better processes, and from the reduced cost of handling them, necessitates the employment of a larger number of persons to take care of, in many ways, the greater output caused by the increased demand; the new machinery demands the labour of additional numbers in its manufacture; the increase in the size and heights of buildings involves new modes of construction and a greater number of artisans in their erection; new forms of industry springing from every practical invention which produces a new product or results in a new mode of operation, complicates the systems of labour, and creates a demand for a large number of employers and employees in new fields. hence, it is only necessary to resort to comparative, statistics (too extensive to cite here) to show that the number of unemployed people in proportion to the populations, is less in the present age than in any previous one. in this sense, therefore, inventions should be classed as labour-_increasing_ devices. chapter xi. hydraulics. the science of hydraulics appears to be as old as the thirst of man. when prehistoric men had only stone implements, with which to do their work, they built aqueducts, reservoirs and deep wells which rival in extent many great similar works that are the boast of their modern descendants. modern inventors have also produced with a flourish nice instrumentalities for raising water, agencies which are covered with the moss of untold centuries in china. it was more than an ancient observation that came down to pliny's time for record, that water would rise to a level with its source. the observation, however, was put into practical use in his time and long before without a knowledge of its philosophical cause. nothing in egyptian sculpture portraying the arts in vogue around the cradle of the human race is older than the long lever rocking upon a cleft stick, one arm of the lever carrying a bracket and the other arm used to raise a bucket from a well. forty centuries and more have not rendered this device obsolete. among other machines of the egyptians, the carthaginians, the greeks, and the romans for raising water was the _tympanum_, a drum-shape wheel divided into radial partitions, chambers, or pockets, which were open to a short depth on the periphery of the wheel, and inclined toward the axis, and which was driven by animal or manual power. these pockets scooped up the water from the stream or pond in which the wheel was located as the wheel revolved, and directed it toward the axis of the wheel, where it ran out into troughs, pipes, or gutters. the _noria_, a chain of pots, and the screw of archimedes were other forms of ancient pumps. the bucket pumps with some modifications are known in modern times as scoop wheels, and have been used extensively in the drainage of lands, especially by the dutch, who at first drove them by windmills and later by steam. the division of water-wheels into overshot, undershot and breast wheels is not a modern system. in the _pneumatics of hero_, which compilation of inventions appeared in b. c., seventy-nine illustrations are given and described of simple machines, between sixty and seventy of which are hydraulic devices. among these, are siphon pumps, the force pump of ctesibius, a "fire-pump," having two cylinders, and two pistons, valves, and levers. we have in a previous chapter referred to hero's steam engine. the fact that a vacuum may be created in a pump into which water will rise by atmospheric pressure appears to have been availed of but not explained or understood. the employment of the rope, pulley and windlass to raise water was known to hero and his countrymen as well as by the chinese before them. the chain pump and other pumps of simple form have only been improved since hero's day in matters of detail. the screw of archimedes has been extended in application as a carrier of water, and converted into a conveyor of many other materials. thus, aqueducts, reservoirs, water-wheels (used for grinding grain), simple forms of pumps, fountains, hydraulic organs, and a few other hydraulic devices, were known to ancient peoples, but their limited knowledge of the laws of pneumatics and their little mechanical skill prevented much general progress or extensive general use of such inventions. it is said that frontinus, a roman consul, and inspector of public fountains and aqueducts in the reigns of nerva and trajan, and who wrote a book, _de aquaeductibus urbis romae commentarius_, describing the great aqueducts of rome, was the first and the last of the ancients to attempt a scientific investigation of the motions of liquids. in serviere, a frenchman, born in lyons, invented the rotary pump. in this the pistons consisted of two cog wheels, their leaves intermeshing, and rotated in an elliptical shaped chamber. the water entered the chamber from a lower pipe, and the action of the wheels was such as to carry the water around the chamber and force it out through an opposite upper pipe. subsequent changes involved the rotating of the cylinder instead of the wheels and many modifications in the form of the wheels. the same principle was subsequently adopted in rotary steam engines. in , a few years before this invention of serviere, stevinus, the great engineer of the dikes of holland, wrote learnedly on the _principles of statics and hydrostatics_, and whewell states that his treatment of the subject embraces most of the elementary science of hydraulics and hydrostatics of the present day. this was followed by the investigations and treatises of galileo, his pupil torricelli, who discovered the law of air pressure, the great french genius, pascal, and sir isaac newton, in the th century; and daniel bernoulli, d'alembert, euler, the great german mathematician and inventor of the centrifugal pump, the abbé bossut, venturi, eylewein, and others in the th century. it was not until the th and th centuries that mankind departed much from the practice of supplying their towns and cities with water from distant springs, rivers and lakes, by pipes and aqueducts, and resorted to water distribution systems from towers and elevated reservoirs. certain cities in germany and france were the first to do this, followed in the th century by england. this seems strange, as to england, as in one peter maurice, a dutch engineer, erected at london, on the old arched bridge across the thames, a series of forcing pumps worked by undershot wheels placed in the current of the river, by which he forced a supply of water to the uppermost rooms of lofty buildings adjacent to the bridge. before the inventions of newcomen and watt in the latter part of the th century of steam pumps, the lift and force pumps were operated by wheels in currents, by horses, and sometimes by the force of currents of common sewers. when the waters of rivers adjacent to towns and cities thus began to be pumped for drinking purposes, _strainers_ and _filters_ of various kinds were invented of necessity. the first ones of which there is any printed record made their appearance in . after the principles of hydraulics had thus been reviewed and discussed by the philosophers of the th and th centuries and applied, to the extent indicated, further application of them was made, and especially for the propelling of vessels. in la hire revived and improved the double-acting pump of ctesibius, but to what extent he put it into use does not appear. however, it was the double-acting pump having two chambers and two valves, and in which the piston acted to throw the water out at each stroke. in dr. john allen of england designed a vessel having a tunnel or pipe open at the stern thereof through which water was to be pumped into the air or sea--the reaction thus occasioned driving the vessel forward. he put such a vessel at work in a canal, working the pumps by manual labor, and suggested the employment of a steam engine. a vessel of this kind was patented by david ramsey of england in . rumsey of america in also invented a similar vessel, built one feet long, and ran it experimentally on the potomac river. dr. franklin also planned a boat of this kind in and illustrated the same by sketches. his plan has since been tried on the scheldt, but two turbines were substituted for his simple force pump. further mention will be made later on of a few more elaborate inventions of this kind. it also having been discovered that the fall of a column of water in a tube would cause a portion of it to rise higher than its source by reason of the force of momentum, a machine was devised by which successive impulses of this force were used, in combination with atmospheric pressure, to raise a portion of the water at each impulse. this was the well-known _ram_, and the first inventor of such a machine was john whitehurst of cheapside, england, who constructed one in . from a reservoir, spring, or cistern of water, the water was discharged downward into a long pipe of small diameter, and from thence into a shorter pipe governed by a stop-cock. on the opening of the stop-cock the water was given a quick momentum, and on closing the cock water was forced by the continuing momentum through another pipe into an air chamber. a valve in the latter-mentioned pipe opened into the air chamber. the air pressure served to overcome the momentum and to close the chamber and at the same time forced the water received into the air chamber up an adjacent pipe. another impulse was obtained and another injection of water into the chamber by again opening the stop-cock, and thus by successive impulses water was forced into the chamber and pressed by the air up through the discharge pipe and thence through a building or other receptacle. but the fact that the stop-valve had to be opened and closed by hand to obtain the desired number of lifts rendered the machine ineffective. in montgolfier, a frenchman and one of the inventors of the balloon, substituted for the stop-cock of the whitehurst machine a loose impulse valve in the waste pipe, whereby the valve was raised by the rush of the water, made to set itself, check the outflow and turn the current into the air chamber. this simple alteration changed the character of the machine entirely, rendered it automatic in action and converted it into a highly successful water-raising machine. for this invention montgolfier obtained a gold medal from the french exposition of . where a head can be had from four to six feet, water can be raised to the height of feet. bodies of water greater in amount than is desired to be raised can thus be utilised, and this simple machine has come into very extensive use during the present century. allusion was made in the last chapter to the powerful hydraulic press of joseph bramah invented in - , its practical introduction in this century and improvements therein of others. after the great improvements in the steam engine made by watt, water, steam and air pressure joined their forces on the threshold of this century to lift and move the world, as it had never been moved before. the strong hands of hydraulics are pumps. they are divided into classes by names indicating their purpose and mode of operation, such as single, double-acting, lift or force, reciprocating or rotary, etc. knight, in his celebrated _mechanical dictionary_, enumerates differently constructed pumps connected with the various arts. in a broader enumeration, under the head of _hydraulic engineering and engineering devices_, he gives a list of over species. the number has since increased. about nine-tenths of these contrivances have been invented during the th century, although the philosophical principles of the operation of most of them had been previously discovered. the important epochs in the invention of pumps, ending with the th century, were thus the single-acting pump of ctesibius, b. c., the double-acting of la hire in , the hydraulic ram of whitehurst, , and the hydraulic press of bramah of - . bramah's press illustrates how the theories of one age often lie dormant, but if true become the practices of a succeeding age. pascal, years before bramah's time, had written this seeming hydraulic paradox: "if a vessel closed on all sides has two openings, the one a hundred times as large as the other, and if each be supplied with a piston which fits it exactly, then a man pushing the small piston will equilibrate that of men pushing the piston which is times as large, and will overcome the other ." this is the law of the hydraulic press, that intensity of pressure is everywhere the same. the next important epoch was the invention of forneyron in , of the water-wheel known as the turbine and also as the vortex wheel. if we will return a moment to the little steam engine of the ancient hero of alexandria, called the eolipile, it will be remembered that the steam admitted into a pivoted vessel and out of it through little opposite pipes, having bent exits turned in contrary directions, caused the vessel to rotate by reason of the reaction of the steam against the pipes. in what is called barker's mill, brought out in the th century, substantially the same form of engine is seen with water substituted for the steam. a turbine is a wheel usually placed horizontally to the water. the wheel is provided with curved internal buckets against which the water is led by outer curved passages, the guides and the buckets both curved in such manner that the water shall enter the wheel as nearly as possible without shock, and leave it with the least possible velocity, thereby utilising the greatest possible amount of energy. in the chapter on electrical inventions reference is made to the mighty power of niagara used to actuate a great number of electrical and other machines of vast power. this utilisation had long been the dream of engineers. sir william siemens had said that the power of all the coal raised in the world would barely represent the power of niagara. the dream has been realised, and the turbine is the apparatus through which the power of the harnessed giant is transmitted. a canal is dug from the river a mile above the falls. it conducts water to a power house near the falls. at the power house the canal is furnished with a gate, and with cribs to keep back the obstructions, such as sticks. at the gate is placed a vertical iron tube called a penstock, ½ feet in diameter and feet deep. at the bottom of the penstock is placed a turbine wheel fixed on a shaft, and to which shaft is connected an electric generator or other power machine. on opening the gate a mass of water ½ feet in diameter falls upon the turbine wheel feet below. the water rushing through the wheel turns it and its shaft many hundred revolutions a minute. all the machinery is of enormous power and dimensions. one electric generator there is feet inches in diameter and spins around at the rate of revolutions a minute. means are provided by which the speed of each wheel is regulated automatically. each turbine in a penstock represents the power of , horses, and there are now ten or more employed. after the water has done its work on the wheels it falls into a tunnel and is carried back to the river below the falls. not only are the manufactures of various kinds of a large town at the falls thus supplied with power, but electric power is transmitted to distant towns and cities. turbine pumps of the forneyron type have an outward flow; but another form, invented also by a frenchman, jonval, has a downward discharge, and others are oblique, double, combined turbine, rotary, and centrifugal, embodying similar principles. the term _rotary_, broadly speaking, includes turbine and centrifugal pumps. the centrifugal pump, invented by euler in , was taken up in the nineteenth century and greatly improved. in the centrifugal pump of the ordinary form the water is received at the centre of the wheel and diverted and carried out in an upward direction, but in most of its modern forms derived from the turbine, the principle is adopted of so shaping the vanes that the water, striking them in the curved direction, shall not have its line of curvature suddenly changed. among modern inventions of this class of pumps was the "massachusetts" of and mccarty's, in , of america, that of some contemporary french engineers, and subsequently in france the appold system, which latter was brought into prominent notice at the london exposition of . improvements of great value were also made by prof. james thompson of england. centrifugal pumps have been used with great success in lifting large bodies of water to a moderate height, and for draining marshes and other low lands. holland, germany, france, england and america have, through some of their ablest hydraulic engineers and inventors, produced most remarkable results in these various forms of pumps. we have noted what has been done at niagara with the turbines; and the drainage of the marshes of italy, the lowlands of holland, the fens of england and the swamps of florida bear evidence of the value of kindred inventions. that modern form of pump known as the _injector_, has many uses in the arts and manufactures. one of its most useful functions is to automatically supply steam boilers with water, and regulate the supply. it was the invention of giffard, patented in england in , and consists of a steam pipe leading from the boiler and having its nozzle projecting into an annular space which communicates with a feed pipe from a water supply. a jet of steam is discharged with force into this space, producing a vacuum, into which the water from the feed pipe rushes, and the condensed steam and water are driven by the momentum of the jet into a pipe leading into the boiler. this exceedingly useful apparatus has been improved and universally used wherever steam boilers are found. this idea of injecting a stream of steam or water to create or increase the flow of another stream has been applied in _intensifiers_, to increase the pressure of water in hydraulic mains, pipes, and machines, by additional pressure energy. thus the water from an ordinary main may be given such an increased pressure that a jet from a hydrant may be carried to the tops of high houses. in connection with pumping it may be said that a great deal has been discovered and invented during this century concerning the force and utilisation of jets of water and the force of water flowing through orifices. in the art of mining, a new system called _hydraulicising_ has been introduced, by which jets of water at high pressure have been directed against banks and hills, which have crumbled, been washed away, and made to reveal any precious ore they have concealed. to assist this operation _flexible nozzles_ have been invented which permit the stream to be easily turned in any desired direction. returning to the idea of raising weights by hydraulic pressure, mention must be made of the recent invention of the _hydraulic jack_, a portable machine for raising loads, and which has displaced the older and less efficient screw jack. as an example of the practical utility of the hydraulic jack, about a half century ago it required the aid of men working at capstans to raise the luxor obelisk in paris, whilst within years thereafter cleopatra's needle, a heavier monument, was raised to its present position on the thames embankment by four men each working one hydraulic jack. by the high pressures, or stresses given by the hydraulic press it was learned that cold metals have plasticity and can be moulded or stretched like other plastic bodies. thus in one modification a machine is had for making lead pipes:--a "container" is filled with molten lead and then allowed to cool. the container is then forced by the pump against an elongated die of the size of the pipe required. a pressure from one to two tons per square inch is exerted, the lead is forced up through the die, and the pipe comes out completed. wrought iron and cold steel can be forced like wax into different forms, and a rod of steel may be drawn through a die to form a piano wire. by another modification of the hydraulic press pipes and cables are covered with a coating of lead to prevent deterioration from rust and other causes. not only are cotton and other bulky materials pressed into small compass by hydraulic machines, but very valuable oils are pressed from cotton seed and from other materials--the seed being first softened, then made into cakes, and the cakes pressed. if it is desired to line tunnels or other channels with a metal lining, shield or casing, large segments of iron to compose the casing are put in position, and as fast as the tunnel is excavated the casing is pressed forward, and when the digging is done the cast-iron tunnel is complete. if the iron hoops on great casks are to be tightened the cask is set on the plate of a hydraulic press, the hoops connected to a series of steel arms projecting from an overhanging support, and the cask is pressed upward until the proper degree of tightness is secured. in the application of hydraulic power to machine tools great advances have been made. it has become a system, in which tweddle of england was a pioneer. the great force of water pressure combined with comparatively slow motion constitutes the basis of the system. sir william fairbairn had done with steam what tweddle and others accomplished with water. thus the enormous force of men and the fearful clatter formerly displayed in these huge works where the riveting of boilers was carried on can now be dispensed with, and in place of the noisy hammer with its ceaseless blows has come the steam or the hydraulic riveting machine, which noiselessly drives the rivet through any thickness of metal, clinches the same, and smooths the jointed plate. the forging and the rolling of the plates are performed by the same means. william george armstrong of england, afterward sir william, first a lawyer, but with the strongest bearing toward mechanical subjects, performed a great work in the advancement of hydraulic engineering. it is claimed that he did for hydraulic machinery, in the storage and transmission of power thereby, what watt did for the steam engine and bessemer did for steel. in he produced his first invention, an important improvement in the hydraulic engine. in , in a letter to the _mechanics' magazine_, he calls attention to the advantages of water as a mechanical agent and a reservoir of power, and showed how water pumped to an elevated reservoir by a steam engine might have the potential energy thus stored utilised in many advantageous ways. how, for instance, a small engine pumping continuously could thus supply many large engines working intermittently. in illustration of this idea he invented a crane, which was erected on newcastle quay in ; another was constructed on the albert dock at liverpool, and others at other places. these cranes, adapted for the lifting and carrying of enormous loads, were worked by hydraulic pressure obtained from elevated tanks or reservoirs, as above indicated. but as a substitute for such tanks or reservoirs he invented the _accumulator_. this consists of a large cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger, which is made to work water-tight therein by means of suitable packing. to this plunger is attached a weighted case filled with one or many tons of metal or other coarse material. water is pumped into the cylinder until the plunger is raised to its full height within the cylinder, when the supply of water is cut off by the automatic operation of a valve. when the cranes or other apparatus to be worked thereby are in operation, water is passed from the cylinder through a small pipe which actuates the crane through hydraulic pressure. this pressure of course depends upon the weight of the plunger. thus a pressure of from to , pounds per square inch may be obtained. the descending plunger maintains a constant pressure upon the water, and the water is only pumped into the cylinder when it is required to be filled. with sensitive accumulators of this character hydraulic machinery is much used on board ships for steering them, and for loading, discharging and storing cargoes. _water pressure engines_ or _water motors_ of a great variety as to useful details have been invented to take advantage of a natural head of water from falls wherever it exists, or from artificial accumulators or from street mains. they resemble steam engines, in that the water under pressure drives a piston in a cylinder somewhat in the manner of steam. the underlying principle of this class of machinery is the admission of water under pressure to a cylinder which moves the piston and is allowed to escape on the completion of the stroke. they are divided into two great classes, single and double acting engines, accordingly as the water is admitted to one side of the piston only, or to both sides alternately. both kinds are provided with a regulator in the form of a turn-cock, weight, or spring valve to regulate and control the flow of water and to make it continuous. they are used for furnishing a limited amount of power for working small printing presses, dental engines, organs, sewing machines, and for many other purposes where a light motor is desired. the nineteenth century has seen a revolution in _baths_ and accompanying _closets_. however useful, luxurious, and magnificent may have been the patrician baths of ancient rome, that system, which modern investigators have found to be so complete to a certain extent, was not nor ever has been in the possession of the poor. it is within the memory of many now living everywhere how wretched was the sanitary accommodations in every populous place a generation or two ago. now, with the modern water distribution systems and cheap bathing apparatuses which can be brought to the homes of all, with plunger, valved siphon and valved and washout closets, air valve, liquid seal, pipe inlet, and valve seal traps, and with the flushing and other hydraulic cleaning systems for drains and cesspools, little excuse can be had for want of proper sanitary regulations in any intelligent community. the result of the adoption of these modern improvements in this direction on the health of the people has been to banish plagues, curtail epidemics, and prolong for years the average duration of human life. how multiplied are the uses to which water is put, and how completely it is being subjected to the use of man! rivers and pipes have their metres, so that now the velocity and volume of rivers and streams are measured and controlled, and floods prevented. the supplies for cities and for families are estimated, measured and recorded as easily as are the supplies of illuminating gas, or the flow of food from elevators. among the minor, but very useful inventions, are _water scoops_ for picking up water for a train while in motion, consisting of a curved open pipe on a car, the mouth of which strikes a current of water in an open trough between the tracks and picks up and deposits in a minute a car load of water for the engine. _nozzles_ to emit jets of great velocity, and ball nozzles terminating in a cup in which a ball is loosely seated, and which has the effect, as it is lifted by the jet, to spread it into an umbrella-shaped spray, are of great value at fires in quenching flame and smoke. next to pure air to breathe we need pure water to drink, and modern discoveries and inventions have done and are doing much to help us to both. pasteur and others have discovered and explained the germ theory of disease and to what extent it is due to impure water. inventors have produced _filters_, and there is a large class of that character which render the water pure as it enters the dwelling, and fit for all domestic purposes. a specimen of the latter class is one which is attached to the main service pipe as it enters from the street. the water is first led into a cylinder stored with coarse filtering material which clears the water of mud, sediment and coarser impurities, and then is conducted into a second cylinder provided with a mass of fine grained or powdered charcoal, or some other material which has the quality of not only arresting all remaining injurious ingredients, but destroys organisms, neutralises ammonia and other deleterious matter. from thence the water is returned to the service pipe and distributed through the house. the filter may be thoroughly cleansed by reversing the movement of the water, and carrying it off through a drain pipe until it runs clear and sweet, whereupon the water is turned in its normal course through the filter and house. in a very recent report of general j. m. wilson, chief of engineers, u.s.a., the subject of filtration of water, and especially of public water supplies in england, the united states, and on the continent, is very thoroughly treated, and the conclusion arrived at there is that the system termed "the american," or mechanical system, is the most successful one. this consists, first, in leading the water into one or more reservoirs, then coagulating suspended matter in the water by the use of the sulphate of alumina, and then allowing the water to flow through a body of coarse sand, by which the coagulated aluminated matter is caught and held in the interstices of the sand, and the bacteria arrested. all objectionable matter is thus arrested by the surface portion of the sand body, which portion is from time to time scraped off, and the whole sand mass occasionally washed out by upward currents of water forced through the same. by this system great rapidity of filtration is obtained, the rate being , , gallons a day per acre. the english system consists more in the use of extended and successive reservoirs or beds of sand alone, or aided by the use of the sulphate. this also is extensively used in many large cities. chapter xii. pneumatics and pneumatic machines. "the march of the human mind is slow," exclaimed burke in his great speech on "conciliation with the colonies." it was at the beginning of the last quarter of the th century that he was speaking, and he was referring to the slow discovery of the eternal laws of providence as applied in the field of political administration to distant colonies. the same could then have been said of the march of the human mind in the realms of nature. how slow had been the apprehension of the forces of that kind but silent mother whose strong arms are ever ready to lift and carry the burdens of men whenever her aid is diligently sought! the voice of burke was, however, hardly silent when the human mind suddenly awoke, and its march in the realms of government and of natural science since then cannot be regarded as slow. more than fifteen centuries before burke spoke, not only had greece discovered the principles of political freedom for its citizens and its colonies, but the power of steam had been discovered, and experimental work been done with it. yet when the famous orator made his speech the grecian experiment was a toy of kings, and the steam engine had just developed from this toy into a mighty engine in the hands of watt. the age of mechanical inventions had just commenced with the production of machines for spinning and weaving. and yet, in view of the rise of learning, and the appearance from time to time of mighty intellects in the highest walks of science, the growth of the mind in the line of useful machinery had indeed been strangely slow. "learning" had revived in italy in the th and th centuries and spread westward in the th. in the th, gunpowder and printing had been discovered, and scaliger, the famous scholar of italy, and erasmus, the celebrated dutch philosopher, were the leading restorers of ancient literature. science then also revived, and copernicus, the pole, gave us the true theory of the solar system. the th century produced the great mathematicians and astronomers tycho brahe, the dane, cardan and galileo, the illustrious italians, and kepler, the german astronomer, whose discovery of the laws of planetary motion supplemented the works of copernicus and galileo and illuminated the early years of the th century. in the th century appeared torricelli, the inventor of the barometer; guericke, the german, inventor of the air pump; fahrenheit, the inventor of the mercurial thermometer bearing his name; leibnitz, eminent in every department of science and philosophy; huygens, the great dutch astronomer and philosopher; pascal of france and sir isaac newton of england, the worthy successors of kepler, galileo and copernicus; and yet, with the exception of philosophical discoveries and a few experiments, the field of invention in the way of motor engines still remained practically closed. but slight as had been the discoveries and experiments referred to, they were the mine from which the inventions of subsequent times were quarried. one of the earliest, if not the first of pneumatic machines, was the bellows. its invention followed the discovery of fire and of metals. the bladders of animals suggested it, and their skins were substituted for the bladders. the egyptians have left a record of its use, thirty-four centuries ago, and its use has been continuous ever since. mention has been made of the cannon. it was probably the earliest attempt to obtain motive power from heat. the ball was driven out of an iron cylinder by the inflammatory power of powder. let a piston be substituted for the cannon ball, as was suggested by huygens in and by papin in , and the charge of powder so reduced that when it is exploded the piston will not be thrown entirely out of the cylinder, another small explosive charge introduced on the other side of the piston to force it back, or let the cylinder be vertical and the piston be driven back by gravity, means provided to permit the escape of the gas after it has done its work, and means to keep the cylinder cool, and we have the prototype of the modern heat engines. the gunpowder experiments of huygens and papin were not successful, but they were the progenitors of similar inventions made two centuries thereafter. jan baptista van helmont, a flemish physician ( - ), was the first to apply the term, _gas_ to the elastic fluids which resemble air in physical properties. robert boyle, the celebrated irish scholar and scientist, and improver of the air pump, and edwin mariotte, the french physicist who was first to show that a feather and a coin will drop the same distance at the same time in a reservoir exhausted of air, were the independent discoverers of boyle's and mariotte's law of gases( - ). this was that at any given temperature of a gas which is at rest its volume varies inversely with the pressure put upon it. it follows from this law that the density and tension, and therefore the expansive force of a gas, are proportional to the compressing force to which it is subjected. it is said that abbé hauteville, the son of a baker of orleans, about proposed to raise water by a powder motor; and that in he described a machine based on the principle of the circulation of the blood, produced by the alternate expansion and contraction of the heart. the production of heat by concentrating the rays of the sun, and for burning objects had been known from the time of archimedes, and been repeated from time to time. thus stood this art at the close of the th century, and thus it remained until near the close of the th. in england murdock, the cornish steam engineer, was the first to make and use coal gas for illuminating purposes, which he did in and . its utilisation for other practical purposes was then suggested. gas engines as motive powers were first described in the english patent to john barber, in , and then in one issued to robert street in . barber proposed to introduce a stream of carbonated hydrogen gas through one port, and a quantity of air at another, and explode them against the piston. street proposed to drive up the piston by the expansive force of a heated gas, and anticipated many modern ideas. phillipe lebon, a french engineer, in and in anticipated in a theoretical way many ideas since successfully reduced to practice. he proposed to use coal gas to drive a piston, which in turn should move the shaft that worked the pumps which forced in the gas and air, and thus make the machine double-acting; to introduce a charge of inflammable gas mixed with sufficient air to ignite it; to compress the air and gas before they entered the motor cylinder; to introduce the charge alternately on each side of the piston; and he also suggested the use of the electric spark to fire the mixture. but lebon was assassinated and did not live to work out his ideas. at the very beginning of the th century john dalton in england, - , and gay-lussac in france began their investigations of gases and vapours. dalton was not only the author of the atomic theory, but the discoverer of the leading ideas in the "constitution of mixed gases." these features were the diffusion of gases, the action of gases on each other in vacuum--the influence of different temperatures upon them, their chemical constituents and their relative specific gravity. gay-lussac, continuing his investigations as to expansion of air and gases under increased temperatures, in - , established the law that when free from moisture they all dilate uniformly and to equal amounts for all equal increments of temperature. he also showed that the gases combine, as to volume, in simple proportions, and that several of them on being compounded contracted always in such simple proportions as one-half, one-third, or one-quarter, of their joint bulk. by these laws all forms of engines which were made to work through the agency of heat are classed as heat engines--so that under this head are included steam engines, air engines, gas engines, vapour engines and solar engines. the tie that binds these engines into one great family is temperature. it is the heat that does the work. whether it is a cannon, the power of which is manifested in a flash, or the slower moving steam engine, whose throbbing heart beats not until water is turned to steam, or the sun, the parent of them all, whose rays are grasped and used direct, the question in all cases is, what is the amount of heat produced and how can it be controlled? it, then, can make no difference what the agent is that is employed, whether air, or gas, or steam, or the sun, or gunpowder explosion, but what is the temperature to be attained in the cylinder or vessel in which they work. power is the measure of work done in a given time. horse power is the unit of such measurement, and it consists of the amount of power that is required to raise one pound through a vertical distance of one foot. this power is pressure and the pressure is heat. the unit of heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of distilled water one degree--from degrees to degrees f. its amount or measurement is determined in any instance by a dynamometer. these were the discoveries with which philosophy opened the nineteenth century so brilliantly in the field of pneumatics. before that time it seemed impossible that explosive gases would ever be harnessed as steam had been and made to do continual successful work in a cylinder and behind a piston. as yet means were to be found to make the engine efficient as a double-acting one--to start the untamed steed at the proper moment and to stop him at the moment he had done his work. as newcomen had been the first in the previous century to apply the steam engine to practical work--pumping water from mines--so samuel brown of england was the first in this century to invent and use a gas engine upon the water. brown took out patents in and . he proposed to use gunpowder gas as the motive power. his engine was also described in the _mechanics' magazine_ published in london at that time. in the making of his engine he followed the idea of a steam engine, but used the flame of an ignited gas jet to create a vacuum within the cylinder instead of steam. he fitted up an experimental boat with such an engine, and means upon the boat to generate the gas. the boat was then operated upon the thames. he also succeeded experimentally in adapting his engine to a road carriage. but brown's machines were cumbrous, complicated, and difficult to work, and therefore did not come into public use. about this time ( ), davy and faraday reawakened interest in gas engines by their discovery that a number of gases could be reduced to a liquid state, some by great pressure, and others by cold, and that upon the release of the pressure the gases would return to their original volume. in the condensation heat was developed, and in re-expansion it was rendered latent. then wright in obtained a patent in which he expounded and illustrated the principles of expansion and compression of gas and air, performed in separate cylinders, the production of a vacuum by the explosion and the use of a water jacket around the cylinder for cooling it. for william burdett, in , is claimed the honour of having been the first to invent the means of compressing the gas and air previous to the explosion, substantially the same as adopted in gas engines of the present day. the defects found in gas engines thus far were want of proper preliminary compression, then in complete expansion, and finally loss of heat through the walls. some years later, lenoir, a frenchman, invented a gas engine of a successful type, of which three hundred in were in use in france. it showed what could be accomplished by an engine in which the fuel was introduced and fired directly in the piston cylinder. its essential features were a cylinder into which a mixture of gas and air was admitted at atmospheric pressure, which was maintained until the piston made half its stroke, when the gas was exploded by an electric spark. a wheel of great weight was hung upon a shaft which was connected to the piston, and which weight absorbed the force suddenly developed by the explosion, and so moderated the speed. another object of the use of the heavy wheel was to carry the machine over the one-half of the period in which the driving power was absent. hugon, another eminent french engineer, invented and constructed a gas engine on the same principle as lenair's. about this time ( - ) m. beau de rohes, a french engineer, thoroughly investigated the reasons of the uneconomical working of gas motors, and found that it was due to want of sufficient compression of the gas and air previous to explosion, incomplete expansion and loss of heat through the walls of the cylinder, and he was the first to formulate a "cycle" of operations necessary to be followed in order to render a gas engine efficient. they related to the size and dimensions of the cylinder; the maximum speed of the piston; the greatest possible expansion, and the highest pressure obtainable at the beginning of the act of expansion. the study and application of these conditions created great advancements in gas engines. with the discovery and development of the oil wells in the united states about a new fuel was found in the crude petroleum, as well as a source of light. the application of petroleum to engines, either to produce furnace heat, or as introduced directly into the piston cylinder mixed with inflammable gas to produce flame heat and expansion, has given a wonderful impetus to the utilisation of gas engines. g. h. brayton of the united states in invented a very efficient engine in which the vapour of petroleum mixed with air constituted the fuel. adolf spiel of berlin has also recently invented a petroleum engine. principal among those to whom the world is indebted for the revolution in the construction of gas engines and its establishment as a successful rival to the steam engine is nicolaus a. otto of deutz on the rhine. in the lenair and hugon system the expansive force of the exploded gas was used directly upon the piston, and through this upon the other moving parts. a great noise was produced by these constant explosions. in the otto system the explosion is used indirectly and only to produce a vacuum below the piston, when atmospheric pressure is used to give the return stroke of the piston and produce the effective work. the otto engine is noiseless. this is accomplished by his method of mixing and admitting the gases. he employs two different mixtures, one a "feebly explosive mixture," and the other "a strongly explosive mixture," used to operate on the piston and thus prolong the explosions. the mode of operation of one of otto's most successful engines is as follows: the large fly wheel is started by hand or other means, and as the piston moves forward it draws into the cylinder a light charge of mixed coal gas and air, and the gas inlet is then cut off. as the piston returns it compresses this mixture. at the moment the down stroke is completed the compressed mixture is ignited, and, expanding, drives the piston before it. in the second return stroke the burnt gases are expelled from the cylinder and the whole made ready to start afresh. work is actually done in the piston only during one-quarter of the time it is in motion. the fly-wheel carries forward the work at the outset and the gearing the rest of the time. otto was associated with langen in producing his first machine, and its introduction at the centennial exposition at philadelphia in excited great attention. otto and e. w. and w. j. crossley jointly, and then otto singly, subsequently patented notable improvements. simon bischof and clark, hurd and clayton in england; daimler of deutz on the rhine, riker and wiegand of the united states, and others, have made improvements in the otto system. ammoniacal gas engines have been successfully invented. _aqua ammonia_ is placed in a generator in which it is heated. the heat separates the ammonia gas from the water, and the gas is then used to operate a suitable engine. the exhaust gas is cooled, passed into the previously weakened solution, reabsorbed and returned to the generator. in charles tellier of france patented an ammoniacal engine, also means for utilising solar heat and exhaust steam for the same purpose; and in the same year de susini, also of france, patented an engine operated by the vapour of ether; a. nobel, another frenchman, in , patented a machine for propelling torpedoes and other explosive missiles, and for controlling the course of balloons, the motive power of which is a gas developed in a closed reservoir by the chemical reaction of metallic sodium or potassium in a solution of ammonia. these vapour engines are used for vapour launches, bicycles and automobiles. in the ideas of huygens and papin of two hundred years before were revived by w. m. storm, who in that year took out a gunpowder engine patent in the united states, in which the air was compressed by the explosions of small charges of gunpowder. about fifteen other patents have been taken out in america since that time for such engines. in some the engines are fed by cartridges which are exploded by pulling a trigger. as to gas and vapor engines generally, it may now be said, in comparison with steam, that although the steam engine is now regarded as almost perfect in operation, and that it can be started and stopped and otherwise controlled quietly, smoothly, instantaneously, and in the most uniform and satisfactory manner, yet there is the comparatively long delay in generating the steam in the boiler, and the loss of heat and power as it is conducted in pipes to the working cylinder, resulting in the utilisation of only ten per cent of the actual power generated, whereas gas and vapour engines utilise twenty-five per cent of the power generated, and the flame and explosions are now as easily and noiselessly controlled as the flow of oil or water. the world is coming to agree with prof. fleeming jenkins that "gas engines will ultimately supplant the steam." the smoke and cinder nuisance with them has been solved. the sister invention of the gas engine is the air engine. there can be no doubt about the success of this busy body, as it is now a swift and successful motor in a thousand different fields. machines in which air, either hot or cold, is used in place of steam as the moving power to drive a piston, or to be driven by a piston, are known generally as air, caloric, or hot-air engines, air compressors, or compressed air engines, and are also classed as pneumatic machines, air brakes, or pumps. they are now specifically known by the name of the purpose to which they are applied, as air ship, ventilator, air brake, fan blower, air pistol, air spring, etc. the attention of inventors was directed towards compressed and heated air as a motor as soon as steam became a known and efficient servant; but the most important and the only successful air machine existing prior to this century was the air pump, invented by guericke in , and subsequently perfected by robert boyle and others. the original pump and the magdeburg hemispheres are still preserved. it is recorded that amontons of france, in , had an atmospheric fire wheel or air engine in which a heated column of air was made to drive a wheel. it has already been noted what papin ( - ) proposed and did in steam. his last published work was a latin essay upon a new system for raising water by the action of fire, published in . the action of confined and compressed steam and gases, and air, is so nearly the same in the machines in which they constitute the motive power that the history, development, construction, and operation of the machines of one class are closely interwoven with those of the others. taking advantage of what had been taught them by watt and others as to steam and steam engines, and of the principles and laws of gases as expounded by boyle, mariotte, dalton, and gay-lussac, that many of the gases, such as air, preserve a permanent expansive gaseous form under all degrees of temperature and compression to which they had as yet been subjected, that when compressed and released they will expand, and exert a pressure in the contrary direction until the gas and outside atmospheric pressure are in equilibrium, that this compressed gas pressure is equal, and transmitted equally in all directions, and that the weight of a column of air resting on every horizontal square inch at the sea level is very nearly . pounds, the inventors of the nineteenth century were enabled by this supreme illumination to enter with confidence into that work of mechanical contrivances which has rendered the age so marvellous. it was natural that in the first development of mechanical appliances they should be devoted to those pursuits in which men had the greatest practical interest. thus as to steam it was first applied to the raising of water from mines and then to road vehicles. and so in thos. parkinson of england invented and patented an "hydrostatic engine or machine for the purpose of drawing beer or any other liquid out of a cellar or vault in a public house, which is likewise intended to be applied for raising water out of mines, ships or wells. by the use of a sort of an air pump he maintained an air pressure on the beer in an air-tight cask situated in the cellar, which was connected with pipes having air-tight valves, with the upper floor. the liquid was forced from the cellar by the air pressure, and when turned off, the air pressure was resumed in the cask, which "preserved the beer from being thrown into a state of flatness." substantially the same device in principle has been reinvented and incorporated in patents numerous times since. in the innumerable applications of the pneumatic machines and air tools of the century, especially of air-compressing devices, to the daily uses of life, we may, by turning first to our home, find its inner and outer walls painted by a pneumatic paint-spraying machine, for such have been made that will coat forty-six thousand square feet of surface in six hours; and it is said that paint can be thus applied not only more quickly, but more thoroughly and durably than by the old process. the periodical and fascinating practice of house cleaning is now greatly facilitated by an air brush having a pipe with a thin wide end in which are numerous perforations, and through which the air is forced by a little pump, and with which apparatus a far more efficient cleaning effect upon carpets, mattresses, curtains, clothes, and furniture can be obtained than by the time-honoured broom and duster. is the home uncomfortable by reason of heat and summer insects? a compressor having tanks or cisterns in the cellar filled with cool or cold air may be set to work to reduce the temperature of the house and fan the inmates with a refreshing breeze. air engines have been invented which can be used to either heat or cool the air, or do one or the other automatically. the heating when wanted is by fuel in a furnace forced up by a working cylinder, and the cooling by the circulation of water around small, thin copper tubes through which the air passes to the cylinder. do the chimes of the distant church bells lead one to the house of worship? the worshipper goes with the comforting assurance that the chimes which send forth such sweet harmonies are operated not by toiling, sweating men at ropes, but by a musician who plays as upon an organ, and works the keys, valves and stops by the aid of compressed air, and sometimes by the additional help of electricity. mention has already been made of office and other elevators, in which compressed air is an important factor in operating the same and for preventing accidents. if a waterfall is convenient, air is compressed by the body of descending water, and used to ventilate tunnels, and deep shafts and mines, or drive the drills or other tools. the pneumatic mail tube despatch system, by which letters, parcels, etc., are sent from place to place by the force of atmospheric pressure in an air-exhausted tube, is a decidedly modern invention, unknown in use even by those who are still children. tubes as large as eight inches in diameter are now in use in which cartridge boxes are placed, each holding six hundred or more letters, and when the air is exhausted the cartridge is forced through the tubes to the distance sometimes of three miles and more in a few minutes. in travelling by rail the train is now guided in starting or in stopping on to the right track, which may be one out of forty or fifty, by a pneumatic switch, the switches for the whole number of tracks being under the control of a single operator. the fast-moving train is stopped by an air brake, and the locomotive bell is rung by touching an air cylinder. the "baggage smashing," a custom more honoured in the breach than in the observance, is prevented by a pneumatic baggage arrangement consisting of an air-containing cylinder, and an arm on which to place the baggage, and which arm is then quickly raised by the cylinder piston and is automatically swung around by a cam action carrying the baggage out of or into the car. bridge building has been so facilitated by the use of pneumatic machines for raising heavy loads of stone and iron, and for riveting and hammering, and other air tools, aided by the development in the art of quick transportation, that a firm of bridge builders in america can build a splendid bridge in africa within a hundred days after the contract has been entered upon. ship building is hastened by these same air drilling and riveting machines. the propelling of cars, road vehicles, boats, balloons, and even ships, by explosive gases and compressed air is an extensive art in itself, yet still in its infancy, and will be more fully described in the chapter on carrying machines. the realm of art has received a notable advancement by the use of a little blow-pipe or atomiser by which the pigments forming the background on beautiful vases are blown with just that graduated force desired by the operator to produce the most exquisitely smooth and blended effects, while the varying colours are made to melt imperceptibly into one another as delicately as the mingled shade and coloured sunlight fall on a forest brook. but to enumerate the industrial arts to which air and other pneumatic machines have been adapted would be to catalogue them all. mention is made of others in chapters in which those special arts are treated. chapter xiii. art of heating, ventilating, cooking, refrigeration and lighting. that prometheus stole fire from heaven to give it to man is perhaps as authentic an account of the invention of fire as has been given. it is also reported that he brought it to earth in a hollow tube. if a small stick or twig had then been dipped into the divine fire the suggestion of the modern match may be supposed to have been made. but men went on to reproduce the fire in the old way by rubbing pieces of wood together, or using the flint, the steel and the tinder until , when godfrey hanckwitz of london, learning of the recent discovery of phosphorus and its nature, and inspired by the promethean idea, wrapped the phosphorus in folds of brown paper, rubbed it until it took fire, and then ignited thereat one end of a stick which he had dipped in sulphur; and this is commonly known as the first invented match. there followed the production of a somewhat different form of match, sticks first dipped in sulphur, and then in a composition of chlorate potash, sulphur, colophony, gum of sugar, and cinnabar for coloring. these were arranged in boxes, and were accompanied by a vial containing sulphuric acid, into which the match was dipped and thereby instantly ignited. these were called chemical matches and were sold at first for the high price of fifteen shillings a box. they were too costly for common use, and so our fathers went on to the nineteenth century using the flint, the steel and the tinder, and depending on the coal kept alive upon their own or their neighbour's hearth. prometheus, however, did reappear about - , when a match bearing the name "promethean" was invented. it consisted of a roll of paper treated with sugar and chlorate of potash and a small cell containing sulphuric acid. this cell was broken by a pair of pliers and the acid ignited the composition by contact therewith. it was not until - that john walker, chemist, at stockton-upon-tees, improved upon the idea of prometheus and hanckwitz of giving fire to men in a hollow tube. he used folded sanded paper--it may have been a tube--and through this he drew a stick coated with chlorate of potash and phosphorus. this successful match was named "lucifer," whose other name was phosphor, the morning star, and the king of the western land. faraday, to whom also was given promethean inspiration, procured some of walker's matches and brought them to public notice. in many respects the mode of their manufacture has been improved, but in principle of composition and ignition they remain the same as walker's to-day. in , schrotter of vienna discovered amorphous or allotropic phosphorus, which rendered the manufacture of matches less dangerous to health and property. tons of chemicals and hundreds of pine trees are used yearly in the making of matches, and many hundreds of millions of them are daily consumed. but this vast number of matches could not be supplied had it not been for the invention of machines for making and packing them. thus in reuben partridge of america patented a machine for making splints. others for making splints and the matches separately, quickly followed. together with these came match dipping and match box machines. the splint machines were for slitting a block of wood of the proper height downward nearly the whole way into match splints, leaving their butts in the solid wood. these were square and known as block matches. other mechanisms cut and divided the block into strips, which were then dipped at one end, dried and tied in bundles. by other means, a swing blade, for instance, the matches were all severed from the block. matches are made round by one machine by pressing the block against a plate having circular perforations, and the interspaces are beveled so as to form cutting edges. poririer, a frenchman, invented a machine for making match boxes of pasteboard. suitable sized rectangular pieces of pasteboard rounded at the angles for making the body of the box are first cut, then these pieces are introduced into the machine, where by the single blow of a plunger they are forced into a matrix or die and pressed, and receive by this single motion their complete and final shape. the lid is made in the same way. by one modern invention matches after they are cut are fed into a machine at the rate of one hundred thousand an hour, on to a horizontal table, each match separated from the other by a thin partition. they are thus laid in rows, one row over another, and while being laid, the matches are pushed out a little way beyond the edge of the table, a distance far enough to expose their ends and to permit them to be dipped. when a number of these rows are completed they are clamped together in a bundle and then dipped--first, into a vessel of hot sulphur, and then into one of phosphorus, or other equivalent ingredients may be used or added. after the dipping they are subjected to a drying process and then boxed. processes differ, but all are performed by machinery. in many factories where phosphorus is used without great care workmen have been greatly affected thereby. the fumes of the phosphorus attack the teeth, especially when decayed, and penetrate to the jaw, causing its gradual destruction, but this has been avoided by proper precautions. the greatly-increased facility of kindling a fire by matches gave an impetus to the invention of _cooking and heating stoves_. of course stoves, generically speaking, are not a production of the nineteenth century. the romans had their _laconicum_ or heating stove, which from its name was an invention from laconia. it probably was made in most cases of brick or marble, but might have been of beaten iron, was cylindrical in shape, with an open cupola at the top, and was heated by the flames of the _hypocaust_ beneath. the _hypocaust_ was a hot-air furnace built in the basement or cellar of the house and from which the heat was conducted by flues to the bath rooms and other apartments. the chinese ages ago heated their hollow tiled floors by underground furnace fires. we know of the _athanor_ of the alchemists of the middle ages. knight calls it the "original base-burning furnace." a furnace of iron or earthenware was provided on one side with an open stack or tower which opened at the bottom into the furnace, and which stack was kept filled with charcoal, or other fuel, which fed itself automatically into the furnace as the fuel on the bed thereof burned away. watt introduced an arrangement on the same principle in his steam boiler furnace in , and thousands of stoves are now constructed within england and the united states also embodying the same principle. the earthenware and soapstone stoves of continental europe were used long before the present century. in ben franklin's time in the american colonies there was not much of a demand for stoves outside of the largest cities, where wood was getting a little scarce and high, but the philosopher not only deemed it proper to invent an improvement in chimneys to prevent their smoking and to better heat the room, but also devised an improved form of stove, and both inventions have been in constant use unto this day. franklin invented and introduced his celebrated stove, which he called the pennsylvania fire place, in , having all the advantages of a cheerful open fireplace, and a heat producer; and which consisted of an iron stove with an open front set well into the room, in which front part the fire was kindled, and the products of combustion conducted up a flue, and thence under a false back and up the chimney. open heat spaces were left between the two flues. air inlets and dampers were provided. in his description of this stove at that time franklin also referred to the iron box stoves used by the dutch, the iron plates extending from the hearths and sides, etc., chimneys making a double fireplace used by the french, and the german stove of iron plates, and so made that the fuel had to be put into it from another room or from the outside of the house. he dwells upon the pleasure of an open fire, and the destruction of this pleasure by the use of the closed stoves. he also describes the discomforts of the fireplace in cold weather--of the "cold draught nipping one's back and heels"--"scorched before and frozen behind"--the sharp draughts of cold from crevices from which many catch cold and from "whence proceed coughs, catarrhs, toothaches, fevers, pleurisies and many other diseases." added to the pleasure of seeing the crackling flames, feeling the genial warmth, and the diffusion of a spirit of sociability and hospitality, is the fact of increased purity of the air by reason of the fireplace as a first-class ventilator. hence it will never be discarded by those who can afford its use; but it alone is inadequate for heating and cooking purposes. it is modernly used as a luxury by those who are able to combine with it other means for heating. the great question for solution in this art at all times has been how to produce through dwelling houses and larger buildings in cold and damp weather a uniform distribution and circulation of pure heated air. the solution of this question has of course been greatly helped in modern times by a better knowledge of the nature of air and other gases, and the laws which govern their motions and combinations at different temperatures. the most successful form of heating coal stove of the century has been one that combined in itself the features of base-burning: that is, a covered magazine at the centre or back of the stove open at or near the top of the stove into which the coal is placed, and which then feeds to the bottom of the fire pot as fast as the coal is consumed, a heavy open fire pot placed as low as possible, an ash grate connected with the bottom of the pot which can be shaken and dumped to an ash box beneath without opening the stove, thus preventing the escape of the dust, an illuminating chamber nearly or entirely surrounding the fire pot, provided with mica windows, through which the fire is reflected and the heat radiated, a chamber above the fire pot and surrounding the fuel chamber and into which the heat and hot gases arise, producing additional radiating surface and permitting the gases to escape through a flue in the chimney, or, leading them first through another chamber to the base of the stove and thence out, and dampers to control and regulate the supply of air to the fuel, and to cut off the escape or control the course of the products of combustion. the cheerful stove fireplace and stove of franklin and the french were revived, combined and improved some years ago by capt. douglas galton of the english army for use in barracks, but this stove is also admirably adapted for houses. it consists of an open stove or grate set in or at the front of the fireplace with an air inlet from without, the throat of the fireplace closed and a pipe extending through it from the stove into the chimney. although a steady flow of heat, desirable regulation of temperature and great economy in the consumption of fuel, by reason of the utilisation of so much of the heat produced, were obtained by the modern stove, yet the necessity of having a stove in nearly every room, the ill-ventilation due to the non-supply of pure outer air to the room, the occasional diffusion of ash dust and noxious gases from the stove, and inability to heat the air along the floor, gave rise to a revival of the hot-air furnace, placed under the floor in the basement or cellar, and many modern and radical improvements therein. the heat obtained from stoves is effected by radiation--the throwing outward of the waves of heat from its source, while the heat obtained from a hot-air furnace is effected by convection--the moving of a body of air to be heated to the source of heat, and then when heated bodily conveyed to the room to be warmed. hence in stoves and fireplaces only such obstruction is placed between the fire and the room as will serve to convey away the obnoxious smoke and gases, and the greatest facility is offered for radiation, while in hot-air furnaces, although provision is also made to carry away the smoke and impure gases, yet the radiation is confined as closely as possible to chambers around the fire space, which chambers are protected by impervious linings from the outer air, and into which fresh outdoor air is introduced, then heated and conveyed to different apartments by suitable pipes or flues, and admitted or excluded, as desired, by registers operated by hand levers. there are stationary furnaces and portable furnaces; the former class enclose the heating apparatus in walls of brick or other masonry, while in the latter the outer casing and the inner parts are metal structures, separable and removable. in both classes an outer current of pure air is made to course around the fire chamber and around among other flues and chambers through which the products of combustion are carried, so that all heat possible is utilised. vessels of water are supplied at the most convenient place in one of the hot-air chambers to moisten and temper the air, and dampers are placed in the pipes to regulate and guide the supply of heat to the rooms above. after watt had invented his improvements on the steam engine the idea occurred to him of using steam for heating purposes. accordingly, in , he made a hollow sheet-iron box of plates, and supplied it with steam from the boiler of the establishment. it had an air-escape cock, and condensed-water-escape pipe; and in boulton and watt constructed a heating apparatus in lee's factory, manchester, in which the steam was conducted through cast-iron pipes, which also served as supports to the floor. patents were also taken out by others in england for steam-heating apparatuses during the latter part of the th century. heating by the circulation of hot water through pipes was also originated or revived during the th century, and a short time before watt's circulation of steam. it is said that bonnemain of england, in , desiring to improve the ancient methods of hatching poultry by artificial heat--practised by both ancient and modern egyptians ages before it became a latter day wonder, and taught the egyptians by the ostriches--conceived the idea of constructing quite a large incubator building with shelves for the eggs, coops for holding the chickens, and a tube for circulating hot water leading from a boiler below and above each shelf, and through the coops, and back to the boiler. this incubator contains the germs of modern water heaters. in both the steam and water heating systems the band or collection of pipes in each room may be covered with ornamental radiating plates, or otherwise treated or arranged to render them sightly and effective. in one form of the hot-water system, however, the collection of a mass of pipes in the rooms is dispensed with, and the pipes are massed in an air chamber over or adjacent to the furnace, where they are employed to heat a current of air introduced from the outside, and which heated pure air is conveyed through the house by flues and registers as in the hot-air furnace system. the hanging of the crane, the turning of the spit, the roasting in ashes and on hot stones, the heating of and the baking in the big "dutch" ovens, and some other forms of cooking by our forefathers had their pleasures and advantages, and still are appreciated under certain circumstances, and for certain purposes, but are chiefly honoured in memory alone and reverenced by disuse; while the modern cooking stove with its roasting and hot water chambers, its numerous seats over the fire for pots, pans, and kettles, its easy means of controlling and directing the heat, its rotating grate, and, when desired, its rotating fire chamber, for turning the hot fire on top to the bottom, and the cold choked fire to the top, its cleanliness and thorough heat, its economy in the use of fuel, is adopted everywhere, and all the glowing names with which its makers and users christen it fail to exaggerate its qualities when rightly made and used. it would appear that the field of labour and the number of labourers, chiefly those who toiled with brick and mortar, were greatly reduced when those huge fireplaces were so widely discarded. this must have seemed so especially in those regions where the houses were built up to meet the yearning wants of an outside chimney, but armies of men are engaged in civilised countries in making stoves and furnaces, where three-quarters of a century ago very few were so employed. as in every industrial art old things pass away, but the new things come in greater numbers, demand a greater number of workers, develop new wants, new fields of labour, and the new and increasing supply of consumers refuse to be satisfied with old contrivances. in the united states alone there are between four and five hundred stove and furnace foundries, in which about ten thousand people are employed, and more than three million stoves and furnaces produced annually, which require nearly a million tons of iron to make, and the value of which is estimated as at least $ , , . the matter of _ventilation_ is such a material part of heating that it cannot escape attention. there can be no successful heating without a circulation of air currents, and fortunately for man in his house no good fire can be had without an outflow of heat and an inflow of cooler air. the more this circulation is prevented the worse the fire and the ventilation. it seems to many such a simple thing, this change of air--only to keep open the window a little--to have a fireplace, and convenient door. and yet some of the brightest intellects of the century have been engaged in devising means to accomplish the result, and all are not yet agreed as to which is the best way. how to remove the heated, vitiated air and to supply fresh air while maintaining the same uniform temperature is a problem of long standing. the history of the attempts to heat and ventilate the houses of parliament since wren undertook it in has justly been said to be history of the art of ventilation since that time, as the most eminent scientific authorities in the world have been engaged or consulted in it, and the most exhaustive reports on the subject have been rendered by such men as gay-lussac, sir humphry davy, faraday and dr. arnott of england and gen. morin of france. the same may be said in regard to the houses of congress in the united states capitol for the past thirty-five years. prof. henry, dr. billings, the architect, clark, of that country, and many other bright inventors and men of ability have given the subject devoted attention. among the means for creating ventilation are underground tunnels leading to the outer air, with fans in them to force the fresh air in or draw the poor air out, holes in the ceiling, fire places, openings over the doors, openings under the eaves, openings in the window frames, shafts from the floor or basement with fires or gas jets to create an upward draught, floors with screened openings to the outer air, steam engines to work a suction pipe in one place and a blow pipe in another, air boxes communicating with the outer air, screens, hoods, and deflectors at these various openings,--all these, separately or in combination, have been used for the purpose of drawing the vitiated air out and letting the pure air in without creating draughts to chill the sensitive, or overheating to excite the nervous. there seems to have been as many devices invented to keep a house or building closed up tight while highly heating it, as to ventilate the same and preserve an even, moderate temperature. the most approved system of ventilation recognises the fact that air is of the same weight and is possessed of the same constituents in one part of a room as at another, and to create a perfect ventilation a complete change and circulation must take place. it therefore creates a draught, arising from the production of a vacuum by a current of heat or by mechanical means, or by some other way, which draws out of a room the used up, vitiated air through outlets at different places, while pure outer air is admitted naturally, or forced in if need be, through numerous small inlets, such outlets and inlets so located and distributed and protected as not to give rise to sensible draughts on the occupants. the best system also recognises the fact that all parts of a house, its cellars and attic, its parlours and kitchens, its closets, bathrooms and chambers, should be alike clean and well ventilated, and that if one room is infected all are infected. the laurels bestowed on inventors are no more worthily bestowed than on those who have invented devices which give to our homes, offices, churches and places of amusement a pure and comfortable atmosphere. _car heaters._--the passing away of the good old portable foot stove for warming the feet, especially when away from home, and while travelling, is not to be regretted, although in some instances it was not at first succeeded by superior devices. for a long time after the introduction of steam, railroad cars and carriages, in which any heat at all was used, were heated by a stove in each car--generally kept full of red hot coal or wood--an exceedingly dangerous companion in case of accident. since systems have been invented and introduced, the most successful of which consists of utilising the heat of the steam from the locomotive for producing a hot-water circulation through pipes along the floor of each car, and in providing an emergency heater in each car for heating the water when steam from the locomotive is not available. _grass-burning stoves._--there are many places in this world where neither wood nor coal abound, or where the same are very scarce, but where waste grass and weeds, waste hay and straw, and similar combustible refuse are found in great abundance. stoves have been invented especially designed for the economical consumption of such fuel. one requisite is that such light material should be held in a compressed state while in the stove to prevent a too rapid combustion. means for so holding the material under compression appear to have been first invented and patented by hamilton of america in . some means besides the sickle and scythe, hoe and plough, were wanted to destroy obnoxious standing grass and weeds. a weed like the russian thistle, for instance, will defy all usual means for its extermination. a fire chamber has been invented which when drawn over the ground will burn a swath as it advances, and it is provided with means, such as a wide flange on the end of the chamber, which extinguishes the fire and prevents its spreading beyond the path. a similar stove with jets of flame from vapour burners has been used to soften hard asphalt pavement when it is desired to take it up. the art of heating and cooking by oil, vapour and gas stoves is one that has arisen during the latter half of this century, and has become the subject of a vast number of inventions and extensive industries. stoves of this character are as efficient and economical as coal stoves, and are in great demand, especially where coal and wood are scarce and high-priced. _oil stoves_ as first invented consisted of almost the ordinary lamp, without the glass shade set in the stove and were similar to gas stoves. but these were objectionable on account of the fumes emitted. by later inventions the lamp has been greatly improved. the wick is arranged within tubular sliding cylinders so as to be separated from the other parts of the stove when it is not lit, and better regulating devices adopted, whereby the oil is prevented from spreading from the wick on to the other parts of the stove, which give rise to obnoxious fumes by evaporation and heating. some recent inventors have dispensed with the wick altogether and the oil is burned practically like vapour. _gasoline_, and other heavy oily vapours are in many stoves first vapourised by a preliminary heating in a chamber before the gas is ignited for use. these vapours are then conducted by separate jets to different points in the stove where the heat is to be applied. the danger and unpleasant flame and smoke arising from this vapourising in the stove have been obviated by inventions which vapourise the fuel by other means, as by carbonating, or loading the air with the vapour in an elevated chamber and conducting the saturated air to the burners; or by agitation, by means of a quick-acting, small, but powerful fan. _sterilising._--the recent scientific discoveries and investigations of injurious bacteria rendered it desirable to purify water by other means than filtering, especially for the treatment of disease-infected localities; and this gave rise to the invention of a system of heat sterilising and filtering the water, in one process, and out of contact with the germ-laden air, thus destroying the bacteria and delivering the water in as pure and wholesome condition as possible. west in patented such a system. _electric heating and cooking._--reference has already been made in the chapter on electricity to the use of that agent in heating and cooking. the use of the electric current for these purposes has been found to be perfectly practical, and for heating cars especially, where electricity is the motive power, a portion of the current is economically employed. the art of heating and cooking naturally suggests the other end of the line of temperature--_refrigeration_. a refrigeration by which ordinary ice is artificially produced, perishable food of all kinds preserved for long times, and transported for great distances, which has proved an immense advantage to mankind everywhere and is still daily practised to the gratification and comfort of millions of men, must receive at least a passing notice. the messrs. e. and f. carré of france invented successful machines about for making ice by the rapid absorption and evaporation of heat by the ammonia process. the discoveries and inventions of others in the artificial production of cold by means of volatile liquids, whether for the making of ice or other purposes, constituted a great step in the art of refrigeration. vaporisation, absorption, compression or reduction of atmospheric pressure are the principal methods of producing cold. by vaporisation, water, ether, sulphuric acid, ammonia, etc., in assuming the vaporous form change sensible heat to latent heat and produce a degree of cold which freezes an adjacent body of water. the principle of making ice by evaporation and absorption may be illustrated by two examples of the carré methods:--it is well known what a great attraction sulphuric acid has for water. water to be frozen is placed in a vessel connected by a pipe to a reservoir containing sulphuric acid. a vacuum is produced in this reservoir by the use of an air pump, while the acid is being constantly stirred. lessening of the atmospheric pressure upon water causes its evaporation, and as the vapour is quietly absorbed by the sulphuric acid the water is quickly congealed. it is known that ammonia can be condensed into liquid form by pressure or cold, and is absorbed by and soluble in water to an extraordinary degree. a generator containing a strong solution of ammonia is connected by a pipe to an empty receiver immersed in cold water. the ammonia generator is then heated, its vapour driven off and conducted to a jacket around the centre of the receiver and is there condensed by pressure of an air pump. the central cylindrical space in the receiver is now filled with water, and the operation is reversed. the generator is immersed in cold water and pressure on the liquid ammonia removed. the liquid ammonia now passes into the gaseous state, and is conducted to and reabsorbed by the water in the generator. but in this evaporation great cold is produced and the water in the receiver is soon frozen. twining's inventions in the united states in and of the compression machine, followed by pictet of france, and a number of improvements elsewhere have bid fair to displace the absorption method. in dispensing with absorption these machines proceed on the now well-established theory that air and many other gases become heated when compressed; that this heat can then be drawn away, and that when the gas is allowed to re-expand it will absorb a large amount of heat from any solid or fluid with which it is brought in contact, and so freeze it. accordingly such machines are so constructed that by the operation of a piston, or pistons, in a cylinder, and actuated by steam or other motive power, the air or gas is compressed to the desired temperature, the heat led off and the cold vapour conducted through pipes and around chambers where water is placed and where it is frozen. by the best machines from five hundred to one thousand pounds of ice an hour are produced. the art of refrigeration and of modern transportation have brought the fruits of the tropics in great abundance to the doors of the dwellers of the north, and from the shores of the pacific to the atlantic and across the atlantic to europe. a train of refrigerator cars in california laden with delicious assorted fruits, and provided with fan blowers driven by the car axles to force the air through ice chambers, from whence it is distributed by perforated pipes through the fruit chambers, and wherein the temperature is maintained at about ° fah., can be landed in new york four days after starting on its journey of , miles, with the fruits in perfect condition. but the public is still excited and wondering over the new king of refrigeration--_liquid air_. as has been stated, the compression of air to produce cold is a modern discovery applied to practical uses, and prominent among the inventors and discoverers in this line have been prof. dewar and charles e. tripler. air may be compressed and heat generated in the process withdrawn until the temperature of the air is reduced to ° below zero, at which point the air is visible and to a certain extent assumes a peculiar material form, in which form it can be confined in suitable vessels and used as a refrigerant and as a motor of great power when permitted to re-expand. it is said that it was not so long ago when prof. dewar produced the first ounce of liquid air at a cost of $ , , but that now mr. tripler claims that he can produce it by his apparatus for five cents a gallon. refrigeration is at present its most natural and obvious use, and it is claimed that eleven gallons of the material when gradually expanded has the refrigerating power of one ton of ice. its use of course for all purposes for which cold can be used is thus assured. it is also to be used as a motor in the running of various kinds of engines. it is to be used as a great alleviator of human suffering in lowering and regulating the temperature of hospitals in hot weather, and in surgical operations as a substitute for anæsthetics and cauterising agents. it was one of the marvellous attractions at the great paris exposition of . lighting is closely allied to the various subjects herein considered, but consideration of the various modes and kinds of lamps for lighting will be reserved for the chapter on furniture for houses, etc. chapter xiv. metallurgy. "nigh on the plain, in many cells prepared, that underneath had veins of liquid fire sluiced from the lake, a second multitude with wondrous art founded the massy ore; severing each kind, and scumm'd the bullion dross; a third as soon had formed within the ground a various mould, and from the boiling cells by strange conveyance fill'd each hollow nook; as in an organ, from one blast of wind, to many a row of pipes the sound board breathes." --_paradise lost._ ever since those perished races of men who left no other record but that engraven in rude emblems on the rocks, or no other signs of their existence but in the broken tools found buried deep among the solid leaves of the crusted earth, ever since tubal cain became "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron," the art of smelting has been known. the stone age flourished with implements furnished ready-made by nature, or needing little shaping for their use, but the ages of metal which followed required the aid of fire directed by the hand of man to provide the tool of iron or bronze. the greeks claimed that the discovery of iron was theirs, and was made at the burning of a forest on the mountains of ida in crete, about b. c., when the ore contained in the rocks or soil on which the forest stood was melted, cleansed of its impurities, and then collected and hammered. archeologists have deprived the greeks of this gift, and carried back its origin to remoter ages and localities. man first discovered by observation or accident that certain stones were melted or softened by fire, and that the product could be hammered and shaped. they learned by experience that the melting could be done more effectually when the fuel and the ore were mixed and enclosed by a wall of stone; that the fire and heat could be alone started and maintained by blowing air into the fuel--and they constructed a rude bellows for this purpose. finding that the melted metal sank through the mass of consumed fuel, they constructed a stone hearth on which to receive it. thus were the first crude furnace and hearth invented. as to gold, silver and lead, they doubtless were found first in their native state and mixed with other ores and were hammered into the desired shapes with the hardest stone implements. that copper and tin combined would make bronze was a more complex proceeding and probably followed instead of preceding, as has sometimes been alleged, the making of iron tools. that bronze relics were found apparently of anterior manufacture to any made of iron, was doubtless due to the destruction of the iron by that great consumer--oxygen. what was very anciently called "brass" was no doubt gold-coloured copper; for what is modernly known as brass was not made until after the discovery of zinc in the th century and its combination with copper. among the "lost arts" re-discovered in later ages are those which supplied the earliest cities with ornamented vessels of gold and copper, swords of steel that bent and sprung like whalebones, castings that had known no tool to shape their contour and embellishments, and monuments and tablets of steel and brass which excite the wonder and admiration of the best "artificers in brass and iron" of the present day. to understand and appreciate the advancements that have been made in metallurgy in the nineteenth century, it is necessary to know, in outline at least, what before had been developed. the earliest form of a smelting furnace of historic days, such as used by the ancient egyptians, hebrews, and probably by the hindoos and other ancient peoples, and still used in asia, is thus described by dr ure: "the furnace or bloomary in which the ore is smelted is from to feet high; it is somewhat pear-shaped, being about feet wide at bottom and at top. it is built entirely of clay. there is an opening in front about a foot or more in height which is filled with clay at the commencement, and broken down at the end of each smelting operation. the bellows are usually made of two goatskins with bamboo nozzles, which are inserted into tubes of clay that pass into the furnace. the furnace is filled with charcoal, and a lighted coal being introduced before the nozzle, the mass in the interior is soon kindled. as soon as this is accomplished, a small portion of the ore previously moistened with water to prevent it from running through the charcoal, but without any flux whatever, is laid on top of the coals, and covered with charcoal to fill up the furnace. in this manner ore and fuel are supplied and the bellows urged for three or four hours. when the process is stopped and the temporary wall in front broken down the bloom is removed with a pair of tongs from the bottom of the furnace." this smelting was then followed by hammering to further separate the slag, and probably after a reheating to increase the malleability. it will be noticed that in this earliest process pure carbon was used as a fuel, and a blast of air to keep the fire at a great heat was employed. to what extent this carbon and air blast, and the mixing and remixing with other ingredients, and reheating and rehammering, may have been employed in various instances to modify the conditions and render the metal malleable and more or less like modern steel, is not known, but that an excellent quality of iron resembling modern steel was often produced by this simple mode of manufacture by different peoples, is undoubtedly the fact. steel after all is iron with a little more carbon in it than in the usual iron in the smelting furnace, to render it harder, and a little less carbon than in cast or moulded iron to render it malleable, and in both conditions was produced from time immemorial, either by accident or design. it was with such a furnace probably that india produced her keen-edged weapons that would cut a web of gossamer, and damascus its flashing blades--the synonym of elastic strength. africa, when its most barbarous tribes were first discovered, was making various useful articles of iron. its earliest modes of manufacture were doubtless still followed when dr livingstone explored the interior, as they now also are. he thus describes their furnaces and iron: "at every third or fourth village (in the regions near lake nyassa) we saw a kiln-looking structure, about feet high and ½ feet in diameter. it is a clay fire-hardened furnace for smelting iron. no flux is used, whether with specular iron, the yellow hematite, or magnetic ore, and yet capital metal is produced. native manufactured iron is so good that the natives declare english iron "rotten" in comparison, and specimens of african hoes were pronounced at birmingham nearly equal to the best swedish iron." the natives of india, the hottentots, the early britons, the chinese, the savages of north and south america, as discovery or research brought their labours to light, or uncovered the monuments of their earliest life, were shown to be acquainted with similar simple forms of smelting furnaces. early spain produced a furnace which was adopted by the whole of europe as fast as it became known. it was the catalan furnace, so named from the province of catalonia, where it probably first originated, and it is still so known and extensively used. "it consists of a four-sided cavity or hearth, which is always placed within a building and separated from the main wall thereof by a thinner interior wall, which in part constitutes one side of the furnace. the blast pipe comes through the wall, and enters the fire through a flue which slants downward. the bottom is formed of a refractory stone, which is renewable. the furnace has no chimneys. the blast is produced by means of a fall of water usually from to feet high, through a rectangular tube, into a rectangular cistern below, to whose upper part the blast pipe is connected, the water escaping through a pipe below. this apparatus is exterior to the building, and is said to afford a continuous blast of great regularity; the air, when it passes into the furnace, is, however, saturated with moisture."--_knight._ no doubt in such a heat was formed the metal from which was shaped the armour of don quixote and his prototypes. bell in his history of metallurgy tells us that the manufacture of malleable iron must have fallen into decadence in england, especially before the reign of elizabeth and charles i., as no furnaces equal even to the catalan had for a long time been in use; and the architectural iron column found in ancient delhi, inches in diameter, about feet long and calculated to weigh about tons, could not have been formed by any means known in england in the sixteenth century. this decadence was in part due to the severe laws enacted against the destruction of forests, and most of the iron was then brought to england from germany and other countries. from time immemorial the manufacture of iron and steel has been followed in germany, and that country yet retains pre-eminence in this art both as to mechanical and chemical processes. it was in the eighteenth century that the celebrated freiberg mining academy was founded, the oldest of all existing mining schools; and based on developing mining and metallurgy on scientific lines, it has stood always on the battle line in the fight of progress. the early smelting furnaces of germany resembled the catalan, and were called the "stückofen," and in sweden were known as the "osmund." in these very pure iron was made. the art of making cast iron, which differs from the ordinary smelted iron in the fact that it is _melted_ and then run into moulds, although known among the ancients more than forty centuries ago, as shown by the castings of bronze and brass described by their writers and recovered from their ruins, appears to have been forgotten long before the darkness of the middle ages gathered. there is no record of its practice from the time the elder pliny described its former use ( - a. d.), to the sixteenth century. it is stated that then the lost art was re-invented by ralph page and peter baude of england in --who in that year made cast-iron in sussex. the "stückofen" furnace above referred to was succeeded in germany by higher ones called the "flossofen," and these were followed by still higher and larger ones called "blauofen," so that by the middle of the eighteenth century the furnaces were very capacious, the blast was good, and it had been learned how to supply the furnaces with ore, coal and lime-stone broken into small fragments. the lime was added as a flux, and acted to unite with itself the sand, clay and other impurities to form a slag or scoria. the melted purified iron falling to the bottom was drawn off through a hole tapped in the furnace, and the molten metal ran into channels in a bed of sand called the "sow and pigs." hence the name, "pig iron." the smelting of ore by charcoal in those places where carried on extensively required the use of a vast amount of wood, and denuded the surrounding lands of forests. so great was this loss felt that it gave rise to the prohibitory laws and the decadence in england of the manufacture of iron, already alluded to. this turned the attention of iron smelters to coal as a substitute. patents were granted in england for its use to several unsuccessful inventors. finally in dud dudley, a graduate of oxford university, and to whom succeeded his father's iron furnaces in worcestershire, obtained a patent and succeeded in producing several tons of iron per week by the use of the pitcoal in a small blast furnace. this success inflamed the wood owners and the charcoal burners and they destroyed dudley's works. he met with other disasters common to worthy inventors and discontinued his efforts to improve the art. it is said that in sir john winter of england made coke by burning sea coal in closed pots. but this was not followed up, and the use of charcoal and the destruction of the forests went on until , when abraham darby of the coalbrookdale iron works at shropshire, england, commenced to treat the soft pit coal in the same way as wood is treated in producing charcoal. he proposed to burn the coal in a smouldering fire, to expel the sulphur and other impurities existing in the form of phosphorus, hydrogen and oxygen, etc. while saving the carbon. the attempt was successful, and thus _coke_ was made. it was found cheaper and superior to either coal or charcoal, and produced a quicker fire and a greater heat. this was a wonderful discovery, and was preserved as a trade secret for a long time. it was referred to as a curiosity in the _philosophical transactions_ in . in fact it was not introduced in america until a century later, when in the soft coal abounding around pittsburgh in pennsylvania and in the neighbouring regions of ohio was thus treated. even its use then was experimental, and did not become a practical art in the united states until about . with the invention of coke came also the revival of cast iron. the process of making cast steel was reinvented in england by benjamin huntsman of attercliff, near sheffield, about . between that time and he practised melting small pieces of "blistered" steel (iron bars which had been carbonised by smelting in charcoal) in closed clay crucibles. in henry cort of england introduced the puddling process and grooved rolls. puddling had been invented, but not successfully used before. the term "puddling" originated in the covering of the hearth of stones at the bottom of the furnace with clay, which was made plastic by mixing the clay in a puddle of water; and on which hearth the ore when melted is received. when in this melted condition cort and others found that the metal was greatly improved by stirring it with a long iron bar called a "rabble," and which was introduced through an opening in the furnace. this stirring admitted air to the mass and the oxygen consumed and expelled the carbon, silicon, and other impurities. the process was subsequently aided by the introduction of pig iron broken into pieces and mixed with hammer-slag, cinder, and ore. the mass is stirred from side to side of the furnace until it comes to a boiling point, when the stirring is increased in quickness and violence until a pasty round mass is collected by the puddler. as showing the value of cort's discovery and the hard experience inventors sometimes have, fairbairn states that cort "expended a fortune of upward of £ , in perfecting his invention for puddling iron and rolling it into bars and plates; that he was robbed of the fruits of his discoveries by the villainy of officials in a high department of the government; and that he was ultimately left to starve by the apathy and selfishness of an ungrateful country. his inventions conferred an amount of wealth on the country equivalent to £ , , , and have given employment to , of the working population of our land for the last three or four generations." this process of puddling lasted for about an hour and a half and entailed extremely severe labour on the workman. the invention of mechanical puddlers, hereinafter referred to, consisting chiefly of rotating furnaces, were among the beneficent developments of the nineteenth century. prior to cort's time the plastic lump or ball of metal taken from the furnace was generally beaten by hammers, but cort's grooved rollers pressed out the mass into sheets. the improvements of the steam engine by watt greatly extended the manufacture of iron toward the close of the th century, as powerful air blasts were obtained by the use of such engines in place of the blowers worked by man, the horse, or the ox. so far as the art of refining the precious metals is concerned, as well as copper, tin and iron, it had not, previous to this century, proceeded much beyond the methods described in the most ancient writings; and these included the refining in furnaces, pots, and covered crucibles, and alloying, or the mixture and fusion with other metals. furnaces to hold the crucibles, and made of iron cylinders lined with fire brick, whereby the crucibles were subjected to greater heat, were also known. the amalgamating process was also known to the ancients, and vitruvius (b. c. ) and pliny (a. d. ), describe how mercury was used for separating gold from its impurities. its use at gold and silver mines was renewed extensively in the sixteenth century. thus we find that the eighteenth century closed with the knowledge of the smelting furnaces of various kinds, of coke as a fuel in place of charcoal, of furious air blasts driven by steam and other power, of cast iron and cast steel, and of refining, amalgamating, and compounding processes. looking back, now, from the threshold of the nineteenth century over the path we have thus traced, it will be seen that what had been accomplished in metallurgy was the result of the use of ready means tested by prolonged trials, of experiments more or less lucky in fields in which men were groping, of inventions without the knowledge of the real properties of the materials with which inventors were working or of the unvarying laws which govern their operations. they had accomplished much, but it was the work mainly of empirics. the art preceding the nineteenth century compared with what followed is the difference between experience simply, and experience when combined with hard thinking, which is thus stated by herschel: "art is the application of knowledge to a practical end. if the knowledge be merely accumulated experience the art is empirical; but if it is experience reasoned upon and brought under general principles it assumes a higher character and becomes a scientific art." with the developments, discoveries and inventions in the lines of steam, chemistry and electricity, as elsewhere told, the impetus they gave to the exercise of brain force in every field of nature at the outset of the century, and with their practical aid, the art of metallurgy soon began to expand to greater usefulness, and finally to its present wonderful domain. the subject of metallurgy in this century soon became scientifically treated and its operations classified. thus the physical character and metallic constituents of ores received the first consideration; then the proper treatment to which the ores were to be subjected for the purpose of extracting the metal--which are either mechanical or chemical. the mechanical processes designed to separate the ore from its enclosing rock or other superfluous earthy matter called _gangue_ became known as _ore dressing_ and _ore concentrating_. these included mills with rollers, and stamps operated by gravity, or steam, for breaking up the ore rocks; abrasion apparatus for comminuting the ore by rubbing the pieces of ore under pressure; and smelting, or an equivalent process, for melting the ore and driving off the impurities by heat, etc. the chemical processes are those by which the metal, whatever it may be, is either dissolved or separated from other constituents by either the application to the ore of certain metallic solutions of certain acids, or by the fusion of different ores or metals in substantially the old styles of furnaces; or its precipitation by amalgamating, or by electrolysis--the art of decomposing metals by electricity. in the early decades of the century, by the help of chemistry and physics, the nature of heat, carbon, and oxygen, and the great affinity iron has for oxygen, became better known; and particularly how in the making of iron its behaviour is influenced by the presence of carbon and other foreign constituents; also how necessary to its perfect separation was the proper elimination of the oxygen and carbon. the use of manganese and other highly oxidisable metals for this purpose was discovered. among the earliest most notable inventions in the century, in the manufacture of iron, was that of samuel b. rogers of glamorganshire, wales, who invented the iron floor for furnaces with a refractory lining--a great improvement on cort's sand floor, which gave too much silicon to the iron; and the _hot air blast_ by neilson of glasgow, scotland, patented in . the latter consisted in the use of heated air as the blast instead of cold air--whereby ignition of the fuel was quickened, intensity of the heat and the expulsion of oxygen and carbon from the iron increased, and the operation shortened and improved in every way. the patent was infringed and assailed, but finally sustained by the highest courts of england. it produced an immense forward stride in the amount and quality of iron manufactured. by the introduction of the hot air blast it became practicable to use the hard anthracite coal as a fuel where such coal abounded; and to use pig iron, scrap iron, and refractory ore and metals with the fuel to produce particular results. furnaces were enlarged to colossal dimensions, some being a hundred feet high and capable of yielding or tons of metal per day. the forms of furnaces and means for lining and cooling the hearth and adjacent parts have received great attention. the discovery that the flame escaping from the throat of the blast furnace was nothing else than burning carbon led faber du faur at wasseralfugen in to invent the successful and highly valuable method of utilising the unburnt gas from the blast furnace for heating purposes, and to heat the blast itself, and drive the steam engine that blew the blast into the furnace, without the consumption of additional fuel. this also led to the invention of separate gas producers. bunsen in made his first experiments at hesse in collecting the gases from various parts of the furnace, revealing their composition and showing their adaptability for various purposes. thus, from a scientific knowledge of the constituents of ores and of furnace gases, calculations could be made in advance as to the materials required to make pig iron, cast iron, and steel of particular qualities. in the process of puddling difficulty had been experienced in handling the bloom or ball after it was formed in the furnace. a sort of squeezing apparatus, or tongs, called the alligator, had been employed. in henry burden of america invented and patented a method and means for treating these balls, whereby the same were taken directly from the furnace and passed between two plain converging metal surfaces, by which the balls were gradually but quickly pressed and squeezed into a cylindrical form, while a large portion of the cinders and other foreign impurities were pressed out. we have described how by cort's puddling process tremendous labour was imposed on the workmen in stirring the molten metal by hand with "rabbles." a number of mechanical puddlers were invented to take the place of these hand means, but the most important invention in this direction was the revolving puddlers of beadlestone, patented in in england, and of heaton, allen and yates, in - . the most successful, however, was that of danks of the united states in - . the danks rotary puddler is a barrel-shaped, refractory lined vessel, having a chamber and fire grate and rotated by steam, into which pig iron formed by the ordinary blast furnaces, and then pulverised, is placed, with the fuel. molten metal from the furnace is then run in, which together with the fuel is then subjected to a strong blast. successive charges may be made, and at the proper time the puddler is rotated, slowly at some stages and faster at others, until the operation is completed. a much more thorough and satisfactory result in the production of a pure malleable iron is thus obtained than is possible by hand puddling. but the greatest improvements in puddling, and in the production of steel from iron, and which have produced greater commercial results than any other inventions of the century relating to metallurgy, were the inventions of henry bessemer of hertfordshire, england, from to . in place of the puddling "rabbles" to stir the molten metal, or _matte_, as it is called, while the air blast enters to oxidise it, he first introduced the molten metal from the furnace into an immense egg-shaped vessel lined with quartzose, and hung in an inclined position on trunnions, or melted the metal in such vessel, and then dividing the air blast into streams forced with great pressure each separate stream through an opening in the bottom of the vessel into the molten mass, thus making each stream of driven air a rabble; and they together blew and lifted the white mass into a huge, surging, sun-bright fountain. the effect of this was to burn out the impurities, silicon, carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus, leaving the mass a pure soft iron. if steel was wanted a small amount of carbon, usually in the form of spiegeleisen, was introduced into the converter before the process was complete. a. l. holley of the united states improved the bessemer apparatus by enabling a greater number of charges to be converted into steel within a given time. sir henry bessemer has lived to gain great fortunes by his inventions, to see them afford new fields of labour for armies of men, and to increase the riches of nations, from whom he has received deserved honours. the bessemer process led to renewed investigations and discoveries as to heat and its utilisation, the constituents of different metals and their decomposition, and as to the parts played by carbon, silicon, and phosphorus. the carbon introduced by the charge of pig iron in the bessemer process was at first supposed to be necessary to produce the greatest heat, but this was found to be a mistake; and phosphorus, which had been regarded as a great enemy of iron, to be eliminated in every way, was found to be a valuable constituent, and was retained or added to make phosphorus steel. the bessemer process has been modified in various ways: by changing the mode of introducing the blast from the bottom of the converter to the sides thereof, and admitting the blast more slowly at certain stages; by changing the character of the pig iron and fuel to be treated; and by changing the shape and operation of the converters, making them cylindrical and rotary, for instance. the bessemer process is now largely used in treating copper. by this method the blowing through the molten metal of a blast of air largely removes sulphur and other impurities. the principles of reduction by the old style furnaces and methods we have described have been revived and combined with improvements. for instance, the old catalan style of furnace has been retained to smelt the iron, but in one method the iron is withdrawn before it is reduced completely and introduced into another furnace, where, mixed with further reducing ingredients, a better result by far is produced with less labour. it would be a long list that would name the modern discoverers and inventors of the century in the manufacture of iron and steel. but eminent in the list, in addition to davy and bessemer, and others already mentioned, are mushet, sir l. bell, percy, blomfield, beasley, giers and snellus of england; martin, chennot, du motay, pernot and gruner of france; lohage, dr. c. l. siemens and höpfer of germany; prof sarnstrom and akerman of sweden; turner of austria; and holley, slade, blair, jones, sellers, clapp, griffiths and eames of the united states. some of the new metals discovered in the last century have in this century been combined with iron to make harder steel. thus we have nickel, chromium, and tungsten steel. processes for hardening steel, as the "harveyized" steel, have given rise to a contest between "irresistible" projectiles and "impenetrable" armour plate. if there are some who regard modern discoveries and inventions in iron and steel as lessening the number of workmen and cheapening the product too much, thus causing trouble due to labour-saving machinery, let them glance, among other great works in the world, at krupp's at essen, where on january st, , , persons were employed, and at which works during the previous year , , tons of coal and coke were consumed, or about tons daily. workers in iron will not be out of employment in the united states, where , , tons of coke are produced annually, , , tons of coal mined, , , tons of pig iron and about , , tons of steel made. the increase of population within the last hundred years bears no comparison with this enormous increase in iron and fuel. it shows that as inventions multiply, so does the demand for their better and cheaper products increase. as the other metals, gold, silver, copper and lead often occur together, and in the same deposits with iron, the same general modes of treatment to extract them are often applied. these are known as the dry and the wet methods, and electro-reduction. ever since mammon bowed his head in search for gold, every means that the mind of man could suggest to obtain it have been tried, but the devices of this century have been more numerous and more successful than any before. the ancient methods of simply melting and "skimming the bullion dross" have been superseded. modern methods may be divided into two general classes, the mechanical and the chemical. of the former methods, when gold was found loose in sand or gravel, washing was the earliest and most universally practised, and was called panning. in this method mercury is often used to take up and secure the fine gold. rockers like a child's cradle, into which the dirt is shovelled and washed over retaining riffles, were used; coarse-haired blankets and hides; sluices and separators, with or without quicksilver linings to catch the gold; and powerful streams of water worked by compressed air to tear down the banks. where water could not be obtained the ore and soil were pulverised and dried, and then thrown against the wind or a blast of air, and the heavier gold, falling before the lighter dust, was caught on hides or blankets. for the crushing of the quartz in which gold was found, innumerable inventions in stamp mills, rollers, crushers, abraders, pulverisers and amalgamators have been invented; and so with roasters, and furnaces, and crucibles to melt the precious metal, separate the remaining impurities and convert it to use. as to chemical methods for the precious metals, the process of _lixiviation_, or _leaching_, by which the ore is washed out by a solution of potash, or with dilute sulphuric acid, or boiling with concentrated sulphuric acid, is quite modern. about came out the great cyanide process, also known as the macarthur-forrest process (they being the first to obtain patents and introduce the invention), consisting of the use of cyanide potassium in solution, which dissolves the gold, and which is then precipitated by the employment of zinc. this process is best adapted to what are known as free milling or porous ores, where the gold is free and very fine and is attracted readily by mercury. in , sir humphry davy discovered the metal potassium by subjecting moistened potash to the action of a powerful voltaic battery; the positive pole gave off oxygen and the metallic globules of pure potassium appeared at the negative pole. it is never found uncombined in nature. now if potassium is heated in cyanogen gas (a gas procured by heating mercury) or obtained on a large scale by the decomposition of yellow prussiate of potash, a white crystalline body very soluble in water, and exceedingly poisonous, is obtained. when gold, for instance, obtained by pulverising the ore, or found free in sand, is treated to such a solution it is dissolved from its surrounding constituents and precipitated by the zinc, as before stated. chlorine is another metal discovered by scheele in , but not known as an elementary element until so established by davy's investigations in , when he gave it the name it now bears, from the greek _chloras_, yellowish green. it is found abundantly in the mineral world in combination with common salt. now it was found that chlorine is one of the most energetic of bodies, surpassing even oxygen under some circumstances, and that a chlorine solution will readily dissolve gold. these, the cyanide and chlorination processes, have almost entirely superseded the old washing and amalgamating methods of treating free gold--and the cyanide seems to be now taking the lead. _alloys._--the art of fusing different metals to make new compounds, although always practised, has been greatly advanced by the discoverers and inventors of the century. as we have seen, amalgamating to extract gold and silver, and the making of bronze from tin and copper were very early followed. one of the most notable and useful of modern inventions or improvements of the kind was that of isaac babbitt of boston in , who in that year obtained patents for what ever since has been known as "babbitting." the great and undesirable friction produced by the rubbing of the ends of journals and shafts in their bearings of the same metal, cast or wrought iron, amounting to one-fifth of the amount of power exerted to turn them, had long been experienced. lubricants of all kinds had been and are used; but babbitt's invention was an anti-friction metal. it is composed of tin, antimony, and copper, and although the proportions and ingredients have since been varied, the whole art is still known as babbitting. other successful alloys have been made for gun metal, sheathing of ships, horseshoes, organ pipes, plough shares, roofing, eyelets, projectiles, faucets, and many and various articles of hardware, ornamental ware, and jewelry. valuable metals, such as were not always rare or scarce, but very hard to reduce, have been rendered far less in cost of production and more extensive in use by modern processes. thus, aluminium, an abundant element in rocks and clay, discovered by the german chemist wöhler, in , a precious metal, so light, bright, and tough, non-oxidizing, harder than zinc, more sonorous than silver, malleable and ductile as iron, and more tenacious, has been brought to the front from an expensive and mere laboratory production to common and useful purposes in all the arts by the processes commencing in with that of st. clair deoville, of france, followed by those of h. rose, morin, castner, tissier, hall, and others. _electro-metallurgy_, so far, has chiefly to do with the decomposition of metals by the electric current, and the production of very high temperatures for furnaces, by which the most refractory ores, metals, and other substances may be melted, and results produced not obtainable in any other way. by placing certain mixtures of carbon and sand, or of carbon and clay, between the terminals of a powerful current, a material resembling diamonds, but harder, has been produced. it has been named carbonundrum. the production of diamonds themselves is looked for. steel wire is now tempered and annealed by electricity, as well as welding done, of which mention further on will be made. thus we have seen how the birth of ideas of former generations has given rise in the present age to children of a larger growth. arts have grown only as machinery for the accomplishment of their objects has developed, and machinery has waited on the development of the metals composing it. the civilisation of to-day would not have been possible if the successors of tubal cain had not been like him, instructors "of every artificer in brass and iron." chapter xv. metal working. we referred in the last chapter to the fact that metal when it came from the melting and puddling furnace was formerly rolled into sheets; but, when the manufacturers and consumers got these sheets then came the severe, laborious work by hand of cutting, hammering, boring, shaping and fitting the parts for use and securing them in place. it is one of the glories of this century that metal-working tools and machinery have been invented that take the metal from its inception, mould and adapt it to man's will in every situation with an infinite saving of time and labour, and with a perfection and uniformity of operation entirely impossible by hand. although the tools for boring holes in wood, such as the gimlet, auger, and the lathe to hold, turn and guide the article to be operated on by the tool, are common in some respects with those for drilling and turning metal, yet, the adaptation to use with metal constitutes a class of metal-working appliances distinct in themselves, and with some exceptions not interchangeable with wood-working utensils. the metal-working tools and machines forming the subject of this chapter are not those which from time immemorial have been used to pierce, hammer, cut, and shape metals, directed by the eye and hand of man, but rather those invented to take the place of the hand and eye and be operated by other powers. it needs other than manual power to subdue the metals to the present wants of man, and until those modern motor powers, such as steam, compressed air, gas and electricity, and modern hydraulic machinery, were developed, automatic machine tools to any extent were not invented. so, too, the tools that are designed to operate on hard metal should themselves be of the best metal, and until modern inventors rediscovered the art of making cast steel such tools were not obtainable. the monuments and records of ancient and departed races show that it was known by them how to bore holes in wood, stone and glass by some sharp instruments turned by hand, or it may be by leather cords, as a top is turned. _the lathe_, a machine to hold an object, and at the same time revolve it while it is formed by the hand, or cut by a tool, is as old as the art of pottery, and is illustrated in the oldest egyptian monuments, in which the god ptah is shown in the act of moulding man upon the throwing wheel. it is a device as necessary to the industrial growth of man as the axe or the spade. its use by the egyptians appears to have been confined to pottery, but the ancient greeks, chinese, africans, and hindoos used lathes, for wood working in which the work was suspended on horizontal supports, and adapted to be rotated by means of a rope and treadle and a spring bar, impelled by the operator as he held the cutting tool on the object. joseph holtzapffel in his learned work on _turning and mechanical manipulation_, gives a list of old publications describing lathes for turning both wood and metal. among these is hartman schapper's book published at frankfort, in . a lathe on which was formed wood screws is described in a work of jacques besson, published at lyons, france, in . it is stated that there is on exhibition in the abbott museum of the historical society, new york, a bronze drinking vessel, five inches in diameter, that was exhumed from an ancient tomb in thebes, and which bears evidence of having been turned on a lathe. it is thought by those skilled in the art that it was not possible to have constructed the works of metal in solomon's temple without a turning lathe. one of the earliest published descriptions of a metal turning lathe in its leading features is that found in a book published in london, in - , by joseph moxon, "hydographer" to king charles ii., entitled, _mechanical exercises, or the doctrine of handy works_. he therein also described a machine for planing metal. although there is some evidence that these inventions of the learned gentleman were made and put to some use, yet they were soon forgotten and were not revived until a century later, when, as before intimated, the steam engine had been invented and furnished the power for working them. wood-working implements in which the cutting tool was carried by a sliding block were described in the english patents of general sir samuel bentham and joseph bramah, in - . but until this century, and fairly within its borders, man was content generally to use the metal lathe simply as a holding and turning support, while he with such skill and strength as he could command, and with an expenditure of time, labour and patience truly marvellous, held and guided with his hands the cutting tool with which the required form was made upon or from the slowly turning object before him. the contrivance which was to take the place of the hand and eye of man in holding, applying, directing and impelling a cutting tool to the surface of the metal work was the _slide-rest_. in its modern successful automatic form henry maudsley, an engineer in london, is claimed to be the first inventor, in the early part of the century. the leading feature of his form of this device consists of an iron block which constitutes the rest, cut with grooves so as to adapt it to slide upon its iron supports, means to secure the cutting tool solidly to this block, and two screw handles, one to adjust the tool towards and against the object to be cut in the lathe, and the other to slide the rest and tool lengthwise as the work progresses, which latter motion may be given by the hand, or effected automatically by a connection of the screw handle of the slide and the rotating object on the lathe. a vast variety of inventions and operations have been effected by changes in these main features. of the value of this invention, nasmyth, a devoted pupil of maudsley and himself an eminent engineer and inventor, thus writes:--"it was this holding of a tool by means of an iron hand, and constraining it to move along the surface of the work in so certain a manner, and with such definite and precise motion, which formed the great era in the history of mechanics, inasmuch as we thenceforward became possessed, by its means, of the power of operating alike on the most ponderous or delicate pieces of machinery with a degree of minute precision, of which language cannot convey an adequate idea; and in many cases we have, through its agency, equal facility in carrying on the most perfect workmanship in the interior parts of certain machines where neither the hand nor the eye can reach, and nevertheless we can give to these parts their required form with a degree of accuracy as if we had the power of transforming our-selves into pigmy workmen, and so apply our labour to the innermost holes and corners of our machinery." the scope of the lathe, slide-rest and operating tool, by its adaptation to cut out from a vast roll of steel a ponderous gun, or by a change in the size of parts to operate in cutting or drilling the most delicate portions of that most delicate of all mechanisms, a watch, reminds one of that other marvel of mechanical adaptation, the steam hammer, which makes the earth tremble with its mighty blows upon a heated mass of iron, or lightly taps and cracks the soft-shelled nut without the slightest touch of violence upon its enclosed and fragile fruit. the adaptation of the lathe and slide to wood-working tools will be referred to in the chapter relating to wood-working. following the invention of the lathe and the slide-rest, came the _metal-planing_ machines. it is stated in buchanan's _practical essays_, published in , that a french engineer in , in constructing the marly water works on the seine in france, employed a machine for planing out the wrought iron pump-barrels used in that work, and this is thought to be the first instance in which iron was reduced to a plane surface without chipping or filing. but it needed the invention of the slide-rest and its application to metal-turning lathes to suggest and render successful metal-planing machines. these were supplied in england from to by the genius of bramah, clement, fox, roberts, rennie, whitworth, fletcher, and a few others. when it is considered how many different forms are essential to the completion of metal machines of every description, the usefulness of machinery that will produce them with the greatest accuracy and despatch can be imagined. the many modifications of the planing machine have names that indicate to the workman the purpose for which they are adapted--as the _jack_, a small portable machine, quick and handy; the _jim crow_, a machine for planing both ways by reversal of the movement of the bed, and it gets its name because it can "wheel about and turn about and do just so"; the key groove machine, the milling machine with a serrated-faced cutter bar, shaping machine and shaping bar, slotting machine, crank planer, screw cutting, car-wheel turning, bolt and nut screwing, etc. as to the mutual evolution and important results of these combined inventions, the slide-rest and the planer, we again quote nasmyth:-- "the first planing machine enabled us to produce the second still better, and that a better still, and then slide rests of the most perfect kind came streaming forth from them, and they again assisted in making better still, so that in a very short time a most important branch of engineering business, namely, tool-making, arose, which had its existence not merely owing to the pre-existing demand for such tools, but in fact raised a demand of its own creating. one has only to go into any of these vast establishments which have sprung up in the last thirty years to find that nine-tenths of all the fine mechanisms in use and in process of production are through the agency, more or less direct, of the _slide rest and planing machine_." springing out of these inventions, as from a fruitful soil, came the metal-boring machines, one class for turning the outside of cylinders to make them true, and another class for boring and drilling holes through solid metal plates. the principle of the lathe was applied to those machines in which the shaft carrying the cutting or boring tool was held either in a vertical or in a horizontal position. now flowed forth, as from some vulcan's titanic workshop, machines for making bolts, nuts, rivets, screws, chains, staples, car wheels, shafts, etc., and other machines for applying them to the objects with which they were to be used. the progress of screw-making had been such that in , by the machines then in use for cutting, slotting, shaving, threading, and heading, twenty men and boys were enabled to manufacture , screws in a day. thirty-five years later two girls tending two machines were enabled to manufacture , screws a day. since then the process has proceeded at even a greater rate. so great is the consumption of screws that it would be utterly impossible to supply the demand by the processes in vogue sixty years ago. in england's first great international fair, in , a new world of metallurgical products, implements, processes, and metal-working tools, were among the grand results of the half century's inventions which were exhibited to the assembled nations. the leading exhibitor in the line of self-acting lathes, planing, slotting, drilling and boring machines was j. whitworth & co., of manchester, england. here were for the first time revealed in a compact form those machines which shaped metal as wood alone had been previously shaped. but another quarter of a century brought still grander results, which were displayed at the centennial exhibition at philadelphia, in . as j. whitworth & co. were the leading exhibitors at london in , so were william sellers & co., of philadelphia, the leading exhibitors in the exhibition. as showing the progress of the century, the official report, made in this class by citizens of other countries than america, set forth that this exhibit of the latter company, "in extent and value, in extraordinary variety and originality, was probably without parallel in the past history of international exhibitions." language seemed to be inadequate to enable the committee to describe satisfactorily the extreme refinement in every detail, the superior quality of material and workmanship, the mathematical accuracy, the beautiful outlines, the perfection in strength and form, and the scientific skill displayed in the remarkable assemblage of this class of machinery at that exhibition. an exhibit on that occasion made by messrs. hoopes & townsend of philadelphia attracted great attention by the fact that the doctrine of the flow of solid metal, so well expounded by that eminent french scientist, m. tresca, was therein well illustrated. it consisted of a large collection of bolts and screws which had been _cold-punched_, as well as of elevator and carrier chains, the links of which had been so punched. this punching of the cold metal without cutting, boring, drilling, hammering, or otherwise shaping the metal, was indeed a revelation. so also at this exhibition was a finer collection of machine-made horseshoes than had ever previously been presented to the world. a better and more intelligent and refined treatment of that noble animal, the horse, and especially in the care of his feet, had sprung up during the last half century, conspicuously advocated by mr. fleming in england, and followed promptly in america and elsewhere. within the last forty years nearly two hundred patents have been taken out in the united states alone for machines for making horseshoes. prejudices, jealousies and objections of all kinds were raised at first against the machine-made horseshoe, as well as the horseshoe nail, but the horses have won, and the blacksmiths have been benefited despite their early objections. the smiths make larger incomes in buying and applying the machine-made shoes. the shoes are not only hammered into shape on the machine, but there are machines for stamping them out from metal at a single blow; for compressing several thicknesses of raw hide and moulding them in a steel mould, producing a light, elastic shoe, and without calks; furnishing shoes for defective hoofs, flexible shoes for the relief and cure of contracted or flat feet, shoes formed with a joint at the toe, and light, hard shoes made of aluminium. _tube making._--instead of heating strips of metal and welding the edges together, tubes may now be made seamless by rolling the heated metal around a solid heated rod; or by placing a hot ingot in a die and forcing a mandrel through the ingot. and as to tube and metal bending, there are wonderful machines which bend sheets of metal into great tubes, funnels, ship masts and cylinders. _welding._--as to welding--the seams, instead of being hammered, are now formed by melting and condensing the edges, or adjoining parts, by the electric current. _annealing and tempering._--steel wire and plates are now tempered and annealed by electricity. it is found that they can be heated to a high temperature more quickly and evenly by the electric current passed through them than by combustion, and the process is much used in making clock and watch springs. one way of hardening plates, especially armour plates, by what is called the harveyized process, is by embedding the face of the plate in carbon, protecting the back and sides with sand, heating to about the melting point of cast iron, and then hardening the face by chilling, or otherwise. _coating with metal._--although covering metal with metal has been practised from the earliest times, accomplished by heating and hammering, it was not until this century that electro-plating, and plating by chemical processes, as by dipping the metal into certain chemical solutions, and by the use of automatic machinery, were adopted. it was in the early part of the century that volta discovered that in the voltaic battery certain metallic salts were reduced to their elements and deposited at the negative pole; and that wollaston demonstrated how a silver plate in bath of sulphate of copper through which a current was passed became covered with copper. then in , spencer applied these principles in making casts, and jacobi in russia shortly after electro-gilded a dome of a cathedral in st. petersburg. space will not permit the enumeration of the vast variety of processes and machines for coating and gilding that have since followed. _metal founding._--the treatment of metal after it flows from the furnaces, or is poured from the crucibles into moulds, by the operations of facing, drying, covering, casting and stripping, has given rise to a multitude of machines and methods for casting a great variety of objects. the most interesting inventions in this class have for their object the chilling, or chill hardening, of the outer surfaces of articles which are subject to the most and hardest wear, as axle boxes, hammers, anvils, etc., which is effected by exposing the red-hot metal to a blast of cold air, or by introducing a piece of iron into a mould containing the molten metal. in casting steel ingots, in order to produce a uniform compact structure, giers of england invented "soaking pits of sand" into which the ingot from the mould is placed and then covered, so that the heat radiating outward re-heats the exterior, and the ingot is then rolled without re-heating. _sheet metal ware._--important improvements have been made in this line. wonderful machines have been made which, receiving within them a piece of flat metal, will, by a single blow of a plunger in a die, stamp out a metal can or box with tightly closed seams, and all ready for the cover, which is made in another similar machine; or by which an endless chain of cans are carried into a machine and there automatically soldered at their seams; and another which solders the heads on filled cans as fast as they can be fed into the machine. _metal personal ware._--buckles, clasps, hooks and eyelets, shanked buttons, and similar objects are now stamped up and out, without more manual labour than is necessary to supply the machines with the metal, and to take care of the completed articles. _wire working._--not only unsightly but useful barbed wire fences, and the most ornamental wire work and netting for many purposes, such as fences, screens, cages, etc., are now made by ingenious machines, and not by hand tools. in stepping into some one of the great modern works where varied industries are carried on under one general management, one cannot help realising the vast difference between old systems and the new. in one portion of the establishment the crude ores are received and smelted and treated, with a small force and with ease, until the polished metal is complete and ready for manipulation in the manufacture of a hundred different objects. in another part ponderous or smaller lathes and planing machines are turning forth many varied forms; in quiet corners the boring, drilling, and riveting machines are doing their work without the clang of hammers; in another, an apparently young student is conducting the scientific operation of coating or gilding metals; in another, girls may be seen with light machines, stamping, or burnishing, or assembling the different parts of finished metal ware; and the motive power of all this is the silent but all-powerful electric current received from the smooth-running dynamo giant who works with vast but unseen energy in a den by himself, not a smoky or a dingy den, but light, clean, polished, and beautiful as the workshop of a god. chapter xvi. ordnance, arms and explosives. although the progress in the invention of fire-arms of all descriptions seems slow during the ages preceding the th century, yet it will be found on investigation that no art progressed faster. no other art was spurred to activity by such strong incentives, and none received the same encouragement and reward for its development. the art of war was the trade of kings and princes, and princely was the reward to the subject who was the first to invent the most destructive weapon. under such high patronage most of the ideas and principles of ordnance now prevailing were discovered or suggested, but were embodied for the most part in rude and inefficient contrivances. the art waited for its success on the development of other arts, and on the mental expansion and freedom giving rise to scientific investigation and results. the cannon and musket themselves became the greatest instruments for the advancement of the new civilisation, however much it was intended otherwise by their kingly proprietors, and the new civilisation returned the compliment through its trained intellects by giving to war its present destructive efficiency. to this efficiency, great as the paradox may seem, peace holds what quiet fields it has, or will have, until most men learn to love peace and hate the arts of war. as to the chinese is given the credit for the invention of gunpowder, so they must also be regarded as the first to throw projectiles by its means. but their inventions in these directions may be classed as fireworks, and have no material bearing on the modern art of ordnance. it is supposed that the word "cannon," is derived from the same root as "cane," originally signifying a hollow reed; and that these hollow reeds or similar tubes closed at one end were used to fire rockets by powder. it is also stated that the practice existed among the chinese as early as a. d. of tying rockets to their arrows to propel them to greater distances, as well as for incendiary purposes. this basic idea had percolated from china through india to the moors and arabs, and in the course of a few centuries had developed into a crude artillery used by the moors in the siege of cordova in . the spaniards, thus learning the use of the cannon, turned the lesson upon their instructors, when under ferdinand iv. they took gibraltar from the moors in . then the knowledge of artillery soon spread throughout europe. the french used it at the siege of puy guillaume in , and the english had three small guns at crecy in . these antique guns were made by welding longitudinal bars of iron together and binding them by iron rings shrunk on while hot. being shaped internally and externally like an apothecary's mortar, they were called mortars or bombards. some were breech-loaders, having a removable chamber at the breech into which the charge of powder was inserted behind the ball. the balls were stone. these early cannon, bombards, and mortars were mounted on heavy solid wooden frames and moved with great difficulty from place to place. then in the fifteenth century they commenced to make wrought-iron cannon, and hollow projectiles, containing a bursting charge of powder to be exploded by a fuse lit before the shell was fired. in the next century cannon were cast. the hindoos, when their acquaintance was made by the europeans, were as far advanced as the latter in cannon and fire-arms. one cannon was found at bejapoor, in india, cast of bronze, bearing date , and called the "master of the field," which weighed , pounds, and others of similar size of later dates. great cast bronze guns of about the same weight as the hindoo guns were also produced at st. petersburg, russia, in the sixteenth century. many and strange were the names given by europeans to their cannon in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries to denote their size and the weight of the ball they carried: such as the assick, the bombard, the basilisk, the cannon royal, or carthoun, the culverin, demi-culverin, falcon, siren, serpentine, etc. the bombards in the fifteenth century were made so large and heavy, especially in france, that they could not be moved without being taken apart. when the heavy, unwieldy bombards with stone balls were used, artillery was mostly confined to castles, towns, forts, and ships. when used in the field they were dragged about by many yokes of oxen. but in the latter part of the fifteenth century, when france under louis xi. had learned to cast lighter brass cannon, to mount them on carriages that could be drawn by four or six horses, and which carriages had trunnions in which the cannon were swung so as to be elevated or depressed, and cast-iron projectiles were used instead of stones, field artillery took its rise, and by its use the maps of the world were changed. thus with their artillery the french under charles viii., the successor of louis xi., conquered italy. in the sixteenth century europe was busy in adopting these and other changes. cannon were made of all sizes and calibres, but were not arranged in battle with much precision. case shot were invented in germany but not brought into general use. shells were invented by the italians and fired from mortars, but their mode of construction was preserved in great secrecy. the early breech-loaders had been discarded, as it was not known how to make the breech gas-tight, and the explosions rendered the guns more dangerous to their users than to the enemy. in the seventeenth century holland began to make useful mortar shells and hand grenades. maurice and henry frederick of nassau, and gustave adolphus, made many improvements in the sizes and construction of cannon. in , coehorn, an officer in the service of the prince of orange, invented the celebrated mortar which bears his name, and the use of which has continued to the present time. the dutch also invented the howitzer, a short gun in which the projectiles could be introduced by hand. about the same time comminges of france invented mortars which threw projectiles weighing pounds. in this part of that century also great improvements were made under louis xiv. limbers, by which the front part of the gun carriage was made separable from the cannon part and provided with the ammunition chest; the prolonge, a cord and hook by which the gun part could be moved around by hand; and the elevating screw, by which the muzzle of the gun could be raised or depressed,--were invented. in the early part of the eighteenth century it was thought by artillerists in england that the longer the gun the farther it would carry. one, called "queen ann's pocket piece" still preserved at dover, is twenty-five feet long and carries a ball only twenty-five pounds in weight. it was only after repeated experiments that it was learned that the shorter guns carried the projectile the greatest distance. the greatest improvements in the eighteenth century were made by gribeauval, the celebrated french artillerist, about . he had guns made of such material and of such size as to adapt them to the different services to which they were to be put, as field, siege, garrison, and sea coast. he gave greater mobility to the system by introducing six-pound howitzers, and making gun carriages lighter; he introduced the system of fixed ammunition, separate compartments in the gun carriages for the projectiles, and the charges of powder in paper or cloth bags or cylinders; improved the construction of the elevating screw, adapted the tangent scale, formed the artillery into horse batteries, and devised new equipments and a new system of tactics. it was with gribeauval's improved system that "citizen bonaparte, young artillery officer," took toulon; with which the same young "bronze artillery officer" let go his great guns in the cul-de-sac dauphin against the church of st. roch; on the port royal; at the theatre de la republique; "and the thing we specifically call french revolution is blown into space by it, and became a thing that was." it was with this system that this same young officer won his first brilliant victories in italy. when the fruit of these victories had been lost during his absence he reappeared with his favorite artillery, and on the threshold of the century, in may , as "first consul of the republic" re-achieved at marengo the supremacy of france over austria. as to _small arms_, as before suggested, they doubtless had their origin in the practice of the chinese in throwing fire balls from bamboo barrels by the explosion of light charges of powder, as illustrated to this day in what are known as "roman candles." fire-crackers and grenades were also known to the chinese and the greeks. among ancient fire-arms the principal ones were the arquebus, also bombardelle, and the blunderbuss. they were invented in the fourteenth century but were not much used until the fifteenth century. these guns for the most part were so heavy that they had to be rested on some object to be fired. the soldiers carried a sort of tripod for this purpose. the gun was fired by a slow-burning cord, a live coal, a lit stick, or a long rod heated at one end, and called a match. the blunderbuss was invented in holland. it was a large, short, funnel-shaped muzzle-loader, and loaded with nails, slugs, etc. the injuries and hardships suffered by the men who used it, rather than by the enemy, rendered its name significant. among the earliest fire-arms of this period one was invented which was a breech-loader and revolver. the breech had four chambers and was rotated by hand on an arbour parallel to the barrel. the extent of its use is not learned. to ignite the powder the "wheel-lock" and "snap-haunce" were invented by the germans in the sixteenth century. the wheel lock consisted of a furrowed wheel and was turned by the trigger and chain against a fixed piece of iron on the stock to excite sparks which fell on to the priming. the snap-haunce, a straight piece of furrowed steel, superseded the wheel-lock. the sixteenth century had got well started before the english could be induced to give up the cross-bow and arrow, and adopt the musket. after they had introduced the musket with the snap-haunce and wooden ramrod, it became known, in the time of queen elizabeth, as the "brown bess." the "old flint-lock" was quite a modern invention, not appearing until the seventeenth century. it was a bright idea to fix a piece of flint into the cock and arrange it to strike a steel cap on the priming pan when the trigger was fired; and it superseded the old match, wheel-lock, and snap-haunce. the flint-lock was used by armies well into the nineteenth century, and is still in private use in remote localities. as the arquebus succeeded the bow and arrow, so the musket, a smooth and single-barrel muzzle-loader with a flint-lock and a wooden ramrod, succeeded the arquebus. rifles, which were the old flint-lock muskets with their barrels provided with spiral grooves to give the bullet a rotary motion and cause it to keep one point constantly in front during its flight, is claimed as the invention of augustin kutler of germany in , and also of koster of birmingham, england, about . muskets with straight grooves are said to have been used in the fifteenth century. the rifle with a long barrel and its flint-lock was a favourite weapon of the american settler. it was made in america, and he fought the indian wars and the war of the revolution with it. it would not do to conclude this sketch of antique cannon and fire-arms without referring to puckle's celebrated english patent no. , of may , , for "a defence." the patent starts out with the motto: "defending king george, your country, and lawes, is defending yourselves and protestant cause." it proceeds to describe a "portable gun or machine" having a single barrel, with a set of removable chambers which are charged with bullets before they are placed in the gun, a handle to turn the chambers to bring each chamber in line with the barrel, a tripod on which the gun is mounted and on which it is to be turned, a screw for elevating and turning the gun in different directions, a set of square chambers "for shooting square bullets against turks," a set of round chambers "for shooting round bullets against the christians;" and separate drawings show the square bullets for the turks and the round bullets for the christians. history is silent as to whether mr. puckle's patent was put in practice, but it contained the germs of some modern inventions. among the first inventions of the century was a very important one made by a clergyman, the rev. mr. forsyth, a scotchman, who in invented the percussion principle in fire-arms. in he patented in england detonating powder and pellets which were used for artillery. about general shrapnel of the english army invented the celebrated shell known by his name. it then consisted of a comparatively thin shell filled with bullets, having a fuse lit by the firing of the gun, and adapted to explode the shell in front of the object fired at. this fuse was superseded by one invented by general bormann of belgium, which greatly added to the value of case shot. in joshua shaw of england invented the percussion cap. thus, by the invention of the percussion principle by forsyth, and that little copper cylinder of shaw, having a flake of fulminating powder inside and adapted to fit the nipple of a gun and be exploded by the fall of the hammer, was sounded the death knell of the old flint-locks with which the greatest battles of the world had been and were at that time being fought. the advantages gained by the cap were the certain and instantaneous fire, the saving in time, power, and powder obtained by making smaller the orifice through which the ignition was introduced, and the protection from moisture given by the covering cap. and yet so slow is the growth of inventions sometimes that all europe continued to make the flint-locks for many years after the percussion cap was invented; and general scott, in the war between the united states and mexico in , declined to give the army the percussion cap musket. the cap suggested the necessity and invention of machines for making them quickly and in great quantities. the celebrated "colt's" revolver was invented by colonel samuel colt of the united states, in . he continued to improve it, and in exhibited it at the world's fair, london, where it excited great surprise and attention. since then the revolver has become a great weapon in both private and public warfare. the next great inventions in small arms were the readoption and improvement of the breech-loader, the making of metallic cartridges, the magazine gun, smokeless powder and other explosives, to which further reference will be made. to return to cannons:--in colonel bomford, an american officer, invented what is called the "columbiad," a kind of cannon best adapted for sea-coast purposes. they are long-chambered pieces, combining certain qualities of the gun, howitzer and mortar, and capable of projecting shells and solid shot with heavy charges of powder at high angles of elevation, and peculiarly adapted to defend narrow channels and sea-coast defences. a similar gun was invented by general paixhans of the french army in . the adoption of the paixhans long-chambered guns, designed to throw heavy shells horizontally as well as at a slight elevation and as easily as solid shot, was attended with great results. used by the french in , in the quick victorious siege of antwerp, by the allies at sebastopol, where the whole russian fleet was destroyed in about an hour, and in the fight of the kearsarge and the doomed alabama off cherbourg in the american civil war, it forced inventors in the different countries to devise new and better armour for the defence of ships. this was followed by guns of still greater penetrative power. then as another result effected by these greater guns came the passing away of the old-fashioned brick and stone forts as a means of defence. in an interesting address by major clarence e. dutton of the ordnance department, u.s.a., at the centennial patent congress at washington in , he thus stated what the fundamental improvements were that have characterised the modern ordnance during the century: . the regulation and control of the action of gunpowder in such a manner as to exert less strain upon the gun, and to impart more energy to the projectile. . to so construct the gun as to transfer a portion of the strain from the interior parts of the walls which had borne too much of it, to the exterior parts which had borne too little, thus nearly equalising the strain throughout the entire thickness of the walls. . to provide a metal which should be at once stronger and safer than any which had been used before. in the united states general rodman, "one of the pioneers of armed science," commenced about a series of investigations and experiments on the power and action of gunpowder and the strains received by every part of the gun by the exploding gases, of very great importance; and in this matter he was assisted greatly by dr. w. e. woodbridge, who invented an ingenious apparatus termed a "piezometer," or a pressure measurer, by which the pressure of the gases at the various parts of the gun was determined with mathematical certainty. dr. woodbridge also added greatly to the success of rifled cannon. the success in rifling small arms, by which an elongated ball is made to retain the same end foremost during its flight, led again to the attempts of rifling cannon for the same purpose, which were finally successful. but this success was due not to the spiral grooves in the cannon bore, but in attachments to the ball compelling it to follow the course of the grooves and giving it the proper initial movement. the trouble with these attachments was that they were either stripped off, or stripped away, by the gun spirals. woodbridge in overcame the difficulty by inventing an improved _sabot_, consisting of a ring composed of metal softer than the projectile or cannon, fixed on the inner end of the projectile and grooved at its rear end, so that when the gun is fired and the ball driven forward these grooves expand, acting valvularly to fill the grooves in the gun, thus preventing the escape of the gases, while the ring at the same time is forced forward on to the shell so tightly and forcibly that the projectile is invariably given a rotary motion and made to advance strictly in the line of axis of the bore, and in the same line during the course of its flight. this invention in principle has been followed ever since, although other forms have been given the sabot, and it is due to this invention that modern rifled cannon have been so wonderfully accurate in range and efficient in the penetrating and destructive power both on sea and land. woodbridge also invented the _wire-wound cannon_, and a machine for winding the wire upon the gun, thus giving the breach part, especially, immense strength. in england, among the first notable and greater inventors in ordnance during the latter half of the century, a period which embraces the reduction to practice of the most wonderful and successful inventions in weapons of war which the world had up to that time seen, are lancaster, who invented the elliptical bore; sir william armstrong, who, commencing in , constructed a gun built of wrought-iron bars twisted into coils and applied over a steel core and bound by one or more wrought-iron rings, all applied at white heat and shrunk on by contraction due to cooling, by which method smooth-bore, muzzle-loading cannon of immense calibre, one weighing one hundred tons, were made. they were followed by armstrong, inventor of breech-loaders; blakely, inventor of cannon made of steel tubes and an outer jacket of cast iron; and sir joseph whitworth, inventor of most powerful steel cannon and compressed steel projectiles. in germany, friedrich krupp at essen, prussia, invented and introduced such improvements in breech-loading cannon as revolutionised the manufacture of that species of ordnance, and established the foundation of the greatest ordnance works in the world. the first of his great breech-loading steel guns was exhibited at the paris exhibition in . a krupp gun finished at essen in the 's was then the largest steel gun the world had ever seen. it weighed seventy-two tons, and was thirty-two feet long. the charge consisted of pounds of powder, the shell weighed , pounds, having a bursting charge of powder of pounds, and a velocity of , feet per second. it was estimated that if the gun were fired at an angle of ° the shell would be carried a distance of fifteen miles. it was in the krupp guns, and also in the armstrong breech-loaders, that a simple feature was for the first time introduced which proved of immense importance in giving great additional expansive force to the explosion of the powder. this was an increase in the size of the powder chamber so as to allow a vacant space in it unfilled with powder. in the united states, rodman, commencing in , and dahlgren in , and parrott in , invented and introduced some noticeable improvements in cast-iron, smooth-bore, and rifled cannon. in france general paixhans and colonel treuille de beaulieu improved the shells and ordnance. the latest improvements in cannon indicate that the old smooth-bore muzzle-loader guns are to be entirely superseded by breech-loaders, just as in small arms the muzzle-loading musket has given way to the breech-loading rifle. a single lever is now employed, a single turn of which will close or open the breech, and when opened expel the shell by the same movement. formerly breech-loaders were confined to the heaviest ordnance; now they are a part of the lightest field pieces. as to the operation of those immense guns above referred to, which constitute principally sea-coast defences and the heavy armament for forts, gun carriages have been invented whereby the huge guns are quickly raised from behind immense embrasures by pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, quickly fired (the range having been before accurately ascertained) and then as quickly lowered out of sight, the latter movement being aided by the recoil action of the gun. it is essential that the full force of the gases of explosion shall be exerted against the base of the projectile, and therefore all escape of such gases be prevented. to this end valuable improvements in _gas checks_ have been made,--one kind consisting of an annular canvas sack containing asbestos and tallow placed between the front face of the breech block and a mushroom-shaped piece, against which the explosion impinges. as among projectiles and shells for cannon those have been invented which are loaded with dynamite or other high explosive, a new class of _compressed air ordnance_ has been started, in which air or gas is used for the propelling power in place of powder, whereby the chances of exploding such shells in the bore of the gun are greatly lessened. the construction of metals, both for cannon to resist most intense explosives and for plates to resist the penetration of the best projectiles, have received great attention. they are matters pertaining to metallurgy, and are treated of under that head. the strife still continues between impenetrable armour plate and irresistible projectiles. within the last decade or so shells have been invented with the design simply to shatter or fracture the plate by which the way is broken for subsequent shots. other shells have been invented carrying a high explosive and capable of penetrating armour plates of great thickness, and exploding after such penetration has taken place. a great accompaniment to artillery is "the range finder," a telescopic apparatus for ascertaining accurately the location and distance of objects to be fired at. returning to _small arms_,--at the time percussion caps were invented in england, - , john h. hall of the united states invented a breech-loading rifle. it was in substance an ordinary musket cut in two at the breech, with the rear piece connected by a hinge and trunnion to the front piece, the bore of the two pieces being in line when clamped, and the ball and cartridge inserted when the chamber was thrown up. a large number were at once manufactured and used in the u.s. army. a smaller size, called _carbines_, were used by the mounted troops. after about twenty years' use these guns began to be regarded as dangerous in some respects, and their manufacture and use stopped, although the carbines continued in use to some extent in the cavalry. a breech-loading rifle was also invented by colonel pauly of france in , and improved by dreyse in ; also in norway in , and in a few years adopted by sweden as superior to all muzzle-loading arms. about the celebrated "needle gun" was invented in prussia, and its superiority over all muzzle-loaders was demonstrated in in the first schleswig-holstein war. _cartridges_, in which the ball and powder were secured together in one package, were old in artillery, as has been shown, but their use for small arms is a later invention. _metallic_ cartridges, made of sheet metal with a fulminate cap in one end and a rim on the end of the shell by which it could be extracted after the explosion, were invented by numerous persons in europe and america during the evolution of the breech-loader. combined metal case and paper patented in england in , and numerous wholly metallic cartridge shells were patented in england, france, and united states between and . m. lefaucheux of france, in the later period, devised a metal _gas check_ cartridge which was a great advance. a number of inventors in the united states besides hall had produced breech-loading small arms before the civil war of , but with the exception of colt's revolver and sharp's carbine, the latter used by the cavalry to a small extent, none were first adopted in that great conflict. later, the henry or winchester breech-loading rifle and the spencer magazine gun were introduced and did good service. but the whole known system of breech-loading small arms was officially condemned by the u.s. military authorities previous to that war. the absence of machines to make a suitable cartridge in large quantities and vast immediate necessities compelled the authorities to ignore the tested prussian and swedish breech-loaders and those of their own countrymen and to ransack europe for muskets of ancient pattern. these were worked by the soldiers under the ancient tactics, of load, ram, charge and fire, until a stray bullet struck the ramrod, or the discharge of a few rammed cartridges so over-heated the musket as to thereby dispense with the soldier and his gun for further service in that field. however, private individuals and companies continued to invent and improve, and the civil war in america revolutionised the systems of warfare and its weapons. the wooden walls of the navies disappeared as a defence after the conflict between the monitor and the merrimac, and muzzle-loading muskets became things of the past. torpedoes, both stationary and movable, then became a successful weapon of warfare. soon after that war, and when the united states had adopted the springfield breech-loading rifle, the works at springfield were equipped with nearly forty different machines, each for making a separate part of a gun in great quantities. many of these had been invented by thomas blanchard forty years before. that great inventor of labour-saving machinery had then designed machines for the shaping and making of gun stocks and for forming the accompanying parts. blanchard was a contemporary of hall, and hall, to perfect his breech-loader, was the first to invent machines for making its various parts. his was the first interchangeable system in the making of small arms. army officers had come to regard "the gun as only the casket while the cartridge is the jewel;" and to this end j. g. gill at the u.s. arsenal at frankford, philadelphia, devised a series of cartridge-making machines which ranked among the highest triumphs of american invention. the single breech-loader is now being succeeded by the magazine gun, by which a supply of cartridges in a chamber is automatically fed into the barrel. the springfield, has been remodelled as a magazine loader. among later types of repeating rifles, known from the names of their inventors, are the "krag-jorgensen," and the "mauser," and the crack of these is heard around the world. modern rifles are rendered more deadly by the fact that they can be loaded and fired in a recumbent position, and with smokeless powder, by which the soldier and his location remain concealed from his foe. the recoil of the gun in both large and small arms is now utilised to expel the fired cartridge shell, and to withdraw a fresh one from its magazine and place it in position in the chamber. _compressed air and explosive gases_ have been used for the same purpose. a small _electric battery_ has been placed in the stock to explode the cartridge when the trigger is pulled. sporting guns have kept pace with other small arms in improvements, and among modern forms are those which discharge in alternative succession the two barrels by a single trigger. revolvers have been improved and the smith and wesson is known throughout the world. the idea of _machine guns_, or _mitrailleuses_, was not a new one, as we have seen from puckle's celebrated patent of . also history mentions a gun composed of four breech-loading tubes of small calibre, placed on a two-wheeled cart used in flanders as early as , and of four-tubed guns used by the scotch during the civil war in . the machine gun invented by dr. gatling of the united states during the civil war and subsequently perfected, has become a part of the armament of every civilised nation. the object of the gun is to combine in one piece the destructive effect of a great many, and to throw a continuous hail of projectiles. the gun is mounted on a tripod; the cartridges are contained in a hopper mounted on the breech of the gun and are fed from locks into the barrels (which are usually five or ten in number) as the locks and barrels are revolved by a hand crank. as the handle is turned the cartridges are first given a forward motion, which thrusts them into the barrels, closes the breech and fires the cartridges in succession, and then a backward motion which extracts the empty shells. the gun weighs one hundred pounds and firing may be kept up with a ten-barreled gun at one thousand shots a minute. the _hotchkiss_ revolving cannon is another celebrated american production named from its inventor, and constructed to throw heavier projectiles than the gatling. it also has revolving barrels and great solidity in the breech mechanism. it has been found to be of great service in resisting the attacks of torpedo boats. it is adapted to fire long-range shells with great rapidity and powerful effect, and is exceedingly efficient in defence of ditches and entrenchments. _explosives._--the desire to make the most effective explosives for gunnery led to their invention not only for that purpose but for the more peaceful pursuit of blasting. _gun cotton_, that mixture of nitric acid and cotton, made by schönbein in , and experimented with for a long time as a substitute for gunpowder in cannon and small arms and finally discarded for that purpose, is now being again revived, but used chiefly for blasting. this was followed by the discovery of nitro-glycerine, a still more powerful explosive agent--too powerful and uncontrollable for guns as originally made. they did not supersede gunpowder, but smokeless powders have come, containing nitro-cellulose, or nitro-glycerine rendered plastic, coherent and homogeneous, and converted into rods or grains of free running powder, to aid the breech-loaders and magazine guns, while the high explosives, gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, dynamite, dualine, etc., have become the favorite agencies for those fearful offensive and defensive weapons, the _torpedoes_. from about the time of the discovery of gunpowder, stationary and floating chambers and mines of powder, to be discharged in early times by fuses (later by percussion or electricity), have existed, but modern inventions have rendered them of more fearful importance than was ever dreamed of before this century. the latest invention in this class is the _submarine torpedo boat_, which, moving rapidly towards an enemy's vessel, suddenly disappears from sight beneath the water, and strikes the vessel at its lowest or most vulnerable point. to the inquiry as to whether all this vast array of modern implements of destruction is to lessen the destruction of human life, shorten war, mitigate its horrors and tend toward peace, there can be but one answer. all these desirable results have been accomplished whenever the new inventions of importance have been used. "warlike tribes" have been put to flight so easily by civilised armies in modern times that such tribes have been doubted as possessing their boasted or even natural courage. nations with a glorious past as to bravery but with a poor armament have gone down suddenly before smaller forces armed with modern ordnance. the results would have been reversed, and the derision would have proceeded from the other side, if the conditions had been reversed, and those tribes and brave peoples been armed with the best weapons and the knowledge of their use. the courage of the majority of men on the battle-field is begot of confidence and enthusiasm, but this confidence and enthusiasm, however great the cause, soon fail, and discretion becomes the better part of valour, if men find that their weapons are weak and useless against vastly superior arms of the enemy. the slaughter and destruction in a few hours with modern weapons may not be more terrible than could be inflicted with the old arms by far greater forces at close quarters in a greater length of time in the past, but the end comes sooner; and the prolongation of the struggle with renewed sacrifices of life, and the long continued and exhausting campaigns, giving rise to diseases more destructive than shot or shell, are thereby greatly lessened, if not altogether avoided. chapter xvii. paper and printing. _paper-making._--"the art preservative of all arts"--itself must have means of preservation, and hence the art of paper-making precedes the art of printing. it was pliny who wrote, at the beginning of the christian era, that "all the usages of civilised life depend in a remarkable degree upon the employment of paper. at all events the remembrance of past events." naturally to the chinese, the hindoo, and the egyptian, we go with inquiries as to origin, and find that as to both arts they were making the most delicate paper from wood and vegetable fibres and printing with great nicety, long before europeans had even learned to use papyrus or parchment, or had conceived the idea of type. so far as we know the wasp alone preceded the ancient orientals in the making of paper. its gray shingled house made in layers, worked up into paper by a master hand from decayed wood, pulped, and glutinised, waterproofed, with internal tiers of chambers, a fortress, a home, and an airy habitation, is still beyond the power of human invention to reproduce. papyrus--the paper of the egyptians: not only their paper, but its pith one of their articles of food, and its outer portions material for paper, boxes, baskets, boats, mats, medicines, cloths and other articles of merchandise. once one of the fruits of the nile, now no longer growing there. on its fragile leaves were recorded and preserved the ancient literatures--the records of dynasties--the songs of the hebrew prophets--the early annals of greece and rome--the vast, lost tomes of alexandria. those which were fortunately preserved and transferred to more enduring forms now constitute the greater part of all we have of the writings of those departed ages. in making paper from papyrus, the inner portion next to the pith was separated into thin leaves; these were laid in two or more layers, moistened and pressed together to form a leaf; two or more leaves united at their edges if desired, or end to end, beaten smooth with a mallet, polished with a piece of iron or shell, the ends, or sides, or both, of the sheet sometimes neatly ornamented, and then rolled on a wooden cylinder. the romans and other ancient nations imported most of their papyrus from egypt, although raising it to considerable extent in their own swamps. in the seventh century, the saracens conquered egypt and carried back therefrom, papyrus, and the knowledge of how to make paper from it to europe. parchment manufactured from the skins of young calves, kids, lambs, sheep, and goats, was an early rival of papyrus, and was known and used in europe before papyrus was there introduced. the softening of vegetable and woody fibre of various kinds, flax and raw cotton and rags, and reducing it into pulp, drying, beating, and rolling it into paper, seem to have been suggested to europe by the introduction of papyrus, for we learn of the first appearance of such paper by the arabians, saracens, spaniards and the french along through the eighth, ninth, and tenth and eleventh centuries. papyrus does not, however, appear to have been superseded until the twelfth century. public documents are still extant written in the twelfth century on paper made from flax and rags; and paper mills began to put in an appearance in germany in the fourteenth century, in which the fibre was reduced to pulp by stampers. england began to make paper in the next century. pulping the fibre by softening it in water and beating the same had then been practised for four centuries. rollers in the mills for rolling the pulp into sheets were introduced in the fifteenth century, and paper makers began to distinguish their goods from those made by others by water marks impressed in the pulp sheets. the jug and the pot was one favourite water mark in that century, succeeded by a fool's cap, which name has since adhered to paper of a certain size, with or without the cap. so far was the making of paper advanced in europe that about wall paper began to be made as a substitute for tapestry; although as to this fashion the chinese were still ahead some indefinite number of centuries. holland was far advanced in paper-making in the seventeenth century. the revolution of having seriously interrupted the art in england, that country imported paper from holland during that period amounting to £ , . it was a native of holland, rittenhouse, who introduced paper-making in america and erected a mill near philadelphia in the early years of the eighteenth century, and there made paper from linen rags. the dutch also had substituted cylinders armed with blades in place of stampers and used their windmills to run them. the germans and french experimented with wood and straw. in the latter part of the eighteenth century some manufacturers in europe had learned to make white paper from white rags, and as good in quality, and some think better, than is made at the present day. the essentials of paper making by hand from rags and raw vegetable fibres, the soaking of fibres in water and boiling them in lyes, the beating, rolling, smoothing, sizing and polishing of the paper, were then known and practised. but the best paper was then a dear commodity. the art of bleaching coloured stock was unknown, and white paper was made alone from stock that came white into the mill. the processes were nearly all hand operations. "beating" was pounding in a mortar. the pulp was laid by hand upon moulds made of parallel strands of coarse brass wire; and the making of the pulp by grinding wood and treating it chemically to soften it was experimental. the nineteenth century produced a revolution. it introduced the use of modern machinery, and modern chemical processes, by which all known varieties and sizes of paper, of all colours, as well as paper vessels, are made daily in immense quantities in all civilised countries, from all sorts of fibrous materials. knight, in his _mechanical dictionary_, gives a list of nearly different materials for paper making that had been used or suggested, for the most part within the century and up to twenty years ago, and the number has since increased. the modern revolution commenced in , when louis robert, an employee of françois didot of essones, france, invented and patented the first machine for making paper in a long, wide, continuous web. the french government in granted him a reward of , francs. the machine was then exhibited in england and there tested with success. it was there that messrs. fourdrinier, a wealthy stationery firm, purchased the patents, expended £ , for improvements on the machine, and first gave to the world its practical benefits. this expenditure bankrupted them, as the machines were not at once remunerative, and parliament refused to grant them pecuniary assistance. gamble, donkin, koops, the fourdriniers, dickenson, and wilkes, were the first inventors to improve the robert machine, and to give it that form which in many essential features remains to-day. they, together with later inventors, gave to the world a new system of paper making. by two hundred and ninety-nine fourdrinier machines were running in the united states alone. in the improved fourdrinier machine or system, rags, or wood, or straw are ground or otherwise reduced to pulp, and then the pulp, when properly soaked and drained, is dumped into a regulating box, passing under a copper gate to regulate the amount and depth of feed, then carried along through strainers, screeners or dressers, to free the mass from clots and reduce it to the proper fineness, over an endless wire apron, spread evenly over this apron by a shaking motion, subjected to the action of a suction box by which the water is drawn off by air-suction pumps, carried between cloth-covered rollers which press and cohere it, carried on to a moving long felt blanket to further free it from moisture, and which continues to hold the sheet of pulp in form; then with the blanket through press rolls adjustable to a desired pressure and provided with means to remove therefrom adhering pulp and to arrest the progress of the paper if necessary; then through another set of compression rollers, when the condensed and matted pulp, now paper, is carried on to a second blanket, passed through a series of steam cylinders, where the web is partially dried, and again compressed, thence through another series of rollers and drying cylinders, which still further dry and stretch it, and now, finally completed, the sheet is wound on a receiving cylinder. the number of rollers and cylinders and the position and the length of the process to fully dry, compact, stretch and finish the sheet, may be, and are, varied greatly. if it is desired to impress on or into the paper water marks, letters, words, or ornamental matter, the paper in its moist stage, after it passes through the suction boxes, is passed under a "dandy" or fancy scrolled roll provided on its surface with the desired design. when it is desired to give it a smooth, glossy surface, the paper, after its completion, is passed through animal sizing material, and then between drying and smoothing rollers. or this sizing may be applied to the pulp at the outset of the operation. colouring material, when desired, is applied to the pulp, before pressing. by the use of machines under this system, a vast amount of material, cast-off rags, etc., before regarded as waste, was utilised for paper making. the modern discoveries of the chemists of the century as to the nature of fibres, best modes and materials for reducing them to pulp, and bleaching processes, have brought the art of paper making from wood and other fibrous materials to its present high and prosperous condition. what are known as the soda-pulp and the sulphite processes are examples of this. the latter and other acid processes were not successful until cement-lined digesters were invented to withstand their corroding action. but now it is only necessary to have a convenient forest of almost any kind of wood to justify the establishment of a paper mill. it was the scarcity of rags, especially of linen rags, that forced inventors to find other paper-producing materials. it would be impossible and uninteresting in a work of this character to enumerate the mechanical details constituting the improvements of the century in paper-making machinery of all kinds. thousands of patents have been granted for such inventions. with one modern fourdrinier machine, and a few beating engines, a small paper mill will now turn out daily as much paper as could be made by twelve mills a hundred years ago. in moulding pulp into articles of manufacture, satisfactory machines have been invented, not only for the mere forming them into shape, but for water-proofing and indurating the same. from the making of a ponderous paper car wheel to a lady's delicate work basket, success has been attained. _paper bag machines_, machines for making _paper boxes_, applying and staying corners of such boxes, for making _cell cases_ used in packing eggs and fruit, and for wrapping fruit; machines for affixing various forms of labels and addresses, are among the wonders of modern inventions relating to paper. it is wonderful how art and ingenuity united about thirty years ago to produce attractive _wall papers_. previous to that time they were dull and conventional in appearance. now beautiful designs are rolled out from machines. _printing._--we have already seen how paper making and printing grew up together an indefinite number of centuries ago in the far east. both block printing and movable types were the production of the chinese, with which on their little pages of many-coloured paper they printed myriads of volumes of their strange literature in stranger characters during centuries when europeans were painfully inscribing their thoughts with the stylus and crude pens upon papyrus and the dried skins of animals. but the european and his descendants delight to honour most the early inventors of their own countries. italy refers with pride to the printing from blocks practised by the venetians, and at ravenna, from to ; from type at subiaco in the roman territory in , and to the first roman book printed in ; the dutch to laurens coster, whom they allege invented movable type in . some of the dutch have doubted this, and pin their faith on jacob bellaert, as the first printer, and gerard leeu, his workman, who made the types at haarlem, in . the germans rely with confidence on john guttenberg, who at strasburg, as early as , had wooden blocks, and wooden movable types, and who, two or three years after, printed several works; on the partnership of faust and guttenberg in at mentz, and their bible in latin printed in on vellum with types imitating manuscript in form, and illustrated by hand; and, finally, on peter schoeffer of gernsheim, who then made matrices in which were cast the letters singly, and who thereby so pleased his master, faust, that the latter gave him his daughter, christina, in marriage. from germany the art spread to paris and thence to england. about caxton was printing his black-letter books in england. spain followed, and it is stated that in there were two hundred printing offices in europe. the religious and political turmoils in germany in the sixteenth century gave an immense impetus to printing there. the printing press was the handmaid of the reformation. in america the first printing press was set up in mexico in , and in lima, brazil, in . in , nineteen years after the landing of the pilgrims on the bleak rock at plymouth, they set up a printing press at cambridge, mass. the art of printing soon resolved itself into two classes: first, _composition_, the arranging of the type in the proper order into words and pages; and second, _press work_; the taking of impressions from the types, or from casts of types in plates--being a _facsimile_ of a type bed. this was _stereotyping_--the invention of william ged, of edinburgh, in . types soon came to be made everywhere of uniform height; that of england and america being - of an inch, and became universally classified by names according to their sizes, as pica, small pica, long primer, minion, nonpareil, etc. after movable types came the invention of _presses_. the earliest were composed of a wooden frame on which were placed the simple screw and a lever to force a plate down upon a sheet of paper placed on the bed of type which had been set in the press, with a spring to automatically raise the screw and plate after the delivery of the impression. this was invented by blaew of amsterdam in . such, also, was the ramage press, and on such a one benjamin franklin worked at his trade as a printer, both in america and in london. his london press, on which he worked in , was carried to the united states, and is now on exhibition in washington. this was substantially the state of the art at the beginning of the century. then earl stanhope in england invented a press entirely of iron, and the power consisted of the combination of a toggle joint and lever. the first american improvement was invented by george clymer, of philadelphia, in , the power being an improved lever consisting of three simple levers of the second order. this was superseded by the "washington" press invented by samuel rust in . it has as essential parts the toggle joint and lever, and in the frame work, as in the stanhope, type bed, rails on which the bed was moved in and out, means to move the bed, the platen, the tympan on which the sheet is placed, the frisket, a perforated sheet of paper, to preserve the printed sheet, an inking roller and frame. in this was subsequently introduced an automatic device for inking the roller, as it was moved back from over the bed of type on to an inking table. this, substantially, has been the hand press ever since. with one of these hand-presses and the aid of two men about two hundred and fifty sheets an hour could be printed on one side. the increase in the circulation of newspapers before the opening of the th century demanded greater rapidity of production and turned the attention of inventors to the construction of power or machine presses. like the paper-making machine, the power press was conceived in the last decade of the eighteenth century, and like that art was also not developed until the nineteenth century. william nicholson of england is believed to have been the first inventor of a machine printing press. he obtained an english patent for it in . the type were to be placed on the face of one cylinder, which was designed to be in gear, revolved with, and press upon another cylinder covered with soft leather, the type cylinder to be inked by a third cylinder to which the inking apparatus, was applied, and the paper to be printed by being passed between the type and the impression cylinder. these ideas were incorporated into the best printing machines that have since been made. but the first successful machine printing press was the invention of two saxons, könig and bauer, in , who introduced their ideas from germany, constructed the machine in london, and on which on the th of november, , an issue of the _london times_ was printed. the _times_ announced to its readers that day that they were for the first time perusing a paper printed upon a machine driven by steam power. what a union of mighty forces was heralded in this simple announcement! the union of the steam engine, the printing press, and a great and powerful journal! an archimedean lever had been found at last with which to move the world. the production of printed sheets per hour over the hand-press was at once quadrupled, and very shortly sheets per hour were printed. this machine was of that class known as cylinder presses. in this machine ordinary type was used, and the type-form was flat and passed beneath a large impression cylinder on which the paper was held by tapes. the type-form was reciprocated beneath an inking apparatus and the paper cylinder alternately. the inking apparatus consisted of a series of rollers, to the first of which the ink was ejected from a trough and distributed to the others. in cowper patented in england electrotype plates to be affixed to a cylinder. applegath and cowper improved the könig machine in the matter of the ink distributing rollers, and in the adaptation of four printing cylinders to the reciprocating type bed, whereby, with some other minor changes, impressions on one side were produced per hour. again applegath greatly changed the arrangement of cylinders and multiplied their number, and the number of the other parts, so that in the sheets printed on one side were first and then , an hour. in the united states, daniel treadwell of boston invented the first power printing machine in . two of these machines were at that time set up in new york city. it was a flat bed press and was long used in washington in printing for the government. david bruce of new york, in , invented the first successful type-casting machine, which, when shortly afterward it was perfected, became the model for type-casting machines for europe and america. previous to that time type were generally made by casting them in hand-moulds--the metal being poured in with a spoon. robert hoe, an english inventor, went to new york in , and turned his attention to the making of printing presses. his son, richard march hoe, inherited his father's inventive genius. while in england in - , obtaining a patent on and introducing a circular saw, he became interested in the printing presses of the london times. returning home, he invented and perfected a rotary machine which received the name of the "lightning press." it first had four and then ten cylinders arranged in a circle. as finally completed, it printed from a continuous roll of paper several miles in length, and on both sides at the same time, cutting off and folding ready for delivery, , to , newspapers an hour, the paper being drawn through the press at the rate of , feet in a minute. before it was in this final, completed shape, it was adopted by the _london times_. john walter of london in the meantime invented a machine of a similar class. he also used a sheet of paper miles long. it was first damped, passed through blotting rolls, and then to the printing cylinders. it gave out , perfected sheets, or , impressions an hour, and as each sheet was printed, it was cut by a knife on the cylinder, and the sheets piled on the paper boards. it was adopted by the london _times_ and the new york _times_. a german press at augsburg, and the campbell presses of the united states, have also become celebrated as web perfecting presses, in which the web is printed, the sheets cut, associated, folded, and delivered at high speed. one of the latest quadruple stereotype perfecting presses made by hoe & co. of new york has a running capacity of , papers per hour. on another, a new york paper has turned off nearly six hundred thousand copies in a single day, requiring for their printing ninety-four tons of paper. among other celebrated inventors of printing presses in the united states were isaac adams, taylor, gordon, potter, hawkins, bullock, cottrell, campbell, babcock, and firm. _mail-marking machines_, in which provision is made for holding the printing mechanism out of operative position in case a letter is not in position to be stamped; address-printing machines, including machines for printing addresses by means of a stencil; machines for automatically setting and distributing the type, including those in which the individual types are caused to enter the proper receptacle by means of nicks in the type, which engage corresponding projections on a stationary guard plate, and automatic type justifying machines. all such have been invented, developed, and perfected in the last half century. another invention which has added wonderfully to push the century along, is the _typewriter_. it has long been said that "the pen is mightier than the sword," but from present indications, it is proper to add that the typewriter is mightier than the pen. a machine in which movable types are caused to yield impressions on paper to form letters by means of key levers operated by hand, has been one of slow growth from its conception to its present practical and successful form. some one suggested the idea in england in a patent in . the idea rested until , when a french inventor revived it in a patent. at the same time patents began to come out in england and the united states; and about forty patents in each of these two countries were granted from that time until . since that date about patents more have been issued in the united states, and a large number in other countries. it was, however, only that year and before , that the first popular commercially successful machines were made and introduced. the leading generic idea of all subsequent successful devices of this kind was clearly set forth in the patent of s. w. francis of the united states in . this feature is the arranging of a row of hammers in a circle so that when put in motion they will all strike the same place, which is the centre of that circle. the arrangement of a row of pivoted hammers or type levers, each operated by a separate key lever to strike an inked ribbon in front of a sheet of paper, means to automatically move the carriage carrying the paper roll from right to left as the letters are successfully printed, leaving a space between each letter and word, and sounding a signal when the end of a line is reached, so that the carriage may be returned to its former position--all these and some other minor but necessary operations may seem simple enough when stated, but their accomplishment required the careful study of many inventors for years. one of the most modern of typewriters has a single electro-magnet to actuate all the type bars of a set, and to throw each type from its normal position to the printing centre. by an extremely light touch given to each key lever the circuit is closed and causes the lever to strike without the necessity of pressing the key down its whole extent and releasing it before the next key strikes. by this device, the operator is relieved of fatigue, as his fingers may glide quickly from one key to another, the printing is made uniform, and far greater speed attained by reason of the quick and delicate action. mr. thaddeus cahill of washington appears to be the first to have invented the most successful of this type of machines. _book-binding machinery_ is another new production of the century. it may be that the old hand methods would give to a book a stronger binding than is found on most books to-day, but the modern public demands and has obtained machinery that will take the loose sheets and bind them ready for delivery, at the rate of ten or fifteen thousand volumes a day. the "quaint and curious volumes of forgotten lore," the latin folios in oak or ivory boards with brass clasps, or bound in velvet, or in crimson satin, ornamented with finest needlework or precious stones, or the more humble beech boards, and calf and sheep skins with metal edges and iron clasps, in all of which the sheets were stoutly sewed together and glued, when glue was known, to the covers, are now but relics of the past. machinery came to the front quite rapidly after , at which time cloth had been introduced as cheaper than leather, and as cheap and a more enduring binder than paper. the processes in book-binding are enumerated as follows; and for each process a machine has been invented within the last sixty years to do the work: folding the sheets; gathering the consecutive sheets; rolling the backs of folded sheets; saw cutting the backs for the combs; sewing; rounding the back of the sewed sheets. edge cutting; binding, securing the books to the sides, covering with muslin, leather or paper. tooling and lettering. edge gilting. one of the best modern illustrations of human thought and complicated manual operations contained in automatic machinery is the _linotype_. it is a great step from the humble invention of schoeffer five hundred and fifty years ago of cast movable type to that of another german, mergenthaler, in - . the linotype (a line of type) was pronounced by the _london engineering_ "as the most remarkable machine of this century." it was the outcome of twelve years of continuous experiment and invention, and the expenditure of more than a million dollars. a brief description of this invention is given in the report of the united states commissioner of patents for as follows: "in the present mergenthaler construction there is a magazine containing a series of tubes for the letter or character moulds, each of which moulds is provided with a single character. there are a number of duplicates of each character, and the moulds containing the same character are all arranged in one tube. the machine is provided with a series of finger keys, which, when pressed like the keys of a typewriter, cause the letter moulds to assemble in a line in their proper order for print. a line mould and a melting pot are then brought into proper relation to the assembled line of letter moulds and a cast is taken, called the linotype, which represents the entire line, a column wide, of the matter to be printed. the letter moulds are then automatically returned to their proper magazine tube. the mergenthaler machine is largely in use in the principal newspaper offices, with the result that a single operator does at least the work of four average compositors." mr rogers obtained a united states patent, september , , for a machine for casting lines of type, the principal feature of which is that the letter moulds are strung on wires secured on a hinged frame. "when the frame is in one position, the letter moulds are released by the keys, slide down the wires by gravity and are assembled in line at the casting point. after the cast is taken, the lower ends of the guide wires are elevated, which causes the letter moulds to slide back on the wires to their original position, when the operation is repeated for the next line." operated by a single person, the mergenthaler produces and assembles linotypes ready for the press or stereotyping table at the rate of from , to , ems (type characters) per hour. it permits the face or style of type to be changed at will and it permits the operator to read and correct his matter as he proceeds. to the aid of the ordinary printing press came _electrotyping_, stenographic colour printing, engraving, and smaller job and card presses, all entirely new creations within the century, and of infinite variety, each in itself forming a new class in typographic art, and a valuable addition to the marvellous transformation. the introduction of the linotype and other modern machines into printing offices has without doubt many times reduced and displaced manual labour, and caused at those times at least temporary suffering among employees. but statistics do not show that as a whole there are fewer printers in the land. on the contrary, the force seems to increase, just as the number of printing establishments increase, with the multiplication of new inventions. as in other arts, the distress caused by the displacement of hand-labour by machinery is local and temporary. the whole art rests for its development on the demand for reading matter, and the demand never seems to let up. it increases as fast as the means of the consumers increase for procuring it. one hundred years ago a decent private library, consisting of a hundred or so volumes, one or two weekly newspapers, and an occasional periodical, was the badge and possession alone of the wealthy few. now nearly every reading citizen of every village has piled up in some corner of his house a better supply than that, of bound or unbound literature, and of a far superior quality. besides the tons of reading matter of all kinds turned out daily by the city presses, every village wants its own paper and its town library, and every one of its business men has recourse to the typewriter and the printer for his letters, his cards, and his advertisements. to supply the present demand for printed matter with the implements of a hundred years ago, it would be necessary to draw upon and exhaust the supply of labourers in nearly every other occupation. printing would become the one universal profession. the roar of the guns at waterloo and the click of the first power printing press in london were nearly simultaneous. the military colossus then tumbled, and the press began to lead mankind. wars still continue, and will, until men are civilised; but the vanguard of civilisation are the printers, and not the warriors. the marvellous glory of the nineteenth century has proceeded from the intelligence of the people, awakened, stimulated, and guided by the press. but the press itself, and its servitors and messengers, speeding on the wings of electricity, are the children of the inventors. these inventions have made the book and the newspaper the poor man's university. they are mirrors which throw into his humble home reflections of the scenes of busy life everywhere. by them knowledge is spread, thought aroused, and universal education established. chapter xviii. textiles. _spinning_:--a bunch of combed fibre fixed in the forked end of a stick called a distaff, held under the left arm, while with the right forefinger and thumb the housewife or maiden deftly drew out and twisted a thread of yarn of the fibre and wound it upon a stick called a spindle, was the art of spinning that came down to europe from ancient egypt or india without a change through all the centuries to at least the middle of the fourteenth century, and in england to the time of henry viii. then the spinning wheel was introduced, which is said to have also been long in use in india. by the use of the wheel the spindle was no longer held in the hand, but, set upon a frame and connected by a cord or belt to the wheel, was made to whirl by turning the wheel by hand, or by a treadle. the spindle was connected to the bunch of cotton by a cord, or by a single roving of cotton or wool attached to the spindle, which was held between the finger and thumb, and as the spindle revolved the thread was drawn out and twisted and wound by the spindle upon itself. in the cloth of the ancient east the warp and weft were both of cotton. in england the warp was linen and the weft was cotton. the warp was made by the cloth and linen manufacturers, and the weft yarns furnished by the woman spinsters throughout the country. by both these methods only a single thread at a time was spun. the principle of the spinning operation, the drawing out and twisting a thread or cord from a bunch or roll of fibre, has remained the same through all time. the light and delicate work, the pure and soft material, and the beauty and usefulness of raiments produced, have all through time made woman the natural goddess, the priestess, the patroness, and the votary of this art. the object of all modern machinery, however complicated or wonderful, has simply been to increase the speed and efficiency of the ancient mode of operation and to multiply its results. the loom, that antique frame on which the threads were laid in one direction to form the warp, and crossed by the yarns in the opposite direction, carried through the warp by the shuttle thrown by hand, to form the woof, or weft, comprised a device as old as, if not older than, the distaff and spindle. the ancient and isolated races of mexico had also learned the art of spinning and weaving. when the spaniards first entered that country they found the natives clothed in cotton, woven plain, or in many colours. after forty centuries of unchanged life, it occurred to john kay of bury, england, that the weaving process might be improved. in he had succeeded in inventing the picker motion, "picker peg," or "fly." this consisted of mechanical means for throwing the shuttle across the web by a sudden jerk of a bar--one at each side--operated by pulling a cord. he could thus throw the shuttle farther and quicker than by hand--make wider cloth, and do as much work in the same time as two men had done before. this improvement put weaving ahead of spinning, and the weavers were continually calling on the spindlers for more weft yarns. this set the wits of inventors at work to better the spinning means. at the same time that kay was struggling with his invention of the flying shuttle, another poor man, but with less success, had conceived another idea, as to spinning. john wyatt of lichfield thought it would be a good thing to draw out the sliver of cotton or wool between two sets of rollers, one end of the sliver being held and fed by one set of rollers, while the opposite end was being drawn by the other set of rollers moving at a greater speed. his invention, although not then used, was patented in by lewis paul, who in time won a fortune by it, while wyatt died poor, and it was claimed that paul and not wyatt was the true inventor. about a little accident occurring in the home of james hargreaves, an english weaver of blackburn, suggested to that observant person an invention that was as important as that of kay. he was studying hard how to get up a machine to meet the weavers' demands for cotton yarns. one day while hargreaves was spinning, surrounded by his children, one of them upset the spinning wheel, probably in a children's frolic, and after it fell and while lying in a horizontal position, with the spindle in a vertical position, and the wheel and the spindle still running, the idea flashed into hargreaves' mind that a number of spindles might be placed upright and run from the same power. thus prompted he commenced work, working in secret and at odd hours, and finally, after two or three years, completed a crude machine, which he called the spinning jenny, some say after his wife, and others that the name came from "gin," the common abbreviated name of an engine. this machine had eight or ten spindles driven by cords or belts from the same wheel, and operated by hand or foot. the rovings at one end were attached to the spindles and their opposite portions held together and drawn out by a clasp held in the hand. when the thread yarn was drawn out sufficiently it was wound upon the spindles by a reverse movement of the wheel. thus finally were means provided to supply the demand for the weft yarns. one person with one of hargreaves' machines could in the same time spin as much as twenty or thirty persons with their wheels. but those who were to be most benefited by the invention were the most alarmed, for fear of the destruction of their business, and they arose in their wrath, and demolished hargreaves' labours. it was a hard time for inventors. the law of england then was that patents were invalid if the invention was made known before the patent was applied for, and part of the public insisted on demolishing the invention if it was so made known, so that to avoid the law and the lawless the harassed inventors kept and worked their inventions in secret as long as they could. hargreaves fled to nottingham, where works were soon started with his spinning jennys. the ideas of kay, wyatt and hargreaves are said to have been anticipated in italy. there were makers of cloths at florence, and also in spain and the netherlands, who were far in advance of the english and french in this art, but the descriptions of machinery employed by them are too vague and scanty to sustain the allegation. and now the long ice age of hand working was breaking up, and the age of machine production was fast setting in. hargreaves was in the midst of his troubles and his early triumphs, in - , when richard arkwright entered the field. arkwright, first a barber, and then a travelling buyer of hair, and finally a knight, learned, as he travelled through lancashire, lichfield, blackburn and nottingham, of the inventions and labours of wyatt, kay and hargreaves. possessed as he was of some mechanical skill and inventive genius, and realising that the harvest was ripe and the labourers few, entered the field of inventions, and with the help of kay, revived the old ideas of john wyatt and lewis paul of spinning by rollers, which had now slumbered for thirty years. kay and arkwright constructed a working model, and on this arkwright by hard pushing and hard work obtained capital, and improved, completed and patented his machine. the machine was first used by him in a mill erected at nottingham and worked by horses; then at cromford, and in this mill the power used to drive the spinning machine was a water wheel. his invention was therefore given the name of the _water_ frame, which it retained long after steam had been substituted for water as the driving power. it was also named the _throstle_, from the fact that it gave a humming or singing sound while at work; but it is commonly known as the _drawing_ frame. arkwright patented useful improvements. he had to contend with mobs and with the courts, which combined to destroy his machines and his patent, but he finally succeeded in establishing mills, and in earning from the government, manufacturers, and the public a great and well-merited munificence. it is a remarkable coincidence that watt's steam engine patent and arkwright's first patent for his spinning machine were issued in the same year-- . the new era of invention was dawning fast. then, in , came samuel crompton of bolton, who invented a combination of the jenny of hargreaves and the roller water frame of arkwright, and to distinguish his invention from the others he named it the "mule." the mule was a carriage on wheels to which the spindles were attached. when the mule was drawn out one way on its frame the rovings were drawn from bobbins through rollers on a stationary frame, stretched and twisted into threads, and then as the mule was run back the spun threads were wound on spools on the spindles. the mule entirely superseded the use of the jenny. notwithstanding the advantage in names the mule did more delicate work than the jenny. it avoided the continuous stretch on the thread of the jenny by first completing the thread and then winding it. crompton's mule was moved back and forth by hand. roberts subsequently made it self-acting. next, followed in england the rev. edward cartwright, who, turning his attention to _looms_, invented the first loom run by machinery, the _first power loom_, - . then the rioters turned on him, and he experienced the same attentions received by hargreaves and arkwright. the ignorance of ages died in this branch of human progress, as it often dies in others, with a violent wrench. but the age of steam had at last come, and with it the spinning machine, the power loom, the printing press, and the discovery among men of the powers of the mind, their freedom to exercise such powers, and their right to possess the fruits of their labours. the completed inventions of arkwright and others, combined with watt's steam engine, revolutionised trade, and resulted in the establishment of mills and factories. a thousand spindles whirled where one hummed before. the factory life which drew the women and girls from their country homes to heated, and closely occupied, ill ventilated buildings within town limits, was, however, not regarded as an improvement in the matter of health; and it was a long time before mills were constructed and operated with the view to the correction of this evil. the great increase in demand for cotton produced by these machine inventions could not have been met had it not been for eli whitney's invention of the saw gin in america in . the cleaning of the seed from the cotton accomplished by this machine produced as great a revolution in the culture of cotton in america as the inventions of arkwright and others accomplished in spinning and weaving in england. america had also learned of arkwright's machinery. samuel slater, a former employee of arkwright, introduced it to rhode island in , and built a great cotton mill there in . others followed in massachusetts. within twenty years after the introduction of arkwright's machines in the united states there were a hundred mills there with a hundred thousand spindles. as has been said, it was customary for weavers to make the warp on their looms at one place, and the spinners to furnish the yarns for the weft from their homes, and even after the spinning machines were invented the spinning and weaving were done at separate places. it remained for francis c. lowell of boston, who had been studying the art of spinning and weaving in england and scotland and the inventions of arkwright and crompton, to establish in at waltham, mass., with the aid of paul moody, machinist, the first factory in the world wherein were combined under one roof all the processes for converting cotton into cloth. the task of the century in this art has been to greatly extend the dominion of machinery in the treatment of cotton and wool in all stages, from the reception of the raw material at the door of the factory to its final completion in the form of the choicest cloth, and to increase the capacity of machines sufficiently to meet an ever-increasing and enormous consumption. there are from twenty to forty separate and distinct operations performed both in spinning and weaving and the completion of a piece of cloth from cotton or wool, and nearly all of these operations are accomplished by machinery. the century's improvements and inventions in machines for treating and spinning cotton comprise machines for first opening and tearing the matted mass apart as it is taken from the bales, then cleaning, carding, drawing, roving, stretching, spinning, winding, doubling, dressing, warping, weaving, etc. formerly, the opening machines were simply cylinders armed with spikes, to which the cotton was led through nipping rollers, and then delivered in a loose, fluffy condition. when such a machine was associated with a blowing machine to blow out the dust and cleanse the fibre, the loose and scattered condition in which the cotton was left gave rise to a great danger from fire, and destructive fires often occurred. the object of the later opening machinery is to confine the cotton within a casing in its passage through the machine, during which passage it is thoroughly stretched, beaten and blown and then rolled into a continuous sheet or lap. at the same time, by nice devices, it is evened, that is, freed from all knots, and made of uniform thickness, while a certain quantity only of cotton of known weight is allowed to pass through to constitute the required lap. finally the lap is wound upon a roller, which when filled is removed to the carder. although the cotton is now a white, soft, clean, downy sheet, still the fibres cross each other in every direction, and they require to be straightened and laid parallel before the spinning. this is done by carding. paul, hargreaves, robert peel, and arkwright had worked in constructing a machine to take the place of hand carding, and it was finally reduced by arkwright, towards the close of the th century, to its present form and principle. but to make those narrow, ribbon-like, clean, long lines of rolled cotton, known as slivers, by machinery with greater precision and uniformity than is possible by hand, and with a thousand times greater rapidity, has been the work of many inventors at different times and in different countries. the machine cards are cylinders clothed with leather and provided with separate sets of slender, sharp, bent fingers. the different cards are arranged to move past each other in opposite directions, so as to catch and disentangle the fibres. flat, overhead stationary cards are also used through which the cotton is carried. as one operation of carding is not sufficient for most purposes the cotton is subjected to one or more successive cardings. so ingenious is the structure in some of its parts that as the stream of cotton passes on, any existing knots do not fail to excite the attention of the machine, which at once arrests them and holds them until disentangled. in connection with the cards, combers and strippers are used to assist in further cleaning and straightening the fibre, which is finally removed from the cards and the combs by the doffer. the cotton is stripped from the doffer by the doffer knife and in the form of delicate, flat narrow ribbons, which are drawn through a small funnel to consolidate them, and finally delivered in a coiled form into a tall tin can. the material is then carried to a drawing frame, which takes the spongy slivers, and, carrying them through successive sets of rollers moving at increased speed, elongates, equalises, straightens and "doubles" them, and finally condenses them into two or more rolls by passing the same through a trumpet-shaped funnel. as the yarns still need to be twisted, they are passed through a roving frame similar to a drawing frame. an ingenious device connected with the winding of the roving yarns upon bobbins may be here noted. formerly the bobbins on which the yarns were wound increased in speed as they were filled, thus endangering and often breaking the thread, and at all times increasing the tension. in asa arnold of rhode island invented "a differential motion" by which the velocity of the bobbin is kept uniform. the roving having been reduced to proper size for the intended number of yarns, now goes to the spinning machine, to still further draw out the threads and give to them a more uniform twist and tenuity. the spinning machine is simply an improved form of crompton's mule, already described. great as have been the improvements in many matters in spindle structure, the drawing, the stretching and the twisting still remain fundamentally the same in principle as in the singing throstle of arkwright and the steady mule of crompton. and yet so great and rapid has been the advancement of inventions as to details and to meet the great demand, that the machinery of half a century ago has been almost entirely discarded and supplanted by different types. a great improvement on the spinning frame of the th century is the ring frame invented by jenks. in this the spindles, arranged vertically in the frame, are driven by bands from a central cylinder, and project through apertures in a horizontal bar. a flanged ridge around each aperture forms a ring and affords a track for a little steel hoop called a traveller, which is sprung over the ring. the traveller guides the thread on to the spool. as the spindles revolve, the thread passing through the traveller revolves it rapidly, and the horizontal bar rising and falling has the effect of winding the yarn alternately and regularly upon the spools. the bobbins of the spindle frame were found not large enough to contain a sufficient amount of yarn to permit of a long continuous operation when the warp came to be applied, and besides there were occasional defects in the thread which could not be detected until it broke, if the yarn was used directly from the bobbins. so to save much time and trouble spooling machines were invented which wind the yarn from the bobbins holding to yards, to large spools, each holding , to , yards; and then by passing the yarn through fine slots in guides which lead to the spool, lumps or weak places, which would break the yarns at the guide, could at once be discovered and the yarn retied firmly, so that there would be no further breaking in the warper. after the yarn is finally spooled it is found that its surface is still rough and covered with fuzz. it is desirable, therefore, that it shall be smoothed out and be given somewhat of a lustre before weaving. these final operations are performed by the warping and dressing machines. in the warping machine the threads are drawn between rollers, the tension of which can be regulated, and then through a "reed," a comb-shaped device which separates the threads, and then finally wound upon a large cylinder. in this machine a device is also arranged which operates to stop the machine at once if any thread is broken. when the cylinder is filled it is then taken to the dresser, which in its modern and useful form is known as the "slusher," by which the yarns are drawn through hot starch, the superfluous starch squeezed out, and the yarns, kept separated all the time, dried by passing them around large drying cylinders, or through a closed box heated by steam pipes, and then wound upon the loom beam or cylinder. in weaving, as in spinning, however advanced, complicated and improved the means may be beyond the hand methods and simple looms of past ages, the general principles in the process are still the same. these means, generally and broadly speaking, consist of a frame for two sets of threads, a roller, called the warp beam, for receiving and holding the threads which form the warp, a cloth beam upon which the cloth is wound as it is woven, the warp threads, being first laid parallel, carried from the warp beam and attached to the cloth beam; means called heddles, which with their moving frames constitute "a harness," consisting of a set of vertical strings or rods having central loops through which the threads are passed, two or more sets of which receive alternate threads, and by the reciprocation of which the threads are separated into sets, _decussated_, forming between them what is called a shed through which the shuttle is thrown; means for throwing the shuttle; and means, called the batten, lay or lathe, for forcing or packing the weft tight into the angle formed by the opened warp and so rendering the fabric tight and compact, and then the motive power for turning the cloth beam and winding the cloth as fast as completed. it is along these lines that the inventors have wrought their marvellous changes from hand to power looms. prior to , in the weaving of figures into cloths, it was customary to employ boys to pull the cords in the loom harness in order to arrange the coloured threads in their relative positions. in that year appeared at the front joseph marie jacquard, a french mechanician and native of lyons, whose parents were weavers, a prolific inventor in his youth, a wayward wanderer after fortune and a wife, a soldier in the revolution, losing a son fighting by his side, eking out a poor living with his wife's help at straw weaving, finally employed by a silk manufacturer, and while thus engaged, producing that loom which has ever since been known by his name. this loom was personally inspected by napoleon, who rewarded the inventor with honours and a pension. it was then demolished by a mob and its inventor reviled, but it afterward became the pride of lyons and the means of its renown and wealth in the weaving of silks of rich designs. the leading feature of the jacquard loom consists of a chain of perforated pattern cards made to pass over a drum, through which cards certain needles pass, causing certain threads of the warp to rise and fall, according to the holes in the cards, and thus admitting at certain places in the warp coloured weft threads thrown by the shuttle, and reproducing the pattern which is perforated in the cards. the jacquard device could be applied to any loom, and it worked a revolution in the manufacture of figured goods. the complexity and expensiveness of jacquard's loom were greatly reduced by subsequent improvements. in m. bonelli constructed an electric loom in which the cards of the jacquard apparatus are superseded by an endless band of tin-foiled paper, which serves as an electrical conductor to operate the warp thread needles, which before had each been actuated by a spiral spring. the jacquard loom was also greatly improved by the english inventors, barlow, taylor, martain and others. radcliffe and johnson, also of england, had invented and introduced the machines for dressing the yarns in one operation before the weaving; horrocks and marsland of stockport greatly improved the adaptation of steam to the driving of looms, and roberts of manchester made striking advances in their mechanical parts and in bringing them to their present state of wonderful efficiency. in america, in , george crompton of taunton, massachusetts, commenced a series of inventions in power looms for the manufacture of fancy woollen goods, and in the details of such looms generally, particularly in increasing the speed of the shuttle, which vastly increased the production of such goods and gave to his looms a world-wide reputation. e. b. bigelow of massachusetts in invented a power loom, which was exhibited at the exhibition at london in , and astonished the world by his exhibition of carpets superior to any woven by hand. by the later improvements, and the aid of steam power, a single american bigelow carpet loom can turn out now one hundred yards of brussels carpet in a day, far superior in quality to any carpet which could possibly be made by hand, when a man toiled painfully to produce five yards a day. mr. bigelow was also a pioneer inventor of power machines for weaving coach lace, and cotton checks and ginghams. james lyall of new york invented a power loom applicable either to the weaving of very wide and heavy fabrics, such as jute canvas for the foundation of floor oil cloth, or to fabrics made of the finest and most delicate yarns. it would be interesting, if space permitted, to describe the great variety of machines that have been invented for dressing, finishing and treating cloths after they are woven: the _teasling_ machine, by which the nap of woollen cloth is raised; the cloth _drying_ machine, with heated rollers, over which the cloth is passed to drive off the moisture acquired in dyeing, washing, etc., the cloth _printing_, _figuring_, _colouring_ and _embossing_ machines, with engraved cylinders; cloth pressing and _creasing_ machines, and the _cloth_ cutting machines for cutting the cloth into strips of all lengths, or for cutting piles of cloth in a single operation into parts of garments corresponding to the prearranged pattern; machines for making _felt_ cloth, and stamping or moulding different articles of apparel from felt, etc., etc. for the making of ribbons and other kind of narrow ware, the needle power loom has been invented, in which the fine weft thread is carried through the web by a needle instead of a shuttle. this adaptation of the needle to looms has placed ribbons within the reach of the poor as well as the rich girl. what a comparison between the work of the virtuous penelopes and the weavers of a century ago and to-day! then with her wheel, and by walking to and from it as the yarn was drawn out, and wound up, a maiden could spin twelve skeins of thread in ten hours, producing a thread a little more than three miles in length, while the length of her walk to and fro was about five miles. now one penelope can attend to six or eight hundred spindles, each of which spins five thousand yards of thread a day, or, with the eight hundred spindles, four million yards, or nearly twenty-one hundred miles of thread in a day, while she need not walk at all. it was when the weaver threw the shuttle through the warp by hand that job's exclamation, "my days are like a weaver's shuttle" was an appropriate text on the brevity of human life. it may be just as appropriate now, but far more striking, when it is realised that machines now throw the shuttle one hundred and eighty times a minute, or three times a second. flying as fast as it does, when the shuttle becomes exhausted of yarn a late invention presents a new bobbin and a new supply of yarn to the shuttle without stopping the machine. as to _knitting_, the century has seen the day pass when all hosiery was knit by hand. first, machines were invented for knitting the leg or the foot of the stocking, which were then joined by hand, and then came machines that made the stocking complete. the social industry so quietly but slowly followed by the good women in their chimney corners with their knitting needles, by which a woman might possibly knit a pair a day, was succeeded a quarter of a century ago by machines, twelve of which could be attended to by a boy, which would knit and complete five thousand pairs a week. such a machine commences with the stocking at the top, knits down, widening and narrowing, changes the stitch as it goes on to the heel, shapes the heel, and finishes at the end of the toe, all one thread, and then it recommences the operation and goes on with another and another. fancy stockings, with numerous colours blended, are so knit, and if the yarn holds out a mile of stockings may be thus knit, without a break and without an attendant. by these machines the astounding result was reached of making the stockings at the cost of one-sixth of a mill per pair. the wonderful reduction in the cost of all kinds of textile fabrics due to the perfection of spinning and loom mechanisms, and its power to meet the resulting enormous increase in demand, has enabled the poor of to-day to be clad better and with a far greater variety of apparel than it was possible for the rich a hundred years ago; and the increased consumption and demand have brought into these fields of labour, and into other fields of labour created by these, great armies of men and women, notwithstanding the labour-saving devices. the wants of the world can no longer be supplied by skilled hand labour. and it is better that machines do the skilled labour, if the product is increased while made better and cheaper, and the number of labourers in the end increased by the development and demands of the art. among the recent devices is one which dispenses with the expensive and skilful work by hand of drawing the warp threads into the eyes of the heddles and through the reed of the loom. cane-backed and bottomed chairs and lounges only a few years ago were a luxury of the rich and made slowly by hand. now the open mesh cane fabric, having diagonal strands, and other varieties, are made rapidly by machinery. turkish carpets are woven, and floors the world over are carpeted with those rich materials the sight of which would have astonished the ordinary beholder a half century ago. matting is woven; wire, cane, straw, spun glass; in fact, everything that can be woven by hand into useful articles now finds its especially constructed machine for weaving it. chapter xix. garments. "man is a tool-using animal. weak in himself, and of small stature, he stands on a basis, at most for the flattest-soled, of some half square foot, insecurely enough; has to straddle out his legs lest the very wind supplant him. feeblest of bipeds! three quintals are a crushing load for him; the steer of the meadow tosses him aloft, like a waste rag. nevertheless he can use tools, can devise tools; with these the granite mountain melts into light dust before him; he kneads glowing iron as if it were paste; seas are his smooth highway, winds and fire his unwearying steeds. nowhere do you find him without tools; without tools he is nothing, with tools he is all.... man is a tool-using animal, of which truth, clothes are but one example."--_sartor resartus._ in looking through the records of man's achievements to find the beginnings of inventions, we discover the glimmering of a change in the form of the immemorial needle, in an english patent granted to charles f. weisenthal, june , . it was a needle with a centrally located eye, and with both ends pointed, designed for embroidery work by hand, and the object of the two points was to prevent the turning of the needle end for end after its passage through the cloth. but it was not until the th century that the idea was reduced to practice in sewing machines. to thomas saint, a cabinet maker by trade, of greenhills rents, in the parish of st. sepulchre, middlesex county, england, the world is indebted for the first clear conception of a sewing machine. saint's attention was attracted to the slow way of sewing boots and shoes and other leather work, so he determined to improve the method. he took out a patent september , , and although the germs of some of the leading parts of the modern sewing machine are there described, it does not appear that his patent was applied to practice. in fact, it slumbered in the archives of the british patent office for two generations, and after the leading sewing machines of the century had been invented and introduced, before it was rediscovered, and its contents appreciated in the light of more recent developments. probably saint's machine, if constructed in accordance with his plans, would not have done much good work, certainly not with woven cloth, as he proposed to employ a hooked needle to carry a loop through the material, which would have been snarled by the cloth threads; but from his drawings and description it is clearly established that he was first to conceive of a vertically reciprocating needle for forming a seam from a continuous thread drawn from a spool; a seam in which each loop is locked, or enchained with a subsequent loop, to form what is known as the chain, or single thread stitch; and a horizontal sliding plate, to support the material to be sewed, and by which the material was also moved sideways after each stitch. may , , john duncan received an english patent for "tamboring on cloth." he proposed to employ a series of hooked needles attached in a straight line to a horizontal bar, which, when threaded, were first thrust forward and their hooked ends carried through the cloth, where each needle hook was supplied with a thread by a thread carrier. then the motion of the bar was reversed, which drew the thread back through the cloth in the form of loops, and through the loops first formed, thus producing a chain stitch. the cloth was automatically shifted to correspond to the pattern to be produced, and thus was chain stitch embroidery first manufactured. from this point of time successful embroidery machines were made. in another englishman patented a machine for making a sort of rope matting, in which he describes two eye-pointed, thread-carrying, perforating needles, each held in a reciprocating needle bar, and designed to unite several small ropes laid parallel, by a reciprocating movement. a german publication, the _kunst_ and _generbe blatt_, for , and _karmarsch's history of technology_, made mention of a sewing machine invented by one mr. joseph madersperger of vienna, formerly from kuefstein in the tyrol, and for which he received royal letters patent in . from these descriptions it appears madersperger used a needle pointed at both ends, and the eye in the centre, invented many years before by weisenthal, as above stated, which was moved vertically up and down, piercing alternately the top and bottom of the stuff, and which carried a short thread, enough to make about one hundred and thirty stitches, which machine was driven by a crank and handle, on which sewing was made of many different shaped forms, by slight changes, and which sewed with far greater accuracy and rapidity than hand work. the inventor was striving to simplify the machine, but to what extent it had been used or had been improved, or what finally became of it, does not appear. yet it is a bit of evidence showing that germany came next to england in the earlier ideas, conceptions of, and struggles after a sewing machine. france then entered the list, and it was in that barthelmy thimonnier there produced and patented a sewing machine, which he continued to improve and to further patent in and in in france, england, and the united states. the thimonnier resembled in some prominent respects the machine that had been described in the saint patent, but unlike saint's, it was reduced to successful practice, and possessed some points in common with more modern machines. these were the flat cloth plate, vertical post, overhung arm, vertically reciprocating needle, and continuous thread. the crochet or barbed needle was worked by a treadle, and upon pushing the needle down through the cloth, it there caught a thread from a carrier, carried the loop to and laid it upon the upper surface of the cloth. again descending, it brought up another loop, enchained it with the one last made, making a chain stitch, consisting of a series of loops on the upper side. thimonnier made quite a large number of machines, constructed mostly of wood, and which were used to make army clothing at paris. they were best adapted to work on leather and in embroidering. they were so far successful as to arouse the jealousy and fear of the workmen and working women, and, as in the case of hargreaves, jacquard, and others, a mob broke into his shop, destroyed his machines, ruined his business, and he died penniless in . in the meantime an english patent, no. , of may , , had been issued to newton and archbold for a machine for embroidering the backs of gloves, having an eye-pointed needle, worked by a vibrating lever, and adapted to carry a thread through the back of the glove, held on a frame--the frame and glove moving together after each stitch. the germs of inventions often develop and fructify simultaneously in distant places, without, so far as any one can ascertain, the slightest mutual knowledge or co-operation on the part of the separate inventors. between and , while thimonnier was in the midst of his early struggles in paris, walter hunt was inventing a sewing machine in new york, which he completed at that time and on which he sewed one or two garments. but as it was experimental in form, and hunt was full of other inventions and schemes, he put it aside, and it probably would never have been heard of had not elias howe of massachusetts, ten years after hunt had abandoned his invention, but without knowledge of hunt's efforts, made the first practical successful sewing machine for commercial purposes the world had ever seen, obtained his patent, and made claims therein which covered not only his special form of improvements, but hunt's old device as well. howe's patent was issued september , . in that he claimed to be the first and original inventor of "a sewing machine, constructed and operated to form a seam, substantially as described." also "the combination of a needle and a shuttle, or equivalent, and holding surfaces, constructed and operating substantially as described." also "the combination of holding surfaces with a baster plate or equivalent, constructed and operating substantially as described." also "a grooved and eye-pointed needle, constructed and adapted for rapid machine sewing substantially as described." when the machine commenced to be a practical success this patent was infringed, and when howe sued upon it a few years after its issue, it woke up hunt and all other alleged prior inventors; and all prior patents and publications the world over, relating to sewing machines, were raked up to defeat howe's claims. but the courts, after long deliberation, held that although, so far as hunt was concerned he had without doubt made a machine in many respects like howe's machine, that it had a curved, eye-pointed needle similar to howe's operated by a vibrating arm and going through the cloth, a shuttle carrying the thread that passed through the loop made by the needle thread, thus making a lock stitch by drawing it up to one side of the cloth, and that this machine did, to a certain extent, sew, yet that it ended in an experiment, was laid aside, destroyed, and never perfected nor used so as to give to the public the knowledge and benefit of a completed invention, and was not therefore an anticipation in the eye of the law of howe's completed, more successful and patented machine. public successful use is the fact in many cases which alone establishes the title of an inventor, when all other tests fail. and this is right in one sense, as the laws of all countries in respect to protection by patents for inventions are based upon the primary condition of benefit to society. this benefit is not derived from the inventor who hides his completed invention for years in his closet, or throws it on a dust heap. as to previous patents and publications, some were not published before howe's inventions were made, and others were insufficient in showing substantially the same machine and mode of operation. and as to prior use abroad, it was not regarded under the law of his country as competent evidence. seldom have the lives of great inventors presented a more striking example of the vicissitudes, the despair, and the final triumphs of fortune, which are commonly their lot, than is shown in the case of howe. a machinist with a wife and children to support, his health too feeble to earn hardly a scanty living, he watches his faithful wife ply her constant needle, and wonders why a machine cannot be made to do the work. the idea cannot be put aside, and with such poor aids as he can command he commences his task. at last, amid the trials of bitter poverty, he brings his invention to that stage in which he induces a friend to advance some money, by the promise of a share in the future patent, and thereby gains a temporary home for his family and a garret for his workshop. day after day and night after night he labours, and finally, in april, , the rather crude machine is completed, and two woollen suits of clothing are sewed thereon, one for a friend, and one for himself. then came the effort to make more machines and place them on the market. people admired the machines as a curiosity, but none were induced to buy them or help him pecuniarily. finally, in september, , he obtained his patent, but by that time his best friends had become discouraged, and he was compelled to return with his family to his father's house in cambridge, mass. to earn his bread he sought and found employment on a railway locomotive. by some means his brother sold one of his machines to mr. william thomas, a corset maker of london, and howe was induced to go there to make stays, and his machines. he took his wife and children with him. the arrangement made with his employer was not such as to enable him to keep his family there, and he soon sent them home. unable to sell his machines, he was soon reduced to want. he pawned his patent and his last machine, and procured money to return to new york, where he arrived penniless in . he then learned that his wife was dying of consumption at cambridge. he was compelled to wait until money could be sent him to pay his passage home, and reached there just before his wife's death. he then learned that during his absence his patent and machine had attracted attention, that others had taken the matter up, added their improvements to his machines, and that many in various places were being made and sold which were infringements of his patent. a great demand for sewing machines had sprung up. he induced friends to again help him. suits were commenced which, although bitterly fought for six years, were finally successful. now fortune turned her smiling face upon him. medals and diplomas, the cross of the legion of honour, and millions of money became his. when the great civil war broke out in , he entered the army as a private soldier, and advanced the money to pay the regiment to which he belonged, when the government paymaster had been long delayed. his life was saddened by the fact that his wife had not lived to share his fortune. he died in brooklyn, new york, october , , in the midst of life, riches, and honour, at the comparatively early age of forty-eight. in referring to the early inventors of sewing machines in america who entered the field about the same time with howe, mention should be made of j. j. greenough and george corliss, who had machines patented respectively in and , for sewing leather, with double pointed needles; and the running stitch sewing machine used for basting, made and patented by b. w. bean in . about this time, both in england and america, machines had been devised for sewing lengths of calico and other cloths together, previous to bleaching, dyeing or printing. the edges of the cloths were first crimped or fluted and then sewed by a running stitch. the decade of - , immediately following the development of the howe machine, was the greatest in the century for producing those successful sewing machines which were the foundation of the art, established a new industrial epoch, and converted hood's "song of the shirt" into a lament commemorative of the miseries of a slavish but dying industry. it was during that decade that, in the united states, batcheller invented the perpetual feed for moving the cloth horizontally under and past the needle. in howe's the cloth could be sewed but a certain distance at a time, and then the machine must be readjusted for a new length. then blodgett and lerow imparted to the eye-pointed needle what is called the "dip motion,"--the needle being made to descend completely through the material, then to rise a little to form a loop; the shuttle then entered the loop, the needle descended again a short distance, while the shuttle passed through the loop of the needle thread, and then the needle was raised above the cloth. it was then that allen b. wilson invented the still more famous "four-motion feed" for feeding the cloth forward. he employed a bar having saw like teeth on one edge which projected up through a slotted plate and engaged the cloth. he then first moved the bar forward carrying the cloth; second, dropped the bar; third, moved it back under the plate; and fourth, raised it to its first position to again engage the cloth. these motions were so timed with the movement of the needle and so quickly done that the cloth was carried forward while the needle was raised, the passage and quick action of the needle was not interfered with, and the feeding and the sewing seem to be simultaneous. the intermittent grasp and feed of the cloth were hardly perceptible, and yet it permitted the cloth to be turned to make a curved seam. wilson also invented the rotating hook which catches the loop of the upper thread, and drops a disk bobbin through it to form the stitch. the shuttle was thus dispensed with, and an entirely new departure was made in the art. these with other improvements made up the celebrated "wheeler and wilson" machine. now also appeared "the singer," consisting chiefly of the invention of t. m. singer. he improved the operation of the needle bar, devised a roughened feed wheel, as a substitute for wilson's serrated bar, introduced a spring presser foot, alongside the needle, to hold the work down in proper position while permitting it to be moved forward or in any other direction. a "friction pad" was also placed between the cloth seam and the spool, to prevent the thread from kinking or twisting under the point of the descending needle. he was the first to give the shuttle an additional forward movement after it had once stopped, to draw the stitch tight,--such operation being taken while the feed moved the cloth in the reverse direction, and while, the needle completed its upward motion, so that the two threads were simultaneously drawn, and finally a spring guide upon the shuttle to control the slack of the thread, and prevent its catching by the needle. by reason of these improvements it is thought by many that singer was the first to furnish the people with a successful operating and practical sewing machine. at any rate, the world at last so highly appreciated his machines, that it lifted him from poverty to an estate which was valued at between eight and ten millions of dollars at the time of his death in . singer was also the first to invent the "ruffler," a machine for ruffling or gathering cloth, and a device which laid an embroidering thread upon the surface of the cloth under the needle thread. the "grover and baker" another celebrated american machine, was invented by william o. grover and william e. baker in . by certain changes they made in the thread carrier and connections, they were enabled to make a double looped stitch. this required more thread, but the stitch made was unexcelled in strength. and so the work went on, from step to step, and from the completion of one machine after another, until when the centennial exhibition came to be held in philadelphia in , a fine array of excellent sewing machines was had, from the united states, principally, but also those of inventors and manufacturers in great britain, canada, france, germany, belgium, sweden and denmark. up to that time about twenty-two hundred patents had been granted in the united states, all of which, with the exception of a very few, were for inventions made within the preceding quarter of a century. and during the last quarter of the century about five thousand more united states patents have been issued for devices in this art. this number includes many, of course, to inventors of other countries. when it is remembered that these patents were issued only after an examination in each case as to its novelty, and although slight as may have been the changes or additions, yet substantially different they must have been in nearly all respects, it may to some extent be realized how great and incessant has been the exercise of invention in this useful class of machines. on this point of the exercise of invention in sewing machines, as well as on some others growing out of the subject, knight, writing in his _mechanical dictionary_, about twenty years ago, remarks: "if required to name the three subjects on which the most extraordinary versatility of invention has been expended, the answer would be without hesitation, the _sewing machine_, _reaping machine_ and _breech-loading firearm_. each of these has thousands of patents, and although each is the growth of the last forty years, it is only during the last twenty-five years that they have filled any notable place in the world. it was then only by a combination of talents that any of these three important inventions was enabled to achieve remarkable success. the sewing machine previous to , made without the admirable division of labour which is a feature in all well conducted factories, was hard to make, and comparatively hard to run. the system of _assembling_, first introduced in the artillery service of france by general gribeauval in and brought to proximate perfection by colonel colt in the manufacture of the revolver at hartford, connecticut, has economised material and time, improved the quality as well as cheapened the product. there is to-day, and in fact has been for some years, more actual invention in the special machines for _making_ sewing machines than in the machines themselves. the assembling system, that is, making the component parts of an article in distinct pieces of pattern, so as to be interchangeable, and the putting them together, is the only system of order. how else should the providence tool company execute their order for , rifles for the turkish government? how otherwise could the champion harvesting machine company of springfield, ohio, turn out an equipped machine every four minutes each working day of ten hours? or, to draw the illustration from the subject in hand, how by any other than the nicest arrangement of detail can the singer sewing machine company make , machines per week at elizabethport, new jersey?" when sewing machines were so far completed as to be easily run by a hand crank, or treadle, the application of power to run them singly, or in series, and to run machines of a larger and more powerful description, soon naturally followed--so that garment-making factories of all kinds, whether of cloth or leather, have been established in many countries--in which steam or electric power is utilised as the motor, and thus human strain and labour saved, while the amount of production is increased. no radical changes in the principle or mode of operation of sewing machines have been made in the last twenty-five years; but the efforts of inventors have been directed to improve the previously established types, and to devise attachments of all kinds, by the aid of which anything that can be sewed, can be sewed upon a machine. tucking, ruffling, braiding, cording, hemming, turning, plaiting, gaging, and other attachment devices are numerous. inventors have rivalled one another in originating new forms of stitches. about seventy-five distinct stitches have been devised, each of which must of course be produced by a change in mechanism. when sewing machines were in their infancy, and confined to sewing straight seams and other plain sewing, it was predicted that it was not possible to take from the hands of women the making of fine embroidery from intricate patterns, or the working of button-holes, and the destruction of the quilting party was not apprehended. nor was it expected that human hands could be dispensed with in the cutting out of garments. and yet these things have followed. machines, by a beautiful but complex system of needles, working to some extent on the jacquard system of perforated card boards, and by the help of pneumatic or electrical power, will work out on most delicate cloths embroidery of exquisite patterns. the button-hole machines will take the garment, cut the button-hole at the desired point, and either, as in one class of machines, by moving the fabric about the stitch-forming mechanism, or, as in another class, moving the stitch-forming mechanism about the button-hole, complete the delicate task in the nicest and most effective manner. quilting machines have their own bees, consisting of a guide which regulates the spaces between the seams, and adjusts them to any width, and a single needle, or gang of needles, the latter under the control of cams which force the needles to quilt certain desired patterns. and as to cutting, it is only necessary to place the number of pieces of fabric desired to be cut in cutting dies, or upon a table, and over them an "over-board" cutter, which comprises a reciprocating band-saw, or a rotary knife, all quick, keen and delicate, in an apparatus guided by hand, in order to produce in the operation a great pile of the parts formerly so slowly produced, one at a time, by scissors or shears. if men were contented with that single useful garment of some savages, a blanket with a slit cut in it for the passage of the head and neck, not only would a vast portion of the joys and sorrows of social philosophy have been avoided, but an immense strain and trouble on the part of inventors of the century would have been obviated. but man's propensity for wearing clothes has led to the invention of every variety of tools for making them faster, cheaper, and better. no machine has yet been invented that will take the place of the deft fingers of women in certain lines of ornamentation, as in final completion and trimming of their hats. the airy and erratic demands of fashion are too nimble to be supplied by the slow processes of machinery, although the crude ground-work, the frame, has been shaped, moulded and sewed by machines; and women themselves have invented and patented _bonnet frames_ and _patterns_. but no such difficulty in invention has occurred in _hat-making_ for men. from the treating and cutting of the raw material, from the outer bound edge, and the band about the body, to the tip of the crown, a machine may be found for performing each separate step. especially is this the case with the hard felt and the high silk hats. seventy-five years ago the making of hats was by hand processes. now in all hat factories machines are employed, and the ingenuity displayed in the construction of some of them is marvellous. it is exceedingly difficult to find many of the old hand implements existing even as relics. wool and fur each has its special machines for turning it into a hat. the operations of cleaning and preparing the material, felting the fur, when fur is used, shaping the hat body, and then the brim, washing, dying, hardening and stiffening it, stretching, smoothing, finishing, sizing, lining, trimming, all are now done by machines devised for each special purpose. a description of these processes would be interesting, but even in an abbreviated form would fill a book. the wonderful things done in the manufacture of boots and shoes and rubber goods will be referred to in subsequent chapters. although it was old from time immemorial to colour cotton goods, and the calico power printing cylinder was invented and introduced into england in the latter part of the th century and began to turn out at once immense quantities of decorated calicoes and chintz, yet _figured_ woven goods were a novelty sixty years ago. in , mr. bonjeau, a prominent wool manufacturer in sedan, france, and an _élève_ of the polytechnic school, conceived the idea of modifying the plain cloths, universally made, by the union of different tints and patterns. this he was enabled to do by the jacquard loom. the manufacture of fancy woven cloths, cassimeres, worsted coatings, etc., of great beauty, combined with strength of fabrication, followed in all civilised countries, but their universal adoption as wearing apparel was due in part to the lessening of the expense in the making them into garments by the sewing machine. as to the effect of modern inventions on wearing apparel, it is not apparent that they were necessary to supply the wardrobes of the rich. the solomons and the queen of sheba of ancient days, and all their small and great successors in the halls of fortune, have had their rich robes, their purple and their fine linen, whether made in one way or another; but modern inventions have banished the day when the poor man's hard labour of a long day will not suffice to bring his wife a yard of cheapest cloth. toil, then, as hard as he and his poor wife and children might, their united labours would hardly suffice to clothe them in more than the poorly-dressed skins of animals and the coarsest of homespun wool. now, cottons and calicoes are made and sold at a profit for three cents a yard; and the poorest woman in the land may appear in neat, comfortable and tasteful dress, the entire cost of material and labor of which need not exceed fifty cents. the comfort, respectability and dignity of a large family, which depend so much on clothes, may be ensured at the cost of a few dollars. and as to the condition of the sewing woman, trying and poor as it is in many instances, yet she can earn more money with less physical exhaustion than under the old system. the epoch of good clothes for the people, with all that it means in the fight upward from degradation, began in this century, and it was due to the inventions which have been above outlined. chapter xx. industrial machines. one invention engenders another, or co-operates with another. none lives, or stands, or dies, alone. so, in the humble but extensive art of _broom-making_, men and women worked along through ages binding with their hands the supple twigs of trees or bushes, or of corn, by thongs, or cords, or wire, upon the rudely-formed collar of a hand-smoothed stick, until the modern lathe and hollow mandrel armed with cutters, the power-driven shuttle, and the sewing machine, were invented. the lathe and mandrel to hold the stick while it was cut was used before, but it was long within the century that a hollow mandrel was first invented, which was provided internally with cutting bevelled knives, and into which the stick was placed, carried through longitudinally, and during its passage cut smooth and finished. as broom corn became the chief product from which brooms are made, it became desirable to have a machine, after the corn had been scraped of its seed, to size and prepare the stems in regular lengths for the various sizes of brooms, and accordingly such a machine was invented. then a machine was needed and invented to wind the corn-brush with the cord or wire and tie it in a round bunch, preparatory to flattening and sewing it. then followed different forms of broom-sewing machines. among the pioneers was one which received the round bunch between two compressing jaws, and pressed it flat. while so held a needle with its coarse thread was forced through the broom above the binding and the cord twined around it. then a shuttle, also carrying a stout thread, was thrown over the cord, the needle receded and was then forced through the broom again _under_ the binding cord. thus in conjunction with the shuttle the stitches were formed alternately above and below the binding twine, the holding jaws being raised intermittently for that purpose. as each stitch was formed the machine fed the broom along laterally and intermittently. by another ingenious device the cord was tied and cut, when the sewing was completed. it is only by such machines which treat the entire article from the first to the last step, that the immense number of brooms now necessary to supply the market are made. true it is that at first labour was displaced. at one time seventeen skilled workmen would manufacture five hundred dozen brooms per week. they had reduced the force of earlier times by making larger quantities by better processes. then when the broom-sewing machines and other inventions got fairly to work, nine men would turn out twelve hundred dozen brooms per week. thus, while the force was reduced nearly one-half, the quantity of product was more than doubled. but as the cost of labour decreased and the product increased, the product became more plentiful and cheaper, the demand and use became greater, more broom-corn was raised, more broom-factories started, and soon the temporary displacement of labour was succeeded by a permanent increase in manufacture and in labourers, an increase in their wages, and an improvement in their condition. useful and extensive as is its use, the broom does not compare in variety and wide application to the _brush_. the human body, cloth, leather, metals, wood and grains, everything that needs rubbing, cleaning, painting and polishing, meets the acquaintance of the brush. nearly a hundred species of brushes might be enumerated, each having an especial construction for a particular use. although the majority of brushes are still made by hand, yet a few most ingenious machines have been made which greatly facilitate and speed the operation, and many mechanical appliances have been invented in aid of hand-work. these machines and appliances, together with those which cut, turn, bore, smooth, and polish the handles and backs, to which the brush part is secured, have greatly changed and improved the art of brush-making during the last fifty years. the first machine which attracted general attention was invented by oscar d. and e. c. woodbury of new york, and patented in . as in hand-making and before subjected to the action of the machine, the bristles are sorted as to length and color. a brush-back, bored with holes by a gang of bits, which holes do not extend, however, all the way through the back, is placed in the machine under a cone-jointed plunger, adapted to enter the hole in the brush-back. a comb-shaped slitted plate in the machine has then each slit filled with bristles, sufficient in number to form a single tuft. when the machine is started, the bristles in a slit are forced out therefrom through a twisted guideway, which forms them into a round tuft, and which is laid horizontally beneath a plunger, which, descending, first doubles the tuft, and as the plunger continues to descend, forces the double end down into the hole. the plunger is supplied with a wire from a reel, turns as it descends, and twists the wire around the lower end of the tuft, the wire being directed in that way by a spiral groove within the plunger. the continuing action of the plunger is such as to screw the wire into the back. the wire is cut when the rotary plunger commences its descent, and when the tuft is thus secured the plunger ascends, the block is moved for another hole, and another set of bristles is presented for manipulation. brushes with holes can be turned out by this machine at the rate of one a minute. another most ingenious machine for this purpose is that of kennedy, diss, and cannan, patented in the united states in . in this, brush blocks of varying sizes, but of the same pattern, are bored by the same machine which receives the bristles, and the tufts are inserted as fast as the holes are bored. both machines are automatic in operation. _street-sweeping machines_ began to appear about in england, shortly after in france, and then in cities in other countries. the simplest form and most effective sweeper comprises a large cylinder armed with spiral rows of splints and hung diagonally on the under side and across a frame having two or four wheels. this cylinder is connected by bevelled gearing with the wheels, and in revolving throws the dirt from the street into a ridge on one side thereof, where it is swept into heaps by hand sweepers, and is then carted off. king of the united states was the inventor. a more recent improvement consists in the use of pneumatic means for removing the dust that is caused by the use of revolving brooms or brushes, such removal being effected by means of a hood that covers the area of the street beneath the body of the machine, and incloses an air exhaust, the sweepings being drawn through the exhaust mechanism and deposited in a receptacle for the purpose, or in some instances deposited in a furnace carried by the machine and there burned. in cities having hard, smooth, paved streets and sufficient municipal funds, the most effective, but most expensive way, has been found to keep a large force of men constantly at work with hoes, shovels, brooms, bags and carts, removing the dirt as fast as it accumulates. _abrading machines._ one of the most striking inventions of the century is the application of the sand-blast to industrial and artistic purposes. for ages the sands of the desert and wild mountain plains, lifted and driven by the whirling winds, had sheared and polished the edges and faces of rocks, and cut them into fantastic shapes, and the sands of the shore, tossed by the winds of the sea, had long scratched and bleared the windows of the fisherman's hut, before it occurred to the mind of man that here were a force and an agent which could be harnessed into his service. it was due finally to the inventive genius of b. f. tilghman of philadelphia, pa., who, in , patented a process by which common sand, powdered quartz, emery, or other comminuted sharp cutting material, may be blown or driven with such force upon the surface of the hardest materials, as to cut, clean, engrave, and otherwise abrade them, in the most wonderful and satisfactory manner. diamonds are abraded; glass depolished, or engraved, or bored; metal castings cleaned; lithographic zinc plates grained; silverware frosted; stone and glass for jewelry shaped and figured; the inscriptions and ornaments of monuments and tombstones cut thereon; engravings and photographs copied; steel files cleaned and sharpened, and stones and marble carved into forms of beauty with more exactness and in far less time than by the chisel of the artisan. the gist of the process is the employment of a jet of sand or other hard abrading material, driven at a high velocity by a blast of air or steam, under a certain pressure, in accordance with the character of the work to be done. the sand is placed in a box-like receptacle into which the air or steam is forced, and the sand flowing into the same chamber is driven through a narrow slit or slits in the form of a thin sheet, directly on to the object to be abraded. by one method the surface of the object is first coated with tinfoil on which the artist traces his design, and this is then coated with melted transparent wax. then when the wax is hardened it is cut away along the lines already indicated, and seen through the wax. the object now is subjected to the blast, and as the sand will not penetrate a softened material sufficient to abrade a surface beneath, the exposed portions alone will be cut away. the sand after it strikes is carried off by a blast to some receptacle, from which it is returned to its former place for further use. other means may be used in the place of a slitted box, as a small or larger blow-pipe; but the driving of the sand, or similar abrading material, with great force by the steam or air blast, is the essential feature of the process. _emery_, that variety of the mineral corundum, consisting of crystalline alumina, resembling in appearance dark, fine-grained iron ore, ranking next to the diamond in hardness, and a sister of the sapphire and the ruby, has long been used as an abradant. the eastern nations have used corundum for this purpose for ages. turkey and greece once had a monopoly of it. knight says: "the corundum stone used by the hindoos and chinese is composed of corundum powdered, two parts; lac resin, one part. the two are intimately mixed in an earthen vessel, kneaded and flattened, shaped and polished. a hole in the stone for the axis is made by a heated copper rod." however ancient the use of artificial stones for grinding and polishing, nevertheless it is true that the solid emery wheel in the form that has made it generally useful, in machines known as _emery grinders_, is a modern invention, and of american origin. in the manufacture of such machines great attention and the highest scientific skill has been paid, first, to the material composing the wheel, and to the cementing substances by which the emery is compacted and bound in the strongest manner, to prevent bursting when driven at great speed; secondly, to the construction of machines and wheels of a composition varying from the finest to the coarsest; and thirdly, to the proper balancing of the wheels in the machines, an operation of great nicety, in order that the wheel may be used on delicate tools, when driven at high speed, without producing uneven work, marking the objects, or endangering the breaking, or bursting of the wheel. such machines, when properly constructed, although not adapted to take the place of the file, other steel-cutting tools, and the grindstone for many purposes, yet have very extensively displaced those tools for cutting edges, and the grinding and polishing of hardened metals, by reason chiefly of their greater convenience, speed, and general adaptability. not only tools of all sizes are ground and polished, but ploughshares, stove and wrought-iron plates, iron castings, the inner surfaces of hollow ironware, the bearings of spindles, arbours, and the surfaces of steel, chilled or cast-iron rolls, etc. in the great class of industrial mechanics, no machines of the century have contributed more to the comfort and cleanliness of mankind than those by which wearing apparel in its vast quantities is washed and ironed more thoroughly, speedily, and satisfactorily in every way than is possible by the old hand systems. when it is remembered how under the old system such a large part of humanity, and this the weaker part, devoted such immense time and labour to the universal washing and ironing days, the invention of these machines and appliances must be regarded as among the great labour-saving blessings of the century. true, the individual washerwoman and washerman, and ironers, have by no means disappeared, and are still in evidence everywhere, yet the universal and general devotion of one-half the human race to the wash-tub and ironing-table for two or more days in the week is no longer necessary. and even for the individual worker, the convenient appliances and helps that have been invented have greatly relieved the occupation of pain and drudgery. among modern devices in the laundry, worked by hand, is, first, the _washing-machine_, in which the principle is adapted of rolling over or kneading the clothes. by moving a lever by hand up and down, the clothes are thoroughly rubbed, squeezed and lifted at each stroke. then comes the _wringer_, a common form of which consists of two parallel rolls of vulcanized and otherwise specially treated rubber, fitted to shafts which, by an arrangement of cog-wheels, gearing and springs in the framework at the ends of rolls, and a crank handle, are made to roll on each other. the clothes are passed between the rollers, the springs permit the rollers to yield and part more or less, according to the thickness of the clothes. then the old-fashioned, or the new-fashioned mangle is brought into play. the old-style mangle had a box, weighted with stone, which was reciprocated on rollers, and was run back and forth upon the clothes spread upon a polished table beneath. one of the more modern styles is on the principle of the wringer above described, or a series of rollers arranged around a central drum, and each having a rubber spring attached, by which means the clothes are not subjected to undue pressure at one or two points, as in the first mentioned kind. starch is also applied by a similar machine. the cloth is dipped into a body of starch, or the same is applied by hand, and then the superfluous starch squeezed out as the clothes are passed through the rollers. but for hotels and other large institutions washing is now done by steam-power machinery. it is an attractive sight to step into a modern laundry, operated with the latest machinery on the largest scale. the first thing necessary in many localities is to clarify the water. this is done by attaching to the service pipe tanks filled with filtering material, through which the water flows before reaching the boiler. the driving engine and shafting are compactly placed at one end or side of the room, with boilers and kettles conveniently adjacent. the water and clothes are supplied to the washing-machine, and operated by the engine. steam may be used in addition to the engine to keep it boiling hot, or steam may be substituted entirely for the water. the machine may be one of several types selected especially for the particular class of goods to be washed. there is the dash-wheel, constructed on the principle of the cylinder churn; the outer case being stationary and the revolving dash-wheel water-tight, or perforated, which is the preferred form for collars and cuffs. in place of the dash-wheel cylinders are sometimes used, having from sixty to seventy revolutions a minute. another form has vibrating arms or beaters, giving between four hundred and five hundred strokes a minute, and by which the clothes are squeezed between rubbing corrugated boards. the rubbing boards also roll the clothes over and over until they are thoroughly washed. in another form a rotating cylinder for the clothes is provided with an arrangement of pipes by which either steam, water or blueing can be introduced as desired, into the cylinder, through its hollow journals, so that the clothes can be washed, rinsed, and blued without removal from the machine. another type has perforated, reciprocating pistons, between which the clothes are alternately squeezed and released, a supply of fresh water being constantly introduced through one of the hollow cylinder journals, while the used water is discharged through the opposite journal; and in still another the clothes are placed in a perforated cylinder within an outer casing, and propeller blades, assisted by other spiral blades, force a continuous current of water through the clothes. in ironing, hollow polishing rolls of various sizes are used, heated either by steam or gas. the articles to be ironed are placed in proper position upon a table and carried under and in contact with the rolls. or the goods are ironed between a heated cylinder and a revolving drum covered with felting, and the polishing effected by the cylinder revolving faster than the drum. ingenious forms of hand-operated ironing machines for turning over and ironing the edges of collars, and other articles, are in successful use. chapter xxi. wood-working. in surveying the wonderful road along which have travelled the toiling inventors, until the splendid fields of the present century have been reached, the mind indulges in contrasts and reverts to the far gone period of man's deprivations, when man, the animal, was fighting for food and shelter. "poor naked wretches, wheresoe'er you are, that bide the pelting of this pitiless storm, how shall your houseless heads and unfed sides, your loop'd and window'd raggedness, defend you from seasons such as these?" --_king lear iii, iv._ when the implements of labour and the weapons of war were chiefly made of stone, or bronze, or iron, such periods became the "age" of stone, or bronze, or iron; and we sometimes hear of the ages of steam, steel and electricity. but the age of wood has always existed, wherever forests abounded. it was, doubtless, the earliest "age" in the industries of man, but is not likely to be the latest, as the class of inventions we are about to consider, although giving complete dominion to man over the forests, are hastening their destruction. as in every other class of inventions, there had been inventions in the class of wood-working through the ages preceding this century, in tools, implements and machines; but not until near the close of the eighteenth century had there been much of a break in the universal toil by hand. the implements produced were, for the most part, the result of the slow growth of experience and mechanical skill, rather than the product of inventive genius. true, the turning-lathe, the axe, the hammer, the chisel, the saw, the auger, the plane, the screw, and cutting and other wood-shaping instruments in simple forms existed in abundance. the egyptians used their saws of bronze. the greeks deified their supposed inventor of the saw, talus, or perdix, and they claimed theodore of lamos as the inventor of the turning-lathe; although the main idea of pivoting an object between two supports, so that it could be turned while the hands were free to apply a tool to its shaping, was old in the potter's wheel of the egyptians, which was turned while the vessel resting upon it was shaped and ornamented by the hand and tools. it appears also to have been known by the hindoos and the africans. pliny refers to the curled chips raised by the plane, and ansonius refers to mills driven by the waters of the moselle for sawing marble into slabs. early records mention saw-mills run by water-power in the thirteenth century in france, germany and norway; and sweden had them in the next century. holland had them one hundred years at least before they were introduced into england. fearful of the entire destruction of the forests by the wood used in the manufacture of iron, and incited by the opposition and jealousy of hand sawyers, england passed some rigid laws on the subject in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which, although preserving the forests, gave for a long time the almost exclusive manufacture of iron and lumber to germany and holland. even as late as , a saw-mill, built at limehouse, under the encouragement of the society of arts, by james stansfield, was destroyed by a mob. saw-mills designed to be run by water-power had been introduced into the american colonies by the dutch more than a century before they made their appearance in england. william penn found that they had long been at work on the delaware when he reached its shores in . it was nothing indigenous to the climate or race that rendered the americans inventors. the early colonists, drawn from the most civilised countries of europe, carried to the new world knowledge of the latest and best appliances known to their respective countries in the various arts. with three thousand miles of water between them and the source of such appliances, and between them and the source of arbitrary power and laws to hamper efforts and enterprise, with stern necessity on every hand prompting them to avail themselves of every means to meet their daily wants, all known inventions were put to use, and brains were constantly exercised in devising new means to aid, or take the place of, manual labour, which was scarce. surrounded, too, by vast forests, from which their houses, their churches and their schools must be constructed, these pioneers naturally turned their thoughts toward wood-working machinery. the attention to this art necessarily created interest in and developed other arts. thus constant devotion to pursuits strenuously demanding labour-saving devices evolved a race of keen inventors and mechanics. so that when watt had developed his wonderful application of steam to industrial purposes, america was ready to substitute steam for water-power in the running of saw-mills. steam saw-mills commenced to buzz with the opening of the century. as to the relation of that humble machine, the saw-mill, to the progress of civilisation, it was once said: "the axe produces the log hut, but not until the saw-mill is introduced do framed dwellings and villages arise; it is civilisation's pioneer machine; the precursor of the carpenter, wheelwright and turner, the painter, the joiner, and legions of other professions. progress is unknown where it is not. its comparative absence in the southern american continent was not the least cause of the trifling advancement made there during three centuries and a half. surrounded by forests of the most valuable and variegated timber, with water-power in mountain streams, equally neglected, the masses of the people lived in shanties and mud hovels, not more commodious than those of the aborigines, nor more durable than the annual structures of birds. wherever man has not fixed and comfortable homes, he is, as regards civilisation, stationary; improvement under such circumstances has never taken place, nor can it." miller, in england, in , had described in his patent a circular saw, and hatton, in , had vaguely described a planing machine; but the inception of the marvellous growth in wood-working machinery in the nineteenth century occurred in england during the last decade of the eighteenth. it was due to the splendid efforts of general samuel bentham, and of bramah and branch, both as to metal-working and wood-working machinery. general bentham, a brother of the celebrated jurist, jeremy bentham, had his attention drawn to the slow, laborious, and crude methods of working in wood, while making a tour of europe, and especially in russia, and engaged in inspecting the art of ship-building in those countries, in behalf of the british admiralty. on his return, - , he converted his home into a shop for making wood-working machines. these included "planing, moulding, rabbeting, grooving, mortising, and sawing, both in coarse and fine work, in curved, winding, and transverse directions, and shaping wood in complicated forms." of the amount of bills presented to and paid for by the admiralty for these machines, general bentham received about £ , . these machines were developed and in use just as the new century approached. thus, with the exception of the saw-mill, it may be again said that prior to this century the means mankind had to aid them in their work in metals and in wood were confined to hand tools, and these were for the most part of a simple and crude description. the ground-work now being laid, the century advanced into a region of invention in tools and machinery for wood-working of every description, far beyond the wildest dreams of all former carpenters and joiners. not only were the machines themselves invented, but they gave rise in turn to a host of inventions in metal-working for making them. in the same line of inventions there appeared in the first decade of the century one of the most ingenious of men, and a most fitting type of that great class of yankee inventors who have carved their way to renown with all implements, from the jack-knife to the electrically-driven universal shaping machine. thomas blanchard, born in massachusetts in , while a boy, was accustomed to astonish his companions by the miniature wind-wheels and water-wheels that he whittled out with his knife. while attending the parties of young people who gathered on winter evenings at different homes in the country to pare apples, the idea of a paring machine occurred to him, and when only thirteen years of age, he invented and made the first apple-paring machine, with which more apples could be pared in a given time than any twelve of his girl acquaintances could pare with a knife. at eighteen, while working in a shop, driving the heads down on tacks, on an anvil, with a hammer, he invented the first tack-forming machine, which, when perfected by him, made five hundred tacks a minute, and which has never since been improved in principle. he improved the steam engine, and invented one of the first envelope machines. he made the first metal lathe for cutting out the butts of gun-barrels. but his greatest triumphs were in wood-working machinery. challenged to make a machine that would make a gun stock, always before that time regarded an impossible task, its every part being so irregular in form, he secluded himself in his workshop for six months, and after constant labour and experiments he at the end of that time had produced a machine that more than astonished the entire world, and which worked a revolution in the making of all irregular forms from wood. this was in . this machine would not only make a perfect gun-stock, but shoe lasts, and ships' tackle-blocks, axe-handles, and a multitude of irregular-shaped blocks which before had always required the most expert hand operatives to produce. this machine became the subject of parliamentary inquiry on the part of england, and so great were the doubts concerning it, that successive commissions were appointed to examine and report upon it. finally the english government ordered eight or ten of such machines for the making of gun-stocks for its army, and paid blanchard about $ , for them. he was once jestingly asked at the navy department at washington if he could turn a seventy-four? he at once replied, "yes, if you will furnish me the block." of course infringers appeared, but he maintained his rights and title as first and original inventor after the most searching trials in court. the generic idea of blanchard's lathe for turning irregular forms consists in the use of a pattern of the device which is to be shaped from the rough material, placing such pattern in a lathe, alongside of the rough block, and having a guide wheel which has an arm having cutters, and which guide follows all the lines of the pattern, and which cutters, extending to the rough material, chip it away to the depth and in the direction imparted by the pattern lines to the guide, thus producing from the rough block a perfect representation of the pattern. in the midst of his studies in the construction of his inventions blanchard's attention was drawn to the operations of a boring worm upon an old oak log. closely examining and watching the same by the aid of a microscope, he gained valuable ideas from the work of his humble teacher, which he incorporated into his new cutting and boring machines. his series of machines in gun-making were designed to make and shape automatically every part of the gun, whether of wood or metal. his machines, and subsequent improvements by others, for boring, mortising and turning, display wonderful ingenuity. a modern mortising machine, for instance, is adapted to quickly and accurately cut a square or oblong hole to any desired depth, width, and length by cutting blades; to automatically reciprocate the cutters both vertically and horizontally in order to cut the mortise, both as to length and depth, at one time, and to automatically withdraw the cutters when they have finished cutting the mortise. they are provided with simple means for setting and feeding the cutters to do this work, and while giving the cutters a positive action, ample clearance is provided for the removal of the chips as fast as they are cut. from what such inventions will produce in the way of complicated and ornamental workmanship we may conclude that it is a law of invention that whatever can be made by hand may be made by a machine, and made better. _carving machines_ made their appearance early in the century. in a mr. watt of london produced one, on which he carved medallions and figures in ivory and ebony. also subsequently, john hawkins of the same city, and a mr. cheverton, invented machines for the same purpose. another englishman, braithwaite, in , invented a most attractive carving process in which, instead of cutting tools, he employed _burning_ as his agent. heated casts of previously carved models were pressed into or on to wet wood, and the charcoal surfaces then brushed off with hard brushes. after blanchard's turning-lathes and boring apparatus, appeared machines in which a series of cutters were employed, guided by a tracing lever attached to a carved model, and actuating the cutter to reproduce on material placed upon an adjusting table a copy of the model. machines have been invented which consist of hard iron or steel rollers on the surface of which are cut beautiful patterns, and between which wood previously softened by steam is passed, and designs thus impressed thereon. a similar process of embossing, was devised in paris and called xyloplasty, by which steam-softened wood is compressed in carved moulds, which give it bas-relief impressions. but in the carving of wood by hand, a beautiful art, which has been revived within the past generation, there are touches of sentiment, taste and human toil, which, like the touches of the painter and the master of music, appeal to cultivated minds in a higher than mechanical sense. the mills of the modern gods, the inventors, grind with exceeding and exact fineness, but the work of a human hand upon a manufactured article still appeals to human sympathy. the bending of wood when heated by fire or steam had been known and practised to a limited extent, but blanchard invented a _clamping machine_, to which improvements have been added, and by which ship timbers, furniture, ploughs, piano frames, carriage bows, stair and house banisters and balusters, wheel rims, staves, etc., etc., are bent to the desired forms, and without breaking. bending to a certain extent does not weaken wood, but stretching the same has been found to impair and destroy its strength. the principal problems which the inventors of the century have solved in the class of wood-working have been the adaptation to rapid-working machinery of the saw and other blades, to sever; the plane to smooth, the auger, the bit and the gimlet to bore, the hammer to drive, and a combination of all or a part of these to shape and finish the completed article. it was a great step from the reciprocating hand saw, worked painfully by one or two men, to the band saw, invented by a london mechanic, william newbury, in . this was an endless steel belt serrated on one edge, mounted on pulleys, and driven continuously by the power of steam through the hardest and the heaviest work. pliable, to conform to the faces of the wheels over which it is carried, it will bend with all the sinuosities of long timber, no time is lost in its operation, and no labour of human hands is necessary to guide it or the object on which it works. at the vienna exposition in , the first mammoth saw of this description was exhibited. the saw itself was made by the celebrated firm of perin & co., of paris, upon machinery the drawings of which were made by mr. van pelt of new york, and constructed by richards, loudon and kelly of philadelphia. the saw was fifty-five feet long, and sawed planks from a pine log three feet thick, at the rate of sixty superficial feet per minute. the difficulty of securing a perfectly reliable weld in the endless steel band was overcome by m. perin, who received at the paris exhibition in the grand cross of the legion of honour. now gangs of such saws may be found in america and elsewhere, and circular saws have also been added. saws that both cut, form, and _plane_ the boards at the same time are now known. _boring tools_, both for hand and machinery, demanded improvement. formerly augers and similar boring tools had merely a curved sharpened end and a concavity to hold the chips, and the whole tool had to be withdrawn to empty the chips. it was known as a _pod_ auger. in , l'hommedieu, a frenchman, invented an auger with two pods and cutting lips, a central screw and a twisted shank. about the same time lilley of connecticut made a twisted auger, and these screw-form, twisted, cutting tools of various kinds, with their cutting lips, and by which the shavings or chips were withdrawn continuously from the hole as the cutting proceeded, became so improved in the united states that they were known as the american augers and bits. the planing machines of general bentham were improved by bramah, and he and maudsley also greatly improved other wood-working machines and tools in england-- - . we have before, in the chapter on metal-working, shown the importance of the _slide-rest_, _planer_ and _lathe_, _when combined_, and which also are extensively adapted to wood-working. in bramah's machine, a vertical spindle carried at its lower extremity a horizontal wheel having twenty-eight cutter blades, followed by a plane also attached to a wheel. a board was by these means perfectly trimmed and smoothed from end to end, as it was carried against the cutters by suitable moving means. william woodworth of new york, in , patented a celebrated planing machine which became so popular and its use was regarded so necessary in the wood-working trades, that the patent was looked upon as an odious monopoly. it consisted of a combination of rollers armed with cutters, attached to a horizontal shaft revolving at a great speed, and of means for feeding the boards to the cutters. with bentham's, bramah's, blanchard's, and woodworth's ideas for a basis, those innumerable improvements have been made in machinery, by which wood is converted with almost lightning rapidity into all the forms in which we see it, whether ornamental or useful, in modern homes and other structures. some machines are known as "universal wood workers." in these a single machine is provided with various tools, and adapted to perform a great variety of work by shifting the position of the material and the tools. the following operations can be performed on such a machine:--planing, bevelling, tapering, tenoning, tongueing and grooving (grooves straight, circular or angular), making of joints, twisting and a number of other operations. the later invention by stow of philadelphia of a _flexible_ shaft, made up of a series of coils of steel wire, given a leather covering, and to which can be attached augers, bits, or metal drills, the tool applied to its work from any direction, and its direction varied while at work, has excited great attention. _shingles_ are as old in the art as the framework of buildings. rome was roofed with shingles for centuries, made of oak or pine. tiles, plain and fancy, and slates, have to a certain extent superseded wood shingling, but the wood will always be used where it can be found in plenty, as machines will now turn them out complete faster than they can be hauled away. a shingle is a thin piece of wood, thicker at one end than at the other, having parallel sides, about three times as long as it is wide, having generally smooth surfaces and edges. all these features are now given to the shingle by modern machines. a great log is rolled into a mill at one end and soon comes out at the other in bundles of shingles; the logs sawed into blocks, the blocks split or sawed again into shingle sizes, tapered, planed in the direction of the grain of the wood, the complete shingles collected and bound in bundles, each operation by a special machine, or by a series of mechanisms. _veneering_, that art of covering cheap or ordinary wood with a thin covering of more ornamental and valuable wood, known from the days of the egyptians, has been vastly extended by modern machinery. the practice, however, so emphatically denounced centuries ago by pliny, as "the monstrous invention of paint and dyes applied to the woods or veneers, to imitate other woods," has yet its practitioners and admirers. t. m. brunel, in - , devised a set of circular saws run by a steam engine, which cut sheets of rosewood and mahogany, one-fourteenth of an inch thick, with great speed and accuracy. since that day the veneer planing machine, for delicately smoothing the sheets, the straightening machine, for straightening scrolls that have been cut from logs, the polishing machines for giving the sheets their bright and glossy appearance, the pressing machine for applying them to the surfaces to which they are to be attached, the hammering machine for forcing out superfluous glue from between a veneer and the piece to which it is applied; all of these and numerous modifications of the same have been invented, and resulted in placing in the homes everywhere many beautiful ornamental articles of furniture, which before the very rich only could afford to have. special forms of machinery for making various articles of wood are about as numerous as the articles themselves. we appear before the house and know before entering that its doors and sills, clapboards and window frames, its sashes and blinds, its cornices, its embrasures and pillars, and shingles, each or all have had a special machine invented for its manufacture. we enter the house and find it is so with objects within--the flooring may be adorned with the beautiful art of marquetry and parquetry, wood mosaic work, the wainscoting and the frescoes and ceilings, the stairs and staircases, its carved and ornamental supporting frames and balusters, the charming mantel frames around the hospitable fireplaces, and every article of furniture we see in which wood is a part. so, too, it is with every useful wooden implement and article within and without the house,--the trays, the buckets, the barrels, the tubs, the clothes-pins, the broom-handles, the mops, the ironing and bread boards; and outside the house, the fences, railings and posts--many of these objects entirely unknown to the poor of former generations, uncommon with the rich, and the machinery for making them unknown to all. it was a noble array of woodwork and machinery with which the nations surprised and greeted the world, at each of its notable international expositions during the century. each occasion surpassed its predecessor in the beauty of construction of the machines displayed and efficiency of their work. the names of the members of this array were hard and uncouth, such as the axe, the adze, and the bit, the auger, bark-cutting and grinding machines, blind-slat boring, and tenoning, dovetail, mortising, matching and planing, wood splitting, turning, wheeling and planing, wood-bending, rim-boring dowelling, felly-jointing, etc., etc. these names and the clamour of the machines were painful to the ear, but to the thoughtful, they were converted into sweeter music, when reflection brought to mind the hard toil of human hands they had saved, the before unknown comforts and blessings of civilisation they had brought and were bringing to the human race, and the enduring forms of beauty they had produced. to the invention of wood-working machinery we are also indebted for the awakening of interest in the qualities of wood for a vast number of artistic purposes. it was a revelation, at the great philadelphia exposition of , to behold the specimens of different woods from all the forests of the earth, selected and assembled to display their wonderful grain and other qualities, and showing how well nature was storing up for us in its silent shades those growths which were waiting the genius of invention to convert into forms of use and beauty for every home. chapter xxii. furniture. so far as machinery is concerned for converting wood into furniture, the same has been anticipated in the previous chapter, but much remains to be said about the articles of furniture themselves. although from ancient days the most ancient countries provided by hand elaborate and beautiful articles of furniture of many descriptions, yet it has been left for modern advances in machinery and kindred arts to yield that universal supply of convenient and ornamental furniture which now prevails. the egyptians used chairs and tables of a more modern form than the greeks or romans, who lolled about on couches even at their meals; but the egyptians did not have the convenient section tables built in sliding sections, which permit the table to be enlarged to accommodate an increased number of guests. and now recently this modern form of table has been improved, by arranging the sections and leaves so that when the sections are slid out the leaves are automatically raised and placed in position, which is done either by lazy-tongs mechanism, or by a series of parallel links: tables constructed with folding detachable and adjustable legs, tables constructed for special purposes as sewing machines, and typewriting machine tables, by which the machine head may be dropped beneath the table top when not in use; tables combined with desks wherein the table part may be slid into the desk part when not in use and the sliding cover pulled down to cover and lock from sight both the table and desk; surgical tables, adapted to be raised or lowered at either end or at either side and to be extended; "knock down" tables, adapted to be taken all apart for shipment or storage; tables combined with chairs to be folded down by the side of the chair when not in use; and many other useful forms have been added to the list. much ingenuity has been displayed in the construction of desks, to save and economise space. mention has been made of a combined folding desk and extensible table. another form is an arrangement of desk drawers, whereby when one drawer is locked or unlocked all the rest are locked or unlocked automatically. whatever shape or function anyone desires in a desk may be met, except, perhaps, the performance of the actual work of the occupant. in the matter of _beds_, the principal developments have been due to the advancement of wood-working machinery, and the manufacture of iron, steel, and brass. the old-fashioned ponderous bedsteads, put together by heavy screws, have given way to those mortised and tenoned, joined and matched, and by which they can easily be put up and taken down; and to iron and brass bedsteads, which are both ornamental and more healthful. no bed may be without an inexpensive steel spring frame or mattress for the support of the bedding. folding beds made to economise space, and when folded upright become an ornamental bureau; and invalid bedsteads, designed for shifting the position of the invalid, are among the many modern improvements. _kitchen utensils._--a vast amount of drudgery in the kitchen has been relieved by the convenient inventions in labor-saving appliances: coffee and spice mills, can-openers, stationary washtubs, stopper extractors, superseding the old style of hand-corkscrews where large numbers of bottles are to be uncorked; refrigerators and provision safes, attaching and lifting devices and convenient culinary dishes and utensils of great variety. _curtains_, _shades_ and _screens_ have been wonderfully improved and their use made widely possible by modern inventions and new adaptation of old methods. wood, cotton, silk, paper, combined or uncombined with other materials, in many novel ways unknown to our ancestors, have rendered these articles available in thousands of homes where their use was unknown and impossible a century ago. among the most convenient attachments to shades is the spring roller, invented by hartshorn of america, in , whereby the shade is automatically rolled upon its stick to raise or lower it. window screens for the purpose of excluding flies, mosquitoes, and other insects, while freely admitting the air, are now made extensible and adjustable in different ways to fit different sizes of windows. curtains and shades are provided with neat and most attractive supporting rods, to which they are attached by brass or wooden rings, and provided with easily manipulated devices to raise and securely hold them in any desired position. the art of steaming wood and bending it, by iron pattern forms adjustable to the forms desired, as particularly devised in principle by blanchard in america in - , referred to in wood-working, has produced great changes in the art of furniture making, especially in chairs. a particularly interesting illustration of the results of this art occurred in austria. about forty years ago the manufacture in germany and austria of furniture by machinery, especially of bent wood-ware, became well established there; and by the time of the vienna exposition in , factories on a most extensive scale for the construction of bed furniture were in operation among the vast mountain beech forests of moravia and hungary. the greatest of these works were located in great urgroez, hungary, and bisritz, moravia, with twenty or more auxiliary establishments. between five and six thousand work people were employed, the greater part of whom were females, and it was necessary to use steam and water motors, to the extent of many hundred horse power. the forests were felled, and the tree-tops removed and made into charcoal for use in the glass works of bohemia. the trunks were hauled to the mills and sawed into planks of suitable thickness by gang-saws. the planks in turn were cut with circular saws into square pieces for turning, and then the pieces turned and cut on lathes, to give them the size required and the rounded shape; the pieces then steamed while in their green state for twenty-four hours in suitable boilers, then taken out and bent to the desired shape on a cast-iron frame by hand, then subjected, with the desired pattern, to the pattern-turning table, and cut; then kept locked in the pattern's iron embrace until the pieces were dried and permanently set in shape, then clamped to a bench, filed, rasped, stained, and french polished by the deft hands of the women; then assembled in proper position in frames of the form of the chair or other article to be made, their contact surface sawed to fit at the joints, and then finally the parts glued together and further secured by the addition of a few screws or balls. chairs, lounges and lighter furniture were thus made from bent pieces of wood with very few joints, having a neat and attractive appearance, and possessing great strength. the art has spread to other forests and other countries, and the turned, bent, highly polished and beautiful furniture of this generation would have been but a dream of beauty to the householder of a century ago. children's chairs are made so that the seat may be raised or lowered, or the chair converted into a perambulator. dentist's chairs have been developed until it is only necessary for the operator to turn a valve governing a fluid, generally oil, under pressure to raise or lower the chair and the patient. in the more agreeable situation at the theatre or concert one may hang his hat on the bottom of the chair, upturned to afford access to it through a crowded row, and turning down the chair, sit with pleasure, as the curtain is rolled up by compressed air, or electricity, at the touch of a button. to the unthinking and unobserving, the subject of _bottle stoppers_ is not entrancing, but those acquainted with the art know with what long, continuous, earnest efforts, thousands of inventors have sought for the best and cheapest bottle stopper to take the place of corks--the enormous demand for which was exhausting the supply and rendering their price almost prohibitive. one of the most successful types is a stopper of rubber combined with a metal disk, and hung by a wire on the neck of the bottle, so that the stopper can be used over and over again; another form composed of glass, or porcelain, and cork; another is a thin disk of cork placed in a thin metal cap which is crimped over a shoulder on the neck of the bottle, and still another is a thin disk of pasteboard adapted for milk bottles and pressed tightly within a rim on the inside of the neck of the bottle. in this connection should be mentioned that self-sealing fruit jar, known from its inventor as "mason's fruit jar," which came into such universal use--that combination of screw cap, screw-threaded jar-neck and the rubber ring, or gasket, on which the cap was screwed so tightly as to seal the jar hermetically. in lamplighting, what a wonderful change from the old oil lamps of former ages! the modern lamp may be said to be an improved means of grace, as it will hold out much longer, and shed a far more attractive light for the sinner, whose return, by its genial light, is, even to the end, so greatly desired. the discovery of petroleum and its introduction as a light produced a revolution in the construction of lamps. wicks were not discarded, but changed in shape from round to flat, and owing to the coarseness and disagreeable odour of coal oil, especially in its early unrefined days, devices first had for their object the easy feeding of the wick, and perfect combustion. to this end the burner portion through which the wick passed was perforated at its base to create a proper draft, and later the cap over the base was also perforated. but with refined oil the disagreeable odour continued. it was found that this was mainly due to the fact that both in lamps and stoves the oil would ooze out of the wick on to the adjacent parts of the lamps or stove, and when the wick was lit the heat would burn or heat the oil and thus produce the odour. inventors therefore contrived to separate the oil reservoir and wick part when the lamp or stove were not in use; and finally, in stoves, to dispense with the wick altogether. as wickless oil stoves are now in successful use the wickless lamp may be expected to follow. the lamp, however, that throws all others into the shade is that odourless, heatless, magic, mellow, tempered light of electricity, that springs out from the little filament, in its hermetically sealed glass cage, and shines with unsurpassed loveliness on all those fortunate enough to possess it. chapter xxiii. leather. it is interesting to speculate how prehistoric man came to use the skin of the beasts of the field for warmth and shelter. originally no doubt, and for untold centuries, the use was confined to the hairy, undressed, fresh, or dried skins, known as pelts. then came the use of better tools. the garments have perished, but the tools of stone and of bronze survived, which, when compared with those employed among the earliest historic tribes of men, were found to be adapted to cut and strip the hairy covering from the bodies of animals, and clean, pound, scrape and otherwise adapt them to use. and ever since the story of man began to be preserved in lasting records from farthest oriental to the northernmost limits of europe and america, memorials of the early implements of labour in the preparation of hides for human wear have been found. the aborigines knew how to sharpen bones of the animals they killed to scrape, clean, soften or roughen their skins. they knew how to sweat, dry, and smoke the skins, and this crude seasoning process was the forerunner of modern tanning. but leather as we know it now, that soft, flexible, insoluble combination of the gelatine and fibrine of the skin with tannic acid, producing a durable and imputrescible article, that will withstand decay from the joint attack of moisture, warmth and air, was unknown to the earlier races of men, for its production was due to thorough tanning, and thorough tanning was a later art. when men were skin-dressed animals they knew little or nothing of tanning. tannic acid is found in nearly every plant that grows, and its combination with the fresh skins spread or thrown thereon, may have given rise to the observation of the beneficial result and subsequent practice. but whether discovered by chance, accident or experience, or invented from necessity, the art of tanning should have rendered the name of the discoverer immortal. the earliest records, however, describe the art, but not the inventor. from the time the hebrews covered the altars of their tabernacles with rams' skins dyed red, as recorded in exodus; when they and the egyptians worked their leather, currying and stretching it with their knives, awls, stones, and other implements, making leather water buckets, resembling very much those now made by machinery, covering their harps and shields with leather, ornamental and embossed; from the days of the early africans, famous for their yellow, red and black morocco; from the days of the old national dress of the persians with their leather trousers, aprons, helmets, belts and shirts; from the time that the ancient scythians utilised the skins of their enemies, and herodotus described the beauty and other good qualities of the human hide; from the early days of that peculiar fine and agreeable leather of the russians, fragrant with the oil of the birch; from the days of the white leather of the hungarians, the olive-tanned leather of the saracens; from the time of the celebrated cordovan leather of the spaniards; from the ancient cold periods of the esquimaux and the scandinavians, who, clad in the warm skins of the arctic bears, stretched tough-tanned sealskin over the frame work of their boats; from the time of the introduction of the art of the leather worker to the naked briton, down to almost the nineteenth century, substantially the same hand tools, hard hand labour, and the old elbow lubricant were known and practised. hand tools have improved, of course, as other arts in wood and iron making have developed, but the operations are about the same. there were and must be fleshing knives to scrape from off the hide the adherent flesh and lime,--for this the hide is placed over the convex edge of an inclined beam and the work is called beaming; the curriers' knife for removing the hair; skiving, or the cutting off the rough edges and fleshy parts on the border of the hide; shaving and flattening; the cutting away of the inequalities left after skiving; _stoning_, the rubbing of the leather by a scouring stone to render it smooth; _slicking_, to remove the water and grease; or to smooth and polish, by a rectangular sharpened stone, steel or glass tool; _whitening_, to shave off thin strips of the flesh, leaving the leather thinner, whiter and more pliable; _stuffing_, to soften the scraped and pounded hides and make them porous; _graining_, the giving to the hair or grain side a granular appearance by rubbing with a grooved or roughened piece of wood; _bruising_ or boarding to make the leather supple and pliable by bringing the two flesh sides together and rubbing with a graining board; _scouring_, by aid of a stream of water to whiten the leather by rubbing with a slicking stone or steel. the inventions of the century consist in labour-saving machinery for these purposes, new tanning and dressing processes, and innumerable machines for making special articles of leather. as before stated, the epoch of modern machinery commenced with the practical application of water power to other than grinding mills, and of steam in place of water, contemporaneously with the invention of spinning and weaving machinery in the last half of the eighteenth century. these got fairly to work at the beginning of the century, and the uses of machinery spread to the treatment of leather. john bull was the appropriate name of the man who first patented a scraping machine in england, about , and joseph weeks the next one, some years later. one of the earliest machines of the century was the hide mill, which, after the hand tools had scraped and stoned, shaved and hardened the hides, was used to rub and dub them, and soften and swell them for tanning. pegged rollers were the earliest form for this purpose, and later corrugated rollers and power-worked hammers were employed. hundreds of hides could be softened daily by these means. then came ingenious machines to take the place of the previous operations of the hand tools,--the fleshing machine, in one form of which the hides are placed on a curved bed, and the fleshy parts scraped off or removed by revolving glass blades, or by curved teeth of steel and wood in a roller under which a table is given a to-and-fro movement; tanning apparatus of a great variety, by which hides, after they are thoroughly washed and softened, and the pores opened by swelling, are subjected to movements in the tanning liquor vats, such as rocking or oscillating, rotary, or vertical; or treated by an air exhaust, known as the vacuum process; in all of which the object is to thoroughly impregnate in the shortest time all the interstices and pores of the skin with the tannic acid, by which the fibrous and gelatinous matter is made to combine to form leather, and by which process, also, the hide is greatly increased in weight. reel machines are then employed to transfer the hides from one vat to another, thus subjecting them to liquors of increasing strength. soaking in vats formerly occupied twelve or eighteen months, but under the new methods the time has been greatly reduced. and now since , the chemists are pushing aside the vegetable processes, and substituting mineral processes, by which tanning is still further shortened and cheapened. the new processes depend chiefly on the use of chromium compounds. then came scouring machines, in which a rapidly revolving stiff brush is used to scour the grain or hair side, removing the superfluous colouring matter, called the bloom, and softening and cleansing the hide; the slicking or polishing machines to clean, stretch and smooth the leather by glass, stone, or copper blades on a rapidly-moving belt carried over pulleys; whitening, buffing, skiving, fleshing and shaving machines, all for cutting off certain portions and inequalities of the leather, and reducing its thickness. in one form of this class of machines an oscillating pendulum lever is employed, carrying at its end a revolving cylinder having thirty or more spiral blades. the pendulum swings to and fro at the rate of ninety movements a minute, while the cylinder rolls over the leather at the rate of revolutions per minute. scarfing, skiving, chamfering, bevelling, feather-edging, appear to be synonymous terms for a variety of machines for cutting the edges of leather obliquely, for the purpose chiefly of making lap seams, scarf-joints, and reducing the thickness and stiffness of leather at those and certain other points. then there are leather-splitting machines, consisting of one or more rollers and a pressure bar, which draw and press the leather against a horizontally arranged and adjustable knife, which nicely splits the leather in two parts, and thus doubles the quantity. this thin split leather is much used in making a cheap quality of boots and shoes and other articles. there are also corrugating, creasing, fluting, pebbling, piercing and punching machines; machines for grinding the bark and also for grinding the leather; machines for gluing sections of leather together, and machines for sewing them; machines for rounding flat strips of leather, for the making of whips and tubes; machines for scalloping the edges; and a very ingenious machine for assorting leather strips or strings according to their size or thickness. the most important improvements of the century in leather working relate to the manufacture of boots and shoes. it could well be said of boots and shoes, especially those made for the great mass of humanity, before the modern improvements in means and processes had been invented: "their feet through faithless leather met the dirt." it is true that in the eighteenth century, both in europe and america, the art of leather and boot and shoe making had so far advanced that good durable foot wear was produced by long and tedious processes of tanning, and by careful making up of the leather into boots and shoes by hand; the knife, the awl, the waxed thread, the nails and hammer and other hand tools of the character above referred to being employed. but the process was a tedious and costly one and the articles produced were beyond the limits of the poor man's purse. hence the wooden shoes, and those made of coarse hide and dressed and undressed skins, and of coarse cloth, mixed or unmixed with leather. in , david mead randolph of england patented machinery for riveting soles and heels to the uppers instead of sewing them together. the celebrated civil engineer, isambard m. brunel, shortly thereafter added several machines of his own invention to randolph's method, and he established a large manufactory for the making chiefly of army shoes. the various separate processes performed by his machines involved the cutting out of the leather, hardening it by rolling, securing the welt on to the inner sole by small nails, and studding the outer sole with larger nails. divisions of men were employed to work each separate step, and the shoes were passed from one process to another until complete. large quantities of shoes were made at reduced prices, but complaints were made as to the nails penetrating into the shoe and hurting the feet. the demand for army shoes fell off, and the system was abandoned; but it had incited invention in the direction of machine-made shoes and the day of exclusive hand labour was doomed. about joseph walker of hopkinston, massachusetts invented the wooden peg. making and applying pegs by hand was too slow work, and machines were at once contrived for making them. as one invention necessitates and begets others, so special forms of machines for sawing and working up wood into pegs were devised. such machinery was for first sawing the selected log of wood into slices across the grain a little thicker than the length of a peg and cutting out knots in the wood; then planing the head of the block smooth; grooving the block with a v-shaped cutting tool; splitting the pegs apart, and then bleaching, drying, polishing and winnowing them. it took forty or fifty years to perfect these and kindred machines, but at the end of that time there was a factory at burlington, vermont, which from four cords of wood, made every day four hundred bushels of shoe pegs. about b. f. sturtevant of massachusetts made a great improvement in this line. he was a very poor man, getting a living by pegging on the soles of a few pair of shoes each day. he devised a pegging machine, and out of his scanty earnings and at odd hours, with much pain and labour, and by borrowing money, he finally completed it. the machine made what was called "peg wood," a long ribbon strip of seasoned wood, sharpened on one edge and designed to be fed into the machine for pegging shoes. the shoes were punctured by awls driven by machinery, and then as the peg strip was carried to it the machine severed the strip into chisel-edged pegs, and peg-driving mechanism drove them into the holes. nine hundred pegs a minute were driven. it soon almost supplanted all other peg-driving machines, and after the machines were quite generally introduced, there were made in one year alone in new england fifty-five million pairs of boots and shoes pegged by the sturtevant machines. other forms of pegs followed, such as the metal screw pegs, and machines to cut them off from a continuous spiral wire from which they were made. lasts on which the shoes were made had been manufactured by the hundred thousand on the wood-turning lathes invented by blanchard, described in the chapter on wood-working. in also, about the same time the sturtevant pegging machine was introduced, the shoe-sewing machine was developed. the mckay shoe-sewing machine co. of massachusetts after an expenditure of $ , , and three years' time in experiments, were enabled to put their machines in practical operation. the pegging machines and sewing machines worked a revolution in shoemaking. a revolution in the art of shoemaking thus started was followed up by wondrous machines invented to meet every part of the manufacture. lasting machines for drawing and fitting the leather over lasts, in which the outer edges of the leather are drawn over the bottom of the last and tacked thereto by the hands and fingers of the machine instead of those of the human hand, were invented. _indenting machines_:--the welt is known as that strip of leather around the shoe between the upper and the sole, and machines were invented for cutting and placing this, indenting it for the purpose of rendering it flexible and separating the stitches, all a work until recently entirely done by hand. machines for twining the seams in the uppers, and forming the scallops; machines especially adapted to the making of the heel, as heel trimming and compressing, rounding and polishing, and for nailing the finished heel to the boot or shoe; machines for treating the sole in every way, rolling it, in place of the good old way of pounding it on a lap stone; trimming, rounding, smoothing, and polishing it; machines for cutting out gores; machines for marking the uppers so that at one operation every shoe will be stamped by its size, number, name of manufacture, number of case, and any other convenient symbols; machines for setting the buttons and eyelets; all these are simply members in the long line of inventions in this art. the old style of boot has given way to the modern shoe and gaiter, but for the benefit of those who still wear them, special machines for shaping the leg, called boot trees, have been contrived. so far had the art advanced that twenty years ago one workingman with much of this improved machinery combined in one machine called the "bootmaker," could make three hundred pairs of boots or shoes a day. upward of three thousand such machines were then at work throughout the world; and one hundred and fifty million pairs of boots were then being made annually thereon. now the number of machines and pairs of boots and shoes has been quadrupled. and the world is having its feet clothed far more extensively, better and at less cost than was ever possible by the hand system. the number of workers in the art, both men and women, has vastly increased instead of being diminished, while their wages have greatly advanced over the old rates. as an illustration of how rapidly modern enterprise and invention proceeds in yankeeland, it has been related that some years ago in massachusetts, after many of these shoe-making machines had got into use, a factory which was turning out pairs of shoes every day was completely destroyed by fire on a wednesday night. on thursday the manufacturer hired a neighbouring building and set carpenters at work fitting it up. on friday he ordered a new and complete outfit of machinery from boston; on saturday the machinery arrived and the men set it up; on monday work was started, and on tuesday the manufacturer was filling his orders to the full number of pairs a day. there are very many people in the world who still prefer the hand-made shoe, and there is nothing to prevent the world generally from going back to that system if they choose; but st. crispin's gentle art has blossomed into a vaster field of blessings for mankind under the fruitful impetus of invention than if left to vegetate under the simple processes of primitive man. horses, no less than man, have shared in the improvement in leather manufacture. the harnesses of the farmer's and labouring man's horses a century ago, when they were fortunate enough to own horses, were of the crudest description. ropes, cords, coarse bands of leather were the common provisions. now the strength and cheapness of harnesses enable the poor man to equip his horse with a working suit impossible to have been produced a hundred years ago. to the beautiful effects produced by the use of modern embossing machines on paper and wood have been added many charming patterns in _embossed_ leather. books and leather cases, saddlery and household ornamentation of various descriptions have been either moulded into forms of beauty, or stamped or rolled by cameo and intaglio designs cut into the surface of fast-moving cylinders. the leather manufactures have become so vastly important and valuable in some countries, especially in the united states--second, almost to agricultural products--that it would be very interesting to extend the description to many processes and machines, and to facts displaying the enormous traffic in leather, now necessarily omitted for want of space. chapter xxiv. minerals--wells. dost thou hear the hammer of thor, wielded in his gloves of iron? as with leather, so with stone, the hand tools and hard labour have not changed in principle since the ancient days. the hammer for breaking, the lever for lifting, the saw for cutting, rubbing-stones and irons for smoothing and polishing, sand and water for the same purpose, the mallet and chisel, and other implements for ornamenting, the square, the level, and the plumb for their respective purposes, all are as old as the art of building. and as for buildings and sculpture of stone and marble made by hand tools, we have yet to excel the pyramids, the parthenon of athens, which "earth proudly wears as the best gem upon her zone," the palaces, coliseums, and aqueducts of rome, the grand and polished tombs of india, the exquisite halls of the alhambra, and the gothic cathedrals. but the time came when human blood and toil became too dear to be the possession solely of the rulers and the wealthy, and to be used alone to perpetuate and commemorate riches, power and glory. close on the expansion of men's minds came the expansion of steam and the development of modern inventions. the first application of the steam engine in fields of human labour was the drawing of water from the coal mines of england; then in drawing the coal itself. it was only a step for the steam engine into a new field of labour when general bentham introduced his system of wood-sawing machinery in ; and from sawing wood to sawing stone was only one more step. we find that taken in in pennsylvania, when oliver evans of philadelphia drove with a high-pressure steam engine, "twelve saws in heavy frames, sawing at the rate of one hundred feet of marble in twelve hours." how long would it have taken hand sawyers of marble at ancient paros and naxos to have done the same? _stone-cutting_ machines of other forms than sawing then followed. it was desired to divide large blocks generally at the quarries to facilitate transportation. machines for this purpose are called stone-channelling machines. they consist of a gang of chisels bound together and set on a framework which travels on a track adjacent to the stone to be cut, and so arranged that the cutters may be set to the stone at desired angles, moved automatically forward and back in the grooves they are cutting, be fed in or out, raised or lowered, detached, and otherwise manipulated in the operation. other stone-cutting machines had for their objects the cutting and moulding the edges of tables, mantels and slabs; and the cutting of circular and other curved work. in the later style of machine the cutter fixed on the end of a spindle is guided in the desired directions on the surface of the stone by a pointer, which, attached to the cutter spindle, moves in the grooves of a pattern also connected to the rotating support carrying the cutter. other forms of most ingenious stone-dressing and carving machines have been devised for cutting mouldings, and ornamental figures and devices, in accordance with a model or pattern fixed to the under side of the table which carries the stone or marble to be dressed; and in which, by means of a guide moving in the pattern, the diamond cutter or cutters, carried in a circular frame above the work and adjusted to its surface, are moved in the varying directions determined by the pattern. a stream of water is directed on the stone to clear it of the dust during the operations. the carving of stone by machinery is now a sister branch of wood carving. monuments, ornamentation, and intricate forms of figures and characters are wrought with great accuracy by cutting and dressing tools guided by the patterns, or directed by the hand of the operator. for the dressing of the faces of grindstones, special forms of cutting machines have been devised. it was a slow and tedious task to drill holes through stone by hand tools; and it was indeed a revolution in this branch of the art when steam engines were employed to rotate a rod armed at its end with diamond or other cutters against the hardest stone. this mode of drilling also effected a revolution in the art of blasting. then, neither height, nor depth, nor thickness of the stone could prevent the progress of the drill rod. tunnels through mountain walls, and wells through solid quartz are cut to the depth of thousands of feet. one instance is related of the wonderful efficiency on a smaller scale of such a machine: the immense columns of the state capitol at columbus, ohio, were considered too heavy for the foundation on which they rested. the american diamond rock boring company of providence, rhode island, bored out a twenty-four inch core from each of the great pillars, and thus relieved the danger. in the most economical and successful stone drills _compressed air_ is employed as the motive power to drive the drills, which may be used singly or in gangs, and which may be adjusted against the rock or quarry in any direction. when in position and ready for work a few moments will suffice to bore the holes, apply the explosive and blast the ledge. the cleaning away of submarine ledges in harbours, such as the great work at hell gate in the harbour of new york, has thus been effected. _crushing_:--among the most useful inventions relating to stone working are machines for crushing stones and ores, and assorting them. the old way of hammering by hand was first succeeded by powerful stamp hammers worked by steam. both methods of course are still followed, but they demand too great an expenditure of force and time. about a third of a century ago, eli whitney blake of new haven, connecticut, was a pioneer inventor of a new and most successful type of stone breaking machine, which ever since has been known as the "blake crusher." this crusher consists of two ponderous upright jaws, one fixed and the other movable, between which the stones or ores to be crushed are fed. each of the jaws is lined with the hardest kind of chilled steel. the movable jaw is inclined from its lower end from the fixed jaw and at its upper end is pivoted to swing on a heavy round iron bar. the movable jaw is forced toward the fixed jaw by two opposite toggle levers set, in one form of the crusher, at their inner ends in steel bearings of a vertical vibrating, rocking lever, one of the toggles bearing at its outer end against the movable jaw and the outer toggle against a solid frame-work. the rocking lever is operated through a crank by a steam engine, and as it is vibrated, the toggle joint forces the lever end of the movable jaw towards the fixed jaw with immense force, breaking the hardest stone like an eggshell. the setting of the movable jaw at an incline enables the large stone to be first cracked, the movable jaw then opens, and as the stone falls lower between the more contracted jaws, it is broken finer, until it is finally crushed or pulverized and falls through at the bottom. the movable jaw is adjustable and can be set to crush stones to a certain size. as the rock drill made a revolution in blasting and tunnelling, so the blake crusher revolutionised the art of road making. "road metal," as the supply of broken stones for roads is now called, is the fruit of the crusher. hundreds of tons of stone per day can be crushed to just the size desired, and the machine may be moved from place to place where most convenient to use. other crushers have been invented, formed on the principle of abrasion. the stones, or ore, fall between two great revolving disks, having corrugated steel faces, which are set the desired distance apart, and between which the stones are crushed by the rubbing action. in this style of machine the principle of a gradual breaking from a coarse to a finer grade, is maintained by setting the disks farther apart at the centre where the stone enters, and nearer together at their peripheries where the broken stone is discharged. large smooth or corrugated rollers, conical disks, concentric rollers armed with teeth of varying sizes, and yet so arranged as to preserve the feature of the narrowing throat at the bottom or place of discharge, have also been devised and extensively used. a long line of inventions has appeared especially adapted to break up and separate coal into different sizes. to view the various monstrous heaps of assorted coals at the mouth of a coal mine creates an impression that some great witch had imposed on a poor victim the gigantic and seemingly impossible task of breaking and assorting a vast heap of coal into these separate piles within a certain time--a task which also seems to have been miraculously and successfully performed within such an exceedingly short time as to either satisfy or confuse the presiding evil genius. modern civilisation has been developed mostly from steam and coal, and they have been to each other as strong brothers, growing more and more mutually dependent to meet the demands made upon them. the mining of coal, and its subsequent treatment for burning, before the invention of the steam engine, were long, painful, and laborious tasks, and the steam engine could never have had its modern wants supplied if its power had not been used to supplement, with a hundredfold increased effect, the labour of human hands. it being impracticable to carry steam or the steam engine to the bottom of the mine for work there, compressed air is there employed, which is compressed by a steam engine up at the mouth. by this compressed air operated in a cylinder to drive a piston, and a connecting rod and a pick, a massive steel pick attached to the rod may be driven in any direction against the wall of coal at the rate of from ninety to one hundred and twenty blows per minute; and at the same time the discharged compressed, cold, pure, fresh air flows into and through the mine, affording ventilation when and where most needed. in addition to these great drills, more recent inventors have brought out small machines for single operators, worked by the electric motor. after the coal is lifted out, broken and assorted, it needs to be washed free of the adhering dust and dirt; and for this purpose machines are provided, as well as for screening, loading and weighing. the operations of breaking, assorting and washing are often combined in one machine, while an intermediate hand process for separating the pieces of slate from the coal may be employed; but additional automatic means for separating the coal and slate are provided, consisting in forcing with great power water through the coal as it falls into a chamber, which carries the lighter slate to the top of the chamber, where it is at once drawn off. the chief of machines with _ores_ is the _ore mill_, which not only breaks up the ore but grinds or pulverises it. some chemical and other processes for reducing ores have been referred to in the chapter on metallurgy. other mechanical processes consist of _separators_ of various descriptions--a prominent one of which acts on the principal of centrifugal force. the crushed material from a spout being led to the centre of a rapidly rotating disk is thrown off by centrifugal force; and as the lighter portions are thrown farther from the disk, and the heavier portions nearer to the same, the material is automatically assorted as to size and weight. as the disk revolves these assorted portions fall through properly graded apertures into separate channels of a circular trough, from whence they are swept out by brushes secured to a support revolving with the disk. many forms of ore washing machines have been invented to treat the ore after it has been reduced to powder. these are known by various names, as jiggers, rifflers, concentrators, washing frames, etc. a stream of water is directed on, into, and through the mass of pulverised ore and dirt, the dirt and kindred materials, lighter than the ore, are raised and floated towards the top of the receptacle and carried away, while the ore settles. this operation is frequently carried on in connection with amalgamated surfaces over which the metal is passed to still further attract and concentrate the ore. an endless apron travelling over cylinders is sometimes employed, composed of slats the surface of each of which is coated with an amalgam, and on this belt the powdered ore is spread thinly and carried forward. the vibrations of the belt tend to shake and distribute the ore particles, the amalgam attracts them, the refuse is thrown off as the belt passes down over the cylinder, while the ore particles are retained and brushed off into a proper receptacle. _amalgamators_ themselves form a large class of inventions. they are known as electric, lead, mercury, plate, vacuum, vapour, etc. by the help of these and a vast number of other kindred inventions, the business of mining in all its branches has been revolutionised and transformed, even within the last half century. with the vast increase in the output of coal, and of ores, and the incalculable saving of hand labour, the number of operators has been increased in the same proportion, their wages increased, their hours of labour shortened, and their comforts multiplied in variety and quantity, with a diminished cost. the whole business of mining has been raised from ceaseless darkness and drudgery to light and dignity. opportunity has been created for miners to become men of standing in the community in which they live; and means provided for educating their children and for obtaining comfortable homes adorned with the refinements of civilisation. _well boring_ is an ancient art--known to the egyptians and the chinese. wells were coeval with abraham when his servant had the celebrated interview with rebecca. "jacob's well at sychar--the ancient shechim--has been visited by travellers in all ages and has been minutely described. it is nine feet in diameter and one hundred and five feet deep, made entirely through rock. when visited by maundrel it contained fifteen feet of water."--_knight._ some kind of a drill must have been used to have cut so great a depth through rock. the chinese method of boring wells from time immemorial has been by the use of a sharp chisel-like piece of hard iron on the end of a heavy iron and wood frame weighing four or five hundred pounds, lifted by a lever and turned by a rattan cord operated by hand, and by which wells from fifteen hundred to eighteen hundred feet in depth and five or six inches in diameter have been bored. this method has lately been improved by attaching the chisel part, which is made very heavy, to a rope of peculiar manufacture, which gives the chisel a turn as it strikes, combined with an air pump to suck up from the hole the accumulating dirt and water. artesian wells appear to have first been known in europe in the province of artois, france, in the thirteenth century. hence their name. the previous state of the art in egypt, china and elsewhere was not then known. other modern inventions in well-making machinery have consisted in innumerable devices to supplant manual labour and to meet new conditions. _coal oil_:--reichenbach, the german chemist, discovered paraffine. young, soon after, in , patented paraffine oil made from coal. these discoveries, added to the long observed fact of coal oil floating on streams in pennsylvania and elsewhere, led to the search for its natural source. the discovery of the reservoirs of petroleum in pennsylvania in - , and subsequently of gas, which nature had concealed for so long a time, gave a great impetus to inventions to obtain and control these riches. with earth-augurs, drills, and drill cleaning and clearing and "fishing" apparatus, and devices for creating a new flow of oil, and tubing, new forms of packing, etc., inventors created a new industry. colonel e. drake sank the first oil well in pennsylvania in . since then, , oil wells have been drilled in that and neighbouring localities. the world has seldom seen such excitement, except in california on the discovery of gold, as attended the coal oil discovery. the first wells sunk gushed thousands of barrels a day. farmers and other labouring men went to bed poor and woke up rich. rocky wildernesses and barren fields suddenly became eldorados. the burning rivers of oil were a reflection of the golden treasures which flowed into the hands and pockets of thousands as from a perpetual fountain touched by some great magician's wand. old methods of boring wells were too slow, and although the underlying principle was the same, the new methods and means invented enabled wells to be bored with one-tenth the labour, in one-tenth the time, and at one-tenth the cost. many great cities and plains and deserts have been provided with these wells owing to the ease with which they can now be sunk. another ingenious method of sinking wells was invented by colonel n. w. greene at cortland, new york, in . it became known as the "driven well," and consisted of a pointed tube provided with holes above the pointed end, and an inclosed tube to prevent the passage of sand or gravel through the holes in the outer tube. when the pointed tube was driven until water was reached the inner tube was withdrawn and a pump mechanism inserted. this well, so simple, so cheap and effective, has been used in all countries by thousands of farmers on dry plains and by soldiers in many desert lands. with these and modern forms of artesian wells the deserts have literally been made to blossom as the rose. chapter xxv. horology and instruments of precision. "time measures all things, but i measure it." so far as we at present know there were four forms of time-measuring instruments known to antiquity--the sun-dial, the clepsydra or water clock, the hour-glass, and the graduated candle. the sun-dial, by which time was measured by the shadow cast from a pin, rod or pillar upon a graduated horizontal plate--the graduations consisting of twelve equal parts, in which the hours of the day were divided, were, both as to the instrument and the division of the day into hours, invented by the babylonians or other oriental race, set up on the plains of chaldea, constructed by the chinese and hindoos--put into various forms by these nations, and adapted, but unimproved, by the learned greeks and conquering romans. it appears to have been unknown to the assyrians and egyptians, or if known, its knowledge confined to their wise men, as it does not appear in any of their monuments. the clepsydra, an instrument by which in its earliest form a portion of time was measured by the escape of water from a small orifice in the bottom of a shell or vase, or by which the empty vase, placed in another vessel filled with water, was gradually filled through the orifice and which sank within a certain time, is supposed by many to have preceded the invention of the sun-dial. at any rate they were used contemporaneously by the same peoples. in its later form, when the day and night were each divided into twelve hours, the vessel was correspondingly graduated, and a float raised by the inflowing water impelled a pointer attached to the float against the graduations. plato, it is said, contrived a bell so connected with the pointer that it was struck at each hour of the night. but the best of ancient clepsydras was invented by ctesibius of alexandria about the middle of the third century b. c. he was the pupil of archimedes, and adopting his master's idea of geared wheels, he mounted a toothed wheel on a shaft extending through the vessel and carrying at one end outside of the vessel a pointer adapted to move around the face of a dial graduated with the hours. the vertical toothed rod or rack, adapted to be raised or lowered by a float in a vessel gradually filled with water, engaged a pinion fixed on another horizontal shaft, which pinion in turn engaged the larger wheel. it was not difficult to proportion the parts and control the supply of water to make the point complete its circuit regularly. then the same inventor dispensed with the wheel, rack, and pinion, and substituted a cord to which a float was attached, passing the cord over a grooved pulley and securing a weight at its other end. the pulley was fixed on the shaft which carried the hour hand. the float was a counterbalance to the weight, and as it was lifted by the water the weight stretched the cord and turned the pulley, which caused the pointer to move on the dial and indicate the hour. the water thus acted as an escapement to control the motive power. in one form the water dropped on wheels which had their motion communicated to a small statue that gradually rose and pointed with a rod to the hour upon the dial. thus the essential parts of a clock--an escapement, which is a device to control the power in a clock or watch so that it shall act intermittently on the time index, a motive power, which was then water or a weight, a dial to display the hours, and an index to point them out--were invented at this early age. but the art advanced practically no further for many centuries. the hour-glass is too familiar to need description. the incense sticks of the chinese, the combustion of which proceeded so slowly and regularly as to render them available for time measures, were the precursors of the graduated candles. with the ungraduated sun-dial the greeks fixed their times for bathing and eating. when the shadow was six feet long it was time to bathe, when twice that length it was time to sup. the clepsydra became in greece a useful instrument to enforce the law in restricting loquacious orators and lawyers to reasonable limits in their addresses. and in rome the sun-dials, the clepsydras and the hour-glass were used for the same purpose, and more generally than in greece, to regulate the hours of business and pleasure. the graduated candles are chiefly notable as to their use, if not invention, by alfred the great in about . they were inches long, divided into parts, of which three would burn in one hour. in use they were shielded from the wind by thin pieces of horn, and thus the "horn lantern" originated. with them he divided the day into three equal parts, one for religion, one for public affairs, and one for rest and recreation. useful clocks of wondrous make were described in the annals of the middle ages, especially in germany, made by monks and others for kings, monasteries and churches. the old saxon and teutonic words _cligga_, and _glocke_, signifying the striking of a bell, and from which the name clock is derived, indicates the early combination of striking and time-keeping mechanism. the records are scant as to the particulars of inventions in horology during the middle ages and down to the sixteenth century, but we know that weights, and trains of wheels and springs, and some say pendulums, were used in clockwork, and that the tones of hourly bells floated forth from the dim religious light of old cathedrals. they all appear to have involved in different forms the principle of the old clepsydra, using either weights or water as the motive power to drive a set of wheels and to move a pointer over the face of a dial. henry de vick of france about constructed a celebrated clock for charles v., the first nearest approach to modern weight clocks. the weight was used to unwind a cord from a barrel. the barrel was connected to a ratchet and there were combined therewith a train of toothed wheels and pinions, an escapement consisting of a crown wheel controlled by two pallets, which in turn were operated alternately by two weights on a balanced rod. an hour hand was carried by a shaft of the great wheel, and a dial plate divided into hours. this was a great advance, as a more accurate division of time was had by improving the isochronous properties of the vibrating escapement. but the world was still wanting a time-keeper to record smaller portions of the day than the hour and a more accurate machine than vick's. two hundred years, nearly, elapsed before the next important advance in horology. by this time great astronomers like tycho brahe and valherius had divided the time-recording dials into minutes and seconds. about jacob zech of prague invented the fusee, which was re-invented and improved by the celebrated dr. hooke, years later. small portable clocks, the progenitors of the modern watch, commenced to appear about . it was then that peter hele of nuremberg substituted for weights as the motive power a ribbon of steel, which he wound around a central spindle, connecting one end to a train of wheels to which it gave motion as it unwound. then followed the famous observation of the swinging lamp by the then young galileo, about , while lounging in the cathedral of pisa. the isochronism of the vibrations of the pendulum inferred from this observation was not published or put to practical application in clocks for nearly sixty years afterward. in galileo, then old and blind, dictated to his son one of his books in which he discussed the isochronal properties of oscillating bodies, and their adaptation as time measures. he and others had used the pendulum for dividing time, but moved it by hand and counted its vibrations. but huygens, the great dutch scientist, about was the first to explain the principles and properties of the pendulum as a time measurer and to apply it most successfully to clocks. his application of it was to the old clock of vick's. the seventeenth century thus opened up a new era in clock and watch making. the investigations, discoveries, and inventions of huygens and other dutch clock-makers, of dr. hooke and david ramsey of england, hautefeuille of france, and a few others placed the art of clock and watch making on the scientific basis on which it has ever since rested. the pendulum and watch-springs needed to have their movements controlled and balanced by better escapements. huygens thought that the pendulum should be long and swing in a cycloidal course, but dr. hooke found the better way to produce perfect isochronous movements was to cause the pendulum to swing in short arcs, which he accomplished by his invention of the anchor escapement. the fusee which dr. hooke re-invented consists of a conical spirally-grooved pulley, around which a chain is wound, and which is connected at one end to a barrel, in which the main actuating spring is tightly coiled. the fusee is thus interposed between the wheel train and the spring to equalise the power of the latter. to dr. hooke must also be credited the invention of that delicate but efficient device, the hair-spring balance for watches. his inventions in this line were directed to the best means of utilising and controlling the force of springs, his motto being "_ut tensio sic vis_," (as the tension is so is the force.) repeating watches to strike the hours, half-hours and quarters, made their appearance in the seventeenth century. in the next century arnold made one for george iii., as small as an english sixpence. this repeated the hours, halves and quarters, and in it for the first time in the art a jewel was used as a bearing for the arbors, and this particular one was a ruby made into a minute cylinder. after the discovery and practical application of weights, springs, wheels, levers and escapements to time mechanisms, subsequent inventions, numerous as they have been, have consisted chiefly, not in the discovery of new principles, but in new methods in the application of old ones. prior to the eighteenth century, however, clocks were cumbrous and expensive, and the watches rightly regarded as costly toys; and as to their accuracy in time-measuring, the cheaper ones were hardly as satisfactory as the ancient sun-dials. with the coming of the machine inventions and the new industrial and social ideas of the eighteenth century came an almost sudden new appreciation of the value of time. hours, minutes and seconds began to be carefully prized, both by the trades and professions, and the demand from the common people for accurate time records became great. this demand it has been the office of the nineteenth century to supply, and to place clocks and watches within the reach of the poor as well as the rich. while thus lessening the cost of time-keepers their value has been enhanced by increasing their accuracy and durability. among the other ideas for which the eighteenth century was famous in watch-making was that of dispensing with the key for winding, thus saving the losing of keys and preventing access of dust, an idea which, however, was perfected only in the last half of the nineteenth century. the eighteenth century was chiefly distinguished by its scientific improvements in time-keepers, to adapt them for astronomical observations and for use at sea, in not only accurately determining the time, but the degrees of longitude. chronometers were invented, distinguished from watches and clocks, by means by which the fluctuation of the parts caused by the variations in temperature are obviated or compensated. in clocks what are known as the mercurial and gridiron pendulums were invented respectively toward the close of the eighteenth century by graham and harrison, and the latter also subsequently invented the expanding and contracting balance wheel for watches. the principle in these appliances is the employment of two different metals which expand unequally, and thus maintain an uniformity of operation. the dutch, with huygens in the lead, were long among the leading clock-makers. germany ranked next. it was in the seventeenth century that a wonderful industry in clock-making there commenced, which lasted for two centuries. the black forest region of south germany became a famous locality for the manufacture of cheap wooden clocks. the system adopted was a minute division of labour. from fourteen to twenty thousand hands twenty years ago were employed in the schwarzwald district. labour-saving machines were ignored almost entirely. the annual production finally reached nearly two million clocks, of the value of about five million dollars. switzerland in watch-making followed precisely the example of germany in clock-making. it commenced there in the seventeenth and culminated in the nineteenth century. many thousands of its population were engaged in the business and it flourished under the fostering care of the government--by the establishment of astronomical observations for testing the adjustment of the best watches, the giving of prizes, and the establishment and encouragement of schools of horology conducted on thorough scientific methods. a quarter of a century ago it was estimated that in switzerland , persons out of a population of , were engaged in watch-making, and that the annual production sometimes reached , , completed movements. the whole world was their market. the united states alone was in importing , watches annually from that country. as in germany, so one characteristic of the swiss system was a minute sub-division of the labour. individuals and entire families had certain parts only to make. it is said that the swiss watch passed through the hands of one hundred and thirty different workmen before it was put upon the market. the use of machines was also, as in germany, ignored. by this national devotion to a single trade and its sub-division of labour, the successful production of complicated watches became great and their prices comparatively low. the united states in the commencement of its career and at the opening of the century had no clocks or watches of its own manufacture. but it soon followed the example of germany and switzerland and established cheap clock manufactories, first of wood, and then of metal, which became famous and of world-wide use. but it could make no headway against the cheap labour of europe in watch-making, and the country was flooded with watches of all qualities, principally from switzerland and england. finally, at the half-way mark in the century, the inquiry arose among americans, why could not the system of the minute sub-division of human labour followed in watch-making countries so cheaply and profitably, be accomplished by machinery? the field was open, the prize was great, and the government stood ready to grant exclusive patents to every inventor who would devise a new and useful machine. the problem was great, as the fields abroad had been filled for generations by skilled artisans who had reduced the complicated mechanism of watch-making to a fine art. fortunately the habit had been established in america in several of the leading industries, principally in that of fire-arms, of fabricating separate machinery for the independent making of numerous parts of the same implement, whereby uniformity and interchangeability were established. under such a practice, which was known as the american system, a duplicate of the smallest part of a complicated machine, lost or worn out thousands of miles from the factory, could soon be furnished by simply sending the number or name of such required part to the manufacturer, or to the nearest dealer in such machines. with such encouragement and example the scheme of watch-making was commenced. soon large factories were built, and by the time of the centennial exhibition in , the american watch company of waltham, massachusetts, were enabled to present an exhibit of watch movements made by machinery, which astonished the world. other great companies in different parts of the country soon followed with the same general system. machines, working with the apparent intelligence and facility of human minds and hands, and with greater mathematical accuracy than was possible with the hands, appeared:--for cutting out the finest teeth from blank wheels stamped out from steel or brass; for making and cutting the smallest, finest threaded screws by the thousands per hour and with greatest uniformity and accuracy; for jewel-making; for cutting and polishing by diamonds, or sapphire-armed tools, the rough, unpolished diamond and ruby, crysolite, garnet, or aqua-marine, and for boring, finishing and setting the same; for the formation of the most delicate pins or arbors; for the making of the escapements, including forks, pallets, rollers, and scape wheels; for making springs and balances, including the main-springs and hair-springs; for making and setting the stem-winding parts; for making the cases, and engraving the same, etc. the list would be too long to simply name all the ingenious machines there exhibited and subsequently invented for every important operation. it was the aim of these manufacturers to locate every great factory in some quiet and attractive spot, free from the dust of town, and city, and divide it into many departments, from the blacksmithing to the packing and transportation of the completed article; and to conduct every department with the best mechanical and mathematical skill that money and brains could provide. the same system was followed with equal success in producing the first-class pocket-chronometer for the nicest work to which chronometers can be put. thus with every watch and its every part made the exact duplicate of its fellow, uniformity in time-keeping has been established; and the simile of pope is no longer so correct, "'tis with our judgments as our watches, none go just alike, yet each believes his own." a simple statement of this system illustrates with greater force than an entire volume the revolution the nineteenth century has produced in the useful art of horology. and yet the story should not omit reference to the application of the electric system to clocks, whereby clocks at distant points of a city or country are connected, automatically corrected and set to standard time from a central observatory or other time station. great as were the advances in horology during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the number of inventions that have been made in the nineteenth century is evidenced by the fact that in the united states alone about , patents have been granted since , which, however, represent not only american inventors but very many of other countries. _registering devices._--devices for recording fares and money have employed the keenest wits of many inventors and is an art of quite recent origin. attention was first directed to fare registers in public vehicles, the object of which is to accurately report to the proper office of the company at the end of a trip, or of the day, the number of passengers carried and the fares received. portable registers, to be carried by the conductor and operated in front of the passenger have been almost universally succeeded by stationary ones set up at one end of the vehicle in open view of all the passengers and operated by a strap and lever by the conductor. these fare registers have been called "a mechanical conscience for street car conductors." _cash registers_, intended to compel honesty on the part of retail salesmen, are required to be operated by them, and when the proper lever, or levers, or it may be a crank handle, is or are touched, the machine automatically records the amount of the sale, the amount of change given, and the total amount of all the sales and money received and paid out. _voting machines_--designed to overcome the difficulties, expenditure of time, and the commission of errors and frauds experienced in the reading and counting of votes--have received great attention from inventors, and are not yet in a satisfactory condition. the problem involves the dispensing of printing the ballots, the prevention of fraudulent deposition of ballots, the automatic correct counting of the same, and a display of the result as soon as the balloting is closed. successful electrical devices have been made for recording the votes of a great number of persons in a large assembly by the touch of an "aye" or "nay" button at the seat of the voter and the recording of the same on paper at a central desk. the invention and extensive use of bicycles, automobiles, etc., have given rise to the invention of _cyclometers_, which are small devices connected to some part of the vehicle to indicate to the rider or driver the rate at which he is riding, and the number of miles ridden. _speed indicators._--many municipalities having adopted ordinances limiting the rate of speed for street and steam cars, bicycles, automobiles, and other vehicles, a want was created, which has been met, for devices to indicate to the passengers, drivers or conductors the rate at which the vehicle is travelling, and to sound an alarm in case of excess of speed, so that brakes can be applied and the speed reduced. or to relieve persons of anxiety and trouble in this respect, ingenious devices have been contrived which automatically reduce the speed when the prescribed limit has been exceeded. _weighing scales and machines._--"just balances and just weights" have been required from the day of the declaration, "a false weight is an abomination unto the lord." and therefore strict accuracy must always be the measure of merit of a weighing machine. to this standard the inventions of the century in weighing scales have come. until this century the ordinary balance with equal even arms suspended from a central point, and each carrying means for suspending articles to be weighed, or compared in weights, and the later steelyard with its unequal arms, with its graduated long arms and a sliding weight and holding pan, were the principal forms of weighing machines. platform scales were described in an english patent to one salman in , but their use is not recorded. the compound lever scale on the principle of the steelyard, but arranged to be used with a platform, was invented and came into use in the united states about . thaddeus and erastus fairbanks of st. johnsbury, vermont, were the inventors, and it was found to meet the want of farmers in weighing hemp, hay, etc., by more convenient means than the ordinary steelyard. they converted the steelyard into platform scales. the leading characteristics of such machines are, first, a convenient platform nicely balanced on knife edges of steel levers, and second, a graduated horizontal beam, a sliding weight thereon connected by an upright rod at one end to the beam, and at its opposite end to the balance frame beneath the platform. the modification in size and adaptation of this machine for the weighing of different commodities amounted to some different varieties--running from the delicately-constructed apparatus for weighing the fraction of a grain, to the ponderous machines for weighing and recording the loaded freight car of fifty or sixty tons, or the canal-boat or other vessel with its load of five or six hundred tons. the adaptation of a balance platform on which to place a light load, or to drive thereon with heavy loads, whether of horses, steam, or water vehicles, was a great blessing to mankind. no wonder that they were soon sold all over the world, and that monarchs and people hastened to heap honors on the inventors. spring weighing scales have recently been invented, which will accurately and automatically show not only the weight but the total price of the goods weighed, the price per unit being known and fixed. in the weighing of large masses of coarse material, such as grain, coal, cotton seed, and the like, machines have been constructed which automatically weigh such materials and at the same time register the weight. previous to this century no method was known, except the exercise of good judgment in the light of experience, of accurately testing the strength of materials. wood and metals were used in unnecessarily cumbrous forms for the purpose to which they were put, in order to ensure safety, or else the strength of the parts failed where it was most needed. the idea of testing the tensile, transverse, and cubical resisting strength of materials has been applied to many other objects than beams and bars of wood and metals; to belts, cloths, cables, wires, fibres, paper, twine, yarn, cement, and to liquids. kiraldy, kennedy, and others of england, thomasset of france, riehle of germany, and fairbanks, thurston and emery of the united states, are among the noted inventors of such machines. in the emery system of machines, consisting of scales, gages, and dynamometers, the power exerted on the material tested is transmitted from the load to an indicating device by means of liquid acting on diaphragms. the same principle is employed in his weighing machines. by one of these hydraulic testing machines the tensile strength of forged links has been ascertained by the exertion of a power amounting to over , pounds before breaking a link, the chain breaking with a loud report. the most delicate materials are tested by the same machine--the tensile strength of a horsehair, some of which are found to stand the strain of one and two pounds. eggs and nuts are cracked without being crushed, and the power exerted and the strain endured automatically recorded. steel beams and rods have been subjected to a strain of a million pounds before breaking. governments, municipalities, and the people generally are thus provided with means by which they can proceed with the greatest confidence in the safe and economical construction and completion of their buildings and public works. chapter xxvi. music, acoustics, optics, fine arts. neither the historic nor prehistoric records find man without musical instruments of some sort. they are as old as religion, and have been found wherever evidence of religious rites of any description have been found, as they constituted part of the instrumentalities of such rites. they are found as relics of worship and the dance, ages after the worshippers and the dancers have become part of the earth's strata. they have been found wherever the earliest civilisations have been discovered; and they appear to have been regarded as desirable and necessary as the weapons and the labour implements of those civilisations. they abounded in china, in india, and in egypt before the lyre of apollo was invented, or the charming harp of orpheus was conceived. there was little melody according to modern standards, but the musical instruments, like all other inventions, the fruit of the brain of man, were slowly evolved as he wanted them, and to meet the conditions surrounding him. there were the conch shell trumpet, the stone, bone, wood and metal dance rattles, the beaks of birds, and the horns and teeth of beasts, for the same rattling purpose. the simple reed pipes, the hollow wooden drums, the skin drum-heads, the stretched strings of fibre and of tendons, the flutes, the harps, the guitars, the psalteries, and hundreds of other forms of musical instruments, varied as the skill and fancy of man varied, and in accordance with their taste and wants, along the entire gamut of noises and rude melodies. the ancient races had the instruments, but their voices, except as they existed in the traditions of their gods, were not harmonious. as modern wants and tastes developed and music became a science the demands of the nineteenth century were met by a helmholtz, who discovered and explained the laws of harmony, and by many ingenious manufacturers, who so revolutionised the pianoforte action, and the action of musical instruments constructed on these principles, that their predecessors would hardly be recognised as prototypes. the story of the piano, that queen of musical instruments, involves the whole history of the art of music. its evolution from the ancient harp, gleaned by man from the wind, "that grand old harper, who smote his thunder harp of pines," is too long a story to here recite in detail. it must suffice to say, it started with the harp, in its simplest form, composed of a frame with animal tendons stretched tight thereon and twanged by the fingers. then followed strings of varied length, size, and tension, to obtain different tones, soon accompanied by an instrument called the plectrum--a bone or ivory stick with which to vibrate the strings, to save the fingers. this was the harp of the egyptians, and of jubal, "the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ," and half-brother of tubal cain, the great teacher "of every artificer in brass and iron." then the harp was laid prostrate, its strings stretched over a sounding board, and each held and adapted to be tightened by pegs, and played upon by little hammers having soft pellets or corks at their ends. this was the psaltery and the dulcimer of the assyrians and the hebrews. the greeks derived their musical instruments from the egyptians, and the romans borrowed theirs from the greeks, but neither the greeks nor the romans invented any. then, after fourteen or fifteen centuries, we find the harp, both in a horizontal and an upright position, with its strings played upon by keys. this was the _clavicitherium_. in the sixteenth century came the virginal, and the spinet, those soft, tinkling instruments favoured by queen elizabeth and queen mary, and which, recently brought from obscurity, have been made to revive the ancient elizabethan melodies, to the delight of modern hearers. these were followed in the seventeenth century by the clavichord, the favourite instrument of bach. then appeared the harpsichord, a still nearer approach to the piano, having a hand or knee-worked pedal, and on which mozart and handel and haydn brought out their grand productions. the ancient italian cembello was another spinet. thus, through the centuries these instruments had slowly grown. by in italy, under the inventive genius of bartolommeo cristofori of florence, they had culminated in the modern piano. the piano as devised by him differed from the instruments preceding it chiefly in this, that in the latter the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on them by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated by keys, whereas, in the piano there were applied hammers in place of quills. in the exhibition at philadelphia, a piano the greeks derived their musical instruments from the egyptians, and the romans borrowed theirs from the greeks, but neither the greeks nor the romans invented any. then, after fourteen or fifteen centuries, we find the harp, both in a horizontal and an upright position, with its strings played upon by keys. this was the clavicitherium. in the sixteenth century came the virginal, and the spinet, those soft, tinkling instruments favoured by queen elizabeth and queen mary, and which, recently brought from obscurity, have been made to revive the ancient elizabethan melodies, to the delight of modern hearers. these were followed in the seventeenth century by the clavichord, the favourite instrument of bach. then appeared the harpsichord, a still nearer approach to the piano, having a hand or knee-worked pedal, and on which mozart and handel and haydn brought out their grand productions. the ancient italian cembello was another spinet. thus, through the centuries these instruments had slowly grown. by in italy, under the inventive genius of bartolommeo cristofori of florence, they had culminated in the modern piano. the piano as devised by him differed from the instruments preceding it chiefly in this, that in the latter the strings were vibrated by striking and pulling on them by pieces of quills attached to levers and operated by keys, whereas, in the piano there were applied hammers in place of quills. in the exhibition at philadelphia, a piano was displayed which had been made by johannes christian schreiber of germany in . then in the latter part of the eighteenth century broadwood and clementi of london and erard of strasburg and petzold of paris commenced the manufacture of their fine instruments. erard particularly made many improvements in that and in the nineteenth century in the piano, its hammers and keys, and southwell of dublin in the dampers. by them and the collards of london, bechstein of berlin, and chickering, steinway, weber, schomacher, decker and knabe of america, was the piano "ripened after the lapse of more than , years into the perfectness of the magnificent instruments of modern times, with their better materials, more exact appliances, finer adjustments, greater strength of parts, increase of compass and power, elastic responsiveness of touch, enlarged sonority, satisfying delicacy, and singing character in tone." a piano comprises five principal parts: first, the framing; second, the sounding board; third, the stringing; fourth, the key mechanism, or action, and fifth, the ornamental case. to supply these several parts separate classes of skilled artisans have arisen, the forests have been ransacked for their choicest woods, the mines have been made to yield their choicest stores, and the forge to weld its finest work. science has given to music the ardent devotion of a lover, and resolved a confused mass of more or less pleasant noises into liquid harmonies. in appeared helmholtz's great work on the "law and tones and the theory of music." he it was who invented the method of analysing sound. by the use of hollow bodies called _resonators_ he found that every sound as it generally occurs in nature and as it is produced by most of our musical instruments, or the human voice, is not a single simple sound, but a compound of several tones of different intensity and pitch; all of which different tones combined are heard as one; and that the difference of quality or _timbre_ of the sounds of different musical instruments resides in the different composition of these sounds; that different compound sounds contain the same fundamental tone but differently mixed with other tones. he explained how these fundamental and compound tones might be fully developed to produce either harmonious or dissonant sensations. his researches were carried farther and added to by prof. mayer of new jersey. these theories were practically applied in the pianos produced by the celebrated firm of steinway and sons of new york; and their inventions and improvements in the iron framing, in laying of strings in relation to the centre of the sounding-board, in "resonators" in upright frames, and in other features, from to , produced a revolution in the art of piano making. if the piano is properly the queen of musical instruments, the organ may be rightly regarded, as it has been named, "king in the realm of music." it is an instrument, the notes of which are produced by the rush of air through pipes of different lengths, the air being supplied by bellows or other means, and controlled by valves which are operated by keys, and by which the supply of air is admitted or cut off. the earliest description appears to be that in the "spiritalia" of hero of alexandria ( - b. c.) and ctesibius of alexandria was the inventor. a series of pipes of varying lengths were filled by an air-pump which was operated by a wind-mill. organs were again originated in the early christian centuries; and a greek epigram of the fourth century refers to one as provided with "reeds of a new species agitated by blasts of wind that rush from a leathern cavern beneath their roots, while a robust mortal, running with swift fingers over the concordant keys, makes them smoothly dance and emit harmonious sounds." the same in principle to-day, but more complicated in structure, "yet of easy control under the hands of experts, fertile in varied symphonious effects, giving with equal and satisfying success the gentlest and most sympathetic tones as well as complete and sublimely full utterances of musical inspiration." the improvements of the century have consisted in adding a great variety of stops; in connections and couplers of the great keyboard and pipes; in the pedal part; in the construction of the pipes and wind chests; and principally in the adaptation of steam, water, air, and electricity, in place of the muscles of men, as powers in furnishing the supply of air. some of the great organs of the century, having three or four thousand pipes, with all the modern improvements, and combining great power with the utmost brilliancy and delicacy of utterance, and with a blended effect which is grand, solemn and most impressive, render indeed this noble instrument the "king" in the realm of music. in the report of of the united states commissioner of patents it is stated that "the _autoharp_ has been developed within the past few years, having bars arranged transversely across the strings and provided with dampers which, when depressed, silence all the strings except those producing the desired chords. "an ingenious musical instrument of the class having keyboards like the piano or organ has been recently invented. all keyboard instruments in ordinary use produce tones that are only approximately correct in pitch, because these must be limited in number to twelve, to the octave, while the tones of the violin are absolute or untempered. the improved instrument produces untempered tones without requiring extraordinary variations from the usual arrangement of the keys." self-playing musical instruments have been known for more than forty years, but it is within the past twenty-five years that devices have been invented for controlling tones by pneumatic or electrical appliances to produce expressions. examples of the later of these three kinds of musical instruments may be found in the united states patents of zimmermann in , tanaka, , and gally, . the science of _acoustics_ and its practical applications have greatly advanced, chiefly due to the researches of helmholtz, referred to above. when the nature and laws of the waves of sound became fully known a great field of inventions was opened. then came the telephone, phonograph, graphophone and gramophone. the telephone depends upon a combination of electricity and the waves of the human voice. the phonograph and its modifications depend alone on sound waves--the recording of the waves from one vibrating membrane and their exact reproduction on another vibrating membrane. the acoustic properties of churches and other buildings were improved by the adaptation of banks of fine wires to prevent the re-echoing of sounds. _auricular tubes_ adapted to be applied to the ears and concealed by the hair, and other forms of aural instruments, were devised. the _megaphone_ of edison appeared, consisting of two large funnels having elastic conducting tubes from their apices to the aural orifice. conversation in moderate tones has been heard and understood by their use at a distance of one and a half miles. the megaphone has been found very useful in speaking to large outdoor crowds. but let us go back a little: in , chas. bourseuil of france published the idea that the vibrations of speech uttered against a diaphragm might break or make an electric contact, and the electric pulsations thereby produced might set another diaphragm vibrating which should produce the transmitted sound waves. in , another frenchman, leon scott, patented in france his _phonautograph_--an instrument consisting of a large barrel-like mouth-piece into which words were spoken, a membrane therein against which the voice vibrations were received, a stylus attached to this vibrating membrane, and a rotating cylinder covered with blackened paper, against which the stylus bore and on which it recorded the sound waves in exact form received on the vibrating diaphragm. then came the researches and publications of helmholtz and könig on acoustic science, - . then young philip reis of frankfort, germany, attempted to put all these theories into an apparatus to reproduce speech, but did not quite succeed. then in - , bell took up the matter, and at the philadelphia exhibition, , astonished the world by the revelations of the telephone. in april, , charles cros, a frenchman, in a communication to the academy of sciences in paris, after describing an apparatus like the scott phonautograph, set forth how traced undulating lines of voice vibrations might be reproduced in intaglio or in relief, and reproduced upon a vibrating membrane by a pointed stylus attached thereto and following the line of the original pulsations. the communication seems to have been pigeon-holed, and not read in open session until december, , and until after thomas a. edison had actually completed and used his phonograph in the united states. cros rested on the suggestion. edison, without knowing of cros' suggestion, was first to make and actually use the same invention. edison's cylinder, on which the sounds were recorded and from which they were reproduced, was covered by tin foil. a great advance was made by dr chichester a. bell and mr. c. s. tainter, who in patented in the united states means of cutting or engraving the sound waves in a solid body. the solid body they employed was a thin pasteboard cylinder covered with wax. this apparatus they called the _graphophone_. two years thereafter, mr. emile berliner of washington had invented the _gramophone_, which consists in etching on a metallic plate the record of voice waves. he has termed his invention, "the art of etching the human voice." he prepares a polished metal plate, generally zinc, with an extremely thin coating of film or fatty milk, which dries upon and adheres to the plate. the stylus penetrates this film, meeting from it the slightest possible resistance, and traces thereon the message. the record plate is then subjected to a particularly constituted acid bath, which, entering the groove or grooves formed by the stylus, cuts or etches the same into the plate. the groove thus formed may be deepened by another acid solution. when thus produced, as many copies of the record as desired may be made by the electrotyper or print plater. the public is now familiar with the different forms of this wonderful instrument, and like the telephone, they no longer seem marvellous. yet it is only within the age of a youth or a maiden when the allegations or predictions that the human voice would soon be carried over the land, and reproduced across a continent, or be preserved or engraven on tablets and reproduced at pleasure anywhere, in this or any subsequent generation, were themselves regarded as strange messages of dreamers and madmen. _optical instruments._--there were practical inventions in optical instruments long before this century. achromatic and other lenses were known, and the microscope, the telescope and spectacles. the inventive genius of this century in the field of optics has not eclipsed the telescope and microscope of former ages. they were the fruits of the efforts of many ages and of many minds, although hans lippersheim of holland in appears to have made the first successful instrument "for seeing things at a distance." galileo soon thereafter greatly improved and increased its capacity, and was the first to direct it towards the heavens. and as to the microscope, dr. lieberkulm, of berlin, in , made the first successful solar microscope. as well known, it consisted essentially of two lenses and a mirror, by which the sun's rays are reflected on the first lens, concentrated on the object and further magnified by the second lens. the depths of the stars and the minutest mote that floats in the sun beam reflect the glory of those inventions. the invention of john dolland of london, about , of the achromatic lens should be borne in mind in connection with telescopes, microscopes, etc. he it was who invented the combination of two lenses, one concave and the other convex, one of flint glass and the other of crown glass, which, refracting in contrary ways, neutralised the dispersion of colour rays and produced a clear, colourless light. many improvements and discoveries in optics and optical instruments have been made during the century, due to the researches of such scientists as arago, brewster, young, fresnel, airy, hamilton, lloyd, cauchy and others, and of the labours of the army of skilled experts and mechanicians who have followed their lead. sir david brewster, born in scotland in , made ( - ) many improvements in the construction of the microscope and telescope, invented the kaleidoscope, introduced in the stereoscope the principles and leading features which those beautiful instruments still embody, and rendered it popular among scientists and artists. it is said that prof. eliot of edinburgh in was the first to conceive of the idea of a stereoscope, by which two different pictures of the same object, taken by photography, to correspond to the two different positions of an object as viewed by the two eyes, are combined into one view by two reflecting mirrors set at an angle of about °, and conveying to the eyes a single reflection of the object as a solid body. but sir charles wheaton in constructed the first instrument, and in brewster introduced the present form of lenticular lenses. brewster also demonstrated the utility of dioptric lenses, and zones in lighthouse illumination; and in which field faraday and tyndall also subsequently worked with the addition of electrical appliances. the labours of these three men have illuminated the wildest waters of the sea and preserved a thousand fleets of commerce and of war from awful shipwreck. as illustrating the difficulties sometimes encountered in introducing an invention into use, the american journal of chemistry some years ago related that the abbé moigno, in introducing the stereoscope to the savants of france, first took it to arago, but arago had a defect of vision which made him see double, and he could only see in it a medley of four pictures; then the abbé went to savart, but unfortunately savart had but one eye and was quite incapable of appreciating the thing. then becquerel was next visited, but he was nearly blind and could see nothing in the new optical toy. not discouraged, the abbé then called upon puillet of the conservatoire des arts et metiers. puillet was much interested, but he was troubled with a squint which presented to his anxious gaze but a blurred mixture of images. lastly brot was tried. brot believed in the corpuscular theory of light, and was opposed to the undulatory theory, and the good abbé not being able to assure him that the instrument did not contradict his theory, brot refused to have anything to do with it. in spite, however, of the physical disabilities of scientists, the stereoscope finally made its way in france. besides increasing the power of the eye to discover the secrets and beauties of nature, modern invention has turned upon the eye itself and displayed the wonders existing there, behind its dark glass doors. it was helmholtz who in described his _ophthalmoscope_. he arranged a candle so that its rays of light, falling on an inclined reflector, were thrown through the pupil of the patient's eye, whose retina reflected the image received on the retina back to the mirror where it could be viewed by the observer. this image was the background of the eye, and its delicate blood vessels and tissues could thus be observed. this instrument was improved and it gave rise to the contrivance of many delicate surgical instruments for operating on the eye. the _spectroscope_ is an instrument by which the colours of the solar rays are separated and viewed, as well as those of other incandescent bodies. by it, not only the elements of the heavenly bodies have been determined, but remarkable results have been had in analysing well-known metals and discovering new ones. its powers and its principles have been so developed during the century by the discoveries, inventions and investigations of herschel, wollaston, fraunhofer, bronsen and kirchoff, steinheil, tyndall, huggins, draper and others, that spectrum analysis has grown from the separation of light into its colours by the prism of newton, to what dr. huggins has aptly termed "a new sense." we have further referred to this wonderful discovery in the chapter on chemistry. the inventions and improvements in optical instruments gave rise to great advances in the making of lenses, based on scientific principles, and not resting alone on hard work and experience. alvan clark a son of america, and prof. ernst abbe of germany, have within the last third of the century produced a revolution in the manufacture of lenses, and thereby extended the realms of knowledge to new worlds of matter in the heavens and on earth. _solarmeter._--in a united states patent was granted to mr. bechler for an instrument called a solarmeter. it is designed for taking observations of heavenly bodies and recording mechanically the parts of the astronomical triangle used in navigation and like work. its chief purpose is to determine the position of the compass error of a ship at sea independently of the visibility of the sea horizon. if the horizon is clouded, and the sun or a known star is visible, a ship's position can still be determined by the solarmeter. _instruments for measuring the position and distances of unseen objects._--some of the latest of such instruments will enable one to see and shoot at an object around a corner, or at least out of sight. thus a united states patent was granted to fiske in , wherein it is set forth that by stationing observers at points distant from a gun, which points are at the extremities of a known base line, and which command a view of the area within the range of the gun, the observers discover the position and range of the object by triangulation and set certain pointers. by means of electrical connection between those pointers and pointers at the gun station based on the system of the wheatstone bridge, the latter pointers, or the guns themselves serving as pointers, may be placed in position to indicate the line of fire. by a nice arrangement of mirror and lenses attached to a firearm the same object may be accomplished. similar apparatuses in which the reflectory surfaces of mirrors mounted on an elevated frame-work, and known as _polemoscopes_ and _altiscopes_ and _range-finders_, have also been invented, and used with artillery. but such devices may be profitably used for more peaceful and amusing purposes. born with the ear attuned to music and the eye to observe beauty, the hand of art was to trace and make permanent the fleeting forms which melody and the eye impressed upon the soul of man. in fact modern science has demonstrated that tones and colours are inseparable. bell and tainter with their _photophone_ have converted the undulatory waves of light into the sweetest music. reversing the process, beautiful flashes of light have been produced from musical vibrations by the _phonophote_ of m. coulon and the _phonoscope_ of henry edmunds. entrancing as the story is, we can only here allude to a few of those discoveries and inventions that have become the handmaidens of the art which guided the chisel of phidias and inspired the brush of raphael. _photography._--the art of producing permanent images of the "human face divine," natural scenes, and other objects, by the agency of light, is due more to the discoveries of the chemist than to the inventions of the mechanic; and to the chemists of this century. at the same time a mechanical invention of old times became a necessary appliance in the reduction of the theories of the chemists to practice:--the _camera obscura_, that dark box in which a mirror is placed, provided also with a piece of ground glass or white cardboard paper, and having a projecting part at one end in which a lens is placed, whereby when the lens part is directed to an object an image of the same is thrown by the rays of light focused by the lens upon the mirror, and reflected by the mirror to the glass or paper board, was invented by roger bacon about , or by alberta in , described by leonardo da vinci in as an imitation of the structure of the eye, again by baptista porta in , and remodelled by sir isaac newton in . until the th century it was used only in the taking of sketches and scenes on or from the card or glass on which the reflection was thrown. celebrated chemists such as sheele of the th century, and ritter, wollaston, sir humphry davy, young, gay-lussac, thenard, and others in the early part of the th century, began to turn their attention to the chemical and molecular changes which the sunlight and its separate rays effected in certain substances, and especially upon certain compounds of silver. in sensitising the receiving paper, glass, or metal with such a compound it must necessarily be protected from exposure to sunlight, and this fact, together with the desire to sensitise the image produced by the camera, not only suggested but seemed to render that instrument indispensable to photography. nevertheless the experiments of chemists fell short of the high mark, and it was reserved for an artist to unite the efforts of the sun and the chemists in a successful instrument. it was louis jacques mandé daguerre, born at corneilles, france, in , and who died in , who was the first to reduce to practice the invention called after his name. he was a brilliant scene painter, and especially successful in painting panoramas. in , assisted by bouton, he had invented the _diorama_, by which coloured lights representing the various changes of the day and season were thrown upon the canvasses in his beautiful panoramas of rome, london, naples and other great cities. several years previous to he and joseph n. niepce, learning of the efforts of chemists in that line, began independently, and then together, to develop the art of obtaining permanent copies of objects produced by the chemical action of the sun. niepce died while they were thus engaged. daguerre prosecuted his researches alone, and toward the close of his success was such that he made known his invention to arago, and arago announced it in an eloquent and enthusiastic address to the french academy of sciences in january . it at once excited great attention, which was heightened by the pictures produced by the new process. the french government, in consideration of the details of the invention and its improvements being made public and on request of daguerre, granted him an annuity and one also to niepce's son. at first only pictures of natural objects were taken; but in learning of daguerre's process dr. john william draper of new york, a native of england and adopted son of america, the brilliant author of _the intellectual development of europe_, and other great works, in the same year, , took portraits of persons by photography, and he was the first to do this. draper was also the first in america to reveal the wonders of the spectroscope; and he was first to show that each colour of the spectrum had its own peculiar chemical effect. this was in . the sun was now fairly harnessed in the service of man in the new great art of photography. natural philosophers, chemists, inventors, mechanics, all now pressed forward, and still press forward to improve the art, to establish new growths from the old art, and extend its domains. those domains have the generic term of _photo-processes_. daguerreotypy, while the father of them all, is now hardly practised as daguerre practised it, and has become a small subordinate sub-division of the great class. yet more faithful likenesses are not yet produced than by this now old process. among the children of the photo-process family are the _calotype_, _ambrotype_, _ferreotype_, _collodion_ and _silver printing_, _carbon printing_, _heliotype_, _heliogravure_, _photoengraving_ (relief intaglio-woodburytype), _photolithography_; _alberttype_; _photozincograph_, _photogelatine-printing_; _photomicrography_ (to depict microscopic objects), _kinetographs_, and _photosculpture_. a world of mechanical contrivances have been invented:--_octnometers_, _baths_, _burnishing tools_, _cameras and camera stands_, _magazine and roll holders_; _dark rooms_ and _focussing devices_, _heaters_ and _driers_; _exposure meters_, etc. etc. the _kinetograph_, for taking a series of pictures of rapidly moving objects, and by which the living object, person or persons, are made to appear moving before us as they moved when the picture was taken, is a marvellous invention; and yet simple when the process is understood. photography and printing have combined to revolutionise the art of illustration. exact copies of an original, whether of a painting or a photograph, are now produced on paper with all the original shades and colours. the long-sought-for problem of photographing in colours has in a measure been solved. the "three _colour processes_" is the name given to the new offspring of the inventors which reproduces by the camera the natural colours of objects. the scientists maxwell young and helmholtz established the theory that the three colours, red, green, and blue, were the primary colours, and from a mixture of these, secondary colours are produced. henry collen in laid down the lines on which the practical reduction should take place; and within the last decade f. e. ives of philadelphia has invented the _photochromoscope_ for producing pictures in their natural colours. the process consists in blending in one picture the separate photographic views taken on separate negative plates, each sensitised to receive one of the primary colours, which are then exposed and blended simultaneously in a triple camera. plates and films and many other articles and processes have helped to establish the art of photography on its new basis. among the minor inventions relating to art, mention may be made of that very useful article the lead _pencil_, which all have employed so much time in sharpening to the detriment of time and clean hands. within a decade, pencils in which the lead or crayon is covered instead of with wood, with slitted, perforated or creased paper, spirally rolled thereon, and on which by unrolling a portion at a time a new point is exposed; or that other style in which a number of short, sharpened marking leads, or crayons, are arranged in series and adapted to be projected one after the other as fast as worn away. _in painting_ modern inventions and discoveries have simply added to the instrumentalities of genius but have created no royal road to the art made glorious by titian and raphael. it has given to the artists, through its chemists, a world of new colours, and through its mechanics new and convenient appliances. _air brushes_ have proved a great help by which the paint or other colouring matter is sprayed in heavy, light, or almost invisible showers to produce backgrounds by the force of air blown upon the pigments held in drops at the end of a fine spraying tube. made of larger proportions, this brush has been used for fresco painting, and for painting large objects, such as buildings, which it admits of doing with great rapidity. a description of modern methods of applying colours to porcelain and pottery is given in the chapter treating of those subjects. _telegraphic pictures_:--perhaps it is appropriate in closing this chapter that reference be made to that process by which the likeness of the distant reader may be taken telegraphically. a picture in relief is first made by the swelled gelatine or other process; a tracing point is then moved in the lines across the undulating surface of the pictures, and the movements of this tracer are imparted by suitable electrical apparatus to a cutter or engraving tool at the opposite end of the line and there reproduced upon a suitable substance. chapter xxvii. safes and locks. prior to the century safes were not constructed to withstand the test of intense heat. efforts were numerous, however, to render them safe against the entrance of thieves, but the ingenuity of the thieves advanced more rapidly than the ingenuity of safe-makers. and the race between these two classes of inventors still continues. for with the exercise of a vast amount of ingenuity in intricate locks, aided by all the advancement of science as to the nature of metals, their tough manufacture and their resistance to explosives, thieves still manage to break in and steal. the only sure protection against burglars at the close of the nineteenth century appears to consist of what it was at the close of any previous century--the preponderance of physical force and the best weapons. among the latest inventions are electrical connections with the safe, whereby tampering therewith alarms one or more watchmen at a near station. a classification of safes embraces, _fire-proof_, _burglar-proof_, _safe bolt works_, _express and deposit safes and boxes_, _circular doors_, _pressure mechanism_, and _water and air protective devices_. the attention of the earliest inventors of the century were directed toward making safes fire-proof. in england the first patent granted for a fire-proof safe was to richard scott in . it had two casings, an inner and outer one, including the door, and the interspace was filled in with charcoal, or wood, and treated with a solution of alkaline salt. this idea of interspacing filled in with non-combustible material has been generally followed ever since. the particular inventions in that line consist in the discovery and appliance of new lining materials, variations in the form of the interspacing, and new methods in the construction of the casings, and the selection of the best metals for such construction. in william marr of england patented a lining for a double metallic chest, filled with non-combustible materials such as mica, or talc clay, lime, and graphite. asbestos commenced to be used about the same time. the great fire in new york city in , destroying hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of property of every description, gave a great impetus to the invention of fire-proof safes in america. b. g. wilder there patented in his celebrated safe, now extensively used throughout the world. it consisted of a double box of wrought-iron plates strengthened at the edges with bar iron, with a bar across the middle; and as a filling for the interspaces he used hydrated gypsum, hydraulic cement, plaster of paris, steatite, alum, and the dried residuum of soda water. herring was another american who invented celebrated safes, made with a boiler-iron exterior, a hardened steel inner safe, with the interior filled with a casting of franklinite around rods of soft steel. thus the earth, air and water were ransacked for lining materials, in some cases more for the purpose of obtaining a patent than to accomplish any real advance in the art. water itself was introduced as a lining, made to flow through the safes, sometimes from the city mains, and so retained that when the temperature in case of fire reached ° f. it became steam; and an arrangement for introducing steam in place of water was contrived. among other lining materials found suitable were soapstone, alumina, ammonia, copperas, starch, epsom salts, and gypsum, paper, pulp, and alum, and a mixture of various other materials. after safes were produced that would come out of fiery furnaces where they had been buried for days without even the smell of fire or smoke upon their contents, inventors commenced to direct their attention to burglar-proof safes. chubb, in , patented a process of rendering wooden safes burglar proof by lining them with steel, or case-hardened iron plate. newton in produced one made of an outer shell of cast iron, an interior network of wrought iron rods, and fluid iron poured between these, so that a compound mass was formed of different degrees of resistance to turn aside the burglar's tools. chubb again, in , and in subsequent years, and chartwood, glocker, and thompson and tann and others in england invented new forms to prevent the insertion of wedges and the drilling by tools. hall and marvin of the united states also invented safes for the same purpose. hall had thick steel plates dovetailed together; and angle irons tenoned at the corners. marvin's safe was globeshaped, to present no salient points for the action of tools, made of chrome steel, mounted in this shape on a platform, or enclosed in a fire-proof safe. herring also invented a safe in which he hinged and grooved the doors with double casings, and which he hung with a lever-hinge, provided the doors with separate locks and packed all the joints with rubber to prevent the operation of the air pump--which had become a dangerous device of burglars with which to introduce explosives to blow open the doors. still later and more elaborate means have been used to frustrate the burglars. electricity has been converted into an automatic warder to guard the castle and the safe and to give an alarm to convenient stations when the locks or doors are meddled with and the proper manipulation not used. express safes for railroad cars have been made of parts telescoped or crowded together by hydraulic power, requiring heavy machinery for locking and unlocking, and this machinery is located in machine shops along the route and not accessible to burglars. about inventors commenced to produce devices to show with certainty if a lock had been tampered with. the keyhole was closed by a revolving metallic curtain, and paper was secured over the keyhole. as a further means of detection photographs of some irregular object are made, one of which is placed over the keyhole and the other is retained. this prevents the substitution of one piece of paper for another piece without detection. a large number of patents have been taken out on glass coverings for locks which have to be broken before the lock can be turned. these are called seal locks. locks of various kinds, consisting at least of the two general features of a bolt and a key to move the bolt, have existed from very ancient days. the egyptians, the hebrews and the chinese, and oriental nations generally had locks and keys of ponderous size. isaiah speaks of the key of the house of david; and homer writes sonorously of the lock in the house of penelope with its brazen key, the respondent wards, the flying bars and valves which, "loud as a bull makes hills and valley ring, so roared the lock when it released the spring." the castles, churches and convents of the middle ages had their often highly ornamental locks and their warders to guard and open them. later, locks were invented with complex wards. these are carved pieces of metal in the lock which fit into clefts or grooves in the key and prevent the lock from being opened except by its own proper key. as early as the dutch had invented the letter lock, the progenitor of the modern permutation lock, consisting of a lock the bolt of which is surrounded by several rings on which were cut the letters of the alphabet, which by a prearrangement on the part of the owner were made to spell a certain word or number of words before the lock could be opened. carew, in verses written in , refers to one of these locks as follows:-- "as doth a lock that goes with letters; for, till every one be known, the lock's as fast as though you had found none." the art had also advanced in the eighteenth century to the use of _tumblers_ in locks, the lever or latch or plate which falls into a notch of the bolt and prevents it from being shot until it has been raised or released by the action of the key. barron in england in obtained a patent for such a lock. joseph bramah, who has before been referred to in connection with the hydraulic press he invented, also in invented and patented in england a lock which obtained a world-wide reputation and a century's extensive use. it was the first, or among the first of locks which troubled modern burglars' picks. its leading features were a key with longitudinal slots, a barrel enclosing a spring, plates, called sliders, notched unequally and resting against the spring, a plate with a central perforation and slits leading therefrom to engage the notches of the slides simultaneously and allow the frame to be turned by the key so as to actuate the bolt. chubb and hobbs of england made important improvements in tumbler locks, which for a long time were regarded as unpickable. most important advances have been made during the century in _combination_ or _permutation locks_ and _time locks_. for a long time permutation or combination locks consisted of modifications of one general principle, and that was the dutch letter lock already referred to, or the wheel lock, composed of a series of disks with letters around their edges. the interior arrangement is such as to prevent the bolt being shot until a series of letters were in line, forming a combination known only to the operator. time locks are constructed on the principle of clockwork, so that they cannot be opened even with the proper key until a regulated interval of time has elapsed. among the most celebrated combination and time locks of the century are those known as the yale locks, chiefly the inventions of louis yale, jr., of philadelphia. the yale double dial lock is a double combination bank or safe lock having two dials, each operating its own set of tumblers and bolts, so that two persons, each in possession of his own combination, must be present at a certain time in order to unlock it. if this double security is not desired, one person alone may be possessed of both combinations, or the combinations may be set as one. in their time locks a safe can be set so as to not only render it impossible to unlock except at a predetermined time each day, but the arrangement is such that on intervening sundays the time mechanism will entirely prevent the operation of the lock or the opening of the door on that day. another feature of the lock is the thin, flat keys with bevel-edged notchings, or with longitudinal sinuous corrugations to fit a narrow slit of a cylinder lock. to make locks for use with the corrugated keys machines of as great ingenuity as the locks were devised. in such a lock the keyhole, which is a little very narrow slit, is formed sinuously to correspond to the sinuosities of the key. no other key will fit it, nor can it be picked by a tool, as the tool must be an exact duplicate of the key in order to enter and move in the keyhole. of late years numerous locks have been invented for the special uses to which they are to be applied. thus, one type of lock is that for safety deposit vaults and boxes, in which a primary key in the keeping of a janitor operates alone the tumblers or guard mechanism to set the lock, while the box owner may use a secondary key to completely unlock the box or vault. master, or secondary key locks, are now in common use in hotels and apartment-houses, by which the key of the door held by a guest will unlock only his door, but the master key held by the manager or janitor will unlock all the doors. this saves the duplication and multiplicity of a vast number of extra keys. the value of a simple, cheap, safe, effective lock in a place where its advantages are appreciated by all classes of people everywhere is illustrated in the application of the modern rotary registering lock to the single article of mail bags. formerly it was not unusual that losses by theft of mail matter were due in part to the extraction of a portion of the mail matter by unlocking or removing the lock and then restoring it in place. the united states, with its , , of people, found it necessary to use in its mail service hundreds of thousands of mail pouches, having locks for securing packages of valuable matter. but these locks are of such character that it is impossible for anyone to break into the bag and conceal the evidence of his crime. the unfortunate thief is reduced to the necessity of stealing the whole pouch. losses under this system have grown so small "as to be almost incapable of mathematical calculation." safe and convenient locks for so very many purposes are now so common, even to prevent the unauthorised use of an umbrella, or the unfriendly taking away of a bicycle or other vehicle, that notwithstanding the nineteenth century dynamite with which burglars still continue to blow open the best constructed safes and vaults, still a universal sense of greater security in such matters is beginning to manifest itself; and not only the loss of valuables by fire and theft is becoming the exception, but the temptation to steal is being gradually removed. chapter xxviii. carrying machines. the reflecting observer delights occasionally to shift the scenes of the present stage and bring to the front the processions of the past. that famous triumphal one, for instance, of ptolemy of philadelphus, at alexandria, about b. c., then in the midst of his power and glory, in which there were chariots and cumbrous wagons drawn by elephants and goats, antelopes, oryxes, buffaloes, ostriches, gnus and zebras; then a tribe of the scythians, when with many scores of oxen they were shifting their light, big round houses, made of felt cloth and mounted on road carts, to a new camping place; next a wild, mad dash of the roman charioteers around the amphitheatre, or a triumphal march with chariots of carved ivory bearing aloft the ensigns of victory; and now an army of the ancient britons driving through these same charioteers of cæsar with their own rude chariots, having sharp hooks and crooked iron blades extending from their axles; now a "lady's chair" of the fourteenth century--the state carriage of the time--with a long, wooden-roofed and windowed body, having a door at each end, resting on a cumbrous frame without springs, and the axles united rigidly to a long reach; next comes a line of imposing clumsy state coaches of the sixteenth century, with bodies provided with pillars to support the roof, and adorned with curtains of cloth and leather, but still destitute of springs; and here in stately approach comes a line of more curious and more comfortable "royal coaches" of the seventeenth century, when springs were for the first time introduced; and now rumbles forward a line of those famous old english stage coaches originated in the seventeenth century, which were two days flying from oxford to london, a distance of fifty-five miles; but a scene in the next century shows these ponderous vehicles greatly improved, and the modern english stage mail-coaches of palmer in line. referring to palmer's coaches, knight says: "palmer, according to de quincey, was twice as great a man as galileo, because he not only invented mail-coaches (of more general practical utility than jupiter's satellites), but married the daughter of a duke, and succeeded in getting the post-office to use them. this revolutionised the whole business." the coaches were built with steel springs, windows of great strength and lightness combined, boots for the baggage, seats for a few outside passengers, and a guard with a grand uniform, to protect the mail and stand for the dignity of his majesty's government. by the system of changing horses frequently great speed was attained, and the distance from edinburgh to london, miles, was made in hours. other lines of coaches, arranged to carry double the number of passengers outside than in, fourteen to six, were made heavier, and took the road more leisurely. the carts and conveyances of the poor were cumbrous, heavy contrivances, without springs, mostly two-wheel, heavy carts. the middle classes at that time were not seen riding in coaches of their own, but generally on horseback, as the coaches of the rich were too expensive, and the conveyances of the poor were too rude in construction, and too painful in operation. let the observer now pass to the largest and most varied exhibition of the best types of modern vehicles of every description that the world had ever seen, the international exhibition at philadelphia in , and behold what wonderful changes art, science, invention, and mechanical skill had wrought in this domain. here were the carriages of the rich, constructed of the finest and most appropriate woods that science and experience had found best adapted for the various parts, requiring the combination of strength and lightness, the best steel for the springs, embodying in themselves a world of invention and discovery, and splendid finish and polish in all parts unknown to former generations. here, too, were found vehicles of a great variety for the comfort and convenience of every family, from the smallest to the largest means. the farmer and the truckman were especially provided for. one establishment making an exhibition at that time, employed some six hundred or seven hundred hands, four hundred horse-power of steam, turning out sixty wagons a day, or one in every ten minutes of each working day in the year. here england showed her victoria, her broughams, landaus, phætons, sporting-carts, wagonettes, drays and dog-carts; canada her splendid sleighs; france her superb barouches, carriages, double-top sociables, the celebrated collinge patent axle-trees and springs; germany the best carriage axles, springs and gears; russia its famous low-wheeled fast-running carriages; norway its carryalls, or sulkies, and sleighs strongly built, and made of wood from those vast forests that ever abound in strength and beauty. one ancient sleigh there was, demurely standing by its modern companions, said to have been built in , and it was still good. america stood foremost in carriage wheels of best materials and beautiful workmanship, bent rims, turned and finished spokes, mortised hubs, steel tires, business and farm wagons, carts and baby carriages. each trade and field of labour had its own especially adapted complete and finished vehicle. there were hay wagons and hearses; beer wagons and ice carts; doctors' buggies, express wagons, drays, package delivery wagons; peddlers' wagons with all the shelves and compartments of a miniature store, skeleton wagons, and sportsmen's, and light and graceful two and four "wheelers." beautiful displays of bent and polished woods, a splendid array of artistic, elegant, and useful harnesses, and all the traps that go to make modern means of conveyance by animal power so cheap, convenient, strong and attractive that civilisation seemed to have reached a stop in principles of construction of vehicles and in their materials, and since contents itself in improving details. to this century is due the development of that class of carriages, the generic term for which is _velocipedes_--a word which would imply a vehicle propelled by the feet, although it has been applied to vehicles propelled by the hands and steered by the feet. this name originated with the french, and several frenchmen patented velocipedes from to . tricycles having three wheels, propelled by the hands and steered with the feet, were also invented in the early part of the century. the term _bicycle_ does not appear to have been used until about . although such structures had been referred to in publications before, yet the modern bicycle appears to have been first practically constructed in germany. in baron von drais of manheim made a vehicle consisting of two wheels arranged one before the other, and connected by a bar, the forward wheel axled in a fork which was swiveled to the front end of the bar and had handles to guide the machine, with a seat on the bar midway between the two wheels, and arranged so that the driver should bestride the bar. but there was no support for the rider's feet, and the vehicle was propelled by thrusting his feet alternately against the ground. this machine was called the "draisine" and undoubtedly was the progenitor of the modern bicycle. denis johnson patented in england in a similar vehicle which he named the "pedestrian curricle." another style was called the "dandy horse." another form was that of gompertz in england in , who contrived a segmental rack connected with a frame over the front wheel and engaging a pinion on the wheel axle. with some improvements added by others, the vehicle came into quite extensive and popular use in some of the cities in europe and america. it was also named the "dandy" and the "hobby horse." treadles were subsequently applied, but after a time the machine fell into disuse and was apparently forgotten. in , however, the idea was revived by a frenchman, michaux, who added the crank to the front wheel axle of the "draisine" (also called the "célérifèré.") in pierre lallement of france, having adapted the idea of the crank and pedal movement and obtained a patent, went to america, where after two years of public indifference the machine suddenly sprung into favour. in a popular wave in its favour also spread over part of europe, and all classes of people were riding it. but the wheels had hard tires, the roads and many of the streets were not smooth, the vehicle got the name of the "bone-breaker" and its use ceased. during the few years following some new styles of frames were invented. thus some very high wheels, with a small wheel in front, or one behind, wheels with levers in addition to the crank, etc., and then for a time the art rested again. some one then recalled the fact that mcmillan, a scotchman, about - , had used two low wheels like the "draisine" with a driving gear, and that dalzell, also of scotland, had in made a similar machine. parts of these old machines were found and the wheel reconstructed. then in the seventies the entire field was thrown open to women by the invention in england of the "drop frame," which removed completely the difficulty as to arrangement of the skirts and thus doubled the interest in and desire for a comfortable riding machine. but they were still, to a great degree, "bone-breakers." then j. b. dunlop, a veterinary surgeon of belfast, ireland, in order to meet the complaints of his son that the wheel was too hard, thought of the _pneumatic rubber tire_, and applied it with great success. this was a very notable and original re-invention. a re-invention, because a man "born before his time" had invented and patented the pneumatic tire more than forty years before. it was not wanted then and everybody had forgotten it. this man was robert william thomson, a civil engineer of adelphi, middlesex county, england. in he obtained a patent in england, and shortly after in the united states. in both patents he describes how he proposed to make a tire for all kinds of vehicles consisting of a hollow rubber tube, with an inner mixed canvas and rubber lining, a tube and a screw cup by which to inflate it, and several ways for preventing punctures. to obviate the bad results of punctures he proposed also to make his tire in sectional compartments, so that if one compartment was punctured the others would still hold good. he also proposed to use vulcanised rubber, thus utilising the then very recent discovery of goodyear of mixing sulphur with soft rubber, and to apply the same to the canvas lining. and, now, when the last decade of the century had been reached, and after a century's hard work by the inventors, the present wonderful vehicle, known as the "safety bicycle," had obtained a successful and permanent foothold among the vehicles of mankind. proper proportions, low wheels, chain-gearing, treadles, pedals and cranks, cushion and pneumatic tires, drop frames, steel spokes like a spider's web, ball-bearings for the crank and axle parts, a spring-supported cushioned seat which could be raised or lowered, adjustable handles, and the clearest-brained scientific mechanics to construct all parts from the best materials and with mathematical exactness--all this has been done. to these accomplishments have been added a great variety of tires to prevent wear and puncturing, among which are _self-healing_ tires, having a lining of viscous or plastic rubber to close up automatically the air holes. many ways of clamping the tire to the rim have been contrived. so have brakes of various descriptions, some consisting of disks on the driving shaft, brought into frictional contact by a touch of the toe on the pedal, as a substitute for those applied to the surface of the tire, known as "spoon brakes"; saddles, speed-gearings, men's machines in which by the removal of the upper bar the machine is converted into one for the use of women; the substitution of the direct action, consisting of beveled gearing for the sprocket chain, etc., etc. the ideas of william thomson as to pneumatic and cushioned tires are now, after a lapse of fifty years, generally adopted. even sportsmen were glad to seize upon them, and wheels of sulkies, provided with the pneumatic tires, have enabled them to lower the record of trotting horses. their use on many other vehicles has accomplished his objects, "of lessening the power required to draw carriages, rendering the motion easier, and diminishing the noise." it is impossible to overlook the fact in connection with this subject that the processes and machinery especially invented to make the various parts of a bicycle are as wonderful as the wheel itself. counting the spokes there are, it is estimated, more than different parts in such a wheel. the best and latest inventions and discoveries in the making of metals, wood, rubber and leather have been drawn upon in supplying these useful carriers. and what a revolution they have produced in the making of good roads, the saving of time, the dispatch of business, and more than all else, in the increase of the pleasure, the health and the amusement of mankind! it was quite natural that when the rubber cushion and pneumatic tires rounded the pleasure of easy and noiseless riding in vehicles that _motor vehicles_ should be revived and improved. so we have the _automobiles_ in great variety. invention has been and is still being greatly exercised as to the best motive power, in the adaption of electric motors, oil and gasoline or vapour engines, springs and air pumps, in attempts to reduce the number of complicated parts, and to render less strenuous the mental and muscular strain of the operator. _traction engines._--the old road engines that antedated the locomotives are being revived, and new ideas springing from other arts are being incorporated in these useful machines to render them more available than in former generations. many of the principles and features of motor vehicles, but on a heavier scale, are being introduced to adapt them to the drawing of far heavier loads. late devices comprise a spring link between the power and the traction wheel to prevent too sudden a start, and permit a yielding motion; steering devices by which the power of the engine is used to steer the machine; and application of convenient and easily-worked brakes. an example of a modern traction engine may be found attached to one or more heavy cars adapted for street work, and on which may be found apparatus for making the mixed materials of which the roadbed is to be constructed, and all of which is moved along as the road or street surface is completed. when these fine roads become the possession of a country light traction engines for passenger traffic will be found largely supplanting the horse and the steam railroad engines. _brakes_, railway and electric, have already been referred to in the proper chapters. in the latest system of railroading greater attention has been paid to the lives and limbs of those employed as workmen on the trains, especially to those of brakemen. and if corporations have been slow to adopt such merciful devices, legislatures have stepped in to help the matter. one great source of accidents in this respect has been due to the necessity of the brakemen entering between the cars while they are in motion to couple them by hand. this is now being abolished by _automatic couplers_, by which, when the locking means have been withdrawn from connection or thrown up, they will be so held until the cars meet again, when the locking parts on the respective cars will be automatically thrown and locked, as easily and on the same principle as the hand of one man may clasp the hand of another. the comfort of passengers and the safety of freight have also been greatly increased by the invention of _buffers_ on railroad cars and trains to prevent sudden and violent concussion. fluid pressure car buffers, in which a constant supply of fluid under pressure is provided by a pump or train pipe connected to the engine is one of a great variety. another notable improvement in this line is the splendid vestibule trains, in which the cars are connected to one another by enclosed passages and which at their meeting ends are provided with yieldingly supported door-like frames engaging one another by frictional contact, usually, whereby the shock and rocking of cars are prevented in starting and stopping, and their oscillation reduced to a minimum. as collisions and accidents cannot always be prevented, car frames are now built in which the frames are trussed, and made of rolled steel plates, angles, and channels, whereby a car body of great resistance to telescoping or crushing is obtained. chapter xxix. ships and ship-building. "far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam, survey our empire, and behold our home." "ships are but boards," soliloquised the crafty shylock, and were this still true, yet this present period has seen wonderful changes in construction. the high castellated bows and sterns and long prows of _the great harry_, of the seventeenth century, and its successors in the eighteenth, with some moderation of cumbersome matter, gave way to lighter, speedier forms, first appearing in the quick-gliding yankee clippers, during the first decade of the nineteenth century. eminent naval architects have regarded the proportions of noah's ark, cubits long, cubits broad and cubits high, in which the length was six times the breadth, and the depth three-fifths of the breadth, as the best combination of the elements of strength, capacity and stability. even that most modern mercantile vessel known as the "whale-back" with its nearly flat bottom, vertical sides, arched top or deck, skegged or spoon-shaped at bow and stern, straight deck lines, the upper deck cabins and steering gear raised on hollow turrets, with machinery and cargo in the main hull, has not departed much from the safe rule of proportions of its ancient prototype. but in other respects the ideas of noah and of the ph[oe]nicians, the best of ancient ship-builders, as well as the northmen, the dutch, the french, and the english, the best ship-builders of later centuries, were decidedly improved upon by the americans, who, as above intimated, were revolutionizing the art and building the finest vessels in the early part of the century, and these rivalled in speed the steam vessels for some years after steamships were ploughing the rivers and the ocean. discarding the lofty decks fore and aft and ponderous topsides, the principal characteristics of the american "clippers" were their fine sharp lines, built long and low, broad of beam before the centre, sharp above the water, and deep aft. a typical vessel of this sort was the clipper ship _great republic_, built by donald mckay of boston during the first half of the century. she was feet long, feet wide, feet deep, with a capacity of about tons. she had four masts, each provided with a lightning rod. a single suit of her sails consisted of , yards of canvas. her keel rose for feet forward, gradually curved into the arc of a circle as it blended with the stern. vessels of her type ran seventeen and eighteen miles an hour at a time when steam vessels were making only twelve or fourteen miles an hour, the latter speed being one which it was predicted by naval engineers could not with safety be exceeded with ocean steamships. these vessels directed the attention of ship-builders to two prominent features, the shape of the bow and the length of the vessel. for the old convex form of bow and stern, the principal of an elongated wedge was substituted, the wedge slightly hollowed on its face, by which the waters were more easily parted and thrown aside. a departure was early made in the matter of strengthening the "ribs of oak" to better meet the strains from the rough seas. in sir robert seppings, surveyor of the english navy, devised and introduced the system of diagonal bracing. this was an arrangement of timbers crossing the ribs on the inside of the ship at angles of about °, and braced by diagonals and struts. of course the great and leading event of the nineteenth century in the matter of inventions relating to ships was the introduction of steam as the motive power. of this we have treated in the chapter on steam engineering. the giant, steam, demanded and received the obeisance of every art before devoting his inexhaustible strength to their service. systems of wood-working and metal manufacture must be revolutionised to give him room to work, and to withstand the strokes of his mighty arm. lord dundas at the beginning of the century had an iron boat built for the forth and clyde canal, which was propelled by steam. but the departure from the adage that "ships are but boards" did not take place, however, until about - , when the substitution of iron for wood in the construction of vessels had passed beyond the experimental stage. in those years the firm of john laird of birkenhead began the building of practical iron vessels, and he was followed soon by sir william fairbairn at manchester, and randolph, elder & co., and the fairfield works on the clyde. the advantage of iron over wood in strength, and in power to withstand tremendous shocks, was early illustrated in the _great britain_ built about , the first large, successful, seagoing vessel constructed. not long thereafter this same vessel lay helpless upon the coast of ireland, driven there by a great storm, and beaten by the tremendous waves of the atlantic with a force that would have in a few hours or days broken up and pulverised a "ship of boards," and yet the _great britain_ lay there several weeks, was finally brought off, and again restored to successful service. wood and iron both have their peculiar advantages and disadvantages. wood is not only lighter, but easily procured and worked, and cheaper, in many small and private ship-yards where an iron frame and parts would be difficult and expensive to produce. it is thought that as to the fouling of ships' bottoms a wooden hull covered with copper fouls less, and consequently impedes the speed less; that the damage done by shocks or the penetration of shot is not so great or difficult to repair, and that the danger of variation of the compass by reason of local attraction of the metal is less. but the advantages of iron and steel far outnumber those of wood. its strength, its adaptability for all sizes and forms and lines, its increased cheapness, its resistance to shot penetration, its durability, and now its easy procurement, constitute qualities which have established iron ship-building as a great new and modern art. in this modern revolution in iron-clad ships, their adaptation to naval warfare was due to the genius of john ericsson, and dates practically from the celebrated battle between the iron-clads the _merrimac_ and the _monitor_ in hampton roads on the virginia coast in the civil war in america in april, . although the tendency at first in building iron and steel vessels, especially for the navy, was towards an entire metal structure, later experience resulted in a more composite style, using wood in some parts, where found best adapted by its capacity of lightness, non-absorption of heat and less electrical conductivity, etc., and at the same time protecting such interior portions by an iron shell or frame-work. one great improvement in ship-building, whether in wood or metal, thought of and practised to some extent in former times, but after all a child of this century, is the building of the hull and hold in compartments, water-tight, and sometimes fire-proof, so that in case of a leakage or a fire in one or more compartments, the fire or water may be confined there and the extension of the danger to the entire ship prevented. in the matter of _marine propulsion_, when the steam engine was made a practical and useful servant by watt, and men began to think of driving boats and ships with it, the problem was how to adapt it to use with propelling means already known. paddle-wheels and other wheels to move boats in place of oars had been suggested, and to some extent used from time to time, since the days of the romans; and they were among the first devices used in steam vessels. their whirl may still be heard on many waters. learned men saw no reason why the screw of archimedes should not be used for the same purpose, and the idea was occasionally advocated by french and english philosophers from at least , by franklin and watt less than a century later, and finally, in , lyttleton of england obtained a patent for his "aquatic propeller," consisting of threads formed on a cylinder and revolving in a frame at the head, stern, or side of a vessel. other means had been also suggested prior to , and by the same set of philosophers, and experimentally used by practical builders, such as steam-pumps for receiving the water forward, or amidships, and forcing it out astern, thus creating a propulsive movement. the latter part of the eighteenth century teemed with these suggestions and experiments, but it remained for the nineteenth to see their embodiment and adaptation to successful commercial use. the earliest, most successful demonstrations of screw propellers and paddle wheels in steam vessels in the century were the construction and use of a boat with twin screws by col. john stevens of hoboken, n. j., in and the paddle-wheel steamboat trial of fulton on the hudson in . but it was left to john ericsson, that great swedish inventor, going to england in with his brain full of ideas as to steam and solar engines, to first perfect the screw-propeller. he there patented in his celebrated propeller, consisting of several blades or segments of a screw, and based on such correct principles of twist that they were at once adopted and applied to steam vessels. in - the knowledge of his inventions had preceded him to america, where his propeller was at once introduced and used in the vessels _frances b. ogden_ and the _robert e. stockton_ (the latter built by the lairds of birkenhead and launched in ). in or ericsson went to america, and in he was engaged in the construction of the u.s. ship of war _princeton_, the first naval screw warship built having propelling machinery under the water line and out of reach of shot. the idea that steamships could not be safely run at a greater speed than ten or twelve miles an hour was now abandoned. twice ericsson revolutionised the naval construction of the world by his inventions in america: first by the introduction of his screw-propeller in the _princeton_; and second, by building the iron-clad _monitor_. since ericsson's day other inventors have made themselves also famous by giving new twists to the tail of this famous fish and new forms to its iron-ribbed body. _pneumatic propellers_ operated by the expulsion of air or gas against the surrounding body of water, and chain-propellers, consisting of a revolving chain provided with paddles or floats, have also been invented and tested, with more or less successful results. a great warship as she lies in some one of the vast modern ship-yards of the world, resting securely on her long steel backbone, from which great ribs of steel rise and curve on either side and far overhead, like a monstrous skeleton of some huge animal that the sea alone can produce, clothed with a skin, also of steel; her huge interior, lined at bottom with an armoured deck that stretches across the entire breadth of the vessel, and built upon this deck, capacious steel compartments enclosing the engines and boilers, the coal, the magazines, the electric plant for supplying power to various motors for lighting the ship and for furnishing the current to powerful search-lights; having compartments for the sick, the apothecary shop, and the surgeon's hospital, the men's and the officers' quarters; above these the conning tower and the armoured pilot-house, then the great guns interspersed among these various parts, looking like the sunken eyes, or protruding like the bony prominences of some awful sea monster, is a structure that gives one an idea of the immense departure which has occurred during the last half century, not only from the wooden walls of the navies of all the past, but from all its mechanical arts. what a great ocean liner contains and what the contributions are to modern ship-building from other modern arts is set forth in the following extract from _mcclure's magazine_ for september, , in describing the _deutschland_. "the _deutschland_, for instance has a complete refrigerating plant, four hospitals, a safety deposit vault for the immense quantities of gold and silver which pass between the banks of europe and america, eight kitchens, a complete post-office with german and american clerks, thirty electrical motors, thirty-six pumps, most of them of american and english make, no fewer than seventy-two steam engines, a complete drug store, a complete fire department, with pumps, hose and other fire-fighting machinery, a library, electric lights, two barber shops, room for an orchestra and brass band, a telegraph system, a telephone system, a complete printing establishment, a photographic dark room, a cigar store, an electric fire-alarm system, and a special refrigerator for flowers." we have seen, in treating of safes and locks, how burglars keep pace with the latest inventions to protect property by the use of dynamite and nitro-glycerine explosions. the reverse of this practice prevails when those policemen of the seas, the _torpedo boats_, guard the treasures of the shore. it is there the defenders are armed with the irresistible explosives. these explosives are either planted in harbours and discharged by electricity from the shore, or carried by very swift armoured boats, or by boats capable of being submerged, directed, and propelled by mechanisms contained there and controlled from the shore, or from another vessel; or by boats containing all instrumentalities, crew, and commander, and capable of submerging and raising itself, and of attacking and exploding the torpedo when and where desired. the latter are now considered as the most formidable and efficient class of destroyers. no matter how staunch, sound and grand in dimensions man may build his ships, old neptune can still toss them. but franklin, a century and a half ago, called attention to his experiments of oiling his locks when in a tempestuous mood, and thus rendering the temper of the old man of the sea as placid as a summer pond. ships that had become unmanageable were thus enabled, by spreading oil on the waves from the windward side, to be brought under control, and dangerous surfs subdued, so that boats could land. franklin's idea of pouring oil on the troubled waters has been revived during the last quarter of the century and various means for doing it vigorously patented. the means have varied in many instances, but chiefly consist of bags and other receptacles to hold and distribute the oil upon the surrounding water with economy and uniformity. at the close of the century the world was still waiting for the successful _air-ship_. a few successful experiments in balloon navigation by the aid of small engines of different forms have been made since . some believe that count zeppelin, an officer of the german army has solved the great problem, especially since the ascent of his ship made on july , , at lake constance. it has been asserted that no vessel has yet been made to successfully fly unless made on the balloon principle, and count zeppelin's boat is on that principle. according to the description of eugen wolf, an aeronaut who took part in the ascent referred to and who published an account of the same in the november number of _mcclure's_, , it is not composed of one balloon, but of a row of them, and these are not exposed when inflated to every breeze that blows, but enclosed and combined in an enormous cylindrical shell, feet in length, about feet in diameter, with a volume of , cubic yards and with ends pointed like a cigar. this shell is a framework made up of aluminium trellis work, and divided into seventeen compartments, each having its own gas bag. the frame is further strengthened and the balloons stayed by a network of aluminium wire, and the entire frame covered with a soft ramie fibre. over this is placed a water-tight covering of pegamoid, and the lower part covered with light silk. an air space of two feet is left between the cover and the balloons. beneath the balloons extends a walking bridge feet long, and from this bridge is suspended two aluminium cars, at front and rear of the centre, adapted to hold all the operative machinery and the operator and other passengers. the balloons, provided with proper valves, served to lift the structure; large four-winged screws, one on each side of the ship, their shafts mounted on a light framework extending from the body of the ship, and driven backward and forward by two light benzine engines, one on each car, constituted the propelling force. dirigibility (steering) was provided for by an apparatus consisting of a double pair of rudders, one pair forward and one aft, reaching out like great fins, and controlled by light metal cords from the cars. a ballast of water was carried in a compartment under each car. to give the ship an upward or a downward movement the plane on which the ship rests was provided with a weight adapted to slip back and forth on a cable underneath the balloon shell. when the weight was far aft the tip of the ship was upward and the movement was upward, when at the forward end the movement was downward, and when at the centre the ship was poised and travelled in a horizontal plane. the trip was made over the lake on a quiet evening. a distance of three and three-quarter miles, at a height of feet, was made in seventeen minutes. evolutions from a straight course were accomplished. the ship was lowered to the lake, on which it settled easily and rode smoothly. the other great plan of air navigation receiving the attention of scientists and aeronauts is the aeroplane system. although the cohesive force of the air is so exceedingly small that it cannot be relied upon as a sufficient resisting medium through which propulsion may be accomplished alone by a counter-resisting agent like propeller blades, yet it is known what weight the air has and it has been ascertained what expanse of a thin plane is necessary without other means to support the weight of a man in the air. to this idea must be added the means of flight, of starting and maintaining a stable flight and of directing its course. careful observation of the manner of the flight of large heavy birds, especially in starting, has led to some successful experiments. they do not rise at once, but require an initiative force for soaring which they obtain by running on the ground before spreading their wings. the action of the wings in folding and unfolding for maintaining the flight and controlling its direction, is then to be noted. it is along these lines that inventions in this system are now working. an initiative mechanism to start the ship along the earth or water, to raise it at an angle, to spread planes of sufficient extent to support the weight of the machine and its operators on the body of the air column, light engines to give the wing-planes an opening and closing action, rudders to steer by, means for maintaining equilibrium, and means when landing to float upon the water or roll upon the land, these are the principal problems that navigators of the great seas above us are now at work upon. chapter xxx. illuminating gas. "how wonderful that sunbeams absorbed by vegetation in the primordial ages of the earth and buried in its depths as vegetable fossils through immeasurable eras of time, until system upon system of slowly formed rocks have been piled above, should come forth at last, at the disenchanting touch of science, and turn the light of civilised man into day."--_prof. e. l. youmans._ "the invention of artificial light has extended the available term of human life, by giving the night to man's use; it has, by the social intercourse it encourages, polished his manners and refined his tastes, and perhaps as much as anything else, has aided his intellectual progress."--_draper._ if one desires to know what the condition of cities, towns and peoples was before the nineteenth century had lightened and enlightened them, let him step into some poor country town in some out-of-the-way region (and such may yet be found) at night, pick his way along rough pavements, and no pavements, by the light of a smoky lamp placed here and there at corners, and of weeping lamps and limp candles in the windows of shops and houses, and meet people armed with tin lanterns throwing a dubious light across the pathways. let him be prepared to be assailed by the odours of undrained gutters, ditches, and roads called streets, and escape, if he can, stumbling and falling into them. let him take care also that he avoid in the darkness the drippings from the overhanging eaves or windows, and falling upon the slippery steps of the dim doorway he may be about to enter. within, let him overlook, if he can, in the hospitable reception, the dim and smoky atmosphere, and observe that the brightest and best as well as the most cheerful illuminant flashes from the wide open fireplace. occasionally a glowing grate might be met. the eighteenth century did have its glowing grates, and its still more glowing furnaces of coal in which the ore was melted and by the light of which the castings were made. it is very strange that year after year for successive generations men saw the hard black coal break under the influence of heat and burst into flames which lit up every corner, without learning, beyond sundry accidents and experiments, that this _gast_, or _geest_, or _spirit_, or _vapour_, or _gas_, as it was variously called, could be led away from its source, ignited at a distance, and made to give light and heat at other places than just where it was generated. thus dr. clayton, dean of kildare, ireland, in distilled gas from coal and lit and burned it, and told his learned friend, the hon. robert boyle, about it, who announced it with interest to the royal society, and again it finds mention in the _philosophical transactions_ fifty years later. then, in , dr. hales told how many cubic inches of gas a certain number of grains of coal would produce. then bishop watson in passed some gas through water and carried it in pipes from one place to another; and then lord dundonald in built some ovens, distilled coal and tar, burned the gas, and got a patent. in the same year, dr. rickel of würzburg lighted his laboratory with gas made by the dry distillation of bones; but all these were experiments. finally, william murdock, the owner of large workshops at redruth, in cornwall, a practical man and mechanic, and a keen observer, using soft coal to a large extent in his shops, tried with success in to collect the escaping gas and with it lit up the shops. whether he continued steadily to so use the gas or only at intervals, at any rate it seems to have been experimental and failed to attract attention. it appears that he repeated the experiment at the celebrated steam engine works of boulton and watt at soho, near birmingham, in , and again illuminated the works in , on occasion of a peace jubilee. in the meantime, in , le bon, a frenchman at paris, had succeeded in making illuminating gas from wood, lit his house therewith, and proposed to light the whole city of paris. thus it may be said that illuminating gas and the new century were born together--the former preceding the latter a little and lighting the way. then in the english periodicals began to take the matter up and discuss the whole subject. one magazine objected to its use in houses on the ground that the curtains and furniture would be ruined by the saturation produced by the oxygen and hydrogen, and that the curtains would have to be wrung out the next morning after the illumination. there doubtless was good cause for objection to the smoky, unpleasant smelling light then produced. in america in david melville of newport, rhode island, lighted with gas his own house and the street in front of it. in he took out a patent and lighted several factories. in his process was applied to beaver tail lighthouse on the atlantic coast--the first use of illuminating gas in lighthouses. coal oil and electricity have since been found better illuminants for this purpose. murdoch, winser, clegg and others continued to illuminate the public works and buildings of england. westminster bridge and the houses of parliament were lighted in , and the streets of london in . paris was lighted in , and the largest american cities from to . but it required the work of the chemists as well as the mechanics to produce the best gas. the rod of science had touched the rock again and from the earth had sprung another servant with power to serve mankind, and waited the skilled brain and hand to direct its course. produced almost entirely from bituminous coal, it was found to be composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen; but various other gases were mixed therewith. to determine the proper proportions of these gases, to know which should be increased or wholly or partly eliminated, required the careful labours of patient chemists. they taught also how the gas should be distilled, condensed, cleaned, scrubbed, confined in retorts, and its flow measured and controlled. fortunately the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth had produced chemists whose investigations and discoveries paved the way for success in this revolution in the world of light. priestley had discovered oxygen. dalton had divided matter into atoms, and shown that in its every form, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, these atoms had their own independent, characteristic, unalterable weight, and that gases diffused themselves in certain proportions. berthollet, graham, and a host of others in england, france, and germany, advanced the art. the highest skilled mechanics, like clegg of england, supplied the apparatus. he it was who invented a gas purifier, liquid gas meter, and other useful contrivances. as the character of the gas as an illuminator depends on the quantity of hydro-carbon, or olefiant elements it contains, great efforts were made to invent processes and means of carbureting it. the manufacture of gas was revolutionised by the invention of water gas. the main principle of this process is the mixture of hydrogen with the vapour of some hydro-carbon: hydrogen burns with very little light and the purpose of the hydro-carbon is to increase the brilliancy of the flame. the hydrogen gas is so obtained by the decomposition of water, effected by passing steam through highly heated coals. patents began to be taken out in this line in england in - ; by donovan in ; geo. lowe in , and white in . but in england water gas could not compete with coal gas in cheapness. on the contrary, in america, especially after the petroleum wells were opened up, and nature supplied the hydro-carbon in roaring wells and fountains, water gas came to the front. the leading invention there in this line was that of t. s. c. lowe of morristown, pennsylvania, in . in lowe's process anthracite coal might be used, which was raised in a suitable retort to a great heat, then superheated steam admitted over this hot bed and decomposed into hydrogen and carbonic oxide; then a small stream of naphtha or crude petroleum was thrown upon the surface of the burning coal, and from these decompositions and mixtures a rich olefiant product and other light-giving gases were produced. the franklin institute of philadelphia in awarded lowe, or his representatives, a grand medal of honour, his being the invention exhibited that year which in their opinion contributed most to the welfare of mankind. a number of inventors have followed in the direction set by lowe. the largest part of gas manufacture, which has become so extensive, embodies the basic idea of the lowe process. the competition set up by the electricians, especially in the production of the beautiful incandescent light for indoor illumination, has spurred inventors of gas processes to renewed efforts--much to the benefit of that great multitude who sit in darkness until corporations furnish them with light. it was found by siemens, the great german inventor of modern gas regenerative furnace systems, that the quality of the gas was much improved, and a greater intensity of light obtained, by heating the gases and air before combustion--a plan particularly adapted in lighting large spaces. to describe in detail the large number of inventions relating to the manufacture of gas would require a huge volume--the generators, carburetors, retorts, mixers, purifiers, metres, scrubbers, holders, condensers, governors, indicators, registers, chargers, pressure regulators, etc., etc. it was a great convenience outside of towns and cities, where gas mains could not be laid, to have domestic plants and portable gas apparatus, worked on the same principles, but in miniature form, adapted to a single house, but the exercise of great ingenuity was required to render such adaptation successful. in the use of liquid illuminants, which need a wick to feed them, the _argand burner_--that arrangement of concentric tubes between which the wick is confined--although invented by argand in , yet has occupied a vast field of usefulness in connection with the lamps of the nineteenth century. a dangerous but very extensively used illuminating liquid before coal oil was discovered was camphene, distilled from turpentine. it gave a good light but was not a safe domestic companion. great attention has recently been paid to the production of _acetylene_ gas, produced by the reaction between _calcium carbide_ and water. the making of the calcium carbide by the decomposition of mixed pulverised lime and coal by the use of a powerful electric battery, is a preliminary step in the production of this gas, and was a subsequent discovery. the electric light, acetylene, magnesium, and other modern sources of light, although they may be more brilliant and intense than coal gas, cannot compete in cheapness of production with the latter. thus far illuminating coal gas is still the queen of artificial lights. after gas was fairly started in lighting streets and buildings its adaptation to lamps followed; and among the most noted of gas lamps is that of von welsbach, who combined a bunsen gas flame and a glass chimney with a "_mantle_" located therein. this mantle is a gauze-like structure made of refractory quartz, or of certain oxides, which when heated by the gas flame produce an incandescent glow of intense brilliancy, with a reduced consumption of gas. chapter xxxi. brick, pottery, glass, plastics. when the nineteenth century dawned, men were making brick in the same way for the most part that they were fifty centuries before. it is recorded in the eleventh chapter of genesis that when "the whole earth was of one language and one speech, it came to pass as they journeyed from the east that they found a plain in the land of shinar; and they dwelt there, and they said to one another, go to, let us make brick and burn them thoroughly, and they had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar." then commenced the building of babel. who taught the trade to the brick-makers of shinar? the journey from the east continued, and with it went brick making to greece and rome, across the continent of europe, across the english channel, until the brick work of cæsar, stamped by the trade mark of his legions, was found on the banks of the thames, and through the fields of caerleon and york. alfred the great encouraged the trade, and the manufacture flourished finely under henry viii., elizabeth and charles i. as to pottery:--could we only know who among the peoples of the earth first discovered, used, or invented fire, we might know who were the first makers of baked earthenware. doubtless the art of pottery arose before men learned to bake the plastic clay, in that groping time when men, kneading the soft clay with their fingers, or imprinting their footsteps in the yielding surface and learning that the sun's heat stiffened and dried those forms into durability, applied the discovery to the making of crude vessels, as children unto this day make dishes from the tenacious mud. but the artificial burning of the vessels was no doubt a later imitation of nature. alongside the rudest and earliest chipped stone implements have been found the hollow clay dish for holding fire, or food, or water. "as the fragment of a speech or song, a waking or a sleeping vision, the dream of a vanished hand, a draught of water from a familiar spring, the almost perished fragrance of a pressed flower call back the singer, the loved and lost, the loved and won, the home of childhood, or the parting hour, so in the same manner there linger in this crowning decade of the crowning century bits of ancient ingenuity which recall to a whole people the fragrance and beauty of its past." _prof. o. t. mason._ the same gifted writer, adds: "who has not read, with almost breaking heart, the story of palissy, the huguenot potter? but what have our witnesses to say of that long line of humble creatures that conjured out of prophetic clay, without wheels or furnace, forms and decorations of imperishable beauty, which are now being copied in glorified material in the best factories of the world? in ceramic as well as textile art the first inventors were women. they quarried the clay, manipulated it, constructed and decorated the ware, burned it in a rude furnace and wore it out in a hundred uses." from the early dawn of human history to its present noonday civilisation the progress of man may be traced in his pottery. before printing was an art, he inscribed on it his literature. poets and painters have adorned it; and in its manufacture have been embodied through all ages the choicest discoveries of the chemist, the inventor and the mechanic. it would be pleasant to trace the history of pottery from at least the time of homer, who draws a metaphor from the potter seated before his wheel and twirling it with both hands, as he shapes the plastic clay upon it; to dwell upon the clay tablets and many-coloured vases, covered with egyptian scenes and history; to re-excite wonder over the arts of china, in her porcelain, the production of its delicacy and bright colours wrapped in such mystery, and stagnant for so many ages, but revived and rejuvenated in japan; to recall to mind the styles and composition of the ph[oe]nician vases with mythological legends burned immortally therein; the splendid work of the greek potteries; to lift the samian enwreathed bowl, "filled with samian wine"; to look upon the roman pottery, statues and statuettes of rome's earlier and better days; the celebrated _faience_ (enamelled pottery) at its home in faenza, italy, and from the hands of its master, luca della robia; to trace the history of the rare italian majolica; to tread with light steps the bright tiles of the saracens; to rehearse the story of bernard palissy, the father of the beautiful french enamelled ware; to bring to view the splendid old ware of nuremberg, the raised white figures on the deep blue plaques of florence, the honest delft ware of holland; and finally to relate the revolution in the production of pottery throughout all europe caused by the discoveries and inventions of wedgwood of england in the eighteenth century. all this would be interesting, but we must hasten on to the equally splendid and more practical works of the busy nineteenth century, in which many toilsome methods of the past have been superseded by labour-saving contrivances. the application of machinery to the manufacture of brick began to receive attention during the latter part of the eighteenth century, after watt had harnessed steam, and a few patents were issued in england and america at that time for such machinery of that character, but little was practically done. the operations in _brickmaking_, to the accomplishment of which by machines the inventors of the nineteenth century have devoted great talent, relate: first, to the preparation of the clay.--in ancient egypt, in places where water abounded, it appears that the clay was lifted from the bottoms of ponds and lakes on the end of poles, was formed into bricks, then sun-dried, modernly called _adobes_. the clay for making these required a stiffening material. for this straw was used, mixed with the clay; and stubble was also used in the different courses. hence the old metaphor of worthlessness of "bricks without straw," but of course in burning, and in modern processes of pressing unburnt bricks, straw is no longer used. sand should abound in the clay in a certain proportion, or be mixed therewith, otherwise the clay, whether burned or unburned, will crumble. stones, gravel and sticks must be removed, otherwise the contraction of the clay and expansion of the stones on burning, produce a weak and crumbling structure. brick clay generally is coloured by the oxide of iron, and in proportion as this abounds the burned brick is of a lighter or a deeper red. it may be desired to add colouring matter or mix different forms of clay, or add sand or other ingredients. clay treated by hand was for ages kneaded as dough is kneaded, by the hand or feet, and the clay was often long subjected, sometimes for years, to exposure to the air, frost and sun to disintegrate and ripen it. as the clay must be first disintegrated, ground or pulverised, as grain is first ground to flour to make and mould the bread, so the use of a grinding mill was long ago suggested. the first machine used to do all this work goes by the humble name of _pug mill_. many ages ago the chilians of south america hung two ponderous solid wood or stone wheels on an axis turned by a vertical shaft and operated by animal power; the wheels were made to run round on a deep basin in which ores, or stones, or grain were placed to be crushed. this chilian mill, in principle, was adopted a century or so ago in europe to the grinding of clay. the pug mill has assumed many different forms in this age; and separate preliminary mills, consisting of rollers of different forms for grinding, alone are often used before the mixing operation. in one modern form the pug mill consists of an inverted conical-shaped cylinder provided with a set of interior revolving blades arranged horizontally, and below this a spiral arrangement of blades on a vertical axis, by which the clay is thoroughly cut up and crushed against the surrounding walls of the mill, in the meantime softened with water or steam if desired, and mixed with sand if necessary, and when thus ground and tempered is finally pressed down through the lower opening of the cylinder and directly into suitable brick moulds beneath. second.--the next operation is for moulding and pressing the brick. to take the place of that ancient and still used mode of filling a mould of a certain size by the hands with a lump of soft clay, scraping off the surplus, and then dumping the mould upon a drying floor, a great variety of machines have been invented. in some the pug mill is arranged horizontally to feed out the clay in the form of a long horizontal slab, which is cut up into proper lengths to form the bricks. some machines are in the form of a large horizontal revolving wheel, having the moulds arranged in its top face, each mould charged with clay as the wheel presents it under the discharging spout of the grinding mill, and then the clay is pressed by pistons or plungers worked by a rocking beam, and adapted to descend and fit into the mould at stated intervals; or the moulds, carried in a circular direction, may have movable bottom plates, which may be pressed upwards successively by pistons attached to them and raised by inclines on which they travel, forcing the clay against a large circular top plate, and in the last part of the movement carrying the pressed brick through an aperture to the top of the plate, where it is met by and carried away on an endless apron. in some machines two great wheels mesh together, one carrying the moulds in its face, and the other the presser plate plungers, working in the former, the bricks being finally forced out on to a moving belt by the action of cam followers, or by other means. in others the moulds are passed, each beneath a gravity-descending or cam-forced plunger, the clay being thus stamped by impact into form; or in other forms the clay in the moulds may be subjected to successive pressure from the cam-operated pistons arranged horizontally and on a line with the discharging belt. third, the drying and burning of the brick.--the old methods were painfully slow and tedious. a long time was occupied in seasoning the clay, and then after the bricks were moulded, another long time was necessary to dry them, and a final lengthy period was employed to burn them in crude kilns. these old methods were too slow for modern wants. but they still are in vogue alongside of modern inventions, as in all ages the use of old arts and implements have continued along by the side of later inventions and discoveries. no useful contrivances are suddenly or apparently ever entirely supplanted. the implements of the stone age are still found in use by some whose environment has deprived them of the knowledge of or desire to use better tools. the single ox pulling the crooked stick plough, or other similar ancient earth stirrer, and ruth with her sickle and sheaves, may be found not far from the steam plough and the automatic binder. but the use of antiquated machinery is not followed by those who lead the procession in this industrial age. consequently other means than the slow processes of nature to dry brick and other ceramics, and the crude kilns are giving way to modern heat distributing structures. air and heat are driven by fans through chambers, in which the brick are openly piled on cars, the surplus heat and steam from an engine-room being often used for this purpose, and the cars so laden are slowly pushed on the tracks through heated chambers. passages and pipes and chimneys for heat and air controlled by valves are provided, and the waste moisture drawn off through bottom drains or up chimneys, the draft of which is increased by a hot blast, or blasts of heated air are driven in one direction through a chamber while the brick are moved through in the opposite direction, or a series of drying chambers are separated from each other by iron folding-doors, the temperature increasing as cars are moved on tracks from one chamber to another. dr. hoffmann of berlin invented different forms of drying and burning chambers which attracted great attention. in his kiln the bricks are stacked in an _annular_ chamber, and the fire made to progress from one section of the chamber to another, burning the brick as the heat advances; and as fast as one section of green brick is dried, or burned, it is withdrawn, and a green section presented. austria introduced most successful and thorough systems of drying brick about . in some great kilns fires are never allowed to cease. one kiln had been kept thus heated for fifteen years. thus great quantities of green brick can at any time be pushed into the kiln on tracks, and when burned pushed out, and thus the process may go on continuously day and night. to return to pottery: as before stated, wedgwood of england revolutionised the art of pottery in the eighteenth century. he was aided by flaxman. before their time all earthenware pottery was what is now called "soft pottery." that is, it was unglazed, simply baked clay; _lustrous_ or _semi-glazed_ and _enamelled_ having a harder surface. wedgwood invented the hard porcelain surface, and very many beautiful designs. to improve such earthenware and to best decorate it, are the objects around which modern inventions have mostly clustered. the "_regenerative_" principle of heating above referred to employed in some kilns, and so successfully incorporated in the regenerators invented since by siemens, frank, boetius, bicheroux, pousard and others, consisting in using the intensely hot wasted gases from laboratories or combustion chambers to heat the incoming air, and carrying the mingled products of combustion into chambers and passages to heat, dry or burn materials placed therein, has been of great service in the production of modern pottery; not only in a great saving in the amount of fuel, but in reduction in loss of pieces of ware spoiled in the firing. the old method of burning wood, or soft coal, or charcoal at the bottom of a small old-fashioned cylindrical fire brick kiln attended to by hand, and heating the articles of pottery arranged on shelves in the chamber above, is done away with to a great extent in large manufactories for the making of stone and earthenware--although still followed in many porcelain kilns. inventions in the line of pottery kilns have received the aid of woman. susan frackelton of the united states invented a portable kiln for firing pottery and porcelain, for which she obtained a patent in . as in drying clay for brick, so in drying clay for porcelain and pottery generally, great improvements have been made in the drying of the clay, and other materials to be mixed therewith. a great step was taken to aid drying by the invention of the _filter press_, in which the materials, after they are mixed and while still wet, are subjected to such pressure that all surplus water is removed and all air squeezed out, by which the inclosure of air bubbles in the clay is prevented. despairing of excelling the china porcelain, although french investigators having alleged their discovery of such methods, modern inventors have contented themselves in inventing new methods and compositions. charles aoisseau, the potter of tours, born in , rediscovered and revived the art of palissy. about , thomas battam of england invented the method of imitating marble and other statuary by a composition of silica, alumina, soda, and traces of lime, magnesia, and iron, reducing it to liquid form and pouring it into plaster moulds, forming the figure or group. his plaster casts soon became famous. in the use of materials the aid of chemists was had in finding the proper ingredients to fuse with sand to produce the best forms of common and fine _faience_. _porcelain moulding_, and its accompanying ornamentation and the use of apparatus for moulding by compression and by exhaustion of the air has become since that time a great industry. _porcelain colours._--chemists also aided in discovering what metallic ingredients could best be used when mixed with the clay and sand to produce the desired colours. as soon as a new metal was discovered, it was tested to find, among other things, what vitrifiable colour it would produce. in the production of metallic glazes, the oxides generally are employed. the colours are usually applied to ware when it is in its unglazed or _biscuit_ form. in the _biscuit_ or _bisque_ form pottery is bibulous, the prepared glaze sinks into its pores and when burned forms a vitreous coating. the application of oil colours and designs to ware before baking by the "bat" system of printing originated in the eighteenth and was perfected in the nineteenth century. it consists of impressing oil pictures on a bat of glue and then pressing the bat on to the porous unbaked clay or porcelain which transferred the colours. this was another revolution in the art. one manner for ages of applying colours to ware is first to reduce the mixture to a liquid form, called "slip," and then, if the chinese method is followed, to dip the colour up on the end of a hollow bamboo rod, which end is covered with wire gauze, then by blowing through the rod the colour was sprayed or deposited on the ware. another method is the use of a brush and comb. the brush being dipped into the coloured matter, the comb is passed over the brush in such manner as to cause the paint to spatter the object with fine drops or particles. a very recent method, by which the beautiful background and blended colours of the celebrated rookwood pottery of cincinnati, ohio, have become distinguished, consists in laying the colour upon the ware in a cloud or sheet of almost imperceptible mist by the use of an air atomiser blown by the operator. by the use of this simple instrument, the laying on a single colour, or the delicate blending and shadings of two or more colours in very beautiful effects is easily produced. this use of the atomiser commenced in , and was claimed as the invention of a lady, miss laura fry, who obtained a patent for thus blowing the atomised spray colouring matter on pottery in ; but it was held by the courts that she was anticipated by experiments of others, and by descriptions in previous patents of the spraying of paint on other objects by compressed air apparatus known as the air brush. however, this introduction of the use of the atomiser caused quite a revolution in the art of applying colours to pottery in the forming of backgrounds. enamelled ware is no longer confined to pottery. about niedringhaus in the united states began to enamel sheet iron by the application of glaze and iron oxide, giving such articles a granite appearance; and since then metallic cooking vessels, bath tubs, etc., have been converted in appearance into the finest earthenware and porcelain, and far more durable, beautiful and useful than the plain metal alone for such purposes. when we remember that for many centuries, wood and pewter, and to some extent crude earthenware, were the materials from which the dishes of the great bulk of the human family were made, as well as their table and mantel ornaments, and compare them in character and plenteousness with the table and other ware of even the poorest character of to-day, we can appreciate how much has been done in this direction to help the human family by modern inventions. _artificial stone._--the world as yet has not so far exhausted its supply of stone and marble as to compel a resort to artificial productions on a great scale, and yet to meet the demands of those localities wherein the natural supplies of good building stones and marble are very scarce, necessitating when used a long and expensive transportation, methods have been adopted by which, at comparatively small cost, fine imitations of the best stones and marbles have been produced, having all the durable and artistic qualities of the originals, as for the most part, they are composed of the same materials as the stone and marbles themselves. the characteristic backgrounds, the veins and shadowings, and the soft colours of various marbles have been quite successfully imitated by treating dehydrated gypsum with various colouring solutions. sand stones have been moulded or pressed from the same ingredients, and with either smooth or undressed faces. when necessary the mixture is coloured, to resemble precisely the original stones. one of the improvements in the manufacture and use of modern _cements_ and artificial stones consists in their application to the making of streets and sidewalks. neat, smooth, hard, beautiful pavements are now taking the place everywhere of the unsatisfactory gravel, wood, and brick pavements of former days. we know that the romans and other ancient peoples had their hydraulic cements, and the plaster on some of their walls stands to-day to attest its good quality. modern inventors have turned their attention in recent years to the production of machines to grind, crush, mix and set the materials, and to apply them to large wall surfaces, in place of hand labour. _ready-made plaster_ of a fine quality is now manufactured in great quantities. it needs only the addition of a little water to reduce it to a condition for use; and a machine operated by compressed air may be had for spreading it quickly over the lath work of wood or sheet metal, slats, or over rough cement ceilings and walls. _glass._--the sister of pottery is glass. it may have been an accidental discovery, occurring when men made fire upon a sandy knoll or beach, that fire could melt and fuse sand and ashes, or sand and lime, or sand and soda or some other alkali, and with which may also have been mixed some particles of iron, or lead, or manganese, or alumina to produce that hard, lustrous, vitreous, brittle article that we call _glass_. but who invented the method of blowing the viscid mass into form on the end of a hollow tube? who invented the scissors and shears for cutting and trimming it when soft? or the use of the diamond, or its dust, for polishing it when hard? history is silent on these points. the tablets of the most ancient days of egypt, yet recovered, show glass blowers at work at their trade--and the names of the first and original inventors are buried in oblivion. each age has handed down to us from many countries specimens of glass ware which will compare favourably in beauty and finish with any that can be made to-day. yet with the knowledge of making glass of the finest description existing for centuries, it is strange that its manufacture was not extended to supply the wants of mankind, to which its use now seems so indispensable. and yet as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries glass windows were found only in the houses of the wealthy, in the churches and palaces, and glass mirrors were unknown except to the rich, as curiosities, and as aids to the scientists in the early days of telescopy. poor people used oiled paper, isinglass, thinly shaved leather, resembling parchment, and thin sheets of soft pale crystalised stone known as talc, and soapstone. the nineteenth century has been characterised as the scientific century of glass, and the term commercial, may well be added to that designation. its commercial importance and the advancement in its manufacture during the first half of the century is illustrated in the fact that the crystal palace of the london industrial exhibition of , although containing nearly , square feet of glass, was furnished by a single firm, messrs. chance & co. of london, without materially delaying their other orders. in addition to scientific discoveries, the manufacture of glass in england received a great impetus by the removal of onerous excise duties which had been imposed on its manufacture. the principal improvements in the art of glass-making effected during the nineteenth century may be summarised as follows: first, materials.--by the investigations of chemists and practical trials it was learned what particular effect was produced by the old ingredients employed, and it was found that the colours and qualities of glass, such as clearness, strength, tenacity, purity, etc., could be greatly modified and improved by the addition to the sand of certain new ingredients. by analysis it was learned what different metallic oxides should be employed to produce different colours. this knowledge before was either preserved in secrecy, or accidentally or empirically practised, or unknown. thus it was learned and established that lime hardens the glass and adds to its lustre; that the use of ordinary ingredients, the silicates of lime, magnesia, iron, soda and potash, in their impure form, will produce the coarser kinds of glass, such as that of which green bottles are made; that silicates of soda and lime give the common window glass and french plate; that the beautiful varieties of bohemian glass are chiefly a silicate of potash and lime; that crystal or flint glass, so called because formerly pulverised flints were used in making it, can be made of a suitable combination of potassia plumbic silicate; that the plumbic oxide greatly increases its transparency, brilliancy, and refractive power; that _paste_--that form of glass from which imitations of diamonds are cut, may be produced by adding a large proportion of the oxide of lead; that by the addition of a trace of ferric oxide or uranic acid the yellow topaz can be had; that by substituting cobaltic oxide the brilliant blue sapphire is produced; that cuperic oxide will give the emerald, gold oxide the ruby, manganic oxide the royal purple, and a mixture of cobaltic and manganic oxides the rich black onyx. professor faraday as early as had noticed a change in colour gradually produced in glass containing oxide of manganese by exposure to the rays of the sun. this observation induced an american gentleman, mr. thomas gaffield, a merchant of boston, to further experiment in this direction. his experiments commenced in , and he subjected eighty different kinds of glass, coloured and uncoloured, and manufactured in many different countries, to this exposure of the sun's rays. he found that not only glass having manganese as an element, but nearly every species of glass, was so affected, some in shorter and some in longer times; that this discoloration was not due to the heat rays of the sun, but to its actinic rays; and that the original colour of the glass could be reproduced by reheating the same. mr. gaffield also extended his experiments to ascertain the power of different coloured glasses to transmit the actinic or chemical rays, and found that blue would transmit the most and red and orange the least. others proceeded on lines of investigation in ascertaining the best materials to be employed in glass-making in producing the clearest and most permanent uncoloured light; the best coloured lights for desired purposes; glasses having the best effects on the growth of plants; and the best class for refracting, dispersing and transmitting both natural lights and those great modern artificial lights, gas and electricity. another illustration of modern scientific investigation and success in glass-making materials is seen at the celebrated german glass works at jena under the management of professors ernst abbe and dr. schott, commenced in . they, too, found that many substances had each its own peculiar effect in the refraction and dispersion of light, and introduced no fewer than twenty-eight new substances in glass making. their special work was the production of glass for the finest scientific and optical purposes, and the highest grades of commercial glass. they have originated over one hundred new kinds of glass. their lenses for telescopes and microscopes and photographic cameras, and glass and prisms, and for all chemical and other scientific work, have a worldwide reputation. so that in materials of composition the old days in which there were substantially but two varieties of glass--the old-fashioned standard crown, and flint glass--have passed away. _methods._--the revolution in the production of glass has been greatly aided also by new methods of treatment of the old as well as the new materials. for instance, the application of the siemens regenerative furnace, already alluded to in referring to pottery, in place of old-fashioned kilns, and by which the amount of smoke is greatly diminished, fuel saved, and the colour of the glass improved. pots are used containing the materials to be melted and not heated in the presence of the burning fuel, but by the heated gases in separate compartments. another process is that of m. de la bastie, added to by others, of toughening glass by plunging it while hot and pasty and after it has been shaped, annealed, and reheated, into a bath of grease, whereby the rapid cooling and the grease changes its molecular condition so that it is less dense, resists breaking to a greater degree, and presents no sharp edges when broken. another process is that of making plate glass by the cylinder process--rolling it into large sheets. other processes are those for producing hollow ware by pressing in moulds; for decorating; for surface enamelling of sheet glass whereby beautiful lace patterns are transferred from the woven or netted fabric itself by using it as a stencil to distribute upon the surface the pulverised enamel, which is afterwards burned on; of producing _iridescent_ glass in which is exhibited the lights and shadows of delicate soap bubble colours by the throwing against the surface of hydrochloric acid under pressure, or the fumes of other materials volatilised in a reheating furnace. then there is dode's process for platinising glass, by which a reflecting mirror is produced without silvering or otherwise coating its back, by first applying a thin coating of platinic choride mixed with an oil to the surface of the glass and heating the same, by which the mirror reflects from its front face. the platinum film is so thin that the pencil and hand of a draughtsman may be seen through it, the object to be copied being seen by reflection. again there is the process of making _glass wool or silk_--which is glass drawn out into such extremely fine threads that it may be used for all purposes of silk threads in the making of fabrics for decorative purposes and in some more useful purposes, such as the filtration of water and other liquids. we have already had occasion to refer to tilghman's sand blast in describing pneumatic apparatus. in glass manufacture the process is used in etching on glass designs of every kind, both simple and intricate. the sand forced by steam, or by compressed air on the exposed portions of the glass on which the design rests, will cut the same deeply, or most delicately, as the hand and eye of the operator may direct. _machines._--in addition to the new styles of furnaces, moulds and melting, and rolling mills to which we have alluded, mention may be made of annealing and cooling ovens, by which latter the glass is greatly improved by being allowed to gradually cool. a large number of instruments have been invented for special purposes, such as for making the beautiful expensive cut glass, which is flint glass ground by wheels of iron, stone, and emery into the desired designs, while water is being applied, and then polished by wheels of wood, and pumice, or rottenstone; for grinding and polishing glass for lenses; and for polishing and finishing plate glass; for applying glass lining to metal pipes, tubes, etc.; for the delicate engraving of glass by small revolving copper disks, varying in size from the diameter of a cent down to one-fifteenth of an inch, cutting the finest blade of grass, a tiny bud, the downy wing of an insect, or the faint shadow of an exquisite eyebrow. _cameo_ cutting and incrustation; porcelain electroplating and moulding apparatus, and apparatus for making porcelain plates before drying and burning, may be added to the list. it would be a much longer list to enumerate the various objects made of glass unknown or not in common use in former generations. the reader must call to mind or imagine any article which he thinks desirable to be made from or covered with this lustrous indestructible material, or any practicable form of instrument for the transmission of light, and it is quite likely he will find it already at hand in shops or instruments in factories ready for its making. _rubber--goodyear._ the rubber tree, whether in india with its immense trunk towering above all its fellows and wearing a lofty crown, hundreds of feet in circumference, of mixed green and yellow blossoms; or in south america, more slender and shorter but still beautiful in clustered leaves and flowers on its long, loosely pendent branches; or in africa, still more slender and growing as a giant creeper upon the highest trees along the water courses, hiding its struggling support and festooning the whole forest with its glossy dark green leaves, sweetly scented, pure white, star-like flowers, and its orange-like fruit--yields from its veins a milk which man has converted into one of the most useful articles of the century. the modes of treating this milky juice varies among the natives of the several countries where the trees abound. in africa they cut or strip the bark, and as the milk oozes out the natives catch and smear it thickly over their limbs and bodies, and when it dries pull it off and cut it into blocks for transportation. in brazil the juice is collected in clay vessels and smoked and dried in a smouldering fire of palm nuts, which gives the material its dark brown appearance. they mould the softened rubber over clay patterns in the form of shoes, jars, vases, tubes, etc., and as they are sticky they carry them separated on poles to the large towns and sea ports and sell them in this condition. it was some such articles that first attracted the attention of europeans, who during the eighteenth century called the attention of their countrymen to them. it was in that la condamine described rubber to the french academy. he afterward resided in the valley of the amazon ten years, and then he and mm. herissent, macquer, and grossat, again by their writings and experiments interested the scientific and commercial world in the matter. in dr. priestley published the fact that this rubber had become notable for rubbing out pencil marks, bits of it being sold for a high price for that purpose. about , some englishman began to make water-proof varnish from it, and to take out patents for the same. this was as far as the art had advanced in caoutchouc, or rubber, in the eighteenth century. in mr. mackintosh, of glasgow, began experimenting with the oil of naphtha obtained from gas works as a solvent for india rubber; and so successfully that he made a water-proof varnish which was applied to fabrics, took out his patent in england in , and thus was started the celebrated "mackintoshes." in thomas c. wales, a merchant of boston, conceived the idea of sending american boot and shoe lasts to brazil for use in place of their clay models. this soon resulted in sending great quantities of rubber overshoes to europe and america. the importation of rubber and the manufacture of water-proof garments and articles therefrom now rapidly increased in those countries. but nothing that could be done would prevent the rubber from getting soft in summer and hard and brittle in the winter. something was needed to render the rubber insensible to the changes of temperature. for fifty years, ever since the manufacturers and inventors of europe and america had learned of the water-proof character of rubber, they had been striving to find something to overcome this difficulty. finally it became the lot of one man to supply the want. his name was charles goodyear. born with the century, in new haven, connecticut, and receiving but a public school education, he engaged with his father in the hardware business in philadelphia. this proving a failure, he, in , turned his attention to the improvement of rubber goods. he became almost a fanatic on the subject--going from place to place clad in rubber fabrics, talking about it to merchants, mechanics, scientists, chemists, anybody that would listen, making his experiments constantly; deeply in debt on account of his own and his father's business failures, thrown into jail for debt for months, continuing his experiments there with philosophical, good-natured persistence; out of jail steeped to his lips in poverty; his family suffering for the necessaries of life; selling the school books of his children for material to continue his work, and taking a patent in for a rubber cement, which did not help him much. finding that nitric acid improved the quality of the rubber by removing its adhesiveness, he introduced this process, which met with great favour, was applied generally to the manufacture of overshoes, and helped his condition. but his trials and troubles continued. finally one nathaniel haywood suggested the use of sulphurous acid gas, and this was found an improvement; but still the rubber would get hard in winter, and although not so soft in summer, yet the odour was offensive. yet by the use of this improvement he was enabled to raise more money to get haywood a patent for it, while he became its owner. in the midst of his further troubles, and while experimenting with the sulphur mixed with rubber he found by accidental burning or partly melting of the two together on a stove, that the part in which the sulphur was embedded was hard and inelastic, and that the part least impregnated with the sulphur was proportionately softer and more elastic. at last the great secret was discovered! and now at this later day, when $ , , worth of rubber goods are made annually in the united states alone, the whole immense business is still divided into but two classes--hard and soft--hard or vulcanized like that called "ebonite," or soft, it may be, as a delicate wafer. and these qualities depend on and vary as a greater or less amount of sulphur is used, as described in the patents of goodyear, commencing with his french patent of . then of course the pirates began their attacks, and he was kept poor in defending his patents, and died comparatively so in ; but happy in his great discovery. he had received, however, the whole world's honours--the great council medal at the nations fair in london in the cross of the legion of honour by napoleon iii., and lesser tributes from other nations. it can be imagined the riches that flowed into the laps of goodyear's successors; the wide field opened for new inventions in machines and processes; and the vast added comforts to mankind resulting from goodyear's introduction of a new and useful material to man.--a material which, takes its place and stands in line with wood, and leather, and glass, and iron, and steel! but rubber and steel as we now know them are not the only new fabrics given to mankind by the inventors of the nineteenth century. the work of the silk worm has been rivalled; and a _wool_ as white and soft as that clipped from the cleanest lamb has been drawn by the hands of these magicians from the hot and furious slag that bursts from a blast furnace. the silk referred to is made from a solution of that inflammable material of tremendous force known as gun-cotton, or pyroxylin. dr. chardonnet was the inventor of the leading form of the article, which he introduced and patented about . the solution made is of a viscous character, allowed to escape from a vessel through small orifices in fine streams; and as the solvent part evaporates rapidly these fine streams become hard, flexible fibres, which glisten with a beautiful lustre and can be used as a substitute for some purposes for the fine threads spun by that mysterious master of his craft--the silk worm. the gusts of wind that drove against the molten lava thrown from the crater of kilauea, producing as it did, a fall of white, metallic, hairy-like material resembling wool, suggested to man an industrial application of the same method. and at the great works of krupp at essen, prussia, for instance, may be witnessed a fine stream of molten slag flowing from an iron furnace, and as it falls is met by a strong blast of cold air which transforms it into a silky mass as white and fine as cotton. index. abbe, prof. ernst, , . abbott museum, n.y., . abrading machines, . acetylene, , . accumulators, . achromatic lens, . acoustics, . addressing machines, . aeolipile, . affixers, . african inventions, , . agriculture, chap. , , , , . agricultural chemistry, . agricultural societies, . aeronautics. (see air ships and balloons, , , .) air atomizers, . air brakes, , , . air brushes, , . air compressors and propellers, . air drills, . air engines, , , . air propellers. (see pneumatics.) air pumps, , , , , , , . air ships, , . airy, . "alabama," the, . alarm locks. (see locks.) alchemistry and alchemists. (see chemistry.) alcohol, . alfred the great, , . alembert, d., . alhambra, . allen, horatio, . allen, dr. john, . allotropic phosphorus. (see matches.) allen and yates. (see puddling.) alloys, , . altiscope, . aluminium, . amalgamators, . american inventions, . ammonia, , . ammoniacal gas engines, . ampère, , . amontons air engines, . ancient smelting. (see metallurgy.) anæsthetics, , . aniline dyes, . annealing and tempering, . antiseptics, , . antwerp, siege of, . (see ordnance.) aoisseau, chas., . apollo, . applegath, , . aqueducts, , , . arabs, , . arabic notation, . arago, , , , . arc lamps, . archimedes, , , , . aristotle, . argand burner, . arkwright, richard, , , , . arlberg tunnel, . armor, plate, , , , . arnold, asa, . arnold, watchmaker, . armstrong, sir william g., , , . arquebus. (see ordnance.) artesian wells, . artificial stone. (see pottery.) artificial silk. (see glass.) arts, fine, , , , , , , . art, scientific, . artificial teeth. (see dentistry.) artillery. (see ordnance.) asbestos, . assembling machines and system. (see sewing machines, watch, and ordnance.) assyrians, . astronomical inventions, . (see horology and optics.) athens. (see greece.) athanor, alchemist's stone. (see chemistry.) atmospheric and gas pressure, . atoms--atomic theory, , , . atomizer, , . attraction of gravitation, . augurs, , . auricular instruments, . australia, . austria, , , . autoharps, . automobiles, , . axes, . b. babbitt, isaac, metal, . babylonians, . bach. (see pianos.) bacon, roger, . bacteria, . bailey, ; . bain, alex., . baling and bale ties, , , . balloons, , . band saw, . barber, john, . barker's mill, . barlow looms, . barlow, prof., . barrel making. (see wood working.) bartholdi, . bastie, . batcheller, . baths--closets, . bath system, porcelain, . battam, thomas, artificial marble, . baude, peter, . beadlestone, metallurgist, . bean, b. w., . beaulieu, col. (ordnance), . beating engines. (see paper.) becher, . bechler, . becquerel, . beds, . bed--printing, . beer. (see chemistry.) bellaert, jacob, . bell, alex. graham, , , , , . bell, c. a., . bell, sir l., metallurgy, . bell's history of metallurgy, . bell, rev. patrick, , . bells and bell making--metallurgy. bending wood, , . (see woodworking.) bennett, richard, . bentham, sir sam'l, , , , . bergman, . berliner, emile, . bernoulli, d., . berthollet, , . berzelius, . bessemer, henry, and process, , , . besson, prof. j., , . bicheroux, potter, . bicycles, . bigelow, e. b., . billings, dr., . binding books. (see printing.) binders, grain and twine, . bicycles, to . bischof, simon, . blacksmithing. (see metallurgy.) blaew of amsterdam, . black, chemist, . blair, iron and steel, . blakely gun. (see ordnance.) blake, eli. w., blake crusher, , . blanchard, thos., , , , , , . blasting, . blast, steel. (see bessemer.) blauofen furnace. (see metallurgy.) bleaching and dyeing, . blenkinsop, . blithe, walter, . block printing. (see printing.) blodgett & lerow, sewing machines, . bloomaries. (see metallurgy.) blunderbuss, . bobbins--spinning, . boerhaave, . boetius, . bohemia, . boilers. (see steam engineering.) "boke of husbandry," , . bollman bridge, . bolting. (see milling.) bolt making. (see metal working.) bombards, . bombs. (see ordnance.) bomford, col., . bonaparte, , , . bonnets and ladies' hats, . bonjeau, m., . bonelli, m., . book making and binding, , . boots and shoes, to . boring machines, , . boring square holes, . bormann, genl., . bottle stoppers, . boulton and watt, , . bouton, . bourseuil, chas., . boyce, , . boyle, robert, , , , . box making. (see woodworking machinery.) braiding. (see sewing machines.) braithwaite, . brakes, bicycle, - . brakes, steam, railway and electric, , . brakes and gins, . bramah, jos., , , , , , , , . branch, . branco, . brahe, tycho, , . brass, . brayton, g. h., . brazil, , , . breech-loaders, , , , , .(see ordnance.) brewster, sir david, . brickmaking machines, kilns and processes, , . bridges and bridge building, to , . bright, john, . broadwood piano, . bronsen, . broom-making, , . brot, . brothers of the bridge, . bronze, , . brooklyn bridge, , . brown, sir saml., , , . "brown bess," . bruce, david, . brunel, i. k., . brunel, i. m., , . brunton, . brush--brush light, . brushes and brush making, . buchanan's practical essays, . buckingham, c. l., . buffing machines, . builders' hardware, . buildings, tall, , . buffers, . (see railways, elevator, etc., , .) bunsen, robt. w., , , . bunsen light, . burden, henry, . burdett, wm., . burke, edmund, . burns, robert, . butter, , . button-hole machines, . bunsen. (see chemistry.) c. cable transportation, . cæsar, . cahill, thaddeus, . caissons, . calcium-carbide, , . calico making and printing, , . california, . cameo cutting, . _camera obscura_, . campbell printing press, . canada, , . canals, and boats for, , , , , , . canal locks, . cane woven goods, . cannons and firearms, - . cantilever bridges, , . caoutchouc. (see rubber, .) caps,--gun, . car heating, . cars, sleeping, . (see railways.) car tracks, . car rails, . car wheels, . carbines, . (see ordnance.) carbon--chemistry. carbonating, . carborundum, . cardan, . carding, , . cardova. (see leather.) carlyle, . carnot. (see ordnance.) carpentry, , . carpets and looms, . carré brothers, . carriages and carrying machines, , - . carthagenians, . carts. (see coaches and waggons.) cartridges, . cartwright, rev. edwd., . carving machinery, . case-shot. (see ordnance.) cash registers, . cast iron, . catalan furnace, . (see metallurgy.) cauchy, . caus, salomon de, . cavendish, . caxton, . centennial exhibition. ; , , , , , , , , , , . centrifugal machines (pumps), , . charcoal. (see metallurgy.) chairs. (see furniture.) chaff separator. (see milling.) chain wheels--hydraulics, . chairs, tables, desks, etc. (see furniture, , .) challey, m., . "champion harvesters"--harvesters. chance & co., glass makers, . channelling shoes. (see leather.) chanute, octave, . chappe, m., . charles i. (see ordnance; charles ii., ; charles v., ; charles viii., .) chemistry, , . chemical telegraph. (see telegraphy.) chester-dial telegraph, . chili, . chill hardening, . chickering pianos, . chimes, . china and chinese inventions, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . chlorates, . chlorine, . chlorination, . chromium, . chronometers, , . chubb-safes, , . cigar and cigarette machines, , . cincinnati bridge. (see engineering.) cincinnatus, , . circulation of blood, . civil engineering, - . clark, alvan, . clavichord, . clayton, dr., , . clay, treatment of. (see brick and pottery making.) cleaning grain, etc. (see mills.) clement, metal worker, . clementi, pianist, . clepsydra, , , . "clermont." (see steam ships.) clippers, ships, . clocks, . (see horology.) clocks, essential parts of, . closets. (see baths.) cloth, making, finishing, ; drying, ; printing, ; creasing and pressing, ; cutting, - ; fancy woven, - . clothes. (see garments.) clover header, . clutches, - . clymer, of philadelphia, press, . coaches, stages, mail, etc., - . coach lace, . coal, , , ; coal breakers and cleaners, - . coal gas, ; coal tar colors. (see chemistry.) coal mining. (see ores.) coaling ships, . coehorn, shell, . coffin, journalist, . coke. (see metallurgy.) cold metal punching, working and rolling, - . colding of denmark, . collards, pianos, . collen, henry, . collins line. (see steam ships.) collinge, . coloring cloth, . colors and coloring, - . color process. (see photography, , printing, .) colt, revolvers, , , . columbiad, . colossus of rhodes, . comminges of france, . comminuting machines. (see grinding.) compartment vessels, . compass, . compensating devices, . compound engines, - . compressed air drills, . compressed air and steam, , , . compressed air ordnance, , . condensers, . condamine, . conservation of forces, . constitution, u.s., . convertibility of forces, . containers, . conveyors, transportation, , , , , , . cook, telegraphy, , . cooke, prof. j. p., . cooke, james, . cooking. (see stoves.) cooper, peter, . coopering. (see wood working.) copernicus, . copper, , , etc. corliss, . corn: cultivators, - ; mills, ; planters, . correlation of forces, . cort, henry, - . corundum, , . coster, . cotton, , ; gin, , , ; harvester, . cotton seed oil, . cotton and wool machinery, . (see textiles.) "counterblast to tobacco," . couplers, . cowper, . cowper, printer, . cowley, . cradle, grain, . cranes and derricks, , , , . crecy, ( ). (see ordnance.) cristofori, pianist, . crompton, saml., , , , . crompton, george, . crookes, prof. wm., . crooke tubes, . cros, charles, . crushers, stone and ore, . crystal palace, . ctesibius, , , , . cultivators, , . curtet, . cugnot, , . culverin. (see cannon.) cunard line, . cuneus, . curtains shades and screens, . cyanide. cyanide process, . cyclometers, . d. daguerre, - . daguerreotype, . dahlgren, cannon, . danks, rotary puddler, . dalton, john, - , , , . damascus steel, . (see metallurgy.) dana, prof., . daniell's battery, , . darby, abraham, , , . darwin, dr., th cent., . davy, humphry, sir, , , , , , , , , , , . david's harp, . decker, piano, . delinter, . dentistry, . dental chairs, , ; drills, ; engines, ; hammers, ; pluggers, . deoville, st. clair, . derricks, . "deutschland," the, . desks, . de susine, . dewar, prof., . dial telegraphs. (see telegraphy.) diamonds. (see milling; polishing; artificial, .) diamond drill, . diana, temple of, . diastase, . didot, francois, , . dickenson, . digesters. (see chemistry.) differential motion, . dioptric lens, . diorama, . direct acting engines, . direct feed engines, . discoveries, distinct from inventions, , . disk plows, , . distaff and spindle. (see textiles, .) dodge, james m., . doffers, . dog carts. (see carriages.) dollond, john, . donkin, . donovan, . don quixote, . douglass, nicholas, . draining, , , . drags and drays. (see waggons, - .) drais, baron von, . drake, e. s., col., . draper, j. w., prof., , , . drawing machines, spinning, , , . dredging, , , . dressing; of thread and cloths, , ; of skins. (see leather.) drills, seeders, , . drills, stone ore and iron, , . drying apparatus. (see kilns.) dreyse, . dualine, . duboscq, . dudley, dud, . duncan, john, . dundas, charlotte, . dundonald, lord, . dundas, lord, , . dunlop, j. b., bicycles, . duplex engines, . dulcimer. (see music.) dust explosions and collectors, . dutch paper, ; printing, . dutch canals, . dutch clocks, , . dutch furnaces and stoves, . dutch locks, . dutch ships, . dutch ware, . dutton, maj. c. e., . dynamometer, , . dynamite, . dynamo electric machines, , , . e. eads, james b., . eames of u. s., . east river bridge, , . eddystone lighthouse, . edison, , , , , , . egyptian agriculture, arts and inventions, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . eiffel, m., . electricity, , - . electric alarms. (see locks.) electric batteries, - . electric cable, . electric heating, . electric lighting, , , to , , . electro-chemistry, . electro-magnets, - . electro metallurgy, , , . electrodes, , . electrolysis, , . electrometer, , . electrical music, . electro plating, . electric railway, , . electric signals and stops, , . electric telegraphy, , , , , , , . electrotyping, , . electric type printing, , . electric type writer, . electric voters, . elevators, , , , , , , , . eliot, prof., . elizabeth, queen, . elton, john, . elvean, louis t. van, . embossing, , . embossing, weaving, . embroidery, , . emery, abrading, , . emery, testing machines, . england, , , , , . engraving machines, . enamelling. (see pottery.) enamelled ware, , . engineering. (see civil.) electric, ; hydraulic, ; marine, ; mining, ; steam, . eolipile. (see hero.) erard, pianist, . erasmus, . ericsson, john, , , , , . euclid, . euler, , . evans, oliver, - ; , , , , , , , . evaporating, . evelyn, john, ; . evolution of modern inventions, . excavating, , . explosives, . eylewein, . f. fabroni, , . faience, , . fairbairn, sir wm., , , , . fairbanks, scales and testing, . fahrenheit, . fanning mills, . faraday, michael, , , , , , , , , , , , . fan mills, . fare registers, . farmer, moses g., , , . factory life, . faure, m. camille, . faur, faber du, . faust, . felt making, . fermentation, , , . fertilizers--machines and compositions. (see agriculture.) field, cyrus w., . filament-carbon, . (see electric lighting.) filters, filtering, , , . filter press, . fink bridge, . fire-arms, - . fire crackers, . fire engines, . fire place, . fiske, range finder, . fiske, , . fitch, john, , . fitzherbert, sir a., , . fireproof safes. (see locks.) flax machines, . flax brakes, . flaxman, . flax-threshers, , . fleming, . fleshing machines, . fletcher, . flexible shafts, . florence, . flour. (see mills.) fly shuttle. (see spinning and weaving.) foods, preparation of, , . force feed-seeders, . forneyron, , . forsythe, rev. mr., , . foucault, . fourcroy, . fourdrinier, . (see paper making.) frackelton, susan, portable kiln, . france, , , , , , . francis, s. w., . frank, pottery, . franklin, benj., , , , , , , , , , , , . franklin institute, . fraunhofer, von, jos., , . frederick, henry, . freiberg mining academy, metallurgy, . fresnel, . frictional electricity, . frieburg bridge. (see bridges.) frogs, r. r., . flintlock, firearms, . froment, . frontinus, on roman aqueducts, . fruits, preparation of, , . fruit jars, . fry, laura, . fulton, robt., - . furnaces, hot air; hot water, , . furniture, , , . furniture machinery, , . fuses, . g. gaffield, thos., glass, . gale, prof., . galileo, , , , , . gally, self-playing pianos, . galton, capt. douglas, . galvani, , , , . galvanism, , . galvanic batteries, , . galvanic music, , . galvanometer, , . gamble, . garay, blasco de, . garments, - . gas, ; illuminating, , , - . gases, motors, , . gas checks, . gas engines, , , - . gasoline and stoves, . gas pumps, . gatling, dr., gun, . gaul, , . gauss, . gay-lussac, , , , . ged, wm., . geissler tubes, , . generator, electric, . gentleman farmer, , . george iii., . german inventions, , , , , , , , . germ theory, . german clock and watch making, . gibraltar, . giffard-injector, . gilbert, dr., , , . gill, j. g., . giers, , . gin-cotton, . gladstone, inventor, , . glass, , . glass, wool, and silk, , . glazes, . (see porcelain.) glauber, . glycerine, . gold. (see metallurgy.) goodyear, chas., , , , , . googe, barnaby, . gompertz, . gordon, . gothic architecture, . governors, . graham (chemist), . graham. (see horology.) grain binder. (see harvesters.) grain cradles, drills, and seeders. (see agriculture.) grain elevator, . grain separators, . gramme, z., , , . gramophone, , . graphophone, , . grass burning stoves, . gray, elisha. (see electricity.) gray, s., , , . "great britain," the, . "great republic," the, . great urgroez, . greece and greek antiquities and inventions, , , , , , , , , , , , , , . grenades, . green, n. w., driven well, . greenough, j. j., . gribeauval, . griffith, julius, . griffiths of u. s., . grinding by stones, to . grinding glass, . grindstones, . grossat, . grover and baker sewing mach., . grooving, . grove, sir wm. robert, . gruner, . gun carriages. (see ordnance.) gun cotton, . gun making, . gunpowder, , , , . gunpowder eng., . gun-stock, . guericke, otto von, , , . guillaume, puy, . gurney, . guttenberg, john, . h. hales, dr., . hall, john h., . hall safes, . hamberg, . hamblet, . hamilton (stove inventor), . hammers, steam and air, , . hanckwitz, godfrey, , . hancock, walter, . handel, . hanging gardens, . hardening metals, . hardware. (see metal working.) hargreaves, jas., , , . harnesses, . harp, the, and the harpsichord, , . harvesters, , , , , , , . hartshorn, spring roller shades, . harveyized steel, , . harrows, , . hautefeuille, . hauteville, abbé, , . hat making, . haydn, . hay, rakes and tedders, , . headers, . heat as power, , . heating, , , . hebrews, , , . hele, p., . helmont, j. van, , . hell gate, . helmholtz, , , , , , , , . hendley, wm., . henry, joseph, , , , , , , . henry, rifle, . henry, wm., . herissent, m., . hermetical sealing, . herodotus, . hero of alexander, , , , , , , , , . herring, safes, . herschel, , . hides, treatment of. (see leather.) hide mills, . high and low pressure engines, , . hindoos, , , , , , , . hodges, james, of montreal, . hoe, robert, and son, r. m., . hoe drill-seeders, . hoes, , . hoffman, dr., . hoisting, conveying, and storing, - . holland, , , , . holley, a. l., . holtzapffel, j., . homer, . hooke, dr., , . hoopes and townsend, . hoppers. (see mills.) hopper boy. (see mills.) hoosac tunnel, . hornblower, , . horrocks, . horse power, . horseshoes, . horology, - . hot air engines, . hot air blast, . hot furnaces. (see heating.) hot water circulation. (see heating.) hotchkiss gun, . houdin regulator, . houses, their construction, , . houston. (see telegraphy.) howe, elias, - . howe bridge, . howitzer. (see ordnance.) hunt, walter, , . hungary, . huggins, dr., , . hughes, d. e., . hugon, . hulls, jonathan, . huntsman, benj., . "husbandry, the whole art of." (see agriculture.) huskisson, . hussey, , , . huxley, . huygens, , , , , , , . hydraulicising, . hydraulic elevators, , , , , . hydraulic jacks, . hydraulic motors, - ; pumps, rams, , ; press, , , , , , , ; testing, , . hydrogen gas, . hydrostatic engines and presses, , , . i. ida, mountains of, iron, . illuminating gas. (see gas.) impulse pump. (see ram.) incandescent light, , . incubators, . india, , . industrial mechanics, - . injectors, . intensifiers, . international exposition, london, , . invention, what it is, how induced, distinctions, growth, protection of, - . iron, . iron ships. (see ships.) iridescent glass, . ironing machines, . italy, , . ives. f. e. (three-color process), . j. jablochoff, m. paul, . jacks, . jacobi, of russia, . jackson, c. t., dr., . jacquard loom, the, , , . jacquard, joseph marie, , . jenk's ring frame, . jenkins, prof. f., . jefferson, thos., , . jenkin, prof. fleeming, . jewelry, . "jimcrow," . johnson, denis. (see bicycle.) jones, iron and steel, . jonval, . joule, . jupiter, statue of, . k. kaleidoscope, . karnes, lord, , . kaolin. (see lighting.) kay, john, , . "kearsarge," the, . kepler, . kennedy, diss and cannan, . kilns, , , . kinetic energy, age of, . kinetograph, . kirchoff, g. r., , . kitchen and table utensils, . knabe piano, . knight, edward, , , , , , , , . knitting, , . könig and bauer, . könig, acoustics, . koops, . koster, , rifle, . krag-jorgensen rifle, . kramer, . krupp, steel, . krupp, fredk., guns, . krupp, glass, . kutler, augustin, . l. la condamine, . labor organizations, . labor, how affected by inventions; reducing, and increasing, , , , , , , , , . lace making, . laconium, . ladd electric machine, . la hire, , . laird, john, , . lallement, p. (see bicycle.) lamps and lamp lighting, , . lancaster, cannon, . land reclamation, . lane, , . lane-fox light, . langen and otto. (see gas engine.) langley, prof., . l'hommedieu, . lapping-cotton, , . lasts, making of, , . lathes, - , , , ; for turning irregular forms of wood, . lattice work bridges, . laundry, . lavoisier, , , . lawn mowers, . lazy tongs mechanism, . le bon, , , . leaching, . lead, . (see metallurgy.) leather, - . leeuwenhoek of holland, . leeu, . leckie, . le conte, . lefaucheux, m., . leibnitz, . lenoir, . lesage, . lescatello, , . leyden jar, . libavius, . liebig, . lieberkulm, dr., . light, . lighting. (see lamps and gas.) light houses, illumination, , . linotype, , , . linville bridge, . lippersheim, . liquid air, , . livingstone, dr., . livingston, robt., , . lixiviation, . locks, - . locomotives, , , , . looms, , , . (see textiles.) loomis, mahlen, . "london engineering," . london exhibition, , . london times, , . lontin regulator, . lost arts, . louis xi., xiv., , . lowell, francis c., . lowe, t. s. c., gas, , . lubricants, . lyall, james, . lyttleton, . m. macarthur-forrest, cyanide process, . macaulay, lord, . mackintosh, of glasgow, . machine guns, . madersperger, jos., . magdeburg, . magic lantern. (see optics.) magnets and magnetic electricity, , , , , , . mail bags and locks, . mail service, . mail marking, . majolica. (see pottery.) malt, , . man a tool-using animal, . manning, , . marble, artificial, , . marine propulsion, . marconi, . mariotte's law of gases, , . markers and cutters, . markham, . marsland, looms, . marr, wm., . martin, prof., . marvin's safes, . mcclure's magazine, , . mccormick reaper, , . mccallum bridge, . mckay, ships, . mckay, shoe machines, . mcmillan bicycle, . mary, queen, . mason, prof. o. t., . massachusetts, mills, , . massachusetts, shoe making, . master locks, , . matches, , , . matting, , . maudsley, henry, , . maurice of nassau, . maurice, peter, . mauser rifle, . mausoleum, . maxim electric light, . maxwell, . mayer, prof., . meares, , . meat, preparation of, . mechanical powers, . medicine and surgery, , , . meigs, general m. c., . meikle, , . megaphone, . melville, david, . menai straits bridges, . mendeljeff, . menzies of scotland, . mergenthaler, . merrimac and monitor, , . metals and metallurgy, - . metal founding, . metal working and turning, ; boring, planing, ; hammering, shaping, ; modern metal working plant, . metal, personal ware, buckles, clasps, hooks, buttons, etc., . meters, gas and water, . mexico, , . microphone, . microscope, . middlings purifier, , . milk, milkers, , . millet, . mills, to . milling, high, low, . miller, wood working, . miller and taylor, . millwright, the young, . milton, , . mineral wool, minerals and mining, - . minneapolis mills, . mitrailleuses, . modern machinery, its commencement, . mohl, von, hugo, . moigno, abbé, . mold, aging. (see chemistry.) moulding. (see wood-working and glass making.) monks, . "monitor," the, , . montgolfier, . moody, paul, . moors, . morin, genl., , . morland, sir sam'l, . morrison, chas., . morse, s. b. f., , , , . mortars, . mortise making, . morton, dr. w. t. g., . motor vehicles, . mont cenis tunnel, . mowers, , , , , , , . moxon, jos., . mozart, . murdock, wm., , . music, - . musical instruments, , . musical electrical apparatus, . muschenbroeck, prof., , , . mushet, iron and steel, . muskets. (see ordnance.) muzzle loaders, , . n. national assembly, france, . napoleon. (see bonaparte.) naphtha, . nasmyth, , . needle, , . needle gun, . niedringhaus, . netting. (see spinning.) newcomen, , , , , , . newbold, chas., . newbury, wm., . newton, sir isaac, , , , , , , . niagara bridges, , , . niagara power, , . nicholson and carlisle, . nicholson, wm., of england, . nickel. (see metallurgy.) niepce, jas. n., . nitro-glycerine, . noah's ark, . nobel, a., . nollet, prof., . noria, the, . norway, , , . nozzles, flexible, ; water, . o. oersted, , . ogle, , . ohm, g. s., . oils and fats, . oil cloth, . oil lamps, . oil stoves and furnaces, , . oiling waves, . oil wells, , . omnibus. (see stages and carriers.) opening and blowing machines, cotton, . opthalmoscope, . optical instruments, - . ordnance, arms, explosives, to . ores, treatment of, , , , to . ore separators, . (see metallurgy.) organs, . ornamental iron work. (see metal working.) ornamental wood work. (see wood working.) oscillating engines. (see steam.) osmund furnaces. (see metallurgy.) otis elevators, . otto, nicolaus a., otto engine, , . oxygen, , . (see priestley.) p. paddle wheels and vessels, . paints, . painting, , , . painting machines, , , . paixhans, genl., , . page, prof. c. g., , . page, ralph, . palissy, bernard, . palmer, stage-coaches, . palladius, . panoramas, . paper and printing, - . paper bag machinery, . papin, , , , , . papyrus, , . paraffine. (see oils.) parchment, . parkinson, thos., . parliament, house of, . parquetry. (see wood-working.) parrott, gun, . parthenon, . partridge, reuben, matches, . pascal, , , , . pasteur, . patents, their origin and purpose, , . pattern making. (see wood, metal, and textiles.) pauley, col., . pegs, , . pencils, . pendulum. (see horology.) pendulum machines, . penelope, . pennsylvania fireplace, . percussion caps, , . percy. (see metallurgy.) permutation locks, . pernot, . perin & co., saws, . persians, . petroleum, , . petzold, . pfaff, . pharos of alexandria, . phelps, g. m., . ph[oe]nicians, , . "ph[oe]nix," the. (see ships.) phonautograph, , . phonograph, , . phonophone, . phonoscope, . photophone, . phosphorus matches, . photochromoscope, . photography, , , , . photo-processes, . piano, , - . picking machine, , . picker-motion, looms, . piezometer, . pigments, . pitt, inventor, , . pixii, . planes, , . (see wood-working.) planing machines, , , . (see wood-working.) planté, g., . planters. (see chap. iii.) plaster, . plato, . platt, sir hugh, . platt, senator, . pliny, , , , , , . ploughs, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . plucknett, , . pneumatics, , to . pneumatic machines, , , . pneumatic propellers, . pneumatic tires, . pneumatic tubes and transmission, , . polemoscope, . polishing glass, . pope, alexander, . porcelain, , . poririer (match machine), . porta baptista, . porta g. della, . portable engines, . potato planters, . potassium, . potter, humphrey, . pottery, - . pousard, . powder, . power, measure of, . prehistoric inventions. (see beginning of each chapter.) pressing machines, , , . priestley, , , . "princeton," the, . printing press, , , - . prince of orange, . projectiles, - . prometheus, , . protoplasm, . prussia, . providence, r. i., tool co., . psalteries, . ptah, . puckle's patent breech loader, , . puddling, , , . pug mills, . pullman car, . pulp, - . pumps, . ptolemy, . puillet, . puy guillaume, battle of, , . pyramids, , . q. quadruplex telegraphy. (see telegraphy.) "queen ann's pocket piece," . queen of sheba, . quern, . quilting machine, . r. radcliffe, . radiation and radiators, , . railways, rails and tracks, , ; cars, , ; frogs, . railway cars, , . rakes. (see agriculture.) ramage press, . ramseye, david, , . ramelli, cardan, . ramsey, david, , , . ram, water. (see pumps.) randolph, david m., . randolph, elder and co., . ranges. (see stoves.) range finder, . raphael, . rawhides. (see leather.) read, nathan, , . reapers. (see harvesters, , , , , .) reichenbach, . reis, prof., , . refining metals, . refrigeration, , , . regenerators, . regenerative furnace. (see metallurgy, also, .) registers, . regulators, electric, ; time, . rennie, . repeating watches, . reservoirs, , . resonators, . revault, , . revolvers. (see fire arms.) rhode island, . ribbon making, . rickel, dr., . rider bridge, . riehle, testing mach., . rifles, , , . rifled cannon, , . ring frame-spinning, . ritter, , . riveting, . road carriage, steam, . roads, , . road making, . robia, luca della, . robert, louis, . roberts, . rock drilling, . rockers, ore, . rockets, . rodman, general, gun, . roebling, john a., engineer, , . roebling, washington, , . roentgen, x rays, . rohes, m. beau de, . rogers, saml. b., metallurgist, , . rogers, type maker, . roller press, , . roman arts, inventions, etc., , , , , , , , , , , , . rookwood pottery, . romagnosi, g. d., . roscoe, prof. (see chemistry.) rose, h., . rotary engines. (see steam.) rotary printing press, . (see printing.) rotary pumps. (see water and steam eng.) roving, spinning, , . rubber, , . ruhmkorff coil, . rumford, count, . rumsey, james, , . russia, , , . russian leather, . rust, saml., . ruth, . s. sabot, projectiles, , . safes and locks, - . safety valves, . saint, thomas, sewing machine, . salman, scales maker, . salonen, , mower, . samians and samos, . sand blast, , , . sand filters. (see filters.) sandwich, earl, , . saracens, . sarnstrom, prof., . savery, thos., , . saws, , , , , . saw mills, , . saxton, jos., . scales, . scaliger, . scandinavians, . scarborough, . schilling, baron, . schönbein, . schapper, hartman, . schoeffer, peter, . schreiber, . schrotter (matches), . schweigger, s. c., . scoops, . scotland, , , . scott, phonautograph, , . scott, sir walter, , . scott, gen. w., . scott, rich'd, . scouring machines. (see leather and cloth, and grain.) screw, archimedean. (see ships and propeller.) screw, press, . screw propeller, , . screw making, , . scythians, , . scythes, , , . seed drills, , , , . seely, f. a., . self-playing instruments, . seguin, . sellers, wm., , . separators, grain, , ; milk, ; ore, . (see mills.) seppings, sir robert, . serrin, . serviere, . seward, wm. h., . seven wonders, the, , . sewing machines, - . sewer construction, . shades and screens, . shaping machines, . sharp's carbine, . shaw, joshua, . sheele, . sheet metal ware, . shells, . shingle making, . shinar, brick making in, . ships, war, and others, , , - . shoes and machinery, - . sholes, inventor, type writing, . shrapnel, . shuttles, . (see textiles.) sickle, , . side wheel steamboats, . siemens, dr. werner, . siemens, wm., sir., , . siemens and halske, , . siemens, c. l., , , . silk making. (see spinning.) silk, artificial. (see glass.) silver, . singer, sewing machine, , . sinking shafts, mode of, , . skiving. (see leather.) slade, j. t., . slater, thomas, . slaughtering, . sleighs, , . slide, rest, , . slotting machines, . small arms, . (see ordnance.) small, jas., , . smeaton, , . smelting, . (see metallurgy.) smiles, self help, . smith & wesson, revolvers, . snellus, . snow ploughs, . soda, pulp, . solarmeter, . solomon's temple, . somerset, marquis of worcester. (see steam.) sound, . (see acoustics.) sowing, . spanish inventions, , , , , , . spectacles. (see optics.) spectrum, analysis, , , , , . spectroscope, , . speed indicators, . spencer, gun, . spencer, metal coating, . spinet, . spinning, , , , . (see textiles.) "spinning jenny," . spinning mule, , . "spiritalia," . splitting, leather, . spooling, . springfield musket, . spun glass. (see spinning and .) stamp mills and metal working, , . standard time, . stanhope, earl, . st. gothard tunnel, . st. louis bridge, . steam engines, , , to ; boilers, ; heating, ; pumps, , , . steam ships, , , , . stearns, . steel, manufacture of. (see metallurgy.) steinheil, , . steinway, pianos, . stenographing, . stereoscope, , . stereotyping, . sterilisation, , . stephenson, geo., , , , , . stephenson, robert, , , , . stevens, john c., , , , . stevinus, . stitching machines. (see sewing.) stocking making, . stone cutting, carving and dressing, , . stone crushing, . stone, artificial, . storage battery, . storm, w. m. (gunpowder engine,) . store service, , , , . stoves, - . street, robert, . street sweeping, . stow, . stückofen, metallurgy, . sturgeon, inventor, , , . sturtevant, b. f. (shoes), . submarine blasting, etc., . suez canal, . sugar, . sun-dial, . subdivision of labor, . (see ordnance and sewing machines.) surgery and instruments, . suspension bridges, , - . swan, light, . sweden, . sweeping machines, . swiss manufactures, (see watches, etc.) switzerland, , , . symington, , , . syphon recorder, . t. t-rail, . tables, . (see furniture.) tachenius, . tack making, . tainter, c. s., , . takamine, . talus, or perdix, saw inventor, . tanning. (see leather.) tapestry, . teasling, . tedders, . telegraph, - , , . telegraphic pictures, . telephone, , , , , . telescope, , . telpherage, . telford, , . tennyson, . tesla, . testing machines, . textiles, - . thermo-electricity, , . theodore of samos, . thimonnier, . thomson, sir wm., , . thompson, robt. wm., , . thompson & houston, . "three color process," . thread making. (see spinning.) threshing machines, , . throstle, . thurston, prof. r. h., . tiles, . tilghman, b. f., sand blast, , . time locks, . time measuring of the ancients, . tissier, . tobacco and machinery, , , . tools, primitive, , , . torpedo vessels, , . torpedoes, . torricelli, , . tour, cagniard de la, . towne's lattice bridge, . traction railways and engines, . transplanters, . transportation, , . treadwell, daniel, . tresca, m., . trevithick, richard, , . tripler, c. e., liquid air, . trolley lines. (see electric, etc.) trough batteries. (see electricity.) truss bridges, , . tubal cain, , . tubes and tubing, making, . tubular bridges, , . tull, jethro, - , , . tungsten. (see metals.) tunnels, , . turbines, , , , . turning, art of, , , . tusser, thomas, . tweddle, . twine binders. (see harvesters.) twinings (inventor, refrigerator), . tympanum, . tyndall, john, , . type, , . type distributor, . type setter, , . type writers, , . v. vail, alfred, . valerius, . valves, valve gear, , . vapor engines, - . vapor stoves, - , . varley, alfred, . varro, . vegetable cutters, . velocipedes, . venetians, . ventilation, . veneering, . vestibule cars, . vick, henry de, clockmaker, . victoria bridge. (see bridges.) vienna, . vienna exposition, . vince, leonardo de, . virgil, . virginal, , . vitruvius, . volta, voltaic electricity, , , , to , , , , . von alteneck, h., . von drais, . vortex theory, ; vortex wheel, . voting machines, . vulcan, . vulcanisation. (see rubber.) w. waggons, . walker, john (matches), . walker, joseph, . wales, thos. c., . wallace and maxim, . wall paper, , . walter, john, . watches, . (see clocks.) waltham watches, . war, effect on by inventions, , . washington, , . washing and ironing machines, - . wasp, first paper maker, . watches. (see horology.) water. (see hydraulics.) water clocks, , . water closets, . water distribution, , ; gas, . water wheels, ; mills, ; engines, . water frame. (see spinning.) water metres, ; scoops, . watts' dictionary of chemistry, . watt, james, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . watson, bishop, . weaving, , , . (see textiles.) weaver's shuttle, . weber piano, . webster, daniel, . wedgwood, , , . weeks, jos., . weighing, scales, etc., , , . weisenthal, c. f., , . welding, . wellington, duke of, . wells, making and boring of, , - ; driven, ; artesian, . welsbach lamp, . westinghouse, electric light, , . weston, sir richard, . weston, electrician, . west (destroyer of bacteria), . whaleback ships, . wheat, its cultivation, , . wheatstone, chas., , , , , . wheeler and wilson, . wheelbarrow, seeder, . whewell, . whitehurst, geo., . whitney, eli, cotton gin, , , . whitworth, sir j., , , . wilde, electric magnet, . wilder, safes, . wilkes, . william of malmesbury, . wilson, a. b., sewing machinery, . wilson, genl. john m., . winchester rifle, . wind mills, wheels, etc., . (see mills.) window glass, window screens, . wine making. (see chemistry.) winter, sir john, . wire working, . wire wound gun, . wireless telegraphy, , . wolf, aeronaut, . wöhler, chemist, . wollaston, , , . woodbridge, dr. w. e., , . woodbury, oscar d. and e. c., . woodworth, wm., planing machinery, . wood, lathe turning, . wood, bending and trenting of, , , . wood working machinery, , , , . woods, variety and beauty, . wood carving, . wool. (see spinning, weaving, textiles.) wool, mineral, , . wooden shoes, making of, . worcester, marquis of, , , , . work shop, a modern, . world's fair, , , . woven goods, variety of, , . wright (gas engine), . wren, architect, . wyatt of lichfield, , . x. x rays, , . xyloplasty, . y. yale, linus, jr., locks, . yankee clippers, . yarn. (see weaving, etc.) yeast, . york, duke of, , . young of america, , . young, arthur, - , , . youmans, prof., . z. zanon, , . zech, jacob, . zeppelin, count, . zimmermann, self-playing pianos, . zinc, . zinc batteries. (see electricity.) the nineteenth century series. _price s. each net._ religious progress in the century. by w. h. withrow, m. a., d. d., f. r. s. c. literature of the century. by professor a. b. de mille, m. a. progress of south africa in the century. by george mccall theal, d. lit., ll. d. medicine, surgery, and hygiene in the century. by ezra hurlburt stafford, m. d. progress of india, japan, and china in the century. by sir richard temple, bart., ll. d., &c. progress of the united states of america in the century. by prof. wm. peterfield trent, m. a., ll. d. continental rulers in the century. by percy m. thornton, ll. b., m. p. british sovereigns in the century. by t. h. s. escott, m. a. progress of british empire in the century. by james stanley little. progress of canada in the century. by j. castell hopkins, f. s. s. progress of australasia in the century. by t. a. coghlan, f. s. s., and thomas t. ewing. progress of new zealand in the century. by r. f. irvine, m. a., and o. t. j. alpers, m. a. political progress of the century. by thomas macknight. discoveries and explorations of the century. by professor c. g. d. roberts, m. a. economic and industrial progress of the century. by h. de beltgens gibbins, d. lit., m. a., f. r. g. s. inventions of the century. by william h. doolittle. wars of the century, and the development of military science. by professor oscar browning, m. a. naval battles of the century. by rear-admiral francis john higginson. naval development of the century. by sir nathaniel barnaby, k. c. b. presidents of the united states in the century (from jefferson to fillmore). by francis bellamy. presidents of the united states in the century (from pierce to mckinley). francis knowles. the fine arts in the century. by william sharp. progress of education in the century. by james laughlin hughes and louis r. klemm, ph. d. temperance and social progress of the century. by the hon. john g. woolley, m. a. progress of science in the century. by professor j. arthur thomson, m. a. edinburgh: printed by w. & r. chambers, limited. [illustration: marconi reading a message] stories of inventors the adventures of inventors and engineers. true incidents and personal experiences by russell doubleday acknowledgment the author and publishers take pleasure in acknowledging the courtesy of _the scientific american_ _the booklovers magazine_ _the holiday magazine_, and messrs. wood & nathan company for the use of a number of illustrations in this book. from _the scientific american_, illustrations facing pages , , , , , , , , , and . from _the booklovers magazine_, illustrations facing pages , , , and . from _the holiday magazine_, illustrations facing pages and . contents how guglielmo marconi telegraphs without wires santos-dumont and his air-ship how a fast train is run how automobiles work the fastest steamboats the life-savers and their apparatus moving pictures--some strange subjects and how they were taken bridge builders and some of their achievements submarines in war and peace long-distance telephony--what happens when you talk into a telephone receiver a machine that thinks--a type-setting machine that makes mathematical calculations how heat produces cold--artificial ice-making list of illustrations marconi reading a message _frontispiece_ marconi station at wellfleet, massachusetts the wireless telegraph station at glacé bay santos-dumont preparing for a flight rounding the eiffel tower the motor and basket of "santos-dumont no. " firing a fast locomotive track tank railroad semaphore signals thirty years' advance in locomotive building the "lighthouse" of the rail a giant automobile mower-thrasher an automobile buckboard an automobile plow the _velox_, of the british navy the engines of the _arrow_ a life-saving crew drilling life-savers at work biograph pictures of a military hazing developing moving-picture films building an american bridge in burmah viaduct across canyon diablo beginning an american bridge in mid-africa lake's submarine torpedo-boat _protector_ speeding at the rate of miles an hour singing into the telephone "central" telephone operators at work central making connections the back of a telephone switchboard a few telephone trunk wires the lanston type-setter keyboard where the "brains" are located the type moulds and the work they produce introduction there are many thrilling incidents--all the more attractive because of their truth--in the study, the trials, the disappointments, the obstacles overcome, and the final triumph of the successful inventor. every great invention, afterward marvelled at, was first derided. each great inventor, after solving problems in mechanics or chemistry, had to face the jeers of the incredulous. the story of james watt's sensations when the driving-wheels of his first rude engine began to revolve will never be told; the visions of robert fulton, when he puffed up the hudson, of the fleets of vessels that would follow the faint track of his little vessel, can never be put in print. it is the purpose of this book to give, in a measure, the adventurous side of invention. the trials and dangers of the builders of the submarine; the triumphant thrill of the inventor who hears for the first time the vibration of the long-distance message through the air; the daring and tension of the engineer who drives a locomotive at one hundred miles an hour. the wonder of the mechanic is lost in the marvel of the machine; the doer is overshadowed by the greatness of his achievement. these are true stories of adventure in invention. stories of inventors how guglielmo marconi telegraphs without wires a nineteen-year-old boy, just a quiet, unobtrusive young fellow, who talked little but thought much, saw in the discovery of an older scientist the means of producing a revolutionising invention by which nations could talk to nations without the use of wires or tangible connection, no matter how far apart they might be or by what they might be separated. the possibilities of guglielmo (william) marconi's invention are just beginning to be realised, and what it has already accomplished would seem too wonderful to be true if the people of these marvellous times were not almost surfeited with wonders. it is of the boy and man marconi that this chapter will tell, and through him the story of his invention, for the personality, the talents, and the character of the inventor made wireless telegraphy possible. it was an article in an electrical journal describing the properties of the "hertzian waves" that suggested to young marconi the possibility of sending messages from one place to another without wires. many men doubtless read the same article, but all except the young italian lacked the training, the power of thought, and the imagination, first to foresee the great things that could be accomplished through this discovery, and then to study out the mechanical problem, and finally to steadfastly push the work through to practical usefulness. it would seem that marconi was not the kind of boy to produce a revolutionising invention, for he was not in the least spectacular, but, on the contrary, almost shy, and lacking in the aggressive enthusiasm that is supposed to mark the successful inventor; quiet determination was a strong characteristic of the young italian, and a studious habit which had much to do with the great results accomplished by him at so early an age. he was well equipped to grapple with the mighty problem which he had been the first to conceive, since from early boyhood he had made electricity his chief study, and a comfortable income saved him from the grinding struggle for bare existence that many inventors have had to endure. although born in bologna (in ) and bearing an italian name, marconi is half irish, his mother being a native of britain. having been educated in bologna, florence, and leghorn, italy's schools may rightly claim to have had great influence in the shaping of his career. certain it is, in any case, that he was well educated, especially in his chosen branch. marconi, like many other inventors, did not discover the means by which the end was accomplished; he used the discovery of other men, and turned their impractical theories and inventions to practical uses, and, in addition, invented many theories of his own. the man who does old things in a new way, or makes new uses of old inventions, is the one who achieves great things. and so it was the reading of the discovery of hertz that started the boy on the train of thought and the series of experiments that ended with practical, everyday telegraphy without the use of wires. to begin with, it is necessary to give some idea of the medium that carries the wireless messages. it is known that all matter, even the most compact and solid of substances, is permeated by what is called ether, and that the vibrations that make light, heat, and colour are carried by this mysterious substance as water carries the wave motions on its surface. this strange substance, ether, which pervades everything, surrounds everything, and penetrates all things, is mysterious, since it cannot be seen nor felt, nor made known to the human senses in any way; colourless, odourless, and intangible in every way, its properties are only known through the things that it accomplishes that are beyond the powers of the known elements. ether has been compared by one writer to jelly which, filling all space, serves as a setting for the planets, moons, and stars, and, in fact, all solid substances; and as a bowl of jelly carries a plum, so all solid things float in it. heinrich hertz discovered that in addition to the light, heat, and colour waves carried by ether, this substance also served to carry electric waves or vibrations, so that electric impulses could be sent from one place to another without the aid of wires. these electric waves have been named "hertzian waves," in honour of their discoverer; but it remained for marconi, who first conceived their value, to put them to practical use. but for a year he did not attempt to work out his plan, thinking that all the world of scientists were studying the problem. the expected did not happen, however. no news of wireless telegraphy reached the young italian, and so he set to work at his father's farm in bologna to develop his idea. [illustration: the marconi station at glacÉ bay, cape breton from the wires hung to these towers are sent the messages that carry clear across to england.] and so the boy began to work out his great idea with a dogged determination to succeed, and with the thought constantly in mind spurring him on that it was more than likely that some other scientist was striving with might and main to gain the same end. his father's farm was his first field of operations, the small beginnings of experiments that were later to stretch across many hundreds of miles of ocean. set up on a pole planted at one side of the garden, he rigged a tin box to which he connected, by an insulated wire, his rude transmitting apparatus. at the other side of the garden a corresponding pole with another tin box was set up and connected with the receiving apparatus. the interest of the young inventor can easily be imagined as he sat and watched for the tick of his recording instrument that he knew should come from the flash sent across the garden by his companion. much time had been spent in the planning and the making of both sets of instruments, and this was the first test; silent he waited, his nerves tense, impatient, eager. suddenly the morse sounder began to tick and burr-r-r; the boy's eyes flashed, and his heart gave an exultant bound--the first wireless message had been sent and received, and a new marvel had been added to the list of world's wonders. the quiet farm was the scene of many succeeding experiments, the place having been put at his disposal by his appreciative father, and in addition ample funds were generously supplied from the same source. different heights of poles were tried, and it was found that the distance could be increased in proportion to the altitude of the pole bearing the receiving and transmitting tin boxes or "capacities"--the higher the poles the greater distance the message could be sent. the success of marconi's system depended largely on his receiving apparatus, and it is on account of his use of some of the devices invented by other men that unthinking people have criticised him. he adapted to the use of wireless telegraphy certain inventions that had heretofore been merely interesting scientific toys--curious little instruments of no apparent practical value until his eye saw in them a contributory means to a great end. though hertz caught the etheric waves on a wire hoop and saw the answering sparks jump across the unjoined ends, there was no way to record the flashes and so read the message. the electric current of a wireless message was too weak to work a recording device, so marconi made use of an ingenious little instrument invented by m. branly, called a coherer, to hitch on, as it were, the stronger current of a local battery. so the weak current of the ether waves, aided by the stronger current of the local circuit, worked the recorder and wrote the message down. the coherer was a little tube of glass not as long as your finger, and smaller than a lead pencil, into each end of which was tightly fitted plugs of silver; the plugs met within a small fraction of an inch in the centre of the tube, and the very small space between the ends of the plugs was filled with silver and nickel dust so fine as to be almost as light as air. though a small instrument, and more delicate than a clinical thermometer, it loomed large in the working-out of wireless telegraphy. one of the silver plugs of the coherer was connected to the receiving wire, while the other was connected to the earth (grounded). to one plug of the coherer also was joined one pole of the local battery, while the other pole was in circuit with the other plug of the coherer through the recording instrument. the fine dust-like silver and nickel particles in the coherer possessed the quality of high resistance, except when charged by the electric current of the ether waves; then the particles of metal clung together, cohered, and allowed of the passage of the ether waves' current and the strong current of the local battery, which in turn actuated the morse sounder and recorder. the difficulty with this instrument was in the fact that the metal particles continued to cohere, unless shaken apart, after the ether waves' current was discontinued. so marconi invented a little device which was in circuit with the recorder and tapped the coherer tube with a tiny mallet at just the right moment, causing the particles to separate, or decohere, and so break the circuit and stop the local battery current. as no wireless message could have been received without the coherer, so no record or reading could have been made without the young italian's improvement. in sending the message from one side of his father's estate at bologna to the other the young inventor used practically the same methods that he uses to-day. marconi's transmitting apparatus consisted of electric batteries, an induction coil by which the force of the current is increased, a telegrapher's key to make and break the circuit, and a pair of brass knobs. the batteries were connected with the induction coil, which in turn was connected with the brass knobs; the telegrapher's key was placed between the battery and the coil. it was the boy scarcely out of his teens who worked out the principles of his system, but it took time and many, many experiments to overcome the obstacles of long-distance wireless telegraphy. the sending of a message across the garden in far-away italy was a simple matter--the depressed key completed the electric circuit created by a strong battery through the induction coil and made a spark jump between the two brass knobs, which in turn started the ether vibrating at the rate of three or four hundred million times a minute from the tin box on top of a pole. the vibrations in the ether circled wider and wider, as the circular waves spread from the spot where a stone is dropped into a pool, but with the speed of light, until they reached a corresponding tin box on top of a like pole on the other side of the garden; this box, and the wire connected with it, caught the waves, carried them down to the coherer, and, joining the current from the local battery, a dot or dash was recorded; immediately after, the tapper separated the metal particles in the coherer and it was ready for the next series of waves. one spark made a single dot, a stream of sparks the dash of the morse telegraphic code. the apparatus was crude at first, and worked spasmodically, but marconi knew he was on the right track and persevered. with the heightening of the pole he found he could send farther without an increase of electric power, until wireless messages were sent from one extreme limit of his father's farm to the other. it is hard to realize that the young inventor only began his experiments in wireless telegraphy in , and that it is scarcely eight years since the great idea first occurred to him. after a year of experimenting on his father's property, marconi was able to report to w.h. preece, chief electrician of the british postal system, certain definite facts--not theories, but facts. he had actually sent and received messages, without the aid of wires, about two miles, but the facilities for further experimenting at bologna were exhausted, and he went to england. here was a youth (scarcely twenty-one), with a great invention already within his grasp--a revolutionising invention, the possibilities of which can hardly yet be conceived. and so this young italian, quiet, retiring, unassuming, and yet possessing jove's power of sending thunderbolts, came to london (in ), to upbuild and link nation to nation more closely. with his successful experiments behind him, marconi was well received in england, and began his further work with all the encouragement possible. then followed a series of tests that were fairly bewildering. messages were sent through brick walls--through houses, indeed--over long stretches of plain, and even through hills, proving beyond a doubt that the etheric electric waves penetrated everything. for a long time marconi used modifications of the tin boxes which were a feature of his early trials, but later balloons covered with tin-foil, and then a kite six feet high, covered with thin metallic sheets, was used, the wire leading down to the sending and receiving instruments running down the cord. with the kite, signals were sent eight miles by the middle of . marconi was working on the theory that the higher the transmitting and receiving "capacity," as it was then called, or wire, or "antenna," the greater distance the message could be sent; so that the distance covered was only limited by the height of the transmitting and receiving conductors. this theory has since been abandoned, great power having been substituted for great height. marconi saw that balloons and kites, the playthings of the winds, were unsuitable for his purpose, and sought some more stable support for his sending and receiving apparatus. he set up, therefore (in november, ), at the needles, isle of wight, a -foot mast, from the apex of which was strung his transmitting wire (an insulated wire, instead of a box, or large metal body, as heretofore used). this was the forerunner of all the tall spars that have since pointed to the sky, and which have been the centre of innumerable etheric waves bearing man's messages over land and sea. with the planting of the mast at the needles began a new series of experiments which must have tried the endurance and determination of the young man to the utmost. a tug was chartered, and to the sixty-foot mast erected thereon was connected the wire and transmitting and receiving apparatus. from this little vessel marconi sent and received wireless signals day after day, no matter what the state of the weather. with each trip experience was accumulated and the apparatus was improved; the moving station steamed farther and farther out to sea, and the ether waves circled wider and wider, until, at the end of two months of sea-going, wireless telegraphy signals were received clear across to the mainland, fourteen miles, whereupon a mast was set up and a station established (at bournemouth), and later eighteen miles away at poole. by the middle of marconi's wireless system was doing actual commercial service in reporting, for a dublin newspaper, the events at a regatta at kingstown, when about seven hundred messages were sent from a floating station to land, at a maximum distance of twenty-five miles. it was shortly afterward, while the royal yacht was in cowes bay, that one hundred and fifty messages between the then prince of wales and his royal mother at osborne house were exchanged, most of them of a very private nature. one of the great objections to wireless telegraphy has been the inability to make it secret, since the ether waves circle from the centre in all directions, and any receiving apparatus within certain limits would be affected by the waves just as the station to which the message was sent would be affected by them. to illustrate: the waves radiating from a stone dropped into a still pool would make a dead leaf bob up and down anywhere on the pool within the circle of the waves, and so the ether waves excited the receiving apparatus of any station within the effective reach of the circle. of course, the use of a cipher code would secure the secrecy of a message, but marconi was looking for a mechanical device that would make it impossible for any but the station to which the message was sent to receive it. he finally hit upon the plan of focussing the ether waves as the rays of a searchlight are concentrated in a given direction by the use of a reflector, and though this adaptation of the searchlight principle was to a certain extent successful, much penetrating power was lost. this plan has been abandoned for one much more ingenious and effective, based on the principle of attunement, of which more later. it was a proud day for the young italian when his receiver at dover recorded the first wireless message sent across the british channel from boulogne in --just the letters v m and three or four words in the morse alphabet of dots and dashes. he had bridged that space of stormy, restless water with an invisible, intangible something that could be neither seen, felt, nor heard, and yet was stronger and surer than steel--a connection that nothing could interrupt, that no barrier could prevent. the first message from england to france was soon followed by one to m. branly, the inventor of the coherer, that made the receiving of the message possible, and one to the queen of marconi's country. the inventor's march of progress was rapid after this--stations were established at various points all around the coast of england; vessels were equipped with the apparatus so that they might talk to the mainland and to one another. england's great dogs of war, her battle-ships, fought an imaginary war with one another and the orders were flashed from the flagship to the fighters, and from the admiral's cabin to the shore, in spite of fog and great stretches of open water heaving between. [illustration: the wireless telegraph station at glacÉ bay] a lightship anchored off the coast of england was fitted with the marconi apparatus and served to warn several vessels of impending danger, and at last, after a collision in the dark and fog, saved the men who were aboard of her by sending a wireless message to the mainland for help. from the very beginning marconi had set a high standard for himself. he worked for an end that should be both commercially practical and universal. when he had spanned the channel with his wireless messages, he immediately set to work to fling the ether waves farther and farther. even then the project of spanning the atlantic was in his mind. on the coast of cornwall, near penzance, england, marconi erected a great station. a forest of tall poles were set up, and from the wires strung from one to the other hung a whole group of wires which were in turn connected to the transmitting apparatus. from a little distance the station looked for all the world like ships' masts that had been taken out and ranged in a circle round the low buildings. this was the station of poldhu, from which marconi planned to send vibrations in the ether that would reach clear across to st. johns, newfoundland, on the other side of the atlantic--more than two thousand miles away. a power-driven dynamo took the place of the more feeble batteries at poldhu, converters to increase the power displaced the induction coil, and many sending-wires, or antennae, were used instead of one. on signal hill, at st. johns, newfoundland--a bold bluff overlooking the sea--a group of men worked for several days, first in the little stone house at the brink of the bluff, setting up some electric apparatus; and later, on the flat ground nearby, the same men were very busy flying a great kite and raising a balloon. there was no doubt about the earnestness of these men: they were not raising that kite for fun. they worked with care and yet with an eagerness that no boy ever displays when setting his home-made or store flyer to the breeze. they had hard luck: time and time again the wind or the rain, or else the fog, baffled them, but a quiet young fellow with a determined, thoughtful face urged them on, tugged at the cord, or held the kite while the others ran with the line. whether marconi stood to one side and directed or took hold with his men, there was no doubt who was master. at last the kite was flying gallantly, high overhead in the blue. from the sagging kite-string hung a wire that ran into the low stone house. one cold december day in , guglielmo marconi sat still in a room in the government building at signal hill, st. johns, newfoundland, with a telephone receiver at his ear and his eye on the clock that ticked loudly nearby. overhead flew his kite bearing his receiving-wire. it was : o'clock on the american side of the ocean, and marconi had ordered his operator in far-off poldhu, two thousand watery miles away, to begin signalling the letter "s"--three dots of the morse code, three flashes of the bluish sparks--at that corresponding hour. for six years he had been looking forward to and working for that moment--the final test of all his effort and the beginning of a new triumph. he sat waiting to hear three small sounds, the br-br-br of the morse code "s," humming on the diaphragm of his receiver--the signature of the ether waves that had travelled two thousand miles to his listening ear. as the hands of the clock, whose ticking alone broke the stillness of the room, reached thirty minutes past twelve, the receiver at the inventor's ear began to hum, br-br-br, as distinctly as the sharp rap of a pencil on a table--the unmistakable note of the ether vibrations sounded in the telephone receiver. the telephone receiver was used instead of the usual recorder on account of its superior sensitiveness. transatlantic wireless telegraphy was an accomplished fact. though many doubted that an actual signal had been sent across the atlantic, the scientists of both continents, almost without exception, accepted marconi's statement. the sending of the transatlantic signal, the spanning of the wide ocean with translatable vibrations, was a great achievement, but the young italian bore his honours modestly, and immediately went to work to perfect his system. two months after receiving the message from poldhu at st. johns, marconi set sail from england for america, in the _philadelphia_, to carry out, on a much larger scale, the experiments he had worked out with the tug three years ago. the steamship was fitted with a complete receiving and sending outfit, and soon after she steamed out from the harbor she began to talk to the cornwall station in the dot-and-dash sign language. the long-distance talk between ship and shore continued at intervals, the recording instrument writing the messages down so that any one who understood the morse code could read. message after message came and went until one hundred and fifty miles of sea lay between marconi and his station. then the ship could talk no more, her sending apparatus not being strong enough; but the faithful men at poldhu kept sending messages to their chief, and the recorder on the _philadelphia_ kept taking them down in the telegrapher's shorthand, though the steamship was plowing westward at twenty miles an hour. day after day, at the appointed hour to the very second, the messages came from the station on land, flung into the air with the speed of light, to the young man in the deck cabin of a speeding steamship two hundred and fifty, five hundred, a thousand, fifteen hundred, yes, two thousand and ninety-nine miles away--messages that were written down automatically as they came, being permanent records that none might gainsay and that all might observe. to marconi it was the simple carrying out of his orders, for he said that he had fitted the poldhu instruments to work to two thousand one hundred miles, but to those who saw the thing done--saw the narrow strips of paper come reeling off the recorder, stamped with the blue impressions of the messages through the air, it was astounding almost beyond belief; but there was the record, duly attested by those who knew, and clearly marked with the position of the ship in longitude and latitude at the time they were received. it was only a few months afterward that marconi, from his first station in the united states, at wellfleet, cape cod, mass., sent a message direct to poldhu, three thousand miles. at frequent intervals messages go from one country to the other across the ocean, carried through fog, unaffected by the winds, and following the curvature of the earth, without the aid of wires. again the unassuming nature of the young italian was shown. there was no brass band nor display of national colours in honour of the great achievement; it was all accomplished quietly, and suddenly the world woke up to find that the thing had been done. then the great personages on both sides of the water congratulated and complimented each other by marconi's wireless system. at marconi's new station at glacé bay, cape breton, and at the powerful station at wellfleet, cape cod, the receiving and sending wires are supported by four great towers more than two hundred feet high. many wires are used instead of one, and much greater power is of course employed than at first, but the marvellously simple principle is the same that was used in the garden at bologna. the coherer has been displaced by a new device invented by marconi, called a magnetic detector, by which the ether waves are aided by a stronger current to record the message. the effect is the same, but the method is entirely different. the sending of a long-distance message is a spectacular thing. current of great power is used, and the spark is a blinding flash accompanied by deafening noises that suggest a volley from rifles. but marconi is experimenting to reduce the noise, and the use of the mercury vapour invented by peter cooper hewitt will do much to increase the rapidity in sending. after much experimenting marconi discovered that the longer the waves in the ether the more penetrating and lasting the quality they possessed, just as long swells on a body of water carry farther and endure longer than short ones. moreover, he discovered that if many sending-wires were used instead of one, and strong electric power was employed instead of weak, these long, penetrating, enduring waves could be produced. all the new marconi stations, therefore, built for long-distance work, are fitted with many sending-wires, and powerful dynamos are run which are capable of producing a spark between the silvered knobs as thick as a man's wrist. marconi and several other workers in the field of wireless telegraphy are now busy experimenting on a system of attunement, or syntony, by which it will be possible to so adjust the sending instruments that none but the receiver for whom the message is meant can receive it. he is working on the principle whereby one tuning-fork, when set vibrating, will set another of the same pitch humming. this problem is practically solved now, and in the near future every station, every ship, and each installation will have its own key, and will respond to none other than the particular vibrations, wave lengths, or oscillations, for which it is adjusted. all through the wonders he has brought about, marconi, the boy and the man, has shown but little--he is the strong character that does things and says little, and his works speak so amazingly, so loudly, that the personality of the man is obscured. the marconi station at glacé bay, cape breton, is now receiving messages for cableless transmission to england at the rate of ten cents a word--newspaper matter at five cents a word. transatlantic wireless telegraphy is an everyday occurrence, and the common practical uses are almost beyond mention. it is quite within the bounds of possibility for england to talk clear across to australia over the isthmus of panama, and soon france will be actually holding converse with her strange ally, russia, across germany and austria, without asking the permission of either country. ships talk to one another while in mid-ocean, separated by miles of salt water. newspapers have been published aboard transatlantic steamers with the latest news telegraphed while en route; indeed, a regular news service of this kind, at a very reasonable rate, has been established. these are facts; what wonders the future has in store we can only guess. but these are some of the possibilities--news service supplied to subscribers at their homes, the important items to be ticked off on each private instrument automatically, "marconigraphed" from the editorial rooms; the sending and receiving of messages from moving trains or any other kind of a conveyance; the direction of a submarine craft from a safe-distance point, or the control of a submarine torpedo. one is apt to grow dizzy if the imagination is allowed to run on too far--but why should not one friend talk to another though he be miles away, and to him alone, since his portable instrument is attuned to but one kind of vibration. it will be like having a separate language for each person, so that "friend communeth with friend, and a stranger intermeddleth not--" and which none but that one person can understand. santos-dumont and his air-ship there was a boy in far-away brazil who played with his friends the game of "pigeon flies." in this pastime the boy who is "it" calls out "pigeon flies," or "bat flies," and the others raise their fingers; but if he should call "fox flies," and one of his mates should raise his hand, that boy would have to pay a forfeit. the brazilian boy, however, insisted on raising his finger when the catchwords "man flies" were called, and firmly protested against paying a forfeit. alberto santos-dumont, even in those early days, was sure that if man did not fly then he would some day. many an imaginative boy with a mechanical turn of mind has dreamed and planned wonderful machines that would carry him triumphantly over the tree-tops, and when the tug of the kite-string has been felt has wished that it would pull him up in the air and carry him soaring among the clouds. santos-dumont was just such a boy, and he spent much time in setting miniature balloons afloat, and in launching tiny air-ships actuated by twisted rubber bands. but he never outgrew this interest in overhead sailing, and his dreams turned into practical working inventions that enabled him to do what never a mortal man had done before--that is, move about at will in the air. perhaps it was the clear blue sky of his native land, and the dense, almost impenetrable thickets below, as santos-dumont himself has suggested, that made him think how fine it would be to float in the air above the tangle, where neither rough ground nor wide streams could hinder. at any rate, the thought came into the boy's mind when he was very small, and it stuck there. his father owned great plantations and many miles of railroad in brazil, and the boy grew up in the atmosphere of ponderous machinery and puffing locomotives. by the time santos-dumont was ten years old he had learned enough about mechanics to control the engines of his father's railroads and handle the machinery in the factories. the boy had a natural bent for mechanics and mathematics, and possessed a cool courage that made him appear almost phlegmatic. besides his inherited aptitude for mechanics, his father, who was an engineer of the central school of arts and manufactures of paris, gave him much useful instruction. like marconi, santos-dumont had many advantages, and also, like the inventor of wireless telegraphy, he had the high intelligence and determination to win success in spite of many discouragements. like an explorer in a strange land, santos-dumont was a pioneer in his work, each trial being different from any other, though the means in themselves were familiar enough. [illustration: santos-dumont preparing for a flight in "santos-dumont no. " the steering-wheel can be seen in front of basket, the motor is suspended in frame to the rear, the propeller and rudder at extreme end.] the boy santos-dumont dreamed air-ships, planned air-ships, and read about aerial navigation, until he was possessed with the idea that he must build an air-ship for himself. he set his face toward france, the land of aerial navigation and the country where light motors had been most highly developed for automobiles. the same year, , when he was twenty-four years old, he, with m. machuron, made his first ascent in a spherical balloon, the only kind in existence at that time. he has described that first ascension with an enthusiasm that proclaims him a devotee of the science for all time. his first ascension was full of incident: a storm was encountered; the clouds spread themselves between them and the map-like earth, so that nothing could be seen except the white, billowy masses of vapour shining in the sun; some difficulty was experienced in getting down, for the air currents were blowing upward and carried the balloon with them; the tree-tops finally caught them, but they escaped by throwing out ballast, and finally landed in an open place, and watched the dying balloon as it convulsively gasped out its last breath of escaping gas. after a few trips with an experienced aeronaut, santos-dumont determined to go alone into the regions above the clouds. this was the first of a series of ascensions in his own balloon. it was made of very light silk, which he could pack in a valise and carry easily back to paris from his landing point. in all kinds of weather this determined sky navigator went aloft; in wind, rain, and sunshine he studied the atmospheric conditions, air currents, and the action of his balloon. the young brazilian ascended thirty times in spherical balloons before he attempted any work on an elongated shape. he realised that many things must be learned before he could handle successfully the much more delicate and sensitive elongated gas-bag. in general, santos-dumont worked on the theory of the dirigible balloon--that is, one that might be controlled and made to go in any direction desired, by means of a motor and propeller carried by a buoyant gas-bag. his plan was to build a balloon, cigar-shaped, of sufficient capacity to a little more than lift his machinery and himself, this extra lifting power to be balanced by ballast, so that the balloon and the weight it carried would practically equal the weight of air it displaced. the push of the revolving propeller would be depended upon to move the whole air-ship up or down or forward, just as the motion of a fish's fins and tail move it up, down, forward, or back, its weight being nearly the same as the water it displaces. the theory seems so simple that it strikes one as strange that the problem of aerial navigation was not solved long ago. the story of santos-dumont's experiments, however, his adventures and his successes, will show that the problem was not so simple as it seemed. santos-dumont was built to jockey a pegasus or guide an air-ship, for he weighed but a hundred pounds when he made his first ascensions, and added very little live ballast as he grew older. weight, of course, was the great bugbear of every air-ship inventor, and the chief problem was to provide a motor light enough to furnish sufficient power for driving a balloon that had sufficient lifting capacity to support it and the aeronaut in the air. steam-engines had been tried, but found too heavy for the power generated; electric motors had been tested, and proved entirely out of the question for the same reason. santos-dumont has been very fortunate in this respect, his success, indeed, being largely due to the compact and powerful gasoline motors that have been developed for use on automobiles. even before the balloon for the first air-ship was ordered the young brazilian experimented with his three-and-one-half horse-power gasoline motor in every possible way, adding to its power, and reducing its weight until he had cut it down to sixty-six pounds, or a little less than twenty pounds to a horse-power. putting the little motor on a tricycle, he led the procession of powerful automobiles in the paris-amsterdam race for some distance, proving its power and speed. the motor tested to his satisfaction, santos-dumont ordered his balloon of the famous maker, lachambre, and while it was building he experimented still further with his little engine. to the horizontal shaft of his motor he attached a propeller made of silk stretched tightly over a light wooden framework. the motor was secured to the aeronaut's basket behind, and the reservoir of gasoline hung to the basket in front. all this was done and tested before the balloon was finished--in fact, the aeronaut hung himself up in his basket from the roof of his workshop and started his motor to find out how much pushing power it exerted and if everything worked satisfactorily. on september , , santos-dumont made his first ascension in his first air-ship--in fact, he had never tried to operate an elongated balloon before, and so much of this first experience was absolutely new. imagine a great bag of yellow oiled silk, cigar-shaped, fully inflated with hydrogen gas, but swaying in the morning breeze, and tugging at its restraining ropes: a vast bubble eighty-two feet long, and twelve feel in diameter at its greatest girth. such was the balloon of santos-dumont's first air-ship. suspended by cords from the great gas-bag was the basket, to which was attached the motor and six-foot propeller, hung sixteen feet below the belly of the great air-fish. many friends and curiosity seekers had assembled to see the aeronaut make his first foolhardy attempt, as they called it. never before had a spark-spitting motor been hung under a great reservoir of highly inflammable hydrogen gas, and most of the group thought the daring inventor would never see another sunset. santos-dumont moved around his suspended air-ship, testing a cord here and a connection there, for he well knew that his life might depend on such a small thing as a length of twine or a slender rod. at one side of a small open space on the outskirts of paris the long, yellow balloon tugged at its fastenings, while the navigator made his final round to see that all was well. a twist of a strap around the driving-wheel set the motor going, and a moment later santos-dumont was standing in his basket, giving the signal to release the air-ship. it rose heavily, and travelling with the fresh wind, the propellers whirling swiftly, it crashed into the trees at the other side of the enclosure. the aeronaut had, against his better judgment, gone with the wind rather than against it, so the power of the propeller was added to the force of the breeze, and the trees were encountered before the ship could rise sufficiently to clear them. the damage was repaired, and two days later, september , , the brazilian started again from the same enclosure, but this time against the wind. the propeller whirled merrily, the explosions of the little motor snapped sharply as the great yellow bulk and the tiny basket with its human freight, the captain of the craft, rose slowly in the air. santos-dumont stood quietly in his basket, his hand on the controlling cords of the great rudder on the end of the balloon; near at hand was a bag of loose sand, while small bags of ballast were packed around his feet. steadily she rose and began to move against the wind with the slow grace of a great bird, while the little man in the basket steered right or left, up or down, as he willed. he turned his rudder for the lateral movements, and changed his shifting bags of ballast hanging fore and aft, pulling in the after bag when he wished to point her nose down, and doing likewise with the forward ballast when he wished to ascend--the propeller pushing up or down as she was pointed. for the first time a man had actual control of an air-ship that carried him. he commanded it as a captain governs his ship, and it obeyed as a vessel answers its helm. a quarter of a mile above the heads of the pygmy crowd who watched him the little south american maneuvered his air-ship, turning circles and figure eights with and against the breeze, too busy with his rudder, his vibrating little engine, his shifting bags of ballast, and the great palpitating bag of yellow silk above him, to think of his triumph, though he could still hear faintly the shouts of his friends on earth. for a time all went well and he felt the exhilaration that no earth-travelling can ever give, as he experienced somewhat of the freedom that the birds must know when they soar through the air unfettered. as he descended to a lower, denser atmosphere he felt rather than saw that something was wrong--that there was a lack of buoyancy to his craft. the engine kept on with its rapid "phut, phut, phut" steadily, but the air-ship was sinking much more rapidly than it should. looking up, the aeronaut saw that his long gas-bag was beginning to crease in the middle and was getting flabby, the cords from the ends of the long balloon were beginning to sag, and threatened to catch in the propeller. the earth seemed to be leaping up toward him and destruction stared him in the face. a hand air-pump was provided to fill an air balloon inside the larger one and so make up for the compression of the hydrogen gas caused by the denser, lower atmosphere. he started this pump, but it proved too small, and as the gas was compressed more and more, and the flabbiness of the balloon increased, the whole thing became unmanageable. the great ship dropped and dropped through the air, while the aeronaut, no longer in control of his ship, but controlled by it, worked at the pump and threw out ballast in a vain endeavour to escape the inevitable. he was descending directly over the greensward in the centre of the longchamps race-course, when he caught sight of some boys flying kites in the open space. he shouted to them to take hold of his trailing guide-rope and run with it against the wind. they understood at once and as instantly obeyed. the wind had the same effect on the air-ship as it has on a kite when one runs with it, and the speed of the fall was checked. man and air-ship landed with a thud that smashed almost everything but the man. the smart boys that had saved santos-dumont's life helped him pack what was left of "santos-dumont no. " into its basket, and a cab took inventor and invention back to paris. in spite of the narrow escape and the discouraging ending of his first flight, santos-dumont launched his second air-ship the following may. number was slightly larger than the first, and the fault that was dangerous in it was corrected, its inventor thought, by a ventilator connecting the inner bag with the outer air, which was designed to compensate for the contraction of the gas and keep the skin of the balloon taut. but no. doubled up as had no. , while she was still held captive by a line; falling into a tree hurt the balloon, but the aeronaut escaped unscratched. santos-dumont, in spite of his quiet ways and almost effeminate speech, his diminutive body, and wealth that permitted him to enjoy every luxury, persisted in his work with rare courage and determination. the difficulties were great and the available information meager to the last degree. the young inventor had to experiment and find out for himself the obstacles to success and then invent ways to surmount them. he had need of ample wealth, for the building of air-ships was expensive business. the balloons were made of the finest, lightest japanese silk, carefully prepared and still more vigorously tested. they were made by the most famous of the world's balloon-makers, lachambre, and required the spending of money unstintedly. the motors cost according to their lightness rather than their weight, and all the materials, cordage, metal-work, etc., were expensive for the same reason. the cost of the hydrogen gas was very great also, at twenty cents per cubic meter (thirty-five cubic feet); and as at each ascension all the gas was usually lost, the expense of each sail in the air for gas alone amounted to from $ for the smallest ship to $ for the largest. [illustration: santos-dumont in his air-ship "no. " rounding the eiffel tower on his prize-winning trip] nevertheless, in november of santos-dumont launched another air-ship--no. . this one was supported by a balloon of much greater diameter, though the length remained about the same--sixty-six feet. the capacity, however, was almost three times as great as no. , being , cubic feet. the balloon was so much larger that the less expensive but heavier illuminating gas could be used instead of hydrogen. when the air-ship "santos-dumont no. " collapsed and dumped its navigator into the trees, santos-dumont's friends took it upon themselves to stop his dangerous experimenting, but he said nothing, and straightway set to work to plan a new machine. it was characteristic of the man that to him the danger, the expense, and the discouragements counted not at all. in the afternoon of november , , santos-dumont started on his first flight in no. . the wind was blowing hard, and for a time the great bulk of the balloon made little headway against it; feet in air it hung poised almost motionless, the winglike propeller whirling rapidly. then slowly the great balloon began nosing its way into the wind, and the plucky little man, all alone, beyond the reach of any human voice, could not tell his joy, although the feeling of triumph was strong within him. far below him, looking like two-legged hats, so foreshortened they were from the aeronaut's point of view, were the people of paris, while in front loomed the tall steel spire of the eiffel tower. to sail round that tower even as the birds float about had been the dream of the young aeronaut since his first ascension. the motor was running smoothly, the balloon skin was taut, and everything was working well; pulling the rudder slightly, santos-dumont headed directly for the great steel shaft. the people who were on the eiffel tower that breezy afternoon saw a sight that never a man saw before. out of the haze a yellow shape loomed larger each minute until its outlines could be distinctly seen. it was a big cigar-shaped balloon, and under it, swung by what seemed gossamer threads, was a basket in which was a man. the air-ship was going against the wind, and the man in the basket evidently had full control, for the amazed people on the tower saw the air-ship turn right and left as her navigator pulled the rudder-cords, and she rose and fell as her master regulated his shifting ballast. for twenty minutes santos-dumont maneuvered around the tower as a sailboat tacks around a buoy. while the people on that tall spire were still watching, the aeronaut turned his ship around and sailed off for the longchamps race-course, the green oval of which could be just distinguished in the distance. on the exact spot where, a little more than a year before, the same man almost lost his life and wrecked his first air-ship, no. landed as softly and neatly as a bird. though he made many other successful flights, he discovered so many improvements that with the first small mishap he abandoned no. and began on no. . the balloon "santos-dumont no. " was long and slim, and had an inner air-bag to compensate for the contraction of the hydrogen gas. this air-ship had one feature that was entirely new; the aeronaut had arranged for himself, not a secure basket to stand in, but a frail, unprotected bicycle seat attached to an ordinary bicycle frame. the cranks were connected with the starting-gear of the motor. seated on his unguarded bicycle seat, and holding on to the handle-bars, to which were attached the rudder-cords, santos-dumont made voyages in the air with all the assurance of the sailor on the sea. but no. was soon too imperfect for the exacting brazilian, and in april, , he had finished no. . this air-cruiser was the longest of all ( feet), and was fitted with a sixteen horse-power motor. instead of the bicycle frame, he built a triangular keel of pine strips and strengthened it with tightly strung piano wires, the whole frame, though sixty feet long, weighing but pounds. hung between the rods, being suspended by piano wires as in a spider-web, was the motor, basket, and propeller-shaft. the last-named air-ship was built, if not expressly at least with the intention of trying for the deutsch prize of , francs. this was a big undertaking, and many people thought it would never be accomplished; the successful aeronaut had to travel more than three miles in one direction, round the eiffel tower as a racing yacht rounds a stake-boat, and return to the starting point, all within thirty minutes--_i.e._, almost seven miles in two directions in half an hour. the new machine worked well, though at one time the aerial navigator's friends thought that they would have to pick him up in pieces and carry him home in a basket. this incident occurred during one of the first flights in no. . everything was going smoothly, and the air-ship circled like a hawk, when the spectators, who were craning their necks to see, noticed that something was wrong; the motor slowed down, the propeller spun less swiftly, and the whole fabric began to sink toward the ground. while the people gazed, their hearts in their mouths, they saw santos-dumont scramble out of his basket and crawl out on the framework, while the balloon swayed in the air. he calmly knotted the cord that had parted and crept back to his place, as unconcernedly as if he were on solid ground. it was in august of that he made his first official trial for the deutsch prize. the start was perfect, and the machine swooped toward the distant tower straight as a crow flies and almost as fast. the first half of the distance was covered in nine minutes, so twenty-one minutes remained for the balance of the journey: success seemed assured; the prize was almost within the grasp of the aeronaut. of a sudden assured success was changed to dire peril; the automatic valves began to leak, the balloon to sag, the cords supporting the wooden keel hung low, and before santos-dumont could stop the motor the propeller had cut them and the whole system was threatened. the wind was drifting the air-ship toward the eiffel tower; the navigator had lost control; feet below were the roofs of the trocadero hotels; he had to decide which was the least dangerous; there was but a moment to think. santos-dumont, death staring him in the face, chose the roofs. a swift jerk of a cord, and a big slit was made in the balloon. instantly man, motor, gas-bag, and keel went tumbling down straight into the court of the hotels. the great balloon burst with a noise like an explosion, and the man was lost in a confusion of yellow-silk covering, cords, and wires. when the firemen reached the place and put down their long ladders they found him standing calmly in his wicker basket, entirely unhurt. the long, staunch keel, resting by its ends on the walls of the court, prevented him from being dashed to pieces. and so ended no. . most men would have given up aerial navigation after such an experience, but santos-dumont could not be deterred from continuing his experiments. the night of the very day which witnessed his fearful fall and the destruction of no. he ordered a new balloon for "santos-dumont no. ." it showed the pluck and determination of the man as nothing else could. twenty-two days after the aeronaut's narrow escape his new air-ship was finished and ready for a flight. no. was practically the same as its predecessor--the triangular keel was retained, but an eighteen horse-power gasoline motor was substituted for the sixteen horse-power used previously. the propeller, made of silk stretched over a bamboo frame, was hung at the after end of the keel; the motor was a little aft of the centre, while the basket to which led the steering-gear, the emergency valve to the balloon, and the motor-controlling gear was suspended farther forward. to control the upward or downward pointing of the new air-ship, shifting ballast was used which ran along a wire under the keel from one end to the other; the cords controlling this ran to the basket also. the new air-ship worked well, and the experimental flights were successful with one exception--when the balloon came in contact with a tree. it was in october, (the th), when the deutsch prize committee was asked to meet again and see a man try to drive a balloon against the wind, round the eiffel tower, and return. the start took place at : p.m. of october , , with a beam wind blowing. straight as a bullet the air-ship sped for the steel shaft of the tower, rising as she flew. on and on she sped, while the spectators, remembering the finish of the last trial, watched almost breathlessly. with the air of a cup-racer turning the stake-boat she rounded the steel spire, a run of three and three-fifth miles, in nine minutes (at the rate of more than twenty-two miles an hour), and started on the home-stretch. for a few moments all went well, then those who watched were horrified to see the propeller slow down and nearly stop, while the wind carried the air-ship toward the tower. just in time the motor was speeded up and the course was resumed. as the group of men watched the speck grow larger and larger until things began to take definite shape, the white blur of the whirling propeller could be seen and the small figure in the basket could be at last distinguished. again the motor failed, the speed slackened, and the ship began to sink. santos-dumont threw out enough ballast to recover his equilibrium and adjusted the motor. with but three minutes left and some distance to go, the great dirigible balloon got up speed and rushed for the goal. at eleven and a half minutes past three, twenty-nine minutes and thirty-one seconds after starting, santos-dumont crossed the line, the winner of the deutsch prize. and so the young brazilian accomplished that which had been declared impossible. [illustration: the motor and basket of "santos-dumont no. " the gasoline holder, from which a tube leads to the motor, can be seen on the side of the basket.] the following winter the aerial navigator, in the same no. , sailed many times over the waters of the mediterranean from monte carlo. these flights over the water, against, athwart, and with the wind, some of them faster than the attending steamboats could travel, continued until through careless inflation of the balloon the air-ship and navigator sank into the sea. santos-dumont was rescued without being harmed in the least, and the air-ship was preserved intact, to be exhibited later to american sightseers. "santos-dumont no. ," the most successful of the series built by the determined brazilian, looks as if it were altogether too frail to intrust with the carrying of a human being. the -foot-long balloon, a light yellow in colour, sways and undulates with every passing breeze. the steel piano wires by which the keel and apparatus are hung to the balloon skin are like spider-webs in lightness and delicacy, and the motor that has the strength of eighteen horses is hardly bigger than a barrel. a little forward of the motor is suspended to the keel the cigar-shaped gasoline reservoir, and strung along the top rod are the batteries which furnish the current to make the sparks for the purpose of exploding the gas in the motor. santos-dumont himself says that the world is still a long way from practical, everyday aerial navigation, but he points out the apparent fact that the dirigible balloon in the hands of determined men will practically put a stop to war. henri rochefort has said: "the day when it is established that a man can direct an air-ship in a given direction and cause it to maneuver as he wills--there will remain little for the nations to do but to lay down their arms." the man who has done so much toward the abolishing of war can rest well content with his work. how a fast train is run the conductor stood at the end of the train, watch in hand, and at the moment when the hands indicated the appointed hour he leisurely climbed aboard and pulled the whistle cord. a sharp, penetrating hiss of escaping air answered the pull, and the train moved out of the great train-shed in its race against time. it was all so easy and comfortable that the passengers never thought of the work and study that had been spent to produce the result. the train gathered speed and rushed on at an appalling rate, but the passengers did not realise how fast they were going unless they looked out of the windows and saw the houses and trees, telegraph poles, and signal towers flash by. it is the purpose of this chapter to tell how high speed is attained without loss of comfort to the passengers--in other words, to tell how a fast train is run. when the conductor pulled the cord at the rear end of the long train a whistling signal was thus given in the engine-cab, and the engineer, after glancing down the tracks to see that the signals indicated a clear track, pulled out the long handle of the throttle, and the great machine obeyed his will as a docile horse answers a touch on the rein. he opened the throttle-valve just a little, so that but little steam was admitted to the cylinders, and the pistons being pushed out slowly, the driving-wheels revolved slowly and the train started gradually. when the end of the piston stroke was reached the used steam was expelled into the smokestack, creating a draught which in turn strengthened the heat of the fire. with each revolution of the driving-wheels, each cylinder--there is one on each side of every locomotive--blew its steamy breath into the stack twice. this kept the fire glowing and made the chou-chou sound that everybody knows and every baby imitates. as the train gathered speed the engineer pulled the throttle open wider and wider, the puffs in the short, stubby stack grew more and more frequent, and the rattle and roar of the iron horse increased. down in the pit of the engine-cab the fireman, a great shovel in his hands, stood ready to feed the ravenous fires. every minute or two he pulled the chain and yanked the furnace door open to throw in the coal, shutting the door again after each shovelful, to keep the fire hot. [illustration: "firing" a fast locomotive an operation that is practically continuous during a fast trip.] the fireman on a fast locomotive is kept extremely busy, for he must keep the steam-pressure up to the required standard-- or pounds--no matter how fast the sucking cylinders may draw it out. he kept his eyes on the steam-gage most of the time, and the minute the quivering finger began to drop, showing reduced pressure, he opened the door to the glowing furnace and fed the fire. the steam-cylinders act on the boiler a good deal as a lung-tester acts on a human being; the cylinders draw out the steam from the boiler, requiring a roaring fire to make the vapour rapidly enough and keep up the pressure. though the engineer seemed to be taking it easily enough with his hand resting lightly on the reversing-lever, his body at rest, the fireman was kept on the jump. if he was not shovelling coal he was looking ahead for signals (for many roads require him to verify the engineer), or adjusting the valves that admitted steam to the train-pipes and heated the cars, or else, noticing that the water in the boiler was getting low--and this is one of his greatest responsibilities, which, however, the engineer sometimes shares--he turned on the steam in the injector, which forced the water against the pressure into the boiler. all these things he has to do repeatedly even on a short run. the engineer--or "runner," as he is called by his fellows--has much to do also, and has infinitely greater responsibility. on him depends the safety and the comfort of the passengers to a large degree; he must nurse his engine to produce the greatest speed at the least cost of coal, and he must round the curves, climb the grades, and make the slow-downs and stops so gradually that the passengers will not be disturbed. to the outsider who rides in a locomotive-cab for the first time it seems as if the engineer settles down to his real work with a sigh of relief when the limits of the city have been passed; for in the towns there are many signals to be watched, many crossings to be looked out for, and a multitude of moving trains, snorting engines, and tooting whistles to distract one's attention. the "runner," however, seemed not to mind it at all. he pulled on his cap a little more firmly, and, after glancing at his watch, reached out for the throttle handle. a very little pull satisfied him, and though the increase in speed was hardly perceptible, the more rapid exhaust told the story of faster movement. as the train sped on, the engineer moved the reversing-lever notch by notch nearer the centre of the guide. this adjusted the "link-motion" mechanism, which is operated by the driving-axle, and cut off the steam entering the cylinders in such a way that it expanded more fully and economically, thus saving fuel without loss of power. when a station was reached, when a "caution" signal was displayed, or whenever any one of the hundred or more things occurred that might require a stop or a slow-down, the engineer closed down the throttle and very gradually opened the air-brake valve that admitted compressed air to the brake-cylinders, not only on the locomotive but on all the cars. the speed of the train slackened steadily but without jar, until the power of the compressed air clamped the brake-shoes on the wheels so tightly that they were practically locked and the train was stopped. by means of the air-brake the engineer had almost entire control of the train. the pump that compresses the air is on the engine, and keeps the pressure in the car and locomotive reservoirs automatically up to the required standard. each stage of every trip of a train not a freight is carefully charted, and the engineer is provided with a time-table that shows where his train should be at a given time. it is a matter of pride with the engineers of fast trains to keep close to their schedules, and their good records depend largely on this running-time, but delays of various kinds creep in, and in spite of their best efforts engineers are not always able to make all their schedules. to arrive at their destinations on time, therefore, certain sections must be covered in better than schedule time, and then great skill is required to get the speed without a sacrifice of comfort for the passenger. to most travellers time is more valuable than money, and so everything about a train is planned to facilitate rapid travelling. almost every part of a locomotive is controlled from the cab, which prevents unnecessary stopping to correct defects; from his seat the engineer can let the condensed water out of the cylinders; he can start a jet of steam in the stack and create a draft through the fire-box; by the pressure of a lever he is able to pour sand on a slippery track, or by the manipulation of another lever a snow-scraper is let down from the cowcatcher. the practised ear of a locomotive engineer often enables him to discover defects in the working of his powerful machine, and he is generally able, with the aid of various devices always on hand, to prevent an increase of trouble without leaving the cab. as explained above, a fast run means the use of a great deal of steam and therefore water; indeed, the higher the speed the greater consumption of water. often the schedules do not allow time enough to stop for water, and the consumption is so great that it is impossible to carry enough to keep the engine going to the end of the run. there are provided, therefore, at various places along the line, tanks eighteen inches to two feet wide, six inches deep, and a quarter of a mile long. these are filled with water and serve as long, narrow reservoirs, from which the locomotive-tenders are filled while going at almost full speed. curved pipes are let down into the track-tank as the train speeds on, and scoop up the water so fast that the great reservoirs are very quickly filled. this operation, too, is controlled from the engine-cab, and it is one of the fireman's duties to let down the pipe when the water-signal alongside the track appears. the locomotive, when taking water from a track-tank, looks as if it was going through a river: the water is dashed into spray and flies out on either side like the waves before a fast boat. trainmen tell the story of a tramp who stole a ride on the front or "dead" end platform of the baggage car of a fast train. this car was coupled to the rear end of the engine-tender; it was quite a long run, without stops, and the engine took water from a track-tank on the way. when the train stopped, the tramp was discovered prone on the platform of the baggage car, half-drowned from the water thrown back when the engine took its drink on the run. "here, get off!" growled the brakeman. "what are you doing there?" "all right, boss," sputtered the tramp. "say," he asked after a moment, "what was that river we went through a while ago?" though the engineer's work is not hard, the strain is great, and fast runs are divided up into sections so that no one engine or its runner has to work more than three or four hours at a time. it is realised that in order to keep the trainmen--and especially the engineers--alert and keenly alive to their work and responsibilities, it is necessary to make the periods of labour short; the same thing is found to apply to the machines also--they need rest to keep them perfectly fit. before the engineer can run his train, the way must be cleared for him, and when the train starts out it becomes part of a vast system. each part of this intricate system is affected by every other part, so each train must run according to schedule or disarrange the entire plan. [illustration: track tank] each train has its right-of-way over certain other trains, and the fastest train has the right-of-way over all others. if, for any reason, the fastest train is late, all others that might be in the way must wait till the flyer has passed. when anything of this sort occurs the whole plan has to be changed, and all trains have to be run on a new schedule that must be made up on the moment. the ideal train schedules, or those by which the systems are regularly governed, are charted out beforehand on a ruled sheet, as a ship's course is charted on a voyage, in the main office of the railroad. each engineer and conductor is provided with a printed copy in the form of a table giving the time of departure and arrival at the different points. when the trains run on time it is all very simple, and the work of the despatcher, the man who keeps track of the trains, is easy. when, however, the system is disarranged by the failure of a train to keep to its schedule, the despatcher's work becomes most difficult. from long training the despatchers become perfectly familiar with every detail of the sections of road under their control, the position of every switch, each station, all curves, bridges, grades, and crossings. when a train is delayed and the system spoiled, it is the despatcher's duty to make up another one on the spot, and arrange by telegrams, which are repeated for fear of mistakes, for the holding of this train and the movement of others until the tangle is straightened out. this problem is particularly difficult when a road has but one track and trains moving in both directions have to run on the same pair of rails. it is on roads of this sort that most of the accidents occur. almost if not quite all depends on the clear-headedness and quick-witted grasp of the despatchers and strict obedience to orders by the trainmen. to remove as much chance of error as possible, safety signalling methods have been devised to warn the engineer of danger ahead. many modern railroads are divided into short sections or "blocks," each of which is presided over by a signal-tower. at the beginning of each block stand poles with projecting arms that are connected with the signal-tower by wires running over pulleys. there are generally two to each track in each block, and when both are slanting downward the engineer of the approaching locomotive knows that the block he is about to enter is clear and also that the rails of the section before that is clear as well. the lower arm, or "semaphore," stands for the second block, and if it is horizontal the engineer knows that he must proceed cautiously because the second section already has a train in it; if the upper arm is straight the "runner" knows that a train or obstruction of some sort makes it unsafe to enter the first block, and if he obeys the strict rules he must stay where he is until the arm is lowered at night, red, white, and green lights serve instead of the arms: white, safety; green, caution; and red, danger. accidents have sometimes occurred because the engineers were colour-blind and red and green looked alike to them. most roads nowadays test all their engineers for this defect in vision. in spite of all precautions, it sometimes happens that the block-signals are not set properly, and to avoid danger of rear-end collisions, conductors and brakemen are instructed (when, for any reason, their train stops where it is not so scheduled) to go back with lanterns at night, or flags by day, and be ready to warn any following train. if for any reason a train is delayed and has to move ahead slowly, torpedoes are placed on the track which are exploded by the engine that comes after and warn its engineer to proceed cautiously. all these things the engineer must bear in mind, and beside his jockey-like handling of his iron horse, he must watch for signals that flash by in an instant when he is going at full speed, and at the same time keep a sharp lookout ahead for obstructions on the track and for damaged roadbed. the conductor has nothing to do with the mechanical running of the train, though he receives the orders and is, in a general way, responsible. the passengers are his special care, and it is his business to see that their getting on and off is in accordance with their tickets. he is responsible for their comfort also, and must be an animated information bureau, loaded with facts about every conceivable thing connected with travel. the brakemen are his assistants, and stay with him to the end of the division; the engineer and fireman, with their engine, are cut off at the end of their division also. the fastest train of a road is the pride of all its employees; all the trainmen aspire to a place on the flyer. it never starts out on any run without the good wishes of the entire force, and it seldom puffs out of the train-shed and over the maze of rails in the yard without receiving the homage of those who happen to be within sight. it is impossible to tell of all the things that enter into the running of a fast train, but as it flashes across states, intersects cities, thunders past humble stations, and whistles imperiously at crossings, it attracts the attention of all. it is the spectacular thing that makes fame for the road, appears in large type in the newspapers, and makes havoc with the time-tables, while the steady-going passenger trains and labouring freights do the work and make the money. [illustration: thirty years' advance in locomotive building] how automobiles work every boy and almost every man has longed to ride on a locomotive, and has dreamed of holding the throttle-lever and of feeling the great machine move under him in answer to his will. many of us have protested vigorously that we wanted to become grimy, hard-working firemen for the sake of having to do with the "iron horse." it is this joy of control that comes to the driver of an automobile which is one of the motor-car's chief attractions: it is the longing of the boy to run a locomotive reproduced in the grown-up. the ponderous, snorting, thundering locomotive, towering high above its steel road, seems far removed from the swift, crouching, almost noiseless motor-car, and yet the relationship is very close. in fact, the automobile, which is but a locomotive that runs at will anywhere, is the father of the greater machine. about the beginning of , self-propelled vehicles steamed along the roads of old england, carrying passengers safely, if not swiftly, and, strange to say, continued to run more or less successfully until prohibited by law from using the highways, because of their interference with the horse traffic. therefore the locomotive and the railroads throve at the expense of the automobile, and the permanent iron-bound right of way of the railroads left the highways to the horse. the old-time automobiles were cumbrous affairs, with clumsy boilers, and steam-engines that required one man's entire attention to keep them going. the concentrated fuels were not known in those days, and heat-economising appliances were not invented. it was the invention by gottlieb daimler of the high-speed gasoline engine, in , that really gave an impetus to the building of efficient automobiles of all powers. the success of his explosive gasoline engine, forerunner of all succeeding gasoline motor-car engines, was the incentive to inventors to perfect the steam-engine for use on self-propelled vehicles. unlike a locomotive, the automobile must be light, must be able to carry power or fuel enough to drive it a long distance, and yet must be almost automatic in its workings. all of these things the modern motor car accomplishes, but the struggle to make the machinery more efficient still continues. the three kinds of power used to run automobiles are steam, electricity, and gasoline, taken in the order of application. the steam-engines in motor-cars are not very different from the engines used to run locomotives, factory machinery, or street-rollers, but they are much lighter and, of course, smaller--very much smaller in proportion to the power they produce. it will be seen how compact and efficient these little steam plants are when a ten-horse-power engine, boiler, water-tank, and gasoline reservoir holding enough to drive the machine one hundred miles, are stored in a carriage with a wheel-base of less than seven feet and a width of five feet, and still leave ample room for four passengers. it is the use of gasoline for fuel that makes all this possible. gasoline, being a very volatile liquid, turns into a highly inflammable gas when heated and mixed with the oxygen in the air. a tank holding from twenty to forty gallons of gasoline is connected, through an automatic regulator which controls the flow of oil, to a burner under the boiler. the burner allows the oil, which turns into gas on coming in contact with its hot surface, to escape through a multitude of small openings and mix with the air, which is supplied from beneath. the openings are so many and so close together that the whole surface is practically one solid sheet of very hot blue flame. in getting up steam a separate blaze or flame of alcohol or gasoline is made, which heats the steel or iron with which the fuel-oil comes in contact until it is sufficiently hot to turn the oil to gas, after which the burner works automatically. a hand air-pump or one automatically operated by the engine maintains sufficient air pressure in the fuel-tank to keep a constant flow. most steam automobile boilers are of the water-tube variety--that is, water to be turned into steam is carried through the flames in pipes, instead of the heat in pipes through the water, as in the ordinary flue boilers. compactness, quick-heating, and strength are the characteristics of motor-car boilers. some of the boilers are less than twenty inches high and of the same diameter, and yet are capable of generating seven and one-half horse-power at a high steam pressure ( to pounds). in these boilers the heat is made to play directly on a great many tubes, and a full head of steam is generated in a few minutes. as the steam pressure increases, a regulator that shuts off the supply of gasoline is operated automatically, and so the pressure is maintained. [illustration: the "lighthouse" of the rail the switchman's house (on the left), commanding a view of the railroad yard, from which the switches of the complicated system are worked and the semaphore signals operated.] the water from which the steam is made is also fed automatically into the boiler, when the engine is in motion, by a pump worked by the engine piston. a hand-pump is also supplied by which the driver can keep the proper amount when the machine is still or in case of a breakdown. a water-gauge in plain sight keeps the driver informed at all times as to the amount of water in the boiler. from the boiler the steam goes through the throttle-valve--the handle of which is by the driver's side--direct to the engine, and there expands, pushes the piston up and down, and by means of a crank on the axle does its work. the engines of modern automobiles are marvels of compactness--so compact, indeed, that a seven-horse-power engine occupies much less space than an ordinary barrel. the steam, after being used, is admitted to a coil of pipes cooled by the breeze caused by the motion of the vehicle, and so condensed into water and returned to the tank. the engine is started, stopped, slowed, and sped by the cutting off or admission of the steam through the throttle-valve. it is reversed by means of the same mechanism used on locomotives--the link-motion and reversing-lever, by which the direction of the steam is reversed and the engine made to run the other way. after doing its work the steam is made to circulate round the cylinder (or cylinders, if there are more than one), keeping it extra hot--"superheated"; and thereafter it is made to perform a like duty to the boiler-feed water, before it is allowed to escape. all steam-propelled automobiles, from the light steam runabout to the clumsy steam roller, are worked practically as described. some machines are worked by compound engines, which simply use the power of expansion still left in the steam in a second larger cylinder after it has worked the first, in which case every ounce of power is extracted from the vapour. the automobile builders have a problem that troubles locomotive builders very little--that is, compensating the difference between the speeds of the two driving-wheels when turning corners. just as the inside man of a military company takes short steps when turning and the outside man takes long ones, so the inside wheel of a vehicle turns slowly while the outside wheel revolves quickly when rounding a corner. as most automobiles are propelled by power applied to the rear axle, to which the wheels are fixed, it is manifest that unless some device were made to correct the fault one wheel would have to slide while the other revolved. this difficulty has been overcome by cutting the axle in two and placing between the ends a series of gears which permit the two wheels to revolve at different speeds and also apply the power to both alike. this device is called a compensating gear, and is worked out in various ways by the different builders. the locomotive builder accomplishes the same thing by making his wheels larger on the outside, so that in turning the wide curves of the railroad the whole machine slides to the inside, bringing to bear the large diameter of the outer wheel and the small diameter of the inner, the wheels being fixed to a solid axle. the steam machine can always be distinguished by the thin stream of white vapour that escapes from the rear or underneath while it is in motion and also, as a rule, when it is at rest. the motor of a steam vehicle always stops when the machine is not moving, which is another distinguishing feature, as the gasoline motors run continually, or at least unless the car is left standing for a long time. as the owners of different makes of bicycles formerly wrangled over the merits of their respective machines, so now motor-car owners discuss the value of the different powers--steam, gasoline, and electricity. though steam was the propelling force of the earliest automobiles, and the power best understood, it was the perfection of the gasoline motor that revived the interest in self-propelled vehicles and set the inventors to work. a gasoline motor is somewhat like a gun--the explosion of the gas in the motor-cylinder pushes the piston (which may be likened to the projectile), and the power thus generated turns a crank and drives the wheels. the gasoline motor is the lightest power-generator that has yet been discovered, and it is this characteristic that makes it particularly valuable to propel automobiles. santos-dumont's success in aerial navigation is due largely to the gasoline motor, which generated great power in proportion to its weight. a gasoline motor works by a series of explosions, which make the noise that is now heard on every hand. from the gasoline tank, which is always of sufficient capacity for a good long run, a pipe is connected with a device called the carbureter. this is really a gas machine, for it turns the liquid oil into gas, this being done by turning it into fine spray and mixing it with pure air. the gasoline vapour thus formed is highly inflammable, and if lighted in a closed space will explode. it is the explosive power that is made to do the work, and it is a series of small gun-fires that make the gasoline motor-car go. all this sounds simple enough, but a great many things must be considered that make the construction of a successful working motor a difficult problem. in the first place, the carbureter, which turns the oil into gas, must work automatically, the proper amount of oil being fed into the machine and the exact proportion of air admitted for the successful mixture. then the gas must be admitted to the cylinders in just the right quantity for the work to be done. this is usually regulated automatically, and can also be controlled directly by the driver. since the explosion of gas in the cylinder drives the piston out only, and not, as in the case of the steam-engine, back and forward, some provision must be made to complete the cycle, to bring back the piston, exhaust the burned gas, and refill the cylinder with a new charge. in the steam-engine the piston is forced backward and forward by the expansive power of the steam, the vapour being admitted alternately to the forward and rear ends of the cylinder. the piston of the gasoline engine, however, working by the force of exploded gas, produces power when moving in one direction only--the piston-head is pushed out by the force of the explosion, just as the plunger of a bicycle pump is sometimes forced out by the pressure of air behind it. the piston is connected with the engine-crank and revolves the shaft, which is in turn connected with the driving-wheels. the movement of the piston in the cylinder performs four functions: first, the downward stroke, the result of the explosion of gas, produces the power; second, the returning up-stroke pushes out the burned gas; third, the next down-stroke sucks in a fresh supply of gas, which (fourth) is compressed by the following-up movement and is ready for the next explosion. this is called a two-cycle motor, because two complete revolutions are necessary to accomplish all the operations. many machines are fitted with heavy fly-wheels, the swift revolution of which carries the impetus of the power stroke through the other three operations. [illustration: a giant automobile mower-thrasher this machine cuts a swath feet wide and thrashes and sacks the grain as it moves along. seventy to acres of grain a day are harvested by this machine, and , to , sacks are produced each working day.] to keep a practically continuous forward movement on the driving-shaft, many motors are made with four cylinders, the piston of each being connected with the crank-shaft at a different angle, and each cylinder doing a different part of the work; for example, while no. cylinder is doing the work from the force of the explosion, no. is compressing, no. is getting a fresh supply of gas, and no. is cleaning out waste gas. a four-cylinder motor is practically putting forth power continuously, since one of the four pistons is always at work. while this takes long to describe, the motion is faster than the eye can follow, and the "phut, phut" noise of the exhaust sounds like the tattoo of a drum. almost every gasoline motor vehicle carries its own electric plant, either a set of batteries or more commonly a little magneto dynamo, which is run by the shaft of the motor. electricity is used to make the spark that explodes the gas at just the right moment in the cylinders. all this is automatic, though sometimes the driver has to resort to the persuasive qualities of a monkey-wrench and an oil-can. the exploding gas creates great heat, and unless something is done to cool the cylinders they get so hot that the gas is ignited by the heat of the metal. some motors are cooled by a stream of water which, flowing round the cylinders and through coils of pipe, is blown upon by the breeze made by the movement of the vehicle. others are kept cool by a revolving fan geared to the driving-shaft, which blows on the cylinders; while still others--small motors used on motor bicycles, generally--have wide ridges or projections on the outside of the cylinders to catch the wind as the machine rushes along. the inventors of the gasoline motor vehicles had many difficulties to overcome that did not trouble those who had to deal with steam. for instance, the gasoline motor cannot be started as easily as a steam-engine. it is necessary to make the driving-shaft revolve a few times by hand in order to start the cylinders working in their proper order. therefore, the motor of a gasoline machine goes all the time, even when the vehicle is at rest. friction clutches are used by which the driving-shaft and the axles can be connected or disconnected at the will of the driver, so that the vehicle can stand while the motor is running; friction clutches are used also to throw in gears of different sizes to increase or decrease the speed of the vehicle, as well as to drive backward. [illustration: an automobile buckboard] the early gasoline automobiles sounded, when moving, like an artillery company coming full tilt down a badly paved street. the exhausted gas coughed resoundingly, the gears groaned and shrieked loudly when improperly lubricated, and the whole machine rattled like a runaway tin-peddler. ingenious mufflers have subdued the sputtering exhaust, the gears are made to run in oil or are so carefully cut as to mesh perfectly, rubber tires deaden the pounding of the wheels, and carefully designed frames take up the jar. steam and gasoline vehicles can be used to travel long distances from the cities, for water can be had and gasoline bought almost anywhere; but electric automobiles, driven by the third of the three powers used for self-propelled vehicles, must keep within easy reach of the charging stations. just as the perfection of the gasoline motor spurred on the inventors to adapt the steam-engine for use in automobiles, so the inventors of the storage battery, which is the heart of an electric carriage, were stirred up to make electric propulsion practical. the storage battery of an electric vehicle is practically a tank that holds electricity; the electrical energy of the dynamo is transformed into chemical energy in the batteries, which in turn is changed into electrical energy again and used to run the motors. electric automobiles are the most simple of all the self-propelled vehicles. the current stored in the batteries is simply turned off and on the motors, or the pressure reduced by means of resistance which obstructs the flow, and therefore the power, of the current. to reverse, it is only necessary to change the direction of the current's flow; and in order to stop, the connection between motor and battery is broken by a switch. electricity is the ideal power for automobiles. being clean and easily controlled, it seems just the thing; but it is expensive, and sometimes hard to get. no satisfactory substitute has been found for it, however, in the larger cities, and it may be that creative or "primary" batteries both cheap and effective will be invented and will do away with the one objection to electricity for automobiles. the astonishing things of to-day are the commonplaces of to-morrow, and so the achievements of automobile builders as here set down may be greatly surpassed by the time this appears in print. the sensations of the locomotive engineer, who feels his great machine strain forward over the smooth steel rails, are as nothing to the almost numbing sensations of the automobile driver who covered space at the rate of eighty-eight miles an hour on the road between paris and madrid: he felt every inequality in the road, every grade along the way, and each curve, each shadow, was a menace that required the greatest nerve and skill. locomotive driving at a hundred miles an hour is but mild exhilaration as compared to the feelings of the motor-car driver who travels at fifty miles an hour on the public highway. gigantic motor trucks carrying tons of freight twist in and out through crowded streets, controlled by one man more easily than a driver guides a spirited horse on a country road. frail motor bicycles dash round the platter-like curves of cycle tracks at railroad speed, and climb hills while the riders sit at ease with feet on coasters. an electric motor-car wends the streets of new york every day with thirty-five or forty sightseers on its broad back, while a groom in whipcord blows an incongruous coaching-horn in the rear. motor plows, motor ambulances, motor stages, delivery wagons, street-cars without tracks, pleasure vehicles, and even baby carriages, are to be seen everywhere. in , motor vehicles were forbidden the streets for the sake of the horses; in , the horses are being crowded off by the motor-cars. the motor is the more economical--it is the survival of the fittest. [illustration: an automobile plow a form of automobile that can be applied to all sorts of uses on the farm.] the fastest steamboats in , the first practical steamboat puffed slowly up the hudson, while the people ranged along the banks gazed in wonder. even the grim walls of the palisades must have been surprised at the strange intruder. robert fulton's _clermont_ was the forerunner of the fleets upon fleets of power-driven craft that have stemmed the currents of a thousand streams and parted the waves of many seas. the _clermont_ took several days to go from new york to albany, and the trip was the wonder of that time. during the summer of a long, slim, white craft, with a single brass smokestack and a low deck-house, went gliding up the hudson with a kind of crouching motion that suggested a cat ready to spring. on her deck several men were standing behind the pilot-house with stop-watches in their hands. the little craft seemed alive under their feet and quivered with eagerness to be off. the passenger boats going in the same direction were passed in a twinkling, and the tugs and sailing vessels seemed to dwindle as houses and trees seem to shrink when viewed from the rear platform of a fast train. two posts, painted white and in line with each other--one almost at the river's edge, the other feet back--marked the starting-line of a measured mile, and were eagerly watched by the men aboard the yacht. she sped toward the starting-line as a sprinter dashes for the tape; almost instantly the two posts were in line, the men with watches cried "time!" and the race was on. then began such a struggle with father time as was never before seen; the wind roared in the ears of the passengers and snatched their words away almost before their lips had formed them; the water, a foam-flecked streak, dashed away from the gleaming white sides as if in terror. as the wonderful craft sped on she seemed to settle down to her work as a good horse finds himself and gets into his stride. faster and faster she went, while the speed of her going swept off the black flume of smoke from her stack and trailed it behind, a dense, low-lying shadow. "look!" shouted one of the men into another's ear, and raised his arm to point. "we're beating the train!" [illustration: the steam turbine-driven _velox_, of the british navy the fastest torpedo-boat destroyer.] sure enough, a passenger train running along the river's edge, the wheels spinning round, the locomotive throwing out clouds of smoke, was dropping behind. the train was being beaten by the boat. quivering, throbbing with the tremendous effort, she dashed on, the water climbing her sides and lashing to spume at her stern. "time!" shouted several together, as the second pair of posts came in line, marking the finish of the mile. the word was passed to the frantically struggling firemen and engineers below, while those on deck compared watches. "one minute and thirty-two seconds," said one. "right," answered the others. then, as the wonderful yacht _arrow_ gradually slowed down, they tried to realise the speed and to accustom themselves to the fact that they had made the fastest mile on record on water. and so the _arrow_, moving at the rate of forty-six miles an hour, followed the course of her ancestress, the _clermont_, when she made her first long trip almost a hundred years before. the _clermont_ was the first practical steamboat, and the _arrow_ the fastest, and so both were record-breakers. while there are not many points of resemblance between the first and the fastest boat, one is clearly the outgrowth of the other, but so vastly improved is the modern craft that it is hard to even trace its ancestry. the little _arrow_ is a screw-driven vessel, and her reciprocating engines--that is, engines operated by the pulling and pushing power of the steam-driven pistons in cylinders--developed the power of , horses, equal to , men, when making her record-breaking run. all this enormous power was used to produce speed, there being practically no room left in the little -foot hull for anything but engines and boilers. there is little difference, except in detail, between the _arrow's_ machinery and an ordinary propeller tugboat. her hull is very light for its strength, and it was so built as to slip easily through the water. she has twin engines, each operating its own shaft and propeller. these are quadruple expansion. the steam, instead of being allowed to escape after doing its work in the first cylinder, is turned into a larger one and then successively into two more, so that all of its expansive power is used. after passing through the four cylinders, the steam is condensed into water again by turning it into pipes around which circulates the cool water in which the vessel floats. the steam thus condensed to water is heated and pumped into the boiler, to be turned into steam, so the water has to do its work many times. all this saves weight and, therefore, power, for the lighter a vessel is the more easily she can be driven. the boilers save weight also by producing steam at the enormous pressure of pounds to the square inch. steadily maintained pressure means power; the greater the pressure the more the power. it was the inventive skill of charles d. mosher, who has built many fast yachts, that enabled him to build engines and boilers of great power in proportion to their weight. it was the ability of the inventor to build boilers and engines of , horse-power compact and light enough to be carried in a vessel feet long, of feet inches breadth, and feet inches depth, that made it possible for the _arrow_ to go a mile in one minute and thirty-two seconds. the speed of the wonderful little american boat, however, was not the result of any new invention, but was due to the perfection of old methods. in england, about five years before the _arrow's_ achievement, a little torpedo-boat, scarcely bigger than a launch, set the whole world talking by travelling at the rate of thirty-nine and three-fourths miles an hour. the little craft seemed to disappear in the white smother of her wake, and those who watched the speed trial marvelled at the railroad speed she made. the _turbina_--for that was the little record-breaker's name--was propelled by a new kind of engine, and her speed was all the more remarkable on that account. c.a. parsons, the inventor of the engine, worked out the idea that inventors have been studying for a long time--since , in fact--that is, the rotary principle, or the rolling movement without the up-and-down driving mechanism of the piston. the _turbina_ was driven by a number of steam-turbines that worked a good deal like the water-turbines that use the power of niagara. just as a water-wheel is driven by the weight or force of the water striking the blades or paddles of the wheel, so the force of the many jets of steam striking against the little wings makes the wheels of the steam-turbines revolve. if you take a card that has been cut to a circular shape and cut the edges so that little wings will be made, then blow on this winged edge, the card will revolve with a buzz; the parsons steam-turbine works in the same way. a shaft bearing a number of steel disks or wheels, each having many wings set at an angle like the blades of a propeller, is enclosed by a drumlike casing. the disks at one end of the shaft are smaller than those at the other; the steam enters at the small end in a circle of jets that blow against the wings and set them and the whole shaft whirling. after passing the first disk and its little vanes, the steam goes through the holes of an intervening fixed partition that deflects it so that it blows afresh on the second, and so on to the third and fourth, blowing upon a succession of wheels, each set larger than the preceding one. each of parsons's steam-turbine engines is a series of turbines put in a steel casing, so that they use every ounce of the expansive power of the steam. it will be noticed that the little wind-turbine that you blow with your breath spins very rapidly; so, too, do the wheels spun by the steamy breath of the boilers, and mr. parsons found that the propeller fastened to the shaft of his engine revolved so fast that a vacuum was formed around the blades, and its work was not half done. so he lengthened his shaft and put three propellers on it, reducing the speed, and allowing all of the blades to catch the water strongly. the _turbina_, speeding like an express train, glided like a ghost over the water; the smoke poured from her stack and the cleft wave foamed at her prow, but there was little else to remind her inventor that , horse-power was being expended to drive her. there was no jar, no shock, no thumping of cylinders and pounding of rapidly revolving cranks; the motion of the engine was rotary, and the propeller shafts, spinning at , revolutions per minute, made no more vibration than a windmill whirling in the breeze. to stop the _turbina_ was an easy matter; mr. parsons had only to turn off the steam. but to make the vessel go backward another set of turbines was necessary, built to run the other way, and working on the same shaft. to reverse the direction, the steam was shut off the engines which revolved from right to left and turned on those designed to run backward, or from left to right. one set of the turbines revolved the propellers so that they pushed, and the other set, turning them the other way, pulled the vessel backward--one set revolving in a vacuum and doing no work, while the other supplied the power. the parsons turbine-engines have been used to propel torpedo-boats, fast yachts, and vessels built to carry passengers across the english channel, and recently it has been reported that two new transatlantic cunarders are to be equipped with them. [illustration: the engines of the _arrow_] a few years after the pilgrims sailed for the land of freedom in the tiny _mayflower_ a man named branca built a steam-turbine that worked in a crude way on the same principle as parsons's modern giant. the pictures of this first steam-turbine show the head and shoulders of a bronze man set over the flaming brands of a wood fire; his metallic lungs are evidently filled with water, for a jet of steam spurts from his mouth and blows against the paddles of a horizontal turbine wheel, which, revolving, sets in motion some crude machinery. there is nothing picturesque about the steel-tube lungs of the boilers used by parsons in the _turbina_ and the later boats built by him, and plain steel or copper pipes convey the steam to the whirling blades of the enclosed turbine wheels, but enormous power has been generated and marvellous speed gained. in the modern turbine a glowing coal fire, kept intensely hot by an artificial draft, has taken the place of the blazing sticks; the coils of steel tubes carrying the boiling water surrounded by flame replace the bronze-figure boiler, and the whirling, tightly jacketed turbine wheels, that use every ounce of pressure and save all the steam, to be condensed to water and used over again, have grown out of the crude machine invented by branca. as the engines of the _arrow_ are but perfected copies of the engine that drove the _clermont_, so the power of the _turbina_ is derived from steam-motors that work on the same principle as the engine built by branca in , and his steam-turbine following the same old, old, ages old idea of the moss-covered, splashing, tireless water-wheel. the life-savers and their apparatus forming the outside boundary of great south bay, long island, a long row of sand-dunes faces the ocean. in summer groups of laughing bathers splash in the gentle surf at the foot of the low sand-hills, while the sun shines benignly over all. the irregular points of vessels' sails notch the horizon as they are swept along by the gentle summer breezes. old ocean is in a playful mood, and even children sport in his waters. after the last summer visitor has gone, and the little craft that sail over the shallow bay have been hauled up high and dry, the pavilions deserted and the bathing-houses boarded up, the beaches take on a new aspect. the sun shines with a cold gleam, and the surf has an angry snarl to it as it surges up the sandy slopes and then recedes, dragging the pebbles after it with a rattling sound. the outer line of sand-bars, which in summer breaks the blue sea into sunny ripples and flashing whitecaps, then churns the water into fury and grips with a mighty hold the keel of any vessel that is unlucky enough to be driven on them. when the keen winter winds whip through the beach grasses on the dunes and throw spiteful handfuls of cutting sand and spray; when the great waves pound the beach and the crested tops are blown off into vapour, then the life-saver patrolling the beach must be most vigilant. all along the coast, from maine to florida, along the gulf of mexico, the great lakes, and the pacific, these men patrol the beach as a policeman walks his beat. when the winds blow hardest and sleet adds cutting force to the gale, then the surfmen, whose business it is to save life regardless of their own comfort or safety, are most alert. all day the wind whistled through the grasses and moaned round the corners of the life-saving station; the gusts were cold, damp, and penetrating. with the setting of the sun there was a lull, but when the patrols started out at eight o'clock, on their four-hours' tour of duty, the wind had risen again and was blowing with renewed force. separating at the station, one surf man went east and the other west, following the line of the surf-beaten beach, each carrying on his back a recording clock in a leather case, and also several candle-like coston lights and a wooden handle. [illustration: a life-saving crew drilling with beach apparatus hauling in a breeches-buoy and a passenger.] "wind's blowing some," said one of the men, raising his voice above the howl of the blast. "hope nothing hits the bar to-night," the other answered. then both trudged off in opposite directions. with pea-coats buttoned tightly and sou'westers tied down securely, the surfmen fought the gale on their watch-tour of duty. at the end of his beat each man stopped to take a key attached to a post, and, inserting it in the clock, record the time of his visit at that spot, for by this means is an actual record kept of the movements of the patrol at all times. with head bent low in deference to the force of the blast, and eyes narrowed to slits, the surfman searched the seething sea for the shadowy outlines of a vessel in trouble. perchance as he looked his eye caught the dark bulk of a ship in a sea of foam, or the faint lines of spars and rigging through the spume and frozen haze--the unmistakable signs of a vessel in distress. an instant's concentrated gaze to make sure, then, taking a coston signal from his pocket and fitting it to the handle, he struck the end on the sole of his boot. like a parlour match it caught fire and flared out a brilliant red light. this served to warn the crew of the vessel of their danger, or notified them that their distress was observed and that help was soon forthcoming; it also served, if the surfman was near enough to the station, to notify the lookout there of the ship in distress. if the distance was too great or the weather too thick, the patrol raced back with all possible speed to the station and reported what he had seen. the patrol, through his long vigils under all kinds of weather conditions, learns every foot of his beat thoroughly, and is able to tell exactly how and where a stranded vessel lies, and whether she is likely to be forced over on to the beach or whether she will stick on the outer bar far beyond the reach of a line shot from shore. in a few words spoken quickly and exactly to the point--for upon the accuracy of his report much depends--he tells the situation. for different conditions different apparatus is needed. the vessel reported one stormy winter's night struck on the shoal that runs parallel to the outer long island beach, far beyond the reach of a line from shore. deep water lies on both sides of the bar, and after the shoal is passed the broken water settles down a little and gathers speed for its rush for the beach. these conditions were favourable for surf-boat work, and as the surfman told his tale the keeper or captain of the crew decided what to do. the crew ran the ever-ready surf-boat through the double doors of its house down the inclined plane to the beach. resting in a carriage provided with a pair of broad-tired wheels, the light craft was hauled by its sturdy crew through the clinging sand and into the very teeth of the storm to the point nearest the wreck. the surf rolled in with a roar that shook the ground; fringed with foam that showed even through that dense midnight darkness, the waves were hungry for their prey. each breaker curved high above the heads of the men, and, receding, the undertow sucked at their feet and tried to drag them under. it did not seem possible that a boat could be launched in such a sea. with scarcely a word of command, however, every man, knowing from long practice his position and specific duties, took his station on either side of the buoyant craft and, rushing into the surf, launched her; climbing aboard, every man took his appointed place, while the keeper, a long steering-oar in his hands, stood at the stern. all pulled steadily, while the steersman, with a sweep of his oar, kept her head to the seas and with consummate skill and judgment avoided the most dangerous crests, until the first watery rampart was passed. adapting their stroke to the rough water, the six sturdy rowers propelled their twenty-five-foot unsinkable boat at good speed, though it seemed infinitely slow when they thought of the crew of the stranded vessel off in the darkness, helpless and hopeless. each man wore a cork jacket, but in spite of their encumbrances they were marvellously active. as is sometimes the case, before the surf-boat reached the distressed vessel she lurched over the bar and went driving for the beach. the crew in the boat could do nothing, and the men aboard the ship were helpless. climbing up into the rigging, the sailors waited for the vessel to strike the beach, and the life-savers put for shore again to get the apparatus needed for the new situation. to load the surf-boat with the wrecked, half-frozen crew of the stranded vessel, when there was none too much room for the oarsmen, and then encounter the fearful surf, was a method to be pursued only in case of dire need. to reach the wreck from shore was a much safer and surer method of saving life, not only for those on the vessel, but also for the surfmen. the beach apparatus has received the greatest attention from inventors, since that part of the life-savers' outfit is depended upon to rescue the greatest number. with a rush the surf-boat rolled in on a giant wave amid a smother of foam, and no sooner had her keel grated on the sand than her crew were out knee-deep in the swirling water and were dragging her up high and dry. a minute later the entire crew, some pulling, some steering, dragged out the beach wagon. a light framework supported by two broad-tired wheels carried all the apparatus for rescue work from the beach. each member of the crew had his appointed place and definite duties, according to printed instructions which each had learned by heart, and when the command was given every man jumped to his place as a well-trained man-of-war's-man takes his position at his gun. over hummocks of sand and wreckage, across little inlets made by the waves, in the face of blinding sleet and staggering wind, the life-savers dragged the beach wagon on the run. through the mist and shrouding white of the storm the outlines of the stranded vessel could just be distinguished. bringing the wagon to the nearest point, the crew unloaded their appliances. two men then unloaded a sand-anchor--an immense cross--and immediately set to work with shovels to dig a hole in the sand and bury it. while this was being done two others were busy placing a bronze cannon (two and one-half-inch bore) in position; another got out boxes containing small rope wound criss-cross fashion on wooden pins set upright in the bottom. the pins merely held the rope in its coils until ready for use, when board and pegs were removed. the free end of the line was attached to a ring in the end of the long projectile which the captain carried, together with a box of ammunition slung over his shoulders. the cylindrical projectile was fourteen and one-half inches long and weighed seventeen pounds. all these operations were carried on at once and with utmost speed in spite of the great difficulties and the darkness. while the surf boomed and the wind roared, the captain sighted the gun--aided by nos. and of the crew--aiming for the outstretched arms of the yards of the wrecked vessel. with the wind blowing at an almost hurricane rate, it was a difficult shot, but long practice under all kinds of difficulties had taught the captain just how to aim. as he pulled the lanyard, the little bronze cannon spit out fire viciously, and the long projectile, to which had been attached the end of the coiled line, sailed off on its errand of mercy. with a whir the line spun out of the box coil after coil, while the crew peered out over the breaking seas to see if the keeper's aim was true. at last the line stopped uncoiling and the life-savers knew that the shot had landed somewhere. for a time nothing happened, the slender rope reached out into the boiling waves, but no answering tugs conveyed messages to the waiting surfmen from the wrecked seamen. at length the line began to slip through the fingers of the keeper who held it and moved seaward, so those on shore knew that the rope had been found and its use understood. the line carried out by the projectile served merely to drag out a heavy rope on which was run a sort of trolley carrying a breeches-buoy or sling. the men on the wreck understood the use of the apparatus, or read the instructions printed in several languages with which the heavy rope was tagged. they made the end of the strong line fast to the mast well above the reach of the hungry seas, and the surfmen secured their end to the deeply buried sand-anchor, an inverted v-shaped crotch placed under the rope holding it above the water on the shore end. when this had been done, as much of the slack was taken up as possible, and the wreck was connected with the beach with a kind of suspension bridge. all this occupied much time, for the hands of the sailors were numb with cold, the ropes stiff with ice, while the wild and angry wind snatched at the tackle and tore at the clinging figures. in a trice the willing arms on shore hauled out the buoy by means of an endless line reaching out to the wreck and back to shore. then with a joy that comes only to those who are saving a fellow-creature from death, the life-savers saw a man climb into the stout canvas breeches of the hanging buoy, and felt the tug on the whip-line that told them that the rescue had begun. with a will they pulled on the line, and the buoy, carrying its precious burden, rolled along the hawser, swinging in the wind, and now and then dipping the half-frozen man in the crests of the waves. it seemed a perilous journey, but as long as the wreck held together and the mast remained firmly upright the passengers on this improvised aerial railway were safe. one after the other the crew were taken ashore in this way, the life-savers hauling the breeches-buoy forward and back, working like madmen to complete their work before the wreck should break up. none too soon the last man was landed, for he had hardly been dragged ashore when the sturdy mast, being able to stand the buffeting of the waves no longer, toppled over and floated ashore. the life-savers' work is not over when the crew of a vessel is saved, for the apparatus must be packed on the beach wagon and returned to the station, while the shipwrecked crew is provided with dry clothing, fed, and cared for. the patrol continues on his beat throughout the night without regard to the hardships that have already been undergone. the success of the surfmen in saving lives depends not only on their courage and strength, supplemented by continuous training which has been proved time and again, but the wonderful record of the life-saving service is due as well to the efficient appliances that make the work of the men effective. besides the apparatus already described, each station is provided with a kind of boat-car which has a capacity for six or seven persons, and is built so that its passengers are entirely enclosed, the hatch by which they enter being clamped down from the inside. when there are a great many people to be saved, this car is used in place of the breeches-buoy. it is hung on the hawser by rings at either end and pulled back and forth by the whip-line; or, if the masts of the vessel are carried away and there is nothing to which the heavy rope can be attached so that it will stretch clear above the wave-crests, in such an emergency the life-car floats directly on the water, and the whip-line is used to pull it to the shore with wrecked passengers and back to the wreck for more. everything that would help to save life under any condition is provided, and a number of appliances are duplicated in case one or more should be lost or damaged at a critical time. signal flags are supplied, and the surfmen are taught their use as a means of communicating with people aboard a vessel in distress. telephones connect the stations, so that in case of any special difficulty two or even three crews may be combined. when wireless telegraphy comes into general use aboard ship the stations will doubtless be equipped with this apparatus also, so that ships may be warned of danger. [illustration: life-savers at work the two men in the center are burying the sand-anchor; of the two at the right, one is ready with the crotch support the hawser and the other carries the breeches-buoy; the other three men are hauling the line which has already been shot over the wrecked vessel.] the , miles of the united states ocean, gulf, and great lakes coasts, exclusive of alaska and the island possessions, are guarded by stations and houses of refuge at this writing, and new ones are added every year. practically all of this immense coast-line is patrolled or watched over during eight or nine stormy months, and those that "go down to the sea in ships" may be sure of a helping hand in time of trouble. the dangerous coasts are more thickly studded with stations, and the sections that are comparatively free from life-endangering reefs are provided with refuge houses where supplies are stored and where wrecked survivors may find shelter. the atlantic coast, being the most dangerous to shipping, is guarded by more than stations; the great lakes require fifty or more to care for the survivors of the vessels that are yearly wrecked on their harbourless shores. for the gulf of mexico eight are considered sufficient, and the long pacific coast also requires but eight. the life-saving service, formerly under the treasury department, now an important part of the department of commerce and labour, was organised by sumner i. kimball, who was put at its head in , and the great success and glory it has won is largely due to his energy and efficient enthusiasm. the life-saving service publishes a report of work accomplished through the year. it is a dry recital of facts and figures, but if the reader has a little imagination he can see the record of great deeds of heroism and self-sacrifice written between the lines. as vessels labour through the wintry seas along our coasts, and the on-shore winds roar through the rigging, while the fog, mist or snow hangs like a curtain all around, it is surely a comfort to those at sea to know that all along the dangerous coast men specially trained, and equipped with the most efficient apparatus known, are always ready to stretch out a helping hand. moving pictures some strange subjects and how they were taken the grandstand of the sheepshead bay race-track, one spring afternoon, was packed solidly with people, and the broad, terra-cotta-coloured track was fenced in with a human wall near the judges' stand. the famous suburban was to be run, and people flocked from every direction to see one of the greatest horse-races of the year. while the band played gaily, and the shrill cries of programme venders punctuated the hum of the voices of the multitude, and while the stable boys walked their aristocratic charges, shrouded in blankets, exercising them sedately--in the midst of all this movement, hubbub, and excitement a man a little to one side, apparently unconscious of all the uproar, was busy with a big box set up on a portable framework six or seven feet above the ground. the man was a new kind of photographer, and his big box was a camera with which he purposed to take a series of pictures of the race. above the box, which was about two and a half feet square, was an electric motor from which ran a belt connecting with the inner mechanism; from the front of the box protruded the lens, its glassy eye so turned as to get a full sweep of the track; nearby on the ground were piled the storage batteries which were used to supply the current for the motor. as the time for the race drew near the excitement increased, figures darted here, there and everywhere, the bobbing, brightly coloured hats of the women in the great slanting field of the grandstand suggesting bunches of flowers agitated by the breeze. then the horses paraded in a thoroughbred fashion, as if they appreciated their lengthy pedigrees and understood their importance. at last the splendid animals were lined up across the track, their small jockeys in their brilliantly coloured jackets hunched up like monkeys on their backs. then the enormous crowd was quiet, the band was still, even the noisy programme venders ceased calling their wares, and the photographer stood quietly beside his camera, the motor humming, his hand on the switch that starts the internal machinery. suddenly the starter dropped his arm, the barring gate flew up, and the horses sprang forward. "they're off!" came from a thousand throats in unison. the band struck up a lively air, and the vast assemblage watched with excited eyes the flying horses. as the horses swept on round the turn and down the back stretch the people seemed to be drawn from their seats, and by the time the racers made the turn leading into the home-stretch almost every one was standing and the roar of yelling voices was deafening. all this time the photographer kept his eyes on his machine, which was rattling like a rapidly beaten drum, the cyclopean eye of the camera making impressions on a sensitised film-ribbon at the rate of forty a second, and every movement of the flying legs of the urging jockeys, even the puffs of dust that rose at the falling of each iron-shod hoof, was recorded for all time by the eye of the camera. the horses entered the home-stretch and in a terrific burst of speed flashed by the throngs of yelling people and under the wire, a mere blur of shining bodies, brilliant colours of the jockeys' blouses, and yellow dust. the suburban was over, and the great crowd that had come miles to see a race that lasted but a little more than two minutes (a grand struggle of giants, however), sank back into their seats or relaxed their straining gaze in a way that said plainer than words could say it, "it is over." it was : in the afternoon. the photographer was all activity. the minute the race was over the motor above the great camera was stopped and the box was opened. from its dark interior another box about six inches square and two inches deep was taken: this box contained the record of the race, on a narrow strip of film two hundred and fifty feet long, the latent image of thousands of separate pictures. then began another race against time, for it was necessary to take that long ribbon across the city of brooklyn, over the bridge, across new york, over the north river by ferry to hoboken on the jersey side, develop, fix, and dry the two-hundred-and-fifty-foot-long film-negative, make a positive or reversed print on another two-hundred-and-fifty-foot film, carry it through the same photographic process, and show the spirited scene on the stereopticon screen of a metropolitan theatre the same evening. that evening a great audience in the dark interior of a new york theatre sat watching a white sheet stretched across the stage; suddenly its white expanse grew dark, and against the background appeared "the suburban, run this afternoon at : at sheepshead bay track; won by alcedo, in minutes - seconds." [illustration: biograph picture of a military hazing scene these pictures are not consecutive. the difference between those that follow each other is so slight as to be almost imperceptible because of the rapidity with which they are taken. these pictures were probably taken at the rate of thirty to forty per second.] then appeared on the screen the picture of the scene that the thousands had travelled far to see that same afternoon. there were the wide, smooth track, the tower-like judges' stand, the oval turf of the inner field, and as the audience looked the starter moved his arm, and the rank of horses, life-size and quivering with excitement, shot forth. from beginning to end the great struggle was shown to the people seated comfortably in the city playhouse, several miles from the track where the race was run, just two hours and fifteen minutes after the winning horse dashed past the judges' stand. every detail was reproduced; every movement of horses and jockeys, even the clouds of dust that rose from the hoof-beats, appeared clearly on the screen. and the audience rose gradually to their feet, straining forward to catch every movement, thrilled with excitement as were the mighty crowds at the actual race. to produce the effect that made the people in the theatre forget their surroundings and feel as if they were actually overlooking the race-track itself, about five thousand separate photographs were shown. it was discovered long ago that if a series of pictures, each of which showed a difference in the position of the legs of a man running, for instance, was passed quickly before the eye so that the space between the pictures would be screened, the figure would apparently move. the eyes retain the image they see for a fraction of a second, and if a new image carrying the movement a little farther along is presented in the same place, the eyes are deceived so that the object apparently actually moves. an ingenious toy called the zoltrope, which was based on this optical illusion, was made long before edison invented the vitascope, herman caster the biograph and mutoscope, or the lumiere brothers in france devised the cinematograph. all these different moving-picture machines work on the same principle, differing only in their mechanism. a moving-picture machine is really a rapid-fire repeating camera provided with a lens allowing of a very quick exposure. internal mechanism, operated by a hand-crank or electric motor, moves the unexposed film into position behind the lens and also opens and closes the shutter at just the proper moment. the same machinery feeds down a fresh section of the ribbon-like film into position and coils the exposed portion in a dark box, just as the film of a kodak is rolled off one spool and, after exposure, is wound up on another. the film used in the biograph when taking the suburban was two and three-fourth inches wide and several hundred feet long; about forty exposures were made per second, and for each exposure the film had to come to a dead stop before the lens and then the shutter was opened, the light admitted for about one three-hundredth of a second, the shutter closed, and a new section of film moved into place, while the exposed portion was wound upon a spool in a light-tight box. the long, flexible film is perforated along both edges, and these perforations fit over toothed wheels which guide it down to the lens; the holes in the celluloid strip are also used by the feeding mechanism. in order that the interval between the pictures shall always be the same, the film must be held firmly in each position in turn; the perforations and toothed mechanism accomplish this perfectly. in taking the picture of the suburban race almost five thousand separate negatives (all on one strip of film, however) were made during the two minutes five and three-fifths seconds the race was being run. each negative was perfectly clear, and each was different, though if one negative was compared to its neighbour scarcely any variance would be noted. after the film has been exposed, the light-tight box containing it is taken out of the camera and taken to a gigantic dark-room, where it is wound on a great reel and developed, just as the image on a kodak film is brought out. the reel is hung by its axle over a great trough containing gallons of developer, so that the film wound upon it is submerged; and as the reel is revolved all of the sensitised surface is exposed to the action of the chemicals and gradually the latent pictures are developed. after the development has gone far enough, the reel, still carrying the film, is dipped in clean water and washed, and then a dip in a similar bath of clearing-and-fixing solution makes the negatives permanent--followed by a final washing in clean water. it is simply developing on a grand scale, thousands of separate pictures on hundreds of feet of film being developed at once. a negative, however, is of no use unless a positive or print of some kind is made from it. if shown through a stereopticon, for instance, a negative would make all the shadows on the screen appear lights, and vice versa. a positive, therefore, is made by running a fresh film, with the negative, through a machine very much like the moving-picture camera. the unexposed surface is behind that of the negative, and at the proper intervals the shutter is opened and the admitted light prints the image of the negative on the unexposed film, just as a lantern slide is made, in fact, or a print on sensitised paper. the positives are made by this machine at the rate of a score or so in a second. of course, the positive is developed in the same manner as the negative. therefore, in order to show the people in the theatre the suburban, five hundred feet of film was exposed, developed, fixed, and dried, and nearly ten thousand separate and complete pictures were produced, in the space of two hours and fifteen minutes, including the time occupied in taking the films to and from the track, factory, and theatre. originally, successive pictures of moving objects were taken for scientific purposes. a french scientist who was studying aerial navigation set up a number of cameras and took successive pictures of a bird's flight. doctor muybridge, of philadelphia, photographed trotting horses with a camera of his own invention that made exposures in rapid succession, in order to learn the different positions of the legs of animals while in rapid motion. a frenchman also--m. mach--photographed a plant of rapid growth twice a day from exactly the same position for fifty consecutive days. when the pictures were thrown on the screen in rapid order the plant seemed to grow visibly. the moving pictures provide a most attractive entertainment, and it was this feature of the idea, undoubtedly, that furnished the incentive to inventors. the public is always willing to pay well for a good amusement. the makers of the moving-picture films have photographic studios suitably lighted and fitted with all the necessary stage accessories (scenery, properties, etc.) where the little comedies shown on the screens of the theatres are acted for the benefit of the rapid-fire camera and its operators, who are often the only spectators. one of these studios in the heart of the city of new york is so brilliantly lighted by electricity that pictures may be taken at full speed, thirty to forty-five per second, at any time of day or night. another company has an open-air gallery large enough for whole troops of cavalry to maneuver before the camera, or where the various evolutions of a working fire department may be photographed. of course, when the pictures are taken in a studio or place prepared for the work the photographic part is easy--the camera man sets up his machine and turns the crank while the performers do the rest. but some extra-ordinary pictures have been taken when the photographer had to seek his scene and work his machine under trying and even dangerous circumstances. during the boer war in south africa two operators for the biograph company took their bulky machine (it weighed about eighteen hundred pounds) to the very firing-line and took pictures of battles between the british and the burghers when they were exposed to the fire of both armies. on one occasion, in fact, the operator who was turning the mechanism--he sat on a bicycle frame, the sprocket of which was connected by a chain with the interior machinery--during a battle, was knocked from his place by the concussion of a shell that exploded nearby; nevertheless, the film was saved, and the same man rode on horseback nearly seventy-five miles across country to the nearest railroad point so that the precious photographic record might be sent to london and shown to waiting audiences there. pictures were taken by the kinetoscope showing an ascent of mount blanc, the operator of the camera necessarily making the perilous journey also; different stages of the ascent were taken, some of them far above the clouds. for this series of pictures a film eight hundred feet long was required, and , odd exposures or negatives were made. successive pictures have been taken at intervals during an ocean voyage to show the life aboard ship, the swing of the great seas, and the rolling and pitching of the steamer. the heave and swing of the steamer and the mountainous waves have been so realistically shown on the screen in the theatre that some squeamish spectators have been made almost seasick. it might be comforting to those who were made unhappy by the sight of the heaving seas to know that the operator who took one series of sea pictures, when lashed with his machine in the lookout place on the foremast of the steamer, suffered terribly from seasickness, and would have been glad enough to set his foot on solid ground; nevertheless, he stuck to his post and completed the series. [illustration: developing moving-picture films the films are wound on the great drums and run through the developer in the troughs as the drums are slowly revolved.] it was a biograph operator that was engaged in taking pictures of a fire department rushing to a fire. several pieces of apparatus had passed--an engine, hook-and-ladder company, and the chief; the operator, with his (then) bulky apparatus, large camera, storage batteries, etc., stood right in the centre of the street, facing the stream of engines, hose-wagons, and fire-patrol men. in order to show the contrast, an old-time hand-pump engine, dragged by a dozen men and boys, came along at full speed down the street, and behind and to one side of them followed a two-horse hose-wagon, going like mad. the men running with the old-time engine, not realising how narrow the space was and unaware of the plunging horses behind, passed the biograph man on one side on the dead run. the driver of the rapidly approaching team saw that there was no room for him to pass on the other side of the camera man, and his horses were going too fast to stop in the space that remained. he had but an instant to decide between the dozen men and their antiquated machine and the moving-picture outfit. he chose the latter, and, with a warning shout to the photographer, bore straight down on the camera, which continued to do its work faithfully, taking dozens of pictures a second, recording even the strained, anxious expression on the face of the driver. the pole of the hose-wagon struck the camera-box squarely and knocked it into fragments, and the wheels passed quickly over the pieces, the photographer meanwhile escaping somehow. by some lucky chance the box holding the coiled exposed film came through the wreck unscathed. when that series was shown on the screen in a theatre the audience saw the engine and hook-and-ladder in turn come nearer and nearer and then rush by, then the line of running men with the old engine, and then--and their flesh crept when they saw it--a team of plunging horses coming straight toward them at frightful speed. the driver's face could be seen between the horses' heads, distorted with effort and fear. straight on the horses came, their nostrils distended, their great muscles straining, their fore hoofs striking out almost, it seemed, in the faces of the people in the front row of seats. people shrank back, some women shrieked, and when the plunging horses seemed almost on them, at the very climax of excitement, the screen was darkened and the picture blotted out. the camera taking the pictures had continued to work to the very instant it was struck and hurled to destruction. in addition to the stereopticon and its attendant mechanism, which is only suitable when the pictures are to be shown to an audience, a machine has been invented for the use of an individual or a small group of people. in the mutoscope the positives or prints are made on long strips of heavy bromide paper, instead of films, and are generally enlarged; the strip is cut up after development and mounted on a cylinder, so they radiate like the spokes of a wheel, and are set in the same consecutive order in which they were taken. the thousands of cards bearing the pictures at the outer ends are placed in a box, so that when the wheel of pictures is turned, by means of a crank attached to the axle, a projection holds each card in turn before the lens through which the observer looks. the projection in the top of the box acts like the thumb turning the pages of a book. each of the pictures is presented in such rapid succession that the object appears to move, just as the scenes thrown on the screen by a lantern show action. the mutoscope widens the use of motion-photography infinitely. the united states government will use it to illustrate the workings of many of its departments at the world's fair at st. louis: the life aboard war-ships, the handling of big guns, army maneuvers, the life-saving service, post-office workings, and, in fact, many branches of the government service will be explained pictorially by this means. agents for manufacturers of large machinery will be able to show to prospective purchasers pictures of their machines in actual operation. living, moving portraits have been taken, and by means of a hand machine can be as easily examined as pictures through a stereoscope. it is quite within the bounds of possibility that circulating libraries of moving pictures will be established, and that every public school will have a projecting apparatus for the use of films, and a stereopticon or a mutoscope. in fact, a sort of circulating library already exists, films or mutoscope pictures being rented for a reasonable sum; and thus many of the most important of the world's happenings may be seen as they actually occurred. future generations will have histories illustrated with vivid motion pictures, as all the great events of the day, processions, celebrations, battles, great contests on sea and land are now recorded by the all-seeing eye of the motion-photographer's camera. bridge builders and some of their achievements in the old days when rome was supreme a caesar decreed that a bridge should be built to carry a military road across a valley, or ordered that great stone arches should be raised to conduct a stream of water to a city; and after great toil, and at the cost of the lives of unnumbered labourers, the work was done--so well done, in fact, that much of it is still standing, and some is still doing service. in much the same regal way the managers of a railroad order a steel bridge flung across a chasm in the midst of a wilderness far from civilisation, or command that a new structure shall be substituted for an old one without disturbing traffic; and, lo and behold, it is done in a surprisingly short time. but the new bridges, in contrast to the old ones, are as spider webs compared to the overarching branches of a great tree. the old type, built of solid masonry, is massive, ponderous, while the new, slender, graceful, is built of steel. one day a bridge-building company in pennsylvania received the specifications giving the dimensions and particulars of a bridge that an english railway company wished to build in far-off burma, above a great gorge more than eight hundred feet deep and about a half-mile wide. from the meagre description of the conditions and requirements, and from the measurements furnished by the railroad, the engineers of the american bridge company created a viaduct. just as an author creates a story or a painter a picture, so these engineers built a bridge on paper, except that the work of the engineers' imagination had to be figured out mathematically, proved, and reproved. not only was the soaring structure created out of bare facts and dry statistics, but the thickness of every bolt and the strain to be borne by every rod were predetermined accurately. and when the plans of the great viaduct were completed the engineers knew the cost of every part, and felt so sure that the actual bridge in far-off burma could be built for the estimated amount, that they put in a bid for the work that proved to be far below the price asked by english builders. and so this company whose works are in pennsylvania was awarded the contract for the gokteik viaduct in burma, half-way round the world from the factory. [illustration: building an american bridge in burmah this structure stretches feet above the bottom of the gokteik gorge. the viaduct was built entirely from above, as shown in this picture.] in the midst of a wilderness, among an ancient people whose language and habits were utterly strange to most americans, in a tropical country where modern machinery and appliances were practically unknown, a small band of men from the young republic contracted to build the greatest viaduct the world had ever seen. all the material, all the tools and machinery, were to be carried to the opposite side of the earth and dumped on the edge of the chasm. from the heaps of metal the small band of american workmen and engineers, aided by the native labourers, were to build the actual structure, strong and enduring, that was conceived by the engineers and reduced to working-plans in far-off pennsylvania. from ore dug out of the pennsylvania mountains the steel was made and, piece by piece, the parts were rolled, riveted, or welded together so that every section was exactly according to the measurements laid out on the plan. as each part was finished it was marked to correspond with the plan and also to show its relation to its neighbour. it was like a gigantic puzzle. the parts were made to fit each other accurately, so that when the workmen in burma came to put them together the tangle of beams and rods, of trusses and braces should be assembled into a perfect, orderly structure--each part in its place and each doing its share of the work. with men trained to work with ropes and tackle collected from an indian seaport, and native riveters gathered from another place, mr. j.c. turk, the engineer in charge, set to work with the american bridgemen and the constructing engineer to build a bridge out of the pieces of steel that lay in heaps along the brink of the gorge. first, the traveller, or derrick, shipped from america in sections, was put together, and its long arm extended from the end of the tracks on which it ran over the abyss. from above the great steel beams were lowered to the masonry foundations of the first tower and securely bolted to them, and so, piece by piece, the steel girders were suspended in space and swung this way and that until each was exactly in its proper position and then riveted permanently. the great valley resounded with the blows of hammers on red-hot metal, and the clangour of steel on steel broke the silence of the tropic wilderness. the towers rose up higher and higher, until the tops were level with the rim of the valley, and as they were completed the horizontal girders were built on them, the rails laid, and the traveller pushed forward until its arm swung over the foundation of the next tower. and so over the deep valley the slender structure gradually won its way, supporting itself on its own web as it crawled along like a spider. indeed, so tall were its towers and so slender its steel cords and beams that from below it appeared as fragile as a spider's web, and the men, poised on the end of swinging beams or standing on narrow platforms hundreds of feet in air, looked not unlike the flies caught in the web. the towers, however, were designed to sustain a heavy train and locomotive and to withstand the terrific wind of the monsoon. the pressure of such a wind on a -foot tower is tremendous. the bridge was completed within the specified time and bore without flinching all the severe tests to which it was put. heavy trains--much heavier than would ordinarily be run over the viaduct--steamed slowly across the great steel trestle while the railroad engineers examined with utmost care every section that would be likely to show weakness. but the designers had planned well, the steel-workers had done their full duty, and the american bridgemen had seen to it that every rivet was properly headed and every bolt screwed tight--and no fault could be found. the bridge engineer's work is very diversified, since no two bridges are alike. at one time he might be ordered to span a stream in the midst of a populous country where every aid is at hand, and his next commission might be the building of a difficult bridge in a foreign wilderness far beyond the edge of civilisation. bridge-building is really divided into four parts, and each part requires a different kind of knowledge and experience. first, the designer has to have the imagination to see the bridge as it will be when it is completed, and then he must be able to lay it out on paper section by section, estimating the size of the parts necessary for the stress they will have to bear, the weight of the load they will have to carry, the effect of the wind, the contraction and expansion of cold and heat, and vibration; all these things must be thought of and considered in planning every part and determining the size of each. also he must know what kind of material to use that is best fitted to stand each strain, whether to use steel that is rigid or that which is so flexible that it can be tied in a knot. on the designer depends the price asked for the work, and so it is his business to invent, for each bridge is a separate problem in invention, a bridge that will carry the required weight with the least expenditure of material and labour and at the same time be strong enough to carry very much greater loads than it is ever likely to be called upon to sustain. the designer is often the constructor as well, and he is always a man of great practical experience. he has in his time stepped out on a foot-wide girder over a rushing stream, directing his men, and he has floundered in the mud of a river bottom in a caisson far below the surface of the stream, while the compressed air kept the ooze from flowing in and drowning him and his workmen. the second operation of making the pieces that go into the structure is simply the following out of the clearly drawn plans furnished by the designing engineers. different grades of steel and iron are moulded or forged into shape and riveted together, each part being made the exact size and shape required, even the position of the holes through which the bolts or rivets are to go that are to secure it to the neighbouring section being marked on the plan. the foundations for bridges are not always put down by the builders of the bridge proper; that is a work by itself and requires special experience. on the strength and permanency of the foundation depends the life of the bridge. while the foundries and steel mills are making the metal-work the foundations are being laid. if the bridge is to cross a valley, or carry the roadway on the level across a depression, the placing of the foundations is a simple matter of digging or blasting out a big hole and laying courses of masonry; but if a pier is to be built in water, or the land on which the towers are to stand is unstable, then the problem is much more difficult. for bridges like those that connect new york and brooklyn, the towers of which rest on bed-rock below the river's bottom, caissons are sunk and the massive masonry is built upon them. if you take a glass and sink it in water, bottom up, carefully, so that the air will not escape, it will be noticed that the water enters the glass but a little way: the air prevents the water from filling the glass. the caisson works on the same principle, except that the air in the great boxlike chamber is highly compressed by powerful pumps and keeps the water and river ooze out altogether. the caissons of the third bridge across the east river were as big as a good-sized house--about one hundred feet long and eighty feet wide. it took five large tugs more than two days to get one of them in its proper place. anchored in its exact position, it was slowly sunk by building the masonry of the tower upon it, and when the lower edges of the great box rested on the bottom of the river men were sent down through an air-lock which worked a good deal like the lock of a canal. the men, two or three at a time, entered a small round chamber built of steel which was fitted with two air-tight doors at the top and bottom; when they were inside the air-lock, the upper door was closed and clamped tight, just as the gates leading from the lower level of a canal are closed after the boat is in the lock; then very gradually the air in the compartment is compressed by an air-compressor until the pressure in the air-lock is the same as that in the caisson chamber, when the lower door opened and allowed the men to enter the great dim room. imagine a room eighty by one hundred feet, low and criss-crossed by massive timber braces, resting on the black, slimy mud of the river bottom; electric lights shine dimly, showing the half-naked workmen toiling with tremendous energy by reason of the extra quantity of oxygen in the compressed air. the workmen dug the earth and mud from under the iron-shod edges of the caisson, and the weight of the masonry being continually added to above sunk the great box lower and lower. from time to time the earth was mixed with water and sucked to the surface by a great pump. with hundreds of tons of masonry above, and the watery mud of the river on all sides far below the keels of the vessels that passed to and fro all about, the men worked under a pressure that was two or three times as great as the fifteen pounds to the square inch that every one is accustomed to above ground. if the pressure relaxed for a moment the lives of the men would be snuffed out instantly--drowned by the inrushing waters; if the excavation was not even all around, the balance of the top-heavy structure would be lost, the men killed, and the work destroyed entirely. but so carefully is this sort of work done that such an accident rarely occurs, and the caissons are sunk till they rest on bed-rock or permanent, solid ground, far below the scouring effect of currents and tides. then the air-chamber is filled with concrete and left to support the great towers that pierce the sky above the waters. [illustration: the spider-web-like viaduct across canon diablo the slender steel structure supporting a loaded train that stretches along its entire length.] the pneumatic tube, which is practically a steel caisson on a small scale operated in the same way, is often used for small towers, and many of the steel sky-scrapers of the cities are built on foundations of this sort when the ground is unstable. foundations of wooden and iron piles, driven deep in the ground below the river bottom, are perhaps the most common in use. the piles are sawed off below the surface of the water and a platform built upon them, which in turn serves as the foundation for the masonry. the great eads bridge, which was built across the mississippi at st. louis, is supported by towers the foundations of which are sunk feet below the ordinary level of the water; at this depth the men working in the caissons were subjected to a pressure of nearly fifty pounds to the square inch, almost equal to that used to run some steam-engines. the bridge across the hudson at poughkeepsie was built on a crib or caisson open at the top and sunk by means of a dredge operated from above taking out the material from the inside. the wonder of this is hard to realise unless it is remembered that the steel hands of the dredge were worked entirely from above, and the steel rope sinews reached down below the surface more than one hundred feet sometimes; yet so cleverly was the work managed that the excavation was perfect all around, and the crib sank absolutely straight and square. it is the fourth department of bridge-building that requires the greatest amount not only of knowledge but of resourcefulness. in the final process of erection conditions are likely to arise that were not considered when the plans were drawn. the chief engineer in charge of the erection of a bridge far from civilisation is a little king, for it is necessary for him to have the power of an absolute monarch over his army of workmen, which is often composed of many different races. with so many thousand tons of steel and stone dumped on the ground at the bridge site, with a small force of expert workmen and a greater number of unskilled labourers, in spite of bad weather, floods, or fearful heat, the constructing engineer is expected to finish the work within the specified time, and yet it must withstand the most exacting tests. in the heart of africa, five hundred miles from the coast and the source of supplies, an american engineer, aided by twenty-one american bridgemen, built twenty-seven viaducts from to feet long within a year. the work was done in half the time and at half the cost demanded by the english bidders. mr. lueder, the chief engineer, tells, in his account of the work, of shooting lions from the car windows of the temporary railroad, and of seeing ostriches try to keep pace with the locomotive, but he said little of his difficulties with unskilled workmen, foreign customs, and almost unspeakable languages. the bridge engineer the world over is a man who accomplishes things, and who, furthermore, talks little of his achievements. though the work of the bridge builders within easy reach of the steel mills and large cities is less unusual, it is none the less adventurous. in , a steel arch bridge was completed that was built around the old suspension bridge spanning the niagara river over the whirlpool rapids. the old suspension bridge had been in continuous service since and had outlived its usefulness. it was decided to build a new one on the same spot, and yet the traffic in the meantime must not be disturbed in the least. it would seem that this was impossible, but the engineers intrusted with the work undertook it with perfect confidence. to any one who has seen the rushing, roaring, foaming waters of unknown depth that race so fast from the spray-veiled falls that they are heaped up in the middle, the mere thought of men handling huge girders of steel above the torrent, and of standing on frail swinging platforms two hundred or more feet above the rapids, causes chills to run down the spine; yet the work was undertaken without the slightest doubt of its successful fulfilment. it was manifestly impossible to support the new structure from below, and the old bridge was carrying about all it could stand, so it was necessary to build the new arch, without support from underneath, over the foaming water of the niagara rapids two hundred feet below. steel towers were built on either side of the gorge, and on them was laid the platform of the bridge from the towers nearest to the water around and under the old structure. the upper works were carried to the solid ground on a level with the rim of the gorge and there securely anchored with steel rods and chains held in masonry. then from either side the arch was built plate by plate from above, the heavy sheets of steel being handled from a traveller or derrick that was pushed out farther and farther over the stream as fast as the upper platform was completed. the great mass of metal on both sides of the niagara hung over the stream, and was only held from toppling over by the rods and chains solidly anchored on shore. gradually the two ends of the uncompleted arch approached each other, the amount of work on each part being exactly equal, until but a small space was left between. the work was so carefully planned and exactly executed that the two completed halves of the arch did not meet, but when all was in readiness the chains on each side, bearing as they did the weight of more than , , pounds, were lengthened just enough, and the two ends came together, clasping hands over the great gorge. soon the tracks were laid, and the new bridge took up the work of the old, and then, piece by piece, the old suspension bridge, the first of its kind, was demolished and taken away. over the niagara gorge also was built one of the first cantilever bridges ever constructed. to uphold it, two towers were built close to the water's edge on either side, and then from the towers to the shores, on a level with the upper plateau, the steel fabric, composed of slender rods and beams braced to stand the great weight it would have to carry, was built on false work and secured to solid anchorages on shore. then on this, over tracks laid for the purpose, a crane was run (the same process being carried out on both sides of the river simultaneously), and so the span was built over the water feet above the seething stream, the shore ends balancing the outer sections until the two arms met and were joined exactly in the middle. this bridge required but eight months to build, and was finished in . from the car windows hardly any part of the slender structure can be seen, and the train seems to be held over the foaming torrent by some invisible support, yet hundreds of trains have passed over it, the winds of many storms have torn at its members, heat and cold have tried by expansion and contraction to rend it apart, yet the bridge is as strong as ever. sometimes bridges are built a span or section at a time and placed on great barges, raised to just their proper height, and floated down to the piers and there secured. a railroad bridge across the schuylkill at philadelphia was judged inadequate for the work it had to do, and it was deemed necessary to replace it with a new one. the towers it rested upon, therefore, were widened, and another, stronger bridge was built alongside, the new one put upon rollers as was the old, and then between trains the old structure was pushed to one side, still resting on the widened piers, and the new bridge was pushed into its place, the whole operation occupying less than three minutes. the new replaced the old between the passing of trains that run at four or five-minute intervals. the eads bridge, which crosses the mississippi at st. louis, was built on a novel plan. its deep foundations have already been mentioned. the great "father of waters" is notoriously fickle; its channel is continually changing, the current is swift, and the frequent floods fill up and scour out new channels constantly. it was necessary, therefore, in order to span the great stream, to place as few towers as possible and build entirely from above or from the towers themselves. it was a bold idea, and many predicted its failure, but captain eads, the great engineer, had the courage of his convictions and carried out his plans successfully. from each tower a steel arch was started on each side, built of steel tubes braced securely; the building on each side of every tower was carried on simultaneously, one side of every arch balancing the weight on the other side. each section was like a gigantic seesaw, the tower acting as the centre support; the ends, of course, not swinging up and down. gradually the two sections of every arch approached each other until they met over the turbid water and were permanently connected. with the completion of the three arches, built entirely from the piers supporting them, the great stream was spanned. the eads bridge was practically a double series of cantilevers balancing on the towers. three arches were built, the longest being feet long and the two shorter ones feet each. every situation that confronts the bridge builder requires different handling; at one time he may be called upon to construct a bridge alongside of a narrow, rocky cleft over a rushing stream like the royal gorge, colorado, where the track is hung from two great beams stretched across the chasm, or he may be required to design and construct a viaduct like that gossamer structure three hundred and five feet high and nearly a half-mile long across the kinzua creek, in pennsylvania. problems which have nothing to do with mechanics often try his courage and tax his resources, and many difficulties though apparently trivial, develop into serious troubles. the caste of the different native gangs who worked on the twenty-seven viaducts built in central africa is a case in point: each group belonging to the same caste had to be provided with its own quarters, cooking utensils, and camp furniture, and dire were the consequences of a mix-up during one of the frequent moves made by the whole party. [illustration: beginning an american bridge in mid-africa] and so the work of a bridge builder, whether it is creating out of a mere jumble of facts and figures a giant structure, the shaping of glowing metal to exact measurements, the delving in the slime under water for firm foundations, or the throwing of webs of steel across yawning chasms or over roaring streams, is never monotonous, is often adventurous, and in many, many instances is a great civilising influence. submarines in war and peace during the early part of the spanish-american war a fleet of vessels patrolled the atlantic coast from florida to maine. the spanish admiral cervera had left the home waters with his fleet of cruisers and torpedo-boats and no one knew where they were. the lookouts on all the vessels were ordered to keep a sharp watch for strange ships, and especially for those having a warlike appearance. all the newspapers and letters received on board the different cruisers of the patrol fleet told of the anxiety felt in the coast towns and of the fear that the spanish ships would appear suddenly and begin a bombardment. to add to the excitement and expectation, especially of the green crews, the men were frequently called out of their comfortable hammocks in the middle of the night, and sent to their stations at guns and ammunition magazines, just as if a battle was imminent; all this was for the purpose of familiarising the crews with their duties under war conditions, though no enlisted man knew whether he was called to quarters to fight or for drill. these were the conditions, then, when one bright sunday the crew of an auxiliary cruiser were very busy cleaning ship--a very thorough and absorbing business. while the men were in the thick of the scrubbing, one of the crew stood up to straighten his back, and looked out through an open port in the vessel's side. as he looked he caught a glimpse of a low, black craft, hardly five hundred yards off, coming straight for the cruiser. the water foamed at her bows and the black smoke poured out of her funnels, streaking behind her a long, sinister cloud. it was one of those venomous little torpedo-boats, and she was apparently rushing in at top speed to get within easy range of the large warship. "a torpedo-boat is headed straight for us," cried the man at the port, and at the same moment came the call for general quarters. as the men ran to their stations the word was passed from one to the other, "a spanish torpedo-boat is headed for us." with haste born of desperation the crew worked to get ready for action, and when all was ready, each man in his place, guns loaded, firing lanyards in hand, gun-trainers at the wheels, all was still--no command to fire was given. from the signal-boys to the firemen in the stokehole--for news travels fast aboard ship--all were expecting the muffled report and the rending, tearing explosion of a torpedo under the ship's bottom. the terrible power of the torpedo was known to all, and the dread that filled the hearts of that waiting crew could not be put into words. of course it was a false alarm. the torpedo-boat flew the stars and stripes, but the heavy smoke concealed it, and the officers, perceiving the opportunities for testing the men, let it be believed that a boat belonging to the enemy was bearing down on them. the crews of vessels engaged in future wars will have, not only swifter, surer torpedo-boats to menace them, but even more dreadful foes. the conning towers of the submarines show but a foot or two above the surface--a sinister black spot on the water, like the dorsal fin of a shark, that suggests but does not reveal the cruel power below; for an instant the knob lingers above the surface while the steersman gets his bearings, and then it sinks in a swirling eddy, leaving no mark showing in what direction it has travelled. then the crew of the exposed warship wait and wonder with a sickening cold fear in their hearts how soon the crash will come, and pray that the deadly submarine torpedo will miss its mark. submarine torpedo-boats are actual, practical working vessels to-day, and already they have to be considered in the naval plans for attack and defense. though the importance of submarines in warfare, and especially as a weapon of defense, is beginning to be thoroughly recognised, it took a long time to arouse the interest of naval men and the public generally sufficient to give the inventors the support they needed. americans once had within their grasp the means to blow some of their enemies' ships out of the water, but they did not realise it, as will be shown in the following, and for a hundred years the progress in this direction was hindered. it was during the american revolution that a man went below the surface of the waters of new york harbour in a submarine boat just big enough to hold him, and in the darkness and gloom of the under-water world propelled his turtle-like craft toward the british ships anchored in mid-stream. on the outside shell of the craft rested a magazine with a heavy charge of gunpowder which the submarine navigator intended to screw fast to the bottom of a fifty-gun british man-of-war, and which was to be exploded by a time-fuse after he had got well out of harm's way. slowly and with infinite labour this first submarine navigator worked his way through the water in the first successful under-water boat, the crank-handle of the propelling screw in front of him, the helm at his side, and the crank-handle of the screw that raised or lowered the craft just above and in front. no other man had made a like voyage; he had little experience to guide him, and he lacked the confidence that a well-tried device assures; he was alone in a tiny vessel with but half an hour's supply of air, a great box of gunpowder over him, and a hostile fleet all around. it was a perilous position and he felt it. with his head in the little conning tower he was able to get a glimpse of the ship he was bent on destroying, as from time to time he raised his little craft to get his bearings. at last he reached his all-unsuspecting quarry and, sinking under the keel, tried to attach the torpedo. there in the darkness of the depths of north river this unnamed hero, in the first practical submarine boat, worked to make the first torpedo fast to the bottom of the enemy's ship, but a little iron plate or bolt holding the rudder in place made all the difference between a failure that few people ever heard of and a great achievement that would have made the inventor of the boat, david bushnell, famous everywhere, and the navigator a great hero. the little iron plate, however, prevented the screw from taking hold, the tide carried the submarine past, and the chance was lost. david bushnell was too far ahead of his time, his invention was not appreciated, and the failure of his first attempt prevented him from getting the support he needed to demonstrate the usefulness of his under-water craft. the piece of iron in the keel of the british warship probably put back development of submarine boats many years, for bushnell's boat contained many of the principles upon which the successful under-water craft of the present time are built. one hundred and twenty-five years after the subsurface voyage described above, a steel boat, built like a whale but with a prow coming to a point, manned by a crew of six, travelling at an average rate of eight knots an hour, armed with five whitehead torpedoes, and designed and built by americans, passed directly over the spot where the first submarine boat attacked the british fleet. the holland boat _fulton_ had already travelled the length of long island sound, diving at intervals, before reaching new york, and was on her way to the delaware capes. she was the invention of john p. holland, and the result of twenty-five years of experimenting, nine experimental boats having been built before this persistent and courageous inventor produced a craft that came up to his ideals. the cruise of the _fulton_ was like a march of triumph, and proved beyond a doubt that the holland submarines were practical, sea-going craft. at the eastern end of long island the captain and crew, six men in all, one by one entered the _fulton_ through the round hatch in the conning tower that projected about two feet above the back of the fish-like vessel. each man had his own particular place aboard and definite duties to perform, so there was no need to move about much, nor was there much room left by the gasoline motor, the electric motor, storage batteries, air-compressor, and air ballast and gasoline tanks, and the whitehead torpedoes. the captain stood up inside of the conning tower, with his eyes on a level with the little thick glass windows, and in front of him was the wheel connecting with the rudder that steered the craft right and left; almost at his feet was stationed the man who controlled the diving-rudders; farther aft was the engineer, all ready for the word to start his motor; another man controlled the ballast tanks, and another watched the electric motor and batteries. with a clang the lid-like hatch to the conning tower was closed and clamped fast in its rubber setting, the gasoline engine began its rapid phut-phut, and the submarine boat began its long journey down long island sound. the boat started in with her deck awash--that is, with two or three feet freeboard or of deck above the water-line. in this condition she could travel as long as her supply of gasoline held out--her tanks holding enough to drive her knots at the speed of six knots an hour, when in the semi-awash condition; the lower she sank the greater the surface exposed to the friction of the water and the greater power expended to attain a given speed. as the vessel jogged along, with a good part of her deck showing above the waves, her air ventilators were open and the burnt gas of the engine was exhausted right out into the open; the air was as pure as in the cabin of an ordinary ship. besides the work of propelling the boat, the engine being geared to the electric motor made it revolve, so turning it into a dynamo that created electricity and filled up the storage batteries. [illustration: lake's submarine torpedo-boat _protector_ this boat is designed to travel on the surface, or fully submerged, or on the ocean's bottom. she is provided with wheels that support her when on the bottom, and with a divers' compartment from which divers can work on submarine cables or the enemies' explosive mines.] from time to time, as this whale-like ship plowed the waters of the sound, a big wave would flow entirely over her, and the captain would be looking right into the foaming crest. the boat was built for under-water going, so little daylight penetrated the interior through the few small deadlights, or round, heavy glass windows, but electric incandescent bulbs fed by current from the storage batteries lit the interior brilliantly. the boat had not proceeded far when the captain ordered the crew to prepare to dive, and immediately the engine was shut down and the clutch connecting its shaft with the electric apparatus thrown off and another connecting the electric motor with the propeller thrown in; a switch was then turned and the current from the storage batteries set the motor and propeller spinning. while this was being done another man was letting water into her ballast tanks to reduce her buoyancy. when all but the conning tower was submerged the captain looked at the compass to see how she was heading, noted that no vessels were near enough to make a submarine collision likely, and gave the word to the man at his feet to dive twenty feet. then a strange thing happened. the diving-helmsman gave a twist to the wheel that connected with the horizontal rudders aft of the propeller, and immediately the boat slanted downward at an angle of ten degrees; the water rose about the conning tower until the little windows were level with the surface, and then they were covered, and the captain looked into solid water that was still turned yellowish-green by the light of the sun; then swiftly descending, he saw but the faintest gleam of green light coming through twenty feet of water. the _fulton_, with six men in her, was speeding along at five knots an hour twenty feet below the shining waters of the sound. the diving-helmsman kept his eye on a gauge in front of him that measured the pressure of water at the varying depths, but the dial was so marked that it told him just how many feet the _fulton_ was below the surface. another device showed whether the boat was on an even keel or, if not exactly, how many degrees she slanted up or down. with twenty feet of salt water above her and as much below, this mechanical whale cruised along with her human freight as comfortable as they would have been in the same space ashore. the vessel contained sufficient air to last them several hours, and when it became vitiated there were always the tanks of compressed air ready to be drawn upon. except for the hum of the motor and the slight clank of the steering-gear, all was silent; none of the noises of the outer world penetrated the watery depths; neither the slap of the waves, the whir of the breeze, the hiss of steam, nor rattle of rigging accompanied the progress of this submarine craft. as silently as a fish, as far as the outer world was concerned, the _fulton_ crept through the submarine darkness. if an enemy's ship was near it would be an easy thing to discharge one of the five whitehead torpedoes she carried and get out of harm's way before it struck the bottom of the ship and exploded. in the tube which opened at the very tip end of the nose of the craft lay a whitehead (or automobile) torpedo, which when properly set and ejected by compressed air propelled itself at a predetermined depth at a speed of thirty knots an hour until it struck the object it was aimed at or its compressed air power gave out. the seven holland boats built for the united states navy, of which the _fulton_ is a prototype, carry five of these torpedoes, one in the tube and two on either side of the hold, and each boat is also provided with one compensating tank for each torpedo, so that when one or all are fired their weight may be compensated by filling the tanks with water so that the trim of the vessel will be kept the same and her stability retained. the _fulton_, however, was bent on a peaceful errand, and carried dummy torpedoes instead of the deadly engines of destruction that the man-o'-war's man dreads. "dive thirty," ordered the captain, at the same time giving his wheel a twist to direct the vessel's course according to the pointing finger of the compass. "dive thirty, sir," repeated the steersman below, and with a slight twist of his gear the horizontal rudders turned and the submarine inclined downward; the level-indicator showed a slight slant and the depth-gauge hand turned slowly round--twenty-two, twenty-five, twenty-eight, then thirty feet, when the helmsman turned his wheel back a little and the vessel forged ahead on a level keel. at thirty feet below the surface the little craft, built like a cigar on purpose to stand a tremendous squeeze, was subjected to a pressure of , pounds to the square foot. to realise this pressure it will be necessary to think of a slab of iron a foot square and weighing , pounds pressing on every foot of the outer surface of the craft. of course, the squeeze is exerted on all sides of the submarine boats when fully submerged, just as every one is subjected to an atmospheric pressure of fifteen pounds to the square inch on every inch of his body. the _fulton_ and other submarine boats are so strongly built and thoroughly braced that they could stand an even greater pressure without damage. when the commander of the _fulton_ ordered his vessel to the surface, the diving-steersman simply reversed his rudders so that they turned upward, and the propeller, aided by the natural buoyancy of the boat, simply pushed her to the surface. the holland boats have a reserve buoyancy, so that if anything should happen to the machinery they would rise unaided to the surface. compressed air was turned into the ballast tanks, the water forced out so that the boat's buoyancy was increased, and she floated in a semi-awash, or light, condition. the engineer turned off the current from the storage batteries, threw off the motor from the propeller shaft, and connected the gasoline engine, started it up, and inside of five minutes from the time the _fulton_ was navigating the waters of the sound at a depth of thirty feet she was sailing along on the surface like any other gasoline craft. and so the ninety-mile journey down long island sound, partly under water, partly on the surface, to new york, was completed. the greater voyage to the delaware capes followed, and at all times the little sixty-three-foot boat that was but eleven feet in diameter at her greatest girth carried her crew and equipment with perfect safety and without the least inconvenience. such a vessel, small in size but great in destructive power, is a force to be reckoned with by the most powerful battle-ship. no defense has yet been devised that will ward off the deadly sting of the submarine's torpedo, delivered as it is from beneath, out of the sight and hearing of the doomed ships' crews, and exploded against a portion of the hull that cannot be adequately protected by armour. though the conning-dome of a submarine presents a very small target, its appearance above water shows her position and gives warning of her approach. to avoid this tell-tale an instrument called a periscope has been invented, which looks like a bottle on the end of a tube; this has lenses and mirrors that reflect into the interior of the submarine whatever shows above water. the bottle part projects above, while the tube penetrates the interior. [illustration: speeding at the rate of - / miles an hour] the very unexpectedness of the submarine's attack, the mere knowledge that they are in the vicinity of a fleet and may launch their deadly missiles at any time, is enough to break down the nerves of the strongest and eventually throw into a panic the bravest crew. that the crews of the war-ships will have to undergo the strain of submarine attack in the next naval war is almost sure. all the great nations of the world have built fleets of submarines or are preparing to do so. in the development of under-water fighting-craft france leads, as she has the largest fleet and was the first to encourage the designing and building of them. but it was david bushnell that invented and built the first practical working submarine boat, and in point of efficiency and practical working under service conditions in actual readiness for hostile action the american boats excel to-day. a peaceful submarine under the green sea, in the total darkness of the great depths and the yellowish-green of the shallows of the oceans, with the seaweeds waving their fronds about their barnacle-encrusted timbers and the creatures of the deep playing in and about the decks and rotted rigging, lie hundreds of wrecks. many a splendid ship with a valuable cargo has gone down off a dangerous coast; many a hoard of gold or silver, gathered with infinite pains from the far corners of the earth, lies intact in decaying strong boxes on the bottom of the sea. to recover the treasures of the deep, expeditions have been organised, ships have sailed, divers have descended, and crews have braved great dangers. many great wrecking companies have been formed which accomplish wonders in the saving of wrecked vessels and cargoes. but in certain places all the time and at others part of the time, wreckers have had to leave valuable wrecks a prey to the merciless sea because the ocean is too angry and the waves too high to permit of the safe handling of the air-hose and life-line of the divers who are depended upon to do all the under-water work, rigging of hoisting-tackle, placing of buoys, etc. indeed, it is often impossible for a vessel to stay in one place long enough to accomplish anything, or, in fact, to venture to the spot at all. it was an american boy who, after reading jules verne's "twenty thousand leagues under the sea," said to himself, "why not?" and from that time set out to put into practice what the french writer had imagined. simon lake set to work to invent a way by which a wrecked vessel or a precious cargo could be got at from below the surface. though the waves may be tossing their whitecaps high in air and the strong wind may turn the watery plain into rolling hills of angry seas, the water twenty or thirty feet below hardly feels any surface motion. so he set to work to build a vessel that should be able to sail on the surface or travel on the bottom, and provide a shelter from which divers could go at will, undisturbed by the most tempestuous sea. people laughed at his idea, and so he found great difficulty in getting enough capital to carry out his plan, and his first boat, built largely with his own hands, had little in its appearance to inspire confidence in his scheme. built of wood, fourteen feet long and five feet deep, fitted with three wheels, _argonaut junior_ looked not unlike a large go-cart such as boys make out of a soap-box and a set of wooden wheels. the boat, however, made actual trips, navigated by its inventor, proving that his plan was feasible. _argonaut junior,_ having served its purpose, was abandoned, and now lies neglected on one of the beaches of new york bay. the _argonaut,_ mr. lake's second vessel, had the regular submarine look, except that she was equipped with two great, rough tread-wheels forward, and to the underside of her rudder was pivoted another. she was really an under-water tricycle, a diving-bell, a wrecking-craft, and a surface gasoline-boat all rolled into one. when floating on the surface she looked not unlike an ordinary sailing craft; two long spars, each about thirty feet above the deck, forming the letter a--these were the pipes that admitted fresh air and discharged the burnt gases of the gasoline motor and the vitiated air that had been breathed. a low deck gave a ship-shape appearance when floating, but below she was shaped like a very fat cigar. under the deck and outside of the hull proper were placed her gasoline tanks, safe from any possible danger of ignition from the interior. from her nose protruded a spar that looked like a bowsprit but which was in reality a derrick; below the derrick-boom were several glazed openings that resembled eyes and a mouth: these were the lookout windows for the under-water observer and the submarine searchlight. the _argonaut_ was built to run on the surface or on the bottom; she was not designed to navigate half-way between. when in search of a wreck or made ready for a cruise along the bottom, the trap door or hatch in her turret-like pilot house was tightly closed; the water was let into her ballast tanks, and two heavy weights to which were attached strong cables that could be wound or unwound from the inside were lowered from their recesses in the fore and after part of the keel of the boat to the bottom; then the motor was started connected to the winding mechanism, and, the buoyancy of the boat being greatly reduced, she was drawn to the bottom by the winding of the anchor cables. as she sank, more and more water was taken into her tanks until she weighed slightly more than the water she displaced. when her wheels rested on the bottom her anchor-weights were pulled completely into their wells, so that they would not interfere with her movements. then the strange submarine vehicle began her voyage on the bottom of the bay or ocean. since the pipes projected above the surface plenty of fresh air was admitted, and it was quite as easy to run the gasoline engine under water as on the surface. in the turrets, as far removed as possible from the magnetic influences of the steel hull, the compass was placed, and an ingeniously arranged mirror reflected its readings down below where the steersman could see it conveniently. aft of the steering-wheel was the gasoline motor, connected with the propeller-shaft and also with the driving-wheels; it was so arranged that either could be thrown out of gear or both operated at once. she was equipped with depth-gauges showing the distance below the surface, and another device showing the trim of the vessel; compressed-air tanks, propelling and pumping machinery, an air-compressor and dynamo which supplied the current to light the ship and also for the searchlight which illuminated the under-water pathway--all this apparatus left but little room in the hold, but it was all so carefully planned that not an inch was wasted, and space was still left for her crew of three or four to work, eat, and even sleep, below the waves. forward of the main space of the boat were the diving and lookout compartments, which really were the most important parts of the boat, as far as her wrecking ability was concerned. by means of a trap door in the diving compartment through the bottom of the boat a man fitted with a diving-suit could go out and explore a wreck or examine the bottom almost as easily as a man goes out of his front door to call for an "extra." it will be thought at once, "but the water will rush in when the trap door is opened." this is prevented by filling the diving compartment, which is separated from the main part of the ship by steel walls, with compressed air of sufficient pressure to keep the water from coming in--that is, the pressure of water from without equals the pressure of air from within and neither element can pass into the other's domain. an air-lock separates the diver's section from the main hold so that it is possible to pass from one to the other while the entrance to the sea is still open. a person entering the lock from the large room first closes the door between and then gradually admits the compressed air until the pressure is the same as in the diving compartment, when the door into it may be safely opened. when returning, this operation is simply reversed. the lookout stands forward of the diver's space. when the _argonaut_ rolls along the bottom, round openings protected with heavy glass permit the lookout to follow the beam of light thrown by the searchlight and see dimly any sizable obstruction. when the diving compartment is in use the man on lookout duty uses a portable telephone to tell his shipmates in the main room what is happening out in the wet, and by the same means the reports of the diver can be communicated without opening the air-lock. this little ship (thirty-six feet long) has done wonderful things. she has cruised over the bottom of chesapeake bay, new york bay, hampton roads, and the atlantic ocean, her driving-wheels propelling her when the bottom was hard, and her screw when the oozy condition of the submarine road made her spiked wheels useless except to steer with. her passengers have been able to examine the bottom under twenty feet of water (without wetting their feet), through the trap door, with the aid of an electric light let down into the clear depths. telephone messages have been sent from the bottom of baltimore harbour to the top of the new york _world_ building, telling of the conditions there in contrast to the new york editor's aerial perch. cables have been picked up and examined without dredging--a hook lowered through the trap door being all that was necessary. wrecks have been examined and valuables recovered. [illustration: singing into the telephone part of the entertainment furnished by the telephone newspaper at buda-pest.] although the _argonaut_ travelled over , miles under water and on the surface, propelled by her own power, her inventor was not satisfied with her. he cut her in two, therefore, and added a section to her, making her sixty-six feet long; this allowed more comfortable quarters for her crew, space for larger engines, compressors, etc. it was off bridgeport, connecticut, that the new _argonaut_ did her first practical wrecking. a barge loaded with coal had sunk in a gale and could not be located with the ordinary means. the _argonaut_, however, with the aid of a device called the "wreck-detector," also invented by mr. lake, speedily found it, sank near it, and also submerged a new kind of freight-boat built for the purpose by the inventor. a diver quickly explored the hulk, opened the hatches of the freight-boat, which was cigar-shaped like the _argonaut_ and supplied with wheels so it could be drawn over the bottom, and placed the suction-tube in position. seven minutes later eight tons of coal had been transferred from the wreck to the submarine freight-boat. the hatches were then closed and compressed air admitted, forcing out the water, and five minutes later the freight-boat was floating on the surface with eight tons of coal from a wreck which could not even be located by the ordinary means. it is possible that in the future these modern "argonauts" will be seeking the golden fleeces of the sea in wrecks, in golden sands like the beaches of nome, and that these amphibious boats will be ready along all the dangerous coasts to rush to the rescue of noble ships and wrest them from the clutches of the cruel sea. mr. lake has also designed and built a submarine torpedo-boat that will travel on the surface, under the waves, or on the bottom; provided with both gasoline and electric power, and, fitted with torpedo discharge tubes, she will be able to throw a submarine torpedo; her diver could attach a charge of dynamite to the keel of an anchored warship, or she could do great damage by hooking up cables through her diver's trap door and cutting them, and by setting adrift anchored torpedoes and submarine mines. thus have jules verne's imaginings come true, and the dream _nautilus,_ whose adventures so many of us have breathlessly followed, has been succeeded by actual "hollands" and practical "argonauts" designed by american inventors and manned by american crews. long-distance telephony what happens when you talk into a telephone receiver in omaha, nebraska, half-way across the continent and about forty hours from boston by fast train, a man sits comfortably in his office chair and, with no more exertion than is required to lift a portable receiver off his desk, talks every day to his representative in the chief new england city. the man in boston hears his chief's voice and can recognise the peculiarities in it just as if he stood in the same room with him. the man in nebraska, speaking in an ordinary conversational tone, can be heard perfectly well in boston, , miles away. this is the longest talk on record--that is, it is the longest continuous telephone line in steady and constant use, though the human voice has been carried even greater distances with the aid of this wonderful instrument. the telephone is so common that no one stops to consider the wonder of it, and not one person in a hundred can tell how it works. at this time, when the telephone is as necessary as pen and ink, it is hard to realise a time when men could not speak to one another from a distance, yet a little more than a quarter of a century ago the genius who invented it first conceived the great idea. sometimes an inventor is a prophet: he sees in advance how his idea, perfected and in universal use, will change things, establish new manners and customs, new laws and new methods. alexander graham bell was one of these prophetic inventors--the telephone was his invention, not his discovery. he first got the idea and then sought a way to make it practical. if you put yourself in his place, forget what has been accomplished, and put out of mind how the voice is transmitted from place to place by the slender wire, it would be impossible even then to realise how much in the dark professor bell was in . the human speaking voice is full of changes; unlike the notes from a musical instrument, there is no uniformity in it; the rise and fall of inflection, the varying sound of the vowels and consonants, the combinations of words and syllables--each produces a different vibration and different tone. to devise an instrument that would receive all these varying tones and inflections and change them into some other form of energy so that they could be passed over a wire, and then change them back to their original form, reproducing each sound and every peculiarity of the voice of the speaker in the ear of the hearer, was the task that professor bell set for himself. just as you would sit down to add up a big column of figures, knowing that sooner or later you would get the correct answer, so he set himself to work out this problem in invention. the result of his study and determination is the telephones we use to-day. many improvements have been invented by other men--berliner, edison, blake, and others--but the idea and the working out of the principle is due to professor bell. [illustration: "central" telephone operators at work since tiny lights have taken the place of bells to indicate the calls of subscribers the central stations are quiet except for the low hum of carefully modulated voices. the women standing behind the seated operators are inspectors. they watch for mistakes and disturbances of any kind.] every telephone receiver and transmitter has a mouth-and ear-piece to receive or throw out the sound, a thin round sheet of lacquered metal--called a diaphragm, and an electromagnet; together they reproduce human speech. an electric current from a battery or from the central station flows continuously through the wires wound round the electromagnet in receiving and transmitting instruments, so when you speak into the black mouthpiece of the wall or desk receiver the vibrations strike against the thin sheet-iron diaphragm at the small end of the mouthpiece; the sound waves of the voice make it vibrate to a greater or less degree; the diaphragm is placed so that the core of the electromagnet is close to it, and as it vibrates the iron in it produces undulations (by induction) in the current which is flowing through the wires wound round the soft iron centre of the magnet. the wires of the coil are connected with the lines that go to the receiving telephone, so that this undulating current, coiling round the core of the magnet in the receiver, attracts and repels the iron of the diaphragm in it, and it vibrates just as the transmitter diaphragm did when spoken into; the undulating current is translated by it into words and sentences that have all the peculiarities of the original. and so when speaking into a telephone your voice is converted into undulations or waves in an electric current conveyed with incredible swiftness to the receiving instrument, and these are translated back into the vibrations that produce speech. this is really what takes place when you talk over a toy telephone made by a string stretched between the two tin mouth-pieces held at opposite sides of the room, with the difference that in the telephone the vibrations are carried electrically, while the toy carries them mechanically and not nearly so perfectly. for once the world realised immediately the importance of a revolutionising invention, and telephone stations soon began to be established in the large cities. quicker than the telegraph, for there was no need of an operator to translate the message, and more accurate, for if spoken clearly the words could be as clearly understood, the telephone service spread rapidly. lines stretched farther and farther out from the central stations in the cities as improvements were invented, until the outlying wires of one town reached the outstretched lines of another, and then communication between town and town was established. then two distant cities talked to each other through an intermediate town, and long-distance telephony was established. to-day special lines are built to carry long-distance messages from one great city to another, and these direct lines are used entirely except when storms break through or the rush of business makes the roundabout route through intermediate cities necessary. as the nerves reaching from your finger-tips, from your ears, your eyes, and every portion of your body come to a focus in your brain and carry information to it about the things you taste, see, hear, feel, and smell, so the wires of a telephone system come together at the central station. and as it is necessary for your right hand to communicate with your left through your brain, so it is necessary for one telephone subscriber to connect through the central station with another subscriber. the telephone has become a necessity of modern life, so that if through some means all the systems were destroyed business would be, for a time at least, paralysed. it is the perfection of the devices for connecting one subscriber with another, and for despatching the vast number of messages and calls at "central," that make modern telephony possible. to handle the great number of spoken messages that are sent over the telephone wires of a great city it is necessary to divide the territory into districts, which vary in size according to the number of subscribers in them. where the telephones are thickly installed the districts are smaller than in sections that are more sparsely settled. then all the telephone wires of a certain district converge at a central station, and each pair of wires is connected with its own particular switch at the switchboard of the station. that is simple enough; but when you come to consider that every subscriber must be so connected that he can be put into communication with every other subscriber, not only in his own section but also with every subscriber throughout the city, it will be seen that the switchboard at central is as marvellous as it is complicated. some of the busy stations in new york have to take care of , or more subscribers and , telephone instruments, while the city proper is criss-crossed with more than , lines bearing messages from more than , "'phones." just think of the babel entering the branch centrals that has to be straightened out and each separate series of voice undulations sent on its proper way, to be translated into speech again and poured into the proper ear. it is no wonder, then, that it has been found necessary to establish a school for telephone girls where they can be taught how to untangle the snarl and handle the vast, complicated system. in these schools the operators go through a regular course lasting a month. they listen to lectures and work out the instructions given them at a practice switchboard that is exactly like the service switchboard, except that the wires do not go outside of the building, but connect with the instructor's desk; the instructor calls up the pupils and sends messages in just the same way that the subscribers call "central" in the regular service. at the terminal station of a great railroad, in the midst of a network of shining rails, stands the switchman's tower. by means of steel levers the man in his tower can throw his different switches and open one track to a train and close another; by means of various signals the switchman can tell if any given line is clear or if his levers do their work properly. a telephone system may be likened, in a measure, to a complicated railroad line: the trunk wires to subscribers are like the tracks of the railroad, and the central station may be compared to the switch tower, while the central operators are like the switchmen. it is the central girls' business to see that connections are made quickly and correctly, that no lines are tied up unnecessarily, that messages are properly charged to the right persons, that in case of a break in a line the messages are switched round the trouble, and above all that there shall be no delay. when you take your receiver off the hook a tiny electric bulb glows opposite the brass-lined hole that is marked with your number on the switchboard of your central, and the telephone girl knows that you are ready to send in a call--the flash of the little light is a signal to her that you want to be connected with some other subscriber. whereupon, she inserts in your connection a brass plug to which a flexible wire is attached, and then opens a little lever which connects her with your circuit. then she speaks into a kind of inverted horn which projects from a transmitter that hangs round her neck and asks: "number, please?" you answer with the number, which she hears through the receiver strapped to her head and ear. after repeating the number the "hello" girl proceeds to make the connection. if the number required is in the same section of the city she simply reaches for the hole or connection which corresponds with it, with another brass plug, the twin of the one that is already inserted in your connection, and touches the brass lining with the plug. all the connections to each central station are so arranged and duplicated that they are within the reach of each operator. if the line is already "busy" a slight buzz is heard, not only by "central," but by the subscriber also if he listens; "central" notifies and then disconnects you. if the line is clear the twin plug is thrust into the opening, and at the same time "central" presses a button, which either rings a bell or causes a drop to fall in the private exchange station of the party you wish to talk to. the moment the new connection is made and the party you wish to talk to takes off the receiver from his hook, a second light glows beside yours, and continues to glow as long as the receiver remains off. the two little lamps are a signal to "central" that the connection is properly made and she can then attend to some other call. when your conversation is finished and your receivers are hung up the little lights go out. that signals "central" again, and she withdraws the plug from both holes and pushes another button, which connects with a meter made like a bicycle cyclometer. this little instrument records your call (a meter is provided for each subscriber) and at the same time lights the two tiny lamps again--a signal to the inspector, if one happens to be watching, that the call is properly recorded. all this takes long to read, but it is done in the twinkling of an eye. "central's" hands are both free, and by long practice and close attention she is able to make and break connections with marvellous rapidity, it being quite an ordinary thing for an operator in a busy section to make ten connections a minute, while in an emergency this rate is greatly increased. [illustration: "central" making connections the front of a small section of a central-station switchboard. each dot on the face of the blackboard is a subscriber's connection. the cords connect one subscriber with another. the switches throwing in the operator's "phone", and the pilot lamps showing when a subscriber wishes a connection, are set in the table or shelf before her.] the call of one subscriber for another number in the same section, as described above--for instance, the call of eighteenth street for eighteenth street--is the easiest connection that "central" has to make. as it is impossible for each branch exchange to be connected with every individual line in a great city, when a subscriber of one exchange wishes to talk with a subscriber of another, two central operators are required to make the connection. if no. eighteenth street wants to talk to cortlandt street, for instance, the eighteenth street central who gets the call makes a connection with the operator at cortlandt street and asks for no. . the cortlandt street operator goes through the operation of testing to see if is busy, and if not she assigns a wire connecting the two exchanges, whereupon in eighteenth street one plug is put in switch hole; the twin plug is put into the switch hole connecting with the wire to cortlandt street; at cortlandt street the same thing is done with no. pair of plugs. the lights glow in both exchanges, notifying the operators when the conversation is begun and ended, and the operator of eighteenth street "central" makes the record in the same way as she does when both numbers are in her own district. besides the calls for numbers within the cities there are the out-of-town calls. in this case central simply makes connection with "long distance," which is a separate company, though allied with the city companies. "long distance" makes the connection in much the same way as the branch city exchanges. as the charges for long-distance calls depend on the length of the conversation, so the connection is made by an operator whose business it is to make a record of the length in minutes of the conversation and the place with which the city subscriber is connected. an automatic time stamp accomplishes this without possibility of error. sometimes the calls come from a pay station, in which case a record must be kept of the time occupied. this kind of call is indicated by the glow of a red light instead of a white one, and so "central" is warned to keep track, and the supervisors or monitors who constantly pass to and fro can note the kind of calls that come in, and so keep tab on the operators. other coloured lights indicate that the chief operator wishes to send out a general order and wishes all operators to listen. another indicates that there is trouble somewhere on the line which needs the attention of the wire chief and repair department. [illustration: the back of a telephone switchboard a section of one of several central station switchboards necessary to carry the telephone traffic of a great city.] the switchboards themselves are made of hard, black rubber, and are honeycombed with innumerable holes, each of which is connected with a subscriber. below the switchboard is a broad shelf in which are set the miniature lamps and from which project the brass plugs in rows. the flexible cords containing the connecting wires are weighted and hang below, so that when a plug is pulled out of a socket and dropped it slides back automatically to its proper place, ready for use. many subscribers nowadays have their own private exchanges and several lines running to central. perhaps no. eighteenth street, for instance, has and as well. this is indicated on the switchboard by a line of red or white drawn under the three switch-holes, so that central, finding one line busy, may be able to make connection with one of the other two, the line underneath showing at a glance which numbers belong to that particular subscriber. if a subscriber is away temporarily, a plug of one colour is inserted in his socket, or if he is behind in his payments to the company a plug of another colour is put in, and if the service to his house is discontinued still another plug notifies the operator of the fact, and it remains there until that number is assigned to a new subscriber. the operators sit before the switchboard in high swivel chairs in a long row, with their backs to the centre of the room. from the rear it looks as if they were weaving some intricate fabric that unravels as fast as it is woven. their hands move almost faster than the eye can follow, and the patterns made by the criss-crossed cords of the connecting plugs are constantly changing, varying from minute to minute as the colours in a kaleido-scope form new designs with every turn of the handle. into the exchange pour all the throbbing messages of a great city. business propositions, political deals, scientific talks, and words of comfort to the troubled, cross and recross each other over the black switchboard. the wonder is that each message reaches the ear it was meant for, and that all complications, no matter how knotty, are immediately unravelled. in the cities the telephone is a necessity. business engagements are made and contracts consummated; brokers keep in touch with their associates on the floors of the exchanges; the patrolmen of the police force keep their chief informed of their movements and the state of the districts under their care; alarms of fire are telephoned to the fire-engine houses, and calls for ambulances bring the swift wagons on their errands of mercy; even wreckers telephone to their divers on the bottom of the bay, and undulating electrical messages travel to the tops of towering sky-scrapers. [illustration: a few telephone trunk wires this shows a small section of a complicated telephone switchboard.] in europe it is possible to hear the latest opera by paying a small fee and putting a receiver to your ear, and so also may lazy people and invalids hear the latest news without getting out of bed. the farmers of the west and in eastern states, too, have learned to use the barbed wire that fences off their fields as a means of communicating with one another and with distant parts of their own property. mr. pupin has invented an apparatus by which he hopes to greatly extend the distance over which men may talk, and it has even been suggested that uncle sam and john bull may in the future swap stories over a transatlantic telephone line. the marvels accomplished suggest the possible marvels to come. automatic exchanges, whereby the central telephone operator is done away with, is one of the things that inventors are now at work on. the one thing that prevents an unlimited use of the telephone is the expensive wires and the still more expensive work of putting them underground or stringing them overhead. so the capping of the climax of the wonders of the telephone would be wireless telephony, each instrument being so attuned that the undulations would respond only to the corresponding instrument. this is one of the problems that inventors are even now working upon, and it may be that wireless telephones will be in actual operation not many years after this appears in print. a machine that thinks a typesetting machine that makes mathematical calculations for many years it was thought impossible to find a short cut from author's manuscript to printing press--that is, to substitute a machine for the skilled hands that set the type from which a book or magazine is printed. inventors have worked at this problem, and a number have solved it in various ways. to one who has seen the slow work of hand typesetting as the compositor builds up a long column of metal piece by piece, letter by letter, picking up each character from its allotted space in the case and placing it in its proper order and position, and then realises that much of the printed matter he sees is so produced, the wonder is how the enormous amount of it is ever accomplished. in a page of this size there are more than a thousand separate pieces of type, which, if set by hand, would have to be taken one by one and placed in the compositor's "stick"; then when the line is nearly set it would have to be spaced out, or "justified," to fill out the line exactly. then when the compositor's "stick" is full, or two and a half inches have been set, the type has to be taken out and placed in a long channel, or "galley." each of these three operations requires considerable time and close application, and with each change there is the possibility of error. it is a long, expensive process. a perfect typesetting machine should take the place of the hand compositor, setting the type letter by letter automatically in proper order at a maximum speed and with a minimum chance of error. these three steps of hand composition, slow, expensive, open to many chances of mistake, have been covered at one stride at five times the speed, at one-third the cost, and much more accurately by a machine invented by mr. tolbert lanston. the operator of the lanston machine sits at a keyboard, much like a typewriter in appearance, containing every character in common use ( in all), and at a speed limited only by his dexterity he plays on the keys exactly as a typewriter works his machine. this is the sum total of human effort expended. the machine does all the rest of the work; makes the calculations and delivers the product in clean, shining new type, each piece perfect, each in its place, each line of exactly the right length, and each space between the words mathematically equal--absolutely "justified." it is practically hand composition with the human possibility of error, of weariness, of inattention, of ignorance, eliminated, and all accomplished with a celerity that is astonishing. [illustration: the lanston type-setter keyboard as each key is pressed a corresponding perforation is made in the roll of paper shown at the top of the machine. each perforation stands for a character or a space.] this machine is a type-casting machine as well as a typesetter. it casts the type (individual characters) it sets, perfect in face and body, capable of being used in hand composition or put to press directly from the machine and printed from. as each piece of type is separate, alterations are easily made. the type for correction, which the machine itself casts for the purpose--a lot of a's, b's, etc.--is simply substituted for the words misspelled or incorrectly used, as in hand composition. the lanston machine is composed of two parts, the keyboard and the casting-setting machine. the keyboard part may be placed wherever convenient, away from noise or anything that is likely to distract or interrupt the operator, and the perforated roll of paper produced by it (which governs the setting machine) may be taken away as fast as it is finished. in the setting-casting machine is located the brains. the five-inch roll of paper, perforated by the keyboard machine (a hole for every letter), gives the signal by means of compressed air to the mechanism that puts the matrix (or type mould) in position and casts the type letter by letter, each character following the proper sequence as marked by the perforations of the paper ribbon. by means of an indicator scale on the keyboard the operator can tell how many spaces there are between the words of the line and the remaining space to be filled out to make the line the proper width. this information is marked by perforations on the paper ribbon by the pressure of two keys, and when the ribbon is transferred to the casting machine these space perforations so govern the casting that the line of type delivered at the "galley" complete shall be of exactly the proper length, and the spaces between the words be equal to the infinitesimal fraction of an inch. the casting machine is an ingenious mechanism of many complicated parts. in a word, the melted metal (a composition of zinc and lead) is forced into a mold of the letter to be cast. two hundred and twenty-five of these moulds are collected in a steel frame about three inches square, and cool water is kept circulating about them, so that almost immediately after the molten metal is injected into the lines and dots of the letter cut in the mould it hardens and drops into its slot, a perfect piece of type. all this is accomplished at a rate of four or five thousand "ems" per hour of the size of type used on this page. the letter m is the unit of measurement when the amount of any piece of composition is to be estimated, and is written "em." if this page were set by hand (taking a compositor of more than average speed as a basis for figuring), at least one hour of steady work would be required, but this page set by the lanston machine (the operator being of the same grade as the hand compositor) would require hardly more than fifteen minutes from the time the manuscript was put into the operator's hands to the delivery complete of the newly cast type in galleys ready to be made up into pages, if the process were carried on continuously. this marvellous machine is capable of setting almost any size of type, from the minute "agate" to and including "pica," a letter more than one-eighth of an inch high, and a line of almost any desired width, the change from one size to any other requiring but a few minutes. the lanston machine sets up tables of figures, poetry, and all those difficult pieces of composition that so try the patience of the hand compositor. it is called the monotype because it casts and sets up the type piece by piece. another machine, invented by mergenthaler, practically sets up the moulds, by a sort of typewriter arrangement, for a line at a time, and then a casting is taken of a whole line at once. this machine is used much in newspaper offices, where the cleverness of the compositor has to be depended upon and there is little or no time for corrections. several other machines set the regular type that is made in type foundries, the type being placed in long channels, all of the same sort, in the same grooves, and slipped or set in its proper place by the machine operated by a man at the keyboard. these machines require a separate mechanism that distributes each type in its proper place after use, or else a separate compositor must be employed to do this by hand. the machines that set foundry type, moreover, require a great stock of it, just as many hundred pounds of expensive type are needed for hand composition. [illustration: where the "brains" are located the perforations in the paper ribbon (shown in the upper left-hand part of the picture) govern the action of the machine so that the proper characters are cast in the proper order, and also the spaces between the words.] though a machine has been invented that will put an author's words into type, no mechanism has yet been invented that will do away with type altogether. it is one of the problems still to be solved. how heat produces cold artificial ice-making one midsummers day a fleet of united states war-ships were lying at anchor in guantanamo bay, on the southern coast of cuba. the sky was cloudless, and the tropic sun shone so fiercely on the decks that the bare-footed jackies had to cross the unshaded spots on the jump to save their feet. an hour before the quavering mess-call sounded for the midday meal, when the sun was shining almost perpendicularly, a boat's crew from one of the cruisers were sent over to the supply-ship for a load of beef. not a breath was stirring, the smooth surface of the bay reflected the brazen sun like a mirror, and it seemed to the oarsmen that the salt water would scald them if they should touch it. only a few hundred yards separated the two vessels, yet the heat seemed almost beyond endurance, and the shade cast by the tall steel sides of the supply-steamer, when the boat reached it, was as comforting as a cool drink to a thirsty man. the oars were shipped, and one man was left to fend off the boat while the others clambered up the swaying rope-ladder, crossed the scorching decks on the run, and went below. in two minutes they were in the hold of the refrigerator-ship, gathering the frost from the frigid cooling-pipes and snowballing each other, while the boat-keeper outside of the three-eighth-inch steel plating was fanning himself with his hat, almost dizzy from the quivering heat-waves that danced before his eyes. the great sides of beef, hung in rows, were frozen as hard as rock. even after the strip of water had been crossed on the return journey and the meat exposed to the full, unobstructed glare of the sun the cruiser's messcooks had to saw off their portions, and the remainder continued hard as long as it lasted. but the satisfaction of the men who ate that fresh american beef cannot be told. cream from a famous dairy is sent to particular patrons in paris, france, and it is known that in one instance, at least, a bottle of cream, having failed to reach the person to whom it was consigned, made the return transatlantic voyage and was received in new york three weeks after its first departure, perfectly sweet and good. throughout the entire journey it was kept at freezing temperature by artificial means. these are but two striking examples of wonders that are performed every day. [illustration: the type moulds moulds for different characters are contained in this frame.] cold, of course, is but the absence of heat, and so refrigerating machinery is designed to extract the heat from whatever substance it is desired to cool. the refrigerating agent used to extract the heat from the cold chamber must in turn have the heat extracted from it, and so the process must be continuous. water, when it boils and turns into steam or vapour, is heated by or extracts heat from the fire, but water vapourises at a high temperature and so cannot be used to produce cold. other fluids are much more volatile and evaporate much more easily. alcohol when spilt on the hand dries almost instantly and leaves a feeling of cold--the warmth of the hand boils the alcohol and turns it into vapour, and in doing so extracts the heat from the skin, making it cold; now, if the evaporated alcohol could be caught and compressed into its liquid form again you would have a refrigerating machine. alcohol is expensive and inflammable, and many other volatile substances have been discarded for the one or the other reason. of all the fluids that have been tried, ammonia has been found to work most satisfactorily; it evaporates at a low temperature, is non-inflammable, and is comparatively cheap. the hold of the supply-ship mentioned at the head of this chapter was a vast refrigerator, but no ice was used except that produced mechanically by the power in the ship. to produce the cold in the hold of the ship it was necessary to extract the heat in it; to accomplish this, coils ran round the space filled with cold brine, which, as it grew warm, drew the heat from the air. the brine in turn circulated through a tank containing pipes filled with ammonia vapour which extracted the heat from it; the brine then was ready to circulate through the coils in the hold again and extract more heat. the heat-extracting or cooling power of the ammonia is exerted continually by the process described below. ammonia requires heat to expand and turn into vapour, and this heat it extracts from the substance surrounding it. in this marine refrigerating machine the ammonia got the heat from the brine in the tank, then it was drawn by a pump from the pipes in the tank, compressed by a power compressor, and forced into a second coil. the second coil is called a condenser because the vapour was there condensed into a fluid again. over the pipes of the condenser cool water dripped constantly and carried off the heat in the ammonia vapour inside the coils and so condensed it into a fluid again--just as cold condenses steam into water. the compressor-pump then forced the fluid, ammonia through a small pipe from the condenser coils to the cooling coils in the tank of brine. the pipes of the cooling coils are much larger than those of the condenser, and as the fluid ammonia is forced in a fine spray into these large pipes and the pressure is relieved it expands or boils into the larger volume of vapour and in so doing extracts heat from the brine. the pump draws the heated vapour out, the compressor makes it dense, and the coils over which the cool water flows condenses it into fluid again, and so the circuit continues--through cooler, pump, compressor, and condenser, back into the cooling-tank. in the meantime, the cold brine is being pumped through the pipes in the hold of the ship, where it extracts the heat from the air and the rows of sides of beef and then returns to the cooling-tank. in the refrigerating plant, then, of the supply-ship, there were two heat-extracting circuits, one of ammonia and the other of brine. brine is used because it freezes at a very low temperature and continues to flow when unsalted water would be frozen solid. the ammonia is not used direct in the pipes in a big space like the hold of a ship, because so much of it would be required, and then there is always danger of the exposed pipes being broken and the dangerous fumes released. opposite as it may seem, heat is required to produce cold--for steam is necessary to drive the compressor and pump of a refrigerating plant, and fire of some sort is necessary to make steam. the first artificial refrigerating machines produced cold by compressing and expanding air, the compressed air containing the heat being cooled by jets of cool water spirted into the cylinder containing it, then the compressed air was released or expanded into a larger chamber and thereby extracted the heat from brine or whatever substance surrounded it. it is in the making of ice, however, that refrigerating machinery accomplishes its most surprising results. it was said in the writer's hearing recently that natural ice costs about as much when it was delivered at the docks or freight-yards of the large cities of the north as the product of the ice-machine. of course, the manufactured ice is produced near the spot where it is consumed, and there is little loss through melting while it is being stored or transported, as in the case of the natural product. there are two ways of making ice--or, rather, two methods using the same principle. in the can system, a series of galvanized-iron cans about three and a half feet deep, eight inches wide, by two and a half feet long are suspended or rested in great tanks of brine connecting with the cooling-tank through which the pipes containing the ammonia vapour circulates. the vapour draws the heat from the brine, and the brine, which is kept moving constantly, in turn extracts the heat from the distilled water in the cans. while this method produces ice quickly, it is difficult to get ice of perfect clearness and purity, because the water in the can freezes on the sides, gradually getting thicker, retaining and concentrating in the centre any impurities that may be in the water. the finished cake, therefore, almost always has a white or cloudy appearance in the centre, and is frequently discolored. in an ice-plant operated on the can system a great many blocks are freezing at once--in fact, the whole floor of a great room is honeycombed with trap-doors, a door for each can. the freezing is done in rotation, so that one group of cans is being emptied of their blocks of ice while others are still in process of congealing, while still others are being filled with fresh water. when the freezing is complete, jets of steam or quick immersion of the can in hot water releases the cake and the can is ready for another charge. the plate system of artificial ice-making does away with the discoloration and the cloudiness, because the water containing the impurities or the air-bubbles is not frozen, but is drawn off and discarded. in the plate system, great permanent tanks six feet deep and eight to twelve feet wide and of varying lengths are used. these tanks contain the clean, fresh water that is to be frozen into great slabs of ice. into the tanks are sunk flat coils of pipe covered with smooth, metal plates on either side, and it is through these pipes that the ammonia vapour flows. the plates with the coils of pipe between them fit in the tank transversely, partitioning it off into narrow cells six feet deep, about twenty-two inches wide, and eight or ten feet long. in operation, the ammonia vapour flows through the pipes, chilling the plates and freezing the water so that a gradually thickening film of ice adheres to each side of each set of plates. as the ice gets thicker the unfrozen water between the slabs containing the impurities and air-bubbles gets narrower. when the ice on the plates is eight or ten inches thick very little of the unfrozen water remains between the great cakes, but it contains practically all the impurities. when the ice on the plates is thick enough, the ammonia vapour is turned off and steam forced through the pipes so the cakes come off readily, or else plates, cakes, and all are hoisted out of the tank and the ice melted off. the ice, clear and perfect, is then sawed into convenient sizes and shipped to consumers or stored for future use. sometimes the plates or partitions are permanent, and, with the coils of pipes between them, cold brine is circulated, but in either case the two surfaces of ice do not come together, there being always a film of water between. still another method produces ice by forcing the clean water in extremely fine spray into a reservoir from which the air has been exhausted--into a vacuum, in other words; the spray condenses in the form of tiny particles of ice, which are attached to the walls of the reservoir. the ice grows thicker as a carpet of snow increases, one particle falling on and freezing to the others until the coating has reached the required thickness, when it is loosened and cut up in cakes of convenient size. the vacuum ice is of marble-like whiteness and appearance, but is perfectly pure, and it is said to be quite as hard. more and more artificial ice is being used, even in localities where ice is formed naturally during parts of the year. many of the modern hotels are equipped with refrigerating plants where they make their own ice, cool their own storage-rooms, freeze the water in glass carafes for the use of their guests, and even cool the air that is circulated through the ventilating system in hot weather. in many large apartment-houses the refrigerators built in the various separate suites are kept at a freezing temperature by pipes leading to a refrigerating plant in the cellar. the convenience and neatness of this plan over the method of carrying dripping cakes from floor to floor in a dumb-waiter is evident. another use of refrigerating plants that is greatly appreciated is the making of artificial ice for skating-rinks. an artificial ice skating-rink is simply an ice machine on a grand scale--the ice being made in a great, thin, flat cake. through the shallow tanks containing the fresh water coils of pipe through which flows the ammonia vapour or the cold brine are run from end to end or from side to side so that the whole bottom of the tank is gridironed with pipes, the water covering the pipes is speedily frozen, and a smooth surface formed. when the skaters cut up the surface it is flooded and frozen over again. so efficient and common have refrigerating plants become that artificially cooled water is on tap in many public places in the great cities. theatres are cooled during hot weather by a portion of the same machinery that supplies the heat in winter, and it is not improbable that every large establishment, private, or public, will in the near future have its own refrigerating plant. inventors are now at work on cold-air stoves that draw in warm air, extract the heat from it, and deliver it purified and cooled by many degrees. even the people of this generation, therefore, may expect to see their furnaces turned into cooling machines in summer. then the ice-man will cease from troubling and the ice-cart be at rest. stories of invention _told by inventors and their friends._ by edward e. hale. [illustration] boston: roberts brothers. . _copyright, _, by roberts brothers. university press: john wilson and son, cambridge. preface. this little book closes a series of five volumes which i undertook some years since, in the wish to teach boys and girls how to use for themselves the treasures which they have close at hand in the public libraries now so generally opened in the northern states of america. the librarians of these institutions are, without an exception, so far as i know, eager to introduce to the young the books at their command. from these gentlemen and ladies i have received many suggestions as the series went forward, and i could name many of them who could have edited or prepared such a series far more completely than i have done. but it is not fair to expect them, in the rush of daily duty, to stop and tell boys or girls what will be "nice books" for them to read. if they issue frequent bulletins of information in this direction, as is done so admirably by the librarians at providence and at hartford, they do more than any one has a right to ask them for. such bulletins must be confined principally to helping young people read about the current events of the day. in that case it will only be indirectly that they send the young readers back into older literature, and make them acquainted with the best work of earlier times. i remember well a legend of the old public library at dorchester, which describes the messages sent to the hard-pressed librarian from the outlying parts of the town on the afternoon of saturday, which was the only time when the library was open. "mother wants a sermon book and another book." this was the call almost regularly made by the messengers. i think that many of the most accomplished librarians of to-day have demands not very dissimilar, and that they will be glad of any assistance that will give to either mother or messenger any hint as to what this "other book" shall be. it is indeed, of course, almost the first thing to be asked that boys and girls shall learn to find out for themselves what they want, and to rummage in catalogues, indexes, and encyclopædias for the books which will best answer their necessities. mr. emerson's rule is, "read in the line of your genius." and the young man or maiden who can find out, in early life, what the line of his or her genius is, has every reason to be grateful to the teacher, or the event, or the book that has discovered it. i have certainly hoped, in reading and writing for this series, that there might be others of my young friends as sensible and as bright as fergus and fanchon, who will be found to work out their own salvation in these matters, and order their own books without troubling too much that nice miss panizzi or that omniscient mrs. bodley who manages the library so well, and knows so well what every one in the town has read, and what he has not read. i had at first proposed to publish with each book a little bibliography on the subjects referred to, telling particularly where were the available editions and the prices at which they could be bought by young collectors. but a little experiment showed that no such supplement could be made, which should be of real use for most readers for whom these books are made. the same list might be too full for those who have only small libraries at command, and too brief for those who are fortunate enough to use large ones. indeed, i should like to say to such young readers of mine as have the pluck and the sense to read a preface, that the sooner they find out how to use the received guides in such matters,--the very indexes and bibliographies which i should use in making such a list for them,--why, the better will it be for them. such books as poole's index, watt's and brunet's bibliographies, and the new american indexes, prepared with such care by the librarians' association, are at hand in almost all the public libraries; and the librarians will always be glad to encourage intelligent readers in the use of them. i should be sorry, in closing the series, not to bear my testimony to the value of the public library system, still so new to us, in raising the standard of thought and education. for thirty years i have had more or less to do with classes of intelligent young people who have met for study. i can say, therefore, that the habit of thought and the habit of work of such young people now is different from what it was thirty years ago. of course it ought to be. you can say to a young learner now, "this book says thus and so, but you must learn for yourself whether this author is prejudiced or ill-informed, or not." you can send him to the proper authorities. on almost any detail in general history, if he live near one of the metropolitan libraries, you can say to him, "if you choose to study a fortnight on this thing, you will very likely know more about it than does any person in the world." it is encouraging to young people to know that they can thus take literature and history at first hand. it pleases them to know that "the book" is not absolute. with such resources that has resulted which such far-seeing men as edward everett and george ticknor and charles coffin jewett hoped for,--the growth, namely, of a race of students who do not take anything on trust. as professor agassiz was forever driving up his pupils to habits of original observation in natural history, the public library provokes and allures young students to like courage in original research in matters of history and literature. edward e. hale. roxbury, april , . contents. page i. introduction ii. archimedes iii. friar bacon of the parents and birth of fryer bacon, and how he addicted himself to learning, . how fryer bacon made a brazen head to speak, by the which he would have walled england about with brass, . how fryer bacon by his art took a town, when the king had lain before it three months, without doing it any hurt, . how fryer bacon burnt his books of magic and gave himself to the study of divinity only; and how he turned anchorite, . how virgilius was set to school, . howe the emperor asked counsel of virgilius, how the night runners and ill doers might be rid-out of the streets, . how virgilius made a lamp that at all times burned, . iv. benvenuto cellini life of benvenuto cellini, . benvenuto's autobiography, . v. bernard palissy bernard palissy the potter, . vi. benjamin franklin franklin's method of growing better, . musical glasses, . vii. theorists of the eighteenth century richard lovell edgeworth, . edgeworth's telegraph, . mr. edgeworth's telegraph in ireland, . mr. edgeworth's machine, . more of mr. edgeworth's fancies, . jack the darter, . a one-wheeled chaise, . viii. james watt the newcomen engine, . james watt and the steam-engine, . the separate condenser, . completing the invention, . watt makes his model, . ix. robert fulton x. george stephenson and the locomotive george stephenson, . xi. eli whitney eli whitney, . xii. james nasmyth the steam-hammer, . james nasmyth, . xiii. sir henry bessemer the age of steel, . bessemer's family, . henry bessemer, . stamped paper, . gold paint, . bessemer steel, . xiv. the last meeting goodyear, . stories of invention told by inventors. i. introduction. there is, or is supposed to be, somewhere in norfolk county in massachusetts, in the neighborhood of the city of boston, a rambling old house which in its day belonged to the oliver family. i am afraid they were most of them sad tories in their time; and i am not sure but these very windows could tell the story of one or another brick-bat thrown through them, as one or another committee of the people requested one or another oliver, of the old times, to resign one or another royal commission. but a very peaceful rowland has taken the place of those rebellious old olivers. this comfortable old house is now known to many young people as the home of a somewhat garrulous old gentleman whom they call uncle fritz. his real name is frederick ingham. he has had a checkered life, but it has evidently been a happy one. once he was in the regular united states navy. for a long time he was a preacher in the sandemanian connection, where they have no ordained ministers. in garibaldi's time he was a colonel in the patriot service in italy. in our civil war he held a command in the national volunteer navy; and his scientific skill and passion for adventure called him at one time across "the great american desert," and at another time across siberia, in the business of constructing telegraphs. in point of fact, he is not the relation of any one of the five-and-twenty young people who call him uncle fritz. but he pets them, and they pet him. they like to make him a regular visit once a week, as the winter goes by. and the habit has grown up, of their reading with him, quite regularly, on some subject selected at their first meeting after they return from the country. either at lady oliver's house, as his winter home is called, or at little crastis, where he spends his summers, those selections for reading have been made, which have been published in a form similar to that of the book which the reader holds in his hand. the reader may or may not have seen these books,--so much the worse for him if he have not,--but that omission of his may be easily repaired. there are four of them: stories of war told by soldiers; stories of the sea told by sailors; stories of adventure told by adventurers; stories of discovery told by discoverers. since the regular meetings began, of which these books are the history, the circle of visitors has changed more or less, as most circles will, in five years. some of those who met are now in another world. some of the boys have grown to be so much like men, that they are "subduing the world," as uncle fritz would say, in their several places, and that they write home, from other latitudes and longitudes, of the discoveries and adventures in which they have themselves been leaders. but younger sisters and brothers take the places of older brothers and sisters. the club--for it really is one--is popular, lady oliver's house is large, and uncle fritz is hospitable. he says himself that there is always room for more; and ellen flaherty, or whoever else is the reigning queen in the kitchen, never complains that the demand is too great for her "waffles." last fall, when the young people made their first appearance, the week before thanksgiving day, after the new-comers had been presented to uncle fritz, and a chair or two had been brought in from the dining-room to make provision for the extra number of guests, it proved that, on the way out, john coram, who is tom coram's nephew, had been talking with helen, who is one of the old boston champernoons, about the change of boston since his uncle's early days. "i told her," said he to uncle fritz, "that mr. allerton was called 'the last of the merchants,' and he is dead now." "that was a pet phrase of his," said uncle fritz. "he meant that his house, with its immense resources, simply bought and sold. he was away for many years once. when he returned, he found that the chief of his affairs had made an investment, from motives of public spirit, in a western railroad. 'i thought we were merchants,' said the fine old man, disapproving. as he turned over page after page of the account, he found at last that the whole investment had been lost. 'i am glad of that,' said he; 'you will remember now that we are merchants.'" "but surely my father is a merchant," said julius. "he calls himself a merchant, he is put down as a merchant in the directory, and he buys and sells, if that makes a man a merchant." "all that is true," said uncle fritz. "but your father also invests money in railroads; so far he is engaged in transportation. he is a stockholder and a director in the hecla woollen mills at bromwich; so far he is a manufacturer. he told me, the other day, that he had been encouraging my little friend griffiths, who is experimenting in the conservation of electric power; so far he is an inventor, or a patron of inventions. "in substance, what mr. allerton meant when he said 'i thought we were merchants,' was this: he meant that that firm simply bought from people who wished to sell, and sold to people who wished to buy. "the fact, that almost every man of enterprise in massachusetts is now to a certain extent a manufacturer, shows that a great change has come over people here since the beginning of this century." "those were the days of mr. cleveland's adventures, and mr. forbes's," said hugh. he alluded to the trade in the pacific, in which these gentlemen shared, as may be read in stories of adventure. uncle fritz said, "yes." he said that the patient love of great britain for her colonies forbade us here from making so much as a hat or a hob-nail while we were colonies, as it would gladly do again now. he said that the new englanders had a great deal of adventurous old norse blood in their veins, that they had plenty of ship-timber and tar. if they could not make hob-nails they could make ships; and they made very good ships before they had been in new england ten years. luckily for us, soon after the country became a country, near a hundred years ago, the quarrels of europe were such, that if an english ship carried produce of the west indies or china to europe, france seized, if she could, ship and cargo; if a french ship carried them, english cruisers seized ship and cargo, if they could. so it happened that the american ships and the american sailors, who were not at war with england and were not at war with france, were able to carry the stores which were wanted by all the world. the wars of napoleon were thus a steady bounty for the benefit of the commerce of america. when they were well over, we had become so well trained to commerce here, that we could build the best ships in the world; and we thought we had the best seamen in the world,--certainly there were no better. under such a stimulus, and what followed it, our commerce, as measured by the tonnage of our ships, was as large as that of any nation, and, if measured by the miles sailed, was probably larger. all this prosperity to merchants was broken up by the war of , between the united states and great britain. for two years and a half, then, our intercourse with europe was almost cut off; for the english cruisers now captured our vessels whenever they could find them. at last we had to make our own hob-nails, our guns, our cannon, our cotton cloth, and our woollen cloth, if we meant to have any at all. the farmers' wives and daughters had always had the traditions of spinning and weaving. when colonel ingham said this, blanche nodded to mary and mary to blanche. "that means," said the colonel, "that you have brought dear old mother tucker's spinning-wheel downstairs, and have it in the corner behind your piano, does it not?" blanche laughed, and said that was just what she meant. "it does very well in 'martha,'" said the colonel. "and can you spin, blanche?" blanche rather surprised him by saying that she could, and the colonel went on with his lecture. fergus, who is very proud of blanche, slipped out of the room, but was back after a minute, and no one missed him. here in massachusetts some of the most skilful merchants--appletons, perkinses, and lawrences--joined hand with brave inventors like slater and treadwell, and sent out to england for skilful manufacturers like crompton and boott; thus there sprung up the gigantic system of manufacture, which seems to you children a thing of course. oddly enough, the southern states, which had always hated new england and new england commerce, and had done their best to destroy it when they had a chance, were very eager to secure a home-market for southern cotton; and thus, for many years after the war, they kept up such high protective duties that foreign goods were very dear in america, and the new england manufacturers had all the better prices. while uncle fritz was saying this in substance, ransom, the old servant, appeared with a spinning-wheel from colonel ingham's music-room. the children had had it for some charades. kate fogarty, the seamstress of the colonel's household, followed, laughing, with a great hank of flax; and when the colonel stopped at the interruption, fergus said,-- "i thought, uncle fritz, they would all like to see how well blanche spins; so i asked ransom to bring in the wheel." and blanche sat down without any coaxing, and made her wheel fly very prettily, and spun her linen thread as well as her great-grandmamma would have done. colonel ingham was delighted; and so were all the children, half of whom had never seen any hand-spinning before. all of them had seen cotton and wool spun in factories; in fact, half of them had eaten their daily bread that day, from the profit of the factories that for ten hours of every day do such spinning. "now, you see," said the well-pleased colonel, "blanche spins that flax exactly as her grandmother nine generations back spun it. she spins it exactly as mrs. dudley spun it in the old house where dr. paterson's church stands. it is strange enough, but for one hundred and fifty years there seems to have been no passion for invention among the new englanders. now they are called a most _inventive_ people, and that bad word has been coined for them and such as they. "but all this is of the last century. it was as soon as they were thrown on their own resources that they began to invent. eli whitney, a worcester county boy, graduated at yale college in . he went to georgia at once, to be a tutor in a planter's family; but before he arrived, the planter had another tutor. this was a fortunate chance for the world; for poor whitney, disappointed, went to spend the winter at the house of mrs. general greene. one day, at dinner, some guests of hers said that cotton could never be exported with profit unless a machine could be made to separate the seeds from the 'wool.' 'if you want anything invented,' said mrs. greene, 'ask my young friend mr. whitney; he will invent anything for you.' whitney had then never seen cotton unmanufactured. but he went to work; and before he was one year out of college, he had invented the cotton-gin, which created an enormous product of cotton, and, in fact, changed the direction of the commerce of the world. "well, you know about other inventions. robert fulton, who built the first effective steamboat, was born in pennsylvania the same year whitney was born in massachusetts. "hector, you are fond of imaginary conversations: write one in which whitney and fulton meet, when each is twenty-one; let daniel boone look in on them, and prophesy to them the future of the country, and how much it is to owe to them and to theirs." "i think blanche had better write it--in a ballad," said hector, laughing. "it shall be an old crone spinning; and as she turns her wheel she shall describe the Ætna factory at watertown." "there shall be a _refrain_," said wallace,-- "'turn my wheel gayly; spin, flax, spin.'" "no," said hatty; "the refrain shall be 'four per cent in six months, eight per cent in twelve.' we are to go to europe if the vesuvius mills pay a dividend. but if they _pass_, i believe i am to scrub floors in my vacation." "very well," said uncle fritz, recalling them to the subject they had started on. "all this is enough to show you how it is that you, who are all new englanders, are no longer seafaring boys or girls, exclusively or even principally. your great-grandmother, alice, saved the lives of all the crew of a bristol trader, by going out in her father's boat and taking her through the crooked passage between the brewsters. you would be glad to do it, but i am afraid you cannot." "i should rather encourage those who go to do it," said alice, demurely, repeating one of their familiar jokes. "and your great-grandfather, seth, is the hunt who discovered hunt's reef in the philippines. i am afraid you cannot place it on the map." "i know i cannot," said seth, bravely. "no," said the old gentleman. "but all the same the reef is there. i came to an anchor in the 'calypso,' waiting for a southwest wind, in sight of the breakers over it. and i wish we had the pineapples the black people sold us there. "all the same the new englanders are good for something. ten years hence, you boys will be doing what your fathers are doing,--subduing the world, and making it to be more what god wants it to be. and you will not work at arms' length, as they did, nor with your own muscles." "we have aladdin's lamp," said mary, laughing. "and his ring," said susie. "i always liked the ring one better than the lamp one, though he was not so strong." "he is prettier in the pictures," said george. "yes," said the colonel; "we have stronger genii than aladdin had, and better machinery than prince camaralzaman." "i heard some one say that mr. corliss had added twenty-seven per cent to the working power of the world by his _cut-off_," said fergus. the colonel said he believed that was true. and this was a good illustration of what one persevering and intelligent man can do in bringing in the larger life and nobler purpose of the kingdom of heaven. such a man makes men cease from _labor_, which is always irksome, and _work_ with god. this is always ennobling. "i am ashamed to say that i do not know what a _cut-off_ is," said alice, who, like seth, had been trained to "confess ignorance." "i was going to say so," said john rodman. "and i,--and i,--and i," said quite a little chorus. "we must make up a party, the first pleasant day, and go and see the stationary engine which pumps this water for us." so the colonel met their confessions. "but does not all this indicate that we might spend a few days in looking up inventions?" "i think we ought to," said hatty. "certainly we ought, if the vesuvius pays. imagine me at manchester. imagine john bright taking me through his own mill, and saying to me, 'this is the rover we like best, on the whole. do you use this in america?' imagine me forced to reply that i do not know a rover when i see one, and could not tell a 'slubber' from a 'picker.'" the others laughed, and confessed equal ignorance. "only, john bright has no mills in manchester, hatty." "well, they are somewhere; and i must not eat the bread of the vesuvius slubbers, and not know something of the way in which slubbers came to be." "very well," said uncle fritz, as usual recalling the conversation to sanity. "whom shall we read about first?" "tubal cain first," said fergus. "he seems to have been the first of the crew." "it was not he who found out witty inventions," said fanchon, in a mock _aside_. "i should begin with archimedes," said uncle fritz. "excellent!" said fergus; "and then may we not burn up old fogarty's barn with burning-glasses?" the children dislike fogarty, and his barn is an eyesore to them. it stands just beyond the hedge of the lady oliver garden. "i thank archimedes every time i take a warm bath. did he not invent hot baths?" "what nonsense! he was killed by caligula in one." "you shall not talk such stuff.--uncle fritz, what books shall i bring you?" it would seem as if, perhaps, uncle fritz had led the conversation in the direction it had taken. at least it proved that, all together on the rolling book-rack which mr. perkins gave him, were the account of archimedes in the cyclopædia britannica, the account in the french universal biography, the life in la rousse's cyclopædia, plutarch's lives, and a volume of livy in the latin. from these together, uncle fritz, and the boys and girls whom he selected, made out this little history of archimedes. ii. archimedes. archimedes was born in syracuse in the year b. c., and was killed there in the year b. c. he is said to have been a relation of hiero, king of syracuse; but he seems to have held no formal office known to the politicians. like many other such men, however, from his time down to ericsson, he came to the front when he was needed, and served syracuse better than her speech-makers. while he was yet a young man, he went to alexandria to study; and he was there the pupil of euclid, the same euclid whose geometry is the basis of all the geometry of to-day. while archimedes is distinctly called, on very high authority, "the first mathematician of antiquity," and while we have nine books which are attributed to him, we do not have--and this is a great misfortune--any ancient biography of him. he lived seventy-five years, for most of that time probably in syracuse itself; and it would be hard to say how much syracuse owed to his science. at the end of his life he saved syracuse from the romans for three years, during a siege in which, by his ingenuity, he kept back marcellus and his army. at the end of this siege he was killed by a roman soldier when the romans entered the city. the books of his which we have are on the "sphere and cylinder," "the measure of the circle," "conoids and spheroids," "on spirals," "equiponderants and centres of gravity," "the quadrature of the parabola," "on bodies floating in liquids," "the psammites," and "a collection of lemmas." the books which are lost are "on the crown of hiero;" "cochleon, or water-screw;" "helicon, or endless screw;" "trispaston, or combination of wheels and axles;" "machines employed at the siege of syracuse;" "burning mirror;" "machines moved by air and water;" and "material sphere." as to the story of the bath-tub, uncle fritz gave to hector to read the account as abridged in the "cyclopædia britannica." "hiero had set him to discover whether or not the gold which he had given to an artist to work into a crown for him had been mixed with a baser metal. archimedes was puzzled by the problem, till one day, as he was stepping into a bath, and observed the water running over, it occurred to him that the excess of bulk occasioned by the introduction of alloy could be measured by putting the crown and an equal weight of gold separately into a vessel filled with water, and observing the difference of overflow. he was so overjoyed when this happy thought struck him that he ran home without his clothes, shouting, 'i have found it, i have found it,'--[greek: eurêka, eurêka.] "this word has been chosen by the state of california for its motto." to make the story out, it must be supposed that the crown was irregular in shape, and that the precise object was to find how much metal, in measurement, was used in its manufacture. suppose three cubic inches of gold were used, archimedes knew how much this would cost. but if three cubic inches of alloy were used, the king had been cheated. what the overflow of the water taught was the precise cubic size of the various ornaments of the crown. a silver crown or a lead crown would displace as much water as a gold crown of the same shape and ornament. but neither silver nor lead would weigh so much as if pure gold were used, and at that time pure gold was by far the heaviest metal known. fergus, who is perhaps our best mathematician, pricked up his ears when he heard there was a treatise on the relation of the circle to the square. like most of the intelligent boys who will read this book, fergus had tried his hand on the fascinating problem which deals with that proportion. younger readers will remember that it is treated in "swiss family." jack--or is it perhaps ernest?--remembers there, that for the ribbon which was to go round a hat the hat-maker allowed three times the diameter of the hat, and a little more. this "little more" is the delicate fraction over which archimedes studied; and fergus, after him. fergus knew the proportion as far as thirty-three figures in decimals. these are . , , , , , , , , , , . when uncle fritz asked fergus to repeat these, the boy did it promptly, somewhat to the astonishment of the others. he had committed it to memory by one of mr. gouraud's "analogies," which are always convenient for persons who have mathematical formulas to remember. when those of the young people who were interested in mathematics looked at archimedes's solution of the problem, they found it was the same as that they had themselves tried at school. but he carried it so far as to inscribe a circle between two polygons, each of ninety-six sides; and his calculation is based on the relation between the two. taking the "swiss family robinson" statement again, archimedes shows that the circumference of a circle exceeds three times its diameter by a small fraction, which is less than / and greater than / and that a circle is to its circumscribing square nearly as to . those who wish to carry his calculations farther may be pleased to know that he found the figures to expressed the relation more correctly than to does. metius, another ancient mathematician, used the proportion to . if you reduce that to decimals, you will find it correct to the sixth decimal. remember that archimedes and metius had not the convenience of the arabic or decimal notation. imagine yourselves doing metius's sum in division when you have to divide ccclv by cxiii. archimedes, in fact, used the greek notation,--which was a little better than the roman, but had none of the facility of ours. for every _ten_, from to , they had a separate character, and for every _hundred_, and for every _thousand_. the _thousands_ were the units with a mark underneath. thus [greek: a] meant , and [greek: ,a] meant , . to express , archimedes would have written [greek: rig]. to express , he would have written [greek: tne]; and the place which these signs had in the order would not have affected their value, as they do with us. we cannot tell how the greater part of archimedes's life was spent. but whether he were nominally in public office or not, it is clear enough that he must have given great help to syracuse and her rulers, as an engineer, long before the war in which the romans captured that great city. at that time syracuse was, according to cicero, "the largest and noblest of the greek cities." it was in sicily; but, having been built by colonists from greece, who still spoke the greek language, cicero speaks of it among greek cities, as he would have spoken of thurii, or sybaris, or the cities of "magna græcia,"--"great greece," as they called the greek settlements in southern italy. in the second punic war syracuse took sides against rome with the carthaginians, though her old king, hiero, had been a firm ally of the romans. the most interesting accounts that we have of archimedes are in livy's account of this war, and in plutarch's life of marcellus, who carried it on on the roman side. livy says of archimedes that he was-- "a man of unrivalled skill in observing the heavens and the stars, but more deserving of admiration as the inventor and constructor of warlike engines and works, by means of which, with a very slight effort, he turned to ridicule what the enemy effected with great difficulty. "the wall, which ran along unequal eminences, most of which were high and difficult of access, some low and open to approach along level vales, was furnished by him with every kind of warlike engine, as seemed suitable to each particular place. marcellus attacked from the quinqueremes [his large ships] the wall of the achradina, which was washed by the sea. from the other ships the archers and slingers and light infantry, whose weapon is difficult to be thrown back by the unskilful, allowed scarce any person to remain upon the wall unwounded. these soldiers, as they required some range in aiming their missiles upward, kept their ships at a distance from the wall. eight more quinqueremes joined together in pairs, the oars on their inner sides being removed, so that side might be placed to side, and which thus formed ships [of double width], and were worked by the outer oars, carried turrets built up in stories, and other battering-engines. "against this naval armament archimedes placed, on different parts of the walls, engines of various dimensions. against the ships which were at a distance he discharged stones of immense weight; those which were nearer he assailed with lighter and more numerous missiles. lastly, in order that his own men might heap their weapons upon the enemy without receiving any wounds themselves, he perforated the wall from the top to the bottom with a great number of loop-holes, about a cubit in diameter, through which some with arrows, others with scorpions of moderate size, assailed the enemies without being seen. he threw upon their sterns some of the ships which came nearer to the walls, in order to get inside the range of the engines, raising up their prows by means of an iron grapple attached to a strong chain, by means of a _tolleno_ [or derrick], which projected from the wall and overhung them, having a heavy counterpoise of lead which forced the line to the ground. then, the grapple being suddenly disengaged, the ship, falling from the wall, was by these means, to the utter consternation of the seamen, so dashed against the water that even if it came back to its true position it took in a great quantity of water." "fancy," cried bedford, "one of their double quinqueremes, when she had run bravely in under the shelter of the wall. just as the men think they can begin to work, up goes the prow, and they all are tumbled down into the steerage. up she goes, and fifty rowers are on each other in a pile; when the old pile-driver claw lets go again, and down she comes, splash into the sea. and then archimedes pokes his head out through one of the holes, and says in greek, 'how do you like that, my friends?' i do not wonder they were discouraged." the bold cliff of the water front of syracuse gave archimedes a particular advantage for defensive operations of this sort. they are described in more detail in plutarch's life of marcellus, who was the roman general employed against syracuse, and who was held at bay by archimedes for three years. here is plutarch's account:-- marcellus, with sixty galleys, each with five rows of oars, furnished with all sorts of arms and missiles, and a huge bridge of planks laid upon eight ships chained together,[ ] upon which was carried the engine to cast stones and darts, assaulted the walls. he relied on the abundance and magnificence of his preparations, and on his own previous glory; all which, however, were, it would seem, but trifles for archimedes and his machines. these machines he had designed and contrived, not as matters of any importance, but as mere amusements in geometry,--in compliance with king hiero's desire and request, some little time before, that he should reduce to practice some part of his admirable speculations in science, and by accommodating the theoretic truth to sensation and ordinary use, bring it more within the appreciation of people in general. eudoxus and archytas had been the first originators of this far-famed and highly prized art of mechanics, which they employed as an elegant illustration of geometrical truths, and as a means of sustaining experimentally, to the satisfaction of the senses, conclusions too intricate for proof by words and diagrams. as, for example, to solve the problem so often required in constructing geometrical figures, "given the two extremes to find the two mean lines of a proportion," both these mathematicians had recourse to the aid of instruments, adapting to their purpose certain curves and sections of lines. but what with plato's indignation at it, and his invectives against it as the mere corruption and annihilation of the one good of geometry, which was thus shamefully turning its back upon the unembodied objects of pure intelligence, to recur to sensation, and to ask help (not to be obtained without base subservience and depravation) from matter; so it was that mechanics came to be separated from geometry, and when repudiated and neglected by philosophers, took its place as a military art. archimedes, however, in writing to king hiero, whose friend and near relative he was, had stated that, given the force, any given weight might be moved; and even boasted, we are told, relying on the strength of demonstration, that if there were another earth, by going into it he could move this. hiero being struck with amazement at this, and entreating him to make good this assertion by actual experiment, and show some great weight moved by a small engine, he fixed upon a ship of burden out of the king's arsenal, which could not be drawn out of the dock without great labor by many men. loading her with many passengers and a full freight, sitting himself the while far off, with no great endeavor, but only holding the head of the pulley in his hand and drawing the cord by degrees, he drew the ship in a straight line, as smoothly and evenly as if she had been in the sea. the king, astonished at this, and convinced of the power of the art, prevailed upon archimedes to make him engines accommodated to all the purposes, offensive and defensive, of a siege. these the king himself never made use of, because he spent almost all his life in a profound quiet and the highest affluence. but the apparatus was, in a most opportune time, ready at hand for the syracusans, and with it also the engineer himself. when, therefore, the romans assaulted the walls in two places at once, fear and consternation stupefied the syracusans, believing that nothing was able to resist that violence and those forces. but when archimedes began to ply his engines, he at once shot against the land forces all sorts of missile weapons, with immense masses of stone that came down with incredible noise and violence, against which no man could stand; for they knocked down those upon whom they fell in heaps, breaking all their ranks and files. in the mean time huge poles thrust out from the walls over the ships [these were the derricks, or _tollenos_, of livy] sunk some by the great weights which they let down from on high upon them; others they lifted up into the air by an iron hand or beak like a crane's beak, and when they had drawn them up by the prow, and set them on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the bottom of the sea. or else the ships, drawn by engines within, and whirled about, were dashed against the steep rocks that stood jutting out under the walls, with great destruction of the soldiers that were aboard them. a ship was frequently lifted up to a great height in the air (a dreadful thing to behold), and was rolled to and fro and kept swinging, until the mariners were all thrown out, when at length it was dashed against the rocks, or let fall. at the engine that marcellus brought upon the bridge of ships,--which was called _sambuca_ from some resemblance it had to an instrument of music of that name,--while it was as yet approaching the wall, there was discharged a piece of a rock of ten talents' weight,[ ] then a second and a third, which, striking upon it with immense force and with a noise like thunder, broke all its foundation to pieces, shook out all its fastenings, and completely dislodged it from the bridge. so marcellus, doubtful what counsel to pursue, drew off his ships to a safer distance, and sounded a retreat to his forces on land. they then took a resolution of coming up under the walls, if it were possible, in the night; thinking that as archimedes used ropes stretched at length in playing his engines, the soldiers would now be under the shot, and the darts would, for want of sufficient distance to throw them, fly over their heads without effect. but he, it appeared, had long before framed for such occasion engines accommodated to any distance, and shorter weapons; and had made numerous small openings in the walls, through which, with engines of a shorter range, unexpected blows were inflicted on the assailants. thus, when they, who thought to deceive the defenders, came close up to the walls, instantly a shower of darts and other missile weapons was again cast upon them. and when stones came tumbling down perpendicularly upon their heads, and, as it were, the whole wall shot out arrows against them, they retired. and now, again, as they were going off, arrows and darts of a longer range inflicted a great slaughter among them, and their ships were driven one against another, while they themselves were not able to retaliate in any way. for archimedes had provided and fixed most of his engines immediately under the wall; whence the romans, seeing that infinite mischiefs overwhelmed them from no visible means, began to think they were fighting with the gods. yet marcellus escaped unhurt, and, deriding his own artificers and engineers, "what," said he, "must we give up fighting with this geometrical briareus, who plays pitch and toss with our ships, and with the multitude of darts which he showers at a single moment upon us, really outdoes the hundred-handed giants of mythology?" and doubtless the rest of the syracusans were but the body of archimedes's designs, one soul moving and governing all; for, laying aside all other arms, with his alone they infested the romans and protected themselves. in fine, when such terror had seized upon the romans that if they did but see a little rope or a piece of wood from the wall, instantly crying out that there it was again, that archimedes was about to let fly some engine at them, they turned their backs and fled, marcellus desisted from conflicts and assaults, putting all his hope in a long siege. yet archimedes possessed so high a spirit, so profound a soul, and such treasures of scientific knowledge, that though these inventions had now obtained him the renown of more than human sagacity, he yet would not deign to leave behind him any commentary or writing on such subjects; but, repudiating as sordid and ignoble the whole trade of engineering, and every sort of art that lends itself to mere use and profit, he placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life,--studies the superiority of which to all others is unquestioned, and in which the only doubt can be whether the beauty and grandeur of the subjects examined or the precision and cogency of the methods and means of proof most deserve our admiration. it is not possible to find in all geometry more difficult and intricate questions, or more simple and lucid explanations. some ascribe this to his natural genius; while others think that incredible toil produced these, to all appearance, easy and unlabored results. no amount of investigation of yours would succeed in attaining the proof; and yet, once seen, you immediately believe you would have discovered it,--by so smooth and so rapid a path he leads you to the conclusion required. and thus it ceases to be incredible that (as is commonly told of him) the charm of his familiar and domestic science made him forget his food and neglect his person to that degree that when he was occasionally carried by absolute violence to bathe, or have his body anointed, he used to trace geometrical figures in the ashes of the fire, and diagrams in the oil on his body, being in a state of entire preoccupation, and, in the truest sense, divine possession, with his love and delight in science. his discoveries were numerous and admirable; but he is said to have requested his friends and relations that when he was dead they would place over his tomb a sphere containing a cylinder, inscribing it with the ratio which the containing solid bears to the contained. the boys were highly edified by this statement of the difficulty which archimedes's friends found in making him take a bath, and chaffed jack, who had asked if he were not the inventor of bath-tubs. when the reading from plutarch was over, fergus asked if that were all, and was disappointed that there was nothing about the setting of ships on fire by mirrors. it is one of the old stories of the siege of syracuse, that he set fire to the roman ships by concentrating on them the heat of the sun from a number of mirrors. but this story is not in livy, nor is it in plutarch, though, as has been seen, they were well disposed to tell what they knew which was marvellous in his achievements. it is told at length and in detail by zonaras and tzetzes, two greek writers of the twelfth century, who must have found it in some ancient writers whose works we do not now have. "archimedes," says zonaras,[ ] "having received the rays of the sun on a mirror, by the thickness and polish of which they were reflected and united, kindled a flame in the air, and darted it with full violence upon the ships, which were anchored within a certain distance, in such a manner that they were burned to ashes." the same writer says that proclus, a celebrated "mathematician" of constantinople, in the sixth century, at the siege of constantinople set fire to the thracian fleet by means of brass mirrors. tzetzes is yet more particular. he says that when the roman galleys were within a bow-shot of the city walls, archimedes brought together hexagonal specula (mirrors) with other smaller ones of twenty-four facets, and caused them to be placed each at a proper distance; that he moved these by means of hinges and plates of metal; that the hexagon was bisected by the meridian of summer and winter; that it was placed opposite the sun; and that a great fire was thus kindled, which consumed the ships. now, it is to be remembered that these are the accounts of writers who were not so good mechanics as archimedes. it should be remembered, also, that in the conditions of war then, the distance at which ships would be anchored in a little harbor like that of syracuse was not great. by "bow-shot" would be meant the distance at which a bow would do serious damage. doubtful as the story of zonaras and tzetzes seems, it received unexpected confirmation in the year from a celebrated experiment tried by the naturalist buffon. after encountering many difficulties, which he had foreseen with great acuteness, and obviated with equal ingenuity, buffon at length succeeded in repeating archimedes's performance. in the spring of he laid before the french academy a memoir which, in his collected works, extends over upwards of eighty pages. in this paper he described himself as in possession of an apparatus by means of which he could set fire to planks at the distance of and even feet, and melt metals and metallic minerals at distances varying from to feet. this apparatus he describes as composed of plain glasses, silvered on the back, each six inches broad by eight inches long. these, he says, were ranged in a large wooden frame, at intervals not exceeding the third of an inch, so that, by means of an adjustment behind, each should be movable in all directions independent of the rest; the spaces between the glasses being further of use in allowing the operator to see from behind the point on which it behooved the various disks to be converged. in this last statement there is a parallel with that of tzetzes, who speaks of the division of archimedes's mirrors. at the present moment naturalists are paying great attention to plans for the using of the heat of the sun. it is said that on any county in the united states, twenty by thirty miles square, there is wasted as much heat of the sun as would drive, if we knew how to use it, all the steam-engines in the world. fergus asked uncle fritz if he believed that archimedes threw seven hundred pounds of stone from one of his machines. the largest modern guns throw shot of one thousand pounds, and it is only quite recently that any such shot have been used. uncle fritz told him that in the museum at st. germain-en-laye he would one day see a modern catapult, made by colonel de reffye from the design of a roman catapult on trajan's column. this is supposed to be of the same pattern which is called an "onager" in the latin books. this catapult throws, when it is tested, a shot of twenty-four pounds, or it throws a sheaf of short arrows. in one catapult the power is gained by twisting ox-hide very tightly, and suddenly releasing it. another is a very stout bow, worked with a small windlass. of course this will give a great power. seven hundred pounds, however, seems beyond the ability of any such machines as this; but from his higher walls archimedes could, of course, have rolled such stones down on the decks of the ships below. and if he were throwing other stones or leaden balls to a greater distance with his _onagers_, it may well be that plutarch or livy did not take very accurate account of the particular engine which threw one stone or another. archimedes was killed by a roman soldier, to the great grief of marcellus, when the romans finally took syracuse. the city fell through drunkenness, which was, and is, the cause of more failure in the world than anything else which can be named. marcellus, in some conversations about the exchange or redemption of a prisoner, observed a tower somewhat detached from the wall, which was, as he thought, carelessly guarded. choosing the night of a feast of diana, when the syracusans were wholly given up to wine and sport, he took the tower by surprise, and from the tower seized the wall and made his way into the city. in the sack of the city by the soldiers, which followed, archimedes was killed. the story is told in different ways. plutarch says that he was working out some problem by a diagram, and never noticed the incursion of the romans, nor that the city was taken. a soldier, unexpectedly coming up to him in this transport of study and meditation, commanded him to follow him to marcellus; which he declining to do before he had worked out his problem to a demonstration, the soldier, enraged, drew his sword, and ran him through. "others write that a roman soldier, running upon him with a drawn sword, offered to kill him, and that archimedes, looking back, earnestly besought him to hold his hand a little while, that he might not leave what he was then at work upon inconsequent and imperfect; but the soldier, not moved by his entreaty, instantly killed him. others, again, relate that as archimedes was carrying to marcellus mathematical instruments, dials, spheres, and angles by which the magnitude of the sun might be measured to the sight, some soldiers, seeing him, and thinking that he carried gold in a vessel, slew him. "certain it is, that his death was very afflicting to marcellus, and that marcellus ever after regarded him that killed him as a murderer, and that he sought for the kindred of archimedes and honored them with signal honors." archimedes, as has been said, had asked that his monument might be a cylinder bearing a sphere, in commemoration of his discovery of the proportion between a cylinder and a sphere of the same diameter. a century and a half after, when cicero was quæstor of sicily, he found this monument, neglected, forgotten, and covered with a rank growth of thistles and other weeds. "it was left," he says, "for one who came from arpinas, to show to the men of syracuse where their greatest countryman lay buried." iii. friar bacon. "all the world seems to have known of columbus's discoveries as soon as he came home, but all the world did not know at once of archimedes's inventions; indeed, i should think the world did not know now what all of them are." hester van brunt was saying this in the hall, as the girls laid off their waterproofs, when they next met the colonel. "i think that may often be said of what we call inventions and what we call discoveries," he said, "till quite recent times. when a man invented a new process, it was supposed that if he could keep the secret, it might be to him a very valuable secret. but when one discovered an island or a continent, it was almost impossible to keep the secret. they tried it sometimes, as you know. but there must be a whole ship's crew who know something of the new-found land, and from some of them the secret would leak out. "but there has been many a process in the arts lost, because the man who discovered the new quality in nature or invented the new method in manufacture kept it secret, so that he might do better work than his competitors. this went so far that boys were apprenticed to masters to learn 'the secrets of their trades.'" fergus said that in old times inventors were not always treated very kindly. if people thought they were sorcerers, or in league with the devil, they did not care much for the invention. uncle fritz said they would find plenty of instances of the persecution of inventors, even to quite a late date. it is impossible, of course, to say how many good things were lost to the world by the pig-headedness which discouraged new inventions. it is marvellous to think what progress single men made, who had to begin almost at the beginning, and learn for themselves what every intelligent boy or girl now finds ready for him in the cyclopædia. it is very clear that the same beginnings were made again and again by some of the early inventors. then, what they learned had been almost forgotten. there was no careful record of their experiments, or, if any, it was in one manuscript, and that was not accessible to people trying to follow in their steps. "i have laid out for you," said uncle fritz, "some of the early accounts of friar bacon,--roger bacon. he is one of the most distinguished of the early students of what we now call natural philosophy in england. it was in one of the darkest centuries of the dark ages. "but see what he did. "there are to be found in his writings new and ingenious views of optics,--as, on the refraction of light, on the apparent magnitude of objects, on the magnified appearance of the sun and moon when on the horizon. he describes very exactly the nature and effects of concave and convex lenses, and speaks of their application to the purposes of reading and of viewing distant objects, both terrestrial and celestial; and it is easy to prove from his writings that he was either the inventor or the improver of the telescope. he also gives descriptions of the camera obscura and of the burning-glass. he made, too, several chemical discoveries. in one place he speaks of an inextinguishable fire, which was probably a kind of phosphorus. in another he says that an artificial fire could be prepared with saltpetre and other ingredients which would burn at the greatest distance, and by means of which thunder and lightning could be imitated. he says that a portion of this mixture of the size of an inch, properly prepared, would destroy a whole army, and even a city, with a tremendous explosion accompanied by a brilliant light. in another place he says distinctly that thunder and lightning could be imitated by means of saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal. as these are the ingredients of gunpowder, it is clear that he had an adequate idea of its composition and its power. he was intimately acquainted with geography and astronomy. he had discovered the errors of the calendar and their causes, and in his proposals for correcting them he approached very nearly to the truth. he made a corrected calendar, of which there is a copy in the bodleian library in oxford. in moral philosophy, also, roger bacon has laid down some excellent precepts for the conduct of life.[ ] "now, if you had such a biography of such a man now, you would know that without much difficulty you could find all his more important observations in print. so soon as he thought them important, he would communicate them to some society which would gladly publish them. in the first place, he would be glad to have the credit of an improvement, an invention, or a discovery. if the invention were likely to be profitable, the nation would secure the profit to him if he fully revealed the process. they would give him, by a 'patent,' the right to the exclusive profit for a series of years. the nation thus puts an end to the old temptation to secrecy, or tries to do so. "but if you will read some of the queer passages from the old lives of bacon, you will see how very vague were the notions which the people of his own time had of what he was doing." then hester read some passages which colonel ingham had marked for her. of the parents and birth of fryer bacon, and how he addicted himself to learning. in most men's opinions he was born in the west part of _england_ and was son to a wealthy farmer, who put him to school to the parson of the town where he was born: not with intent that he should turn fryer (as he did), but to get so much understanding, that he might manage the better that wealth he was to leave him. but young _bacon_ took his learning so fast, that the priest could not teach him any more, which made him desire his master that he would speak to his father to put him to _oxford_, that he might not lose that little learning that he had gained: his master was very willing so to do: and one day, meeting his father, told him, that he had received a great blessing of god, in that he had given him so wise and hopeful a child as his son _roger bacon_ was (for so was he named) and wished him withal to doe his duty, and to bring up so his child, that he might shew his thankfulness to god, which could not better be done than in making him a scholar; for he found by his sudden taking of his learning, that he was a child likely to prove a very great clerk: hereat old _bacon_ was not well pleased (for he desired to bring him up to plough and to the cart, as he himself was brought) yet he for reverence sake to the priest, shewed not his anger, but kindly thanked him for his paines and counsel, yet desired him not to speak any more concerning that matter, for he knew best what best pleased himself, and that he would do: so broke they off their talk and parted. so soon as the old man came home, he called to his son for his books, which when he had, he locked them up, and gave the boy a cart whip in place of them, saying to him: "boy, i will have you no priest, you shall not be better learned than i, you can tell by the almanack when it is best sowing wheat, when barley, peas and beans: and when the best libbing is, when to sell grain and cattle i will teach thee; for i have all fairs and markets as perfect in my memory, as sir _john_, our priest, has mass without book: take me this whip, i will teach the use of it. it will be more profitable to thee than this harsh latin: make no reply, but follow my counsel, or else by the mass thou shalt feel the smart hand of my anger." young _bacon_ thought this but hard dealing, yet he would not reply, but within six or eight days he gave his father the slip, and went to a cloister some twenty miles off, where he was entertained, and so continued his learning, and in small time came to be so famous, that he was sent for to the university of oxford, where he long time studied, and grew so excellent in the secrets of art and nature, that not england only, but all christendom, admired him. how fryer bacon made a brazen head to speak, by the which he would have walled england about with brass. fryer _bacon_, reading one day of the many conquests of england, bethought himself how he might keep it hereafter from the like conquests, and so make himself famous hereafter to all posterity. this (after great study) he found could be no way so well done as one; which was to make a head of brass, and if he could make this head to speak (and hear it when it speaks) then might he be able to wall all england about with brass. to this purpose he got one fryer _bungy_ to assist him, who was a great scholar and a magician, (but not to be compared to fryer _bacon_), these two with great study and pains so framed a head of brass, that in the inward parts thereof there was all things like as in a natural man's head: this being done, they were as far from perfection of the work as they were before, for they knew not how to give those parts that they had made motion, without which it was impossible that it should speak: many books they read, but yet could not find out any hope of what they sought, that at the last they concluded to raise a spirit, and to know of him that which they could not attain to by their own studies. to do this they prepared all things ready and went one evening to a wood thereby, and after many ceremonies used, they spake the words of conjuration, which the devil straight obeyed and appeared unto them, asking what they would? "know," said fryer _bacon_, "that we have made an artificial head of brass, which we would have to speak, to the furtherance of which we have raised thee, and being raised, we will keep thee here, unless thou tell to us the way and manner how to make this head to speak." the devil told him that he had not that power of himself: "beginner of lies," said fryer _bacon_, "i know that thou wouldst dissemble, and therefore tell it us quickly, or else we will here bind thee to remain during our pleasures." at these threatenings the devil consented to do it, and told them, that with a continual fume of the six hottest simples it should have motion, and in one month space speak, the time of the month or day he knew not: also he told them, that if they heard it not before it had done speaking, all their labour should be lost: they being satisfied, licensed the spirit for to depart. then went these two learned fryers home again, and prepared the simples ready, and made the fume, and with continual watching attended when this brazen-head would speak: thus watched they for three weeks without any rest, so that they were so weary and sleepy, that they could not any longer refrain from rest: then called fryer _bacon_ his man _miles_, and told him, that it was not unknown to him what pains fryer _bungy_ and himself had taken for three weeks space, only to make, and to hear the brazen-head speak, which if they did not, then had they lost all their labour, and all england had a great loss thereby: therefore he entreated miles that he would watch whilst that they slept, and call them if the head speake. "fear not, good master," said miles, "i will not sleep, but hearken and attend upon the head, and if it do chance to speak, i will call you: therefore i pray take you both your rests and let me alone for watching this head." after fryer _bacon_ had given him a great charge the second time, fryer _bungy_ and he went to sleep, and _miles_, alone to watch the brazen-head. _miles_ to keep himself from sleeping, got a tabor and pipe, and being merry disposed sang him many a merry song; and thus with his own music and his songs spent he his time, and kept from sleeping at last. after some noise the head spake these two words: "_time is_." miles hearing it to speak no more, thought his master would be angry if he waked him for that, and therefore he let them both sleep, and began to mock the head in this manner: "thou brazen-faced head, hath my master took all this pains about thee, and now dost thou requite him with two words, _time is_? had he watched with a lawyer so long as he hath watched with thee, he would have given him more, and better words than thou hast yet. if thou canst speak no wiser, they shall sleep till doom's day for me. _time is_: i know _time is_, and that thou shall hear, good man brazen face." and with this he sang him a song to his own music as to times and seasons, and went on, "do you tell us, copper-nose, when time is? i hope we scholars know our times, when to drink drunk, when to kiss our hostess, when to go on her score, and when to pay it, that time comes seldom." after half an hour had passed, the head did speak again, two words, which were these: "_time was_." _miles_ respected these words as little as he did the former, and would not wake them, but still scoffed at the brazen head, that it had learned no better words, and have such a tutor as his master: and in scorn of it sung a song to the tune of "a rich merchant man," beginning as follows: time was when thou a kettle wert filled with better matter: but fryer _bacon_ did thee spoil, when he thy sides did batter, with more to the same purpose. "_time was_," said he, "i know that, brazen face, without your telling, i know time was, and i know what things there was when time was, and if you speak no wiser, no master shall be waked for me." thus _miles_ talked and sung till another half hour was gone, then the brazen head spake again these words, "_time is past_:" and therewith fell down, and presently followed a terrible noise, with strange flashes of fire, so that _miles_ was half dead with fear. at this noise the two fryers awaked, and wondered to see the whole room so full of smoke, but that being vanished they might perceive the brazen head broken and lying on the ground: at this sight they grieved, and called _miles_ to know how this came. miles half dead with fear, said that it fell down of itself, and that with the noise and fire that followed he was almost frighted out of his wits: fryer _bacon_ asked him if he did not speak? "yes," quoth _miles_, "it spake, but to no purpose. i'll have a parrot speak better in that time than you have been teaching this brazen head." "out on thee, villain," said fryer _bacon_, "thou hast undone us both, hadst thou but called us when it did speak, all england had been walled round about with brass, to its glory, and our eternal fames: what were the words it spake?" "very few," said _miles_, "and those none of the wisest that i have heard neither: first he said, '_time is_.'" "hadst thou called us then," said fryer _bacon_, "we had been made for ever." "then," said _miles_, "half an hour after it spake again and said '_time was_.'" "and wouldst thou not call us then?" said _bungy_. "alas!" said _miles_, "i thought he would have told me some long tale, and then i purposed to have called you: then half an hour after, he cried '_time is past_,' and made such a noise, that he hath waked you himself, methinks." at this fryer _bacon_ was in such a rage, that he would have beaten his man, but he was restrained by _bungy_: but nevertheless for his punishment, he with his art struck him dumb for one whole month's space. thus that great work of these learned fryers was overthrown (to their great griefs) by this simple fellow. how fryer bacon by his art took a town, when the king had lain before it three months, without doing it any hurt. in those times when fryer _bacon_ did all his strange tricks, the kings of _england_ had a great part of _france_ which they held a long time, till civil wars at home in this land made them to lose it. it did chance that the king of england (for some cause best known to himself) went into _france_ with a great army, where after many victories, he did besiege a strong town, and lay before it full three months, without doing to the town any great damage, but rather received the hurt himself. this did so vex the king, that he sought to take it in any way, either by policy or strength: to this intent he made proclamation, that whosoever could deliver this town into his hand, he should have for his pains ten thousand crowns truly paid. this was proclaimed, but there was none found that would undertake it: at length the news did come into _england_ of this great reward that was promised. fryer _bacon_ hearing of it, went into _france_, and being admitted to the king's presence, he thus spake unto him: "your majesty i am sure hath not forgot your poor servant _bacon_, the love that you showed to me being last in your presence, hath drawn me for to leave my country and my studies, to do your majesty service: i beseech your grace, to command me so far as my poor art or life may do you pleasure." the king thanked him for his love, but told him that he had now more need of arms than art, and wanted brave soldiers rather than learned scholars. fryer _bacon_ answered, "your grace saith well; but let me (under correction) tell you, that art oftentimes doth these things that are impossible to arms, which i will make good in few examples. i will speak only of things performed by art and nature, wherein there shall be nothing magical: and first by the figuration of art, there may be made instruments of navigation without men to row in them, as great ships, to brook the sea, only with one man to steer them, and they shall sail far more swiftly than if they were full of men: also chariots that shall move with an unspeakable force, without any living creature to stir them. likewise, an instrument may be made to fly withal, if one sit in the midst of the instrument, and do turn an engine, by which the wings being artificially composed, may beat air after the manner of a flying bird. by an instrument of three fingers high, and three fingers broad, a man may rid himself and others from all imprisonment: yea, such an instrument may easily be made, whereby a man may violently draw unto him a thousand men, will they, nill they, or any other thing. by art also an instrument may be made, wherewith men may walk in the bottom of the sea or rivers without bodily danger: this _alexander_ the great used (as the ethnic philosopher reporteth) to the end he might behold the secrets of the seas. but physical figurations are far more strange: for by that may be framed perspects and looking-glasses, that one thing shall appear to be many, as one man shall appear to be a whole army, and one sun or moon shall seem divers. also perspects may be so framed, that things far off shall seem most nigh unto us: with one of these did _julius cæsar_ from the sea coasts in _france_ marke and observe the situation of the castles in _england_. bodies may also be so framed, that the greatest things shall appear to be the least, the highest lowest, the most secret to be the most manifest, and in such like sort the contrary. thus did _socrates_ perceive, that the dragon which did destroy the city and country adjoining with his noisome breath, and contagious influence, did lurk in the dens between the mountains: and thus may all things that are done in cities or armies be discovered by the enemies. again, in such wise may bodies be framed, that venemous and infectious influences may be brought whither a man will: in this did _aristotle_ instruct _alexander_; through which instruction the poyson of a basiliske, being lifted up upon the wall of a city, the poyson was conveyed into the city, to the destruction thereof: also perspects may be made to deceive the sight, as to make a man believe that he seeth great store of riches when there is not any. but it appertaineth to a higher power of figuration, that beams should be brought and assembled by divers flections and reflections in any distance that we will, to burne anything that is opposite unto it, as is witnessed by those perspects or glasses that burn before and behind. but the greatest and chiefest of all figurations and things figured, is to describe the heavenly bodies, according to their length and breadth in a corporal figure, wherein they may corporally move with a daily motion. these things are worth a kingdom to a wise man. these may suffise, my royal lord, to shew what art can do: and these, with many things more, as strange, i am able by art to perform. then take no thought for winning this town, for by my art you shall (ere many days be past) have your desire." the king all this while heard him with admiration: but hearing him now, that he would undertake to win the town, he burst out in these speeches: "most learned _bacon_, do but what thou hast said, and i will give thee what thou most desirest, either wealth or honour, choose what thou wilt, and i will be as ready to perform, as i have been to promise." "your majesty's love is all that i seek," said the fryer, "let me have that, and i have honour enough, for wealth, i have content, the wise should seek no more: but to the purpose. let your pioneers raise up a mount so high, (or rather higher), than the wall, and then you shall see some probability of that which i have promised." this mount in two days was raised: then fryer _bacon_ went with the king to the top of it, and did with a perspect shew to him the town, as plainly as if he had been in it: at this the king did wonder, but fryer _bacon_ told him, that he should wonder more, ere next day noon: against which time, he desired him to have his whole army in readiness, for to scale the wall upon a signal given by him, from the mount. this the king promised to do, and so returned to his tent full of joy, that he should gain this strong town. in the morning fryer _bacon_ went up to the mount and set his glasses, and other instruments up: in the meantime the king ordered his army, and stood in a readiness for to give the assaults: when the signal was given which was the waving of a flag. ere nine of the clock fryer _bacon_ had burnt the state-house of the town, with other houses only by his mathematical glasses, which made the whole town in an uproar, for none did know how it came: whilst that they were quenching of the same, fryer _bacon_ did wave his flag: upon which signal given, the king set upon the town, and took it with little or no resistance. thus through the art of this learned man the king got this strong town, which he could not do with all his men without fryer _bacon's_ help. how fryer bacon burnt his books of magic and gave himself to the study of divinity only; and how he turned anchorite. now in a time when fryer _bacon_ kept his chamber (having some great grief) he fell into divers meditations: sometimes into the vanity of arts and sciences: then would he condemn himself for studying of those things that were so contrary to his order and soul's health; and would say that magic made a man a devil; sometimes would he meditate on divinity; then would he cry out upon himself for neglecting the study of it, and for studying magic: sometime would he meditate on the shortness of man's life, then would he condemn himself for spending a time so short, so ill as he had done his: so would he go from one thing to another and in all condemn his former studies. and that the world should know how truly he did repent his wicked life, he caused to be made a great fire; and sending for many of his friends, scholars, and others, he spake to them after this manner: "my good friends and fellow students, it is not unknown unto you, how that through my art i have attained to that credit, that few men living ever had. of the wonders that i have done, all england can speak, both king and commons: i have unlocked the secret of art and nature, and let the world see those things, that have layen hid since the death of hermes, that rare and profound philosopher: my studies have found the secrets of the stars; the books that i have made of them, do serve for precedents to our greatest doctors, so excellent hath my judgement been therein. i likewise have found out the secrets of trees, plants and stones, with their several uses; yet all this knowledge of mine i esteem so lightly, that i wish that i were ignorant, and knew nothing: for the knowledge of these things, (as i have truly found) serveth not to better a man in goodness, but only to make him proud and think too well of himself. what hath all my knowledge of nature's secrets gained me? only this, the loss of a better knowledge, the loss of divine studies, which makes the immortal part of man (his soul) blessed. i have found, that my knowledge has been a heavy burden, and has kept down my good thoughts: but i will remove the cause which are these books: which i do purpose here before you all to burn." they all intreated him to spare the books, because in them there were those things that after-ages might receive great benefit by. he would not hearken unto them but threw them all into the fire, and in that flame burnt the greatest learning in the world. then did he dispose of all his goods; some part he gave to poor scholars, and some he gave to other poor folks: nothing he left for himself: then caused he to be made in the church-wall a cell, where he locked himself in, and there remained till his death. his time he spent in prayer, meditation and such divine exercises, and did seek by all means to persuade men from the study of magic. thus lived he some two years space in that cell, never coming forth: his meat and drink he received in at a window, and at that window he did discourse with those that came to him; his grave he digged with his own nails, and was laid there when he dyed. thus was the life and death of this famous fryer, who lived the most part of his life a magician, and died a true penitent sinner and an anchorite. when hester had finished reading, one of the boys said that if people believed such things as that, he thought the wonder was that they made any progress at all. uncle fritz said that in matters which make up what we call science, they did not make much progress. the arts of the world do not seem to have advanced much between the days of solomon and those of william the conqueror. "as you see," said uncle fritz, "an inventor was set down as a magician. i think you can remember more instances." yes. almost all the young people remember that in marco polo's day there was a distinguished venetian engineer with the armies of genghis khan, whose wonderful successes gave rise, perhaps, to the story of aladdin.[ ] the scene of his successes was pekin; and it is to be remembered that the story of aladdin is not properly one of the arabian nights, and that the scene is laid in china. this led them to trying to match the wonders of aladdin and of the arabian nights by the wonders of modern invention; and they pleased themselves by thinking of marvels they could show to unlearned nations if they had the resources of mr. edison's laboratory. "aladdin rubbed his lamp," said blanche. "you see, the lamp was his electrical machine; and when he rubbed it, the lightnings went flying hither and thither, and said, 'here we are.'" "that is all very fine," said jack withers; "but i stand by the arabian nights, after all, and i think i shall, till mr. edison or the taunton locomotive shop will make for me some high-stepper on whose back i may rise above the clouds, pass over the length and breadth of massachusetts, descend in the garden where blanche is confined by the hated mistress of a boarding-school in walpole, and then, winning her ready consent, can mount again with her, and before morning descend in the garden of a beautiful cottage at newport. we will spend six weeks in playing tennis in the daytime, dancing in the casino in the evenings, and in sailing in frank shattuck's yacht between whiles. then, and not till then, would i admit that the arabian nights have been outdone by modern science." they all laughed at jack's extravaganza, which is of a kind to which they are beginning to be accustomed. but mabel stuck to her text, and said seriously, that uncle fred had said that what people now called science sprung from the workshops of these very magicians. "the magicians then had all the science there was. and if magic had not got a bad name, should we not call the men of science magicians now?" uncle fritz said yes to all her questions, but he said that they did not cover the whole matter. the difference between a magician and a man of science involves these habits: the magician keeps secret what he knows, while the man of science discloses all he learns. then the magician affected to have spiritual power at command, while the man of science only affects to use what he calls physical powers. till either of them tell us how to distinguish spiritual forces from physical forces, the second distinction is of the less importance. but the other has made all the difference in the world between the poor magic-men and the science-men. for, as they had seen with friar bacon, the magic-men have had their stories told by most ignorant people, seeing they did not generally leave any records behind them; but the men of modern science, having chosen to tell their own stories, have had them told, on the whole, reasonably well, though generally stupidly. "what a pity we have not solomon's books of science!" said john tolman. "it is one of the greatest of pities that such books as those were not kept. it seems as if people would have built on such foundations, and that science would have marched from step to step, instead of beginning over and over again. but we do have pliny's natural history, as he chose to call it. far from building on that as a foundation, the dark ages simply accepted it. and there are blunders or sheer lies in that book, and in aristotle's books, and theophrastus's, and other such, which have survived even to our day." the children were peeping into the collection from which the friar bacon stories had been read, and they lighted on these scraps about the supposed life of virgil. to the people of the dark ages virgil was much more a man of magic than a poet. how virgilius was set to school. as virgilius was born, then the town of rome quaked and trembled: and in his youth he was wise and subtle, and was put to school at tolentin, where he studied diligently, for he was of great understanding. upon a time the scholars had licence to go to play and sport them in the fields after the usance of the old time; and there was also virgilius thereby also walking among the hills all about: it fortuned he spied a great hole in the side of a great hill wherein he went so deep that he could not see no more light, and then he went a little further therein, and then he saw some light again, and then went he forth straight: and within a little while after, he heard a voice that called, "virgilius, virgilius;" and he looked about, and he could not see no body; then virgilius spake and asked, "who calleth me?" then heard he the voice again, but he saw nobody: then said he, "virgilius, see ye not that little board lying beside you there, marked with that word?" then answered virgilius, "i see that board well enough." the voice said, "do away that board, and let me out thereat." then answered virgilius to the voice that was under the little board, and said, "who art thou that talkest me so!" then answered the devil: "i am a devil, conjured out of the body of a certain man, and banished till the day of judgement, without i be delivered by the hands of men. thus, virgilius, i pray you to deliver me out of this pain, and i shall shew unto thee many books of necromancy, and how thou shalt come by it lightly and know the practise therein, that no man in the science of necromancy shall pass thee; and moreover i shall shew and inform you so that thou shalt have all thy desire, whereby methinks it is a great gift for so little a doing, for ye may also thus all your friends helpen, and make your enemies unmighty." through that great promise was virgil tempted; he had the fiend shew the books to him that he might have and occupy them at his will. and so the fiend shewed him, and then virgilius pulled open a board, and there was a little hole, and thereat crawled the devil out like an eel, and came and stood before virgilius like a big man; thereat virgilius was astonished and marvelled greatly thereof that so great a man might come out at so little a hole; then said virgilius, "should ye well pass into the hole that ye came out of?" "yea, i shall well," said the devil.--"i hold the best pledge that i have, ye shall not do it." "well," said the devil, "thereto i consent." and then the devil crawled into the little hole again, and as he was therein, virgilius covered the hole again, and so was the devil beguiled, and might not there come out again, but there abideth still therein. then called the devil dreadfully to virgilius and said, "what have ye done?" virgilius answered, "abide there still to your day appointed." and from thenceforth abideth he there. and so virgilius became very cunning in the practise of the black science. howe the emperor asked counsel of virgilius, how the night runners and ill doers might be rid-out of the streets. the emperor had many complaints of the night runners and thieves, and also of the great murdering of people in the night, in so much that the emperor asked counsel of virgilius, and said: "that he hath great complaints of the thieves that runneth by night for they kill many men; what counsel, virgilius, is best to be done?" then answered virgilius to the emperor, "ye shall make a horse of copper and a copper man upon his back, having in his hands a flail of iron, and that horse, ye shall so bring afore the towne house, and ye shall let cry that a man from henceforth at ten of the clock should ring a bell, and he that after the bell was rung in the streets should be slain, no work thereof should be done." and when this cry was made the ruffians set not a point, but kept the streets as they did afore and would not let therefor; and as soon as the bell was rung at ten of the clock, then leaped the horse of copper with the copper man through the streets of rome, insomuch that he left not one street in rome unsought; and as soon as he found any man or woman in the street he slew them stalk dead, insomuch that he slew above two hundred persons or more. and this seeing, the thieves and night-runners how they might find a remedy therefor, thought in their minds to make a drag with a ladder thereon; and as they would go out by night they took their ladders with them, and when they heard the horse come, then cast they the drag upon the houses, and so went up upon their ladders to the top of the houses, so that the copper man might not touch them; and so abide they still in their wicked doing. then came they again to the emperor and complained, and then the emperor asked counsel of virgilius; and virgilius answered and said, "that then he must get two copper hounds and set them of either side of the copper horse, and let cry again that no body after the bell is rung should depart out of their house that would live." but the night walkers cared not a point for that cry; but when they heard the horse coming, with their ladders climbed upon the houses, but the dogs leaped after and tore them all in pieces; and thus the noise went through rome, in so much that nobody durst in the night go in the street, and thus all the night-walkers were destroyed. how virgilius made a lamp that at all times burned. for profit of the common people, virgilius on a great mighty marble pillar, did make a bridge that came up to the palace, and so went virgilius well up the pillar out of the palace; that palace and pillar stood in the midst of rome; and upon this pillar made he a lamp of glass that always burned without going out, and nobody might put it out; and this lamp lightened over all the city of rome from the one corner to the other, and there was not so little a street but it gave such light that it seemed two torches there had stand; and upon the walls of the palace made he a metal man that held in his hand a metal bow that pointed ever upon the lamp for to shoot it out; but always burned the lamp and gave light over all rome. and upon a time went the burgesses' daughters to play in the palace and beheld the metal man; and one of them asked in sport, why he shot not? and then she came to the man and with her hand touched the bow, and then the bolt flew out, and brake the lamp that virgilius made; and it was wonder that the maiden went not out of her mind for the great fear she had, and also the other burgesses' daughters that were in her company, of the great stroke that it gave when it hit the lamp, and when they saw the metal man so swiftly run his way; and never after was he no more seen; and this foresaid lamp was abiding burning after the death of virgilius by the space of three hundred years or more. it is on the wrecks and ruins recorded in such fables as these that modern science is builded. iv. benvenuto cellini. "now we will leave the fairy tales," said uncle fritz, "and begin on modern times." "modern times means since ," said alice,--"the only date in history i am quite sure of, excepting ." "eighteen-hundred and sixty-six," said john goodrich,--"the _annus mirabilis_, celebrated for the birth of miss alice francis and mr. j. g." "hush, hush! uncle fritz wants to say something." "we will leave the fairy tales," said poor chicken-pecked uncle fritz, "and begin with benvenuto cellini. who has seen any of his work?" several of the girls who had been in europe remembered seeing gold and silver work of benvenuto cellini's in the museums. uncle fritz told them that the little hand-bell used on his own tea-table was modelled at chicopee, in massachusetts, from a bell which was the design of benvenuto cellini; and he sent for the bell that the children might see how ingenious was the ornamentation, and how simply the different designs were connected together. he told alice she might read first from vasari's account of him. vasari's book, which the children now saw for the first time, is a very entertaining one. vasari was himself an artist, of the generation just following michael angelo. he was, indeed, the contemporary of raphael. but he is remembered now, not for his pictures, nor for his work in architecture, both of which were noted in his time, but for his lives of the most excellent painters, sculptors, and architects, which was first published in . benvenuto cellini was born ten years before vasari, and here is a part of vasari's life of him. life of benvenuto cellini. benvenuto cellini, citizen of florence, born in , at present a sculptor, in his youth cultivated the goldsmith's business, and had no equal in that branch. he set jewels, and adorned them with diminutive figures, exquisitely formed, and some of them so curious and fanciful that nothing finer or more beautiful can be conceived. at rome he made for pope clement vii. a button to be worn upon his pontifical habit, fixing a diamond to it with the most exquisite art. he was employed to make the stamps for the roman mint, and there never have been seen finer coins than those that were struck in rome at that period. after the death of pope clement, benvenuto returned to florence, where he made stamps with the head of duke alessandro, for the mint, wonderfully beautiful. benvenuto, having at last devoted himself to sculpture and casting statues, made in france many works, while he was employed at the court of king francis i. he afterwards came back to his native country, where he executed in metal the statue of perseus, who cut off medusa's head. this work was brought to perfection with the greatest art and diligence imaginable. though i might here enlarge on the productions of benvenuto, who always shewed himself a man of great spirit and vivacity, bold, active, enterprising, and formidable to his enemies,--a man, in short, who knew as well how to speak to princes as to exert himself in his art,--i shall add nothing further, since he has written an account of his life and works, and a treatise on goldsmith's work as well as on casting statues and many other subjects, with more art and eloquence than it is possible for me to imitate. i shall therefore content myself with this account of his chief performances. benvenuto was quite proud of his own abilities as a writer. very fortunately for us he has left his own memoirs. here is the introduction. benvenuto's autobiography. "it is a duty incumbent on upright and credible men of all ranks, who have performed anything noble or praiseworthy, to record, in their own writing, the events of their lives; yet they should not commence this honorable task before they have passed their fortieth year. such at least is my opinion, now that i have completed my fifty-eighth year, and am settled in florence. "looking back on some delightful and happy events of my life, and on many misfortunes so truly overwhelming that the appalling retrospect makes me wonder how i reached this age, in vigor and prosperity, through god's goodness, i have resolved to publish an account of my life. "my grandfather, andrea cellini, was still living when i was about three years of age, and he was then above a hundred. as they were one day removing a water-pipe, a large scorpion, which they had not perceived, came out of it. the scorpion descended upon the ground and had got under a great bench, when i, seeing it, ran and caught it in my hand. this scorpion was of such a size that whilst i held it in my little hand, it put out its tail on one side, and on the other darted its two mouths. i ran overjoyed to my grandfather, crying out, 'grandfather, look at my pretty little crab!' the good old man, who knew it to be a scorpion, was so frightened, and so apprehensive for my safety, that he seemed ready to drop down dead, and begged me with great eagerness to give the creature to him; but i grasped it the harder and cried, for i did not choose to part with it. my father, who was in the house, ran to us upon hearing the noise, and, happening just at that instant to espy a pair of scissors, he laid hold of them, and, by caressing and playing with me, he contrived to cut off the head and tail of the scorpion. then, finding i had received no harm from the venomous reptile, he pronounced it a happy omen." * * * * * his father taught him to play upon the flute, and wished him to devote himself to music; but his own inclinations were different. "having attained the age of fifteen, i engaged myself, against my father's inclinations, with a goldsmith named antonio di sandro, an excellent artist and a very worthy man. my father would not have him allow me any wages; for this reason, that since i voluntarily applied myself to this art, i might have an opportunity to withdraw whenever i thought proper. so great was my inclination to improve, that in a few months i rivalled the most skilful journeyman in the business, and began to reap some fruits from my labor. i continued, however, to play sometimes, through complaisance to my father, either upon the flute or the horn; and i constantly drew tears and deep sighs from him every time he heard me. from a feeling of filial piety, i often gave him that satisfaction, endeavoring to persuade him that it gave me also particular pleasure. "once when i was staying at pisa, my father wrote to me in every letter exhorting me not to neglect my flute, in which he had taken so much pains to instruct me. upon this, i entirely lost all inclination to return to him; and to such a degree did i hate that abominable flute, that i thought myself in a sort of paradise in pisa, where i never once played upon that instrument." * * * * * at the age of twenty-three (in ), cellini went to rome, where he did much work for the pope, clement vii. "about this time so dreadful an epidemic disease prevailed in rome, that several thousands died every day. somewhat terrified at this calamity, i began to indulge myself in certain recreations, as the fancy took me. on holidays i amused myself with visiting the antiquities of that city, and sometimes took their figures in wax; at other times, i made drawings of them. as these antiquities are all ruinous edifices, where a number of pigeons build their nests, i had a mind to divert myself among them with my fowling-piece, and often returned home laden with pigeons of the largest size. but i never chose to put more than a single ball into my piece, and in this manner, being a good marksman, i procured a considerable quantity of game. the fowling-piece was, both on the inside and the outside, as bright as a looking-glass. i likewise made the powder as fine as the minutest dust, and in the use of it i discovered some of the most admirable secrets that ever were known till this time. when i had charged my piece with a quantity of powder equal in weight to the fifth part of the ball, it carried two hundred paces, point blank. "while i was enjoying these pleasures, my spirits suddenly revived. i no longer had my usual gloom, and i worked to more purpose than when my attention was wholly engrossed by business; on the whole, my gun turned rather to my advantage than the contrary. "all italy was now up in arms, and the constable bourbon, finding there were no troops in rome, eagerly advanced with his army towards that capital. upon the news of his approach, all the inhabitants took up arms. i engaged fifty brave young men to serve under me, and we were well paid and kindly treated. "the army of the duke of bourbon having already appeared before the walls of rome, alessandro del bene requested that i would go with him to oppose the enemy. i complied, and, taking one of the stoutest youths with us,--we were afterwards joined by another,--we came up to the walls of campo santo, and there descried that great army which was employing every effort to enter the town at that part of the wall to which we had approached. many young men were slain without the walls, where they fought with the utmost fury; there was a remarkably thick mist. "levelling my arquebuse where i saw the thickest crowd of the enemy, i discharged it with a deliberate aim at a person who seemed to be lifted above the rest; but the mist prevented me from distinguishing whether he were on horseback or on foot. i then cautiously approached the walls, and perceived that there was an extraordinary confusion among the assailants, occasioned by our having shot the duke of bourbon; he was, as i understood afterwards, that chief personage whom i saw raised above the rest." * * * * * the pope was induced by an enemy of benvenuto, the cardinal salviati, to send for a rival goldsmith, tobbia, to come to rome. on his arrival both were summoned into the pope's presence. "he then commanded each of us to draw a design for setting a unicorn's horn, the most beautiful that ever was seen, which had cost , ducats. as the pope proposed making a present of it to king francis, he chose to have it first richly adorned with gold; so he employed us to draw the designs. when we had finished them we carried them to the pope. tobbia's design was in the form of a candlestick; the horn was to enter it like a candle, and at the bottom of the candlestick he had represented four little unicorns' heads,--a most simple invention. as soon as i saw it, i could not contain myself so as to avoid smiling at the oddity of the conceit. the pope, perceiving this, said, 'let me see that design of yours.' it was the single head of a unicorn, fitted to receive the horn. i had made the most beautiful sort of head conceivable, for i drew it partly in the form of a horse's head, and partly in that of a hart's, adorned with the finest sort of wreaths and other devices; so that no sooner was my design seen but the whole court gave it the preference." * * * * * benvenuto continued to make many beautiful things for pope clement vii. up to the time of his death. that pope was succeeded in the papal chair by cardinal farnese (paul iii.), on the th of october, . "i had formed a resolution to set out for france, as well because i perceived that the pope's favor was withdrawn from me by means of slanderers who misrepresented my services, as for fear that those of my enemies who had most influence might still do me some greater injury. for these reasons i was desirous to remove to some other country, and see whether fortune would there prove more favorable to me. leaving rome, i bent my course to florence, whence i travelled on to bologna, venice, and padua." he reached paris, with two workmen whom he took with him from rome, "without meeting any ill accident, and travelling on in uninterrupted mirth." but being dissatisfied with his reception there, he returned instantly to rome, where his fears were realized; for he was arrested by order of the pope, and made a prisoner in the castle of st. angelo. "this was the first time i ever knew the inside of a prison, and i was then in my thirty-seventh year. the constable of the castle of st. angelo was a countryman of mine, a florentine, named signor giorgio ugolini. this worthy gentleman behaved to me with the greatest politeness, permitting me to walk freely about the castle on my parole of honor, and for no other reason but because he saw the severity and injustice of my treatment. "finding i had been treated with so much rigor in the affair, i began to think seriously about my escape. i got my servants to bring me new thick sheets, and did not send back the dirty ones. upon their asking me for them, i answered that i had given them away to some of the poor soldiers. i pulled all the straw out of the tick of my bed, and burned it; for i had a chimney in the room where i lay. i then cut those sheets into a number of slips each about one third of a cubit in width; and when i thought i had made a sufficient quantity to reach from the top to the bottom of the lofty tower of the castle of st. angelo, i told my servants that i had given away as much of my linen as i thought proper, and desired they would take care to bring me clean sheets, adding that i would constantly return the dirty ones. "the constable of the castle had annually a certain disorder which totally deprived him of his senses; and when the fit came upon him, he was talkative to excess. every year he had some different whim: one time he fancied himself metamorphosed into a pitcher of oil; another time he thought himself a frog, and began to leap as such; another time he imagined he was dead, and it was found necessary to humor his conceit by making a show of burying him; thus he had every year some new frenzy. this year he fancied himself a bat, and when he went to take a walk, he sometimes made just such a noise as bats do; he likewise used gestures with his hands and body, as if he were going to fly. his physicians and his old servants, who knew his disorder, procured him all the pleasures and amusements they could think of, and as they found he delighted greatly in my conversation, they frequently came to me to conduct me to his apartment, where the poor man often detained me three or four hours chatting with him. "he asked me whether i had ever had a fancy to fly. i answered that i had always been very ready to attempt such things as men found most difficult; and that with regard to flying, as god had given me a body admirably well calculated for running, i had even resolution enough to attempt to fly. he then proposed to me to explain how i could contrive it. i replied that when i attentively considered the several creatures that fly, and thought of effecting by art what they do by the force of nature, i did not find one so fit to imitate as the bat. as soon as the poor man heard mention made of a bat, he cried out aloud, 'it is very true! a bat is the thing.' he then addressed himself to me, and said, 'benvenuto, if you had the opportunity, would you have the heart to make an attempt to fly?' i answered that if he would give me leave, i had courage enough to attempt to fly by means of a pair of wings waxed over. he said thereupon, 'i should like to see you fly; but as the pope has enjoined me to watch over you with the utmost care, i am resolved to keep you locked up with a hundred keys, that you may not slip out of my hands.' i said, before all present, 'confine me as close as you please, i will contrive to make my escape, notwithstanding.'" at night, with a pair of pincers which he had secured, he removed the nails which fastened the plates of iron fixed upon the door, imitating with wax the heads of the nails he took out, so that their absence need not be seen. "one holiday evening, the constable being very much disordered, he scarce said anything else but that he was become a bat, and desired his people that if benvenuto should happen to escape, they should take no notice of it, for he must soon catch me, as he should doubtless be better able to fly by night than i; adding, 'benvenuto is only a counterfeit bat, but i am a bat in real earnest.' "as i had formed a resolution to attempt my escape that night, i began by praying fervently to almighty god that it would please him to assist me in the enterprise. two hours before daybreak, i took the iron plates from the door with great trouble. i at last forced the door, and having taken with me my slips of linen, which i had rolled up in bundles with the utmost care, i went out and got upon the right side of the tower, and leaped upon two tiles of the roof with the greatest ease. i was in a white doublet, and had on a pair of white half-hose, over which i wore a pair of little light boots, that reached half-way up my legs, and in one of these i put my dagger. i then took the end of one of my bundles of long slips, which i had made out of the sheets of my bed, and fastened it to one of the tiles of the roof that happened to jut out. then letting myself down gently, the whole weight of my body being sustained by my arm, i reached the ground. it was not a moonlight night, but the stars shone with resplendent lustre. when i had touched the ground, i first contemplated the great height which i had descended with so much courage, and then walked away in high joy, thinking i had recovered my liberty. but i soon found myself mistaken, for the constable had caused two pretty high walls to be erected on that side. i managed to fix a long pole against the first wall, and by the strength of my arms to climb to the top of it. i then fastened my other string of slips, and descended down the steep wall. "there was still another one; and in letting myself down, being unable to hold out any longer, i fell, and, striking my head, became quite insensible. i continued in that state about an hour and a half, as nearly as i can guess. the day beginning to break, the cool breeze that precedes the rising of the sun brought me to my senses; but i conceived a strange notion that i had been beheaded, and was then in purgatory. i recovered by degrees my strength and powers, and, perceiving that i had got out of the castle, i soon recollected all that had befallen me. upon attempting to rise from the ground, i found that my right leg was broken, three inches above the heel, which threw me into a terrible consternation. cutting with my dagger the part of my string of slips i had left, i bandaged my leg as well as i could. i then crept on my hands and knees towards the gate with my dagger in my hand, and effected my egress. it was about five hundred paces from the place where i had had my fall to the gate by which i entered the city. it was then broad daylight. as i happened to meet with a water-carrier, who had loaded his ass, and filled his vessels with water, i called to him, and begged he would put me upon the beast's back, and carry me to the landing-place of the steps of st. peter's church. i offered to give him a gold crown, and, so saying, i clapped my hand upon my purse, which was very well lined. the honest waterman instantly took me upon his back, and carried me to the steps before st. peter's church, where i desired him to leave me and run back to his ass. "whilst i was crawling along upon all four, one of the servants of cardinal cornaro knew me, and, running immediately to his master's apartment, awakened him out of his sleep, saying to him, 'my most reverend lord, here is your jeweller, benvenuto, who has made his escape out of the castle, and is crawling along upon all four, quite besmeared with blood.' the cardinal, the moment he heard this, said to his servants, 'run, and bring him hither to my apartment upon your backs.' when i came into his presence the good cardinal bade me fear nothing, and immediately sent for an excellent surgeon, who set the bone, bandaged my leg, and bled me. the cardinal then caused me to be put into a private apartment, and went directly to the vatican, in order to intercede in my behalf with the pope. "meanwhile the report of my escape made a great noise all over rome; for the long string of sheeting fastened to the top of the lofty tower of the castle had excited attention, and the inhabitants ran in crowds to behold the sight. by this time the frenzy of the constable had reached its highest pitch; he wanted, in spite of all his servants, to fly from the same tower himself, declaring there was but one way to retake me, and that was to fly after me. he caused himself to be carried into the presence of his holiness, and began a terrible outcry, saying that i had promised him, upon my honor, that i would not fly away, and had flown away notwithstanding." the cardinal cornaro, however, and others interceded for benvenuto with the pope, on account of his courage, and the extraordinary efforts of his ingenuity, which seemed to surpass human capacity. the pope said he had intended to keep him near his person, and to prevent him from returning to france, adding, "i am concerned to hear of his sufferings, however. bid him take care of his health; and when he is thoroughly recovered, it shall be my study to make him some amends for his past troubles." he was visited by young and old, persons of all ranks. after this, benvenuto went once more to france, where he was received with high consideration by francis i., who gave him, for his home and workshop in paris, a large old castle called the nesle, of a triangular form, close to the walls of the city. here, with workmen brought with him from italy, he began many great works. "being thus become a favorite of the king, i was universally admired. as soon as i had received silver to make it of, i began to work on the statue of jupiter, and took into my service several journeymen. we worked day and night with the utmost assiduity, insomuch that, having finished jupiter, vulcan, and mars in earth, and jupiter being pretty forward in silver, my shop began to make a grand show. just about this time the king made his appearance at paris, and i went to pay my respects to him. when his majesty saw me, he called to me in high spirits, and asked me whether i had anything curious to show him at my shop, for he intended to call there. i told him of all i had done, and he expressed an earnest desire to see my performances; and after dinner that day, all the nobility belonging to the court of france repaired to my shop. "i had just come home, and was beginning to work, when the king made his appearance at my castle gate. upon hearing the sound of so many hammers, he commanded his retinue to be silent. all my people were at work, so that the king came upon us quite unexpectedly. as he entered the saloon, the first object he perceived was myself with a large piece of plate in my hand, which was to make the body of jupiter; another was employed on the head, another again on the legs, so that the shop resounded with the beating of hammers. his majesty was highly pleased, and returned to his palace, after having conferred so many favors on me that it would be tedious to enumerate them. "having with the utmost diligence finished the beautiful statue of jupiter, with its gilt pedestal, i placed it upon a wooden socle, which scarce made any appearance, and within that socle i fixed four little globes of wood, which were more than half hidden in their sockets, and so contrived that a little child could with the utmost ease move this statue of jupiter backwards and forwards, and turn it about. i took it with me to fontainebleau, where the king then resided. i was told to put it in the gallery,--a place which might be called a corridor, about two hundred paces long, adorned and enriched with pictures and pieces of sculpture, amongst them some of the finest imitations of the antique statues of rome. here also i introduced my jupiter; and when i saw this great display of the wonders of art, i said to myself, 'this is like passing between the pikes of the enemy; heaven protect me from all danger!' "this figure of jupiter had a thunderbolt in his right hand, and by his attitude seemed to be just going to throw it; in his left i had placed a globe, and amongst the flames i had with great dexterity put a piece of white torch. on the approach of night i lighted the torch in the hand of jupiter; and as it was raised somewhat above his head, the light fell upon the statue, and caused it to appear to much greater advantage than it would otherwise have done. when i saw his majesty enter with several great lords and noblemen, i ordered my boy to push the statue before him, and this motion, being made with admirable contrivance, caused it to appear alive; thus the other figures in the gallery were left somewhat behind, and the eyes of all the beholders were first struck with my performance. "the king immediately cried out: 'this is one of the finest productions of art that ever was beheld. i, who take pleasure in such things and understand them, could never have conceived a piece of work the hundredth part so beautiful!'" * * * * * cellini, however, who was exacting and sensitive, became dissatisfied with the treatment of the king of france; and, leaving his workmen at his tower of the nesle, he returned to italy, and engaged in the service of cosmo de' medici, grand duke of tuscany, who assigned him a house to work in. his chief performance here was a bronze statue of perseus for the fine square before the palazzo vecchio. after many drawbacks, doubts, and difficulties,-- "i now took courage, resolving to depend on myself, and banished all those thoughts which from time to time occasioned me great inquietude, and made me sorely repent my ever having quitted france. i still flattered myself that if i could but finish my statue of perseus, all my labors would be converted to delight, and meet with a glorious and happy reward. "this statue was intended to be of bronze, five ells in height, of one piece, and hollow. i first formed my model of clay, more slender than the statue was intended to be. i then baked it, and covered it with wax of the thickness of a finger, which i modelled into the perfect form of the statue. in order to effect in concave what the wax represented in convex, i covered the wax with clay, and baked this second covering. thus, the wax dissolving, and escaping by fissures left open for the purpose, i obtained, between the first model and the second covering, a space for the introduction of the metal. in order to introduce the bronze without moving the first model, i placed the model in a pit dug under the furnace, and by means of pipes and apertures in the model itself, i meant to introduce the liquid metal. "after i had made its coat of earth, covered it well, and bound it properly with irons, i began by means of a slow fire to draw off the wax, which melted away by many vent-holes,--for the more of these are made, the better the moulds are filled; and when i had entirely stripped off the wax, i made a sort of fence round my perseus, that is, round the mould, of bricks, piling them one upon another, and leaving several vacuities for the fire to exhale at. i next began gradually to put on the wood, and kept a constant fire for two days and two nights, till, the wax being quite off and the mould well baked, i began to dig a hole to bury my mould in, and observed all those fine methods of proceeding that are proscribed by our art. when i had completely dug my hole, i took my mould, and by means of levers and strong cables directed it with care, and suspended it a cubit above the level of the furnace, so that it hung exactly in the middle of the hole. i then let it gently down to the very bottom of the furnace, and placed it with all the care and exactness i possibly could. after i had finished this part of my task i began to make a covering of the very earth i had taken off; and in proportion as i raised the earth, i made vents for it, of a sort of tubes of baked earth, generally used for conduits, and other things of a similar nature. "i had caused my furnace to be filled with several pieces of brass and bronze, and heaped them upon one another in the manner taught us by our art, taking particular care to leave a passage for the flames, that the metal might the sooner assume its color, and dissolve into a fluid. thus, with great alacrity, i excited my men to lay on the pine-wood, which, because of the oiliness of the resinous matter that oozes from the pine-tree and that my furnace was admirably well made, burned at such a rate that i was continually obliged to run to and fro, which greatly fatigued me. i, however, bore the hardship; but, to add to my misfortune, the shop took fire, and we were all very much afraid that the roof would fall in and crush us. from another quarter, that is, from the garden, the sky poured in so much rain and wind that it cooled my furnace. "thus did i continue to struggle with these cross accidents for several hours, and exerted myself to such a degree that my constitution, though robust, could no longer bear such severe hardship, and i was suddenly attacked by a most violent intermitting fever; in short, i was so ill that i found myself under a necessity of lying down upon my bed. this gave me great concern, but it was unavoidable. i thereupon addressed myself to my assistants, who were about ten in number, saying to them: 'be careful to observe the method which i have shown you, and use all possible expedition; for the metal will soon be ready. you cannot mistake; these two worthy men here will quickly make the orifices. with two such directors you can certainly contrive to pour out the hot metal, and i have no doubt but my mould will be filled completely. i find myself extremely ill, and really believe that in a few hours this severe disorder will put an end to my life.' thus i left them in great sorrow, and went to bed. i then ordered the maids to carry victuals and drink into the shop for all the men, and told them i did not expect to live till the next morning. in this manner did i continue for two hours in a violent fever, which i every moment perceived to increase, and i was incessantly crying out, 'i am dying, i am dying.' "my housekeeper was one of the most sensible and affectionate women in the world. she rebuked me for giving way to vain fears, and at the same time attended me with the greatest kindness and care imaginable; however, seeing me so very ill, and terrified to such a degree, she could not contain herself, but shed a flood of tears, which she endeavored to conceal from me. whilst we were both in this deep affliction, i perceived a man enter the room, who in his person appeared to be as crooked and distorted as a great s, and began to express himself in these terms, in a dismal and melancholy voice: 'alas, poor benvenuto, your work is spoiled, and the misfortune admits of no remedy.' "no sooner had i heard the words uttered by this messenger of evil, but i cried out so loud that my voice might be heard to the skies, and got out of bed. i began immediately to dress, and, giving plenty of kicks and cuffs to the maidservants and the boy as they offered to help me on with my clothes, i complained bitterly in these terms: 'oh, you envious and treacherous wretches, this is a piece of villany contrived on purpose; but i will sift it to the bottom, and before i die give such proofs who i am as shall not fail to astonish the whole world.' having huddled on my clothes, i went, with a mind boding evil, to the shop, where i found all those whom i had left so alert and in such high spirits, standing in the utmost confusion and astonishment. i thereupon addressed them thus: 'listen, all of you, to what i am going to say; and since you either would not or could not follow the method i pointed out, obey me now that i am present. my work is before us; and let none of you offer to oppose or contradict me, for such cases as this require activity and not counsel.' hereupon one of them had the assurance to say to me, 'look you, benvenuto, you have undertaken a work which our art cannot compass, and which is not to be effected by human power.' "hearing these words, i turned round in such a passion, and seemed so bent upon mischief, that both he and all the rest unanimously cried out to me, 'give your orders, and we will all second you in whatever you command; we will assist you as long as we have breath in our bodies.' these kind and affectionate words they uttered, as i firmly believe, in a persuasion that i was upon the point of expiring. i went directly to examine the furnace, and saw all the metal in it concreted. i thereupon ordered two of the helpers to step over the way to a butcher for a load of young oak which had been above a year drying, which had been already offered to me. "upon his bringing me the first bundles of it, i began to fill the grate. this sort of oak makes a brisker fire than any other wood whatever; but the wood of elder-trees and pine-trees is used in casting artillery, because it makes a mild and gentle fire. as soon as the concreted metal felt the power of this violent fire, it began to brighten and glitter. in another quarter i made them hurry the tubes with all possible expedition, and sent some of them to the roof of the house to take care of the fire, which through the great violence of the wind had acquired new force; and towards the garden i had caused some tables with pieces of tapestry and old clothes to be placed in order to shelter me from the rain. as soon as i had applied the proper remedy to each evil, i with a loud voice cried out to my men to bestir themselves and lend a helping hand; so that when they saw that the concreted metal began to melt again, the whole body obeyed me with such zeal and alacrity that every man did the work of three. then i caused a mass of pewter weighing about sixty pounds to be thrown upon the metal in the furnace, which, with the other helps, as the brisk wood-fire, and stirring it sometimes with iron and sometimes with long poles, soon became completely dissolved. finding that, contrary to the opinion of my ignorant assistants, i had effected what seemed as difficult to raise as the dead, i recovered my vigor to such a degree that i no longer perceived whether i had any fever, nor had i the least apprehension of death. "suddenly a loud noise was heard, and a glittering of fire flashed before our eyes, as if it had been the darting of a thunderbolt. upon the appearance of this extraordinary phenomenon terror seized upon all present, and none more than myself. this tremendous noise being over, we began to stare at each other, and perceived that the cover of the furnace had burst and flown off, so that the bronze began to run. "i immediately caused the mouths of my mould to be opened; but, finding that the metal did not run with its usual velocity, and apprehending that the cause of it was that the fusibility of the metal was injured by the violence of the fire, i ordered all my dishes and porringers, which were in number about two hundred, to be placed one by one before my tubes, and part of them to be thrown into the furnace; upon which all present perceived that my mould was filling: they now with joy and alacrity assisted and obeyed me. i, for my part, was sometimes in one place, sometimes in another, giving my directions and assisting my men, before whom i offered up this prayer: 'o god, i address myself to thee. i acknowledge in gratitude this mercy, that my mould has been filled. i fall prostrate before thee, and with my whole heart return thanks to thy divine majesty.' "my prayer being over, i took a plate of meat which stood upon a little bench, and ate with a great appetite. i then drank with all my journeymen and assistants, and went joyful and in good health to bed; for there were still two hours of night, and i rested as well as if i had been troubled with no disorder. "my good housekeeper, without my having given any orders, had provided a good capon for my dinner. when i arose, which was not till about noon, she accosted me in high spirits, and said merrily, 'is this the man that thought himself dying? it is my firm belief that the cuffs and kicks you gave us last night when you were quite frantic and possessed, frightened away your fever, which, apprehending you should fall upon it in the same manner, took to flight.' so my whole poor family, having got over such panics and hardships, without delay procured earthen vessels to supply the place of the pewter dishes and porringers, and we all dined together very cheerfully; indeed, i do not remember having ever in my life eaten a meal with greater satisfaction or a better appetite. after dinner, all those who had assisted me in my work came and congratulated me upon what had happened, returned thanks to the divine being for having interposed so mercifully in our behalf, and declared that they had in theory and practice learnt such things as were judged impossible by other masters. i thereupon thought it allowable to boast a little of my knowledge and skill in this fine art, and, pulling out my purse, satisfied all my workmen for their labor. "having left my work to cool during two days after it was cast, i began gradually to uncover it. i first of all found the medusa's head, which had come out admirably by the assistance of the vents. i proceeded to uncover the rest, and found that the other head--i mean that of perseus--was likewise come out perfectly well. i went on uncovering it with great success, and found every part turn out to admiration, till i reached the foot of the right leg, which supports the figure. i found that not only the toes were wanting, but part of the foot itself, so that there was almost one half deficient. this occasioned me some new trouble; but i was not displeased at it, as i had expected this very thing. "it pleased god that as soon as ever my work, although still unfinished, was seen by the populace, they set up so loud a shout of applause, that i began to be somewhat comforted for the mortifications i had undergone; and there were sonnets in my praise every day upon the gate, the language of which was extremely elegant and poetical. the very day on which i exhibited my work, there were above twenty sonnets set up, containing the most hyperbolical praises of it. even after i had covered it again, every day a number of verses, with latin odes and greek poems, were published on the occasion,--for it was then vacation at the university of pisa, and all the learned men and scholars belonging to that place vied with each other in writing encomiums on my performance. but what gave me the highest satisfaction was that even those of the profession--i mean statuaries and painters--emulated each other in commending me. in fact, i was so highly praised, and in so elegant a style, that it afforded me some alleviation for my past mortification and troubles, and i made all the haste i could to put the last hand to my statue. "at last, as it pleased the almighty, i completely finished my work, and on a thursday morning exhibited it fully. just before the break of day so great a crowd gathered about it, that it is almost impossible for me to give the reader an idea of their number; and they all seemed to vie with each other who should praise it most. the duke stood at a lower window of the palace, just over the gate, and, being half concealed within side, heard all that was said concerning the work. after he had listened several hours, he left the window highly pleased, and sent me this message: 'go to benvenuto, and tell him from me that he has given me higher satisfaction than i ever expected. let him know at the same time that i shall reward him in such a manner as will excite his surprise.'" * * * * * the manuscript of benvenuto's life is not carried much farther. the narrative breaks off abruptly in , when cellini was in the sixty-second year of his age. he does not appear from this time to have been engaged in any work of much importance. after the execution of his grand achievement of the perseus, the narrative of his life seems to have been the most successful of all the labors of his declining years. on the th day of february, , this extraordinary man died. he was buried, by his own direction, with great funeral pomp. a monk who had been charged to compose the funeral sermon, in praise both of his life and works and of his excellent moral qualities, mounted the pulpit and delivered a discourse which was highly approved by the whole academy and by the people. they struggled to enter the chapter, as well to see the body of benvenuto as to hear the commendation of his good qualities. v. bernard palissy. two or three of the girls had dabbled a little in painting on porcelain, and several of them had become interested in various sorts of pottery. mabel had been at newburyport, on a visit with some friends who had a potter's wheel of their own; and she had turned for herself, and had had baked, some vases and dishes which she had brought home with her. this tempted them all to make a party, in which several of the boys joined, to go to the art museum and see the exquisite pottery there, of different sorts, ancient and modern. there they met one of the gentlemen of a large firm of dealers in keramics; and he asked them to go through their magnificent establishment, and see the collection, which is one of great beauty. it shows several of the finest styles of manufacture in very choice specimens. this prepared them to see japanese work. and when uncle fritz heard of this, he asked professor morse, of salem, if he would show them his marvellous collection of japanese pottery. professor morse lived in japan under very favorable auspices, and he made there a wonderful collection of the work of the very best artists. so five or six of the young people went down to salem, at his very kind invitation, and saw there what is one of the finest collections in the world. all this interested them in what now receives a great deal of attention, the manufacture and ornament of pottery. the word _keramics_ is a word recently added to the english language to express the art of making pottery and of ornamenting it. when uncle fritz found that they really wanted to know about such things, he arranged that for one afternoon they should read about bernard palissy the potter. bernard palissy was born, about , in the little town of biron, in périgord, france. he became not only a great artist, but a learned physician, and a writer of merit. born of poor parents of the working-class, he had to learn some trade, and early applied himself to working glass, not as a glazier, but staining it and cutting it up in little bits, to be joined together with lead for the colored windows so much used in churches. this was purely mechanical work; but bernard's ambition led him to study drawing and color, that he might himself design and execute, in glass, scenes from the bible and lives of the saints, such as he saw done by his superiors. when he was old enough, curious to see the world and learn new things, he took a journey on foot through several provinces of france, by observation thus supplying the defects of his early education, and reaping a rich harvest of facts and ideas, which developed the qualities of his intelligence. it was at this time that the renaissance in art was making itself felt throughout europe. francis i. of france encouraged all forms of good work by his patronage; and wherever he went the young palissy was animated and inspired by the sight of beautiful things. _faience_, an elegant kind of pottery, attracted his attention. this appeared first in the fourteenth century. the arabs had long known the art of making tiles of clay, enamelled and richly ornamented. they brought it into spain, as is shown in the decorations of the alhambra at seville and elsewhere. lucca della robbia in italy first brought the art to perfection, by making figures and groups of figures in high relief, of baked clay covered with shining enamel, white, tinted with various colors. the kind of work called _majolica_ differed from the earlier faience by some changes in the material used for the enamel. in the middle of the sixteenth century remarkable historical paintings were executed in faience, upon huge _plaques_. all the cities of italy vied with each other in producing wonders in this sort of work; it is from one of them, faenza, that it takes its name. the method of making the enamel was a deep secret; but bernard palissy, with long patience and after many failures, succeeded in discovering it,--or, rather, in inventing for himself a new method, which in some respects excelled the old. palissy was the author of several essays, or "discourses;" and from one of these, written in quaint old french, we have his own account of his invention. he married and settled down in the year with a good income from his intelligent industry. he had a pleasant little house in the country, where, as he says, "i could rejoice in the sight of green hills, where were feeding and gambolling lambs, sheep, and goats." an incident, apparently slight, disturbed this placid domestic happiness. he came across a cup of enamelled pottery, doubtless from italy. "this cup," he says, "was of such beauty, that, from the moment i saw it, i entered into a dispute with myself as to how it could have been made." enamel is nothing more than a kind of glaze colored with metallic acids, and rendered opaque by the mixture of a certain quantity of tin. it is usually spread upon metal, when only it is properly called enamel; but this glaze can also be put upon earthenware. it makes vessels water-tight, and gives them brilliancy of surface. to find out how to do this was to make a revolution in the keramic art. in france, in the sixteenth century, the only vessels, such as jugs or vases, were made either of metal, wood, or coarse porous pottery, through which water could penetrate; like the goulehs of the arabs, or the cantaras of the moors, which are still used for fresh water to advantage, since the evaporation of the drops keeps the water cold. many attempts had been made to imitate the beautiful and costly vases of china; but no one succeeded until the potters of italy found out how to make faience. the discovery was hailed as a most valuable one. the princes who owned the works guarded their secret with jealous care,--to betray it would have been punished by death; so that bernard palissy had no hope of being taught how it was done, even if he should go to the places in italy where the work was carried on. "but," he says, "what others had found out, i might also discover; and if i could once make myself master of the art of glazing, i felt sure i could elevate pottery to a degree of perfection as yet unknown. what a glory for my name, what a benefit to france, if i could establish this industry here in my own land!" he turned and turned the cup in his fingers, admiring the brilliant surface. "yes," he said at last; "it shall be so, for i choose! i have already studied the subject. i will work still harder, and reach my aim at last." exceptional determination of character was needed for such an object. palissy knew nothing about the component parts of enamels; he had never even seen the process of baking clay, and he had to begin with the very simplest investigations. to study the different kinds of earth and clay, to acquire the arts of moulding and turning, and to gain some knowledge of chemistry, all these were necessary. but he did not flinch, and pursued his idea with indomitable perseverance. "moving only by chance," he says, "like a man groping in the dark, i made a collection of all the different substances which seemed at all likely to make enamel, and i pounded them up fine; then i bought earthen pots, broke them into small bits, numbered these pieces, and spread over each of them a different combination of materials. now i had to have a furnace in which to bake my experiments. i had no idea how furnaces were usually made; so i invented one of my own, and set it up. but i had no idea how much heat was required to melt enamels,--perhaps i heated my furnace too much, perhaps not enough; sometimes my ingredients were all burned up, sometimes they melted not at all; or else some were turned to coal, while others remained undisturbed by the action of the fire." meanwhile the resources of the unlucky workman were fast diminishing; for he had abandoned his usual work, by which he earned his living, and kept making new furnaces, "with great expense and trouble, and a great consumption of time and firewood." this state of affairs much displeased his wife, who complained bitterly, and tried to divert her husband from an occupation which earned for him nothing but disappointment. the cheerful little household changed its aspect; the children were no longer well-dressed, and the shabby furniture and empty cupboards betrayed the decay which was falling upon the family. the father saw with profound grief the wants of his household; but success seemed ever so near to him, that he could not bear to give it up. his hope at that time was but a mirage; and for long afterwards, in this struggle between intelligence and the antagonism of material things, ill fortune kept the upper hand. one day, tired out by his failures, it occurred to him that a man brought up to baking pottery would know how to bake his specimens better than he could. "i covered three or four hundred bits of broken vase with different compounds, and sent them to a _fabrique_ about a mile and a half from my house. the potters consented to put my patterns with their batch for the oven. full of impatience, i awaited the result of this experiment. i was on hand when my specimens came out. i looked them anxiously all over; not one was successful! "the heat had not been strong enough, but i did not know this; i saw only one more useless expense of money. one of the workmen came to me and said, 'you will never make anything out of this; you had better go back to your own business.'" palissy shook his head; he had still in his possession some few valuable articles, souvenirs of happier days, which he could sell to renew his experiments. in spite of the reproaches of his wife, he bought more ingredients and more earthenware, and made new combinations. failure again! however, he would not be beaten. some friends lent him a little money; he sat up at night to make new mixtures of different substances, all prepared with such care that he felt sure some of them must be good. then he carried them again to the potters, whom he urged to the greatest care. they only shrugged their shoulders, and called him "crack brain;" and when the batch was done, they brought the results to palissy with jeers. some of the pieces were dirty white; others green, red, or smoked by the fire; but all alike in being dull and worthless. it was over. discouragement took possession of palissy. "i returned home," he says, "full of confusion and sadness. others might seek the secret of enamels. i must set to work and earn money to pay my debts and get bread for the family." most luckily for him at this time, a task was given him by government, for which he was well suited, and which brought him good pay. the king, francis i., having had, like many another sovereign, some difficulty with his faithful subjects in the matter of imposts, now found it necessary to make a new regulation of taxes; and for this, among other things, an inspection of the salt marshes on the coasts of france was needed, in order to name the right sums for taxation, and a knowledge of arithmetic was required as well. palissy was appointed; and to the great delight of his family, who thought that his mind would now be forever diverted from the search for enamel, he set forth to explore the islands and the shores of france. he drew admirable outlines of the forms of the salt marshes, and wrote with eloquence upon the sublimity of the sea. ease and comfort came back. his task was ended; but debts were paid, and plenty of money remained. the first thing he saw on returning home, alas! was the cup,--his joy and despair. "how beautiful it is! how brilliant!" he exclaimed; and once more he threw himself into the pursuit of the elusive enamel. it was easy to see that the so much admired faience of italy was simply common baked clay, covered with some substance glazed by heat, but so composed as to adhere to the surface after it had cooled. but what substance? he had tried all sorts of materials; why had none of them melted? palissy at length decided that the fault had been in using the common potter's furnace. since the materials were to be vitrified by the process, they should be baked like glass. he broke up three dozen pots, pounded up a great quantity of different ingredients, and spread them with a brush on the fragments; then he carried them to the nearest glass-works. he was allowed to superintend the baking himself; he put the specimens in the oven, and passed the night attending the fire. in the morning he took them out. "oh, joy! some of the compounds had begun to melt; there was no perfect glaze, only a sign that i was on the right road." it was, however, still a long and weary one. after two more years, palissy was still far from the discovery of enamelling, but during this time he was acquiring much knowledge. from a simple workman he had become a learned chemist. he says himself, "the mistakes i made in combining my enamels taught me more than the things which came right of themselves." there came a time, which he had once more resolved should be the last, when he repaired to the glass-works, accompanied by a man loaded with more than three hundred different patterns on bits of pottery. for four hours bernard gloomily watched the progress of baking. suddenly he started in surprise. did his eyes deceive him? no! it was no illusion. one of the pieces in the furnace was covered with a brilliant glazing, white, polished, excellent. palissy's joy was immense. "i thought i had become a new creature," he says. "the enamel was found; france enriched by a new discovery." palissy now hastened to undertake a whole vase. for many and large pieces there was not room enough at his disposition in the ovens of the glass-works. he did not worry about that, for he was quite sure he could construct one of his own. he decided, too, at once to model and fashion his own vases; for those which he bought of the potters, made of coarse and heavy forms, no longer suited his ambition. he now designed forms, turned and modelled them himself. thus passed seven or eight months. at last his vases were done, and he admired with pride the pure forms given to the clay by his hands. but his money was giving out again, and his furnace was not yet built. as he had nothing to pay for the work, he did all the work himself,--went after bricks and brought them himself on his back, and then built and plastered with his own hands. the neighbors looked on in pity and ridicule. "look," they said, "at master bernard! he might live at his ease, and yet he makes a beast of burden of himself!" palissy minded their sarcasms not at all. his furnace was finished in good time, and the first baking of the clay succeeded perfectly. now the pottery was to be covered with his new enamel. time pressed, for in a few days there would be no more bread in the house for his children. for a long time he had been living on credit, but now the butcher and baker refused to furnish anything more. all about him he saw only unfriendly faces; every one treated him as a fool. "let him die of hunger," they said, "since he will not listen to reason." his wife was the worst of all. she failed to see any heroism in the obstinacy or perseverance of her husband,--no wonder, perhaps, with the sight of her suffering children before her eyes. she went about reciting her misfortunes to all the neighborhood, very unwisely, as she thus ruined the credit of her husband, his last and only resource. palissy was already worn out by so much manual labor, to which he was little accustomed; nevertheless, he worked by night, and all night long, to pound up and prepare the materials for his white enamel, and to spread it upon his vases. a report went abroad, caused by the sight of his lamp constantly burning, that he was trying to coin counterfeit money. he was suspected, despised, and avoided, and went about the streets hanging his head because he had no answer to make to his accusers. the moment which was to decide his life arrived. the vases were placed in the furnace, and for six continuous days and nights he plied the glowing fire with fuel. the heat was intolerable; but the enamel resisted, nothing would melt, and he was forced to recognize that there was too little of the glazing substance in the combination to vitrify the others. he set to work to mix another compound, but his vases were spoiled; he borrowed a few common ones from the pottery. during all this delay he did not dare to let the fire go out, it would take so much wood to start it again. once more the newly covered pots were placed in the intense furnace; in three or four hours the test would be completed. palissy perceived with terror that his fuel was giving out. he ran to his garden, tore up fences, and cut down trees which he had planted himself, and threw all these into the two yawning mouths of the furnace. not enough! he went into the house, and seized tables, chairs, and bureaus; but the house was but poorly furnished, and contained but little to feed the flames. palissy returned. the rooms were empty, there was absolutely nothing more to take; then he fell to pulling up the planks of the floor. his wife, frightened to death, stood still and let him go on. the neighbors ran in, at the sound of the axe, and said, "he must be a fool!" but soon pity changed to admiration. when palissy took the vases from the furnace, the common pots which all had seen before dull and coarse, were of a clear pearly white, covered with brilliant polish. so much emotion and fatigue had told upon the robust constitution of palissy. "i was," he says, "all used up and dried up on account of such toil, and the heat of the furnace. it was more than a month since i had had a dry shirt on my body, and i felt as if i had reached the door of the sepulchre." in spite of the success which he had now attained, our potter had by no means reached the end of his misfortunes. he sold his vases, but could not get much for them, as there were but a few, of poor shapes; for those which he had modelled himself had all failed to take the enamel, and the successful ones were only common things, bought on credit. the small sum which he got by selling them was not enough by any means to cover his expenses, pay his debts, and restore order to the house from which pretty much everything was burned up for firewood in his furnace. however, he was supported and happy in the thought of his success. he said to himself: "why be sad, when you have found what you were seeking for? go on working, and you will put your enemies to shame." once more he succeeded in borrowing a little money. he hired a man to help him; and for want of funds, he paid this man by giving him all his own good clothes, while he went himself in rags. the furnace he had made was coming to pieces on account of the intense heat he had maintained in it for six days and nights during his last experiment. he pulled it to pieces with his own hands, working with fingers bleeding and bound up in bandages. then he fetched water, sand, lime, and stone, and built by himself a new furnace, "without any help or any repose. a feverish resolution doubled my strength, and made me capable of doing things which i should have imagined impossible." this time the oven heats admirably, the enamels appear to be melting. palissy goes to rest, and dreams of his new vases, which must bring enough to pay all his debts; his impatient creditors come in the morning to see the things taken from the furnace. palissy receives them joyfully; he would like to invite the whole town. when the pieces came out of the oven, they were shining and beautiful; but--always but!--an accident had deprived them of all value. little stones, which formed a part of the mortar with which the furnace was built, had burst with the heat, and spattered the enamel all over with sharp fragments cutting like a razor, entirely spoiling it of course. still, the vases were so lovely in form, and the glaze was so beautiful, that several people offered to buy them if they could have them cheap. this the proud potter would not bear. seizing the vases, he dashed them to the ground; then utterly worn out, he went into the house and threw himself on the bed. his wife followed him, and covered him with reproaches for thus wasting the chance of making a few francs for the family. soon he recovered his elasticity, reflecting "that a man who has tumbled into a ditch has but one duty, and that is to try to get out of it." he now set to work at his old business of painting upon glass, and after several months had earned enough to start another batch of vases. of these, two or three were successful and sold to advantage; the rest were spoiled by ashes which fell upon the enamel in the furnace while it was soft. he therefore invented what he called a "lantern" of baked clay, to put over the vases to protect them in baking. this expedient proved so good that it is still used. the enamel once discovered, it would be supposed that all trouble was over; but it is not enough to invent a process,--to carry it out, all sorts of little things have to be considered, the least of which, if not attended to, may spoil all the rest. these multiplied accidents, with all the privations and sufferings he had undergone, were attacking the health of palissy. he says in his simple style,-- "i was so used up in my person, that there was no shape or appearance of curve on my arms or legs; my so-called legs, indeed, were but a straight line, so that when i had gartered my stockings, as soon as i began to walk, they were down on my heels." his enamelled pottery now began to make a living for its inventor, but so poor a living that many things were wanting,--for instance, a suitable workshop. for five or six years he carried on the work in the open air; either heat, rain, or cold spoiled many of his vases, while he himself, exposed to the weather, "passed whole nights at the mercy of rain and cold, without any aid, comfort, or companionship except that of owls screeching on one side and dogs howling on the other. sometimes," he continues, "winds and tempests blew with such violence inside and outside of my ovens, that i was obliged to leave, with a total loss of all they contained. several times when i had thus left everything, without a dry rag upon me, on account of the rain, i came in at midnight or daybreak without any light, staggering like a drunken man, all broken down at the thought of my wasted toil; and then, all wet and dirty as i was, i found in my bedroom the worst affliction of all, which makes me wonder now why i was not consumed by grief." he means the scolding and reproaches of his wife. but the time came when his perseverance was rewarded, and his pottery brought him the fame and money he deserved. he was able to make new experiments, and add to the value of his discovery. having obtained the white enamel, he had the idea of tinting it with all sorts of colors, which he did successfully. he then began to decorate his faience with objects modelled from nature, such as animals, shells, leaves, and branches. lizards of a bright emerald color, with pointed heads and slender tails, and snakes gliding between stones or curled upon a bank of moss, crabs, frogs, and spiders, all of their natural colors, and disposed in the midst of plants equally well imitated, are the characteristic details of the work of palissy. these perfect imitations of nature were taken actually from nature herself. palissy prepared a group of real leaves and stones, putting the little insects or animals he wished to represent in natural attitudes amongst them. he fastened these reptiles, fishes, or insects in their places by fine threads, and then made a mould of the whole in plaster of paris. when it was done, he removed the little animals from the mould so carefully that he could use them over and over again. thus, after sixteen years passed in untiring energy, sixteen years of anxiety and privation, the artist triumphed over all the obstacles opposed to his genius. the humble potter, despised of all, became the most important man in his town. his productions were sought for eagerly, and his reputation established forever. his life henceforth was not free from events, but these were not connected with his invention. his fame came to the knowledge of the queen mother catherine de médicis; for francis i. was no longer living, and charles ix. had succeeded francis ii. upon the throne. he was summoned to court, and employed to build grottos, decorated with his designs, by personages of distinction,--one especially for the queen herself, which he describes in his discourse of the "jardin delectable." he was in paris at the time of the terrible massacre of st. bartholomew, where, as he was a huguenot, he would doubtless have perished but for the protection of the queen, who helped him to escape with his family. later, however, in the midst of the troubles and terrors of the time, he was thrown into the bastille; and there he died, an old man of eighty years. vi. benjamin franklin. "we call the americans a nation of inventors," said fergus. "how long has this been true?" "that is a very curious question," said uncle fritz. "you remember we were talking of it before. when i go back to think of the hundred and fifty years before bunker hill, i think there must have been a great many inglorious miltons hidden away in the new england towns. really, the arts advanced very little between and . flint-locks had come in, instead of match-locks. but, actually, the men at bunker hill rested over the rail-fence old muskets which had been used in queen anne's time; and to this day a 'queen's arm' is a provincial phrase, in new england, for one of these old weapons, not yet forgotten. that inability to improve its own condition comes to a people which lets another nation do its manufacturing for it. you see much the same thing in turkey and french canada. just as soon as they were thrown on their own resources here, they began to invent." "but," said fergus, "there was certainly one great american inventor before that time." "you mean franklin,--the greatest american yet, i suppose, if you mean to measure greatness by intellectual power and intellectual achievement. yes; franklin's great discovery, and the inventions which followed on it, were made twenty-five years and more before bunker hill." "what is the association between franklin and robinson crusoe?" asked alice. "i never read of one but i think of the other." uncle fritz's whole face beamed with approbation. "you have started me upon one of my hobbies," said he; "but i must not ride it too far. franklin says himself that de foe's 'essay on projects' and cotton mather's 'essay to do good' were two books which perhaps gave him a turn of thinking which had an influence on some of the events in his after life. and you may notice how an 'essay on projects' might start his passion for having things done better than in the ways he saw. the books that he was brought up on and with were books of de foe's own time,--none of them more popular among reading people of boston than de foe's own books, for de foe was a great light among their friends in england. "if robinson crusoe, on his second voyage, which was in the year , had run into boston for supplies, as he thought of doing; and if old judge sewall had asked him to dinner,--as he would have been likely to do, for robinson was a godly old gentleman then, of intelligence and fortune,--if there had been by accident a vacant place at the table at the last moment, judge sewall might have sent round to franklin's father to ask him to come in. for the elder franklin, though only a tallow-chandler,--and only goodman franklin, not _mr._ franklin,--was a member of the church, well esteemed. he led the singing at the old south after judge sewall's voice broke down. "nay, when one remembers how much sewall had to do with printing, one might imagine that the boy ben franklin should wait at the door with a proof-sheet, and even take off his boy's hat as robinson crusoe came in." here bedford long put in a remark:-- "there are things in robinson crusoe's accounts of his experiments in making his pipkins, which ought to bring him into any book of american inventors." "i never thought before," said fergus, "that de foe's experiences in making tiles and tobacco-pipes and drain-pipes fitted him for all that learned discussion of glazing, when robinson crusoe makes his pots and pans." "good!" said uncle fritz; "that must be so.--well, as you say, alice, there are whole sentences in that narrative which you could suppose franklin wrote, and in his works whole sentences which would fit in closely with de foe's writing. the style of the younger man very closely resembles that of the older." "and franklin would have been very much pleased to hear you say so." "he was forever inventing," said uncle fritz. "as i said, he was worried unless things could be better done. if he was in a storm, he wanted to still the waves. if the chimney smoked, he wanted to make a better fireplace. if he heard a girl play the musical-glasses, he must have and make a better set." "and if the house was struck by lightning, he went out and put up a lightning-rod." "he had a little book by which people should make themselves better; for he rightly considered that unless a man could do this, he could make no other improvement of much account." and when uncle fritz had said this, he found the passage, which he bade john read to them. franklin's method of growing better. "i made a little book in which i allotted a page for each of the virtues. [he had classified the virtues and made a list of thirteen, which will be named below.] i ruled each page with red ink, so as to have seven columns, one for each day of the week, marking each column with a letter for the day. i crossed these columns with thirteen red lines, marking the beginning of each line with the first letter of one of the virtues, on which line and in its proper column i might mark, by a little black spot, every fault i found upon examination to have been committed respecting that virtue upon that day. the thirteen virtues were: . temperance; . silence; . order; . resolution; . frugality; . industry; . sincerity; . justice; . moderation; . cleanliness; . tranquillity; . chastity; . humility. each of these appears, by its full name or its initial, on every page of the book. but the full name of one only appears on each page. "my intention being to acquire the habitude of these virtues, i judged it would be well not to distract my attention by attempting the whole at once, but to fix it on one of them at a time, and when i should be master of that, then to proceed to another,--and so on, till i should have gone through the thirteen; and as the previous acquisition might facilitate the acquisition of certain others, i arranged them with that view. temperance first, as it tends to procure that coolness and clearness of head which is so necessary where constant vigilance has to be kept up, and a guard maintained against the unremitting attraction of ancient habits, and the force of perpetual temptations."[ ] and so he goes on to show how temperance would prepare for silence, silence for order, order for resolution, and thus to the end. here is the first page of the book, with the marks for the first six of the virtues. +--------------------------------+ | temperance. | +--------------------------------+ | eat not to dulness. | | | | drink not to elevation. | +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ | | s.| m.| t.| w.|th.| f.| s.| | t. | | | | | | | | | s. | * | * | | * | | * | | | o. | * | * | * | | * | * | * | | r. | | | * | | | * | | | f. | | * | | | * | | | | i. | | | * | | | | | | s. | | | | | | | | | j. | | | | | | | | | m. | | | | | | | | | c. | | | | | | | | | t. | | | | | | | | | c. | | | | | | | | | h. | | | | | | | | +----+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ "i determined to give a week's strict attention to each of the virtues successively. thus, in the first week my great guard was to avoid every the least offence against _temperance_, leaving the other virtues to their ordinary chance, only marking every evening the faults of the day. thus, if in the first week i could keep my first line, marked t, clear of spots, i supposed the habit of that virtue so much strengthened, and its opposite weakened, that i might venture extending my attention to include the next, and for the following week keep both lines clear of spots. proceeding thus to the last, i could go through a course complete in thirteen weeks, and four courses in a year. and like him who having a garden to weed does not attempt to eradicate all the bad herbs at once, which would exceed his reach and his strength, but works on one of the beds at a time, and, having accomplished the first, proceeds to the second, so i should have, i hoped, the encouraging pleasure of seeing on my pages the progress i made in virtue, by clearing successively my lines of their spots, till in the end, by a number of courses, i should be happy in viewing a clean book, after a thirteen weeks' daily examination." uncle fritz said that this plan of franklin's had been quite a favorite plan of different people at the end of the last century. richard lovell edgeworth, and mr. day, and a good many of the other reformers in england, and many in france, really thought that if people only knew what was right they would all begin and do it. they had to learn, by their own experience or somebody's, that the difficulty was generally deeper down. there was a man, named droz, who published a little book called "the art of being happy," with tables on which every night you were to mark yourself, as a school-mistress marks scholars at school, for truth, for temper, for industry, for frugality, and so on.[ ] "but in the long run," said uncle fritz, "there may be too much self-examination. if you really look up and not down, and look forward and not back, and loyally lend a hand, why, you can afford to look out and not in, in general." fergus brought the talk back to the lightning-rod, and asked where was the earliest hint of it. the history seems to be this. in the year a gentleman named collinson sent to franklin, from england or scotland, one of the glass tubes with which people were then trying electrical experiments. franklin was very much interested. he went on repeating the experiments which had been made in england and on the continent of europe. with his general love of society in such things, he had other glass tubes made, and gave them to his friends. he had one immense advantage over the wise men of england and france, in the superior dryness of our air, which greatly favors such experiments. almost any one of the young americans who will read this book has tried the experiment of exciting electricity by shuffling across a brussels carpet on a dry floor, and then lighting the gas from a gas-jet by the spark. but when you tell an englishman in london that you have done this, he thinks at first that you are making fun of him. for it is very seldom that the air and the carpet and the floor are all dry enough for the experiment to succeed in england. this difference of climate accounts for the difficulty which the philosophers in england sometimes found in repeating dr. franklin's experiments. when it came to lightning and experiments about that, he had another very great advantage; for we have many more thunder-storms than they have. in the year , when mr. watson was very eager to try the lightning experiments in england, he seems to have had, in all the summer, but two storms of thunder and lightning. franklin made his apparatus on a scale which now seems almost gigantic. the "conductor" of an electrical machine such as you will generally see in a college laboratory is seldom more than two feet long. franklin's conductor, which was hung by silk from the top of his room, was a cylinder ten feet long and one foot in diameter, covered with gilt paper. in his "leyden battery" he used five glass jars, as big as large water-pails,--they held nine gallons each. one night he had arranged to kill a turkey by a shock from two of these. he received the shock himself, by accident, and it almost killed him. he had a theory that if turkeys were killed by electricity, the meat would perhaps be more tender. he acknowledges mr. collinson's present of the glass tube as early as march , . on the th of july he writes to collinson that they ("we") had discovered the power of points to withdraw electricity silently and continuously. on this discovery the lightning-rod is based. he describes this quality, first observed by mr. hopkinson, in the following letter:-- "the first is the wonderful effect of pointed bodies, both in _drawing off_ and _throwing off_ the electrical fire. "for example, place an iron shot, of three or four inches diameter, on the mouth of a clean, dry glass bottle. by a fine silken thread from the ceiling, right over the mouth of the bottle, suspend a small cork ball about the bigness of a marble; the thread of such a length, as that the cork ball may rest against the side of the shot. electrify the shot, and the ball will be repelled to the distance of four or five inches, more or less, according to the quantity of electricity. when in this state, if you present to the shot the point of a long, slender, sharp bodkin, at six or eight inches distance, the repellency is instantly destroyed, and the cork flies to the shot. a blunt body must be brought within an inch and draw a spark, to produce the same effect. to prove that the electrical fire is _drawn off_ by the point, if you take the blade of the bodkin out of the wooden handle, and fix it in a stick of sealing-wax, and then present it at the distance aforesaid, or if you bring it very near, no such effect follows; but sliding one finger along the wax till you touch the blade, the ball flies to the shot immediately. if you present the point in the dark, you will see, sometimes at a foot distance and more, a light gather upon it, like that of a firefly or glow-worm; the less sharp the point, the nearer you must bring it to observe the light; and at whatever distance you see the light, you may draw off the electrical fire, and destroy the repellency. if a cork ball so suspended be repelled by the tube, and a point be presented quick to it, though at a considerable distance, it is surprising to see how suddenly it flies back to the tube. points of wood will do near as well as those of iron, provided the wood is not dry; for perfectly dry wood will no more conduct electricity than sealing-wax. "to show that points will _throw off_ as well as _draw off_ the electrical fire, lay a long, sharp needle upon the shot, and you cannot electrize the shot so as to make it repel the cork ball. or fix a needle to the end of a suspended gun-barrel or iron rod, so as to point beyond it like a little bayonet; and while it remains there, the gun-barrel or rod cannot, by applying the tube to the other end, be electrized so as to give a spark, the fire continually running out silently at the point. in the dark you may see it make the same appearance as it does in the case before mentioned." the next summer, that of , the experiments went so far, that in a letter of franklin's to collinson he proposed the electrical dinner-party, which was such a delight to harry and lucy:-- "chagrined a little that we have been hitherto able to produce nothing in this way of use to mankind, and the hot weather coming on when electrical experiments are not so agreeable, it is proposed to put an end to them for this season, somewhat humorously, in a party of pleasure on the banks of the _skuylkill_. spirits, at the same time, are to be fired by a spark sent from side to side through the river, without any other conductor than the water; an experiment which we some time since performed, to the amazement of many. a turkey is to be killed for our dinner by the _electrical shock_, and roasted by the _electrical jack_, before a fire kindled by the _electrified bottle_; when the healths of all the famous electricians in england, holland, france, and germany are to be drank in _electrified bumpers_, under the discharge of guns from the _electrical battery_." it was in a letter to collinson of the next year, ,--as i suppose, though it is not dated,--that the project of the lightning-rod first appears. it is too long to copy. the paragraphs most important in this view are the following:-- " . an electrical spark, drawn from an irregular body at some distance, is scarcely ever straight, but shows crooked and waving in the air. so do the flashes of lightning, the clouds being very irregular bodies. " . as electrified clouds pass over a country, high hills and high trees, lofty towers, spires, masts of ships, chimneys, &c., as so many prominences and points, draw the electrical fire, and the whole cloud discharges there. " . dangerous, therefore, is it to take shelter under a tree during a thunder-gust. it has been fatal to many, both men and beasts. " . it is safer to be in the open field for another reason. when the clothes are wet, if a flash in its way to the ground should strike your head, it may run in the water over the surface of your body; whereas, if your clothes were dry, it would go through the body, because the blood and other humors, containing so much water, are more ready conductors. "hence a wet rat cannot be killed by the exploding electrical bottle, when a dry rat may." in a letter of , based upon observations made in , franklin said distinctly, after describing some artificial lightning which he had made:-- "if these things are so, may not the knowledge of this power of points be of use to mankind, in preserving houses, churches, ships, &c., from the stroke of lightning, by directing us to fix, on the highest parts of these edifices, upright rods of iron made sharp as a needle, and gilded to prevent rusting, and from the foot of those rods a wire down the outside of the building into the ground, or down round one of the shrouds of a ship, and down her side till it reaches the water? would not these pointed rods probably draw the electrical fire silently out of a cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible mischief? "to determine the question whether the clouds that contain lightning are electrified or not, i would propose an experiment to be tried where it may be done conveniently. on the top of some high tower or steeple, place a kind of sentry-box, big enough to contain a man and an electrical stand. from the middle of the stand let an iron rod rise and pass bending out of the door and then upright twenty or thirty feet, pointed very sharp at the end. if the electrical stand be kept clean and dry, a man standing on it, when such clouds are passing low, might be electrified and afford sparks, the rod drawing fire to him from a cloud. if any danger to the man should be apprehended (though i think there would be none), let him stand on the floor of his box, and now and then bring near to the rod the loop of a wire that has one end fastened to the leads, he holding it by a wax handle; so the sparks, if the rod is electrified, will strike from the rod to the wire, and not affect him." the royal society "did not think these papers worth printing"! but, happily, collinson printed them, and they went all over europe. the demonstration of the lightning theory, which he had wrought out by his own experiments, was made in france, may , ; and in philadelphia by franklin with the kite in the next month, before he had heard of the success in france. franklin's friend dalibard tried the french experiment. here is his account of it, as he sent it to the french academy, as roxana translated it for the young people:-- i have had perfect success in following out the course indicated by mr. franklin. i had set up at marly-la-ville, situated six leagues from paris, in a fine plain at a very elevated level, a round rod of iron, about an inch in diameter, forty feet long, and sharply pointed at its upper extremity. to secure greater fineness at the point, i had it armed with tempered steel, and then burnished, for want of gilding, so as to keep it from rusting; beside that, this iron rod is bent near its lower end into two acute but rounded angles; the first angle is two feet from the lower end, and the second takes a contrary direction at three feet from the first. * * * * * wednesday, the th of may, , between two and three in the afternoon, a man named coiffier, an old dragoon, whom i had intrusted with making the observations in my absence, having heard rather a loud clap of thunder, hastened at once to the machine, took the phial with the wire, presented the loop of the wire to the rod, saw a small bright spark come from it, and heard it crackle. he then drew a second spark, brighter than the first and with a louder sound! he called his neighbors, and sent for the prior. this gentleman hastened to the spot as fast as he could: the parishioners, seeing the haste of their priest, imagined that poor coiffier had been killed by the thunder; the alarm was spread in the village; the hail-storm which began did not prevent the flock from following its shepherd. this honest priest approached the machine, and, seeing that there was no danger, went to work himself and drew strong sparks. the cloud from which the storm and hail came was no more than a quarter of an hour in passing directly over our machine, and only this one thunder-clap was heard. as soon as the cloud had passed, and no more sparks were drawn from the iron rod, the prior of marly sent off monsieur coiffier himself, to bring me the following letter, which he wrote in haste:-- i can now inform you, sir, of what you are looking for. the experiment is completely successful. to-day, at twenty minutes past two, p. m., the thunder rolled directly over marly; the clap was rather loud. the desire to oblige you, and my own curiosity, made me leave my arm-chair, where i was occupied in reading. i went to coiffier's, who had already sent a child to me, whom i met on the way, to beg me to come. i redoubled my speed through a torrent of hail. when i arrived at the place where the bent rod was set up, i presented the wire, approaching it several times toward the rod. at the distance of an inch and a half, or about that, there came out of the rod a little column of bluish fire smelling of sulphur, which struck the loop of the wire with an extreme and rapid energy, and occasioned a sound like that which might be made by striking on the rod with a key. i repeated the experiment at least six times, in the space of about four minutes, in the presence of several persons; and each experiment which i made lasted the space of a _pater_ and an _ave_. i tried to go on; the action of the fire slackened little by little. i went nearer, and drew nothing more but a few sparks, and at last nothing appeared. the thunder-clap which caused this event was followed by no other; it all ended in a great quantity of hail. i was so occupied with what i saw at the moment of the experiment, that, having been struck on the arm a little above my elbow, i cannot say whether it was in touching the wire or the rod, i was not even aware of the injury which the blow had given me at the moment when i received it; but as the pain continued, on my return home i uncovered my arm before coiffier, and we perceived a bruised mark winding round the arm, like what a wire would have made if my bare flesh had been struck by it. as i was going back from coiffier's house, i met monsieur le vicaire, monsieur de milly, and the schoolmaster, to whom i related what had just happened. they all three declared that they smelt an odor of sulphur, which struck them more as they approached me. i carried the same odor home with me, and my servants noticed it without my having said anything to them about it. this, monsieur, is an account given in haste, but simple and true, which i attest, and you may depend on my being ready to give evidence of this event on every opportunity. coiffier was the first who made the experiment, and repeated it several times; it was only on account of what he had seen that he sent to ask me to come. if other witnesses than he and i are necessary, you will find them. coiffier is in haste to set out. i am, with respectful consideration, monsieur, yours, &c., [signed] raulet, _prior of marly_. may , . "i do not understand," said uncle fritz, "how it happened that no one attempted the experiment before. franklin had proposed it, very distinctly, in . his friend dr. stuber says that he was waiting for the erection of a steeple in philadelphia. you see, the quakers, who had founded this city, would have none; they derided what they called 'steeple-houses,' little foreseeing what advantage could be drawn from a steeple. "meanwhile, in , in october, he did take a view of new york from the 'dutch church steeple,' which had been struck by lightning in the spring of that year. and here he was able to confirm his theory, by seeing that 'wire is a good conductor of lightning, as it is of electricity.'" musical glasses. while some of the children were reading these electrical passages, others were turning over the next volume; and to their great delight, they found a picture of the "musical glasses." "i never had the slightest idea what musical glasses were," said jack; and he spouted from goldsmith the passage from "the vicar of wakefield," where the fashionable ladies from london talked about "shakspeare and the musical glasses." "were they dr. franklin's musical glasses?" "i never thought of that," said uncle fritz, well pleased; "but i think it is so. john, look and see what year 'the vicar of wakefield' was written in." john turned to the cyclopædia, and it proved that goldsmith wrote that book in . "and you see," said uncle fritz, "that it was in that franklin made his improvement, and that mr. puckeridge, the irish gentleman, had arranged his glasses before. i think you would find that the instrument gradually worked its way into fashion,--slowly, as such things then did in england,--and that goldsmith knew about dr. franklin's modification. "i do not now remember any other place where goldsmith's life and his touched. but they must have known a great many of the same people. franklin was all mixed up with the grub street people." meanwhile john was following up the matter in the cyclopædia. but he did not find "armonica." uncle fritz bade him try in the "h" volume; and there, sure enough, was "harmonica," with quite a little history of the invention. mr. puckeridge's fascinating name is there tamed down to pochrich, probably by some german translator. dr. franklin's instrument is described, and the cyclopædia man adds:-- "from the effect which it was supposed to have upon the nervous system, it has been suggested that the fingers should not be allowed to come in immediate contact with the glasses, but that the tones should be produced by means of keys, as with a harpsichord. such an instrument has been made, and called the '_harpsichord harmonica_.' but these experiments have not produced anything of much value. it is impossible that the delicacy, the swell, and the continuation of the tone should be carried to such perfection as in the simpler method. the harmonica, however much it excels all other instruments in the delicacy and duration of its tones, yet is confined to those of a soft and melancholy character and to slow, solemn movements, and can hardly be combined to advantage with other instruments. in accompanying the human voice it throws it into the shade; and in concerts the other instruments lose in effect, because so far inferior to it in tone. it is therefore best enjoyed by itself, and may produce a charming effect in certain romantic situations." "'romantic situations'! i should think so," said mabel, laughing. "is not that like the dear german man that wrote this? i see myself lugging my harmonica to the edge of the kauterskill falls." "how do you know he was a german?" said alice. "because, where john read 'the simpler method,' it says 'the before-mentioned method.' no englishman or american in his senses ever said 'before-mentioned' if he could help himself." "do let us see how dear dr. franklin made his machine." and the girls unfolded the old-fashioned picture, which is in the sixth volume of sparks's franklin, and read his description of it as he wrote it to beccaria. "is it the beccaria who did about capital punishment?" asked fergus. "no," uncle fritz said, "though they lived at the same time. they were not brothers. the capital-punishment man was the marquis _of_ beccaria, and that _of_ makes a great difference in europe. this man 'did' electricity, as you would say; and his name is plain beccaria without any _of_." then mabel, commanding silence, at last read the letter to beccaria. and when she had done, uncle fritz said that he should think there might be many a boy or girl who could not buy a piano or what he profanely called a yang-yang,--by which he meant a reed organ,--who would like to make a harmonica. the letter, in a part not copied here, tells how to tune the glasses. and any one who lived near a glass-factory, and was on the good-natured side of a good workman, could have the glasses made without much expense. _letter of franklin to j. b. beccaria._ london, july , . reverend sir,--... perhaps, however, it may be agreeable to you, as you live in a musical country, to have an account of the new instrument lately added here to the great number that charming science was already possessed of. as it is an instrument that seems peculiarly adapted to italian music, especially that of the soft and plaintive kind, i will endeavor to give you such a description of it, and of the manner of constructing it, that you or any of your friends may be enabled to imitate it, if you incline so to do, without being at the expense and trouble i have been to bring it to its present perfection. you have doubtless heard of the sweet tone that is drawn from a drinking-glass by passing a wet finger round its brim. one mr. puckeridge, a gentleman from ireland, was the first who thought of playing tunes formed of these tones. he collected a number of glasses of different sizes, fixed them near each other on a table, tuned them by putting into them water more or less, as each note required. the tones were brought out by passing his finger round their brims. he was unfortunately burned here, with his instrument, in a fire which consumed the house he lived in. mr. e. delaval, a most ingenious member of our royal society, made one in imitation of it, with a better form and choice of glasses, which was the first i saw or heard. being charmed by the sweetness of its tones, and the music he produced from it, i wished only to see the glasses disposed in a more convenient form, and brought together in a narrower compass, so as to admit of a greater number of tones, and all within reach of hand to a person sitting before the instrument, which i accomplished, after various intermediate trials, and less commodious forms, both of glasses and construction, in the following manner. the glasses are blown as nearly as possible in the form of hemispheres, having each an open neck or socket in the middle. the thickness of the glass near the brim about a tenth of an inch, or hardly quite so much, but thicker as it comes nearer the neck, which in the largest glasses is about an inch deep, and an inch and a half wide within, these dimensions lessening as the glasses themselves diminish in size, except that the neck of the smallest ought not to be shorter than half an inch. the largest glass is nine inches diameter, and the smallest three inches. between these two are twenty-three different sizes, differing from each other a quarter of an inch in diameter. to make a single instrument there should be at least six glasses blown of each size; and out of this number one may probably pick thirty-seven glasses (which are sufficient for three octaves with all the semitones) that will be each either the note one wants or a little sharper than that note, and all fitting so well into each other as to taper pretty regularly from the largest to the smallest. it is true there are not thirty-seven sizes, but it often happens that two of the same size differ a note or half-note in tone, by reason of a difference in thickness, and these may be placed one in the other without sensibly hurting the regularity of the taper form. the glasses being thus turned, you are to be provided with a case for them, and a spindle on which they are to be fixed. my case is about three feet long, eleven inches every way wide at the biggest end; for it tapers all the way, to adapt it better to the conical figure of the set of glasses. this case opens in the middle of its height, and the upper part turns up by hinges fixed behind. the spindle, which is of hard iron, lies horizontally from end to end of the box within, exactly in the middle, and is made to turn on brass gudgeons at each end. it is round, an inch in diameter at the thickest end, and tapering to a quarter of an inch at the smallest. a square shank comes from its thickest end through the box, on which shank a wheel is fixed by a screw. this wheel serves as a fly to make the motion equable, when the spindle with the glasses is turned by the foot like a spinning-wheel. my wheel is of mahogany, eighteen inches diameter, and pretty thick, so as to conceal near its circumference about twenty-five pounds of lead. an ivory pin is fixed in the face of this wheel, and about four inches from the axis. over the neck of this pin is put the loop of the string that comes up from the movable step to give it motion. the case stands on a neat frame with four legs. to fix the glasses on the spindle, a cork is first to be fitted in each neck pretty tight, and projecting a little without the neck, that the neck of one may not touch the inside of another when put together, for that would make a jarring. these corks are to be perforated with holes of different diameters, so as to suit that part of the spindle on which they are to be fixed. when a glass is put on, by holding it stiffly between both hands, while another turns the spindle, it may be gradually brought to its place. but care must be taken that the hole be not too small, lest, in forcing it up, the neck should split; nor too large, lest the glass, not being firmly fixed, should turn or move on the spindle, so as to touch or jar against its neighboring glass. the glasses are thus placed one in another, the largest on the biggest end of the spindle, which is to the left hand; the neck of this glass is towards the wheel, and the next goes into it in the same position, only about an inch of its brim appearing beyond the brim of the first; thus proceeding, every glass when fixed shows about an inch of its brim (or three quarters of an inch, or half an inch, as they grow smaller) beyond the brim of the glass that contains it; and it is from these exposed parts of each glass that the tone is drawn, by laying a finger upon one of them as the spindle and glasses turn round. my largest glass is g, a little below the reach of a common voice, and my highest g, including three complete octaves. to distinguish the glasses the more readily to the eye, i have painted the apparent parts of the glasses withinside, every semitone white, and the other notes of the octave with the seven prismatic colors,--viz., c, red; d, orange; e, yellow; f, green; g, blue; a, indigo; b, purple; and c, red again,--so that glasses of the same color (the white excepted) are always octaves to each other. this instrument is played upon by sitting before the middle of the set of glasses, as before the keys of a harpsichord, turning them with the foot, and wetting them now and then with a sponge and clean water. the fingers should be first a little soaked in water, and quite free from all greasiness; a little fine chalk upon them is sometimes useful, to make them catch the glass and bring out the tone more readily. both hands are used, by which means different parts are played together. observe that the tones are best brought out when the glasses turn _from_ the ends of the fingers, not when they turn _to_ them. the advantages of this instrument are, that its tones are incomparably sweet, beyond those of any other; that they may be swelled and softened at pleasure by stronger or weaker pressure of the finger, and continued to any length; and that the instrument, being once well tuned, never again wants tuning. in honor of your musical language, i have borrowed from it the name of this instrument, calling it the armonica. with great respect and esteem, i am, &c., b. franklin. vii. theorists of the eighteenth century. richard lovell edgeworth. at the next meeting there was a slight deviation from the absolutely expected. bedford and mabel desired to dispense with the regular order of the day, and moved for permission to bring in a new inventor, "invented by myself," said mabel,--"entirely by myself, assisted by bedford. nobody that i know of ever heard of him before. he is a new discovery." "who is he?" asked horace, somewhat piqued that there should be any one interesting of whom he had not heard even the name. "what did he invent?" asked emma. "did he write memoirs?" asked fergus. "did you ever read 'frank'?" asked mabel, in what is known as the socratic method. there was a slight stir at the mention of this little classic. few seemed to be able to answer in the affirmative. "i have read 'rollo,'" said horace. "i have read 'frank,'" said will withers, "and 'harry and lucy,' and the 'parents' assistant,' and 'sandford and merton,' and 'henry milner.' in fact, there are few of those books, all kindred volumes, which i have not read. they have had an important effect upon my later life." "hinc illae lachrymae," in a low tone from clem waters. for colonel ingham, the turn taken by the conversation had a peculiar charm. he was of the generation before the rest, and what were to them but ghostly ideals were to him glad memories of a happy past. "good!" said he. "'frank' was, in a sense, the greatest book ever written. do you remember that part where frank lifted up the skirts of his coat when passing through the greenhouse?" he asked of mabel. "i should think i did," said mabel and will. as for bedford, he had only a vague recollection of it. the others considered the conversation to be trembling upon the verge of insanity. "perhaps," said florence, gently, "i might be allowed to suggest that although you have heard of 'frank' and those other persons mentioned, we have not. i do not think that i ever heard of an inventor named frank,--did he have any other name?--and i am usually considered," she went on modestly, "tolerably well informed. therefore the present conversation, though probably edifying in a high degree to those who have read 'frank,' or who have some interest in horticulture and greenhouses, can hardly fail to be very stupid to those of us who have not." "my dear child," said the colonel, "you are right. mabel and i, and will and bedford here, are of the generation that is passing off the stage. we look back to the things of our youth, hardly considering that there are those to whom that period suggests noah and his ark." "but who is the inventor?" asked some one who thought that the conversation was gradually leaving the trodden path. "oh, we had almost forgotten him," said bedford. "the inventor," said mabel, producing two volumes from under her arm, "is mr. richard lovell edgeworth, the father of maria edgeworth." "what did he invent?" asked many of the company. "he invented the telegraph." "well, i never knew that before." "i thought morse invented the telegraph." "didn't dr. franklin invent the telegraph?" "i thought edison--" other remarks were also made, showing a certain amount of incredulity. "you mistake," said bedford, placidly; "you are all of you under a misapprehension. i think that you all of you allude to the electric telegraph,--an invention of a later date than that of mr. edgeworth, and one of more value, as far as practical affairs are concerned. no; mr. edgeworth invented, or thinks he invented, the telegraph as it was used in the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth, sometimes named the semaphore. it wasn't a difficult invention, and i don't believe it ever came to any very practical use as constructed by edgeworth, though french telegraphs were very useful." "what kind of a telegraph was it?" "well, it was just the kind of a telegraph that the conductor of a railroad train is when he waves his arms to the engineer to go ahead. there's an account of it by edgeworth in one of these books, with pictures to it." "but my chief interest about edgeworth," said mabel, "is in his memoirs, which are written partly by himself and partly by his daughter. they are really very amusing. he was married five times,--once with a door-key when he was only fourteen." this startling intelligence roused even colonel ingham to demand particulars. was he married to all five at once? to all of them when he was only fourteen? "no," admitted mabel, with some regret; "he was married to them, all at different times, and he was divorced from the one he married at fourteen with the door-key." "they were only married for fun," said bedford. "it was all a joke. they were at a wedding, and they thought it would be funny after the real marriage to have a mock one. so they did, and married edgeworth to a girl who was there. it was a real marriage, for they were afterwards divorced." "well," said sam edmeston, "i shall be glad to hear about this gentleman, i'm sure, though i never did hear of him before. but may i ask why it was necessary to introduce him by means of an allusion to 'frank' and other works which we have few of us ever read, though it is very possible that we may some of us have heard of them?" "i see why mabel spoke first of 'frank,'" said colonel ingham. "and i think that she did very well to bring edgeworth in as she has done. and edgeworth, though i had not thought of him before, is very fit to be one of our inventors, not so much for his individual accomplishments, which were little more than curious,--telegraph and all,--as for being a good representative of his age. those of you who know a little of the century between and know that it was an age to which many of the secrets of physical science were being opened for the first time. everybody was going back to nature to see what he could learn from her. this movement swept all over france and england. every gentleman dabbled in the sciences, and made his experiments and inventions. voltaire in france had a great laboratory made for him in which he passed some years in chemical experiments. it was the age, too, of great inventions,--of the application of physical forces to the life of man. the invention of the steam-engine by watt, and the applications of it to the locomotive and the steamboat, came along toward the end of this period, and marked the work of the greatest men. but every one could not invent a steam-engine. so, by the hundreds of country gentlemen who studied science, chemistry, and astronomy, and the rest, there were constructed hundreds of orreries, globes, carriages, model-telegraphs, and such things; and it is of these men that edgeworth is the best, or at least the most available, representative, on account of his very interesting memoirs. "such books as 'harry and lucy' and 'frank' are the mirror of this movement. but to this is joined something more, which john morley speaks of in saying, 'an age touched by the spirit of hope turns naturally to the education of the young.' then people knew that their own times were about as worthless as times could well be; but as they learned more, they began to hope that things were improving, and that the children might see better times than those in which the fathers lived. and as physical science was to them an all-important factor in this approaching millennium, they took pains to teach these things to the young. any of you who have read 'frank' or 'sandford and merton' will see what i mean. it was the hope that the children might be able to take the work where the fathers left it, and carry it on. and the children did. but i do not believe that any one of these eighteenth-century theorists had the first or vaguest idea of the point to which his children and grandchildren would carry his work. "so much for mr. edgeworth from my point of view," concluded the colonel. "you will hear what he thought of himself from bedford." edgeworth's telegraph. [described by himself.] bets of a rash or ingenious sort were in fashion in those days, and one proposal of what was difficult and uncommon led to another. a famous match was at that time pending at newmarket between two horses that were in every respect as nearly equal as possible. lord march, one evening at ranelagh, expressed his regret to sir francis delaval that he was not able to attend newmarket at the next meeting. "i am obliged," said he, "to stay in london. i shall, however, be at the turf coffee house. i shall station fleet horses on the road to bring me the earliest intelligence of the event of the race, and shall manage my bets accordingly." i asked at what time in the evening he expected to know who was winner. he said about nine in the evening. i asserted that i should be able to name the winning horse at four o'clock in the afternoon. lord march heard my assertion with so much incredulity as to urge me to defend myself; and at length i offered to lay five hundred pounds, that i would in london name the winning horse at newmarket at five o'clock in the evening of the day when the great match in question was to be run. sir francis, having looked at me for encouragement, offered to lay five hundred pounds on my side; lord eglintoun did the same; shaftoe and somebody else took up their bets; and the next day we were to meet at the turf coffee house, to put our bets in writing. after we went home, i explained to sir francis delaval the means that i proposed to use. i had early been acquainted with wilkins's "secret and swift messenger;" i had also read in hooke's works of a scheme of this sort, and i had determined to employ a telegraph nearly resembling that which i have since published. the machinery i knew could be prepared in a few days. sir francis immediately perceived the feasibility of my scheme, and indeed its certainty of success. it was summer-time; and by employing a sufficient number of persons, we could place our machines so near as to be almost out of the power of the weather. when we all met at the turf coffee house, i offered to double my bet; so did sir francis. the gentlemen on the opposite side were willing to accept my offer; but before i would conclude my wager, i thought it fair to state to lord march that i did not depend upon the fleetness or strength of horses to carry the desired intelligence, but upon other means, which i had, of being informed in london which horse had actually won at newmarket, between the time when the race should be concluded and five o 'clock in the evening. my opponents thanked me for my candor and declined the bet. my friends blamed me extremely for giving up such an advantageous speculation. none of them, except sir francis, knew the means which i had intended to employ; and he kept them a profound secret, with a view to use them afterwards for his own purposes. with that energy which characterized everything in which he engaged, he immediately erected, under my directions, an apparatus between his house and part of piccadilly,--an apparatus which was never suspected to be telegraphic. i also set up a night telegraph between a house which sir f. delaval occupied at hampstead, and one to which i had access in great russell street, bloomsbury. this nocturnal telegraph answered well, but was too expensive for common use. upon my return home to hare hatch, i tried many experiments on different modes of telegraphic communication. my object was to combine secrecy with expedition. for this purpose i intended to employ windmills, which might be erected for common economical uses, and which might at the same time afford easy means of communication from place to place upon extraordinary occasions. there is a windmill at nettlebed, which can be distinctly seen with a good glass from assy hill, between maidenhead and henly, the highest ground in england south of the trent. with the assistance of mr. perrot, of hare hatch, i ascertained the practicability of my scheme between these places, which are nearly sixteen miles asunder. i have had occasion to show my claim to the revival of this invention in modern times, and in particular to prove that i had practised telegraphic communication in the year , long before it was ever attempted in france. to establish these truths, i obtained from mr. perrot, a berkshire gentleman, who resided in the neighborhood of hare hatch, and who was witness to my experiments, his testimony to the facts which i have just related. i have his letter; and before its contents were published in the memoirs of the irish academy for the year , i showed it to lord charlemont, president of the royal irish academy. mr. edgeworth's telegraph in ireland. [described by his daughter.] in august, , my father made a trial of his telegraph between pakenham hall and edgeworth town, a distance of twelve miles. he found it to succeed beyond his expectations; and in november following he made another trial of it at collon, at mr. foster's, in the county of louth. the telegraphs were on two hills, at fifteen miles' distance from each other. a communication of intelligence was made, and an answer received, in the space of five minutes. mr. foster--my father's friend, and the friend of everything useful to ireland--was well convinced of the advantage and security this country would derive from a system of quick and certain communication; and, being satisfied of the sufficiency of this telegraph, advised that a memorial on the subject should be drawn up for government. accordingly, under his auspices, a memorial was presented, in , to lord camden, then lord lieutenant. his excellency glanced his eye over the paper, and said that he did not think such an establishment necessary, but desired to reserve the matter for further consideration. my father waited in dublin for some time. the suspense and doubt in which courtiers are obliged to live is very different from that state of philosophical doubt which the wise recommend, and to which they are willing to submit. my father's patience was soon exhausted. the county in which he resided was then in a disturbed state; and he was eager to return to his family, who required his protection. besides, to state things exactly as they were, his was not the sort of temper suited to attendance upon the great. the disturbances in the county of longford were quieted for a time by the military; but again, in the autumn of the ensuing year (september, ), rumors of an invasion prevailed, and spread with redoubled force through ireland, disturbing commerce, and alarming all ranks of well-disposed subjects. my father wrote to lord carhampton, then commander-in-chief, and to mr. pelham (now lord chichester), who was then secretary in ireland, offering his services. the secretary requested mr. edgeworth would furnish him with a memorial. aware of the natural antipathy that public men feel at the sight of long memorials, this was made short enough to give it a chance of being read. (presented, oct. , .) mr. edgeworth will undertake to convey intelligence from dublin to cork, and back to dublin, by means of fourteen or fifteen different stations, at the rate of one hundred pounds per annum for each station, as long as government shall think proper; and from dublin to any other place, at the same rate, in proportion to the distance: provided that when government chooses to discontinue the business, they shall pay one year's contract over and above the current expense, as some compensation for the prime cost of the apparatus, and the trouble of the first establishment. in a letter of a single page, accompanying this memorial, it was stated, that to establish a telegraphic corps of men sufficient to convey intelligence to every part of the kingdom where it should be necessary, stations tenable against a mob and against musketry might be effected for the sum of _six or seven thousand pounds_. it was further observed, that of course there must be a considerable difference between a partial and a general plan of telegraphic communication; that mr. edgeworth was perfectly willing to pursue either, or to adopt without reserve any better plan that government should approve. thanks were returned, and approbation expressed. nothing now appeared in suspense except the _mode_ of the establishment, whether it should be civil or military. meantime mr. pelham spoke of the duke of york's wish to have a reconnoitring telegraph, and observed that mr. edgeworth's would be exactly what his royal highness wanted. mr. edgeworth in a few days constructed a portable telegraph, and offered it to mr. pelham. he accepted it, and at his request my brother lovell carried it to england, and presented it to the duke from mr. pelham. during the interval of my brother's absence in england, my father had no doubt that arrangements were making for a telegraphic establishment in ireland. but the next time he went to the castle, he saw signs of a change in the secretary's countenance, who seemed much hurried,--promised he would write,--wrote, and conveyed, in diplomatic form, a final refusal. mr. pelham indeed endeavored to make it as civil as he could, concluding his letter with these words:-- the utility of a telegraph may hereafter be considered greater; but i trust that at all events those talents which have been directed to this pursuit will be turned to some other object, and that the public will have the benefit of that extraordinary activity and zeal which i have witnessed on this occasion in some other institution which i am sure that the ingenuity of the author will not require much time to suggest. i have the honor to be, with great respect, &c, t. pelham. dublin castle, nov. , . of his offer to establish a communication from the coast of cork to dublin, at _his own expense_, no notice was taken. "he had, as was known to government, expended £ of his own money; as much more would have erected a temporary establishment for a year to cork. thus the utility of this invention might have been tried, and the most prudent government upon earth could not have accused itself of extravagance in being partner with a private gentleman in an experiment which had, with inferior apparatus, and at four times the expense, been tried in france and england, and approved." the most favorable supposition by which we can account for the conduct of the irish government in this business is that a superior influence in england forbade them to proceed. "it must," said my father, "be mortifying to a viceroy who comes over to ireland with enlarged views and benevolent intentions, to discover, when he attempts to act for himself, that he is peremptorily checked; that a circle is chalked round him, beyond which he cannot move." no personal feelings of pique or disgust prevented my father from renewing his efforts to be of service to his country. two months after the rejection of his telegraph, on friday the th of december, , the french were on the irish coasts. of this he received intelligence late at night. immediately he sent a servant express to the secretary, with a letter offering to erect telegraphs, which he had in dublin, on any line that government should direct, and proposing to bring his own men with him; or to join the army with his portable telegraphs, to reconnoitre. his servant was sent back with a note from the secretary, containing compliments and the promise of a speedy answer; no further answer ever reached him. upon this emergency he could, with the assistance of his friends, have established an immediate communication between dublin and the coast, which should not have cost the country one shilling. my father showed no mortification at the neglect with which he was treated, but acknowledged that he felt much "concern in losing an opportunity of saving an enormous expense to the public, and of alleviating the anxiety and distress of thousands." a telegraph was most earnestly wished for at this time by the best-informed people in ireland, as well as by those whose perceptions had suddenly quickened at the view of immediate danger. great distress, bankruptcies, and ruin to many families, were the consequences of this attempted invasion. the troops were harassed with contrary orders and forced marches, for want of intelligence, and from that indecision which must always be the consequence of insufficient information. many days were spent in terror and in fruitless wishes for the english fleet. one fact may mark the hurry and confusion of the time; the cannon and the ball sent to bantry bay were of different calibre. at last ireland was providentially saved by the change of wind, which prevented the enemy from effecting a landing on her coast. that the public will feel little interest in the danger of an invasion of ireland which might have happened in the last century; that it can be of little consequence to the public to hear how or why, twenty years ago, this or that man's telegraph was not established,--i am aware; and i am sensible that few will care how cheaply it might have been obtained, or will be greatly interested in hearing of generous offers which were not accepted, and patriotic exertions which were not permitted to be of any national utility. i know that as a biographer i am expected to put private feelings out of the question; and this duty, as far as human nature will permit, i hope i have performed. the facts are stated from my own knowledge, and from a more detailed account in his own "letter to lord charlemont on the telegraph,"--a political pamphlet, uncommon at least for its temperate and good-humored tone. though all his exertions to establish a telegraph in ireland were at this time unsuccessful, yet he persevered in the belief that in future modes of telegraphic communication would be generally adopted; and instead of his hopes being depressed, they were raised and expanded by new consideration of the subject in a scientific light. in the sixth volume of the "transactions of the royal irish academy," he published an "essay on the art of conveying swift and secret intelligence," in which he gives a comprehensive view of the uses to which the system may be applied, and a description, with plates, of his own machinery. accounts of his apparatus and specimens of his vocabulary have been copied into various popular publications, therefore it is sufficient here to refer to them. the peculiar advantages of his machinery consist, in the first place, in being as free from friction as possible, consequently in its being easily moved, and not easily destroyed by use; in the next place, on its being simple, consequently easy to make and to repair. the superior advantage of his vocabulary arises from its being undecipherable. this depends on his employing the numerical figures instead of the alphabet. with a power of almost infinite change, and consequently with defiance of detection, he applies the combination of numerical figures to the words of a common dictionary, or to any length of phrase in any given vocabulary. he was the first who made this application of figures to telegraphic communication. much has been urged by various modern claimants for the honor of the invention of the telegraph. in england the claims of dr. hooke and of the marquis of worcester to the original idea are incontestable. but the invention long lay dormant, till wakened into active service by the french. long before the french telegraph appeared, my father had tried his first telegraphic experiments. as he mentions in his own narrative, he tried the use of windmill sails in in berkshire; and also a nocturnal telegraph with lamps and illuminated letters, between london and hampstead. he refers for the confirmation of the facts to a letter of mr. perrot's, a berkshire gentleman who was with him at the time. the original of this letter is now in my possession. it was shown in to the president of the royal irish academy. the following is a copy of it:-- dear sir,--i perfectly recollect having several conversations with you in on the subject of a speedy and secret conveyance of intelligence. i recollect your going up the hills to see how far and how distinctly the arms (and the position of them) of nettlebed windmill sails were to be discovered with ease. as to the experiments from highgate to london by means of lamps, i was not present at the time, but i remember your mentioning the circumstance to me in the same year. all these particulars were brought very strongly to my memory when the french, some years ago, conveyed intelligence by signals; and i then thought and declared that the merit of the invention undoubtedly belonged to you. i am very glad that i have it in my power to send you this confirmation, because i imagine there is no other person now living who can bear witness to your observations in berkshire. i remain, dear sir, your affectionate friend, james l. perrot. bath, dec. , . claims of priority of invention are always listened to with doubt, or, at best, with impatience. to those who bring the invention to perfection, who actually adapt it to use, mankind are justly most grateful, and to these, rather than to the original inventors, grant the honors of a triumph. sensible of this, the matter is urged no farther, but left to the justice of posterity. i am happy to state, however, one plain fact, which stands independent of all controversy, that my father's was the _first_, and i believe the only, telegraph which ever spoke across the channel from ireland to scotland. he was, as he says in his essay on this subject, "ambitious of being the first person who should connect the islands more closely by facilitating their mutual intercourse;" and on the th of august, , my brothers had the satisfaction of sending by my father's telegraph four messages across the channel, and of receiving immediate answers, before a vast concourse of spectators. _edgeworth to dr. darwin._ edgeworthtown, dec. , . i have been employed for two months in experiments upon a telegraph of my own invention. i tried it partially twenty-six years ago. it differs from the french in distinctness and expedition, as the intelligence is not conveyed alphabetically.... i intended to detail my telegraphs (in the plural), but i find that i have not room at present. if you think it worth while, you shall have the whole scheme before you, which i know you will improve for me. suffice it, that by day, at eighteen or twenty miles' distance, i show, by four pointers, isosceles triangles, twenty feet high, on four imaginary circles, eight imaginary points, which correspond with the figures , , , , , , , . so that seven thousand different combinations are formed, of four figures each, which refer to a dictionary of words that are referred to,--of lists of the navy, army, militia, lords, commons, geographical and technical terms, &c, besides an alphabet. so that everything one wishes may be transmitted with expedition. by night, white lights are used. _dr. darwin to mr. edgeworth._ derby, march , . dear sir,--i beg your pardon for not immediately answering your last favor, which was owing to the great influence the evil demon has at present in all affairs on this earth. that is, i lost your letter, and have in vain looked over some scores of papers, and cannot find it. secondly, having lost your letter, i daily hoped to find it again--without success. the telegraph you described i dare say would answer the purpose. it would be like a giant wielding his long arms and talking with his fingers; and those long arms might be covered with lamps in the night. you would place four or six such gigantic figures in a line, so that they should spell a whole word at once; and other such figures in sight of each other, all round the coast of ireland; and thus fortify yourselves, instead of friar bacon's wall of brass round england, with the brazen head, which spoke, "time is! time was! time is past!" mr. edgeworth's machine. having slightly mentioned the contrivances made use of by the ancients for conveying intelligence swiftly, and having pointed out some of the various important uses to which this art may be applied, i shall endeavor to give a clear view of my attempts on this subject. models of the french telegraph have been so often exhibited, and the machine itself is so well known, that it is not necessary to describe it minutely in this place. it is sufficient to say that it consists of a tall pole, with three movable arms, which may be seen at a considerable distance through telescopes; these arms may be set in as many different positions as are requisite to express all the different letters of the alphabet. by a successive combination of letters shown in this manner, words and sentences are formed and intelligence communicated. no doubt can be made of the utility of this machine, as it has been applied to the most important purposes. it is obviously liable to mistakes, from the number of changes requisite for each word, and from the velocity with which it must be moved to convey intelligence with any tolerable expedition. the name, however, which is well chosen, has become so familiar, that i shall, with a slight alteration, adopt it for the apparatus which i am going to describe. _telegraph_ is a proper name for a machine which describes at a distance. _telelograph_, or contractedly _tellograph_, is a proper name for a machine that describes _words_ at a distance. dr. hooke, to whom every mechanic philosopher must recur, has written an essay upon the subject of conveying swift intelligence, in which he proposes to use large wooden letters in succession. the siege of vienna turned his attention to the business. his method is more cumbrous than the french telegraph, but far less liable to error. i tried it before i had seen hooke's work, in the year in london, and i could distinctly read letters illuminated with lamps in hampstead churchyard, from the house of mr. elers in great russell street, bloomsbury, to whom i refer for date and circumstance. to him and to mr. e. delaval, f.r.s., to mr. perrot, of hare hatch, and to mr woulfe the chemist, i refer for the precedency which i claim in this invention. in that year i invented the idea of my present tellograph, proposing to make use of windmill sails instead of the hands or pointers which i now employ. mr. perrot was so good as to accompany me more than once to a hill near his house to observe with a telescope the windmill at nettlebed, which places are, i think, sixteen miles asunder. my intention at that time was to convey not only a swift but an unsuspected mode of intelligence. by means of common windmills this might have been effected, before an account of the french telegraph was made public. my machinery consists of four triangular pointers or hands [each upon a separate pedestal, ranged along in a row], each of which points like the hand of a clock to different situations in the circles which they describe. it is easy to distinguish whether a hand moving vertically points perpendicularly downwards or upwards, horizontally to the right or left, or to any of the four intermediate positions. the eye can readily perceive the eight different positions in which one of the pointers is represented [on the plate attached to the article in the "transactions," but here omitted]. of these eight positions seven only are employed to denote figures, the upright position of the hand or pointer being reserved to represent o, or zero. the figures thus denoted refer to a vocabulary in which all the words are numbered. of the four pointers, that which appears to the left hand of the observer represents thousands; the others hundreds, tens, and units, in succession, as in common numeration. [by these means, as mr. edgeworth showed, numbers from up to , , omitting those having a digit above , could be displayed to the distant observer, who on referring to his vocabulary discovered that they meant such expressions as it might seem convenient to transmit by this excellent invention.] although the electric telegraphs have long since superseded telegraphs of this class in public use, the young people of colonel ingham's class took great pleasure in the next summer in using mr. edgeworth's telegraph to communicate with each other, by plans easily made in their different country homes. it may interest the casual reader to know that the first words in the first message transmitted on the telegraph between scotland and ireland, alluded to above, were represented by the numbers , , , , , , , , , , , which being interpreted are,-- "hark from basaltic rocks and giant walls," and so on with the other lines, seven in number. this is mr. edgeworth's concise history of telegraphy before his time. the art of conveying intelligence by sounds and signals is of the highest antiquity. it was practised by theseus in the argonautic expedition, by agamemnon at the siege of troy, and by mardonius in the time of xerxes. it is mentioned frequently in thucydides. it was used by tamerlane, who had probably never heard of the black sails of theseus; by the moors in spain; by the welsh in britain; by the irish; and by the chinese on that famous wall by which they separated themselves from tartary. * * * * * all this detail about mr. edgeworth's telegraph resulted in much search in the older encyclopædias. quite full accounts were found, by the young people, of his system, and of the french system afterwards employed, and worked in france until the electric telegraph made all such inventions unnecessary. before the next meeting, bedford long, who lived on highland street in roxbury, and hugh, who lived on the side of corey hill, were able to communicate with each other by semaphore; and at the next meeting they arranged two farther stations, so that john, at cambridge, and jane fortescue, at lexington, were in the series. there being some half an hour left that afternoon, the children amused themselves by looking up some other of mr. edgeworth's curious experiments and vagaries. more of mr. edgeworth's fancies. during my residence at hare hatch another wager was proposed by me among our acquaintance, the purport of which was that i undertook to find a man who should, with the assistance of machinery, walk faster than any other person that could be produced. the machinery which i intended to employ was a huge hollow wheel, made very light, withinside of which, in a barrel of six feet diameter, a man should walk. whilst he stepped thirty inches, the circumference of the large wheel, or rather wheels, would revolve five feet on the ground; and as the machinery was to roll on planks and on a plane somewhat inclined, when once the _vis inertiæ_ of the machine should be overcome, it would carry on the man within it as fast as he could possibly walk. i had provided means of regulating the motion, so that the wheel should not run away with its master. i had the wheel made; and when it was so nearly completed as to require but a few hours' work to finish it, i went to london for lord effingham, to whom i had promised that he should be present at the first experiment made with it. but the bulk and extraordinary appearance of my machine had attracted the notice of the country neighborhood; and, taking advantage of my absence, some idle curious persons went to the carpenter i employed, who lived on hare hatch common. from him they obtained the great wheel which had been left by me in his care. it was not finished. i had not yet furnished it with the means of stopping or moderating its motion. a young lad got into it; his companions launched it on a path which led gently down hill towards a very steep chalk-pit. this pit was at such a distance as to be out of their thoughts when they set the wheel in motion. on it ran. the lad withinside plied his legs with all his might. the spectators, who at first stood still to behold the operation, were soon alarmed by the shouts of their companion, who perceived his danger. the vehicle became quite ungovernable; the velocity increased as it ran down hill. fortunately the boy contrived to jump from his rolling prison before it reached the chalk-pit; but the wheel went on with such velocity as to outstrip its pursuers, and, rolling over the edge of the precipice, it was dashed to pieces. the next day, when i came to look for my machine, intending to try it on some planks which had been laid for it, i found, to my no small disappointment, that the object of all my labors and my hopes was lying at the bottom of a chalk-pit, broken into a thousand pieces. i could not at that time afford to construct another wheel of this sort, and i cannot therefore determine what might have been the success of my scheme. as i am on the subject of carriages, i shall mention a sailing-carriage that i tried on this common. the carriage was light, steady, and ran with amazing velocity. one day, when i was preparing for a sail in it with my friend and schoolfellow mr. william foster, my wheel-boat escaped from its moorings just as we were going to step on board. with the utmost difficulty i overtook it; and as i saw three or four stage-coaches on the road, and feared that this sailing-chariot might frighten their horses, i, at the hazard of my life, got into my carriage while it was under full sail, and then, at a favorable part of the road, i used the means i had of guiding it easily out of the way. but the sense of the mischief which must have ensued if i had not succeeded in getting into the machine at the proper place and stopping it at the right moment was so strong as to deter me from trying any more experiments on this carriage in such a dangerous place. such should never be attempted except on a large common, _at a distance from a high_ road. it may not, however, be amiss to suggest that upon a long extent of iron railway in an open country carriages properly constructed might make profitable voyages, from time to time, with sails instead of horses; for though a constant or regular intercourse could not be thus carried on, yet goods of a certain sort, that are salable at any time, might be stored till wind and weather were favorable. when bedford had read this passage, john fordyce said he had travelled hundreds of miles on the western railways where mr. edgeworth's sails could have been applied without a "stage-coach" to be afraid of them. jack the darter. in one of my journeys from hare hatch to birmingham, i accidentally met with a person whom i, as a mechanic, had a curiosity to see. this was a sailor, who had amused london with a singular exhibition of dexterity. he was called _jack the darter_. he threw his darts, which consisted of thin rods of deal of about half an inch in diameter and of a yard long, to an amazing height and distance; for instance, he threw them over what was then called the new church in the strand. of this feat i had heard, but i entertained some doubts upon the subject. i had inquired from my friends where this man could be found, but had not been able to discover him. as i was driving towards birmingham in an open carriage of a singular construction, i overtook a man who walked remarkably fast, but who stopped as i passed him, and eyed my equipage with uncommon curiosity. there was something in his manner that made me speak to him; and from the sort of questions he asked about my carriage, i found that he was a clever fellow. i soon learned that he had walked over the greatest part of england, and that he was perfectly acquainted with london. it came into my head to inquire whether he had ever seen the exhibition about which i was so desirous to be informed. "lord! sir," said he, "i am myself jack the darter." he had a roll of brown paper in his hand, which he unfolded, and soon produced a bundle of the light deal sticks which he had the power of darting to such a distance. he readily consented to gratify my curiosity; and after he had thrown some of them to a prodigious height, i asked him to throw some of them horizontally. at the first trial he threw one of them eighty yards with great ease. i observed that he coiled a small string round the stick, by which he gave it a rotary motion that preserved it from altering its course; and at the same time it allowed the arm which threw it time to exercise its whole force. if anything be simply thrown from the hand, it is clear that it can acquire no greater velocity than that of the hand that throws it; but if the body that is thrown passes through a greater space than the hand, whilst the hand continues to communicate motion to the body to be impelled, the body will acquire a velocity nearly double to that of the hand which throws it. the ancients were aware of this; and they wrapped a thong of leather round their javelins, by which they could throw them with additional violence. this invention did not, i believe, belong to the greeks; nor do i remember its being mentioned by homer or xenophon. it was in use among the romans, but at what time it was introduced or laid aside i know not. whoever is acquainted with the science of projectiles will perceive that this invention is well worthy of their attention. a one-wheeled chaise. after having satisfied my curiosity about jack the darter, i proceeded to birmingham. i mentioned that i travelled in a carriage of a singular construction. it was a one-wheeled chaise, which i had had made for the purpose of going conveniently in narrow roads. it was made fast by shafts to the horse's sides, and was furnished with two weights or counterpoises, that hung below the shafts. the seat was not more than eight and twenty or thirty inches from the ground, in order to bring the centre of gravity of the whole as low as possible. the footboard turned upon hinges fastened to the shafts, so that when it met with any obstacle it gave way, and my legs were warned to lift themselves up. in going through water my legs were secured by leathers, which folded up like the sides of bellows; by this means i was pretty safe from wet. on my road to birmingham i passed through long compton, in warwickshire, on a sunday. the people were returning from church, and numbers stopped to gaze at me. there is, or was, a shallow ford near the town, over which there was a very narrow bridge for horse and foot passengers, but not sufficiently wide for wagons or chaises. towards this bridge i drove. the people, not perceiving the structure of my one-wheeled vehicle, called to me with great eagerness to warn me that the bridge was too narrow for carriages. i had an excellent horse, which went so fast as to give but little time for examination. the louder they called, the faster i drove; and when i had passed the bridge, they shouted after me with surprise. i got on to shipstone upon stone; but before i had dined there i found that my fame had overtaken me. my carriage was put into a coach-house, so that those who came from long compton, not seeing it, did not recognize me. i therefore had an opportunity of hearing all the exaggerations and strange conjectures which were made by those who related my passage over the narrow bridge. there were posts on the bridge, to prevent, as i suppose, more than one horseman from passing at once. some of the spectators asserted that my carriage had gone over these posts; others said that it had not wheels, which was indeed literally true; but they meant to say that it was without any wheel. some were sure that no carriage ever went so fast; and all agreed that at the end of the bridge, where the floods had laid the road for some way under water, my carriage swam on the surface of the water. viii. james watt. "uncle fritz," said mabel liddell, the next afternoon that our friends had gathered together for a reading, "would it not be well for us all to go down into the kitchen this afternoon, and watch the steam come out of the kettle as ellen makes tea for us?" "why should it be well, mabel?" said colonel ingham. "for my part, i should prefer to remain in my own room, more especially as i consider my armchair to be more suited to the comfort of one already on the downward path in life than is the kitchen table, where we should have to sit should we invade the premises of our friends below." "i was thinking," said mabel, "of the manner in which james watt when a child invented the steam-engine, from observing the motion of the top of the teakettle; and as we are to read about watt this afternoon i thought we might be in a more fit condition to understand his invention, and might more fully comprehend his frame of mind while perfecting his great work, should we also fix our eyes and minds on the top of the teakettle in ellen's kitchen." "mabel, my child," said uncle fritz, "you talk like a book, and a very interesting one at that; but i think, as the youngest of us would say, that you are just a little off in your remarks. and as i observe that clem, who is going to read this afternoon, desires to deliver a sermon of which your conversation seems to be the text, i will request all to listen to him before we consider seriously vacating this apartment, however poor it may be,"--and he glanced fondly around at the comfortable arrangements that everywhere pervaded the study,--"and seek the regions below." "i only wanted to say," began clem, "that although watt did on one occasion (in his extreme youth) look at a teakettle with some interest, he was not in the habit, at the time when he devoted most thought to the steam-engine, of having a teakettle continually before him that he might gain inspiration from observing the steam issue from its nose. and, as watt dispensed with this aid, i have no doubt that we may do so as well, contenting ourselves with the results of the experiments in the vaporization of water, which ellen is now conducting in the form of tea. besides all this, however, i do want to say some things, before we read aloud this afternoon (i hope this isn't really too much like a sermon), about the steam-engine and the part that watt had in perfecting it." at this point the irrepressible mabel was heard to whisper to bedford, who sat next her: "wasn't it curious that the same mind which grasped the immense capabilities of the steam-engine should have been able also to construct such a delicate lyric as 'how doth the little busy bee improve each shining hour'?" "mabel," said colonel ingham, "you are absolutely unbearable. if you do not keep in better order i shall be sorry that i dissuaded you from descending to the kitchen. i see nothing incongruous myself in indulging in mechanical experiments, and in throwing one's thoughts into the form of verse,"--here the old gentleman colored slightly, as though he recollected something of the sort,--"but it may be well to counteract the impression your conversation may have made by stating that isaac watts did not invent the steam-engine, nor did james watt write the beautiful words you have just quoted.--now, clem, i believe you have the floor." "well," said clem, "i only want the floor for a short time in order to explain about watt and the steam-engine, and how much he was the inventor of it, before we begin to read. "there are various points about the steam-engine which are really watt's invention,--the separate condenser, for instance,--but the idea of the steam-engine was not original with him; that is, when he saw the steam in the teakettle raise the lid and drop it again, he was not the first to speculate on the power of steam." "are you going to read us that part in the book, clem?" asked bedford, with some interest. "yes, if you like," said clem. "i guess it tells about it in mr. smiles's 'life of watt.'" so he began to overhaul the book he had brought, and shortly discovered the anecdote referred to by mabel with such interest, and read it. "on one occasion he [james watt] was reproved by mrs. muirhead, his aunt, for his indolence at the tea-table. 'james watt,' said the worthy lady, 'i never saw such an idle boy as you are. take a book, or employ yourself usefully; for the last hour you have not spoken one word, but taken off the lid of that kettle and put it on again, holding now a cup and now a silver spoon over the steam, watching how it rises from the spout, catching and counting the drops it falls into.' in the view of m. arago, the little james before the teakettle, becomes the great engineer, preparing the discoveries which were soon to immortalize him. in our opinion, the judgment of the aunt was the truest. there is no reason to suppose that the mind of the boy was occupied with philosophical theories on the condensation of steam, which he compassed with so much difficulty in his maturer years. this is more probably an afterthought borrowed from his subsequent discoveries. nothing is commoner than for children to be amused with such phenomena in the same way that they will form air-bubbles in a cup of tea, and watch them sailing over the surface till they burst. the probability is that little james was quite as idle as he seemed." "that is very interesting," remarked mabel. "don't you think now, uncle fritz, we had better go into the kitchen?" and she looked appealingly at the old gentleman, who merely held up his finger for silence as clem continued his lecture. "what i meant to say," clem went on, "was that other people before watt had found out the power of steam, and had used it too. there was one hero of alexandria, who lived about two thousand years ago, who used steam for many interesting purposes, notably for animating various figures that took part in the idolatrous worship of his time, and thus in deceiving the common people. but his contrivances, though engines which went by steam, would hardly be called steam-engines. between hero of alexandria, of b. c., and the marquis of worcester, of a. d., there does not seem to have been much doing in the way of inventing the steam-engine. but the marquis of worcester in charles ii.'s time was a great philosopher, and did nobody knows exactly what with steam. but though he did great things, he did not produce a particularly capable engine, though he seems to have known more about steam than anybody else did at his time. after the marquis of worcester and before watt, there were three men who did much towards inventing and improving the steam-engine. their names were savery, papin, and newcomen. i don't propose to tell you about the inventions of each one; but it's well enough to remember that each one did important service in getting the steam-engine to the point where watt took hold of it. as it was on newcomen's engine that watt made his first serious experiments, i think we should all like to know something about it." the newcomen engine. newcomen's engine may be thus briefly described: the steam was generated in a separate boiler, as in savery's engine, from which it was conveyed into a vertical cylinder underneath a piston fitting it closely, but movable upwards and downwards through its whole length. the piston was fixed to a rod, which was attached by a joint or chain to the end of a lever vibrating upon an axis, the other end being attached to a rod working a pump. when the piston in the cylinder was raised, steam was let into the vacated space through a tube fitted into the top of the boiler, and mounted with a stopcock. the pump-rod at the further end of the lever being thus depressed, cold water was applied to the sides of the cylinder, on which the steam within it was condensed, a vacuum was produced, and the external air, pressing upon the top of the piston, forced it down into the empty cylinder. the pump-rod was thereby raised; and, the operation of depressing it being repeated, a power was thus produced which kept the pump continuously at work. such, in a few words, was the construction and action of newcomen's first engine.[ ] while the engine was still in its trial state, a curious accident occurred which led to a change in the mode of condensation, and proved of essential importance in establishing newcomen's engine as a practical working power. the accident was this: in order to keep the cylinder as free from air as possible, great pains were taken to prevent it passing down by the side of the piston, which was carefully wrapped with cloth or leather; and, still further to keep the cylinder air-tight, a quantity of water was kept constantly on the upper side of the piston. at one of the early trials the inventors were surprised to see the engine make several strokes in unusually quick succession; and on searching for the cause, they found it to consist in _a hole in the piston_, which had let the cold water in a jet into the inside of the cylinder, and thereby produced a rapid vacuum by the condensation of the continued steam. a new light suddenly broke upon newcomen. the idea of condensing by injection of cold water directly into the cylinder, instead of applying it on the outside, at once occurred to him; and he proceeded to embody the expedient which had thus been accidentally suggested as part of his machine. the result was the addition of the injection pipe, through which, when the piston was raised and the cylinder full of steam, a jet of cold water was thrown in, and, the steam being suddenly condensed, the piston was at once driven down by the pressure of the atmosphere. an accident of a different kind shortly after led to the improvement of newcomen's engine in another respect. to keep it at work, one man was required to attend the fire, and another to turn alternately the two cocks, one admitting the steam into the cylinder, the other admitting the jet of cold water to condense it. the turning of these cocks was easy work, usually performed by a boy. it was, however, a very monotonous duty, though requiring constant attention. to escape the drudgery and obtain an interval for rest or perhaps for play, a boy named humphrey potter, who turned the cocks, set himself to discover some method of evading his task. he must have been an ingenious boy, as is clear from the arrangement he contrived with this object. observing the alternate ascent and descent of the beam above his head, he bethought him of applying the movement to the alternate raising and lowering of the levers which governed the cocks. the result was the contrivance of what he called the _scoggan_ (meaning presumably the loafer or lazy boy), consisting of a catch worked by strings from the beam of the engine. this arrangement, when tried, was found to answer the purpose intended. the action of the engine was thus made automatic; and the arrangement, though rude, not only enabled potter to enjoy his play, but it had the effect of improving the working power of the engine itself; the number of strokes which it made being increased from six or eight to fifteen or sixteen in the minute. this invention was afterward greatly improved by mr. henry beighton, of newcastle-on-tyne, who added the plug-rod and hand-gear. he did away with the catches and strings of the boy potter's rude apparatus, and substituted a rod suspended from the beam, which alternately opened and shut the tappets attached to the steam and injection cocks. thus, step by step, newcomen's engine grew in power and efficiency, and became more and more complete as a self-acting machine. it will be observed that, like all other inventions, it was not the product of any one man's ingenuity, but of many. one contributed one improvement, and another another. the essential features of the atmospheric engine were not new. the piston and cylinder had been known as long ago as the time of hero. the expansive force of steam and the creation of a vacuum by its condensation had been known to the marquis of worcester, savery, papin, and many more. newcomen merely combined in his machine the result of their varied experience; and, assisted by the persons who worked with him, down to the engine-boy potter, he advanced the invention several important stages; so that the steam-engine was no longer a toy or a scientific curiosity, but had become a powerful machine capable of doing useful work. james watt and the steam-engine. it was in the year that robison[ ] first called the attention of his friend watt to the subject of the steam-engine. robison was then only in his twentieth, and watt in his twenty-third year. robison's idea was that the power of steam might be advantageously applied to the driving of wheel-carriages; and he suggested that it would be the most convenient for the purpose to place the cylinder with its open end downwards to avoid the necessity of using a working-beam. watt admits that he was very ignorant of the steam-engine at the time; nevertheless, he began making a model with two cylinders of tin plate, intending that the pistons and their connecting-rods should act alternately on two pinions attached to the axles of the carriage-wheels. but the model, being slightly and inaccurately made, did not answer his expectations. other difficulties presented themselves, and the scheme was laid aside because robison left glasgow to go to sea. indeed, mechanical science was not yet ripe for the locomotive. robison's idea had, however, dropped silently into the mind of his friend, where it grew from day to day, slowly and at length fruitfully. at his intervals of leisure and in the quiet of his evenings, watt continued to prosecute his various studies. he was shortly attracted by the science of chemistry, then in its infancy. dr. black was at that time occupied with the investigations which led to his discovery of the theory of latent heat, and it is probable that his familiar conversations with watt on the subject induced the latter to enter upon a series of experiments with the view of giving the theory some practical direction. his attention again and again reverted to the steam-engine, though he had not yet seen even a model of one. steam was as yet almost unknown in scotland as a working power. the first engine was erected at elphinstone colliery, in stirlingshire, about the year ; and the second more than ten years later, at govan colliery, near glasgow, where it was known by the startling name of "the firework." this had not, however, been set up at the time watt had begun to inquire into the subject. but he found that the college possessed the model of a newcomen engine for the use of the natural philosophy class, which had been sent to london for repair. on hearing of its existence, he suggested to his friend dr. anderson, professor of natural philosophy, the propriety of getting back the model; and a sum of money was placed by the senatus at the professor's disposal, "to recover the steam-engine from mr. sisson, instrument-maker in london." in the mean time watt sought to learn all that had been written on the subject of the steam-engine. he ascertained from desaguliers, switzer, and other writers, what had been accomplished by savery, newcomen, beighton, and others; and he went on with his own independent experiments. his first apparatus was of the simplest possible kind. he used common apothecaries' phials for his steam reservoirs, and canes hollowed out for his steam-pipes. in he proceeded to experiment on the force of steam by means of a small papin's digester and a syringe. the syringe was only the third of an inch in diameter, fitted with a solid piston; and it was connected with the digester by a pipe furnished with a stopcock, by which the steam was admitted or shut off at will. it was also itself provided with a stopcock, enabling a communication to be opened between the syringe and the outer air to permit the steam in the syringe to escape. the apparatus, though rude, enabled the experimenter to ascertain some important facts. when the steam in the digester was raised and the cock turned, enabling it to rush against the lower side of the piston, he found that the expansive force of the steam raised a weight of fifteen pounds, with which the piston was loaded. then on turning on the cock and shutting off the connection with the digester at the same time that a passage was opened to the air, the steam was allowed to escape, when the weight upon the piston, being no longer counteracted, immediately forced it to descend. watt saw that it would be easy to contrive that the cocks should be turned by the machinery itself with perfect regularity. but there was an objection to this method. water is converted into vapor as soon as its elasticity is sufficient to overcome the weight of the air which keeps it down. under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere water acquires this necessary elasticity at °; but as the steam in the digester was prevented from escaping, it acquired increased heat, and by consequence increased elasticity. hence it was that the steam which issued from the digester was not only able to support the piston and the air which pressed upon its upper surface, but the additional load with which the piston was weighted. with the imperfect mechanical construction, however, of those days, there was a risk lest the boiler should be burst by the steam, which was apt to force its way through the ill-made joints of the machine. this, conjoined with the great expenditure of steam on the high-pressure system, led watt to abandon the plan; and the exigencies of his business for a time prevented him from pursuing his experiments. at length the newcomen model arrived from london; and in the little engine, which was destined to become so famous, was put into the hands of watt. the boiler was somewhat smaller than an ordinary teakettle. the cylinder of the engine was only of two inches diameter and six inches stroke. watt at first regarded it as merely "a fine plaything." it was, however, enough to set him upon a track of thinking which led to the most important results. when he had repaired the model and set it to work, he found that the boiler, though apparently large enough, could not supply steam in sufficient quantity, and only a few strokes of the piston could be obtained, when the engine stopped. the fire was urged by blowing, and more steam was produced; but still it would not work properly. exactly at the point at which another man would have abandoned the task in despair, the mind of watt became thoroughly roused. "everything," says professor robison, "was to him the beginning of a new and serious study; and i knew that he would not quit it till he had either discovered its insignificance or had made something of it." thus it happened with the phenomena presented by the model of the steam-engine. watt referred to his books, and endeavored to ascertain from them by what means he might remedy the defects which he found in the model; but they could tell him nothing. he then proceeded with an independent course of experiments, resolved to work out the problem for himself. in the course of his inquiries he came upon a fact which, more than any other, led his mind into the train of thought which at last conducted him to the invention of which the results were destined to prove so stupendous. this fact was the existence of latent heat. in order to follow the track of investigation pursued by watt, it is necessary for a moment to revert to the action of the newcomen pumping-engine. a beam, moving upon a centre, had affixed to one end of it a chain attached to the piston of the pump, and at the other a chain attached to a piston that fitted into the steam-cylinder. it was by driving this latter piston up and down the cylinder that the pump was worked. to communicate the necessary movement to the piston, the steam generated in a boiler was admitted to the bottom of the cylinder, forcing out the air through a valve, where its pressure on the under side of the piston counterbalanced the pressure of the atmosphere on its upper side. the piston, thus placed between two equal forces, was drawn up to the top of the cylinder by the greater weight of the pump-gear at the opposite extremity of the beam. the steam, so far, only discharged the office of the air it displaced; but if the air had been allowed to remain, the piston once at the top of the cylinder could not have returned, being pressed as much by the atmosphere underneath as by the atmosphere above it. the steam, on the contrary, which was admitted by the exclusion of air, _could be condensed_, and a vacuum created, by injecting cold water through the bottom of the cylinder. the piston, being now unsupported, was forced down by the pressure of the atmosphere on its upper surface. when the piston reached the bottom, the steam was again let in, and the process was repeated. such was the engine in ordinary use for pumping water at the time that watt began his investigations. among his other experiments, he constructed a boiler which showed by inspection the quantity of water evaporated in any given time, and the quantity of steam used in every stroke of the engine. he was astonished to discover that a _small_ quantity of water in the form of steam heated a large quantity of cold water injected into the cylinder for the purpose of cooling it; and upon further examination he ascertained that steam heated six times its weight of cold water to °, which was the temperature of the steam itself. "being struck with this remarkable fact," says watt, "and not understanding the reason of it, i mentioned it to my friend dr. black, who then explained to me his doctrine of latent heat, which he had taught for some time before this period (the summer of ); but having myself been occupied by the pursuits of business, if i had heard of it i had not attended to it, when i thus stumbled upon one of the material facts by which that beautiful theory is supported." when watt found that water in its conversion into vapor became such a reservoir of heat, he was more than ever bent on economizing it; for the great waste of heat involving so heavy a consumption of fuel was felt to be the principal obstacle to the extended employment of steam as a motive power. he accordingly endeavored, with the same quantity of fuel, at once to increase the production of steam and to diminish its waste. he increased the heating surface of the boiler by making flues through it; he even made his boiler of wood, as being a worse conductor of heat than the brickwork which surrounds common furnaces; and he cased the cylinders and all the conducting pipes in materials which conducted heat very slowly. but none of these contrivances were effectual; for it turned out that the chief expenditure of steam, and consequently of fuel, in the newcomen engine, was occasioned by the reheating of the cylinder after the steam had been condensed, and the cylinder was consequently cooled by the injection into it of the cold water. nearly four fifths of the whole steam employed was condensed on its first admission, before the surplus could act upon the piston. watt therefore came to the conclusion that to make a perfect steam-engine it was necessary that _the cylinder should be always as hot as the steam that entered it_; but it was equally necessary that the steam should be condensed when the piston descended, nay, that it should be cooled down below °, or a considerable amount of vapor would be given off, which would resist the descent of the piston, and diminish the power of the engine. thus the cylinder was never to be at a less temperature than °, and yet at each descent of the piston it was to be less than °,--conditions which, on the very face of them, seemed to be wholly incompatible. though still occupied with his inquiries and experiments as to steam, watt did not neglect his proper business, but was constantly on the look-out for improvements in instrument-making. a machine which he invented for drawing in perspective proved a success; and he made a considerable number of them to order, for customers in london as well as abroad. he was also an indefatigable reader, and continued to extend his knowledge of chemistry and mechanics by perusal of the best books on these sciences. above all subjects, however, the improvement of the steam-engine continued to keep the fastest hold upon his mind. he still brooded over his experiments with the newcomen model, but did not seem to make much way in introducing any practical improvement in its mode of working. his friend robison says he struggled long to condense with sufficient rapidity without injection, trying one experiment after another, finding out what would _not_ do, and exhibiting many beautiful specimens of ingenuity and fertility of resource. he continued, to use his own words, "to grope in the dark, misled by many an _ignis fatuus_." it was a favorite saying of his that "nature has a weak side, if we can only find it out;" and he went on groping and feeling for it, but as yet in vain. at length light burst upon him, and all at once the problem over which he had been brooding was solved. the separate condenser. one sunday afternoon, in the spring of , he went to take an afternoon walk on the green, then a quiet grassy meadow used as a bleaching and grazing ground. on week days the glasgow lasses came thither with their largest kail-pots to boil their clothes in; and sturdy queans might be seen, with coats kilted, trampling blankets in their tubs. on sundays the place was comparatively deserted; and hence watt, who lived close at hand, went there to take a quiet afternoon stroll. his thoughts were as usual running on the subject of his unsatisfactory experiments with the newcomen engine, when the first idea of the separate condenser suddenly flashed upon his mind. but the notable discovery is best told in his own words, as related to mr. robert hart, many years after:-- "i had gone to take a walk on a fine sabbath afternoon. i had entered the green by the gate at the foot of charlotte street, and had passed the old washing-house. i was thinking upon the engine at the time, and had gone as far as the herd's house, when the idea came into my mind that as the steam was an elastic body, it would rush into a vacuum, and if a communication were made between the cylinder and an exhausted vessel, it would rush into it and might be then condensed without cooling the cylinder. i then saw that i must get rid of the condensed steam and the injection water if i used a jet, as in newcomen's engine. two ways of doing this occurred to me. first, the water might be run off by a descending pipe, if an off-let could be got at the depth of or feet, and any air might be extracted by a small pump. the second was to make the pump large enough to extract both water and air." he continued: "i had not walked farther than the golf-house when the whole thing was arranged in my mind." great and prolific ideas are almost always simple. what seems impossible at the outset appears so obvious when it is effected, that we are prone to marvel that it did not force itself at once upon the mind. late in life watt, with his accustomed modesty, declared his belief that if he had excelled, it had been by chance, and the neglect of others. to professor jardine he said that when it was analyzed the invention would not appear so great as it seemed to be. "in the state," said he, "in which i found the steam-engine, it was no great effort of mind to observe that the quantity of fuel necessary to make it work would forever prevent its extensive utility. the next step in my progress was equally easy,--to inquire what was the cause of the great consumption of fuel: this, too, was readily suggested, viz., the waste of fuel which was necessary to bring the whole cylinder, piston, and adjacent parts from the coldness of water to the heat of steam, no fewer than from fifteen to twenty times in a minute." the question then occurred, how was this to be avoided or remedied? it was at this stage that the idea of carrying on the condensation in a separate vessel flashed upon his mind, and solved the difficulty. mankind has been more just to watt than he was to himself. there was no accident in the discovery. it had been the result of close and continuous study; and the idea of the separate condenser was merely the last step of a long journey, a step which could not have been taken unless the road which led to it had been traversed. dr. black says, "this capital improvement flashed upon his mind at once, and filled him with rapture,"--a statement which, in spite of the unimpassioned nature of watt, we can readily believe. on the morning following his sunday afternoon's walk on glasgow green, watt was up betimes, making arrangements for a speedy trial of his new plan. he borrowed from a college friend a large brass syringe, an inch and a third in diameter, and ten inches long, of the kind used by anatomists for injecting arteries with wax previous to dissection. the body of the syringe served for a cylinder, the piston-rod passing through a collar of leather in its cover. a pipe connected with the boiler was inserted at both ends for the admission of steam, and at the upper end was another pipe to convey the steam to the condenser. the axis of the stem of the piston was drilled with a hole, fitted with a valve at its lower end, to permit the water produced by the condensed steam on first filling the cylinder to escape. the first condenser made use of was an improvised cistern of tinned plate, provided with a pump to get rid of the water formed by the condensation of the steam, both the condensing-pipes and the air-pump being placed in a reservoir of cold water. "the steam-pipe," says watt, "was adjusted to a small boiler. when the steam was produced, it was admitted into the cylinder, and soon issued through the perforation of the rod and at the valve of the condenser; when it was judged that the air was expelled, the steam-cock was shut, and the air-pump piston-rod was drawn up, which leaving the small pipes of the condenser in a state of vacuum, the steam entered them, and was condensed. the piston of the cylinder immediately rose, and lifted a weight of about eighteen pounds, which was hung to the lower end of the piston-rod. the exhaustion-cock was shut, the steam was re-admitted into the cylinder, and the operation was repeated. the quantity of steam consumed and the weights it could raise were observed, and, excepting the non-application of the steam-case and external covering, the invention was complete in so far as regarded the savings of steam and fuel." completing the invention. but although the invention was complete in watt's mind, it took him many long and laborious years to work out the details of the engine. his friend robison, with whom his intimacy was maintained during these interesting experiments, has given a graphic account of the difficulties which he successively encountered and overcame. he relates that on his return from the country, after the college vacation in , he went to have a chat with watt and communicate to him some observations he had made on desaguliers' and belidor's account of the steam-engine. he went straight into the parlor, without ceremony, and found watt sitting before the fire looking at a little tin cistern which he had on his knee. robison immediately started the conversation about steam; his mind, like watt's, being occupied with the means of avoiding the excessive waste of heat in the newcomen engine. watt all the while kept looking into the fire, and after a time laid down the cistern at the foot of his chair, saying nothing. it seems that watt felt rather nettled that robison had communicated to a mechanic of the town a contrivance which he had hit upon for turning the cocks of his engine. when robison therefore pressed his inquiry, watt at length looked at him and said briskly, "you need not fash yourself any more about that, man. i have now made an engine that shall not waste a particle of steam. it shall all be boiling hot,--ay, and hot water injected, if i please." he then pushed the little tin cistern with his foot under the table. robison could learn no more of the new contrivance from watt at that time; but on the same evening he accidentally met a mutual acquaintance, who, supposing he knew as usual the progress of watt's experiments, observed to him, "well, have you seen jamie watt?" "yes." "he'll be in fine spirits now with his engine?" "yes," said robison, "very fine spirits." "gad!" said the other, "the separate condenser's the thing; keep it but cold enough, and you may have a perfect vacuum, whatever be the heat of the cylinder." this was watt's secret, and the nature of the contrivance was clear to robison at once. it will be observed that watt had not made a secret of it to his other friends. indeed, robison himself admitted that one of watt's greatest delights was to communicate the results of his experiments to others, and set them upon the same road to knowledge with himself; and that no one could display less of the small jealousy of the tradesman than he did. to his intimate friend dr. black he communicated the progress made by him at every stage. the doctor kindly encouraged him in his struggles, cheered him in his encounter with difficulty, and, what was of still more practical value at the time, helped him with money to enable him to prosecute his invention. communicative though watt was disposed to be, he learnt reticence when he found himself exposed to the depredations of the smaller fry of inventors. robison says that had he lived in birmingham or london at the time, the probability is that some one or other of the numerous harpies who live by sucking other people's brains would have secured patents for his more important inventions, and thereby deprived him of the benefits of his skill, science, and labor. as yet, however, there were but few mechanics in glasgow capable of understanding or appreciating the steam-engine; and the intimate friends to whom he freely spoke of his discovery were too honorable to take advantage of his confidence. shortly after watt communicated to robison the different stages of his invention, and the results at which he had arrived, much to the delight of his friend. it will be remembered that in the newcomen engine the steam was only employed for the purpose of producing a vacuum, and that its working power was in the down stroke, which was effected by the pressure of the air upon the piston; hence it is now usual to call it the atmospheric engine. watt perceived that the air which followed the piston down the cylinder would cool the latter, and that steam would be wasted by reheating it. in order, therefore, to avoid this loss of heat, he resolved to put an air-tight cover upon the cylinder, with a hole and stuffing-box for the piston-rod to slide through, and to admit steam above the piston, to act upon it instead of the atmosphere. when the steam had done its duty in driving down the piston, a communication was opened between the upper and lower part of the cylinder; and the same steam, distributing itself equally in both compartments, sufficed to restore equilibrium. the piston was now drawn up by the weight of the pump-gear; the steam beneath it was then condensed in the separate vessel so as to produce a vacuum, and a fresh jet of steam from the boiler was let in above the piston, which forced it again to the bottom of the cylinder. from an atmospheric engine it had thus become a true steam-engine, and with much greater economy of steam than when the air did half the duty. but it was not only important to keep the air from flowing down the inside of the cylinder; the air which circulated within cooled the metal and condensed a portion of the steam within; and this watt proposed to remedy by a second cylinder, surrounding the first, with an interval between the two which was to be kept full of steam. one by one these various contrivances were struck out, modified, settled, and reduced to definite plans,--the separate condenser, the air and water pumps, the use of fat and oil (instead of water, as in the newcomen engine) to keep the piston working in the cylinder air-tight, and the enclosing of the cylinder itself within another to prevent the loss of heat. these were all emanations from the first idea of inventing an engine working by a piston, in which the cylinder should be continually hot and perfectly dry. "when once," says watt, "the idea of separate condensation was started, all these improvements followed as corollaries in quick succession, so that in the course of one or two days the invention was thus far complete in my mind." watt makes his model. the next step was to construct a model engine for the purpose of embodying the invention in a working form. with this object, watt hired an old cellar, situated in the first wide entry to the north of the beef-market in king street, and then proceeded with his model. he found it much easier, however, to prepare his plan than to execute it. like most ingenious and inventive men, watt was extremely fastidious; and this occasioned considerable delay in the execution of the work. his very inventiveness to some extent proved a hindrance; for new expedients were perpetually occurring to him, which he thought would be improvements, and which he, by turns, endeavored to introduce. some of these expedients he admits proved fruitless, and all of them occasioned delay. another of his chief difficulties was in finding competent workmen to execute his plans. he himself had been accustomed only to small metal work, with comparatively delicate tools, and had very little experience "in the practice of mechanics _in great_" as he termed it. he was therefore under the necessity of depending, in a great measure, upon the handiwork of others. but mechanics capable of working out watt's designs in metal were then with difficulty to be found. the beautiful self-action and workmanship which have since been called into being, principally by his own invention, did not then exist. the only available hands in glasgow were the blacksmiths and tinners, little capable of constructing articles out of their ordinary walks; and even in these they were often found clumsy, blundering, and incompetent. the result was, that in consequence of the malconstruction of the larger parts, watt's first model was only partially successful. the experiments made with it, however, served to verify the expectations he had formed, and to place the advantages of the invention beyond the reach of doubt. on the exhausting-cock being turned, the piston, when loaded with eighteen pounds, ascended as quickly as the blow of a hammer; and the moment the steam-cock was opened, it descended with like rapidity, though the steam was weak, and the machine snifted at many openings. satisfied that he had laid hold of the right principle of a working steam-engine, watt felt impelled to follow it to an issue. he could give his mind to no other business in peace until this was done. he wrote to a friend that he was quite barren on every other subject. "my whole thoughts," said he, "are bent on this machine. i can think of nothing else." he proceeded to make another and bigger, and, he hoped, a more satisfactory engine in the following august; and with that object he removed from the old cellar in king street to a larger apartment in the then disused pottery, or delftwork, near the broomielaw. there he shut himself up with his assistant, john gardiner, for the purpose of erecting his engine. the cylinder was five or six inches in diameter, with a two-feet stroke. the inner cylinder was enclosed in a wooden steam-case, and placed inverted, the piston working through a hole in the bottom of the steam-case. after two months continuous application and labor it was finished and set to work; but it leaked in all directions, and the piston was far from air-tight. the condenser also was in a bad way, and needed many alterations. nevertheless, the engine readily worked with ten and a half pounds pressure on the inch, and the piston lifted a weight of fourteen pounds. the improvement of the cylinder and piston continued watt's chief difficulty, and taxed his ingenuity to the utmost. at so low an ebb was the art of making cylinders that the one he used was not bored, but hammered, the collective mechanical skill of glasgow being then unequal to the boring of a cylinder of the simplest kind; nor, indeed, did the necessary appliances for the purpose then exist anywhere else. in the newcomen engine a little water was found upon the upper surface of the piston, and sufficiently filled up the interstices between the piston and the cylinder. but when watt employed steam to drive down the piston, he was deprived of this resource, for the water and steam could not coexist. even if he had retained the agency of the air above, the drip of water from the crevices into the lower part of the cylinder would have been incompatible with keeping the cylinder hot and dry, and, by turning into vapor as it fell upon the heated metal, it would have impaired the vacuum during the descent of the piston. while he was occupied with this difficulty, and striving to overcome it by the adoption of new expedients, such as leather collars and improved workmanship, he wrote to a friend, "my old white-iron man is dead;" the old white-iron man, or tinner, being his leading mechanic. unhappily, also, just as he seemed to have got the engine into working order, the beam broke, and, having great difficulty in replacing the damaged part, the accident threatened, together with the loss of his best workman, to bring the experiment to an end. though discouraged by these misadventures, he was far from defeated. but he went on as before, battling down difficulty inch by inch, and holding good the ground he had won, becoming every day more strongly convinced that he was in the right track, and that the important uses of the invention, could he but find time and means to perfect it, were beyond the reach of doubt. but how to find the means! watt himself was a comparatively poor man; having no money but what he earned by his business of mechanical-instrument making, which he had for some time been neglecting through his devotion to the construction of his engine. what he wanted was capital, or the help of a capitalist willing to advance him the necessary funds to perfect his invention. to give a fair trial to the new apparatus would involve an expenditure of several thousand pounds; and who on the spot could be expected to invest so large a sum in trying a machine so entirely new, depending for its success on physical principles very imperfectly understood? there was no such help to be found in glasgow. the tobacco lords,[ ] though rich, took no interest in steam power; and the manufacturing class, though growing in importance, had full employment for their little capital in their own concerns. "how watt succeeded in interesting dr. roebuck in his project, and thus obtained funds to continue his experiments; how he finally joined with matthew boulton in the great firm of boulton and watt, manufacturers of steam-engines; how they pumped out all the water in the cornish mines; and how watt finally attained prosperity as well as success,--is an interesting story, but rather too long for these winter afternoons; and as the story of the _invention_ of the steam-engine is substantially told in the foregoing pages, we must stop our reading here, more especially as it seems to be tea-time, and i hear ellen ringing the bell for supper." ix. robert fulton. they were to continue their talk and reading by following along the developments in the use of steam. "uncle fritz," said fanchon, "these agnostics make so much fun of our dear harry and lucy, that they will not let me quote from 'the botanic garden.'" emma promised that they would laugh as little as they could. "'the botanic garden,'" said fanchon, "was a stately, and i am afraid some of you would say very pompous, poem, written by dr. darwin." "dr. darwin write poetry!" "it is not the dr. charles darwin whom you have heard of; it was his grandfather," said uncle fritz. and fanchon went on: "all i ever knew of 'the botanic garden' was in the quotations of our dear harry and lucy and frank. but dear uncle fritz has taken down the book for me, and here it is, with its funny old pictures of ladies' slippers and such things." "i do not see what ladies' slippers have to do with steam-engines," said bedford long, scornfully. "no!" said fanchon, laughing; "but i do, and that is the difference between you and me. because, you see, i have read 'harry and lucy,' and you have not." and she opened "the botanic garden" at the place where she had put in a mark, and read:-- "pressed by the ponderous air, the piston falls resistless, sliding through its iron walls; quick moves the balance beam of giant birth, wields its large limbs, and nodding shakes the earth. the giant power, from earth's remotest caves lifts, with strong arm, her dark reluctant waves, each caverned rock and hidden depth explores, drags her dark coals, and digs her shining ores." "that is rather stilted poetry," said uncle fritz, "but a hundred years ago people were used to stilted poetry. it describes sufficiently well the original pumping-engine of watt, and the lifting of coal from the shafts of the deep english mines. now, it was not till watt had made his improvements on the pumping-engine,--say in ,--that it was possible to go any farther in the use of steam than its application to such absolutely stationary purposes. it is therefore, i think, a good deal to the credit of dr. darwin, that within three years after watt's great improvement in the condensing-engine the doctor should have written this:-- 'soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam, afar drag the slow barge or drive the rapid car.' it was twelve years after he wrote this, that fulton had an experimental steamboat on the river seine in france. it was sixteen years after, that, with one of watt's own engines, fulton drove the 'clermont' from new york to albany in thirty-six hours, and revolutionized the world in doing it. "poor james mackintosh was in virtual exile in calcutta at that time, and he wrote this in his journal: 'a boat propelled by steam has gone a hundred and fifty miles upon the hudson in thirty-six hours. four miles an hour would bring calcutta within a hundred days of london. oh that we had lived a hundred years later!' in less than fifty years after mackintosh wrote those words, calcutta was within thirty days of london. "when harry and lucy read these verses in , the 'rapid car' was still in the future." "yes," said fanchon; "but harry says, 'the rapid car is to come, and i dare say that will be accomplished soon, papa; do not you think it will?'" "i have sometimes wondered," said uncle fritz, "whether our american word 'car' where the english say 'wagon' did not come from the 'rapid car' of dr. darwin. read on, fanchon." and he put his finger on the lines which fanchon read:-- "or on wide waving wings, expanded, bear the flying chariot through the fields of air." "monsieur ----, the french gentleman, tried a light steam-engine for the propulsion of a balloon in ; but it does not seem to have had power enough. messrs. renard and krebs, in their successful flight of august last, used an electric battery. "but we are getting away from fulton, who is really the first who drove the 'slow barge,' and indeed made it a very fast one." "did you know him?" asked emma fortinbras, whose ideas of chronology are very vague. "oh, no!" said uncle fritz; "he died young and before my time. but i did know a personal companion and friend, nay, a bedfellow of his, benjamin church, who was with him in paris at one of the crises of his life. fulton had a little steamboat on the river seine, as i said just now; and he had made interest with napoleon to have it examined by a scientific committee. steam power was exactly what napoleon wanted, to take his great army across from boulogne to england. the day came for the great experiment. church and fulton slept, the night before, in the same bed in their humble lodgings in paris. at daybreak a messenger waked them. he had come from the river to say that the weight of boiler and machinery had been too much for the little boat, that her timbers had given way, and that the whole had sunk to the bottom of the river. but for this misfortune, the successful steamboat would have sailed upon the seine, and, for aught i know, napoleon's grandchildren would now be emperors of england." until watt had completed the structure of the double-acting condensing-engine, the application of steam to any but the single object of pumping water had been almost impracticable. it was not enough, in order to render it applicable to general purposes, that the condensation of the water should take place in a separate vessel, and that steam itself should be used, instead of atmospheric pressure, as the moving power; but it was also necessary that the steam should act as well during the ascent as during the descent of the piston. before steam could be used in moving paddle-wheels, it was in addition necessary that a ready and convenient mode of making the motion of the piston continuous and rotary, should be discovered. all these improvements upon the original form of the steam-engine are due to watt, and he did not complete their perfect combination before the year . evans, who, in this country, saw the possibility of constructing a double-acting engine, even before watt, and had made a model of his machine, did not succeed in obtaining funds to make an experiment upon a large scale before . we conceive, therefore, that all those who projected the application of steam to vessels before , may be excluded, without ceremony, from the list of those entitled to compete with fulton for the honors of invention. no one, indeed, could have seen the powerful action of a pumping-engine without being convinced that the energy which was applied so successfully to that single purpose, might be made applicable to many others; but those who entertained a belief that the original atmospheric engine, or even the single-acting engine of watt, could be applied to propel boats by paddle-wheels, showed a total ignorance of mechanical principles. this is more particularly the case with all those whose projects bore the strongest resemblance to the plan which fulton afterwards carried successfully into effect. those who approached most nearly to the attainment of success, were they who were farthest removed from the plan of fulton. his application was founded on the properties of watt's double-acting engine, and could not have been used at all, until that instrument of universal application had received the last finish of its inventor. in this list of failures, from proposing to do what the instrument they employed was incapable of performing, we do not hesitate to include savery, papin, jonathan hulls, périer, the marquis de jouffroy, and all the other names of earlier date than , whom the jealousy of the french and english nations have drawn from oblivion for the purpose of contesting the priority of fulton's claims. the only competitor, whom they might have brought forward with some shadow of plausibility, is watt himself. no sooner had that illustrious inventor completed his double-acting engine, than he saw at a glance the vast field of its application. navigation and locomotion were not omitted; but living in an inland town, and in a country possessing no rivers of importance, his views were limited to canals alone. in this direction he saw an immediate objection to the use of any apparatus, of which so powerful an agent as his engine should be the mover; for it was clear, that the injury which would be done to the banks of the canal, would prevent the possibility of its introduction. watt, therefore, after having conceived the idea of a steamboat, laid it aside, as unlikely to be of any practical value. the idea of applying steam to navigation was not confined to europe. numerous americans entertained hopes of attaining the same object, but, before , with the same want of any reasonable hopes of success. their fruitless projects were, however, rebuked by franklin, who, reasoning upon the capabilities of the engine in its original form, did not hesitate to declare all their schemes impracticable; and the correctness of his judgment is at present unquestionable. among those who, before the completion of watt's invention, attempted the structure of steamboats, must be named with praise fitch and rumsey. they, unlike those whose names have been cited, were well aware of the real difficulties which they were to overcome; and both were the authors of plans which, if the engine had been incapable of further improvement, might have had a partial and limited success. fitch's trial was made in , and rumsey's in . the latter date is subsequent to watt's double-acting engine; but as the project consisted merely in pumping in water, to be afterwards forced out at the stern, the single-acting engine was probably employed. evans, whose engine might have answered the purpose, was employed in the daily business of millwright; and although he might, at any time, have driven these competitors from the field, he took no steps to apply his dormant invention. fitch, who had watched the graceful and rapid way of the indian canoe, saw in the oscillating motion of the old pumping-engine the means of impelling paddles in a manner similar to that given them by the human arm. this idea is extremely ingenious, and was applied in a simple and beautiful manner. but the engine was yet too feeble and cumbrous to yield an adequate force; and when it received its great improvement from watt, a more efficient mode of propulsion had become practicable, and must have superseded fitch's paddles had they even come into general use. the experiments of fitch and rumsey in the united states, although generally considered unsuccessful, did not deter others from similar attempts. the great rivers and arms of the sea which intersect the atlantic coast, and, still more, the innumerable navigable arms of the father of waters, appeared to call upon the ingenious machinist to contrive means for their more convenient navigation. the improvement of the engine by watt was now familiarly known; and it was evident that it possessed sufficient powers for the purpose. the only difficulty which existed, was in the mode of applying it. the first person who entered into the inquiry was john stevens, of hokoken, who commenced his researches in . in these he was steadily engaged for nine years, when he became the associate of chancellor livingston and nicholas roosevelt. among the persons employed by this association was brunel, who has since become distinguished in europe as the inventor of the block machinery used in the british navy-yards, and as the engineer of the tunnel beneath the thames. even with the aid of such talent, the efforts of this association were unsuccessful,--as we now know, from no error in principle, but from defects in the boat to which it was applied. the appointment of livingston as ambassador to france broke up this joint effort; and, like all previous schemes, it was considered abortive, and contributed to throw discredit upon all undertakings of the kind. a grant of exclusive privileges on the waters of the state of new york was made to this association without any difficulty, it being believed that the scheme was little short of madness. livingston, on his arrival in france, found fulton domiciliated with joel barlow. the conformity in their pursuits led to intimacy, and fulton speedily communicated to livingston the scheme[ ] which he had laid before earl stanhope in . livingston was so well pleased with it that he at once offered to provide the funds necessary for an experiment, and to enter into a contract for fulton's aid in introducing the method into the united states, provided the experiment were successful. fulton had, in his early discussion with lord stanhope, repudiated the idea of an apparatus acting on the principle of the foot of an aquatic bird, and had proposed paddle-wheels in its stead. on resuming his inquiries after his arrangements with livingston, it occurred to him to compose wheels with a set of paddles revolving upon an endless chain extending from the stem to the stern of the boat. it is probable that the apparent want of success which had attended the experiments of symington[ ] led him to doubt the correctness of his original views. that such doubt should be entirely removed, he had recourse to a series of experiments upon a small scale. these were performed at plombières, a french watering-place, where he spent the summer of . in these experiments the superiority of the paddle-wheel over every other method of propulsion that had yet been proposed, was fully established. his original impressions being thus confirmed, he proceeded, late in the year , to construct a working model of his intended boat, which model was deposited with a commission of french _savans_. he at the same time began building a vessel sixty-six feet in length and eight feet in width. to this an engine was adapted; and the experiment made with it was so satisfactory, as to leave little doubt of final success. measures were therefore immediately taken, preparatory to constructing a steamboat on a larger scale in the united states. for this purpose, as the workshops of neither france nor america could at that time furnish an engine of good quality, it became necessary to resort to england for that purpose. fulton had already experienced the difficulty of being compelled to employ artists unacquainted with the subject. it is, indeed, more than probable, that, had he not, during his residence in birmingham, made himself familiar, not only with the general features, but with the most minute details of the engine of watt, the experiment on the seine could not have been made. in this experiment, and in the previous investigations, it became obvious that the engine of watt required important modifications in order to adapt it to navigation. these modifications had been planned by fulton; but it now became important, that they should be more fully tested. an engine was therefore ordered from watt and boulton, without any specification of the object to which it was to be applied; and its form was directed to be varied from their usual models, in conformity to sketches furnished by fulton. the order for an engine intended to propel a vessel of large size, was transmitted to watt and boulton in . at about the same time, chancellor livingston, having full confidence in the success of the enterprise, caused an application to be made to the legislature of new york for an exclusive privilege of navigating the waters of that state by steam, that which was granted on a former occasion having expired. this privilege was granted with little opposition. indeed, those who might have been inclined to object, saw so much of the impracticable and even of the ridiculous in the project, that they conceived the application unworthy of serious debate. the condition attached to the grant was, that a vessel should be propelled by steam at the rate of four miles an hour, within a prescribed space of time. this reliance upon the reserved rights of the states proved a fruitful source of vexation to livingston and fulton, and imbittered the close of the life of the latter, and reduced his family to penury. it can hardly be doubted that, had an expectation been entertained, that the grant of a state was ineffectual, and that the jurisdiction was vested in the general government, a similar grant might have been obtained from congress. the influence of livingston with the administration was deservedly high, and that administration was supported by a powerful majority; nor would it have been consistent with the principles of the opposition to vote against any act of liberality to the introducer of a valuable application of science. livingston, however, confiding in his skill as a lawyer, preferred the application to the state, and was thus, by his own act, restricted to a limited field. before the engine ordered from watt and boulton was completed, fulton visited england, and thus had an opportunity of visiting birmingham, and directing, in person, its construction. it could only have been at this time, if ever, that he saw the boat of symington;[ ] but a view of it could have produced no effect upon his own plans, which had been matured in france, and carried, so far as the engine was concerned, to such an extent as to admit of no alteration. the engine was at last completed, and reached new york in . fulton, who returned to his native country about the same period, immediately undertook the construction of a boat in which to place it. in ordering his engine and in planning the boat, fulton exhibited plainly how far his scientific researches and practical experiments had placed him before all his competitors. he had evidently ascertained, what each successive year's experience proves more fully, the great advantages possessed by large steamboats over those of smaller size; and thus, while all previous attempts had been made in smaller vessels, he alone resolved to make his final experiment in one of great dimensions. that a vessel, intended to be propelled by steam, ought to have very different proportions, and lines of a character wholly distinct from those of vessels intended to be navigated by sails, was evident to him. no other theory, however, of the resistance of fluids was admitted at the time than that of bossut, and there were no published experiments except those of the british society of arts. judged in reference to these, the model chosen by fulton was faultless, although it will not stand the test of an examination founded upon a better theory and more accurate experiments. the vessel was finished and fitted with her machinery in august, . an experimental excursion was forthwith made, at which a number of gentlemen of science and intelligence were present. many of these were either sceptical or absolute unbelievers. but a few minutes served to convert the whole party, and satisfy the most obstinate doubters, that the long-desired object was at last accomplished. only a few weeks before, the cost of constructing and finishing the vessel threatening to exceed the funds with which he had been provided by livingston, fulton had attempted to obtain a supply by the sale of one third of the exclusive right granted by the state of new york. no person was found possessed of the faith requisite to induce him to embark in the project. those who had rejected this opportunity of investment, were now the witnesses of the completion of the scheme, which they had considered as an inadequate security for the desired funds. within a few days from the time of the first experiment with the steamboat, a voyage was undertaken in it to albany. this city, situated at the natural head of the navigation of the hudson, is distant, by the line of the channel of the river, rather less than one hundred and fifty miles from new york. by the old post-road, the distance is one hundred and sixty miles, at which that by water is usually estimated. although the greater part of the channel of the hudson is both deep and wide, yet for about fourteen miles below albany this character is not preserved, and the stream, confined within comparatively small limits, is obstructed by bars of sand or spreads itself over shallows. in a few remarkable instances, the sloops, which then exclusively navigated the hudson, had effected a passage in about sixteen hours; but a whole week was not unfrequently employed in the voyage, and the average time of passage was not less than four entire days. in fulton's first attempt to navigate this stream, the passage to albany was performed in thirty-two hours, and the return in thirty. up to this time, although the exclusive grant had been sought and obtained from the state of new york, it does not appear that either he or his associate had been fully aware of the vast opening which the navigation of the hudson presented for the use of steam. they looked to the rapid mississippi and its branches, as the place where their triumph was to be achieved; and the original boat, modelled for shallow waters, was announced as intended for the navigation of that river. but even in the very first attempt, numbers, called by business or pleasure to the northern or western parts of the state of new york, crowded into the yet untried vessel; and when the success of the attempt was beyond question, no little anxiety was manifested, that the steamboat should be established as a regular packet between new york and albany. with these indications of public feeling fulton immediately complied, and regular voyages were made at stated times until the end of the season. these voyages were not, however, unattended with inconvenience. the boat, designed for a mere experiment, was incommodious; and many of the minor arrangements by which facility of working and safety from accident to the machinery were to be insured, were yet wanting. fulton continued a close and attentive observer of the performance of the vessel; every difficulty, as it manifested itself, was met and removed by the most masterly as well as simple contrivances. some of these were at once adopted, while others remained to be applied while the boat should be laid up for the winter. he thus gradually formed in his mind the idea of a complete and perfect vessel; and in his plan, no one part which has since been found to be essential to the ease of manoeuvre or security, was omitted. but the eyes of the whole community were now fixed upon the steamboat; and as all those of competent mechanical knowledge were, like fulton himself, alive to the defects of the original vessel, his right to priority of invention of various important accessories has been disputed. the winter of - was occupied in remodelling and rebuilding the vessel, to which the name "clermont" was now given. the guards and housings for the wheels, which had been but temporary structures, applied as their value was pointed out by experience, became solid and essential parts of the boat. for a rudder of the ordinary form, one of surface much more extended in its horizontal dimensions was substituted. this, instead of being moved by a tiller, was acted upon by ropes applied to its extremity; and these ropes were adapted to a steering-wheel, which was raised aloft towards the bow of the vessel. it had been shown by the numbers who were transported during the first summer, that at the same price for passage, many were willing to undergo all the inconveniences of the original rude accommodations, in preference to encountering the delays and uncertainty to which the passage in sloops was exposed. fulton did not, however, take advantage of his monopoly, but with the most liberal spirit, provided such accommodations for passengers, as in convenience and even splendor, had not before been approached in vessels intended for the transportation of travellers. this was, on his part, an exercise of almost improvident liberality. by his contract with chancellor livingston, the latter undertook to defray the whole cost of the engine and vessel, until the experiment should result in success; but from that hour each was to furnish an equal share of all investments. fulton had no patrimonial fortune, and what little he had saved from the product of his ingenuity was now exhausted. but the success of the experiment had inspired the banks and capitalists with confidence, and he now found no difficulty in obtaining, in the way of loan, all that was needed. still, however, a debt was thus contracted which the continued demands made upon him for new investments never permitted him to discharge. the "clermont," thus converted into a floating palace, gay with ornamental painting, gilding, and polished woods, began her course of passages for the second year in the month of april. the first voyage of this year was of the most discouraging character. chancellor livingston, who had, by his own experiments, approached as near to success as any other person who, before fulton, had endeavored to navigate by steam, and who had furnished all the capital necessary for the experiment, had plans and projects of his own. these he urged into execution in spite of the opposition of fulton. the boiler furnished by watt and boulton was not adapted to the object. copied from those used on the land, it required that its fireplace and flues should be constructed of masonry. these added so much weight to the apparatus, that the rebuilt boat would hardly have floated had they been retained. in order to replace this boiler, livingston had planned a compound structure of wood and copper, which he insisted should be tried. it is only necessary for us to say, that this boiler proved a complete failure. steam began to issue from its joints a few hours after the "clermont" left new york. it then became impossible to keep up a proper degree of tension, and the passage was thus prolonged to forty-eight hours. these defects increased after leaving albany on the return, and the boiler finally gave way altogether within a few miles of new york. the time of the downward passage was thus extended to fifty-six hours. fulton was, however, thus relieved from all further interference; this fruitless experiment was decisive as to his superiority over his colleague in mechanical skill. he therefore immediately planned and directed the execution of a new boiler, which answered the purpose perfectly; and although there are many reasons why boilers of a totally different form and of subsequent invention should be preferred, it is, for its many good properties, extensively used, with little alteration, up to the present day. but a few weeks sufficed to build and set this boiler, and in the month of june the regular passages of the "clermont" were renewed. in observing the hour appointed for departure, both from new york and albany, fulton determined to insist upon the utmost regularity. it required no little perseverance and resolution to carry this system of punctuality into effect. persons accustomed to be waited for by packet-boats and stages, assented with great reluctance to what they conceived to be a useless adherence to precision of time. the benefits of this punctuality were speedily perceptible; the whole system of internal communication of the state of new york was soon regulated by the hours of arrival and departure of fulton's steamboats; and the same system of precision was copied in all other steamboat lines. the certainty of conveyance at stated times being thus secured, the number of travellers was instantly augmented; and before the end of the second summer, the boat became far too small for the passengers, who crowded to avail themselves of this novel, punctual, and unprecedentedly rapid method of transport. such success, however, was not without its alloy. the citizens of albany and the river towns saw, as they thought, in the steamboat, the means of enticing their customers from their ancient marts to the more extensive market of the chief city; the skippers of the river mourned the inevitable loss of a valuable part of their business; and innumerable projectors beheld with envy the successful enterprise of fulton. among the latter class was one who, misled by false notions of mechanical principles, fancied that in the mere oscillations of a pendulum lay a power sufficient for any purpose whatever. availing himself of a well-constructed model, he exhibited to the inhabitants of albany a pendulum which continued its motions for a considerable time, without requiring any new impulse, and at the same time propelled a pair of wheels. these wheels, however, did not work in water. those persons who felt themselves aggrieved by the introduction of steamboats, quickly embraced this project, prompted by an enmity to fulton, and determined, if they could not defeat his object, at least to share in the profits of its success. it soon appeared, from preliminary experiments, made in a sloop purchased for the purpose, that a steam-engine would be required to give motion to the pendulum; and it was observed that the water-wheels, when in connection with the pendulum, had a very irregular motion. a fly-wheel was therefore added, and the pendulum was now found to be a useless incumbrance. enlightened by these experiments, the association proceeded to build two boats; and these were exact copies, not only of the hull and all the accessories of the "clermont," but the engine turned out to be identical in form and structure with one which fulton was at the very time engaged in fitting to his second boat, "the car of neptune." the pretence of bringing into use a new description of prime mover was of course necessarily abandoned, and the owners of the new steamboats determined boldly to test the constitutionality of the exclusive grant to fulton. fulton and livingston, in consequence, applied to the court of chancery of the state of new york for an injunction, which was refused. on an appeal to the court of errors this decision of the chancellor was reversed; but the whole of the profits which might have been derived from the business of the year were prevented from accruing to livingston and fulton, who, compelled to contend in price with an opposition supported by popular feeling in albany, were losers rather than gainers by the operations of the season. as no appeal was taken from this last decision, the waters of the state of new york remained in the exclusive possession of fulton and his partner, until the death of the former. this exclusive possession was not, however, attended with all the advantages that might have been anticipated. the immense increase of travel which the facilities of communication created, rendered it imperative upon the holders of the monopoly to provide new facilities by the construction of new vessels. the cost of these could not be defrayed out of the profits. hence new and heavy debts were necessarily contracted by fulton, while livingston, possessed of an ample fortune, required no pecuniary aid beyond what he was able to meet from his own resources. the most formidable opposition which was made to the privileges of fulton, was founded upon the discoveries of fitch. we have seen, that he constructed a boat which made some passages between trenton and philadelphia; but the method which he used, was that of paddles, which are far inferior to the paddle-wheel. of the inferiority of the method of paddles, had any doubt remained, positive evidence was afforded in the progress of this dispute; for in order to bring the question to the test of a legal decision, a boat propelled by them was brought into the waters of the state of new york. the result of the experiment was so decisive, that when the parties engaged in the enterprise had succeeded in their designs, they made no attempt to propel their boats by any other method than that of wheels. fulton, assailed in his exclusive privileges derived from state grants, took, for his further protection, a patent from the general government. this is dated in , and was followed by another, for improvements upon it, in . it now appeared, that the very circumstance in which the greatest merit of his method consists, was to be the obstacle to his maintaining an exclusive privilege. discarding all complexity, he had limited himself to the simple means of adapting paddle-wheels to the crank of watt's engine; and, under the patent laws, it seems hardly possible that such a simple yet effectual method could be guarded by a specification. as has been the case with many other important discoveries, the most ignorant conceived that they might themselves have discovered it; and those unacquainted with the history of the attempts at navigation by steam, were compelled to wonder that it had been left for fulton to bring it into successful operation. before the death of fulton, the steamboats on the hudson river were increased in number to five. a sixth was built under his direction for the navigation of the sound; and, this water being rendered unsafe by the presence of an enemy's[ ] squadron, the boat plied for a time upon the hudson. in the construction of this boat he had, in his own opinion, exhausted the power of steam in navigation, having given it a speed of nine miles an hour; and it is a remarkable fact, which manifests his acquaintance with theory and skill in calculation, that he in all cases predicted with almost absolute accuracy, the velocity of the vessels he caused to be constructed. the engineers of great britain came, long after, to a similar conclusion in respect to the maximum of speed. it is now, however, well known, that, with a proper construction of prows, the resistance to vessels moving at higher velocities than nine miles an hour, increases in a much less ratio than had been inferred from experiments made upon wedge-shaped bodies; and that the velocity of the pistons of steam-engines may be conveniently increased beyond the limit fixed by the practice of watt. for these important discoveries the world is indebted principally to robert l. stevens. that fulton must have reached them in the course of his own practice can hardly be doubted, had his valuable life been spared to watch the performance of the vessels he was engaged in building at the time of his premature death.[ ] these were, a large boat intended for the navigation of the hudson, to which the name of his partner, chancellor livingston, was given, and one planned for the navigation of the ocean. the latter was constructed with the intention of making a passage to st. petersburg; but this scheme was interrupted by his death, which took place at the moment he was about to add to his glory, as the first constructor of a successful steamboat, that of being the first navigator of the ocean by this new and mighty agent. x. george stephenson and the locomotive. "what i say is this," said nahum, "that all your vesuvius dividends, and all your pickers and slobbers, and shirtings at four cents, and all the rest of your great cotton victory, depend on railroads. if your father could not go to lewiston and see his foreman and people, and come back before you can say jack robinson, there would be no mills at lewiston such as there are. there might be a poor little sawmill making shingles, as you free-traders want." this with scorn at fergus, perhaps, or some one else suspected of views unfavorable to protection. then nahum shook hands with uncle fritz, and apologized for his zeal, adding: "i am telling the boys why i want to go to altoona, and to become a railroad man. i say that the new plant in india might knock cotton higher than a kite, and that people might learn to live without novels or magazines, but that they must have transportation all the same. and i am going into the railroad business. i am going to hew down the mountains and fill up the valleys." the boy was fairly eloquent in his enthusiasm. "it is in your blood, my brave fellow," said uncle fritz. "people thought your grandfather was crazy when he said it, sixty years ago. but it proved he was the seer and the prophet, and they were the fools." "and who invented railroads?" asked blanche. "as to that, the man invented a railroad who first put two boards down over two ruts to make a cart run easier. almost as soon as there were mines, there must have been some sort of rail for the use of the wagons which brought out the ore. these rails became so useful that they were continued from the mine to the high-road, whatever it was. but it was not till the first quarter of this century, that rails were laid for general use. the earliest railroad in the united states was laid at the quarries in quincy, in massachusetts, in ." uncle fritz was so well pleased at their eagerness that he brought out for them some of the old books, and some of the new. in especial he bade them all read smiles's "life of stephenson" before they came to him again. for to george stephenson, as they soon learned, more than to any one man, the world owes the step forward which it made when locomotives were generally used on railroads. since that time the improvements in both have gone on together. before they met again, at uncle fritz's suggestion, fergus and hester prepared this sketch of the details of stephenson's earlier invention, purposely that uncle fritz might use it when these papers should be printed together. george stephenson. an efficient and economical working locomotive engine still remained to be invented, and to accomplish this object stephenson now applied himself. profiting by what his predecessors had done,--warned by their failures and encouraged by their partial successes,--he began his labors. there was still wanting the man who should accomplish for the locomotive what james watt had done for the steam-engine, and combine in a complete form the best points in the separate plans of others, embodying with them such original inventions and adaptations of his own, as to entitle him to the merit of inventing the working locomotive, as james watt is to be regarded as the inventor of the working condensing-engine. this was the great work upon which george stephenson now entered, though probably without any adequate idea of the ultimate importance of his work to society and civilization. he proceeded to bring the subject of constructing a "travelling engine," as he denominated the locomotive, under the notice of the lessees of the killingworth colliery,[ ] in the year . lord ravensworth, the principal partner, had already formed a very favorable opinion of the new colliery engine-wright from the improvements which he had effected in the colliery engines, both above and below ground; and after considering the matter, and hearing stephenson's explanations, he authorized him to proceed with the construction of a locomotive, though his lordship was by some called a fool for advancing money for such a purpose. "the first locomotive that i made," said stephenson, many years after, when speaking of his early career at a public meeting in newcastle, "was at killingworth colliery, and with lord ravensworth's money. yes, lord ravensworth and partners were the first to intrust me, thirty-two years since, with money to make a locomotive engine. i said to my friends, there was no limit to the speed of such an engine, if the works could be made to stand." our engine-wright had, however, many obstacles to encounter before he could get fairly to work upon the erection of his locomotive. his chief difficulty was in finding workmen sufficiently skilled in mechanics and in the use of tools to follow his instructions, and embody his designs in a practical shape. the tools then in use about the colliery were rude and clumsy, and there were no such facilities, as now exist, for turning out machinery of any entirely new character. stephenson was under the necessity of working with such men and tools as were at his command, and he had in a great measure to train and instruct the workmen himself. the new engine was built in the workshops at the west morr, the leading mechanic being john thirlwall, the colliery blacksmith,--an excellent mechanic in his way, though quite new to the work now intrusted to him. in this first locomotive, constructed at killingworth, stephenson to some extent followed the plan of blenkinsop's engine. the wrought-iron boiler was cylindrical, eight feet in length and thirty-four inches in diameter, with an internal flue-tube twenty inches wide passing through it. the engine had two vertical cylinders, of eight inches diameter and two feet stroke, let into the boiler, which worked the propelling gear with cross-heads and connecting-rods. the power of the two cylinders was combined by means of spur-wheels, which communicated the motive power to the wheels supporting the engine on the rail. the engine thus worked upon what is termed the second motion. the chimney was of wrought-iron, round which was a chamber extending back to the feed-pumps, for the purpose of heating the water previous to its injection into the boiler. the engine had no springs, and was mounted on a wooden frame supported on four wheels. in order to neutralize as much as possible the jolts and shocks which such an engine would necessarily encounter, from the obstacles and inequalities of the then very imperfect plate-way, the water-barrel, which served for a tender, was fixed to the end of a lever and weighted; the other end of the lever being connected with the frame of the locomotive carriage. by this means the weight of the two was more equally distributed, though the contrivance did not by any means compensate for the total absence of springs. the wheels of the locomotive were all smooth, stephenson having satisfied himself by experiment that the adhesion between the wheels of a loaded engine and the rail would be sufficient for the purposes of traction.[ ] the engine was, after much labor and anxiety, and frequent alterations of parts, at length brought to completion, having been about ten months in hand. it was placed upon the killingworth railway on the th of july, , and its powers were tried on the same day. on an ascending gradient of in , the engine succeeded in drawing after it eight loaded carriages, of thirty tons weight, at about four miles an hour; and for some time after it continued regularly at work. although a considerable advance upon previous locomotives, "blucher" (as the engine was popularly called) was nevertheless a somewhat cumbrous and clumsy machine. the parts were huddled together. the boiler constituted the principal feature; and, being the foundation of the other parts, it was made to do duty not only as a generator of steam, but also as a basis for the fixings of the machinery and for the bearings of the wheels and axles. the want of springs was seriously felt; and the progress of the engine was a succession of jolts, causing considerable derangement to the working. the mode of communicating the motive power to the wheels by means of the spur-gear also caused frequent jerks, each cylinder alternately propelling or becoming propelled by the other, as the pressure of the one upon the wheels became greater or less than the pressure of the other; and when the teeth of the cog-wheels became at all worn, a rattling noise was produced during the travelling of the engine. as the principal test of the success of the locomotive was its economy as compared with horse-power, careful calculations were made with the view of ascertaining this important point. the result was, that it was found the working of the engine was at first barely economical; and at the end of the year the steam-power and the horse-power were ascertained to be as nearly as possible upon a par in point of cost. we give the remainder of the history of george stephenson's efforts to produce an economical working locomotive in the words of his son robert, as communicated to mr. smiles in , for the purposes of his father's "life." "a few months of experience and careful observation upon the operation of this (his first) engine convinced my father that the complication arising out of the action of the two cylinders being combined by spur-wheels would prevent their coming into practical application. he then directed his attention to an entire change in the construction and mechanical arrangements, and in the following year took out a patent, dated feb. , , for an engine which combined in a remarkable degree the essential requisites of an economical locomotive,--that is to say, few parts, simplicity in their action, and great simplicity in the mode by which power was communicated to the wheels supporting the engine. "this second engine consisted, as before, of two vertical cylinders; which communicated directly with each pair of the four wheels that supported the engine by a cross-head and a pair of connecting-rods. but in attempting to establish a direct communication between the cylinders and the wheels that rolled upon the rails, considerable difficulties presented themselves. the ordinary joints could not be employed to unite the engine, which was a rigid mass, with the wheels rolling upon the irregular surface of the rails; for it was evident that the two rails of the line of railway could not always be maintained at the same level with respect to each other,--that one wheel at the end of the axle might be depressed into a part of the line which had subsided, while the other would be elevated. in such a position of the axle and wheels it was clear that a rigid communication between the cross-head and the wheels was impracticable. hence it became necessary to form a joint at the top of the piston-rod where it united with the cross-head, so as to permit the cross-head always to preserve complete parallelism with the axle of the wheels with which it was in communication. "in order to obtain the flexibility combined with direct action, which was essential for insuring power and avoiding needless friction and jars from irregularities in the rail, my father employed the 'ball and socket joint' for effecting a union between the ends of the cross-heads, where they were united with the crank-pins attached to each driving-wheel. by this arrangement the parallelism between the cross-head and the axle was at all times maintained, it being permitted to take place without producing jar or friction upon any part of the machine. "the next important point was to combine each pair of wheels by some simple mechanism, instead of the cog-wheels which had formerly been used. my father began by inserting each axle into two cranks, at right angles to each other, with rods communicating horizontally between them. an engine was made upon this plan, and answered extremely well. but at that period ( ) the mechanical skill of the country was not equal to the task of forging cranked axles of the soundness and strength necessary to stand the jars incident to locomotive work; so my father was compelled to fall back upon a substitute which, though less simple and less efficient, was within the mechanical capabilities of the workmen of that day, either for construction or repair. he adopted a chain, which rolled over indented wheels placed on the centre of each axle, and so arranged that the two pairs of wheels were effectually coupled and made to keep pace with each other. but these chains after a few years' use became stretched, and then the engines were liable to irregularity in their working, especially in changing from working back to forward again. nevertheless, these engines continued in profitable use upon the killingworth colliery railway for some years. eventually the chain was laid aside, and the wheels were united by rods on the _outside_ instead of rods and crank-axles inside, as specified in the original patent; and this expedient completely answered the purpose required, without involving any expensive or difficult workmanship. "another important improvement was introduced in this engine. the eduction steam had hitherto been allowed to escape direct into the open atmosphere; but my father having observed the great velocity with which the smoke issued from the chimney of the same engine, thought that by conveying the eduction steam into the chimney, and there allowing it to escape in a vertical direction, its velocity would be imparted to the smoke from the engine, or to the ascending current of air in the chimney. the experiment was no sooner made than the power of the engine became more than doubled; combustion was stimulated, as it were, by a blast; consequently, the power of the boiler for generating steam was increased, and in the same proportion, the useful duty of the engine was augmented. "thus, in my father had succeeded in manufacturing an engine which included the following important improvements on all previous attempts in the same direction: simple and direct communication between the cylinder and the wheels rolling upon the rails; joint adhesion of all the wheels, attained by the use of horizontal connecting-rods; and, finally, a beautiful method of exciting the combustion of fuel by employing the waste steam which had formerly been allowed to escape uselessly. it is perhaps not too much to say that this engine, as a mechanical contrivance, contained the germ of all that has since been effected. it may be regarded, in fact, as a type of the present locomotive engine. "in describing my father's application of the waste steam for the purpose of increasing the intensity of combustion in the boiler, and thus increasing the power of the engine without adding to its weight, and while claiming for this engine the merit of being a type of all those which have been successfully devised since the commencement of the liverpool and manchester railway, it is necessary to observe that the next great improvement in the same direction, the 'multitubular boiler,' which took place some years later, could never have been used without the help of that simple expedient, _the steam-blast_, by which power only, the burning of coke was rendered possible. "i cannot pass over this last-named invention of my father's without remarking how slightly, as an original idea, it has been appreciated; and yet how small would be the comparative value of the locomotive engine of the present day, without the application of that important invention. "engines constructed by my father in the year , upon the principles just described, are in use on the killingworth colliery railway to this very day ( ), conveying, at the speed of perhaps five or six miles an hour, heavy coal-trains, probably as economically as any of the more perfect engines now in use." the invention of the steam-blast by george stephenson in was fraught with the most important consequences to railway locomotion; and it is not saying too much to aver that the success of the locomotive has been in a great measure the result of its adoption. without the steam-blast, by means of which the intensity of combustion is maintained at its highest point, producing a correspondingly rapid evolution of steam, high rates of speed could not have been kept up; the advantages of the multitubular boiler (afterward invented) could never have been fully tested; and locomotives might still have been dragging themselves unwieldily along at a rate of a little more than five or six miles an hour. as the period drew near for the opening of the line, the question of the tractive power to be employed was anxiously discussed. at the brusselton decline, fixed engines must necessarily be made use of; but with respect to the mode of working the railway generally, it was decided that horses were to be largely employed, and arrangements were made for their purchase. although locomotives had been regularly employed in hauling coal-wagons on the middleton colliery railway, near leeds, for more than twelve years, and on the wylam and killingworth railways, near newcastle, for more than ten years, great scepticism still prevailed as to the economy of employing them for the purpose in lieu of horses. in this case, it would appear that seeing was _not_ believing. the popular scepticism was as great at newcastle, where the opportunities for accurate observation were the greatest, as anywhere else. in the scheme of a canal between that town and carlisle again came up; and although a few timid voices were raised on behalf of a railway, the general opinion was still in favor of a canal. the example of the hetton railway, which had been successfully worked by stephenson's locomotives for two years past, was pointed to in proof of the practicability of a locomotive line between the two places; but the voice of the press, as well as of the public, was decidedly against the "new-fangled roads." when such was the state of public opinion as to railway locomotion, some idea may be formed of the clear-sightedness and moral courage of the stockton and darlington directors in ordering three of stephenson's locomotive engines, at a cost of several thousand pounds, against the opening of the railway. these were constructed after stephenson's most matured designs, and embodied all the improvements which he had contrived up to that time. no. engine, the "locomotion," which was first delivered, weighed about eight tons. it had one large flue, or tube, through the boiler, by which the heated air passed direct from the furnace at the one end, lined with fire-bricks, to the chimney at the other. the combustion in the furnace was quickened by the adoption of the steam-blast in the chimney. the heat raised was sometimes so great, and it was so imperfectly abstracted by the surrounding water, that the chimney became almost red-hot. such engines, when put to their speed, were found capable of running at the rate of from twelve to sixteen miles an hour; but they were better adapted for the heavy work of hauling coal-trains at low speed--for which, indeed, they were specially constructed--than for running at the higher speed afterward adopted. nor was it contemplated by the directors as possible, at the time when they were ordered, that locomotives could be made available for the purposes of passenger travelling. besides, the stockton and darlington railway did not run through a district in which passengers were supposed to be likely to constitute any considerable portion of the traffic. we may easily imagine the anxiety felt by george stephenson during the progress of the works toward completion, and his mingled hopes and doubts--though the doubts were but few--as to the issue of this great experiment. when the formation of the line near stockton was well advanced, the engineer one day, accompanied by his son robert and john dixon, made a journey of inspection of the works. the party reached stockton, and proceeded to dine at one of the inns there. after dinner, stephenson ventured on the very unusual measure of ordering in a bottle of wine, to drink success to the railway. john dixon relates with pride the utterance of the master on the occasion "now, lads," said he to the two young men, "i venture to tell you that i think you will live to see the day when railways will supersede almost all other methods of conveyance in this country,--when mail-coaches will go by railway, and railroads will become the great highways for the king and all his subjects. the time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man to travel on a railway than to walk on foot. i know there are great and almost insurmountable difficulties to be encountered, but what i have said will come to pass as sure as you now hear me. i only wish i may live to see the day, though that i can scarcely hope for, as i know how slow all human progress is, and with what difficulty i have been able to get the locomotive introduced thus far, notwithstanding my more than ten years' successful experiment at killingworth." the result, however, outstripped even george stephenson's most sanguine expectations; and his son robert, shortly after his return from america in , saw his father's locomotive generally adopted as the tractive power on mining-railways. tuesday, the th of september, , was a great day for darlington. the railway, after having been under construction for more than three years, was at length about to be opened. the project had been the talk of the neighborhood for so long that there were few people within a range of twenty miles who did not feel more or less interested about it. was it to be a failure or a success? opinions were pretty equally divided as to the railway; but as regarded the locomotive, the general belief was that it would "never answer." however, there was the locomotive "no. " delivered upon the line, and ready to draw the first train of wagons on the opening day. a great concourse of people assembled on the occasion. some came from newcastle and durham, many from the aucklands, while darlington held a general holiday and turned out all its population. to give _éclat_ to the opening, the directors of the company issued a programme of the proceedings, intimating the times at which the procession of wagons would pass certain points along the line. the proprietors assembled as early as six in the morning at the brusselton fixed engine, where the working of the inclined planes was successfully rehearsed. a train of wagons laden with coals and merchandise was drawn up the western incline by the fixed engine, a length of nineteen hundred and sixty yards in seven and a half minutes, and then lowered down the incline on the eastern side of the hill, eight hundred and eighty yards, in five minutes. at the foot of the incline the procession of vehicles was formed, consisting of the locomotive engine no. , driven by george stephenson himself; after it, six wagons loaded with coals and flour; then a covered coach containing directors and proprietors; next, twenty-one coal-wagons fitted up for passengers (with which they were crammed); and lastly, six more wagons loaded with coals. strange to say, a man on a horse, carrying a flag with the motto of the company inscribed on it, _periculum privatum utilitas publica_,[ ] headed the procession! a lithographic view of the great event, published shortly after, duly exhibits the horseman and his flag. it was not thought so dangerous a place, after all. the locomotive was only supposed to be able to go at the rate of from four to six miles an hour, and an ordinary horse could easily keep ahead of that. off started the procession, with the horseman at its head. a great concourse of people stood along the line. many of them tried to accompany it by running, and some gentlemen on horseback galloped across the fields to keep up with the train. the railway descending with a gentle decline toward darlington, the rate of speed was consequently variable. at a favorable part of the road stephenson determined to try the speed of the engine, and he called upon the horseman with the flag to get out of his way! most probably, deeming it unnecessary to carry his _periculum privatum_ farther, the horseman turned aside, and stephenson "put on the steam." the speed was at once raised to twelve miles an hour, and, at a favorable part of the road, to fifteen. the runners on foot, the gentlemen on horseback, and the horseman with the flag were consequently soon left far behind. when the train reached darlington, it was found that four hundred and fifty passengers occupied the wagons, and that the load of men, coals, and merchandise amounted to about ninety tons. at darlington the procession was rearranged. the six loaded coal-wagons were left behind, and other wagons were taken on with a hundred and fifty more passengers, together with a band of music. the train then started for stockton,--a distance of only twelve miles,--which was reached in about three hours. the day was kept throughout the district as a holiday; and horses, gigs, carts, and other vehicles, filled with people, stood along the railway, as well as crowds of persons on foot, waiting to see the train pass. the whole population of stockton turned out to receive the procession, and, after a walk through the streets, the inevitable dinner in the town hall wound up the day's proceedings. the principal circumstances connected with the construction of the "rocket," as described by robert stephenson to mr. smiles, may be briefly stated. the tubular principle was adopted in a more complete manner than had yet been attempted. twenty-five copper tubes, each three inches in diameter, extended from one end of the boiler to the other, the heated air passing through them on its way to the chimney; and the tubes being surrounded by the water of the boiler. it will be obvious that a large extension of the heating surface was thus effectually secured. the principal difficulty was in fitting the copper tubes in the boiler ends so as to prevent leakage. they were manufactured by a newcastle copper-smith, and soldered to brass screws which were screwed into the boiler ends, standing out in great knobs. when the tubes were thus fitted, and the boiler was filled with water, hydraulic pressure was applied; but the water squirted out at every joint, and the factory floor was soon flooded. robert went home in despair; and in the first moment of grief he wrote to his father that the whole thing was a failure. by return of post came a letter from his father, telling him that despair was not to be thought of,--that he must "try again;" and he suggested a mode of overcoming the difficulty, which his son had already anticipated and proceeded to adopt. it was to bore clean holes in the boiler ends, fit in the smooth copper tubes as tightly as possible, solder up, and then raise the steam. this plan succeeded perfectly; the expansion of the copper completely filling up all interstices, and producing a perfectly water-tight boiler, capable of standing extreme external pressure. the mode of employing the steam-blast for the purpose of increasing the draught in the chimney, was also the subject of numerous experiments. when the engine was first tried, it was thought that the blast in the chimney was not sufficiently strong for the purpose of keeping up the intensity of the fire in the furnace, so as to produce high-pressure steam with the required velocity. the expedient was therefore adopted of hammering the copper tubes at the point at which they entered the chimney, whereby the blast was considerably sharpened; and on a farther trial it was found that the draught was increased to such an extent as to enable abundance of steam to be raised. the rationale of the blast may be simply explained by referring to the effect of contracting the pipe of a water-hose, by which the force of the jet of water is proportionately increased. widen the nozzle of the pipe and the jet is, in like manner, diminished. so is it with the steam-blast in the chimney of the locomotive. doubts were, however, expressed whether the greater draught obtained by the contraction of the blast-pipe were not counterbalanced in some degree by the pressure upon the piston. hence a series of experiments was made with pipes of different diameters, and their efficiency was tested by the amount of vacuum that was produced in the smoke-box. the degree of rarefaction was determined by a glass tube fixed to the bottom of the smoke-box, and descending into a bucket of water, the tube being open at both ends. as the rarefaction took place, the water would of course rise in the tube, and the height to which it rose above the surface of the water in the bucket was made the measure of the amount of rarefaction. these experiments proved that a considerable increase of draught was obtained by the contraction of the orifice; accordingly, the two blast-pipes opening from the cylinders into either side of the "rocket" chimney, and turned up within it, were contracted slightly below the area of the steam-ports; and before the engine left the factory, the water rose in the glass tube three inches above the water in the bucket. the other arrangements of the "rocket" were briefly these: the boiler was cylindrical with flat ends, six feet in length, and three feet four inches in diameter. the upper half of the boiler was used as a reservoir for the steam, the lower half being filled with water. through the lower part the copper tubes extended, being open to the fire-box at one end, and to the chimney at the other. the fire-box, or furnace, two feet wide and three feet high, was attached immediately behind the boiler, and was also surrounded with water. the cylinders of the engine were placed on each side of the boiler, in an oblique position, one end being nearly level with the top of the boiler at its after end, and the other pointing toward the centre of the foremost or driving pair of wheels, with which the connection was directly made from the piston-rod to a pin on the outside of the wheel. the engine, together with its load of water, weighed only four tons and a quarter; and it was supported on four wheels, not coupled. the tender was four-wheeled, and similar in shape to a wagon,--the foremost part holding the fuel, and the hind part a water-cask. when the "rocket" was finished, it was placed upon the killingworth railway for the purpose of experiment. the new boiler arrangement was found perfectly successful. the steam was raised rapidly and continuously, and in a quantity which then appeared marvellous. the same evening robert despatched a letter to his father at liverpool, informing him to his great joy, that the "rocket" was "all right," and would be in complete working trim by the day of trial. the engine was shortly after sent by wagon to carlisle, and thence shipped for liverpool. the time so much longed for by george stephenson had now arrived, when the merits of the passenger locomotive were about to be put to the test. he had fought the battle for it until now, almost single-handed. engrossed by his daily labors and anxieties, and harassed by difficulties and discouragements which would have crushed the spirit of a less resolute man, he had held firmly to his purpose through good and through evil report. the hostility which he had experienced from some of the directors opposed to the adoption of the locomotive, was the circumstance that caused him the greatest grief of all; for where he had looked for encouragement, he found only carping and opposition. but his pluck never failed him; and now the "rocket" was upon the ground to prove, to use his own words, "whether he was a man of his word or not." great interest was felt at liverpool, as well as throughout the country, in the approaching competition. engineers, scientific men, and mechanics arrived from all quarters to witness the novel display of mechanical ingenuity on which such great results depended. the public generally were no indifferent spectators, either. the populations of liverpool, manchester, and the adjacent towns felt that the successful issue of the experiment would confer upon them individual benefits and local advantages almost incalculable, while populations at a distance waited for the result with almost equal interest. on the day appointed for the great competition of locomotives at rainhill, the following engines were entered for the prize:-- . messrs. braithwaite and ericsson's "novelty." . mr. timothy hackworth's "sanspareil." . messrs. r. stephenson & co.'s "rocket." . mr. burstall's "perseverance." another engine was entered by mr. brandreth, of liverpool,--the "cycloped," weighing three tons, worked by a horse in a frame,--but it could not be admitted to the competition. the above were the only four exhibited, out of a considerable number of engines constructed in different parts of the country in anticipation of this contest, many of which could not be satisfactorily completed by the day of trial. the day fixed for the competition was the st of october; but to allow sufficient time to get the locomotives into good working order, the directors extended it to the th. on the morning of the th the ground at rainhill presented a lively appearance, and there was as much excitement as if the st. leger were about to be run. many thousand spectators looked on, among whom were some of the first engineers and mechanicians of the day. a stand was provided for the ladies; the "beauty and fashion" of the neighborhood were present, and the side of the railroad was lined with carriages of all descriptions. it was quite characteristic of the stephensons that although their engine did not stand first on the list for trial, it was the first that was ready; and it was accordingly ordered out by the judges for an experimental trip. yet the "rocket" was by no means the "favorite" with either the judges or the spectators. nicholas wood has since stated that the majority of the judges were strongly predisposed in favor of the "novelty," and that nine tenths, if not ten tenths, of the persons present were against the "rocket" because of its appearance.[ ] nearly every person favored some other engine, so that there was nothing for the "rocket" but the practical test. the first trip made by it was quite successful. it ran about twelve miles, without interruption, in about fifty-three minutes. the "novelty" was next called out. it was a light engine, very compact in appearance, carrying the water and fuel upon the same wheels as the engine. the weight of the whole was only three tons and one hundred-weight. a peculiarity of this engine was that the air was driven or forced through the fire by means of bellows. the day being now far advanced, and some dispute having arisen as to the method of assigning the proper load for the "novelty," no particular experiment was made farther than that the engine traversed the line by way of exhibition, occasionally moving at the rate of twenty-four miles an hour. the "sanspareil," constructed by mr. timothy hackworth, was next exhibited, but no particular experiment was made with it on this day. this engine differed but little in its construction from the locomotive last supplied by the stephensons to the stockton and darlington railway, of which mr. hackworth was the locomotive foreman. the contest was postponed until the following day; but before the judges arrived on the ground, the bellows for creating the blast in the "novelty" gave way, and it was found incapable of going through its performance. a defect was also detected in the boiler of the "sanspareil," and some farther time was allowed to get it repaired. the large number of spectators who had assembled to witness the contest were greatly disappointed at this postponement; but to lessen it, stephenson again brought out the "rocket," and attaching to it a coach containing thirty-four persons, he ran them along the line at the rate of from twenty-four to thirty miles an hour, much to their gratification and amazement. before separating, the judges ordered the engine to be in readiness by eight o'clock on the following morning, to go through its definitive trial according to the prescribed conditions. on the morning of the th of october the "rocket" was again ready for the contest. the engine was taken to the extremity of the stage, the fire-box was filled with coke, the fire lighted, and the steam raised until it lifted the safety-valve loaded to a pressure of fifty pounds to the square inch. this proceeding occupied fifty-seven minutes. the engine then started on its journey, dragging after it about thirteen tons weight in wagons, and made the first ten trips backward and forward along the two miles of road, running the thirty-five miles, including stoppages, in an hour and forty-eight minutes. the second ten trips were in like manner performed in two hours and three minutes. the maximum velocity attained during the trial trip was twenty-nine miles an hour, or about three times the speed that one of the judges of the competition had declared to be the limit of possibility. the average speed at which the whole of the journeys were performed was fifteen miles an hour, or five miles beyond the rate specified in the conditions published by the company. the entire performance excited the greatest astonishment among the assembled spectators; the directors felt confident that their enterprise was now on the eve of success; and george stephenson rejoiced to think that, in spite of all false prophets and fickle counsellors, the locomotive system was now safe. when the "rocket," having performed all the conditions of the contest, arrived at the "grand stand" at the close of its day's successful run, mr. cropper--one of the directors favorable to the fixed-engine system--lifted up his hands, and exclaimed, "now has george stephenson at last delivered himself." neither the "novelty" nor the "sanspareil" was ready for trial until the th, on the morning of which day an advertisement appeared, stating that the former engine was to be tried on that day, when it would perform more work than any engine on the ground. the weight of the carriages attached to it was only seven tons. the engine passed the first post in good style; but in returning, the pipe from the forcing-pump burst and put an end to the trial. the pipe was afterward repaired, and the engine made several trips by itself, in which it was said to have gone at the rate of from twenty-four to twenty-eight miles an hour. the "sanspareil" was not ready until the th; and when its boiler and tender were filled with water, it was found to weigh four hundred-weight beyond the weight specified in the published conditions as the limit of four-wheeled engines; nevertheless, the judges allowed it to run on the same footing as the other engines, to enable them to ascertain whether its merits entitled it to favorable consideration. it travelled at the average speed of about fourteen miles an hour with its load attached; but at the eighth trip the cold-water pump got wrong, and the engine could proceed no farther. it was determined to award the premium to the successful engine on the following day, the th, on which occasion there was an unusual assemblage of spectators. the owners of the "novelty" pleaded for another trial, and it was conceded. but again it broke down. then mr. hackworth requested the opportunity for making another trial of his "sanspareil." but the judges had now had enough of failures, and they declined, on the ground that not only was the engine above the stipulated weight, but that it was constructed on a plan which they could not recommend for adoption by the directors of the company. one of the principal practical objections to this locomotive was the enormous quantity of coke consumed or wasted by it,--about six hundred and ninety-two pounds per hour when travelling,--caused by the sharpness of the steam-blast in the chimney, which blew a large proportion of the burning coke into the air. the "perseverance" of mr. burstall was found unable to move at more than five or six miles an hour, and it was withdrawn from the contest at an early period. the "rocket" was thus the only engine that had performed, and more than performed, all the stipulated conditions; and it was declared to be entitled to the prize of £ , which was awarded to the messrs. stephenson and booth[ ] accordingly. and farther to show that the engine had been working quite within its powers, george stephenson ordered it to be brought upon the ground and detached from all incumbrances, when, in making two trips, it was found to travel at the astonishing rate of thirty-five miles an hour. the "rocket" had thus eclipsed the performances of all locomotive engines that had yet been constructed, and outstripped even the sanguine expectations of its constructors. it satisfactorily answered the report of messrs. walker and rastrick, and established the efficiency of the locomotive for working the liverpool and manchester railway, and indeed all future railways. the "rocket" showed that a new power had been born into the world, full of activity and strength, with boundless capability of work. it was the simple but admirable contrivance of the steam-blast, and its combination with the multitubular boiler, that at once gave locomotion a vigorous life, and secured the triumph of the railway system. as has been well observed, this wonderful ability to increase and multiply its powers of performance with the emergency that demands them, has made this giant engine the noblest creation of human wit, the very lion among machines. the success of the rainhill experiment, as judged by the public, may be inferred from the fact that the shares of the company immediately rose ten per cent, and nothing farther was heard of the proposed twenty-one fixed engines, engine-houses, ropes, etc. all this cumbersome apparatus was thenceforth effectually disposed of. when the reading was over, bedford said: "when i heard you were going to have george stephenson this afternoon, i wrote to my cousin prentiss armstrong, who has been at the locomotive works at altoona for several years, and asked him about locomotives nowadays, that i might be able to compare them with the locomotives of george stephenson's time. this is his letter, which i'll read, if there be no objection:"-- dear bedford,--speaking roughly, a freight-engine of the "consolidation" type (eight driving-wheels and two truck-wheels) weighs from forty-seven to forty-eight tons of two thousand pounds. on a road with no grades over twenty feet to the mile ( in ) it will haul over one thousand tons at fifteen miles an hour. if the train is of merchandise, it will be of say fifty cars, each weighing ten tons and carrying ten tons. if it is of coal or ore, the cars will each carry twenty or twenty-five tons. ["the 'rocket,'" said bedford, "which was the successful engine at the rainhill competition, weighed a little over four tons and had four wheels. dragging a weight of thirteen tons in wagons, it made thirty-five miles in about two hours."] our engine no. [continued the letter] made a mile on a level in forty-three seconds with no train, but there are very few such records. two of our fast trains (four cars each, weighing twenty-five tons) make a schedule in one place (level) of nine miles in eight minutes. i have seen a record of a run on the bound brook route of four cars, ten miles in eight minutes. i think this must have been down hill. i hope these facts will answer your views. if there's anything else that i can get up for you, i shall be glad to do it. yours truly, prentiss armstrong. xi. eli whitney. the young people all came in laughing. "and what is it?" said uncle fritz, good-naturedly. "it is this," said alice, "that i say that all this is very entertaining about palissy the potter and benvenuto cellini; and i have been boasting that i know as much of the steam-engine as lucy did, who was 'sister to harry.' but i do not see that this is going to profit blanche when she shall make her celebrated visit to mr. bright, and when he asks her what is the last sweet thing in creels or in fly-frames." "is it certain that blanche is to go?" said uncle fritz, doubtfully. "oh, dear, uncle fritz, do you know?" said blanche, in mock heroics; "are you in the sacred circle which decides? will the vesuvius pass its dividend, or will it scatter its blessings right and left, so that we can go to paris and all the world be happy?" "i wish i knew," said colonel ingham; "for on that same dividend depends the question whether i build four new rooms at little crastis for the accommodation of my young friends when they visit me there." "could you tell us," said fergus, "what is the cause of the depression in the cotton-manufacture?" "don't tell him, uncle fritz," said fanchon, "for the two best of reasons,--first, that half of us will not understand if you do; and second, that none of us will remember." colonel ingham laughed. "and third," he said, "that we are to talk about inventions and inventors, and we shall not get to fergus's grand question till we come to the series on 'political economy and political economists.' "you are all quite right in all your suggestions and criticisms. it is quite time that you girls should know something of the industry which is important not only to all the southern states, but to all the manufacturing states. cotton is the cheapest article for clothing in the world, and the use of it goes farther and farther every year. the manufacture is also improving steadily. thirty men, women, and children will make as much cotton cloth to-day as a hundred could make the year you were born, hester. i saw cottons for sale to-day at four cents a yard which would have cost nearly three times that money thirty years ago. so i have laid out for you these sketches of the life of eli whitney, on whose simple invention, as you remember, all this wealth of production may be said to depend. you college boys ought to be pleased to know, that within a year after this man graduated from yale college, he had made an invention and set it a going, which entirely changed the face of things in his own country. at that moment there was so little cotton raised in america, that whitney himself had never seen cotton wool or cotton seed, when he was first asked if he could make a machine which would separate one from the other. it was so little known, indeed, that when john jay of new york negotiated a treaty of commerce with england in , the year after whitney's invention, he did not know that any cotton was produced in the united states. the treaty did not provide for our cotton, and had to be changed after it was brought back to america. with this invention by whitney, it was possible to clean cotton from the seed. the southern states, which before had no staple of importance, had in that moment an immense addition to their resources. alabama, mississippi, louisiana, and tennessee, besides the states in the old thirteen, were settled almost wholly to call into being new lands for raising cotton. to these were afterwards added arkansas, florida, and texas. with this new industry slave labor became vastly more profitable; and the institution of slavery, which would else have died out probably, received an immense stimulus. fortunately for the country and the world, the constitution had fixed the year , as the end of the african slave trade. but, up to that date, slaves were pushed in with a constantly increasing rapidity, so that the new states were peopled very largely with absolute barbarians. there is hardly another instance in history where it is so easy to trace in a very few years, results so tremendous following from a single invention by a single man. "fortunately for us, miss lamb has just published a portrait of eli whitney in the 'magazine of history.' here it is, in the october number of the 'magazine of history.' "as to processes of manufacture, of course we can learn little or nothing about them here. but you had better read carefully this article in ure's 'dictionary of arts,' though it is a little old-fashioned, and then you will be prepared to make up parties to go out to the hecla, or up to lowell or lawrence, where you can see with your own eyes. "and now i will read you a little sketch of the life of eli whitney." eli whitney. eli whitney was born at westborough, worcester county, massachusetts, dec. , . his parents belonged to the middle class in society, who, by the labors of husbandry, managed by uniform industry and strict frugality to provide well for a rising family. the paternal ancestors of mr. whitney emigrated from england among the early settlers of massachusetts, and their descendants were among the most respectable farmers of worcester county. his maternal ancestors, of the name of fay, were also english emigrants, and ranked among the substantial yeomanry of massachusetts. a family tradition respecting the occasion of their coming to this country may serve to illustrate the history of the times. the story is, that about two hundred years ago, the father of the family, who resided in england, a man of large property and great respectability, called together his sons and addressed them thus: "america is to be a great country. i am too old to emigrate myself; but if any one of you will go, i will give him a double share of my property." the youngest son instantly declared his willingness to go, and his brothers gave their consent. he soon set off for the new world, and landed in boston, in the neighborhood of which place he purchased a large tract of land, where he enjoyed the satisfaction of receiving two visits from his venerable father. his son john fay, from whom the subject of this memoir is immediately descended, removed from boston to westborough, where he became the proprietor of a large tract of land, since known by the name of the fay farm. from the sister of mr. whitney, we have derived some particulars respecting his childhood and youth, and we shall present the anecdotes to our readers in the artless style in which they are related by our correspondent, believing that they would be more acceptable in this simple dress than if, according to the modest suggestion of the writer, they should be invested with a more labored diction. the following incident, though trivial in itself, will serve to show at how early a period certain qualities of strong feeling tempered by prudence, for which mr. whitney afterward became distinguished, began to display themselves. when he was six or seven years old he had overheard the kitchen maid, in a fit of passion, calling his mother, who was in a delicate state of health, hard names, at which he expressed great displeasure to his sister. "she thought," said he, "that i was not big enough to hear her talk so about my mother. i think she ought to have a flogging; and if i knew how to bring it about, she should have one." his sister advised him to tell their father. "no," he replied, "it will hurt his feelings and mother's too; and besides, it is likely the girl will say she never said so, and that would make a quarrel. it is best to say nothing about it." indications of his mechanical genius were likewise developed at a very early age. of his early passion for such employments, his sister gives the following account: "our father had a workshop, and sometimes made wheels of different kinds, and chairs. he had a variety of tools, and a lathe for turning chair-posts. this gave my brother an opportunity of learning the use of tools when very young. he lost no time; but as soon as he could handle tools, he was always making something in the shop, and seemed not to like working on the farm. on a time, after the death of our mother, when our father had been absent from home two or three days, on his return he inquired of the housekeeper what the boys had been doing. she told him what b. and j. had been about. 'but what has eli been doing?' said he. she replied he had been making a fiddle. 'ah,' said he, despondingly, 'i fear eli will have to take his portion in fiddles.' he was at this time about twelve years old. his sister adds that this fiddle was finished throughout, like a common violin, and made tolerably good music. it was examined by many persons, and all pronounced it to be a remarkable piece of work for such a boy to perform. from this time he was employed to repair violins, and had many nice jobs, which were always executed to the entire satisfaction, and often to the astonishment, of his customers. his father's watch being the greatest piece of mechanism that had yet presented itself to his observation, he was extremely desirous of examining its interior construction, but was not permitted to do so. one sunday morning, observing that his father was going to meeting, and would leave at home the wonderful little machine, he immediately feigned illness as an apology for not going to church. as soon as the family were out of sight, he flew to the room where the watch hung, and taking it down he was so delighted with its motions that he took it all to pieces before he thought of the consequences of his rash deed; for his father was a stern parent, and punishment would have been the reward of his idle curiosity, had the mischief been detected. he, however, put all the work so neatly together that his father never discovered his audacity until he himself told him, many years afterwards. "whitney lost his mother at an early age, and when he was thirteen years old his father married a second time. his stepmother, among her articles of furniture, had a handsome set of table knives that she valued very highly. whitney could not but see this, and said to her, 'i could make as good ones if i had tools, and i could make the necessary tools if i had a few common tools to make them with.' his stepmother thought he was deriding her, and was much displeased; but it so happened, not long afterwards, that one of the knives got broken, and he made one exactly like it in every respect except the stamp on the blade. this he would likewise have executed, had not the tools required been too expensive for his slender resources." when whitney was fifteen or sixteen years of age he suggested to his father an enterprise, which was an earnest of the similar undertakings in which he engaged on a far greater scale in later life. this being the time of the revolutionary war, nails were in great demand and bore a high price. at that period nails were made chiefly by hand, with little aid from machinery. young whitney proposed to his father to procure him a few tools, and to permit him to set up the manufacture. his father consented; and he went steadily to work, and suffered nothing to divert him from his task until his day's work was completed. by extraordinary diligence he gained time to make tools for his own use, and to put in knife-blades, and to perform many other curious little jobs which exceeded the skill of the country artisans. at this laborious occupation the enterprising boy wrought alone, with great success, and with much profit to his father, for two winters, pursuing the ordinary labors of the farm during the summers. at this time he devised a plan for enlarging his business and increasing his profits. he whispered his scheme to his sister, with strong injunctions of secrecy; and requesting leave of his father to go to a neighboring town, without specifying his object, he set out on horseback in quest of a fellow-laborer. not finding one as easily as he had anticipated, he proceeded from town to town with a perseverance which was always a strong trait of his character, until, at a distance of forty miles from home, he found such a workman as he desired. he also made his journey subservient to his mechanical skill, for he called at every workshop on his way and gleaned all the information he could respecting the mechanical arts. at the close of the war the business of making nails was no longer profitable; but a fashion prevailing among the ladies of fastening on their bonnets with long pins, he contrived to make those with such skill and dexterity that he nearly monopolized the business, although he devoted to it only such seasons of leisure as he could redeem from the occupations of the farm, to which he now principally betook himself. he added to this article, the manufacture of walking-canes, which he made with peculiar neatness. in respect to his proficiency in learning while young, we are informed that he early manifested a fondness for figures and an uncommon aptitude for arithmetical calculations, though in the other rudiments of education he was not particularly distinguished. yet at the age of fourteen he had acquired so much general information, as to be regarded on this account, as well as on account of his mechanical skill, a very remarkable boy. from the age of nineteen, young whitney conceived the idea of obtaining a liberal education; but, being warmly opposed by his stepmother, he was unable to procure the decided consent of his father, until he had reached the age of twenty-three years. but, partly by the avails of his manual labor and partly by teaching a village school, he had been so far able to surmount the obstacles thrown in his way, that he had prepared himself for the freshman class in yale college, which he entered in may, . the propensity of mr. whitney to mechanical inventions and occupations, was frequently apparent during his residence at college. on a particular occasion, one of the tutors, happening to mention some interesting philosophical experiment, regretted that he could not exhibit it to his pupils, because the apparatus was out of order and must be sent abroad to be repaired. mr. whitney proposed to undertake this task, and performed it greatly to the satisfaction of the faculty of the college. a carpenter being at work upon one of the buildings of the gentleman with whom mr. whitney boarded, the latter begged permission to use his tools, during the intervals of study; but the mechanic, being a man of careful habits, was unwilling to trust them with a student, and it was only after the gentleman of the house had become responsible for all damages, that he would grant the permission. but mr. whitney had no sooner commenced his operations than the carpenter was surprised at his dexterity, and exclaimed, "there was one good mechanic spoiled when you went to college." soon after mr. whitney took his degree, in the autumn of , he entered into an engagement with a mr. b. of georgia, to reside in his family as a private teacher. on his way thither, he was so fortunate as to have the company of mrs. greene, the widow of general greene, who, with her family, was returning to savannah after spending the summer at the north. at that time it was deemed unsafe to travel through our country without having had the small-pox, and accordingly mr. whitney prepared himself for the excursion, by procuring inoculation while in new york. as soon as he was sufficiently recovered, the party set sail for savannah. as his health was not fully re-established, mrs. greene kindly invited him to go with the family to her residence at mulberry grove, near savannah, and remain until he was recruited. the invitation was accepted; but lest he should not yet have lost all power of communicating that dreadful disease, mrs. greene had white flags (the meaning of which was well understood) hoisted at the landing and at all the avenues leading to the house. as a requital for her hospitality, her guest procured the virus and inoculated all the servants of the household, more than fifty in number, and carried them safely through the disorder. mr. whitney had scarcely set his foot in georgia, before he was met by a disappointment which was an earnest of that long series of adverse events which, with scarcely an exception, attended all his future negotiations in the same state. on his arrival he was informed that mr. b. had employed another teacher, leaving whitney entirely without resources or friends, except those whom he had made in the family of general greene. in these benevolent people, however, his case excited much interest; and mrs. greene kindly said to him, "my young friend, you propose studying the law; make my house your home, your room your castle, and there pursue what studies you please." he accordingly began the study of the law under that hospitable roof. mrs. greene was engaged in a piece of embroidery in which she employed a peculiar kind of frame, called a _tambour_. she complained that it was badly constructed, and that it tore the delicate threads of her work. mr. whitney, eager for an opportunity to oblige his hostess, set himself to work and speedily produced a tambour-frame, made on a plan entirely new, which he presented to her. mrs. greene and her family were greatly delighted with it, and thought it a wonderful proof of ingenuity. not long afterwards a large party of gentlemen, consisting principally of officers who had served under the general in the revolutionary army, came from augusta and the upper country, to visit the family of general greene. they fell into conversation upon the state of agriculture among them, and expressed great regret that there was no means of cleansing the green seed cotton, or separating it from its seed, since all the lands which were unsuitable for the cultivation of rice, would yield large crops of cotton. but until ingenuity could devise some machine which would greatly facilitate the process of cleaning, it was vain to think of raising cotton for market. separating one pound of the clean staple from the seed was a day's work for a woman; but the time usually devoted to picking cotton was the evening, after the labor of the field was over. then the slaves--men, women, and children--were collected in circles, with one whose duty it was to rouse the dozing and quicken the indolent. while the company were engaged in this conversation, "gentlemen," said mrs. greene, "apply to my young friend mr. whitney; he can make anything." upon which she conducted them into a neighboring room, and showed them her tambour-frame and a number of toys which mr. whitney had made or repaired for the children. she then introduced the gentlemen to whitney himself, extolling his genius and commending him to their notice and friendship. he modestly disclaimed all pretensions to mechanical genius; and when they named their object, he replied that he had never seen either cotton or cotton seed in his life. mrs. greene said to one of the gentlemen, "i have accomplished my aim. mr. whitney is a very deserving young man, and to bring him into notice was my object. the interest which our friends now feel for him will, i hope, lead to his getting some employment to enable him to prosecute the study of the law." but a new turn, that no one of the company dreamed of, had been given to mr. whitney's views. it being out of season for cotton in the seed, he went to savannah and searched among the warehouses and boats until he found a small parcel of it. this he carried home, and communicated his intentions to mr. miller, who warmly encouraged him, and assigned him a room in the basement of the house, where he set himself to work with such rude materials and instruments as a georgia plantation afforded. with these resources, however, he made tools better suited to his purpose, and drew his own wire (of which the teeth of the earliest gins were made),--an article which was not at that time to be found in the market of savannah. mrs. greene and mr. miller were the only persons ever admitted to his workshop, and the only persons who knew in what way he was employing himself. the many hours he spent in his mysterious pursuits, afforded matter of great curiosity and often of raillery to the younger members of the family. near the close of the winter, the machine was so nearly completed as to leave no doubt of its success. mrs. greene was eager to communicate to her numerous friends the knowledge of this important invention, peculiarly important at that time, because then the market was glutted with all those articles which were suited to the climate and soil of georgia, and nothing could be found to give occupation to the negroes and support to the white inhabitants. this opened suddenly to the planters boundless resources of wealth, and rendered the occupations of the slaves less unhealthy and laborious than they had been before. mrs. greene, therefore, invited to her house gentlemen from different parts of the state; and on the first day after they had assembled, she conducted them to a temporary building which had been erected for the machine, and they saw with astonishment and delight, that more cotton could be separated from the seed in one day, by the labor of a single hand, than could be done in the usual manner in the space of many months. mr. whitney might now have indulged in bright reveries of fortune and of fame; but we shall have various opportunities of seeing that he tempered his inventive genius with an unusual share of the calm, considerate qualities of the financier. although urged by his friends to secure a patent and devote himself to the manufacture and introduction of his machines, he coolly replied that, on account of the great expenses and trouble which always attend the introduction of a new invention, and the difficulty of enforcing a law in favor of patentees, in opposition to the individual interests of so large a number of persons as would be concerned in the culture of this article, it was with great reluctance that he should consent to relinquish the hopes of a lucrative profession, for which he had been destined, with an expectation of indemnity either from the justice or the gratitude of his countrymen, even should the invention answer the most sanguine anticipations of his friends. the individual who contributed most to incite him to persevere in the undertaking, was phineas miller. mr. miller was a native of connecticut and a graduate of yale college. like mr. whitney, soon after he had completed his education at college, he came to georgia as a private teacher in the family of general greene, and after the decease of the general, he became the husband of mrs. greene. he had qualified himself for the profession of the law, and was a gentleman of cultivated mind and superior talents; but he was of an ardent temperament, and therefore well fitted to enter with zeal into the views which the genius of his friend had laid open to him. he also had considerable funds at command, and proposed to mr. whitney to become his joint adventurer, and to be at the whole expense of maturing the invention until it should be patented. if the machine should succeed in its intended operation, the parties agreed, under legal formalities, "that the profits and advantages arising therefrom, as well as all privileges and emoluments to be derived from patenting, making, vending, and working the same, should be mutually and equally shared between them." this instrument bears date may , ; and immediately afterward they commenced business under the firm of miller and whitney. an invention so important to the agricultural interest (and, as it has proved, to every department of human industry) could not long remain a secret. the knowledge of it soon spread through the state, and so great was the excitement on the subject, that multitudes of persons came from all quarters of the state to see the machine; but it was not deemed safe to gratify their curiosity until the patent right had been secured. but so determined were some of the populace to possess this treasure, that neither law nor justice could restrain them; they broke open the building by night, and carried off the machine. in this way the public became possessed of the invention; and before mr. whitney could complete his model and secure his patent, a number of machines were in successful operation, constructed with some slight deviation from the original, with the hope of escaping the penalty for evading the patent right. as soon as the copartnership of miller and whitney was formed, mr. whitney repaired to connecticut, where, as far as possible, he was to perfect the machine, obtain a patent, and manufacture and ship to georgia such a number of machines as would supply the demand. within three days after the conclusion of the copartnership, mr. whitney having set out for the north, mr. miller commenced his long correspondence relative to the cotton-gin. the first letter announces that encroachments upon their rights had already begun. "it will be necessary," says mr. miller, "to have a considerable number of gins made, to be in readiness to send out as soon as the patent is obtained, in order to satisfy the absolute demands, and make people's heads easy on the subject; _for i am informed of two other claimants for the honor of the invention of cotton-gins, in addition to those we knew before_." on the th of june, , mr. whitney presented his patent to mr. jefferson, then secretary of state; but the prevalence of the yellow fever in philadelphia (which was then the seat of government) prevented his concluding the business relative to the patent until several months afterwards. to prevent being anticipated, he took, however, the precaution to make oath to the invention before the notary public of the city of new haven, which he did on the th of october of the same year. mr. jefferson, who had much curiosity in regard to mechanical inventions, took a peculiar interest in this machine, and addressed to the inventor an obliging letter, desiring farther particulars respecting it, and expressing a wish to procure one for his own use.[ ] mr. whitney accordingly sketched the history of the invention, and of the construction and performances of the machine. "it is about a year," says he, "since i first turned my attention to constructing this machine, at which time i was in the state of georgia. within about ten days after my first conception of the plan, i made a small though imperfect model. experiments with this encouraged me to make one on a larger scale; but the extreme difficulty of procuring workmen and proper materials in georgia prevented my completing the larger one until some time in april last. this, though much larger than my first attempt, is not above one third as large as the machines may be made with convenience. the cylinder is only two feet two inches in length, and six inches in diameter. it is turned by hand, and requires the strength of one man to keep it in constant motion. it is the stated task of one negro to clean fifty weight (i mean fifty pounds after it is separated from the seed) of the green cotton seed per day." in the year mr. whitney made application to congress for the renewal of his patent for the cotton-gin. in his memorial he presented a history of the struggles he had been forced to encounter in defence of his right, observing that he had been unable to obtain any decision on the merits of his claim until he had been _eleven years_ in the law, and _thirteen years_ of his patent term had expired. he sets forth that his invention had been a source of opulence to thousands of the citizens of the united states; that, as a labor-saving machine, it would enable one man to perform the work of a thousand men; and that it furnishes to the whole family of mankind, at a very cheap rate, the most essential article of their clothing. hence he humbly conceived himself entitled to a further remuneration from his country, and thought he ought to be admitted to a more liberal participation with his fellow-citizens in the benefits of his invention. although so great advantages had been already experienced, and the prospect of future benefits was so promising, still, many of those whose interest had been most enhanced by this invention, had obstinately persisted in refusing to make any compensation to the inventor. the very men whose wealth had been acquired by the use of this machine, and who had grown rich beyond all former example, had combined their exertions to prevent the patentee from deriving any emolument from his invention. from that state in which he had first made and where he had first introduced his machine, and which had derived the most signal benefits from it, he had received nothing; and from no state had he received the amount of half a cent per pound on the cotton cleaned with his machines in one year. estimating the value of the labor of one man at twenty cents per day, the whole amount which had been received by him for his invention was not equal to the value of the labor saved in _one hour_ by his machines then in use in the united states. "this invention," he proceeds, "now gives to the southern section of the union, over and above the profits which would be derived from the cultivation of any other crop, an annual emolument of at least _three millions_ of dollars."[ ] the foregoing statement does not rest on conjecture, it is no visionary speculation,--all these advantages have been realized; the planters of the southern states have counted the cash, felt the weight of it in their pockets, and heard the exhilarating sound of its collision. nor do the advantages stop here. this immense source of wealth is but just beginning to be opened. cotton is a more cleanly and healthful article of cultivation than tobacco and indigo, which it has superseded, and does not so much impoverish the soil. this invention has already trebled the value of the land through a large extent of territory; and the degree to which the cultivation of cotton may be still augmented, is altogether incalculable. this species of cotton has been known in all countries where cotton has been raised, from time immemorial, but was never known as an article of commerce until since this method of cleaning it was discovered. in short (to quote the language of judge johnson), "if we should assert that the benefits of this invention exceed _one hundred millions of dollars_, we could prove the assertion by correct calculation." it is objected that if the patentee succeeds in procuring the renewal of his patent, he will be too rich. there is no probability that the patentee, if the term of his patent were extended for twenty years, would ever obtain for his invention one half as much as many an individual will gain by use of it. up to the present time, the whole amount of what he has acquired from this source (after deducting his expenses) does not exceed one half the sum which a single individual has gained by the use of the machine in one year. it is true that considerable sums have been obtained from some of the states where the machine is used; but no small portion of these sums has been expended in prosecuting his claim in a state where nothing has been obtained, and where his machine has been used to the greatest advantage. there was much more which was curious, laid out in different books; but the call came for supper, and the young people obeyed. xii. james nasmyth. the steam-hammer. "my dear uncle fritz, i have found something very precious." "i hope it is a pearl necklace, my dear," was his reply, "though i see no one who needs such ornaments less." hester waltzed round the room, and dropped a very low courtesy before uncle fritz in acknowledgment of his compliment; and all the others clapped their hands. they asked her, more clamorously than uncle fritz, what she had found. "i have found a man--" "that is more than diogenes could." "horace, i shall send you out of the room, or back on first principles. do you not know that it is not nice to interrupt?" "i have found a man, uncle fritz, who is an inventor, a great inventor; and he is very nice, and he likes people and people like him, and he always succeeds,--his things turn out well, like dr. franklin's; and he says the world has always been grateful to him. he never sulks or complains; he knows all about the moon, and makes wonderful pictures of it; and he's enormously rich, i believe, too,--but that's not so much matter. the best of all is, that he began just as we begin. he had a nice father and a nice mother and a good happy home, and was brought up like good decent children. now really, uncle fritz, you mustn't laugh; but do you not think that most of the people whose lives we read have to begin horridly? they have to be beaten when they are apprentices, or their fathers and mothers have to die, or they have to walk through philadelphia with loaves of bread under their arms, or to be brought up in poor-houses or something. now, nothing of that sort happened to my inventor. and i am very much encouraged. for my father never beat me, and my mother never scolded me half as much as i deserved, and i never was in a poor-house, and i never carried a loaf of bread under my arm, and so i really was afraid i should come to no good. but now i have found my new moon-man, i am very much encouraged." the others laughed heartily at hester's zeal, and blanche asked what hester's hero had invented, and what was his name. the others turned to uncle fritz half incredulously. but uncle fritz came to hester's relief. "hester is quite right," he said; "and his name it is james nasmyth. he has invented a great many things, quite necessary in the gigantic system of modern machine-building. he has chosen the steam-hammer for his device. here is a picture of it on the outside of his life. you see i was ready for you, hester." the children looked with interest on the device, and fergus said that it was making heraldry do as it should, and speak in the language of the present time. then uncle fritz bade hester find for them a passage in the biography where mr. nasmyth tells how he changed the old motto of the family. oddly enough, the legend says that the first nasmyth took his name after a romantic escape, when one of his pursuers, finding him disguised as a blacksmith, cried out, "ye're _nae smyth_." it is a little queer that this name should have been given to the family of a man, who, in his time, forged heavier pieces of iron than had ever been forged before, and, indeed, invented the machinery by which this should be done. the old scotch family had for a motto the words "non arte, sed marte." with a very just pride, james nasmyth has changed the motto, and made it "non marte, sed arte." that is, while they said, "not by art, but by war," this man, who has done more work for the world, directly or indirectly, than any of aladdin's genii, says, "not by war, but by art." hester was well pleased that their old friend justified her enthusiasm so entirely. he and she began dipping into her copy and his copy of the biography, which is one of the most interesting books of our time. james nasmyth. my grandfather, michael naesmyth, like his father and grandfather, was a builder and architect. the buildings he designed and erected for the scotch nobility and gentry were well arranged, carefully executed, and thoroughly substantial. i remember my father pointing out to me the extreme care and attention with which he finished his buildings. he inserted small fragments of basalt into the mortar of the external joints of the stones, at close and regular distances, in order to protect the mortar from the adverse action of the weather; and to this day they give proof of their efficiency. the excellence of my grandfather's workmanship was a thing that my own father impressed upon me when a boy. it stimulated in me the desire to aim at excellence in everything that i undertook, and in all practical matters to arrive at the highest degree of good workmanship. i believe that these early lessons had a great influence upon my future career. my father, alexander nasmyth, was the second son of michael nasmyth. he was born in his father's house in the grassmarket, on the th of september, . i have not much to say about my father's education. for the most part he was his own schoolmaster. i have heard him say that his mother taught him his a b c, and that he afterward learned to read at mammy smith's. this old lady kept a school for boys and girls at the top of a house in the grassmarket. there my father was taught to read his bible and to learn his carritch (the shorter catechism). my father's profession was that of a portrait-painter, to begin with; but later he devoted himself to landscape-painting. but he did not confine himself to this pursuit. he was an all-round man, with something of the universal about him. he was a painter, an architect, and a mechanic. above all, he was an incessantly industrious man. i was born on the morning of the th of august, , at my father's house in edinburgh. i was named james hall, after a dear friend of my father. my mother afterward told me that i must have been a "very noticin' bairn," as she observed me, when i was only a few days old, following with my little eyes any one who happened to be in the room, as if i had been thinking to my little self, "who are you?" when i was about four or five years old i was observed to give a decided preference to the use of my left hand. at first everything was done to prevent my using it in preference to the right, until my father, after viewing a little sketch i had drawn with my left hand, allowed me to go on in my own way. i used my right hand in all that was necessary, and my left in all sorts of practical manipulative affairs. my left hand has accordingly been my most willing and obedient servant, and in this way i became ambidexter. in due time i was sent to school; and while attending the high school, from to , there was the usual rage among boys for spinning-tops, "peeries," and "young cannon." by means of my father's excellent foot-lathe i turned out the spinning-tops in capital style, so much so that i became quite noted among my school companions. they all wanted to have specimens of my productions. they would give any price for them. the peeries were turned with perfect accuracy, and the steel-shod or spinning pivot was centred so as to correspond with the heaviest diameter at the top. they would spin twice as long as the bought peeries. when at full speed they would "sleep;" that is, turn round without a particle of wavering. this was considered high art as regarded top-spinning. flying-kites and tissue-paper balloons were articles that i was also somewhat famed for producing. there was a good deal of special skill required for the production of a flying-kite. it must be perfectly still and steady when at its highest flight in the air. paper messengers were sent up to it along the string which held it to the ground. the top of the calton hill was the most favorite place for enjoying this pleasant amusement. another article for which i became equally famous was the manufacture of small brass cannon. these i cast and bored, and mounted on their appropriate gun-carriages. they proved very effective, especially in the loudness of the report when fired. i also converted large cellar-keys into a sort of hand-cannon. a touch-hole was bored into the barrel of the key, with a sliding brass collar that allowed the key-guns to be loaded and primed, ready for firing. the principal occasion on which the brass cannon and hand-guns were used was on the th of june,--king george the third's birthday. this was always celebrated with exuberant and noisy loyalty. the guns of the castle were fired at noon, and the number of shots corresponded with the number of years that the king had reigned. the grand old castle was enveloped in smoke, and the discharges reverberated along the streets and among the surrounding hills. everything was in holiday order. the coaches were hung with garlands, the shops were ornamented, the troops were reviewed on bruntsfield links, and the citizens drank the king's health at the cross, throwing the glasses over their backs. the boys fired off gunpowder, or threw squibs or crackers, from morning till night. it was one of the greatest schoolboy events of the year. my little brass cannon and hand-guns were very busy that day. they were fired until they became quite hot. these were the pre-lucifer days. the fire to light the powder at the touch-hole was obtained by the use of a flint, a steel, and a tinder-box. the flint was struck sharply on the steel, a spark of fire consequently fell into the tinder-box, and the match (of hemp string, soaked in saltpetre) was readily lit and fired off the little guns. one of my attached cronies was tom smith. our friendship began at the high school in . a similarity of disposition bound us together. smith was the son of an enterprising general merchant at leith. his father had a special genius for practical chemistry. he had established an extensive color-manufactory at portobello, near edinburgh, where he produced white lead, red lead, and a great variety of colors,--in the preparation of which he required a thorough knowledge of chemistry. tom smith inherited his father's tastes, and admitted me to share in his experiments, which were carried on in a chemical laboratory situated behind his father's house at the bottom of leith walk. we had a special means of communication. when anything particular was going on at the laboratory, tom hoisted a white flag on the top of a high pole in his father's garden. though i was more than a mile away, i kept a lookout in the direction of the laboratory with a spy-glass. my father's house was at the top of leith walk, and smith's house was at the bottom of it. when the flag was hoisted i could clearly see the invitation to me to come down. i was only too glad to run down the walk and join my chum, to take part in some interesting chemical process. mr. smith, the father, made me heartily welcome. he was pleased to see his son so much attached to me, and he perhaps believed that i was worthy of his friendship. we took zealous part in all the chemical proceedings, and in that way tom was fitting himself for the business of his life. mr. smith was a most genial-tempered man. he was shrewd and quick-witted, like a native of york, as he was. i received the greatest kindness from him as well as from his family. his house was like a museum. it was full of cabinets, in which were placed choice and interesting objects in natural history, geology, mineralogy, and metallurgy. all were represented. many of these specimens had been brought to him from abroad by his ship-captains, who transported his color manufactures and other commodities to foreign parts. my friend tom smith and i made it a rule--and in this we were encouraged by his father--that, so far as was possible, we ourselves should actually _make_ the acids and other substances used in our experiments. we were not to buy them ready-made, as this would have taken the zest out of our enjoyment. we should have lost the pleasure and instruction of producing them by means of our own wits and energies. to encounter and overcome a difficulty is the most interesting of all things. hence, though often baffled, we eventually produced perfect specimens of nitrous, nitric, and muriatic acids. we distilled alcohol from duly fermented sugar and water, and rectified the resultant spirit from fusel-oil by passing the alcoholic vapor through animal charcoal before it entered the worm of the still. we converted part of the alcohol into sulphuric ether. we produced phosphorus from old bones, and elaborated many of the mysteries of chemistry. the amount of practical information which we obtained by this system of making our own chemical agents, was such as to reward us, in many respects, for the labor we underwent. to outsiders it might appear a very troublesome and roundabout way of getting at the finally desired result; but i feel certain that there is no better method of rooting chemical or any other instruction deeply in our minds. indeed, i regret that the same system is not pursued by the youth of the present day. they are seldom if ever called upon to exert their own wits and industry to obtain the requisites for their instruction. a great deal is now said about technical education; but how little there is of technical handiness or head work! everything is _bought ready-made_ to their hands; and hence there is no call for individual ingenuity. i left the high school at the end of . i carried with me a small amount of latin and no greek. i do not think i was much the better for my small acquaintance with the dead languages. by the time i was seventeen years old i had acquired a considerable amount of practical knowledge as to the use and handling of mechanical tools, and i desired to turn it to some account. i was able to construct working models of steam-engines and other apparatus required for the illustration of mechanical subjects. i began with making a small working steam-engine, for the purpose of grinding the oil-colors used by my father in his artistic work. the result was quite satisfactory. many persons came to see my active little steam-engine at work; and they were so pleased with it that i received several orders for small workshop engines, and also for some models of steam-engines to illustrate the subjects taught at mechanics' institutions. i contrived a sectional model of a complete condensing steam-engine of the beam and parallel-motion construction. the model, as seen from one side, exhibited every external detail in full and due action when the fly-wheel was moved round by hand; while on the other, or sectional side, every detail of the interior was seen, with the steam-valves and air-pump, as well as the motion of the piston in the cylinder, with the construction of the piston and the stuffing-box, together with the slide-valve and steam-passages, all in due position and relative movement. i was a regular attendant at the edinburgh school of arts from to , meanwhile inventing original contrivances of various sorts. about the year , when i was nineteen years old, the subject of steam-carriages to run upon common roads occupied considerable attention. several engineers and mechanical schemers had tried their hands, but as yet no substantial results had come of their attempts to solve the problem. like others, i tried my hand. having made a small working model of a steam-carriage, i exhibited it before the members of the scottish society of arts. the performance of this active little machine was so gratifying to the society, that they requested me to construct one of such power as to enable four or six persons to be conveyed along the ordinary roads. the members of the society, in their individual capacity, subscribed £ , which they placed in my hands, as the means of carrying out their project. i accordingly set to work at once. i had the heavy parts of the engine and carriage done at anderson's foundry at leith. there was in anderson's employment a most able general mechanic, named robert maclaughlan, who had served his time at carmichael's, of dundee. anderson possessed some excellent tools, which enabled me to proceed rapidly with the work. besides, he was most friendly, and took much delight in being concerned in my enterprise. this "big job" was executed in about four months. the steam-carriage was completed and exhibited before the members of the society of arts. many successful trials were made with it on the queensferry road, near edinburgh. the runs were generally of four or five miles, with a load of eight passengers, sitting on benches about three feet from the ground. the experiments were continued for nearly three months, to the great satisfaction of the members. the chief object of my ambition was now to be taken on at henry maudsley's works in london. i had heard so much of his engineering work, of his assortment of machine-making tools, and of the admirable organization of his manufactory, that i longed to obtain employment there. but i was aware that my father had not the means of paying the large premium required for placing me there, and i was also informed that maudsley had ceased to take pupils, they caused him so much annoyance. my father and i went to london; and mr. maudsley received us in the most kind and frank manner, and courteously invited us to go round the works. when this was concluded i ventured to say to mr. maudsley that "i had brought up with me from edinburgh some working models of steam-engines and mechanical drawings, and i should feel truly obliged if he would allow me to show them to him." "by all means," said he; "bring them to me to-morrow at twelve o'clock." i need not say how much pleased i was at this permission to exhibit my handiwork, and how anxious i felt as to the result of mr. maudsley's inspection of it. i carefully unpacked my working model of the steam-engine at the carpenter's shop, and had it conveyed, together with my drawings, on a handcart to mr. maudsley's, next morning, at the appointed hour. i was allowed to place my work for his inspection in a room next his office and counting-house. i then called at his residence, close by, where he kindly received me in his library. he asked me to wait until he and his partner, joshua field, had inspected my handiwork. i waited anxiously. twenty long minutes passed. at last he entered the room, and from a lively expression in his countenance i observed in a moment that the great object of my long-cherished ambition had been attained. he expressed, in good round terms, his satisfaction at my practical ability as a workman, engineer, and mechanical draughtsman. then, opening the door which led from his library into his beautiful private workshop, he said, "this is where i wish you to work, beside me, as my assistant workman. from what i have seen there is no need of an apprenticeship in your case." one of his favorite maxims was, "first _get a clear notion_ of what you desire to accomplish, and then in all probability you will succeed in doing it." another was, "keep a sharp lookout upon your materials; get rid of every pound of material you can _do without_; put to yourself the question, 'what business has it to be there?' avoid complexities, and make everything as simple as possible." mr. maudsley was full of quaint maxims and remarks,--the result of much shrewdness, keen observation, and great experience. they were well worthy of being stored up in the mind, like a set of proverbs, full of the life and experience of men. his thoughts became compressed into pithy expressions exhibiting his force of character and intellect. his quaint remarks on my first visit to his workshop and on subsequent occasions proved to me invaluable guides to "right thinking" in regard to all matters connected with mechanical structure. on the morning of monday, may , , i began my regular attendance at mr. maudsley's workshop, and remained with him until he died, feb. , . it was a very sad thing for me to lose my dear old master, who always treated me like a friend and companion. at his death i passed over into the service of his worthy partner, joshua field, until my twenty-third year, when i intended to begin business for myself. i first settled myself at manchester, but afterwards established a large business outside of manchester on the bridgewater canal. in august, , the bridgewater foundry was in complete and efficient action. the engine ordered at londonderry was at once put in hand, and the concern was fairly started in its long career of prosperity. the wooden workshops had been erected upon the grass, but the greensward soon disappeared. the hum of the driving-belts, the whirl of the machinery, the sound of the hammer upon the anvil, gave the place an air of busy activity. as work increased, workmen multiplied. the workshops were enlarged. wood gave place to brick. cottages for the accommodation of the work-people sprung up in the neighborhood, and what had once been a quiet grassy field became the centre of a busy population. it was a source of vast enjoyment to me, while engaged in the anxious business connected with the establishment of the foundry, to be surrounded with so many objects of rural beauty. the site of the works being on the west side of manchester, we had the benefit of breathing pure air during the greater part of the year. the scenery round about was very attractive. exercise was a source of health to the mind as well as the body. as it was necessary that i should reside as near as possible to the works, i had plenty of opportunities for enjoying the rural scenery of the neighborhood. i had the good fortune to become the tenant of a small cottage in the ancient village of barton, in cheshire, at the very moderate rental of fifteen pounds a year. the cottage was situated on the banks of the river irwell, and was only about six minutes' walk from the works at patricroft. it suited my moderate domestic arrangements admirably. on june , , a day of happy memory, i was married to miss anne hartop. i was present at the opening of the liverpool and manchester railway, on sept. , . every one knows the success of the undertaking. railways became the rage. they were projected in every possible direction; and when made, locomotives were required to work them. when george stephenson was engaged in building his first locomotive, at killingworth, he was greatly hampered, not only by the want of handy mechanics, but by the want of efficient tools. but he did the best that he could. his genius overcame difficulties. it was immensely to his credit that he should have so successfully completed his engines for the stockton and darlington, and afterward for the liverpool and manchester, railway. only a few years had passed, and self-acting tools were now enabled to complete, with precision and uniformity, machines that before had been deemed almost impracticable. in proportion to the rapid extension of railways the demand for locomotives became very great. as our machine tools were peculiarly adapted for turning out a large amount of first-class work, we directed our attention to this class of business. in the course of about ten years after the opening of the liverpool and manchester railway, we executed considerable orders for locomotives for the london and southampton, the manchester and leeds, and the gloucester railway companies. the great western railway company invited us to tender for twenty of their very ponderous engines. they proposed a very tempting condition of the contract. it was that if, after a month's trial of the locomotives, their working proved satisfactory, a premium of £ was to be added to the price of each engine and tender. the locomotives were made and delivered; they ran the stipulated number of test miles between london and bristol in a perfectly satisfactory manner; and we not only received the premium, but, what was much more encouraging, we received a special letter from the board of directors, stating their entire satisfaction with the performance of our engines, and desiring us to refer other contractors to them with respect to the excellence of our workmanship. this testimonial was altogether spontaneous, and proved extremely valuable in other quarters. the date of the first sketch of my steam-hammer was nov. , . it consisted of, first, a massive anvil, on which to rest the work; second, a block of iron constituting the hammer, or blow-giving portion; and, third, an inverted steam cylinder, to whose piston-rod the hammer-block was attached. all that was then required to produce a most effective hammer, was simply to admit steam of sufficient pressure into the cylinder, so as to act on the under side of the piston, and thus to raise the hammer-block attached to the end of the piston-rod. by a very simple arrangement of a slide-valve under the control of an attendant, the steam was allowed to escape, and thus permit the massive block of iron rapidly to descend by its own gravity upon the work then upon the anvil. thus, by the more or less rapid manner in which the attendant allowed the steam to enter or escape from the cylinder, any required number or any intensity of blows could be delivered. their succession might be modified in an instant; the hammer might be arrested and suspended according to the requirements of the work. the workman might thus, as it were, _think in blows_. he might deal them out on to the ponderous glowing mass, and mould or knead it into the desired form as if it were a lump of clay, or pat it with gentle taps, according to his will or at the desire of the forgeman. rude and rapidly sketched out as it was, this my first delineation of the steam-hammer will be found to comprise all the essential elements of the invention. there was no want of orders when the valuable qualities of the steam-hammer came to be seen and experienced; soon after i had the opportunity of securing a patent for it in the united states, where it soon found its way into the principal iron-works of the country. as time passed by, i had furnished steam-hammers to the principal foundries in england, and had sent them abroad even to russia. * * * * * but the english government is proverbially slow in recognizing such improvements. it was not till years had passed by, that mr. nasmyth was asked to furnish hammers to government works. then he was invited to apply them to pile-driving. he says:-- my first order for my pile-driver was a source of great pleasure to me. it was for the construction of some great royal docks at devonport. an immense portion of the shore of the hamoaze had to be walled in so as to exclude the tide. when i arrived on the spot with my steam pile-driver, there was a great deal of curiosity in the dockyard as to the action of the new machine. the pile-driving machine-men gave me a good-natured challenge to vie with them in driving down a pile. they adopted the old method, while i adopted the new one. the resident managers sought out two great pile logs of equal size and length,-seventy feet long and eighteen inches square. at a given signal we started together. i let in the steam, and the hammer at once began to work. the four-ton block showered down blows at the rate of eighty a minute, and in the course of _four and a half minutes_ my pile was driven down to its required depth. the men working at the ordinary machine had only begun to drive. it took them upward of _twelve hours_ to complete the driving of their pile! such a saving of time in the performance of similar work--by steam _versus_ manual labor--had never before been witnessed. the energetic action of the steam-hammer, sitting on the shoulders of the pile high up aloft, and following it suddenly down, the rapidly hammered blows keeping time with the flashing out of the waste steam at the end of each stroke, was indeed a remarkable sight. when my pile was driven the hammer-block and guide-case were speedily re-hoisted by the small engine that did all the laboring and locomotive work of the machine, the steam-hammer portion of which was then lowered on to the shoulders of the next pile in succession. again it set to work. at this the spectators, crowding about in boats, pronounced their approval in the usual british style of "three cheers!" my new pile-driver was thus acknowledged as another triumphant proof of the power of steam. * * * * * in the course of the year it was necessary for me to make a journey to st. petersburg. my object was to endeavor to obtain an order for a portion of the locomotives required for working the line between that city and moscow. the railway had been constructed under the engineership of major whistler, and it was shortly about to be opened. the major gave me a frank and cordial reception, and informed me of the position of affairs. the emperor, he said, was desirous of training a class of russian mechanics to supply not only the locomotives, but to keep them constantly in repair. the locomotives must be made in russia. i received, however, a very large order for boilers and other detail parts of the moscow machines. i enjoyed greatly my visit to st. petersburg, and my return home through stockholm and copenhagen. travelling one day in sweden, the post-house where i was set down was an inn, although without a sign-board. the landlady was a bright, cheery, jolly woman. she could not speak a word of english, nor i a word of dannemora swedish. i was very thirsty and hungry, and wanted something to eat. how was i to communicate my wishes to the landlady? i resorted, as i often did, to the universal language of the pencil. i took out my sketch-book, and in a few minutes i made a drawing of a table with a dish of smoking meat upon it, a bottle and a glass, a knife and fork, a loaf, a salt-cellar, and a corkscrew. she looked at the drawing and gave a hearty laugh. she nodded pleasantly, showing that she clearly understood what i wanted. she asked me for the sketch, and went into the back garden to show it to her husband, who inspected it with great delight. i went out and looked about the place, which was very picturesque. after a short time the landlady came to the door and beckoned me in, and i found spread out on the table everything that i desired,--a broiled chicken, smoking hot from the gridiron, a bottle of capital home-brewed ale, and all the _et ceteras_ of an excellent repast. i made use of my pencil in many other ways. i always found that a sketch was as useful as a sentence. besides, it generally created a sympathy between me and my entertainers. as the bridgewater foundry had been so fortunate as to earn for itself a considerable reputation for mechanical contrivances, the workshops were always busy. they were crowded with machine tools in full action, and exhibited to all comers their effectiveness in the most satisfactory manner. every facility was afforded to those who desired to see them at work; and every machine and machine tool that was turned out became in the hands of its employers the progenitor of a numerous family. indeed, on many occasions i had the gratification of seeing my mechanical notions adopted by rival or competitive machine constructors, often without acknowledgment; though, notwithstanding this point of honor, there was room enough for all. though the parent features were easily recognizable, i esteemed such plagiarisms as a sort of left-handed compliment to their author. i also regarded them as a proof that i had hit the mark in so arranging my mechanical combinations as to cause their general adoption; and many of them remain unaltered to this day. my favorite pursuit, after my daily excursions at the foundry, was astronomy. i constructed for myself a telescope of considerable power, and, mounting my ten-inch instrument, i began my survey of the heavens. i began as a learner, and my learning grew with experience. there were the prominent stars, the planets, the milky way,--with thousands of far-off suns,--to be seen. my observations were at first merely general; by degrees they became particular. i was not satisfied with enjoying these sights myself. i made my friends and neighbors sharers in my pleasure, and some of them enjoyed the wonders of the heavens as much as i did. in my early use of the telescope i had fitted the speculum into a light square tube of deal, to which the eyepiece was attached, so as to have all the essential parts of the telescope combined together in the most simple and portable form. i had often to move it from place to place in my small garden at the side of the bridgewater canal, in order to get it clear of the trees and branches which intercepted some object in the heavens which i wished to see. how eager and enthusiastic i was in those days! sometimes i got out of bed in the clear small hours of the morning, and went down to the garden in my night-shirt. i would take the telescope in my arms and plant it in some suitable spot, where i might take a peep at some special planet or star then above the horizon. it became bruited about that a ghost was seen at patricroft! a barge was silently gliding along the canal near midnight, when the boatman suddenly saw a figure in white. "it moved among the trees, with a coffin in its arms!" the apparition was so sudden and strange that he immediately concluded that it was a ghost. the weird sight was reported all along the canal, and also at wolverhampton, which was the boatman's headquarters. he told the people at patricroft, on his return journey, what he had seen; and great was the excitement produced. the place was haunted; there was no doubt about it! after all, the rumor was founded on fact; for the ghost was merely myself in my night-shirt, and the coffin was my telescope, which i was quietly shifting from one place to another, in order to get a clearer sight of the heavens at midnight. i had been for some time contemplating the possibility of retiring altogether from business. i had got enough of the world's goods, and was willing to make way for younger men. many long years of pleasant toil and exertion had done their work. a full momentum of prosperity had been given to my engineering business at patricroft. my share in the financial results accumulated, with accelerated rapidity, to an amount far beyond my most sanguine hopes. but finding, from long-continued and incessant mental efforts, that my nervous system was beginning to become shaken, especially in regard to an affection of the eyes, which in some respects damaged my sight, i thought the time had arrived for me to retire from commercial life. behold us, then, settled down at hammerfield for life. we had plenty to do. my workshop was fully equipped. my hobbies were there, and i could work them to my heart's content. the walls of our various rooms were soon hung with pictures and other works of art, suggestive of many pleasant associations of former days. our library bookcase was crowded with old friends in the shape of books that had been read and re-read many times, until they had almost become part of ourselves. old lancashire friends made their way to us when "up in town," and expressed themselves delighted with our pleasant house and its beautiful surroundings. i was only forty-eight years old, which may be considered the prime of life. but i had plenty of hobbies, perhaps the chief of which was astronomy. no sooner had i settled at hammerfield than i had my telescopes brought out and mounted. the fine, clear skies with which we were favored furnished me with abundant opportunities for the use of my instruments. i began again my investigations on the sun and the moon, and made some original discoveries. it is time to come to an end of my recollections. i have endeavored to give a brief _résumé_ of my life and labors. i hope they may prove interesting as well as useful to others. thanks to a good constitution and a frame invigorated by work, i continue to lead, with my dear wife, a happy life. xiii. sir henry bessemer. the age of steel. in intervals of the reading meetings so many of the children's afternoons with uncle fritz had been taken up with excursions to see machinery at work, that their next meeting at the oliver house was, as it proved, the last for the winter. they had gone to the pumping-station of the waterworks, and had seen the noiseless work of the great steam-engine there. they had gone to the Ætna mills at watertown, and with the eye of the flesh had seen "rovers" and shuttles, and had been taught what "slobbers" are. they had gone to waltham, and had been taught something of the marvellous skill and delicacy expended on the manufacture of watches. they had gone to rand and avery's printing-house; and here they not only saw the processes of printing, but they saw steam power "converted" into electricity. they had gone to the locomotive factory in albany street, and understood, much better than before, the inventions of george stephenson, under the lead of the foremen in the shops, who had been very kind to them. on their last meeting uncle fritz reminded them of something which one of these gentlemen had taught them about the qualities of steel and iron; and again of what they had seen of steel-springs at waltham, when they saw how the balances of watches are arranged. "some bright person has called our time 'the age of steel,'" he said. "you know ovid's division was 'the age of gold, the age of silver, the age of brass, the age of iron.' and ovid, who was in low spirits, thought the age of iron was the worst of all. now, we begin to improve if we have entered the age of steel; for steel is, poetically speaking, glorified iron. "now the person to whom we owe it, that, in practice, we can build steel ships to-day where we once built iron ships, and lay steel rails to-day where even stephenson was satisfied with iron, is sir henry bessemer. the queen knighted him in recognition of the service he had rendered to the world by his improvements in the processes of turning iron into steel. "it is impossible to estimate the addition which these improvements have made to the physical power of the world. i have not the most recent figures, but look at this," said uncle fritz. and he gave to john to read from a life of sir henry bessemer:-- "prior to this invention the entire production of cast steel in great britain was only about fifty thousand tons annually; and its average price, which ranged from £ to £ , prohibited its use for many of the purposes to which it is now universally applied. after the invention, in the year , the bessemer steel produced in great britain alone amounted to , tons, or fifteen times the total of the former method of manufacture, while the selling price averaged only £ per ton, and the coal consumed in producing it was less by , , tons than would have been required in order to make the same quality of steel by the old, or sheffield, process. the total reduction of cost is equal to about £ , , sterling upon the quantity manufactured in england during the year." the same book goes on to show that in other nations £ , , worth of bessemer steel was produced in the same year. "you see," said uncle fritz, "that here is an addition to the real wealth of the world such as makes any average fairy story about diamonds and rubies rather cheap and contemptible. "you will like sir henry bessemer, hester, because he was happily trained and had good chances when he was a boy. and you will be amused to see how his bright wife was brighter than all the internal-revenue people. she was so bright that she lost him the appointment which had enabled him to marry her. but i think he says somewhere, with a good deal of pride, that but for that misfortune, and the injustice which accompanied it, he should have probably never made his great inventions. it is one more piece of 'partial evil,--universal good.'" then the children, with uncle fritz's aid, began picking out what they called the plums from the accounts he showed them of sir henry bessemer's life. bessemer's family. at the time of the great revolution of there was employed in the french mint a man of great ingenuity, who had become a member of the french academy of sciences at the age of twenty-five. when robespierre became dictator of france, this scientific academician was transferred from the mint to the management of a public bakery, established for the purpose of supplying the populace of paris with bread. in that position he soon became the object of revolutionary frenzy. one day a rumor was set afloat that the loaves supplied were light in weight; and, spreading like wildfire, it was made the occasion of a fearful tumult. the manager of the bakery was instantly seized and cast into prison. he succeeded in escaping, but it was at the peril of his life. knowing the peril he was in, he lost no time in making his way to england; and he only succeeded in doing so by adroitly using some documents he possessed bearing the signature of the dictator. landing in england a ruined man, his talents soon proved a passport to success. he was appointed to a position in the english mint; and by the exercise of his ingenuity in other directions, he ere long acquired sufficient means to buy a small estate at charlton, in hertfordshire. such, in brief, were the circumstances that led to the settlement there of anthony bessemer, the father of sir henry bessemer. the latter may be said to have been born an inventor. his father was an inventor before him. after settling in england, his inventive ingenuity was displayed in making improvements in microscopes and in type-founding, and in the discovery of what his son has happily described as the true alchemy. the latter discovery, which he made about the beginning of the present century, was a source of considerable profit to him. it is generally known that when gold articles are made by the jewellers, there are various discolorations left on their surface by the process of manufacture; and in order to clear their surface, they are put into a solution of alum, salt, and saltpetre, which dissolves a large quantity of the copper that is used as an alloy. anthony bessemer discovered that this powerful acid not only dissolved the copper, but also dissolved a quantity of gold. he accordingly began to buy up this liquor; and as he was the only one who knew that it contained gold in solution, he had no difficulty in arranging for the purchase of it from all the manufacturers in london. from that liquor he succeeded in extracting gold in considerable quantities for many years. by some means that he kept secret (and the secret died with him), he deposited the particles of gold on the shavings of another metal, which, being afterwards melted, left the pure gold in small quantities. thirty years afterward the messrs. elkington invented the electrotype process, which had the same effect. anthony bessemer was also eminently successful as a type-founder. when in france, before the revolution of , he cut a great many founts of type for messrs. firmin didot, the celebrated french type-founders; and after his return to england he betook himself, as a diversion, to type-cutting for mr. henry caslon, the celebrated english type-founder. he engraved an entire series, from pica to diamond,--a work which occupied several years. the success of these types led to the establishment of the firm of bessemer and catherwood as type-founders, carrying on business at charlton. the great improvement which anthony bessemer introduced into the art of type-making was not so much in the engraving as in the composition of the metal. he discovered that an alloy of copper, tin, and bismuth was the most durable metal for type; and the working of this discovery was very successful in his hands. the secret of his success, however, he kept unknown to the trade. he knew that if it were suspected that the superiority of his type consisted in the composition of the metal, analysis would reveal it, and others would then be able to compete with him. so, to divert attention from the real cause, he pointed out to the trade that the shape of his type was different, as the angle at which all the lines were produced from the surface was more obtuse in his type than in those of other manufacturers, at the same time contending that his type would wear longer. other manufacturers ridiculed this account of bessemer's type, but experience showed that it lasted nearly twice as long as other type. the business flourished for a dozen years under his direction, and during that period the real cause of its success was kept a secret. the process has since been re-discovered and patented. such were some of the inventive efforts of the father of one of the greatest inventors of the present age. henry bessemer. the youngest son of anthony bessemer, henry, was born at charlton, in hertfordshire, in . his boyhood was spent in his native village; and while receiving the rudiments of an ordinary education in the neighboring town of hitchin, the leisure and retirement of rural life afforded ample time, though perhaps little inducement, for the display of the natural bent of his mind. notwithstanding his scanty and imperfect mechanical appliances, his early years were devoted to the cultivation of his inventive faculties. his parents encouraged him in his youthful efforts. at the age of eighteen he came to london, "knowing no one," he says, "and myself unknown,--a mere cipher in a vast sea of human enterprise." here he worked as a modeller and designer with encouraging success. he engraved a large number of elegant and original designs on steel, with a diamond point, for patent-medicine labels. he got plenty of this sort of work to do, and was well paid for it. in his boyhood his favorite amusement was the modelling of objects in clay; and even in this primitive school of genius he worked with so much success that at the age of nineteen he exhibited one of his beautiful models at the royal academy, then held at somerset house. stamped paper. thus he soon began to make his way in the metropolis; and in the course of the following year he was maturing some plans in connection with the production of stamps which he sanguinely hoped would lead him on to fortune. at that time the old forms of stamps were in use that had been employed since the days of queen anne; and as they were easily transferred from old deeds to new ones, the government lost a large amount annually by this surreptitious use of old stamps instead of new ones. the ordinary impressed or embossed stamps, such as are now employed on bills of exchange, or impressed directly on skins or parchment, were liable to be entirely obliterated if exposed for some months to a damp atmosphere. a deed so exposed would at last appear as if unstamped, and would therefore become invalid. special precautions were therefore observed in order to prevent this occurrence. it was the practice to gum small pieces of blue paper on the parchment; and, to render it still more secure, a strip of metal foil was passed through it, and another small piece of paper with the printed initials of the sovereign was gummed over the loose end of the foil at the back. the stamp was then impressed on the blue paper, which, unlike parchment, is incapable of losing the impression by exposure to a damp atmosphere. experience showed, however, that by placing a little piece of moistened blotting-paper for a few hours over the paper, the gum became so softened that the two pieces of paper and the slip of foil could be easily removed from an old deed and then used for a new one. in this way stamps could be used a second and third time; and by thus utilizing the expensive stamps on old deeds of partnerships that were dissolved, or leases that were expired, the public revenue lost thousands of pounds every year. sir charles persley, of the stamp office, told sir henry bessemer that the government were probably defrauded of £ , per annum in that way. the young inventor at once set to work, for the express purpose of devising a stamp that could not be used twice. his first discovery was a mode by which he could have reproduced easily and cheaply thousands of stamps of any pattern. "the facility," he says, "with which i could make a permanent die from a thin paper original, capable of producing a thousand copies, would have opened a wide door for successful frauds if my process had been known to unscrupulous persons; for there is not a government stamp or a paper seal of a corporate body that every common office clerk could not forge in a few minutes at the office of his employer or at his own home. the production of such a die from a common paper stamp is a work of only ten minutes; the materials cost less than one penny; no sort of technical skill is necessary, and a common copying-press or a letter stamp yields most successful copies." to this day a successful forger has to employ a skilful die-sinker to make a good imitation in steel of the document he wishes to forge; but if such a method as that discovered and described by sir henry bessemer were known, what a prospect it would open up! appalled at the effect which the communication of such a process would have had upon the business of the stamp office, he carefully kept the knowledge of it to himself; and to this day it remains a profound secret. more than ever impressed with the necessity for an improved form of stamp, and conscious of his own capability to produce it, he labored for some months to accomplish his object, feeling sure that, if successful, he would be amply rewarded by the government. to insure the secrecy of his experiments, he worked at them during the night, after his ordinary business of the day was over. he succeeded at last in making a stamp which obviated the great objection to the then existing form, inasmuch as it would be impossible to transfer it from one deed to another, to obliterate it by moisture, or to take an impression from it capable of producing a duplicate. flushed with success and confident of the reward of his labors, he waited upon sir charles persley at somerset house, and showed him, by numerous proofs, how easily all the then existing stamps could be forged, and his new invention to prevent forgery. sir charles, who was much astonished at the one invention and pleased with the other, asked bessemer to call again in a few days. at the second interview sir charles asked him to work out the principle of the new stamping invention more fully. accordingly bessemer devoted five or six weeks' more labor to the perfecting of his stamp, with which the stamp office authorities were now well pleased. the design, as described by the inventor, was circular, about two and a half inches in diameter, and consisted of a garter with a motto in capital letters, surmounted by a crown. within the garter was a shield, and the garter was filled with network in imitation of lace. the die was executed in steel, which pierced the parchment with more than four hundred holes; and these holes formed the stamp. it is by a similar process that valentine makers have since learned to make the perforated paper used in their trade. such a stamp removed all the objections to the old one. so pleased was sir charles with it that he recommended it to lord althorp, and it was soon adopted by the stamp office. at the same time sir henry was asked whether he would be satisfied with the position of superintendent of stamps with £ or £ per annum, as compensation for his invention, instead of a sum of money from the treasury. this appointment he gladly agreed to accept; for, being engaged to be married at the time, he thought his future position in life was settled. shortly afterwards he called on the young lady to whom he was engaged, and communicated the glad tidings to her, at the same time showing her the design of his new stamp. on explaining to her that its chief virtue was that the new stamps thus produced could not, like the old ones, be fraudulently used twice or thrice, she instantly suggested that if all stamps had a date put upon them they could not be used at a future time without detection. the idea was new to him; and, impressed with its practical character, he at once conceived a plan for the insertion of movable dates in the die of his stamp. the method by which this is now done is too well known to require description here; but in it was a new invention. having worked out the details of a stamp with movable dates, he saw that it was more simple and more easily worked than his elaborate die for perforating stamps; but he also saw that if he disclosed his latest invention it might interfere with his settled prospects in connection with the carrying out of his first one. it was not without regret, too, that he saw the results of many months of toil and the experiments of many lonely nights at once superseded; but his conviction of the superiority of his latest design was so strong, and his own sense of honor and his confidence in that of the government was so unsuspecting, that he boldly went and placed the whole matter before sir charles persley. of course the new design was preferred. sir charles truly observed that with this new plan all the old dies, old presses, and old workmen could be employed. among the other advantages it presented to the government, it did not fail to strike sir charles that no superintendent of stamps would now be necessary,--a recommendation which the perforated die did not possess. the stamp office therefore abandoned the ingenuous and ingenious inventor. the old stamps were called in, and the new ones issued in a few weeks; the revenue from stamps grew enormously, and forged or feloniously used stamps are now almost unheard of. the stamp office reaped a benefit which it is scarcely possible to estimate fully, while bessemer did not receive a farthing. shortly after the new stamp was adopted by act of parliament, lord althorp resigned, and his successors disclaimed all liability. when the disappointed inventor pressed his claim, he was met by all sorts of half-promises and excuses, which ended in nothing. the disappointment was all the more galling because, if bessemer had stuck to his first-adopted plan, his services would have been indispensable to its execution; and it was therefore through his putting a better and more easily worked plan before them that his services were coolly ignored. "i had no patent to fall back upon," he says, in describing the incident afterward. "i could not go to law, even if i wished to do so; for i was reminded, when pressing for mere money out of pocket, that i had done all the work voluntarily and of my own accord. wearied and disgusted, i at last ceased to waste time in calling at the stamp office,--for time was precious to me in those days,--and i felt that nothing but increased exertions could make up for the loss of some nine months of toil and expenditure. thus sad and dispirited, and with a burning sense of injustice overpowering all other feelings, i went my way from the stamp office, too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably my right." gold paint. shortly after he had taken out his first patent for his improvement in type-founding, his attention was accidentally turned to the manufacture of bronze powder, which is used in gold-work, japanning, gold-printing, and similar operations. while engaged in ornamenting a vignette in his sister's album, he had to purchase a small quantity of this bronze, and was struck with the great difference between the price of the raw material and that of the manufactured article. the latter sold for _s._ a pound, while the raw material only cost _d._ a pound. he concluded that the difference was caused by the process of manufacture, and made inquiries with the view of learning the nature of the process. he found, however, that this manufacture was hardly known in england. the article was supplied to english dealers from nuremberg and other towns in germany. he did not succeed, therefore, in finding any one who could tell him how it was produced. in these circumstances he determined to try to make it himself, and worked for a year and a half at the solution of this task. other men had tried it and failed, and he was on the point of failing too. after eighteen months of fruitless labor he came to the conclusion that he could not make it, and gave it up. but it is the highest attribute of genius to succeed where others fail, and, impelled by this instinct, he resumed his investigations after six months' repose. at last success crowned his efforts. the profits of his previous inventions now supplied him with funds sufficient to provide the mechanical appliances he had designed. knowing very little of the patent law, and considering it so insecure that the safest way to reap the full benefit of his new invention was to keep it to himself, he determined to work his process of bronze-making in strict secrecy; and every precaution was therefore adopted for this purpose. he first put up a small apparatus with his own hands, and worked it entirely himself. by this means he produced the required article at _s._ a pound. he then sent out a traveller with samples of it, and the first order he got was at _s._ a pound. being thus fully assured of success, he communicated his plans to a friend, who agreed to put £ , into the business, as a sleeping partner, in order to work the new manufacture on a larger scale. the entire working of the concern was left in the hands of sir henry, who accordingly proceeded to enlarge his means of production. to insure secrecy, he made plans of all the machinery required, and then divided them into sections. he next sent these sectional drawings to different engineering works, in order to get his machinery made piecemeal in different parts of england. this done, he collected the various pieces, and fitted them up himself,--a work that occupied him nine months. finding everything at last in perfect working order, he engaged four or five assistants in whom he had confidence, and paid them very high wages on condition that they kept everything in the strictest secrecy. bronze powder was now produced in large quantities by means of five self-acting machines, which not only superseded hand labor entirely, but were capable of producing as much daily as sixty skilled operatives could do by the old hand system. to this day the mechanical means by which his famous gold paint is produced remains a secret. the machinery is driven by a steam-engine in an adjoining room; and into the room where the automatic machinery is at work none but the inventor and his assistants have ever entered. when a sufficient quantity of work is done, a bell is rung to give notice to the engine-man to stop the engine; and in this way the machinery has been in constant use for over forty years without having been either patented or pirated. its profit was as great as its success. at first he made , per cent profit; and though there are other products that now compete with this bronze, it still yields per cent profit. "all this time," says the successful inventor thirty years afterward, "i have been afraid to improve the machinery, or to introduce other engineers into the works to improve them. strange to say, we have thus among us a manufacture wholly unimproved for thirty years. i do not believe there is another instance of such a thing in the kingdom. i believe that if i had patented it, the fourteen years would not have run out without other people making improvements in the manufacture. of the five machines i use, three are applicable to other processes, one to color-making especially; so much so that notwithstanding the very excellent income which i derive from the manufacture, i had once nearly made up my mind to throw it open and make it public, for the purpose of using part of my invention for the manufacture of colors. three out of my five assistants have died; and if the other two were to die and myself too, no one would know what the invention is." since this was said (in ), sir henry has rewarded the faithfulness of his two surviving assistants by handing over to them the business and the factory. bessemer steel. sir henry bessemer was first led to turn his attention to the improvement of the manufacture of iron by a remark of commander minie, who was superintending certain trials of the results of sir henry's experiments in obtaining rotation of shot fired from a smooth-bore gun. "the shots," said minie, "rotate properly; but if you cannot get stronger metal for your guns, such heavy projectiles will be of little use." at this time sir henry had no connection with the iron or steel trade, and knew little or nothing of metallurgy. but this fact he has always represented as being rather an advantage than a drawback. "i find," he says, "in my experience with regard to inventions, that the most intelligent manufacturers invent many small improvements in various departments of their manufactures,--but, generally speaking, these are only small ameliorations based on the nature of the operation they are daily pursuing; while, on the contrary, persons wholly unconnected with any particular business have their minds so free and untrammelled to new things as they are, and as they would present themselves to an independent observer, that they are the men who eventually produce the greatest changes." it was in this spirit that he began his investigations in metallurgy. his first business was to make himself acquainted with the information contained in the best works then published on the subject. he also endeavored to add some practical knowledge to what he learned from books. with this view he visited the iron-making districts in the north, and there obtained an insight into the working merits and defects of the processes then in use. on his return to london he arranged for the use of an old factory in st. pancras, where he began his own series of experiments. he converted the factory into a small experimental "iron-works," in which his first object was to improve the quality of iron. for this purpose he made many costly experiments without the desired measure of success, but not without making some progress in the right direction. after twelve months spent in these experiments he produced an improved quality of cast iron, which was almost as white as steel, and was both tougher and stronger than the best cast iron then used for ordnance. of this metal he cast a small model gun, which was turned and bored. this gun he took to paris, and presented it personally to the emperor,[ ] as the result of his labors thus far. his majesty encouraged him to continue his experiments, and desired to be further informed of the results. as sir henry continued his labors, he extended their scope from the production of refined iron to that of steel; and in order to protect himself, he took out a patent for each successive improvement. one idea after another was put to the test of experiment; one furnace after another was pulled down, and numerous mechanical appliances were designed and tried in practice. during these experiments he specified a multitude of improvements in the crucible process of making steel; but he still felt that much remained to be done. at the end of eighteen months, he says, "the idea struck me" of rendering cast iron malleable by the introduction of atmospheric air into the fluid metal. his first experiment to test this idea was made in a crucible in the laboratory. he there found that by blowing air into the molten metal in the crucible, by means of a movable blow-pipe, he could convert ten pounds or twelve pounds of crude iron into the softest malleable iron. the samples thus produced were so satisfactory in all their mechanical tests that he brought them under the notice of colonel eardley wilmot, then the superintendent of the royal gun factories, who expressed himself delighted and astonished at the result, and who offered him facilities for experimenting in woolwich arsenal. these facilities were extended to him in the laboratory by professor abel, who made numberless analyses of the material as he advanced with his experiments. the testing department was also put at his disposal, for testing the tensile strength and elasticity of different samples of soft malleable iron and steel. the first piece that was rolled at woolwich was preserved by sir henry as a memento. it was a small bar of metal, about a foot long and an inch wide, and was converted from a state of pig iron in a crucible of only ten pounds. that small piece of bar, after being rolled, was tried, to see how far it was capable of welding; and he was surprised to see how easily it answered the severest tests. after this he commenced experiments on a larger scale. he had proved in the laboratory that the principle of purifying pig iron by atmospheric air was possible; but he feared, from what he knew of iron metallurgy, that as he approached the condition of pure soft malleable iron, he must of necessity require a temperature that he could not hope to attain under these conditions. in order to produce larger quantities of metal in this way, one of his first ideas was to apply the air to the molten iron in crucibles; and accordingly, in october, , he took out a patent embodying this idea. he proposed to erect a large circular furnace, with openings for the reception of melting-pots containing fluid iron, and pipes were made to conduct air into the centre of each pot, and to force it among the particles of metal. having thus tested the purifying effect of cold air introduced into the melting iron in pots, he labored for three months in trying to overcome the mechanical difficulties experienced in this complicated arrangement. he wondered whether it would not be possible to dispense with the pipes and pots, and perform the whole operation in one large circular or egg-shaped vessel. the difficult thing in doing so, was to force the air all through the mass of liquid metal. while this difficulty was revolving in his mind, the labor and anxiety entailed by previous experiments brought on a short but severe illness; and while he was lying in bed, pondering for hours upon the prospects of succeeding in another experiment with the pipes and pots, it occurred to him that the difficulty might be got over by introducing air into a large vessel from below into the molten mass within. though he entertained grave doubts as to the practicability of carrying out this idea, chiefly owing to the high temperature required to maintain the iron in a state of fluidity while the impurities were being burned out, he determined to put it to a working test; and on recovering health he immediately began to design apparatus for this purpose. he constructed a circular vessel, measuring three feet in diameter and five feet in height, and capable of holding seven hundred-weight of iron. he next ordered a small, powerful air-engine and a quantity of crude iron to be put down on the premises in st. pancras, that he had hired for carrying on his experiments. the name of these premises was baxter house, formerly the residence of old richard baxter; and the simple experiment we are now going to describe has made that house more famous than ever. the primitive apparatus being ready, the engine was made to force streams of air, under high pressure, through the bottom of the vessel, which was lined with fire-clay; and the stoker was told to pour the metal, when it was sufficiently melted, in at the top of it. a cast-iron plate--one of those lids which commonly cover the coal-holes in the pavement--was hung over the converter; and all being got ready, the stoker in some bewilderment poured in the metal. instantly out came a volcanic eruption of such dazzling coruscations as had never been seen before. the dangling pot-lid dissolved in the gleaming volume of flame, and the chain by which it hung grew red and then white, as the various stages of the process were unfolded to the gaze of the wondering spectators. the air-cock to regulate the blast was beside the converting-vessel; but no one dared to go near it, much less deliberately to shut it. in this dilemma, however, they were soon relieved by finding that the process of decarburization or combustion had expended all its fury; and, most wonderful of all, the result was steel! the new metal was tried. its quality was good. the problem was solved. the new process appeared successful. the inventor was elated, as well he might be! the new process was received with astonishment by all the iron-working world. it was approved by many, but scoffed at by others. as trials went on, however, the feeling against it increased. the iron so made was often "rotten," and no one could tell exactly why. bessemer, however, continued to investigate everything for himself, regardless of all suggestions. some ideas of permanent value were offered to him, but were set at nought. it was not till another series of independent experiments were made that he himself discovered the secret of failure. it then appeared that, by mere chance, the iron used in his first experiments was blaenavon pig, which is exceptionally free from phosphorus; and consequently, when other sorts of iron were thrown at random into the converter, the phosphorus manifested its refractory nature in the unworkable character of the metal produced. analyses made by professor abel for sir henry showed that this was the real cause of failure. once convinced of this fact, sir henry set to work for the purpose of removing this hostile element. he saw how phosphorus was removed in the puddling-furnace, and he now tried to do the same thing in his converter. another series of costly and laborious experiments was conducted; and first one patent and then another was taken out, tried, and abandoned. his last idea was to make a vessel in which the converting process did not take place, but into which he could put the pig iron as soon as it was melted, along with the same kind of materials that were used in the puddling-furnace. he was then of opinion that he must come as near to puddling as possible, in order to get the phosphorus out of the iron. just as he was preparing to put this plan into operation, there arrived in england some pig iron which he had ordered from sweden some months previously. when this iron, which was free from phosphorus, was put into the converter, it yielded, in the very first experiment, a metal of so high a quality that he at once abandoned his efforts to dephosphorize ordinary iron. the sheffield manufacturers were then selling steel at £ a ton; and he thought that as he could buy pig iron at £ a ton, and by blowing it a few minutes in the converter could make it into what was being sold at such a high price, the problem was solved. but there was yet one thing wanting. he had now succeeded in producing the purest malleable iron ever made, and that, too, by a quicker and less expensive process than was ever known before. but what he wanted was to make steel. the former is iron in its greatest possible purity; the latter is pure iron containing a small percentage of carbon to harden it. there has been an almost endless controversy in trying to make a definition that will fix the dividing line that separates the one metal from the other.[ ] for our present purpose, suffice it to quote the account given in a popular treatise on metallurgy, published at the time when bessemer was in the midst of his experiments. "wrought iron," it says, "or soft iron, may contain no carbon; and if perfectly pure, would contain none, nor indeed any other impurity. this is a state to be desired and aimed at, but it has never yet been perfectly attained in practice. the best as well as the commonest foreign irons always contain more or less carbon.... carbon may exist in iron in the ratio of parts to , without assuming the properties of steel. if the proportion be greater than that, and anywhere between the limits of parts of carbon to , parts of iron and parts of carbon to of iron, the alloy assumes the properties of steel. in cast iron the carbon exceeds per cent, but in appearance and properties it differs widely from the hardest steel. these properties, although we quote them, are somewhat doubtful; and the chemical constitution of these three substances may, perhaps, be regarded as still undetermined." now, in the bessemer converter the carbon was almost entirely consumed. in the small gun just described,[ ] there were only parts of carbon for , , parts of iron. bessemer's next difficulty was to carburize his pure iron, and thus to make it into steel. "the wrought iron," says mr. i. l. bell, "as well as the steel made according to sir henry bessemer's original plan, though a purer specimen of metal was never heard of except in the laboratory, was simply worthless. in this difficulty, a ray of scientific truth, brought to light one hundred years before, came to the rescue. bergmann was one of the earliest philosophers who discarded all theory, and introduced into chemistry that process of analysis which is the indispensable antecedent of scientific system. this swedish experimenter had ascertained the existence of manganese in the iron of that country, and connected its presence with suitability for steel purposes." manganese is a kind of iron exceptionally rich in carbon, and also exceptionally free from other impurities. berzelius, rinman, karsten, berthier, and other metallurgists had before now discussed its effect when combined with ordinary iron; and the french were so well aware that ferro-manganese ores were superior for steel-making purposes that they gave them the name of _mines d'acier_. so bessemer, after many experiments, discovered a method whereby, with the use of ferro-manganese, he could make what is known as mild steel. the process of manufacture, when described by sir henry bessemer at cheltenham in ,[ ] was so nearly complete, that only two important additions were made afterwards. one was the introduction of the ferro-manganese for the purpose of imparting to his pure liquid iron the properties of "mild steel." the other was an improvement in the mechanical apparatus. he found that when the air had been blown into the iron till all the carbon was expelled, the continuance of "the blow" afterward consumed the iron at a very rapid rate, and a great loss of iron thus took place. it was therefore necessary to cease blowing at a particular moment. at first he saw no practical way by which he could prevent the metal going into the air-holes in the bottom of the vessel below the level of the liquid mass, so as to stop them up immediately on ceasing to force the air through them; for if he withdrew the pressure of air, the whole apparatus would be destroyed for a time. here, again, his inventive genius found a remedy. he had the converter holding the molten iron mounted on an axis, which enabled him at any moment he liked to turn it round and to bring the holes above the level of the metal; whenever this was done the process of conversion or combustion ceased of itself, and the apparatus had only to be turned back again in order to resume the operation. this turning on an axis of a furnace weighing eleven tons, and containing five tons of liquid metal, at a temperature scarcely approachable, was a system entirely different from anything that had preceded it; for it he took out what he considered one of his most important patents, "and," he says, "i am vain enough to believe that so long as my process lasts, the motion of the vessel containing the fluid on its axis will be retained as an absolute necessity for any form which the process may take at any future time." the patent for this invention was taken out about four years after his original patent for the converter. uncle fritz showed them a picture of this gigantic kettle, which holds this mass of molten metal and yet turns so easily. "but," said helen, "you have a model of it here, uncle fritz." and she pointed to her uncle fritz's inkstand, which is something the shape of a fat beet-root, with the point turned up to receive the ink. uncle fritz nodded his approval. these inkstands, which turn over on a little brazen axis, were probably first made by some one who had seen the great eleven-ton converters. uncle fritz showed the children the picture in the "practical magazine," and they spent some time together in looking over the pages of the volume for . the bessemer process was now perfect. nearly four years had elapsed since its conception and first application; and in addition to the necessary labor and anxiety he had experienced, no less than £ , had been expended in making experiments that were necessary to complete its success. it only remained to bring the process into general use. * * * * * the young people asked quite eagerly whether they could see the processes of "conversion" anywhere, and were glad to be told that bessemer steel is made in many parts of america. one of their young friends, who was educated at the "technology," is in charge of a department at steelton, in pennsylvania, and they have all written letters to him. the american steel-makers have a great variety of ores to choose from, and they have found it possible, by using different ores, to avoid the difficulties which mr. bessemer first met in using the ores of england. and so far are the processes now simplified, that in many american establishments the molten iron is received liquid from the blast furnaces, and does not have to be reduced a second time in a cupola furnace, as was the iron used by mr. bessemer. there is no cooling, in such establishments, between the ore and the finished steel. xiv. the last meeting. goodyear. when the day for the next meeting came, uncle fritz had a large collection of books and magazines in the little rolling racks and tables where such things are kept. but no one of them was opened. no. the young people appeared in great strength, all at the same moment, and notified him that he was to put on his hat and his light overcoat, and go with them on what they called the first "alp" of the season. for there is a pretence in the little company that they are an alpine club, and that for eight months of the year it is their duty to climb the highest mountains near boston. now, the very highest of these peaks is the summit hill of the blue hills, to which indeed massachusetts owes its name. for "matta" in the algonquin tongue meant "great," and "chuset" meant "a hill." and a woman who was living on a little hummock near squantum, just before winthrop and the rest landed, was the sacred sachem of the massachusetts indians. hence the name of mattachusetts bay; and then, by euphony or bad spelling, or both, massachusetts. uncle fritz obeyed the rabble rout, as he is apt to do. he retired for a minute to put on heavier shoes, and, when he reappeared, he took the seat of honor in the leading omnibus. and a very merry expedition they had to the summit, where, as the accurate fergus told them, they were six hundred feet above the level of the sea. there was but little wood, and they were able to lie and sit in a large group on the ground just on the lee side of the hill, where they could look off on the endless sea. "whom should you have told us about, had it rained?" said mabel fordyce. "oh! you were to have had your choice. there are still left many inventors. i had looked at mr. parton's life of goodyear, and the very curious brief prepared for the court about his patents. half of you would not be here to-day but for that ingenious and long-suffering man." "should not i have come?" said gertrude, incredulously. "surely not," said uncle fritz, laughing. "i saw your water-proof in your shawl-strap. i know your mamma well enough to know that you would never have been permitted to come so far from home without that ægis, or without those trig, pretty overshoes. you owe waterproof and overshoes both to the steady perseverance of goodyear and to the loyal help of his wife and daughters. some day you must read mr. webster's eulogy on him and them. indeed, he is the american palissy. you hear a good deal of woman's rights; but, really, modern women had no rights worth speaking of till mr. goodyear enabled them to go out-doors in all weathers. "i meant we should have an afternoon with the goodyears. then i meant that you should know, gertrude, where that slice of bread came from." "well," said she, "i do not know much, but i do know that. it came out of the bread-box." "very good," said the colonel, laughing. "but somebody put it into the bread-box. and it is quite as well that you should know who put it in. american girls and american boys ought to know that men's prayer for 'daily bread' is answered more and more largely every year. they ought to know why. well, the great reason is that reaping and binding after the reapers, nay, that sowing the corn, and every process between sowing and harvest, has been wellnigh perfected by the american inventors. so i had wanted to give a day or two to reapers and binders, and the other machinery of harvesting. indeed, if our winter had been as long as poor captain greely's was, and if you had met me every week, we should have had a new invention for each one. here are the telephone and the telegraph. here is the use of the electric light. here is the sewing-machine, with all its nice details, like the button-hole maker. nay, every button is made by its own machinery. here are carpets one quarter cheaper than they were only four years ago; cotton cloths made more by machinery and less by hand labor; nay, they tell us that the cotton is to be picked by a machine before long. "but these are things you must work up for yourselves. you are on a good track now, and have learned some of the principles of such study. "go to the originals whenever you can. read what you understand, and fall back on what you did not understand at first, so as to try it again." "do you not think that all the great things have been invented, uncle fritz?" this was john angier's rather melancholy question. "not a bit of it, my boy. certainly not for as keen eyes as yours and as handy hands. let me tell you what i heard president dawson say. he is president of mcgill university, and is counted one of the first physical philosophers in america. "he said this in substance: 'what will future times say of us, the men of the end of the nineteenth century? they will say, "what was the ban on those men, what numbed them or held them still, as if in fear? why did they not apply in daily life their own great discoveries of the central laws of nature? they were able to work out principles. why could they not embody them in useful inventions? they discovered the ocean of truth, but they stood frightened on its shore. they found the great principles of science, and for their application they seem to have been satisfied when they had built the steam-engine, had devised the telegraph, the telephone, the phonograph, and when they had set the electric light a blazing."' "you see, john, that he thinks there is enough more for you and the rest to invent and to discover." then uncle fritz took from his ulster pocket mr. parton's volume of biographical sketches. "it is all very fine for you, miss alice," he said, "to lie there on your waterproof, and to be sure that even mamma will not scold when you go home. but take the book, and read, and see who has wept and who has starved that you might lie there." and alice read the passages he had marked for her. the difficulty of all this may be inferred when we state that at the present time it takes an intelligent man a year to learn how to conduct the process with certainty, though he is provided, from the start, with the best implements and appliances which twenty years' experience has suggested. and poor goodyear had now reduced himself, not merely to poverty, but to isolation. no friend of his could conceal his impatience when he heard him pronounce the word "india-rubber." business-men recoiled from the name of it. he tells us that two entire years passed, after he had made his discovery, before he had convinced one human being of its value. now, too, his experiments could no longer be carried on with a few pounds of india-rubber, a quart of turpentine, a phial of aquafortis, and a little lampblack. he wanted the means of producing a high, uniform, and controllable degree of heat,--a matter of much greater difficulty than he anticipated. we catch brief glimpses of him at this time in the volumes of testimony. we see him waiting for his wife to draw the loaves from her oven, that he might put into it a batch of india-rubber to bake, and watching it all the evening, far into the night, to see what effect was produced by one hour's, two hours', three hours', six hours' baking. we see him boiling it in his wife's saucepans, suspending it before the nose of her teakettle, and hanging it from the handle of that vessel to within an inch of the boiling water. we see him roasting it in the ashes and in hot sand, toasting it before a slow fire and before a quick fire, cooking it for one hour and for twenty-four hours, changing the proportions of his compound and mixing them in different ways. no success rewarded him while he employed only domestic utensils. occasionally, it is true, he produced a small piece of perfectly vulcanized india-rubber; but upon subjecting other pieces to precisely the same process, they would blister or char. then we see him resorting to the shops and factories in the neighborhood of woburn, asking the privilege of using an oven after working hours, or of hanging a piece of india-rubber in the "man-hole" of the boiler. the foremen testify that he was a great plague to them, and smeared their works with his sticky compound; but though they regarded him as little better than a troublesome lunatic, they all appear to have helped him very willingly. he frankly confesses that he lived at this time on charity; for although _he_ felt confident of being able to repay the small sums which pity for his family enabled him to borrow, his neighbors who lent him the money were as far as possible from expecting payment. pretending to lend, they meant to give. one would pay his butcher's bill or his milk-bill; another would send in a barrel of flour; another would take in payment some articles of the old stock of india-rubber; and some of the farmers allowed his children to gather sticks in their fields to heat his hillocks of sand containing masses of sulphurized india-rubber. if the people of new england were not the most "neighborly" people in the world, his family must have starved, or he must have given up his experiments. but, with all the generosity of his neighbors, his children were often sick, hungry, and cold, without medicine, food, or fuel. one witness testifies: "i found, in , that they had not fuel to burn nor food to eat, and did not know where to get a morsel of food from one day to another, unless it was sent in to them." we can neither justify nor condemn their father. imagine columbus within sight of the new world, and his obstinate crew declaring it was only a mirage, and refusing to row him ashore. never was mortal man surer that he had a fortune in his hand, than charles goodyear was when he would take a piece of scorched and dingy india-rubber from his pocket and expound its marvellous properties to a group of incredulous villagers. sure also was he that he was just upon the point of a practicable success. give him but an oven and would he not turn you out fire-proof and cold-proof india-rubber, as fast as a baker can produce loaves of bread? nor was it merely the hope of deliverance from his pecuniary straits that urged him on. in all the records of his career, we perceive traces of something nobler than this. his health being always infirm, he was haunted with the dread of dying before he had reached a point in his discoveries where other men, influenced by ordinary motives, could render them available. by the time that he had exhausted the patience of the foremen of the works near woburn, he had come to the conclusion that an oven was the proper means of applying heat to his compound. an oven he forthwith determined to build. having obtained the use of a corner of a factory yard, his aged father, two of his brothers, his little son, and himself sallied forth, with pickaxe and shovels, to begin the work; and when they had done all that unskilled labor could effect towards it, he induced a mason to complete it, and paid him in brick-layers' aprons made of aquafortized india-rubber. this first oven was a tantalizing failure. the heat was neither uniform nor controllable. some of the pieces of india-rubber would come out so perfectly "cured" as to demonstrate the utility of his discovery; but others, prepared in precisely the same manner, as far as he could discern, were spoiled, either by blistering or charring. he was puzzled and distressed beyond description; and no single voice consoled or encouraged him. out of the first piece of cloth which he succeeded in vulcanizing he had a coat made for himself, which was not an ornamental garment in its best estate; but, to prove to the unbelievers that it would stand fire, he brought it so often in contact with hot stoves, that at last it presented an exceedingly dingy appearance. his coat did not impress the public favorably, and it served to confirm the opinion that he was laboring under a mania. in the midst of his first disheartening experiments with sulphur, he had an opportunity of escaping at once from his troubles. a house in paris made him an advantageous offer for the use of his aquafortis process. from the abyss of his misery the honest man promptly replied, that that process, valuable as it was, was about to be superseded by a new method, which he was then perfecting, and as soon as he had developed it sufficiently he should be glad to close with their offers. can we wonder that his neighbors thought him mad? it was just after declining the french proposal that he endured his worst extremity of want and humiliation. it was in the winter of - ; one of those long and terrible snowstorms for which new england is noted, had been raging for many hours, and he awoke one morning to find his little cottage half buried in snow, the storm still continuing, and in his house not an atom of fuel nor a morsel of food. his children were very young, and he was himself sick and feeble. the charity of his neighbors was exhausted, and he had not the courage to face their reproaches. as he looked out of the window upon the dreary and tumultuous scene,--"fit emblem of his condition," he remarks,--he called to mind that a few days before, an acquaintance, a mere acquaintance, who lived some miles off, had given him upon the road a more friendly greeting than he was then accustomed to receive. it had cheered his heart as he trudged sadly by, and it now returned vividly to his mind. to this gentleman he determined to apply for relief, if he could reach his house. terrible was his struggle with the wind and the deep drifts. often he was ready to faint with fatigue, sickness, and hunger, and he would be obliged to sit down upon a bank of snow to rest. he reached the house and told his story, not omitting the oft-told tale of his new discovery,--that mine of wealth, if only he could procure the means of working it. the eager eloquence of the inventor was seconded by the gaunt and yellow face of the man. his generous acquaintance entertained him cordially, and lent him a sum of money, which not only carried his family through the worst of the winter, but enabled him to continue his experiments on a small scale. o. b. coolidge, of woburn, was the name of this benefactor. on another occasion, when he was in the most urgent need of materials, he looked about his house to see if there was left one relic of better days upon which a little money could be borrowed. there was nothing but his children's school-books,--the last things from which a new englander is willing to part. there was no other resource. he gathered them up, and sold them for five dollars, with which he laid in a fresh stock of gum and sulphur, and kept on experimenting. alice and hester looked over the rest of the story while the others packed up the wrecks of the picnic and prepared to go down the hill. then they joined uncle fritz in the advance, and thanked him very seriously for what he had shown them. "such a story as that," said hester, "is worth more than anything about cut-offs or valves." "i think so too," said he. "i should like," said the girl, "to write to those children of his a letter to thank them for what they have done, and what he did for me, and a million girls like me." "it would be a good thing to do," said he, "and i think i can put you in the way." "and i do hope," said alice, eagerly, "that if we are ever tested in that way we shall bear the test." "dear uncle fritz, if we cannot invent a flying-machine, and have not learned how to close up rivets this winter, we have learned at least how to bear each other's burdens." footnotes: [ ] these are the quinqueremes, fastened together, of the other account. [ ] the estimates of a talent vary somewhat, but ten talents made about seven hundred pounds. [ ] quoted in fabricius's greek fragments. [ ] encyclopædia americana: art. "roger bacon." [ ] see "stories of adventure." [ ] as st. james says, "the wisdom from above is _first_ pure." [ ] joseph droz, born in . his essay was published in , and had come to its fourth edition in . [ ] the first-steam-engines were devised in order to supply some motor for the pumps which were necessary, all over england, to keep the mines free from water. the locomotive engine, as will be seen later, owes its birth to the efforts of colliery engineers to find some means of drawing coal better than the horse-power generally in use. [ ] john robison, at this time a student at glasgow college, and afterwards professor of natural philosophy at edinburgh. he was at one time master of the marine cadet academy at cronstadt. [ ] the principal men of glasgow were the importers of tobacco from virginia. [ ] earl stanhope, among other projects, had conceived "the hope of being able to apply the steam-engine to navigation by the aid of a peculiar apparatus modelled after the foot of an aquatic fowl." fulton, on being consulted by the earl, doubted the feasibility, and suggested the very means which he afterward made successful upon the hudson. [ ] symington was an engineer who had been carrying out some experiments of miller of dalswinton in regard to the practicability of steam navigation. [ ] who subsequently made charge that fulton, having seen his steamboat and made copious notes thereon, had thus been able to make his boat upon the hudson. [ ] this was in the course of the war of . [ ] fulton died feb. , ; he was born in . [ ] killingworth is a town some seven or eight miles north of newcastle, in northumberland. george stephenson was at this time the engine-wright of the colliery. it may be said here that the principal use for which the early locomotive engines and railroads were designed was to convey coal from the pit to a market. it was not till the success of the mining and quarrying railways led to the building of the liverpool and manchester road, between two great cities, that the value of the railroad for the transfer of passengers was recognized. [ ] it had been generally the opinion that cog-wheels must be used which should fit into cogs in the rail. otherwise it was imagined the wheels would revolve without proceeding. [ ] "the private risk is the public benefit." [ ] it had a sort of resemblance to a grasshopper, caused by the angle at which the piston and cylinder were placed. [ ] mr. henry booth, secretary to the liverpool and manchester railway, suggested to mr. stephenson the idea of a multitubular boiler. [ ] this letter is dated nov. , . [ ] this was in , twenty years after the invention of the gin. the saving in is enormously greater. [ ] napoleon iii., under whose protection bessemer had been experimenting in projectiles when his attention was turned to the manufacture of iron. [ ] in grüner's text-book on steel, he says: "in its properties, as well as in its manufacture, steel is comprised between the limits of cast and wrought iron. it cannot even be said where steel begins or ends. it is a series which begins with the most impure black pig iron, and ends with the softest and purest wrought iron. [karsten stated this in these words in .] cast-iron passes into hard steel in becoming malleable (natural steel for wire-mills, the 'wildstahl' of the germans); and steel, properly so called, passes into iron, giving in succession mild steel, steel of the nature of iron, steely iron, and granular iron." [ ] a small cannon cast by sir henry, the description of which we have omitted. [ ] immediately after his first successful experiment at st. pancras, described above. index. abel, professor, , althorp, lord, anderson, archimedes, , bacon, roger, barlow, joel, baxter house, beccaria, bell, i. l., benvenuto cellini, bernard palissy, berthier, berzelius, bessemer, andrew, bessemer, sir henry, bessemer and catherwood, black, dr., blue hills, mass., bossuet, boulton, matthew, , bourbon, constable, braithwaite and ericsson, brandreth, bridgewater foundry, , brunel, isambert, bungy, friar, burstall, , carriage, sailing, car of neptune, caslon, henry, cellini, benvenuto, chaise, one-wheeled, charles ix. of france, cheltenham, church, benjamin, circle, the square of, clement vii., condensation, conductors of electricity, constable bourbon, shot, coolidge, o. b., court of chancery, n. y., dalibard, darwin, dr., dawson, president, de foe, daniel, devonport, didot, finnin, dixon, john, droz, françois xavier joseph, edgeworth, richard lovell, edison's laboratory, electricity, elkingtons, engines, early steam, euclid, evans, oliver, experiment, the great, field, joshua, fitch, john, , "firework," the, francis i., franklin, benjamin, , , fulton, robert, gig, one-wheeled, glasses, musical, - gold paint, goodyear, charles, greene, mrs. general, , grüner, gun factories, hackworth, timothy, hammerfield, harmonica, hart's recollections, hartop, annie (mrs. bessemer), helton railway, hiero, hitchin, hooke, dr. robert, hulls, jonathan, jack the darter, jay, john, jefferson, thomas, jouffroy, marquis de, karsten, keramics, killingworth colliery, latent heat, lightning, livingston, chancellor, mackintosh, james, maclaughlan, robert, manchester, marcellus attacks syracuse, massachusetts, derivation of name, maudsley, henry, middleton colliery railway, miller, phineas, minie, commander, musical glasses, napoleon i., napoleon iii., nasmyth, james, newcomen engine, , , nuremburg, palissy the potter, papin, denis, patricroft, périer, persley, sir charles, plombières, pope clement vii., potter, humphrey, practical magazine, quincy, rastrick and walker, ravensworth, lord, renard and krebs, resolution book, rinman, robespierre, max, robison, , roebuck, dr., roger bacon, roosevelt, nicholas, royal academy, royal gun factories, rumsey, james, st. pancras, st. petersburg, , savery, scottish society of arts, sharp conductors, somerset house, sounds and signals, stanhope, earl, stamp office, english, steam-engines, early, stephenson, george, stephenson, robert, stevens, john, stevens, robert l., sweden, symington, , syracuse, siege of, telegraph, edgeworth's, telegraph, english, telegraph, irish, telegraph, home, telegraphs, , tellograph, thirteen virtues, travelling engine, ugolini, giorgio, virgil, walker and rastrick, walking-machine, watt, james, whistler, major g. w., whitney, eli, wilmot, col. eardley, wood, nicholas, woolwich arsenal, wylam and killingworth railway, zonara, university press: john wilson & son, cambridge. * * * * * mr. hale's boy books. stories of war, _told by soldiers_. stories of the sea, _told by sailors_. stories of adventure, _told by adventurers_. stories of discovery, _told by discoverers_. stories of invention, _told by inventors_. collected and edited by edward e. hale. mo, cloth, black and gold. price, $ . per volume. _for sale by all booksellers, or mailed, post-paid, on receipt of price by the publishers_, roberts brothers, boston. edward e. hale's writings. ten times one is ten. mo. $ . . christmas eve and christmas day: ten christmas stories. with frontispiece by darley. mo. $ . . ups and downs. an every-day novel, mo. $ . . a summer vacation. paper covers. cents. in his name. square mo. $ . . our new crusade. square mo. $ . . the man without a country, and other tales. mo. $ . . the ingham papers. mo. $ . . workingmen's homes. illustrated. mo. $ . . how to do it. mo. $ . . his level best. mo. $ . . the good time coming; or, our new crusade. a temperance story. square mo. paper covers. cents. gone to texas; or, the wonderful adventures of a pullman. mo. $ . . crusoe in new york, and other stories. mo. $ . . what career? or, the choice of a vocation and the use of time. mo. $ . . mrs. merriam's scholars. a story of the "original ten." mo. $ . . seven spanish cities, and the way to them. mo. $ . . _for sale by all booksellers. mailed, postpaid, by the publishers_, roberts brothers, boston. _edward e. hale's writings._ =the good time coming=; or, our new crusade. square mo. paper, cents; cloth, $ . . "it has all the characteristics of its brilliant author,--unflagging entertainment, helpfulness, suggestive, practical hints, and a contagious vitality that sets one's blood tingling. whoever has read 'ten times one is ten' will know just what we mean. we predict that the new volume, as being a more charming story, will have quite as great a parish of readers. the gist of the book is to show how possible it is for the best spirits of a community, through wise organization, to form themselves into a lever by means of which the whole tone of the social status may be elevated, and the good and highest happiness of the helpless many be attained through the self-denying exertions of the powerful few."--_southern churchman._ =the ingham papers.= mo. $ . . "but it is not alone for their wit and ingenuity we prize mr. hale's stories, but for the serious thought, the moral, or practical suggestion underlying all of them. they are not written simply to amuse, but have a graver purpose. of the stories in the present volume, the best to out thinking is 'the rag man and rag woman.'"--_boston transcript._ =how to do it.= mo. $ . . "good sense, very practical suggestions, telling illustrations (in words), lively fancy, and delightful humor combine to make mr. hale's hints exceedingly taking and stimulating, and we do not see how either sex can fail, after reading his pages, to know how to talk, how to write, how to read, how to go into society, and how to travel. these, with life at school, life in vacation, life alone, habits in church, life with children, life with your elders, habits of reading, and getting ready, are the several topics of the more than as many chapters, and make the volume one which should find its way to the hands of every boy and girl. to this end we would like to see it in every sabbath-school library in the land."--_congregationalist._ =crusoe in new york=, and other stories. mo. $ . . "if one desires something unique, full of wit, a veiled sarcasm that is rich in the extreme, it will all be found in this charming little book. the air of perfect sincerity with which they are told, the diction, reminding one of 'the vicar of wakefield,' and the ludicrous improbability of the tales, give them a power rarely met with in 'short stories.' there is many a lesson to be learned from the quiet little volume." =the man without a country=, and other tales. mo. $ . . "a collection of those strange, amusing, and fascinating stories, which, in their simplicity of narrative, minute detail, allusion to passing occurrences, and thorough _naturalness_, make us almost feel that the difference between truth and fiction is not worth mentioning. mr. hale is the prince of story-tellers; and the marvel is that his practical brain can have such a vein of frolicsome fancy and quaint humor running through it. it will pay any one to _think_ while reading these."--_universalist quarterly._ =workingmen's homes.= illustrated. mo. $ . . "mr. hale has a concern, as the friends say, that laboring men should have better homes than they usually find in the great cities. he believes all the great charities of the cities fail to overtake their task, because the working men are always slipping down to lower degrees of discomfort, unhealthiness, and vice by the depressing influences surrounding their homes. he writes racily and earnestly, and with rare literary excellence."--_presbyterian._ =ten times one is ten=: the possible reformation. a new edition, in two parts. part i. the story. part ii. harry wadsworth and wadsworth clubs. mo. $ . . harry wadsworth's motto. "to look up and not down; to look forward and not back; to look out and not in; and to lend a hand. "the four rules are over my writing-desk and in my heart. every school boy and girl of age to understand it should have this story, and, if i was rich enough, should have it."--_extract from a letter by an unknown correspondent._ =mrs. merriam's scholars.= a story of the "original ten." mo. $ . . "it is almost inevitable that such a book as 'ten times one is ten' should suggest others in the same line of thought; and mr. hale begins in 'mrs. merriam's scholars' to take up a few of what he terms the 'dropped stitches' of the narrative. the story is exceedingly simple, so far as concerns its essentials, and carries the reader forward with an interest in its motive which mr. hale seldom fails to impart to his writings.... the two already published should be in every sunday-school library, and, indeed, wherever they will be likely to fall into the hands of appreciative readers." =his level best.= mo. $ . . "we like mr. hale's style. he is fresh, frank, pungent, straightforward, and pointed. the first story is the one that gives the book its title, and it is related in a dignified manner, showing peculiar genius and humorous talent. the contents are, 'his level best,' 'the brick moon,' 'water talk,' 'mouse and lion,' 'the modern sinbad,' 'a tale of a salamander.'"--_philadelphia exchange._ =gone to texas=; or, the wonderful adventures of a pullman. mo. $ . . "there are few books of travel which combine in a romance of true love so many touches of the real life of many people, in glimpses of happy homes, in pictures of scenery and sunset, as the beautiful panorama unrolled before us from the windows of this pullman car. the book is crisp and bright, and has a pleasant flavor; and whatever is lovely in the spirit of its author, or of good report in his name, one may look here and find promise of both fulfilled."--_exchange._ =what career?= or, the choice of a vocation and the use of time. mo. $ . . "'what career?' is a book which will do anybody good to read; especially is it a profitable book for young men to 'read, mark, and inwardly digest.' mr. hale seems to know what young men need, and here he gives them the result of his large experience and careful observation. a list of the subjects treated in this little volume will sufficiently indicate its scope: ( ) the leaders lead; ( ) the specialties; ( ) noblesse oblige; ( ) the mind's maximum; ( ) a theological seminary; ( ) character; ( ) responsibilities of young men; ( ) study outside school; ( ) the training of men; ( ) exercise."--_watchman._ =ups and downs.= an every-day novel. mo. $ . . "this book is certainly very enjoyable. it delineates american life so graphically that we feel as if mr. hale must have seen every rood of ground he describes, and must have known personally every character he so cleverly depicts. in his hearty fellowship with young people lies his great power. the story is permeated with a spirit of glad-heartedness and elasticity which in this hurried, anxious, money-making age it is most refreshing to meet with in any one out of his teens; and the author's sympathy with, and respect for, the little romances of his young friends is most fraternal."--_new church magazine._ =seven spanish cities=, and the way to them. mo. $ . . "the rev. e. e. hale's 'spanish cities' is in the author's most lively style, full of fun, with touches of romance, glimpses of history, allusions to oriental literature, earnest talk about religion, consideration of spanish politics, and a rapid, running description of everything that observant eyes could possibly see. mr. hale makes spain more attractive and more amusing than any other traveller has done, and he lavishes upon her epigram and wit."--_boston advertiser._ =christmas eve and christmas day.= ten stories. mo. $ . . "many an eye has moistened, and many a heart grown kindlier with christmas thoughts over 'daily bread,' and some of the lesser stars which now shine in the same galaxy; and the volume which contains them will carry on their humane ministry to many a future christmas time."--_christian register._ =in his name.= a story of the waldenses, seven hundred years ago. square mo. paper, cents; cloth, $ . . "a touching, almost a thrilling, tale is this by e. e. hale, in its pathetic simplicity and its deep meaning. it is a story of the waldenses in the days when richard coeur de lion and his splendid following wended their way to the crusades, and when the name of christ inspired men who dwelt in palaces, and men who sheltered themselves in the forests of france. 'in his name' was the 'open sesame' to the hearts of such as these, and it is to illustrate the power of this almost magical phrase that the story is written. that it is charmingly written, follows from its authorship. there is in fact no little book that we have seen of late that offers so much of so pleasant reading in such little space, and conveys so apt and pertinent a lesson of pure religion."--_n. y. commercial advertiser._ "the very loveliest christmas story ever written. it has the ring of an old troubadour in it." =a summer vacation.= mo. cents. "after mr. hale's return from europe he preached to his people four sermons concerning his european experience. at the request of 'some who heard them,' mr. hale has allowed these sermons to be published with this title. they are full of vigorous thought, wide philanthropy, and practical suggestions, and will be read with interest by all classes."--_boston transcript._ _sold everywhere. mailed, post-paid, on receipt of price, by the publishers_, roberts brothers, boston. internet archive (http://www.archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see http://www.archive.org/details/romanceofindustr coch transcriber's note: images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest paragraph break. mixed fractions are represented using forward slash and hyphen in this text version; for example, - / represents three and a half. no other changes have been made from the original text. [illustration: the rush for the gold-fields.] the romance of industry and invention selected by robert cochrane editor of 'great thinkers and workers,' 'beneficent and useful lives,' 'adventure and adventurers,' 'recent travel and adventure,' 'good and great women,' 'heroic lives,' &c. philadelphia j. b. lippincott company edinburgh: printed by w. & r. chambers, limited. preface. our national industries lie at the root of national progress. the first napoleon taunted us with being a nation of shopkeepers; that, however, is now less true than that we are a nation of manufacturers--coal, iron, and steel, and our textile industries, taken along with our enormous carrying-trade, forming the backbone of the wealth of the country. a romantic interest belongs to the rise and progress of most of our industries. very often this lies in the career of the inventor, who struggled towards the perfection and recognition of his invention against heavy difficulties and discouragements; or it may lie in the interesting processes of manufacture. every fresh labourer in the field adds some link to the chain of progress, and brings it nearer perfection. some of the small beginnings have increased in a marvellous way. such are chronicled under bessemer and siemens, who have vastly increased the possibilities of the steel industry; in the sections devoted to krupp, of essen; sir w.g. armstrong, of the elswick works, where , men are now employed alone in the arsenal; maxim, of maxim gun fame; the rise and progress of the cycle industry; that of the gold and diamond mining industry; and the carrying-trade of the world. many of the chapters in this book have been selected from a wealth of such material contributed from time to time to the pages of _chambers's journal_, but additions and fresh material have been added where necessary. list of illustrations. page the rush for the gold-fields _frontispiece_ nasmyth's steam-hammer bessemer converting vessel bessemer process krupp's . breech-loading gun (breech open) josiah wedgwood wedgwood at work portland vase the worcester porcelain works chinese porcelain vase wool-sorters at work cotton plant the hand-cradle method of extracting gold welcome nugget hydraulic gold-mining prospecting for gold square-cut brilliant, round-cut brilliant, rose-cut diamond kimberley diamond-mine some of the principal diamonds of the world the _great harry_ gatling gun on field carriage nordenfelt-palmcrantz gun mounted on ship's bulwark lord armstrong rifle-calibre maxim gun one of the 'wooden walls of old england' the _majestic_ section of the goubet submarine boat the dandy-horse the _great eastern_ and the _persia_ the _campania_ clipper sailing-ship of - _la france_ the _great eastern_ paying out the atlantic cable edison with his phonograph contents. chapter i. iron and steel. page pioneers of the iron and steel industry--sir henry bessemer-- sir william siemens--werner von siemens--the krupps of essen chapter ii. pottery and porcelain. josiah wedgwood and the wedgwood ware--worcester porcelain chapter iii. the sewing machine. thomas saint--thimonnier--hunt--elias howe--wilson--morey-- singer chapter iv. wool and cotton. wool.--what is wool?--chemical composition--fibre--antiquity of shepherd life--varieties of sheep--introduction into australia--spanish merino--wool wealth of australia--imports and exports of wool and woollen produce--woollen manufacture cotton.--cotton plant in the east--mandeville's fables about cotton--cotton in persia, arabia, and egypt--columbus finds cotton-yarn and thread in --in africa--manufacture of cloth in england--the american cotton plant chapter v. gold and diamonds. gold.--how widely distributed--alluvial gold-mining--vein gold-mining--nuggets--treatment of ore and gold in the transvaal--story of south african gold-fields--gold-production of the world--johannesburg the golden city--coolgardie gold-fields--bayley's discovery of gold there diamonds.--composition--diamond-cutting--diamond-mining-- famous diamonds--cecil j. rhodes and the kimberley mines chapter vi. big guns, small-arms, and ammunition. woolwich arsenal--enfield small-arms factory--lord armstrong and the elswick works--testing guns at shoeburyness--hiram s. maxim and the maxim machine gun--the colt automatic gun-- ironclads--submarine boats chapter vii. the evolution of the cycle. in praise of cycling--number of cycles in use--medical opinions--pioneers in the invention--james starley--cycling tours chapter viii. steamers and sailing-ships. early shipping--mediterranean trade--rise of the p. and o. and other lines--transatlantic lines--india and the east--early steamships--first steamer to cross the atlantic--rise of atlantic shipping lines--the _great eastern_ and the new cunarders _campania_ and _lucania_ compared--sailing-ships chapter ix. post-office--telegraph--telephone--phonograph. rowland hill and penny postage--a visit to the post-office-- the post-office on wheels--early telegraphs--wheatstone and morse--the state and the telegraphs--atlantic cables-- telephones--edison and the phonograph [illustration] romance of industry and invention. chapter i. iron and steel. pioneers of the iron and steel industry--sir henry bessemer--sir william siemens--werner von siemens--the krupps of essen. francis horner, writing early in this century, said that 'iron is not only the soul of every other manufacture, but the mainspring perhaps of civilised society.' cobden has said that 'our wealth, commerce, and manufactures grew out of the skilled labour of men working in metals.' according to carlyle, the epic of the future is not to be arms and the man, but tools and the man. we all know that iron was mined and smelted in considerable quantities in this island as far back as the time of the romans; and we cherish a vague notion that iron must have been mined and smelted here ever since on a progressively increasing scale. we are so accustomed to think and speak of ourselves as first among all nations, at the smelting-furnace, in the smithy, and amid the titanic labours of the mechanical workshop, that we open large eyes when we are told what a recent conquest all this superiority is! there was, indeed, some centuries later than the roman occupation, a period coming down to quite modern times, during which english iron-mines were left almost unworked. in edward iii.'s reign, the pots, spits, and frying-pans of the royal kitchen were classed among his majesty's jewels. for the planners of the armada the greater abundance and excellence of spanish iron compared with english was an important element in their calculations of success. in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the home market looked to spain and germany for its supply both of iron and steel. after that, sweden came prominently forward; and from her, as late as the middle of the eighteenth century, no less than four-fifths of the iron used in this country was imported! the reason of this marvellous neglect of what has since proved one of our main sources of wealth lay in the enormous consumption of timber which the old smelting processes entailed. the charcoal used in producing a single ton of pig-iron represented four loads of wood, and that required for a ton of bar-iron represented seven loads. of course, the neighbourhood of a forest was an essential condition to the establishment of ironworks; but wherever such an establishment was effected, the forest disappeared with portentous rapidity. at lamberhurst, on the borders of kent and sussex, with so trifling a produce as five tons per week, the annual consumption of wood was two hundred thousand cords. the timber wealth of kent, surrey, and sussex--which counties were then the centres of our iron industry--seemed menaced with speedy annihilation. in the destruction of these great forests, that of our maritime power was supposed to be intimately involved; so that it is easy to understand how, in those days, the development of the iron manufacture came to be regarded in the light of a national calamity, and a fitting subject for restrictive legislation! various acts were passed towards the end of the sixteenth century prohibiting smelting-furnaces within twenty-two miles of london, and many of the sussex masters found themselves compelled, in consequence, to break up their works. during the civil wars of the seventeenth century, a severe blow was given to the trade by the destruction of all furnaces belonging to royalists; and after the restoration we find the crown itself demolishing its own works in the forest of dean, on the old plea that the supply of shipbuilding timber was thereby imperilled. between and the ironworks of worcestershire and the forest of dean consumed , tons of timber annually, or five tons for each furnace. 'from this time' (the restoration), says mr smiles, 'the iron manufacture of sussex, as of england generally, rapidly declined. in there were only fifty-nine furnaces in all england, of which ten were in sussex; and in there were only two. a few years later, and the sussex iron-furnaces were blown out altogether. farnhurst in western, and ashburnham in eastern sussex, witnessed the total extinction of the manufacture. the din of the iron hammer was hushed, the glare of the furnace faded, the last blast of the bellows was blown, and the district returned to its original rural solitude. some of the furnace-ponds were drained and planted with hops or willows; others formed beautiful lakes in retired pleasure-grounds; while the remainder were used to drive flour-mills, as the streams in north kent, instead of driving fulling-mills, were employed to work paper-mills.' the plentifulness of timber in the scottish highlands explains the establishment of smelting-furnaces, in , by an english company at bunawe in argyllshire, whither the iron was brought from furness in lancashire. few of our readers can be unacquainted with the fact that iron-smelting at the present day is performed not with wood but with coal. it will readily, then, be understood that the substitution of the one description of fuel for the other must have formed the turning-point in the history of the british iron manufacture. this substitution, however, was brought about very slowly. the prejudice against coal was for a long period extreme; its use for domestic purposes was pronounced detrimental to health; and, even for purposes of manufacture, it was generally condemned. nevertheless, as wood became scarcer and dearer, a closer examination into the capabilities of coal came naturally to be made; and here, as in almost every other industrial path, we find a foreigner acting as our pioneer. the germans had long been experienced in mining and metallurgy; and it was a german, simon sturtevant, who first took out a patent for smelting iron with coal. but his process proved a failure, and the patent was cancelled. other germans, naturalised here, followed in sturtevant's footsteps, but with no better results; until at last an englishman, dud dudley ( - ), took up the idea, and gave it practical success. the town of dudley was even then a centre of the iron manufacture, and dud's noble father, lord dudley, owned several furnaces. but here, also, the forest-wealth of the district was fast melting away, and the trade already languished under the dread of impending dissolution. in the immediate neighbourhood, meanwhile, coal was abundant, with ironstone and limestone in close proximity to it. dud, who, as a child, had haunted and scrutinised his father's ironworks with wondering delight, was placed just at this juncture in charge of a furnace and a couple of forges, and immediately turned his energetic mind to the question of smelting with coal. some careful experiments succeeded so well that he wrote to his father, requesting him to take out a patent for the process; and this patent, registered in lord dudley's name, and dated the d february , properly inaugurated the great metallurgic revolution which had made the english iron trade what it now is. andrew yarranton was another pioneer in the iron and tin-plate industry, and wrote a remarkable work on _england's improvement by sea and land_ ( - ). nevertheless, even with this positive success on record, the inert insular mind long refused to follow the path cleared for it. dud's discovery 'was neither appreciated by the iron-masters nor by the workmen;' and all schemes for smelting ore with any other fuel than wood-charcoal were regarded with incredulity. his secret seems to have been bequeathed to no one, and for many years after his death the old, much-abused, forest-devouring system went tottering on. stern necessity, however, taught its hard lesson at last, and a period insensibly arrived when the employment of coal in smelting processes became the rule rather than the exception, and might be seen here and there on an unusually large scale--especially at the celebrated coalbrookdale works, in the valley of the severn, shropshire. the founder of the coalbrookdale industries was a quaker--abraham darby ( - ). a small furnace had existed on the spot ever since the days of the tudors, and this small furnace formed the nucleus of that industrial activity which the visitor of coalbrookdale surveys with such wonder at the present day. in darby's time, the principal cooking utensils of the poorer classes were pots and kettles made of cast-iron. but even this primitive ware was beyond native skill, and most of the utensils in question were imported from holland. exercising an effort of judgment, which, moderate as it was, seems to have been hitherto unexampled, darby resolved to pay that country a visit, and ascertain in person why it was that dutch castings were so good and english so bad. the use of dry sand instead of clay for the moulds comprised, he found, the whole secret. on returning to england, darby took out a patent for the new process, and his castings soon acquired repute. the use of pit-coal in the coalbrookdale furnaces is not supposed, however, to have become general until the worthy abraham had been succeeded by his son; but when it once did become so, the impetus thereby given to the iron trade and to coal-mining was immense. it is the latter industry which may pre-eminently claim to have called the steam-engine into existence. the demand for pumping-power adequate to the drainage of deep mines set newcomen's brain to work; and the engine rough-sketched by his ingenuity, and perfected by the genius of watt, soon increased enormously the production of iron by rendering coal more accessible and the blast-furnace more efficient. a son-in-law of abraham darby's, richard reynolds by name, made a great stride towards the modern railway by substituting iron for wood on the tramways which connected the different works at coalbrookdale; and it was a grandson of the same abraham who designed and erected the first iron bridge. england, we have seen, borrowed the idea of her smelting processes and iron-castings from germany and holland; but the discovery of that important material, cast-steel, belongs, at least, to one of her own sons. yet even here the relationship is a merely conventional one, for benjamin huntsman ( - ) was the child of german parents who had settled in lincolnshire. huntsman's original calling was that of a clock-maker; but his remarkable mechanical skill, his shrewdness, and his practical sense, soon gave him the repute of the 'wise man' of the district, and brought neighbours to consult him not only as to the repair of every ordinary sort of machinery, but also of the human frame--the most complex of all machines! it was his daily experience of the inferior quality of the tools at his command that led him to make experiments in the manufacture of steel. what his experiments were we have no record to show; but that they must have been conducted with teutonic patience and thoroughness there can be no doubt, from the formidable nature of the difficulties overcome. england, however, long refused to make use of huntsman's precious material, although produced in her very midst. the sheffield cutlers would have nothing to do with a substance so much harder than anything they were accustomed to, and huntsman was actually compelled to look for his market abroad! all the cast-steel he could manufacture was sent over to france, and the merit of employing this material for general purposes belongs originally to that country. the inventions of henry cort ( - ) for refining and rolling iron ( ) were the mainspring of the malleable iron trade, and made great britain independent of russia and sweden for supplies of manufactured iron. one authority has stated that since , when cort's improvements were entirely established, the value of landed property in england had doubled. but he was unfortunate in business life, and in upwards of forty iron firms subscribed towards a fund for the assistance of his widow and nine orphan children. david mushet ( - ) did much for the expansion of the iron trade in scotland by his preparation of steel from bar-iron by a direct process, combining the iron with carbon, and by his discovery of the effect of manganese on steel. steel is the material of which the instruments of labour are essentially made. upon the quality of the material, that of the instrument naturally depends, and upon the quality of the instrument, that, in great measure, of the work. watt's marvellous invention ran great risk, at one time, of being abandoned, for the simple reason that the mechanical capacities of the age were not 'up' to its embodiment. even after watt had secured the aid of boulton's best workmen, smeaton gave it as his opinion that the steam-engine could never be brought into general use, because of the difficulty of getting its various parts made with the requisite precision. the execution by machinery of work ordinarily executed by hand-tools has been a gigantic stride in the path of material civilisation. the earliest phase of the great modern movement in this direction is represented, probably, by the sawmill. a sawmill was erected near london as long ago as --by a foreigner--but was shortly abandoned in consequence of the determined hostility of the sawyers; and more than a century elapsed before another mill was put up. but the sawmill is comparatively a rude structure, and the material it operates upon is easily treated, even by the hand. when we come to deal, however, with such substances as iron and steel, the benefit of machinery becomes incalculable. without our recent machine-tools, indeed, the stupendous iron creations of the present day would have been impossible at any cost; for no amount of hand-labour could ever attain that perfect exactitude of construction without which it would be idle to attempt fitting the component parts of these colossal structures together. the first impulse, however, to the improvement of machine-tools for ironwork was given by a difficulty born not of mass but of minuteness. up to the end of the last century, the locks in common use among us were of the rudest description, and afforded scarcely any security against thieves. to meet this universal want, joseph bramah set his remarkable inventive faculties to work, and speedily contrived a lock so perfect, that it held its ground for many a day. but bramah's locks are machines of the most delicate kind, depending for their efficiency upon the precision with which their component parts are finished; and, at that time, the attainment of this precision, at such a price as to render the lock an article of extensive commerce, seemed an insuperable difficulty. in his dilemma, bramah's attention was directed to a youngster in the woolwich arsenal smithy, named henry maudsley, whose reputation for ingenuity was already great among his fellows. bramah was at first almost ashamed to take such a mere lad into his counsels; but a preliminary conversation convinced him that his confidence would not be misplaced. he persuaded maudsley to enter his employment, and the result was the invention, between them, of the planing-machine, applicable either to wood or metal, as also of certain improvements in the old lathe, more particularly of that known as the 'slide-rest.' in the old-fashioned lathe, the workman guided his cutting-tool by sheer muscular strength, and the slightest variation in the pressure necessarily led to an irregularity of surface. the rest for the hand is in this case fixed, and the tool held by the workman travels along it. now, the principle of the slide-rest is the opposite of this. the rest itself holds the tool firmly fixed in it, and slides along the bench in a direction parallel with the axis of the work. all that the workman has to do, therefore, is to turn a screw-handle, by means of which the cutter is carried along with the smallest possible expenditure of strength; and even this trifling labour has been since got rid of, by making the rest self-acting. simple and obvious as this improvement seems, its importance cannot be overrated. the accuracy it insured was precisely the desideratum of the day! by means of the slide-rest, the most delicate as well as the most ponderous pieces of machinery can be turned with mathematical precision; and from this invention must date that extraordinary development of mechanical power and production which is a characteristic of the age we live in. 'without the aid of the vast accession to our power of producing perfect mechanism which it at once supplied,' says a first-class judge in matters of the kind, 'we could never have worked out into practical and profitable forms the conceptions of those master-minds who, during the past half-century, have so successfully pioneered the way for mankind. the steam-engine itself, which supplies us with such unbounded power, owes its present perfection to this most admirable means of giving to metallic objects the most precise and perfect geometrical forms. how could we, for instance, have good steam-engines if we had not the means of boring out a true cylinder, or turning a true piston-rod, or planing a valve-face?' it would perhaps be impossible to cite any more authoritative estimate of maudsley's invention than the above. the words placed between inverted commas are the words of james nasmyth, the inventor of that wonderful steam-hammer which professor tomlinson characterises as 'one of the most perfect of artificial machines and noblest triumphs of mind over matter that modern english engineers have yet developed.' [illustration: nasmyth's steam-hammer.] this machine enlarged at one bound the whole scale of working in iron, and permitted maudsley's lathe to develop its entire range of capacity. the old 'tilt-hammer' was so constructed that the more voluminous the material submitted to it, the _less_ was the power attainable; so that as soon as certain dimensions had been exceeded, the hammer became utterly useless. when the _great western_ steamship was in course of construction, tenders were invited from the leading mechanical firms for the supply of the enormous paddle-shaft required for her engines. but a forging of the size in question had never been executed, and no firm in england would undertake the contract. in this dilemma, mr nasmyth was applied to, and the result of his study of the problem was this marvellous steam-hammer--so powerful that it will forge an armstrong hundred-pounder as easily as a farrier forges a horse-shoe, and so delicately manageable that it will crack a nut without bruising its kernel! bessemer steel. in , réaumur produced steel by melting three parts of cast-iron with one part of wrought iron (probably in a crucible) in a common forge; he, however, failed to produce steel in this manner on a working scale. this process has many points in common with the indian wootz-steel manufacture. as we have seen, to benjamin huntsman, a doncaster artisan, belongs the credit of first producing cast-steel upon a working scale, as he was the first to accomplish the entire fusion of converted bar-iron (that is, blister-steel) of the required degree of hardness, in crucibles or clay pots, placed among the coke of an air-furnace. this process is still carried on at sheffield and elsewhere, and is what is generally known as the crucible or pot-steel process. it was mainly supplementary to the cementation process, as formerly blister-steel was alone melted in the crucibles; but latterly, and at the present time, the crucible mode of manufacture embraces the fusion of other varieties and combinations of metal, producing accordingly different classes and qualities of steel. in , josiah marshall heath patented the important application of carburet of manganese to steel in the crucible, which application imparted to the resulting product the properties of varying temper and increased forgeability. he subsequently found out that a separate operation was not necessary to form the carburet--which is produced by heating peroxide of manganese and carbon to a high temperature--but that the same result could be attained by simply in the first instance adding the carbon and oxide of manganese direct to the metal in the crucible. he unsuspectingly communicated this after-discovery to his agent--by name unwin--who took advantage of the fact that it was not incorporated in the wording of the patent, and so was unprotected, to make use of it for his own advantage. the result was one of the most remarkable patent trials on record, extending over twelve years, and terminating in against the patentee--a remarkable instance of the triumph of legal technicalities over the moral sense of right. a very important development of the manufacture of steel followed the introduction of the 'bessemer process,' by means of which a low carbon or mild cast-steel can be produced at about one-tenth of the cost of crucible steel. it is used for rails, for the tires of the wheels of railway carriages, for ship-plates, boiler-plates, for shafting, and a multitude of constructional and other purposes to which only wrought iron was formerly applied, besides many for which no metal at all was used. sir henry bessemer's process for making steel, which is now so largely practised in england, on the continent of europe, and in america, was patented in . it was first applied to the making of malleable iron, but this has never been successfully made by the bessemer method. for the manufacture of a cheap but highly serviceable steel, however, its success has been so splendid that no other metallurgical process has given its inventor so great a renown. although the apparatus actually used is somewhat costly and elaborate, yet the principle of the operation is very simple. a large converting vessel, with openings called tuyères in its bottom, is partially filled up with from to tons of molten pig-iron, and a blast of air, at a pressure of from to lb. per square inch, is forced through this metal by a blowing engine. pig-iron contains from to per cent. of carbon, and, if it has been smelted with charcoal from a pure ore, as is the case with swedish iron, the blast is continued till only from . to per cent. of the carbon is left in the metal, that is to say, steel is produced. sometimes, however, the minimum quantity of carbon is even less than . per cent. in england, where a less pure but still expensive cast-iron--viz. hæmatite pig--is used for the production of steel in the ordinary bessemer converter, the process differs slightly. in this case the whole of the carbon is oxidised by the blast of air, and the requisite quantity of this element is afterwards restored to the metal by pouring into the converter a small quantity of a peculiar kind of cast-iron, called _spiegeleisen_, which contains a known quantity of carbon. but small quantities of manganese and silicon are also present in bessemer steel. the 'blow' lasts from to minutes. steel made from whatever kind of pig-iron, either by this or by the 'basic' process, is not sufficiently dense, at least for most purposes, and it is accordingly manipulated under the steam-hammer and rolled into a variety of forms. bessemer steel is employed, as we have said, for heavy objects, as rails, tires, rollers, boiler-plates, ship-plates, and for many other purposes for which malleable iron was formerly used. basic steel is now largely made from inferior pig-iron, such as the cleveland, by the thomas-gilchrist process patented in . it is, however, only a modification of the bessemer process to the extent of substituting for the siliceous or 'acid' lining generally used, a lime or 'basic' lining for the converter. limestone, preferably a magnesian limestone in some form, is commonly employed for the lining. by the use of a basic lining, phosphorus is eliminated towards the end of the 'blow.' phosphorus is a very deleterious substance in steel, and is present, sometimes to the extent of per cent., in pig-iron smelted from impure ore. the four inventions of this century which have given the greatest impetus to the manufacture of iron and steel were--the introduction of the hot blast into the blast-furnace for the production of crude iron, made by j. b. neilson, of the glasgow gas-works, in ; the application of the cold blast in the bessemer converter which we have just described; the production of steel direct from the ore, by siemens, in the open hearth; and the discovery of a basic lining by which phosphorus is eliminated and all kinds of iron converted into steel. this last was the discovery of g. j. snelus, of london, and it was made a practical success by the thomas & gilchrist process just described. in , mr snelus was awarded the bessemer gold medal of the iron and steel institute 'as the first man who made pure steel from impure iron in a bessemer converter lined with basic materials.' sir henry bessemer. sir henry bessemer, the inventor of the modern process of making steel from iron, which has just been described, was the son of anthony bessemer, who escaped from france in , and found employment in the english mint. he was born in , at charlton, herts, where his father had an estate, was to a great extent self-taught, and his favourite amusement was in modelling buildings and other objects in clay. he came up to london 'knowing no one, and no one knowing me--a mere cipher in this vast sea of enterprise.' he first earned his living by engraving a large number of elegant and original designs on steel with a diamond point, for patent medicine labels. he found work also as designer and modeller. he has been a prolific inventor, as the volumes issued by the patent office show. it has been said that he has paid in patent stamp duties alone as much as £ , . at twenty he invented a mode of taking copies from antique and modern basso-relievos in such a way that they might be stamped on card-board, thousands being produced at a small cost. his inventive faculty also devised a ready method whereby those who were defrauding the government by detaching old stamps from leases, money-bills, and agreements, and by using them over again, could be defeated in their purpose. his first pecuniary success was obtained by his invention of machinery for the manufacture of bessemer gold and bronze powders, which was not patented, but the nature of which was long kept secret. another successful invention was a machine for making utrecht velvet. he also interested himself in the manufacture of paints, oils, and varnishes, sugar, railway carriages, ordnance, projectiles, and the ventilation of mines. in the exhibition of he exhibited an ingenious machine for grinding and polishing plate-glass. like lord armstrong, bessemer turned his attention to the subject of the improvement of projectiles when there was a prospect of a european war in . he invented a mode of firing elongated projectiles from smooth-bore guns, but received no countenance from the officials at woolwich. commander minié, who had charge of the experiments which bessemer was making on behalf of the emperor of the french, said: 'yes, the shots rotate properly; but if we cannot get something stronger for our guns, these heavy projectiles will be of little use.' this started bessemer thinking and experimenting further, and led up, as we will see, to the great industrial revolution with which his name stands identified. he informed the emperor that he intended to study the whole subject of metals suitable for artillery purposes. he built experimental works at st pancras, but made many failures, furnace after furnace being pulled down and rebuilt. his prolonged and expensive experiments in getting a suitable ordnance metal were meanwhile using up his capital; but he was on the eve of a great discovery, and began to see that the refinement of iron might go on until pure malleable iron or steel could be obtained. his wife aided and encouraged him at this time as only a true wife can. after a year and a half, in which he patented many improvements in the existing systems of manufacture, it occurred to him to introduce a blast of atmospheric air into the fluid metal, whereby the cast-iron might be made malleable. he found that by blowing air through crude iron in a fluid state, it could thus be rendered malleable. he next tried the method of having the air blown from below by means of an air-engine. molten iron being poured into the vessel, and air being forced in from below, resulted in a surprising combustion, and the iron in the vessel was transformed into steel. the introduction of oxygen through the fluid iron, induced a higher heat, and burned up the impurities. feeling that he had succeeded in his experiment, he acquainted mr george rennie with the result. the latter said to him: 'this must not be hid under a bushel. the british association meets next week at cheltenham; if you have patented your invention, draw up an account of it in a paper, and have it read in section g.' accordingly bessemer wrote an account of his process, and in august , he read his paper before the british association 'on the manufacture of malleable iron and steel without fuel,' which startled the iron trade of the country. on the morning of the day on which his paper was to be read, bessemer was sitting at breakfast in his hotel, when an iron-master to whom he was unknown, laughingly said to a friend: 'do you know that there is somebody come down from london to read us a paper _on making steel from cast-iron without fuel_? did you ever hear of such nonsense?' amongst those who spoke generously and enthusiastically of bessemer's new process was james nasmyth, to whom the inventor offered one-third share of the value of the patent, which would have been another fortune to him. nasmyth had made money enough by this time, however, and declined. in a communication to nasmyth, sir henry bessemer thanked him for his early patronage, and described his discovery: 'i shall ever feel grateful for the noble way in which you spoke at the meeting at cheltenham of my invention. if i remember rightly, you held up a piece of malleable iron, saying words to this effect: "here is a true british nugget! here is a new process that promises to put an end to all puddling; and i may mention that at this moment there are puddling-furnaces in successful operation where my patent hollow steam-rabbler is at work, producing iron of superior quality by the introduction of jets of steam in the puddling process. i do not, however, lay any claim to this invention of mr bessemer; but i may fairly be entitled to say that i have advanced along the roads on which he has travelled so many miles, and has effected such unexpected results, that i do not hesitate to say that i may go home from this meeting and tear up my patent, for my process of puddling is assuredly superseded."' after giving an account of his failures, as well as successes, sir henry proceeded to say: 'i prepared to try another experiment, in a crucible having no hole in the bottom, but which was provided with an iron pipe put through a hole in the cover, and passing down nearly to the bottom of the crucible. the small lumps and grains of iron were packed round it, so as nearly to fill the crucible. a blast of air was to be forced down the pipe so as to rise up among the pieces of granular iron, and partly decarburise them. the pipe could then be withdrawn, and the fire urged until the metal with its coat of oxide was fused, and cast-steel thereby produced. 'while the blowing apparatus for this experiment was being fitted up, i was taken with one of those short but painful illnesses to which i was subject at that time. i was confined to my bed, and it was then that my mind, dwelling for hours together on the experiment about to be made, suggested that instead of trying to decarburise the granulated metal by forcing the air down the vertical pipe among the pieces of iron, the air would act much more energetically and more rapidly if i first melted the iron in the crucible, _and forced the air down the pipe below the surface of the fluid metal_, and thus burnt out the carbon and silicum which it contained. 'this appeared so feasible, and in every way so great an improvement, that the experiment on the granular pieces was at once abandoned, and as soon as i was well enough, i proceeded to try the experiment of forcing the air under the fluid metal. the result was marvellous. complete decarburation was effected in half an hour. the heat produced was immense, but unfortunately more than half the metal was blown out of the pot. this led to the use of pots with large, hollow, perforated covers, which effectually prevented the loss of metal. these experiments continued from january to october . i have by me on the mantelpiece at this moment, a small piece of rolled bar-iron which was rolled at woolwich arsenal, and exhibited a year later at cheltenham. 'i then applied for a patent, but before preparing my provisional specification (dated october , ), i searched for other patents to ascertain whether anything of the sort had been done before. i then found your patent for puddling with the steam-rabble, and also martin's patent for the use of steam in gutters while molten iron was being conveyed from the blast-furnace to a finery, there to be refined in the ordinary way prior to puddling.' [illustration: bessemer converting vessel: _a_, _a_, _a_, tuyères; _b_, air-space; _c_, melted metal.] several leading men in the iron trade took licenses for the new manufacture, which brought bessemer £ , within thirty days of the time of reading his paper. these licenses he afterwards bought back for £ , , giving fresh ones in their stead. some of the early experiments failed, and it was feared the new method would prove impracticable. these experiments failed because of the presence of phosphorus in the iron. but bessemer worked steadily in order to remove the difficulties which had arisen, and a chemical laboratory was added to his establishment, with a professor of chemistry attached. success awaited him. the new method of steel-making spread into france and sweden, and in the works for making bessemer steel were eighty-four in number, and represented a capital of more than three millions. his process for the manufacture of steel raised the annual production of steel in england from , tons by the older processes to as many as , , tons in some years. it was next used for boiler-plates; shipbuilding with bessemer steel was begun in , and now it is employed for most of the purposes for which malleable iron was formerly used. the production of europe and america in was over , , tons, of a probable value of £ , , , sufficient, as has been remarked, to make a solid steel wall round london feet high, and feet thick. it would take, according to the inventor, two or three years' production of all the gold-mines in the world to pay in gold for the output of bessemer steel for one year. the price of steel previous to huntsman's process was about £ , per ton; after him, from £ to £ . now bessemer leaves it at £ to £ per ton. and a process which occupied ten days can be accomplished within half an hour. [illustration: bessemer process.] in his sketch of the 'bessemer steel industry, past and present' ( ), sir henry bessemer says: 'it is this new material, so much stronger and tougher than common iron, that now builds our ships of war and our mercantile marine. steel forms their boilers, their propeller shafts, their hulls, their masts and spars, their standing rigging, their cable chains and anchors, and also their guns and armour-plating. this new material has covered with a network of steel rails the surface of every country in europe, and in america alone there are no less than , miles of bessemer steel rails.' these steel rails last six times longer than if laid of iron. bessemer was knighted in , and has received many gold medals from scientific institutions. in addition he has, to use his own words, received in the form of royalties , , of the beautiful little gold medals (sovereigns) issued by her majesty's mint. the method chosen by the americans to perpetuate his name has been the founding of the growing centre of industry called bessemer in indiana, while bessemer, in pennsylvania, is the seat of the great edgar thompson steel-works. thus the man who was at first neglected by government has become wealthy beyond the dreams of avarice, and his name is immortal in the annals of our manufacturing industry. sir charles william siemens and the siemens process. another pioneer in the manufacture of steel and iron was charles william siemens, the seventh child of a german landowner, who was born at lenthe, near hanover, th april . he showed an affectionate and sensitive disposition while very young, and a strong faculty of observation. he received a good plain education at lübeck, and in deference to his brother werner he agreed to become an engineer, and accordingly was sent to an industrial school at magdeburg in , where he also learned languages, including english; mathematics he learned from his interested brother. he left magdeburg in in order to increase his scientific knowledge at göttingen, and there he studied chemistry and physics, with the view of becoming an engineer. werner, his elder brother, was still his good genius, and after the death of their parents counselled and encouraged him, and looked upon him as a probable future colleague. they corresponded with one another, not only about family affairs, but also about the scientific and technical subjects in which both were engrossed. this became a life-long habit with the brothers siemens. one early letter from william described a new kind of valve-gearing which he had invented for cornish steam-engines. then the germ of the idea of what was afterwards known as the 'chronometric governor' for steam-engines was likewise communicated in this way. mr pole says that his early letters were significant of the talent and capacity of the writer. 'they evince an acuteness of perception in mechanical matters, a power of close and correct reasoning, a sound judgment, a fertility of invention, and an ease and accuracy of expression which, in a youth of nineteen, who had only a few months' experience in a workshop, are extraordinary, and undoubtedly shadow forth the brilliant future he attained in the engineering world.' werner in had taken out a patent for his method of electro-gilding, while william early in paid his first visit to england, travelling by way of hamburg. he took up his abode in a little inn called the 'ship and star,' at sparrow corner, near the minories. in an address as president of the midland institute, birmingham, on th october , he related his first experiences in england, and how he secured his first success there. mr siemens said: 'that form of energy known as the electric current was nothing more than the philosopher's delight forty years ago; its first application may be traced to this good town of birmingham, where mr george richards elkington, utilising the discoveries of davy, faraday, and jacobi, had established a practical process of electroplating in .... although i was only a young student of göttingen, under twenty years of age, who had just entered upon his practical career with a mechanical engineer, i joined my brother werner siemens, then a young lieutenant of artillery in the prussian service, in his endeavour to accomplish electro-gilding.... i tore myself away from the narrow circumstances surrounding me, and landed at the east end of london, with only a few pounds in my pocket and without friends, but an ardent confidence of ultimate success within my breast. 'i expected to find some office in which inventions were examined into, and rewarded if found meritorious, but no one could direct me to such a place. in walking along finsbury pavement i saw written up in large letters, "so-and-so"--i forget the name--"undertaker," and the thought struck me that this must be the place i was in quest of; at any rate, i thought that a person advertising himself as an "undertaker" would not refuse to look into my invention, with the view of obtaining for me the sought for recognition or reward. on entering the place i soon convinced myself, however, that i came decidedly too soon for the kind of enterprise there contemplated.' by dint of perseverance, however, siemens secured a letter from messrs poole and carpmaell, of the patent office, to mr elkington of birmingham. elkington and his partner josiah mason both met the young inventor in such a spirit of fairness that, as he says, he returned to his native country, and to his mechanical engineering, 'a comparative croesus.' after the lapse of forty years his heart still beat quick when thinking of this determining incident in his career. the sum which elkington paid him for his 'thermo-electrical battery' for depositing solutions of gold, silver, and copper was £ , less £ for the cost of the patent. although quite successful at the time, other and cheaper processes speedily supplanted it; but the young german had gained a footing and the money he needed for future experiments. when he came back to germany he was looked upon as quite a hero by his admiring family circle. it was indeed a creditable exploit for a youth of twenty. when he returned to england again in february , he received so much encouragement from leading engineers and scientific men for his 'chronometric governor,' that he decided to settle permanently there, and he became a naturalised british subject in . he joined with a civil engineer, named joseph woods, for the promotion and sale of his patents. 'anastatic printing' was one of his early inventions, which, however, never became profitable. then came schemes in paper-making, new methods of propelling ships, winged rockets, and locomotives on new principles, all of which were a continual drain on his own and his friends' resources without a corresponding return, so that in he took a situation and earned some money by railway work, which enabled him to pay another visit to germany. in , undaunted by previous failures, he threw himself heartily into the study of the action of heat as a power-giving agent, and invented an arrangement known as the 'regenerator' for saving certain portions of this waste. as afterwards applied to furnaces for iron, steel, zinc, glass, and other works, it was pronounced by sir henry bessemer a beautiful invention, at once the most philosophic in principle, the most powerful in action, and the most economic of all the contrivances for producing heat by the combustion of coal. he now secured an appointment in with fox & henderson, birmingham, at a fixed salary of £ a year, and his interest in his patent. here he profited largely by the experience gained, but the engagement terminated in , when he afterwards settled as a civil engineer in john street, adelphi, in march . his next great achievement was the production of steel direct from the raw ores by means of his regenerative furnace, which the president of the board of trade in mentioned in the house of commons as one of the most valuable inventions ever produced under the protection of the english patent law, and he said further that it was then being used in almost every industry in the kingdom. siemens had spent fourteen years in perfecting this regenerative furnace, and it took him other fourteen to utilise it, and perfect it in making steel direct from the raw ores. martin of sireil, who made one or two additions to the siemens steel furnace, has been termed its inventor, but this claim has no foundation. what is known, however, as the 'siemens-martin process' is now competing very effectively with the bessemer process. it consists essentially in first obtaining a bath of melted pig-iron of high quality, and then adding to this pieces of wrought-iron scrap or bessemer scrap, such as crop ends of rails, shearings of plates, &c. these, though practically non-infusible in large quantities by themselves, become dissolved or fused in such a bath if added gradually. to the bath of molten metal thus obtained spiegeleisen or ferro-manganese is added to supply the required carbon and to otherwise act as in the bessemer converter. the result is tested by small ladle samples, and when it is of the desired quality a portion is run off, leaving sufficient bath for the continuation of the process. siemens took out his patent for the 'open hearth' process of steel-making (the forth bridge is built of steel made in this way) in , and four years later erected sample steel works at birmingham. the engineer of the london and north-western railway adopted his system at crewe in , and the great western railway works followed. in this process was being carried out on a large scale at the works of the landore-siemens steel company and elsewhere in england, as well as at various works on the continent, including krupp's, at essen. in , siemens was elected a fellow of the royal society, and in was presented with the royal albert medal, and in with the bessemer medal in recognition of his researches and inventions in heat and metallurgy. he filled the president's chair in the three principal engineering and telegraphic societies of great britain, and in was president of the british association. as manager in england of the firm of siemens brothers, sir william siemens was actively engaged in the construction of overland and submarine telegraphs. the steamship _faraday_ was specially designed by him for cable-laying. in addition to his labours in connection with electric-lighting, sir william siemens also successfully applied, in the construction of the portrush electric tramway, which was opened in , electricity to the production of locomotion. in his regenerative furnace, as we have seen, he utilised in an ingenious way the heat which would otherwise have escaped with the products of combustion. the process was subsequently applied in many industrial processes, but notably by siemens himself in the manufacture of steel. the other inventions and researches of this wonderful man include a water-meter; a thermometer or pyrometer, which measures by the change produced in the electric conductivity of metals; the bathometer, for measuring ocean depths by variations in the attraction exerted on a delicately suspended body; and the hastening of vegetable growth by use of the electric light. he was knighted in april , and died on november of the same year. there is a memorial window to his memory in westminster abbey. as the elder brother of sir william siemens was so closely connected with him in business life, and may be said to have encouraged and led him into the walk of life in which he excelled, he also deserves a notice here. werner von siemens, engineer and electrician, was born december , , at lenthe in hanover. in he entered the prussian artillery; and in was put in charge of the artillery workshops at berlin. he early showed scientific tastes, and in took out his first patent for galvanic silver and gold plating. by selling the right of using his process he made louis d'or, which supplied him with the means for further experiments. during the schleswig-holstein war, he attracted considerable attention by using electricity for the firing of the mines which had been laid for the defence of kiel harbour. he was of peculiar service in developing the telegraphic service in prussia, and discovered in this connection the valuable insulating property of gutta-percha for underground and submarine cables. in he left the army, and shortly after the service of the state altogether, and devoted his energies to the construction of telegraphic and electrical apparatus of all kinds. the well-known firm of siemens and halske was established in in berlin, and to them the russian government entrusted the construction of the telegraph lines in that country. subsequently branches were formed, chiefly under the management of the younger brothers of werner siemens, in st petersburg ( ), in london ( ), in vienna ( ), and in tiflis ( ). in , siemens accomplished the remarkable feat of successfully laying a cable in deep water, at a depth of more than fathoms. this was between sardinia and bona. shortly after he superintended the laying of cables in the red sea; and these successful experiments soon led to the greatest undertaking of all, the connection of america with europe. besides devising numerous useful forms of galvanometers and other electrical instruments of precision, werner siemens was one of the discoverers of the principle of the self-acting dynamo. he also made valuable determinations of the electrical resistance of different substances, the resistance of a column of mercury, one metre long, and one square millimetre cross section at °c., being known as the siemens unit. his numerous scientific and technical papers, written for the various journals, were republished in collected form in . in he gave , marks for the founding of an imperial institute of technology and physics; and in he was ennobled. he died at berlin, th december . a translation of his _personal recollections_ by coupland appeared in . * * * * * space forbids us mentioning other worthy names in the steel and iron trade, although we cannot pass by sir john brown, founder of the atlas steel-works, sheffield ( ), and one of the first to adopt the bessemer process. he was also the pioneer of armour-plate making. the immense strides he made in business may be judged from the fact that when he started in his employees numbered , with a turnover of £ a year; in they numbered , and the turnover was £ , , . the weekly pay roll amounted to £ in , and when he handed over the business to his successors, he was paid £ , for the goodwill. krupp's iron and steel works at essen. one of the largest iron and steel manufacturing establishments in the world is that founded by the late alfred krupp, the famous german cannon-founder, whose name is so well known in connection with modern improvements in artillery. his principal works are situated at essen, in prussia, in the midst of a district productive of both iron and coal. the town of essen, which at the beginning of the present century contained less than four thousand inhabitants, has become an important industrial centre, with a population of nearly eighty thousand persons, this increase being chiefly due to the growth of the ironworks, and the consequent demand for labour. in the vicinity of the town, numerous coal and iron mines, many of which are owned by the krupp firm, are in active working, and furnish employment to the large population of the surrounding district. much of the output of iron ore and coal from these mines is destined for consumption in the vast krupp works within the town. those works had their origin in a small iron forge established at essen in the year by frederick krupp, the father of alfred krupp. the elder krupp was not prosperous; and a lawsuit in which he became involved, and which lasted for ten years, though finally decided in his favour, reduced him nearly to bankruptcy. he died in , in impoverished circumstances, leaving a widow and three sons, the eldest of whom was alfred, aged fourteen. the business was continued by the widow, who managed, though with difficulty, to procure a good education for her sons. when the eldest, alfred, took control of the works in , he found there, as he himself has described, 'three workmen, and more debts than fortune.' krupp's subsequent career affords a remarkable instance of success attained, despite adverse circumstances, by sheer force of ability and energy, in building up a colossal manufacturing business from a humble beginning. on his death in his only son succeeded him. at the present time, krupp's works within the town of essen occupy more than five hundred acres, half of which area is under cover. in , the number of persons in his employ was , , and including members of their families, over , . of the army of workers, about , were employed at the works in essen, the remainder being occupied in the iron and coal mines belonging to the firm, or at the branch works at sayn neuwied, magdeburg, duisburg, and engers; or in the iron-mines at bilbao, in spain, which produce the best ores. in krupp's essen works there are one hundred and twelve steam-hammers, ranging in weight from fifty tons down to four hundred pounds. there are bessemer converters, martin-furnaces, steam-engines--representing together , horse-power--and twenty-one rolling trains; the daily consumption of coal and coke being tons by furnaces. the average daily consumption of water, which is brought from the river ruhr by an aqueduct, is , cubic metres. the electric light has been introduced, and the work ceases entirely only on sunday and two or three holidays. connected with the essen works are fifty miles of railway, employing thirty-five locomotives and over wagons. there are two chemical laboratories; a photographic and lithographic studio; a printing-office, with steam and hand presses; and a bookbinding room, besides tile-works, coke-works, gas-works, &c. though, in the popular mind, the name of krupp is usually associated with the manufacture of instruments of destruction, yet two-thirds of the work done in his establishment is devoted to the production of articles intended for peaceful uses. the various parts of steam-engines, both stationary and locomotive; iron axles, bridges, rails, wheel-tires, switches, springs, shafts for steamers, mint-dies, rudders, and parts of all varieties of iron machinery, are prepared here for manufacturers. the production is, in dominie sampson's phrase, 'prodigious.' in one day the works can turn out rails, wheel-tires, axles, railway wheels, railway wedges, bombshells. in a month they have produced field-pieces, thirty . -inch cannon, fifteen . -inch cannon, eight -inch cannon, one -inch gun, the weight of the last named being over fifty tons, and its length twenty-eight feet seven inches. till the end of the firm has produced , cannon for thirty-four different states. alfred krupp devoted much attention to the production of steel of the finest quality, and was the first german manufacturer who succeeded in casting steel in large masses. in he exhibited in london an ingot of finest crucible steel weighing twenty-one tons. its dimensions were nine feet high by forty-four inches diameter. the uniformity of quality of this mass of metal was proven by the fact that when broken across it showed no seam or flaw, even when examined with a lens. the firm can now make such homogeneous blocks of seventy-five tons weight if required. such ingots are formed from the contents of a great number of small crucibles, each containing from fifty to one hundred pounds of the metal. the recent developments of the manufacture of steel by the open-hearth process have removed all difficulty in procuring the metal in masses large enough for all requirements, and of a tensile strength so high as thirty-three to thirty-seven tons to the square inch. crucible steel, however, though more expensive, still holds its place as the best and most reliable that can be produced; and nothing else is ever used in the construction of a krupp gun. by the perfected methods in use at the essen works, such steel can be made of a tensile strength of nearly forty tons to the square inch, and of marvellous uniformity of quality. the ores used in the krupp works for making the best steel are red hæmatite and spathic ore, with a certain proportion of ferro-manganese. the crucibles employed are formed of a mixture of plumbago and fire-clay, shaped by a mould into a cylindrical jar some eighteen inches in height, and baked in a kiln. when in use, they are filled with small bars of puddled metal, mixed with fragments of marble brought from villmar, on the lahn. they are then shovelled into large furnaces, whose floors are elevated three or four feet above the ground-level. in the earthen floor of the immense room containing the furnaces are two lines of pits, one set to receive the molten metal, the other intended for the red-hot crucibles when emptied of their contents. when the crucibles have undergone sufficient heating, the furnace doors are opened simultaneously at a given signal, and the attendant workmen draw out the crucibles with long tongs, and rapidly empty them into the pits prepared for the reception of the metal. the empty crucibles when cooled are examined, and if found unbroken, are used again; but if damaged, as is usually the case, are ground up, to be utilised in making new ones. the production of steel by this method furnishes employment for eight or nine hundred men daily in the krupp works. the bessemer process for converting iron into steel is also largely used there for making steel for certain purposes. all material used in the different classes of manufactures is subjected at every stage to extreme and exact tests; the standards being fixed with reference to the purpose to which the metal is to be applied, and any material that proves faulty when suitably tested is rigorously rejected. the guns originally manufactured by the krupp firm were formed from solid ingots of steel, which were bored, turned, and fashioned as in the case of cast-iron smooth-bore cannon. with the development of the power of artillery, the greater strain caused by the increased powder-charges and by the adoption of rifling--involving enhanced friction between the projectile and the bore--had the result of demonstrating the weakness inherent in the construction of a gun thus made entirely from one solid forging, and that plan was eventually discarded. artillerists have learnt that the strain produced by an explosive force operating in the interior of a cannon is not felt equally throughout the thickness of the metal from the bore to the exterior, but varies inversely as the square of the distance of each portion of the metal from the seat of effort. for example, in a gun cast solid, if two points be taken, one at the distance of one inch from the bore, and the other four inches from the bore, the metal at the former point will during the explosion be strained sixteen times as much as that at the distance of four inches. the greater the thickness of the material, the greater will be the inequality between the strains acting at the points respectively nearest to and farthest from the interior. the metal nearest the seat of explosion may thus be strained beyond its tensile strength, while that more remote is in imperfect accord with it. in such a case, disruption of the metal at the inner surface ensues, and extends successively through the whole thickness to the exterior, thus entailing the destruction of the gun. this source of weakness is guarded against by the construction of what is termed the built-up gun, in which the several parts tend to mutual support. this gun consists of an inner tube, encircled and compressed by a long 'jacket' or cylinder, which is shrunk around the breech portion with the initial tension due to contraction in cooling. over the jacket and along the chase, other hoops or cylinders are shrunk on successively, in layers, with sufficient tension to compress the parts enclosed. the number and strength of these hoops are proportionate to the known strain that the bore of the gun will have to sustain. the tension at which each part is shrunk on is the greater as the part is farther removed from the inner tube; the jacket, for example, being shrunk on at less tension than the outer hoops. the inner tube, on receiving the expansive force of the explosion, is prevented by the compression of the jacket from being forced up to its elastic limit; and the jacket in its turn is similarly supported by the outer hoops; and on the cessation of the internal pressure the several parts resume their normal position. this system of construction originated in england, and is now in general use. the first steel guns on this principle were those designed by captain blakely and mr j. vavasseur, of the london ordnance works. at the exhibition of , a blakely . -inch gun, on the built-up system, composed wholly of steel, was a feature of interest in the ordnance section. the plan devised by sir w. armstrong, and carried into effect for a series of years at woolwich and at the armstrong works at elswick, consisted in enclosing a tube of steel within a jacket of wrought iron, formed by coiling a red-hot bar round a mandrel. the jacket was shrunk on with initial tension, and was fortified in a similar manner by outer hoops of the same metal. the want of homogeneity in this gun was, however, a serious defect, and ultimately led to its abolition. the difference in the elastic properties of the two metals caused a separation, after repeated discharges, between the steel tube and its jacket, with the result that the tube cracked from want of support. both at woolwich and at elswick (described on a later page), therefore, the wrought-iron gun has given place to the homogeneous steel built-up gun, which is also the form of construction adopted by the chief powers of europe and by the united states of america. the failure of some of his solid-cast guns led krupp, about , to the adoption of the built-up principle. with few exceptions, the inner tube of a krupp gun is forged out of a single ingot, and in every case without any weld. the ingot destined to form the tube has first to undergo a prolonged forging under the steam-hammers, by which the utmost condensation of its particles is effected. it is then rough-bored and turned, and subsequently carefully tempered in oil, whereby its elasticity and tensile strength are much increased. it is afterwards fine-bored and rifled, and its powder-chamber hollowed out. the latter has a somewhat larger diameter than the rest of the bore, this having been found an improvement. the grooves of the rifling are generally shallow, and they widen towards the breech, so that the leaden coat of the projectile is compressed gradually and with the least friction. the jacket and hoops of steel are forged and rolled, without weld, and after being turned and tempered, are heated and shrunk around the tube in their several positions, the greatest strength and thickness being of course given to the breech end, where the force of explosion exerts the utmost strain. the completed gun is mounted on its appropriate carriage, and having been thoroughly proved and tested and fitted with the proper sights, is ready for service. the testing range is at meppen, where a level plain several miles in extent affords a suitable site for the purpose. for many years all guns of the krupp manufacture have been on the breech-loading system, and he has devoted much time and ingenuity to perfecting the breech arrangements. the subject of recoil has also largely occupied his attention. in the larger krupp guns the force of recoil is absorbed by two cylinders, filled with glycerine and fitted with pistons perforated at the edges. the pistons are driven by the shock of the recoil against the glycerine, which is forced through the perforations. in england a similar arrangement of cylinders, containing water as the resisting medium, has been found effective; and in america, petroleum is employed for the same purpose. the advantages of the use of glycerine are that in case of a leak it would escape too slowly to lose its effect at once, and it is also more elastic than water, and is less liable to become frozen. the resources of krupp's establishment are equal to the production of guns of any size that can conceivably be required. he has made guns of one hundred and nineteen tons weight. the portentous development of the size and power of modern ordnance is exemplified by these guns and the armstrong guns of one hundred and eleven tons made at elswick. amongst the class of modern cannon, one of the most powerful is krupp's seventy-one-ton gun. this, like all others of his make, is a breech-loader. its dimensions are--length, thirty-two feet nine inches; diameter at breech end, five feet six inches; length of bore, twenty-eight feet seven inches; diameter of bore, . inches; diameter of powder-chamber, . inches. the internal tube is of two parts, exactly joined; and over this are four cylinders, shrunk on, and a ring round the breech. its rifling has a uniform twist of one in forty-five. it cannot possibly be fired until the breech is perfectly closed. its maximum charge is four hundred and eighty-five pounds of powder, and a chilled iron shell of seventeen hundred and eight pounds. [illustration: krupp's . breech-loading gun (breech open).] krupp did much to promote the welfare and comfort of his workpeople. for their accommodation, he erected around essen nearly four thousand family dwellings, in which more than sixteen thousand persons reside. the dwellings are in suites of three or four comfortable rooms, with good water-arrangements; and attached to each building is a garden, large enough for the children to play in. there are one hundred and fifty dwellings of a better kind for officials in the service of the firm. boarding-houses have also been built for the use of unmarried labourers, of whom two thousand are thus accommodated. several churches, protestant and catholic, have also been erected, for the use of his workmen and their families. there have likewise been provided two hospitals, bathing establishments, a gymnasium, an unsectarian free school, and six industrial schools--one for adults, two for females. in the case of the industrial schools, the fees are about two shillings monthly, but the poorest are admitted free. a sick relief and pensions fund has been instituted, and every foreman and workman is obliged to be a member. the entrance fee is half a day's pay, the annual payment being proportioned to the wages of the individual member; but half of each person's contribution is paid by the firm. there are three large surgeries; and skilful physicians and surgeons, one of whom is an oculist, are employed at fixed salaries. for a small additional fee each member can also secure free medical aid for his wife and children. the advantages to members are free medical or surgical treatment in case of need, payment from the fund of funeral expenses at death, pensions to men who have been permanently disabled by injuries while engaged in the works, pensions to widows of members, and temporary support to men who are certified by two of the physicians as unable to work. the highest pension to men is five pounds monthly, the average being about two pounds sixteen shillings monthly. the average pension to widows is about one pound fourteen shillings monthly. the firm have made special arrangements with a number of life insurance companies whereby the workmen can, if they choose, insure their lives at low rates. they have formed a life insurance union, and endowed it with a reserve fund of three thousand pounds, from which aid is given to members needing assistance to pay their premiums. an important institution in essen is the great central supply store, established and owned by the firm, where articles of every description--bread, meat, and other provisions, clothing, furniture, &c.--are sold on a rigidly cash system at cost price. connected with the central store are twenty-seven branch shops, in positions convenient for the workpeople, placing the advantages of the system within the easy reach of all. the original name, 'frederick krupp,' has been retained through all vicissitudes of fortune as the business title of the firm. the small dwelling in which alfred krupp was born is still standing, in the midst of the huge workshops that have grown up around it, and is preserved with the greatest care. at his expense, photographs of it were distributed among his workmen, each copy bearing the following inscription, dated essen, february : 'fifty years ago, this primitive dwelling was the abode of my parents. i hope that no one of our labourers may ever know such struggles as have been required for the establishment of these works. twenty-five years ago that success was still doubtful which has at length--gradually, yet wonderfully--rewarded the exertions, fidelity, and perseverance of the past. may this example encourage others who are in difficulties! may it increase respect for small houses, and sympathy for the larger sorrows they too often contain. the object of labour should be the common weal. if work bring blessing, then is labour prayer. may every one in our community, from the highest to the lowest, thoughtfully and wisely strive to secure and build his prosperity on this principle! when this is done, then will my greatest desire be realised.' * * * * * germany has become a formidable competitor to great britain in the iron and steel trade, and german steel rails, girders, and wire come in freely to this country. from reports we learn that great britain produced in - / million tons of iron and million tons of finished iron and steel, while the production of germany was then less than - / and - / million tons respectively. english production had fallen to - / million tons of iron and million tons of finished iron and steel in , while germany had risen to million tons and million tons respectively. contrary to what has been commonly believed, it appears that the difference all round in wages amongst ironworkers, as between england and germany, is not great. chicago, pittsburg, buffalo, and new york are the chief centres of the american iron and steel trade, the production of pig-iron in being about - / million tons, whereas in it was well under million. at present over millions of tons are produced of bessemer pig-iron. [illustration] [illustration] chapter ii. pottery and porcelain. josiah wedgwood and the wedgwood ware--worcester porcelain. when mr godfrey wedgwood, a member of the famous firm of potters at etruria, near burslem, staffordshire, went to work about forty years ago, his famous ancestor and founder of the world-famed wedgwood ware was still named amongst the workmen as 'owd wooden leg.' a son of mr godfrey wedgwood, now in the firm, is the fifth generation in descent, and the manufactory is still carried on in the same buildings erected by josiah wedgwood one hundred and twenty years ago. one hundred years ago josiah wedgwood, the creator of british artistic pottery, passed away at etruria, near burslem, surrounded by the creations of his own well-directed genius and industry, having 'converted a rude and inconsiderable manufacture into an elegant art and an important part of national commerce.' his death took place on d january , the same year in which thomas carlyle saw the light at ecclefechan, and one year and a half before the death of burns at dumfries. during fifty years of his working life, largely owing to his own successful efforts, he had witnessed the output of the staffordshire potteries increased fivefold, and his wares were known and sold over europe and the civilised world. in the words of mr gladstone, his characteristic merit lay 'in the firmness and fullness with which he perceived the true law of what we may call industrial art, or, in other words, of the application of the higher art to industry.' novalis once compared the works of goethe and wedgwood in these words: 'goethe is truly a practical poet. he is in his works what the englishman is in his wares, perfectly simple, neat, fit, and durable. he has played in the german world of literature the same part that wedgwood has played in the english world of art.' [illustration: josiah wedgwood.] long ago, in his sketch of brindley and the early engineers, dr smiles had occasion to record the important service rendered by wedgwood in the making of the grand trunk canal--towards the preliminary expense of which he subscribed one thousand pounds--and in the development of the industrial life of the midlands. since that time smiles has himself published a biography of wedgwood, to which we are here indebted. more than once it has happened that the youngest of thirteen children has turned out a genius. it was so in the case of sir richard arkwright, and it turned out to be so in the case of josiah wedgwood, the youngest of the thirteen children of thomas wedgwood, a burslem potter, and of mary stringer, a kind-hearted but delicate, sensitive woman, the daughter of a nonconformist clergyman. the town of burslem, in staffordshire, where wedgwood saw the light in , was then anything but an attractive place. drinking and cock-fighting were the common recreations; roads had scarcely any existence; the thatched hovels had dunghills before the doors, while the hollows from which the potter's clay was excavated were filled with stagnant water, and the atmosphere of the whole place was coarse and unwholesome, and a most unlikely nursery of genius. it is probable that the first wedgwoods take their name from the hamlet of weggewood in staffordshire. there had been wedgwoods in burslem from a very early period, and this name occupies a large space in the parish registers during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; of the fifty small potters settled there, many bore this honoured name. the ware consisted of articles in common use, such as butter-pots, basins, jugs, and porringers. the black glazed and ruddy pottery then in use was much improved after an immigration of dutchmen and germans. the elers, who followed the prince of orange, introduced the delft ware and the salt glaze. they produced a kind of red ware, and egyptian black; but disgusted at the discovery of their secret methods by astbury and twyford, they removed to chelsea in . an important improvement was made by astbury, that of making ware white by means of burnt flint. samuel astbury, a son of this famous potter, married an aunt of josiah wedgwood. but the art was then in its infancy, not more than one hundred people being employed in this way in the district of burslem, as compared with about ten thousand now, with an annual export of goods amounting to about two hundred thousand pounds, besides what are utilised in home-trade. john wesley, after visiting burslem in , and twenty years later in , remarked how the whole face of the country had been improved in that period. inhabitants had flowed in, the wilderness had become a fruitful field, and the country was not more improved than the people. all the school education young josiah received was over in his ninth year, and it amounted to only a slight grounding in reading, writing, and arithmetic. but his practical or technical education went on continually, while he afterwards supplemented many of the deficiencies of early years by a wide course of study. after the death of his father, he began the practical business of life as a potter in his ninth year, by learning the throwing branch of the trade. the thrower moulds the vessel out of the moist clay from the potter's wheel into the required shape, and hands it on to be dealt with by the stouker, who adds the handle. josiah at eleven proved a clever thrower of the black and mottled ware then in vogue, such as baking-dishes, pitchers, and milk-cans. but a severe attack of virulent smallpox almost terminated his career, and left a weakness in his right knee, which developed, so that this limb had to be amputated at a later date. he was bound apprentice to his brother thomas in , when in his fourteenth year; but this weak knee, which hampered him so much, proved a blessing in disguise, for it sent him from the thrower's place to the moulder's board, where he improved the ware, his first effort being an ornamental teapot made of the ochreous clay of the district. other work of this period comprised plates, pickle-leaves, knife-hafts, and snuff-boxes. at the same time he made experiments in the chemistry of the material he was using. wedgwood's great study was that of different kinds of colouring matter for clays, but at the same time he mastered every branch of the art. that he was a well-behaved young man is evident from the fact that he was held up in the neighbourhood as a pattern for emulation. [illustration: wedgwood at work.] but his brother thomas, who moved along in the old rut, had small sympathy with all this experimenting, and thought josiah flighty and full of fancies. after remaining for a time with his brother, at the completion of his apprenticeship wedgwood became partner in , in a small pottery near stoke-upon-trent: soon after, mr whieldon, one of the most eminent potters of the day, joined the firm. here wedgwood took pains to discover new methods and striking designs, as trade was then depressed. new green earthenware was produced, as smooth as glass, for dessert service, moulded in the form of leaves; also toilet ware, snuff-boxes, and articles coloured in imitation of precious stones, which the jewellers of that time sold largely. other articles of manufacture were blue-flowered cups and saucers, and varicoloured teapots. wedgwood, on the expiry of his partnership with whieldon, started on his own account in his native burslem in . his capital must have been small, as the sum of twenty pounds was all he had received from his father's estate. he rented ivy house and works at ten pounds a year, and engaged his second-cousin, thomas, as workman at eight shillings and sixpence a week. he gradually acquired a reputation for the taste and excellence of design of his green glazed ware, his tortoiseshell and tinted snuff-boxes, and white medallions. a specially designed tea-service, representing different fruits and vegetables, sold well, and, as might be expected, was at once widely imitated. he hired new works on the site now partly occupied by the wedgwood institute, and introduced various new tools and appliances. his kilns for firing his fine ware gave him the greatest trouble, and had to be often renewed. james brindley, when puzzled in thinking out some engineering problem, used to retire to bed and work it out in his head before he got up. sir josiah mason, the birmingham pen-maker, used to simmer over in his mind on the previous night the work for the next day. wedgwood had a similar habit, which kept him often awake during the early part of the night. probably owing to the fortunate execution of an order through miss chetwynd, maid of honour to queen charlotte, of a complete cream service in green and gold, wedgwood secured the patronage of royalty, and was appointed queen's potter in . his queen's ware became popular, and secured him much additional business. an engine lathe which he introduced greatly forwarded his designs; and the wareroom opened in london for the exhibition of his now famous queen's ware, etruscan vases, and other works, drew attention to the excellence of his work. he started works besides at chelsea, supervised by his partner bentley, where modellers, enamellers, and artists were employed, so that the cares of his business, 'pot-making and navigating'--the latter the carrying through of the grand trunk canal--entirely filled his mind and time at this period. so busy was he, that he sometimes wondered whether he was an engineer, a landowner, or a potter. meanwhile, a step he had no cause to regret was his marriage in to sarah wedgwood, no relation of his own, a handsome lady of good education and of some fortune. wedgwood had begun to imitate the classic works of the greeks found in public and private collections, and produced his unglazed black porcelain, which he named basaltes, in . the demand for his vases at this time was so great that he could have sold fifty or one hundred pounds' worth a day, if he had been able to produce them fast enough. he was now patronised by royalty, by the empress of russia, and the nobility generally. a large service for queen charlotte took three years to execute, as part of the commission consisted in painting on the ware, in black enamel, about twelve hundred views of palaces, seats of the nobility, and remarkable places. a service for the empress of russia took eight years to complete. it consisted of nine hundred and fifty-two pieces, of which the cost was believed to have been three thousand pounds, although this scarcely paid wedgwood's working expenses. prosperity elbowed wedgwood out of his old buildings in burslem, and led him to purchase land two miles away, on the line of the proposed grand trunk canal, where his flourishing manufactories and model workmen's houses sprang up gradually, and were named _etruria_, after the italian home of the famous etruscans, whose work he admired and imitated. his works were partly removed thither in , and wholly in . at this time he showed great public spirit, and aided in getting an act of parliament for better roads in the neighbourhood, and backed brindley and earl gower in their grand trunk canal scheme, which was destined, when completed, to cheapen and quicken the carriage of goods to liverpool, bristol, and hull. the opposition was keen: and wedgwood issued a pamphlet showing the benefits which would accrue to trade in the midlands by the proposed waterway. when victory was secured, after the passing of the act there was a holiday and great rejoicing in burslem and the neighbourhood, and the first sod of the canal was cut by wedgwood, july , . he was also appointed treasurer of the new undertaking, which was eleven years in progress. brindley, the greatest engineer then in england, doubtless sacrificed his life to its success, as he died of continual harassment and diabetes at the early age of fifty-six. wedgwood had an immense admiration for brindley's work and character. in the prospect of spending a day with him, he said: 'as i always edify full as much in that man's company as at church, i promise myself to be much wiser the day following.' like carlyle, who whimsically put the builder of a bridge before the writer of a book, wedgwood placed the man who designed the outline of a jug or the turn of a teapot far below the creator of a canal or the builder of a city. in the career of a man of genius and original powers, the period of early struggle is often the most interesting. when prosperity comes, after difficulties have been surmounted, there is generally less to challenge attention. but wedgwood's career was still one of continual progress up to the very close. his queen's ware, made of the whitest clay from devon and dorset, was greatly in demand, and much improved. the fine earthenwares and porcelains which became the basis of such manufactures were originated here. young men of artistic taste were employed and encouraged to supply designs, and a school of instruction for drawing, painting, and modelling was started. artists such as coward and hoskins modelled the 'sleeping boy,' one of the finest and largest of his works. john bacon, afterwards known as a sculptor, was one of his artists, as also james tassie of glasgow. wedgwood engaged capable men wherever they could be found. for his etruscan models he was greatly indebted to sir w. hamilton. specimens of his famous portrait cameos, medallions, and plaques will be found in most of our public museums. the general health of wedgwood suffered so much between and that he decided to have the limb which had troubled him since his boyhood amputated. he sat, and without wincing, witnessed the surgeons cut off his right leg, for there were then no anæsthetics. 'mr wedgwood has this day had his leg taken off,' wrote one of the burslem clerks at the foot of a london invoice, 'and is as well as can be expected after such an execution.' his wife was his good angel when recovering, and acted as hands and feet and secretary to him; while his partner bentley (formerly a liverpool merchant) and dr darwin were also kind; and he was almost oppressed with the inquiries of many noble and distinguished persons during convalescence. he had to be content with a wooden leg now. 'send me,' he wrote to his brother in london, 'by the next wagon a spare leg, which you will find, i believe, in the closet.' he lived to wear out a succession of wooden legs. indifference and idleness he could not tolerate, and his fine artistic sense was offended by any bit of imperfect work. in going through his works, he would lift the stick upon which he leaned and smash the offending article, saying, 'this won't do for josiah wedgwood.' all the while he had a keen insight into the character of his workmen, although he used to say that he had everything to teach them, even to the making of a table plate. he was no monopolist, and the only patent he ever took out was for the discovery of the lost art of burning in colours, as in the etruscan vases. 'let us make all the good, fine, and new things we can,' he said to bentley once; 'and so far from being afraid of other people getting our patterns, we should glory in it, and throw out all the hints we can, and if possible, have all the artists in europe working after our models.' by this means he hoped to secure the goodwill of his best customers and of the public. at the same time he never sacrificed excellence to cheapness. as the sale of painted etruscan ware declined, his jasper porcelain--so called from its resemblance to the stone of that name--became popular. the secret of its manufacture was kept for many years. it was composed of flint, potter's clay, carbonate of barytes, and _terra ponderosa_. this and the jasper-dip are in several tones and hues of blue; also yellow, lilac, and green. he called in the good genius of flaxman in ; and, for the following twelve years, the afterwards famous sculptor did an immense amount of work and enhanced his own and his patron's reputation. flaxman did some of his finest work in this jasper porcelain. some of flaxman's designs wedgwood could scarcely be prevailed upon to part with. a bas-relief of the 'apotheosis of homer' went for seven hundred and thirty-five pounds at the sale of his partner bentley; and the 'sacrifice to hymen,' a tablet in blue and white jasper ( ), brought four hundred and fifteen pounds. the first named is now in the collection of lord tweedmouth. wedgwood's copy of the barberini or portland vase was a great triumph of his art. this vase, which had contained the ashes of the roman emperor alexander severus and his mother, was of dark-blue glass, with white enamel figures. it now stands in the medal room of the british museum alongside a model by wedgwood. it stands inches high, and is the finest specimen of an ancient cameo cut-glass vase known. it was smashed by a madman in , but was afterwards skilfully repaired. wedgwood made fifty copies in fine earthenware, which were originally sold at guineas each. one of these now fetches £ . the vase itself once changed hands for eighteen hundred guineas, and a copy fetched two hundred and fifteen guineas in . [illustration: portland vase.] josiah wedgwood now stood at the head of the potters of staffordshire, and the manufactory at etruria drew visitors from all parts of europe. the motto of its founder was still 'forward;' and, as dr smiles expresses it, there was with him no finality in the development of his profession. he studied chemistry, botany, drawing, designing, and conchology. his inquiring mind wanted to get to the bottom of everything. he journeyed to cornwall, and was successful in getting kaolin for chinaware. queen charlotte patronised a new pearl-white teaware; and he succeeded in perfecting the pestle and mortar for the apothecary. he invented a pyrometer for measuring temperatures; and was elected fellow of the royal society. amongst his intimate friends were dr erasmus darwin, poet and physician (the famous charles robert darwin was a grandson, his mother having been a daughter of wedgwood's), boulton of soho works, james watt, thomas clarkson, sir joseph banks, and thomas day. we have an example of the generosity of wedgwood's disposition in his treatment of john leslie, afterwards professor sir john leslie of edinburgh university. he was so well pleased with his tutoring of his sons that he settled an annuity of one hundred and fifty pounds upon him; and it may be that the influence of this able tutor led thomas wedgwood to take up the study of heliotype, and become a pioneer of photographic science, even before daguerre. how industrious wedgwood had been in his profession is evident from the seven thousand specimens of clay from all parts of the world which he had tested and analysed. the six entirely new pieces of earthenware and porcelain which, along with his queen's ware, he had introduced early in his career, as painted and embellished, became the foundation of nearly all the fine earthenware and porcelains since produced. he had his reward, for besides a flourishing business, he left more than half a million of money. worcester porcelain. one of the most artistic and interesting industries in this country is the manufacture of porcelain in the ancient city of worcester. there is no special local reason for the establishment of such works there, but worcester has been noted as the home of the famous porcelain for more than a century. it was in that dr wall, a chemist and artist, completed his experiment in the combination of various elements, and produced a porcelain which was more like the true or natural chinese porcelain than any ever devised. this was the more remarkable because kaolin had not then been discovered in this country. the inventor set up his factory in worcester, close to the cathedral, and for a long time he produced his egg-shell and tonquin porcelain in various forms, chiefly, however, those of table services. transfer-printing was introduced later on, and was executed with much of the artist's spirit by experts who attached themselves to the worcester works after the closing of the enamel works at battersea. it was a remarkable century in its devotion to ceramic art; and it was characteristic of the ruling princes of the continent that they should patronise lavishly various potteries of more or less repute. towards the end of the century the first sign of this royal favour was vouchsafed to worcester. george iii. visited the factories, and under the impetus given by his patronage, the wares of the city advanced so much in popularity that, in the early part of this century, it is said, there were few noble families which had not in their china closets an elaborate service of worcester, bearing the family arms and motto in appropriate emblazonment. in , george iv. being then prince regent, several splendid services of worcester porcelain were ordered to equip his table for the new social duties entailed by his regency, and one of these alone cost £ . in the museums at the worcester works there are specimens of many beautiful services, designed in accordance with the contemporary ideas of pomp and stateliness. the porcelain artists in those days must have been well versed in heraldry; for their chief duties seem to have been the reproduction of crests and coats-of-arms. some of the services have interesting stories. there is one of deep royal blue, beautifully decorated, and bearing in the centre an emblematical figure of hope. the story ran that it was ordered by nelson for presentation to the duke of cumberland, and that the figure of hope was really a portrait of lady hamilton. this, however, was an error: the service was ordered by the duke himself in the ordinary way, and though lord nelson did order a service of worcester porcelain, he died before it could be completed, and it was afterwards dispersed. another story attaches to a plate adorned with a picture of a ship in full sail approaching harbour. the imaum of muscat sent many presents to the prince regent, and hinted that he would like a ship of war in return. the english authorities, however, did not see fit to give attention to this request, and sent him instead many beautiful things, including a service of worcester ware, bearing on each piece a scene showing the royal yacht which bore the gifts entering the cove of muscat. when the potentate heard, however, that his dearest wish had been thwarted in this way, he refused to allow the vessel to enter the harbour, and all the presents had to be brought back again. the picture on the plate, therefore, is more imaginative than accurate. [illustration: the worcester royal porcelain works.] the worcester porcelain began to develop in fresh directions soon after the great exhibition of , which gave an impulse to the efforts of the artists, and the decorative side of the work was brought into a much more prominent position. for instance, the 'worcester enamels,' in the style of those of limoges, were introduced, and an illustration of this work is to be seen in a pair of remarkable vases, bearing enamel reproductions of maclise's drawings, founded on the bayeux tapestries. about this time, too, after several years of experiment, the ivory ware--an idea inspired by the lovely ivory sculptures in the exhibition--was brought to perfection. it is a beautiful, creamy, translucent porcelain, singularly fitted for artistic treatment, and it is now the most characteristic of the later developments of the worcester work. in fact, the art directors of the enterprise will not issue now any new wares in the style of those which found favour at an earlier period, for they know that they would instantly be palmed off on the unwary as the genuine products of the bygone times. to trace the process of the manufacture, from the mixing of the ingredients to the burning of the last wash in the decorated piece, is very interesting. it is a process freely shown to visitors, and forms one of the principal lions in the sober old town which has lain for so many centuries on the banks of the severn. the materials are brought from all parts of the world. kaolin, or china clay, which is the felspar of decomposed granite washed from the rocks, is brought from cornwall, so is the cornish or china stone; felspar is brought from sweden, and though of a rich red, it turns white when burnt; marl and fire-clay come from broseley, in shropshire, and stourbridge; flints are brought from dieppe; and bones--those of the ox only--come all the way from south america to be calcined and ground down. the grinding is a slow matter; each ingredient is ground separately in a vat, the bottom of which is a hard stone, whereon other hard stones of great weight revolve slowly. from twelve hours' to ten days' constant treatment by these remorseless mills is required by the various materials, some needing to be ground much longer than others before the requisite fineness is attained. it is essential that all the ingredients should be reduced to a certain standard of grain; and the contents of each vat must pass through a lawn sieve with four thousand meshes to the square inch. when the materials are sufficiently ground to meet this test, they are taken to the 'slip-house,' and mixed together with the clays, which do not need grinding. a magnet of great strength is in each mixing trough, and draws to itself every particle of iron, which, if allowed to remain in the mixture, would injure the ware very much. when properly mixed, the water is pressed out, and the paste or clay is beaten so that it may obtain consistency. then it is ready to be made into the many shapes which find popular favour. the process of manufacture depends on the shape to be obtained. a plain circular teacup may be cast on a potter's wheel of the ancient kind. when it is partly dried in a mould, it is turned on a lathe and trimmed; then the handle, which has been moulded, is affixed with a touch of the 'slip'--the porcelain paste in a state of dilution is the cement used in all such situations--and the piece is ready for the fire. a plate or saucer, however, is made by flat pressing; a piece of clay like a pancake is laid on the mould, which is set revolving on a wheel; the deft fingers of the workmen press the clay to the proper shape, and it is then dried. but the elaborate ornamental pieces of graceful design are made in moulds, and for this process the clay is used in the thin or 'slip' state. the moulds are pressed together, the slip is poured into them through a hole in one side, and when the moisture has been absorbed by the plaster moulds sufficiently, the piece is taken out. it is often necessary, in making a large or complicated piece, to have as many as twenty or thirty castings. in moulding a figure, for instance, the legs and arms and hands, even the thumbs in many cases, are cast separately, and with many other parts of the design are laid before a workman, who carefully builds up the complete figure out of the apparent chaos of parts, affixing each piece to the body with a touch of slip. when these wares are complete, they have to be fired for the first time; and they are taken to a kiln, and placed with great care and many precautions in the grim interior. the contraction of the clay under fire is a matter to which the designers must give much study; and the change which takes place during forty hours' fierce firing in the kiln is shown by contrasting an unburnt piece and a piece of 'biscuit' or burnt ware, and marking the shrinkage. your ware must be calculated to shrink only so much; if it shrink a shade further, the whole process may be spoiled. there is a loss of twenty-five per cent. sometimes in these kilns, in spite of the assiduous care of the workmen. when the biscuit ware has cooled, it is dipped in the glaze, which is a compound of lead and borax and other materials--virtually a sort of glass--and then it is fired for sixteen hours in the 'glost oven.' there is no contraction in this ordeal; but there is a risk none the less from other causes. in fact, there is the danger of injury every time the ware goes to the fire, and as the highly decorated pieces have to go to the kiln many times, it may be inferred that the labour of weeks and even months is sometimes nullified by an untoward accident in the burning. it is during the process of decoration that the ornate vases and figures make so many trips to the fire. the artist department is a very large and important one. the designers, however, are a class of themselves. they project the idea; it is the business of the artist, in these circumstances, to execute it. the painters are taken into the works as lads and trained for the special service. what you remark chiefly in going through the decorating rooms is the great facility of the artists. you see a man with a plate or vase on which he is outlining a landscape, and you marvel at the rapid, accurate touches with which he does the work. flowers, birds, and figures they can reproduce with great skill, and many of them are artists not merely in facility but in instinct. they work with metallic colours only. they rely on copper, for instance, to give black and green, on iron to yield red hues, and so on; and the gold work is done with what seems to be a dirty brown paste, but is really pure gold mixed with flux and quicksilver. when the first wash is put on, the piece must be fired, so that the colours shall be burnt into the glaze. then it returns to the painter, who adds the next touches so far as he can; the firing again follows; the piece is returned to him once more; and so on it goes till the work is complete. it is therefore a highly technical business, especially as the colours change very much in the fire, and the painter has to work with full knowledge of the chemical processes in every firing. there is one form of the decorative process which is very singular--that is, the piercing work. the artist has the vase in the dried state before the firing, and with a tiny, sharp-pointed knife he cuts out little pieces according to the design in his mind, and produces an extremely beautiful perforated ware, the elaborate pattern and the lace-like delicacy of which almost repel the idea that the work is done by the unaided hand of man. in the colour processes, the work is virtually complete when the dull gold has been burnished; and the porcelain is then ready to be transferred to the showrooms, or exported to america, which is the greatest patron, at present, of worcester art. america, however, failed to retain one lovely vase no less than four feet high, the largest ever made in the works; it was taken to the chicago exhibition and back without accident, and was then sold in england for one thousand pounds. it is important to remember the distinction between 'pottery' and 'porcelain:' the porcelain is clay purified by the fire, whereas pottery leaves the oven as it entered it--clay. the purification of the ware is really an illustration of the process which sustains the artistic inspiration of the work. the gross, the vulgar, the mean are eliminated; a standard of beauty is set up, and to it every article must conform. it is to this ideal, sustained by a long succession of artists through a century and a half, that worcester owes its world-wide reputation as the birthplace of some of the loveliest porcelain ever burnt in a kiln. [illustration: chinese porcelain vase.] [illustration] chapter iii. the sewing-machine. thomas saint--thimonnier--hunt--elias howe--wilson--morey--singer. although the sewing-machine has not put an end to the slavery of the needle, and although 'the song of the shirt' may be heard to the accompaniment of its click and whirr, just as it was to the 'stitch, stitch' of tom hood's time, yet has it unquestionably come as a boon and a blessing to man--and woman. its name now is legion, and it has had so many inventors and improvers that the present generation is fast losing sight of its original benefactors. indeed, we take the sewing-machine to-day as an accomplished fact so familiar as to be commonplace. and yet that fact is a product of as moving a history as any in the story of human invention. it is the growth of the last half-century, prior to which the real sewing-machine was the heavy-eyed, if not tireless, needlewoman, whose flying fingers seemed ever in vain pursuit of the flying hours. needlework is as old as human history, for we may see the beginnings of it in the aprons of fig-leaves which mother eve sewed. what instrument she used we know not, but we do know from moses that needles were in use when the tabernacle was built. yet, strange to say, it was not until the middle of last century that any one tried to supersede manual labour in the matter of stitching. it is said that a german tailor, named charles frederick weisenthal, was the first to attempt it, but for hand-embroidery only--with a double-pointed needle, eyed in the middle. this was in , and fifty years later, one john duncan, a glasgow machinist, worked out weisenthal's idea into a genuine embroidering machine, which really held the germ of the idea of the 'loop-stitch.' but neither of these was a sewing-machine, and before duncan's invention some one else had been seized with another idea. this was a london cabinetmaker called thomas saint, who in or about took out a patent for a machine for sewing leather, or rather for 'quilting, stitching, and making shoes, boots, spatterdashes, clogs, and other articles.' this patent, unfortunately, was taken out along with other inventions in connection with leather, and it was quite by accident that, some eighty years later, the specification of it was discovered by one who had made for himself a name in connection with sewing-machines. even the patent office did not seem to have known of its existence, yet now it is clear enough that thomas saint's leather-sewing-machine of was the first genuine sewing-machine ever constructed, and that it was on what is now known as the 'chain-stitch' principle. rude as it was, it is declared by experts to have anticipated most of the ingenious ideas of half a century of successive inventors, not one of whom, however, could in all human probability have as much as heard of saint's machine. this is not the least curious incident in the history of the sewing-machine. in saint's machine the features are--the overhanging arm, which is the characteristic of many modern machines; the perpendicular action of the singer machine; the eye-pointed needle of the howe machine; the pressure surfaces peculiar to the howe machine; and a 'feed' system equal to that of the most modern inventions. whether saint's machine was ever worked in a practical workshop or not, it was unquestionably a practicable machine, constructed by one who knew pretty well what he was about, and what he wanted to achieve. now note the date of thomas saint's patent ( ), and next note the date of the invention of barthelmy thimonnier, of st etienne, who is claimed in france as the inventor of the sewing-machine. in , thimonnier constructed a machine, principally of wood, with an arrangement of barbed needles, for stitching gloves, and in the following year he began business in paris, with a partner, as an army clothier. the firm of thimonnier, petit, & co., however, did not thrive, because the workpeople thought they saw in the principal's machine an instrument destined to ruin them; much as the luddites viewed steam-machinery in the cotton districts of england. an idea of that sort rapidly germinates heat, and thimonnier's workshop was one day invaded by an angry mob, who smashed all the machines, and compelled the inventor to seek safety in flight. poor thimonnier was absent from paris for three years, but in returned with another and more perfect machine. this was so coldly received, both by employers and workmen in the tailoring trade, that he left the capital, and, journeying through france with his machine, paid his way by exhibiting it in the towns and villages as a curiosity. after a few years, however, thimonnier fell in with a capitalist who believed in him and his machine, and was willing to stake money on both. a partnership was entered into for the manufacture and sale of the machine, and all promised well for the new firm, when the revolution of broke out, stopped the business, and ruined both the inventor and the capitalist. thimonnier died in , in a poorhouse, of a broken heart. this french machine was also on the chain-stitch principle, but it was forty years later than saint's. in between the two came, about , one walter hunt, of new york, who is said to have constructed a sewing-machine with the lock-stitch movement. some uncertainty surrounds this claim, and elias howe is the person usually credited with this important, indeed invaluable invention. whether howe had ever seen hunt's machine, we know not; but hunt's machine was never patented, seems never to have come into practical working, and is, indeed, said to have been unworkable. there is, besides, in the polytechnic at vienna, the model of a machine, dated , constructed by one joseph madersberg, a tailor of the tyrol, which embodies the lock-stitch idea--working with two threads. but this also was unworkable, and elias howe has the credit of having produced the first really practical lock-stitch sewing-machine. his was a life of vicissitude and of ultimate triumph, both in fame and fortune. he was born at a small place in massachusetts in , and as a youth went to boston, there to work as a mechanic. while there, and when about twenty-two years old, the idea occurred to him at his work of passing a thread through cloth and securing it on the other side by another thread. here we perceive the germ of the lock-stitch--the two threads. howe began to experiment with a number of bent wires in lieu of needles, but he lacked the means to put his great idea to a thorough practical test. thus it slumbered for three years, when he went to board and lodge with an old schoolfellow named fisher, who, after a while, agreed to advance howe one hundred pounds in return for a half share in the invention should it prove a success. thus aided, in howe completed his first machine, and actually made himself a suit of clothes with it; and this would be just about the time of thimonnier's temporary prosperity in alliance with the capitalist, mogrini. feeling sure of his ground, howe took bold steps to 'boom' his invention. he challenged five of the most expert sewers in a great boston clothing factory to a sewing match. each of them was to sew a certain strip of cloth, and howe undertook to sew five strips, torn in halves, before each man had completed his one strip. the arrangements completed, the match began, and to the wonder of everybody, howe finished his five seams before the others were half done with one seam. but murmurs instead of cheers succeeded the victory. he was angrily reproached for trying to take the bread out of the mouth of the honest working-man, and a cry was raised among the workers (as it has been heard time and again in the history of industrial development) to smash the machine. howe, indeed, had much difficulty in escaping from the angry mob, with his precious machine under his arm. in howe's experience we thus see one parallel with thimonnier's; but there was another. the american was quite as poor and resourceless as the frenchman, and the next step in howe's career was that he went on tour to the country fairs to exhibit his machine for a trifling fee, in order to keep body and soul together. people went in flocks to see the thing as a clever toy, but no one would 'take hold' of it as a practical machine. and so, in despair of doing any good with it in america, elias howe, in , sent his brother to england to see if a market could not be found for the invention there. the brother succeeded in making terms with one william thomas, staymaker, in cheapside, london, and he sent for elias to come over. the price to be paid by thomas for the patent was two hundred and fifty pounds, but howe was to make certain alterations in it so as to adapt it to the special requirements of the purchaser. while engaged in perfecting the machine, he was to receive wages at the rate of three pounds per week, and this wage he seems to have received for nearly two years. but he failed to achieve what thomas wanted, and thomas, after spending a good deal of money over the experiments, abandoned the thing altogether. howe was thus astrand again, and he returned to america as poor as ever, leaving his machine behind him in pawn for advances to pay his passage home. and yet there were 'millions in it.' this was in the year , and just about the time when howe was returning to america, another american, named bostwich, was sending over to england a machine which he had invented for imitating hand-stitching, by means of cog-wheels and a bent needle. and a year or two after howe's return, one charles morey, of manchester, attempted to carry out the same stitch on a somewhat different plan, but failed to find sufficient pecuniary support. indeed, poor morey had a tragic end, for, taking his machine to paris in the hope of finding a purchaser there, he incurred some debt which he could not pay, and was clapped into the mazas prison. while there, he inadvertently broke the rules, and was shot by the guard for failing to reply to a challenge which he did not understand. when howe got back to the united states, he found a number of ingenious persons engaged in producing or experimenting in sewing-machines, and some of them were trenching on his own patent rights. he raised enough money, somehow, to redeem his pawned machine in england, and then raised actions against all who were infringing it. the litigation was tremendous both in duration and expense, but it ended in the victory of elias howe, to whom, by the finding of the court, the other patentees were found liable for royalty. it is said that howe, who as we have seen left london in debt, received, before his patent expired in , upwards of two million dollars in royalties alone. but ingenious men were now busy in both hemispheres in perfecting what, up till about fifty years ago, was regarded as nothing better than a clever toy. besides morey, the manchester man we have mentioned, a huddersfield machinist, named drake, brought out a machine to work with a shuttle. about the same time, or a little later, a young nottingham man, named john fisher, constructed a machine with a sort of lock-stitch movement, which he afterwards adapted to a double loop-stitch. but fisher's machine was intended rather for embroidering than for plain sewing. passing over some minor attempts, the next great development was that of allen wilson, who, without having heard either of howe's or of any other machine, constructed one in , the design of which, he said, he had been meditating for two years. his first machine had original features, however much it may have been anticipated in principle by howe's patent. in wilson's second design, a rotary hook was substituted for a two-pointed shuttle, and by other improvements he achieved a greater speed than had been attained by other inventors. later still, he added the 'four-motion feed,' which is adopted on most of the machines now in general use. this idea was an elaboration of a principle which seems to have first occurred to the unfortunate morey. in morey's machine there was a horizontal bar with short teeth, which caught the fabric and dragged it forward as the stitches were completed. it took nearly thirty years, however, to evolve the perfect 'feed' motion out of morey's first crude germ. while wilson was working away, perfecting his now famous machine, an observing and thoughtful young millwright was employed in a new york factory. one day a sewing-machine was sent in for repairs, and after examining its mechanism, this young man, whose name was isaac singer, confidently expressed his belief that he could make a better one. he did not propose either to appropriate or abandon the principle, but to improve upon it. instead of a curved needle, as in howe's and wilson's machines, he adopted a straight one, and gave it a perpendicular instead of a curvular motion. and for propelling the fabric he introduced a wheel, instead of the toothed bar of the morey design. it need hardly be said that the singer machine is now one of the most widely known, and is turned out in countless numbers in enormous factories on both sides of the atlantic. it is not so well known, perhaps, that singer, who was a humble millwright in , and who died in , left an estate valued at three millions sterling--all amassed in less than twenty-five years! the machines of howe, wilson, and singer were on the lock-stitch principle, and the next novelty was the invention of grover and baker, who brought out a machine working with two needles and two continuous threads. after this came the gibbs machine, the story of which may be briefly told. about the year , james g. gibbs heard of the grover and baker machine, and having a turn for mechanics, began to ponder over how the action described was produced. he got an illustration, but could make nothing of it, and not for a year did he obtain sight of a singer machine at work. as in the case of singer with wilson's machine, so gibbs thought he could improve on singer's, and turn out one less ponderous and complicated. he set to work, and in a very short time took out a patent for a new lock-stitch machine. but he was not satisfied with this, and experimented away, with an idea of making a chain-stitch by means of a revolving looper. this idea he eventually put into practical form, and took out a patent for the first chain-stitch sewing-machine. since the days of elias howe, the number of patents taken out for sewing-machines has been legion--certainly not less than one thousand--and probably no labour-saving appliance has received more attention at the hands both of inventors and of the general public. there is scarcely a household in the land now, however humble, without a sewing-machine of some sort, and in factories and warehouses they are to be numbered by the thousand. some machinists have directed their ingenuity to the reduction of wear and tear, others to the reduction of noise, others to acceleration of speed, others to appliances for supplying the machine in a variety of ways, others for adapting it to various complicated processes of stitching and embroidering. some users prefer the lock-stitch, and some the chain-stitch principle, and each system has its peculiar advantages according to the character of the work to be sewn. a recent development is a combination of both principles in one machine. mr edward kohler patented a machine which will produce either a lock-stitch or a chain-stitch, as may be desired, and an embroidery stitch as well. by a very ingenious contrivance the machinery is altered by the simple movement of a button, and (when the chain-stitch is required) the taking out of the bobbin from the shuttle. if the embroidery stitch is wanted, the button is turned without removing the bobbin, and the lock-stitch and chain-stitch are combined in one new stitch, with which very elaborate effects can be produced. it is said that the kohler principle can be easily adapted to all, or most, existing machines. [illustration] chapter iv. wool and cotton. wool.--what is wool?--chemical composition--fibre--antiquity of shepherd life--varieties of sheep--introduction into australia--spanish merino--wool wealth of australia--imports and exports of wool and woollen produce--woollen manufacture. cotton.--cotton plant in the east--mandeville's fables about cotton--cotton in persia, arabia, and egypt--columbus finds cotton-yarn and thread in --in africa--manufacture of cloth in england--the american cotton plant. wool. what is wool? 'the covering of the sheep, of course,' replies somebody. yes; but what _is_ it? let us ask professor owen. 'wool,' he says, 'is a peculiar modification of hair, characterised by fine transverse or oblique lines from two to four thousand in the extent of an inch, indicative of a minutely imbricated scaly surface, when viewed under the microscope, on which and on its curved or twisted form depends its remarkable felting property.' at first sight this definition seems bewildering, but it will bear examination, and is really more tangible than, for instance, noah webster's definition of wool: 'that soft curled or crisped species of hair which grows on sheep and some other animals, and which in fineness sometimes approaches to fur.' it is usually that which grows on sheep, however, that we know as wool, and the number of imbrications, serratures, or notches indicates the quality of the fibre. thus, in the wool of the leicester sheep there are --in spanish merino, --in saxon merino, , to an inch, and the fewer there are the nearer does wool approach to hair. [illustration: wool-sorters at work.] here is a still more minute description by youatt, a great authority on wool: 'it consists of a central stem or stalk, probably hollow, or at least porous, and possessing a semi-transparency, found in the fibre of the hair. from this central stalk there springs, at different distances in different breeds of sheep, a circlet of leaf-shaped projections. in the finer species of wool these circles seemed at first to be composed of one indicated or serrated ring; but when the eye was accustomed to them, this ring was resolvable into leaves or scales. in the larger kinds, the ring was at once resolvable into these scales or leaves, varying in number, shape, and size, and projecting at different angles from the stalk, and in the direction of the leaves of vegetables--that is, from the root to the point. they give to the wool the power of felting.' this is the estimate of the chemical composition of good wool: carbon, . ; hydrogen, . ; nitrogen, . ; oxygen and sulphur, . . out of a hundred parts, ninety-eight would be organic, and two would be ash, consisting of oxide of iron, sulphate of lime, phosphate of lime, and magnesia. what is called the 'yolk' of wool is a compound of oil, lime, and potash. it makes the pile soft and pliable, and is less apparent on english sheep than on those of warmer countries, the merino sheep having the most 'yolk.' the fibre of wool varies in diameter, the saxon merino measuring / of an inch, and the southdown, / . lustrous wool, it is said, should be long and strong; but if it is very fine it is not long. strong wool may be as much as twenty inches in length. the wool of the best sheep adheres closely, and can only be removed by shearing; but there are varieties of sheep which shed their wool, as, for instance, the persian, which drop the whole of their fleeces between january and may, when feeding on the new grass. this, then, is wool, the first use of which for cloth-making is lost in antiquity. there is no doubt that the pastoral industry is the oldest industry in the world; for even when the fruits of the earth could be eaten without tillage and without labour, the flocks and herds required care and attention. the shepherd may be regarded as the earliest pioneer of industry, as he has been for centuries the centre of fanciful romance, and the personification of far from romantic fact. the old legend of jason and the golden fleece is in itself evidence of the antiquity of the knowledge of the value of wool; and much as the mythologists make out of the legend, there are some who hold that it merely is meant to record how the greeks imported a superior kind of sheep from the caucasus and made money thereby. australia is now the land of the golden fleece, and millions of money have been made there out of the docile sheep. it is not indigenous, of course, to the land of the southern cross, where the only mammal known when europeans discovered it was the kangaroo. mr james bonwick, a gentleman well known in australian literature, gathered together many records of the introduction of the sheep into australia, and of the marvellous development of the pastoral industry there in his very interesting book, _the romance of the wool-trade_. but, first, as to the different kinds of sheep. the bighorn is the wild-sheep of kamchatka, and it may be taken for granted that all species of the domestic sheep were at one time wild, or are descended from wild tribes. when the aryan hindus invaded india, it is recorded that they took their flocks with them; but whether the wild-sheep still to be found on the hills of northern india are the descendants of wanderers from these flocks, or descendants of the progenitors of them, we do not pretend to say. chief among the domesticated sheep of the british isles is the southdown, whose characteristics used to be--although we are told they are changed somewhat now--thin chine, low fore-end, and rising backbone, a small hornless head, speckled face, thin lips, woolled ears, and bright eyes. the wool should 'be short, close, curled, fine, and free from spiry projecting fibres.' then there are the romney marsh, the cotswold, the lincoln, the leicester, and the hardwick sheep, each with its distinctive marks and value. the welsh sheep have long necks, high shoulders, narrow breasts, long bushy tails, and small bones; the wool is not first class, but the mutton is excellent. the irish native sheep are of two kinds, the short-woolled and long-woolled; but southdowns and leicesters have been so long crossed with them that their idiosyncrasies are no longer marked. the shetland sheep are supposed to have come from denmark, but have also been crossed with english and scotch varieties. in scotland, the cheviot and the blackfaced are the two ruling types. the cheviot is a very handsome animal, with long body, white face, small projecting eyes, and well-formed legs. the wool is excellent, as the 'tweed'-makers of the border know, but is not so soft as that of the english southdowns. the blackfaced is the familiar form we see in the highlands, supposed to have come originally 'from abroad,' but now regarded as the native sheep of scotland. it is a hardy animal, accustomed to rough food and rough weather, with a fine deep chest, broad back, slender legs, attractive face, and picturesque horns. the wool is not so good as that of the cheviot variety, but the mutton is better. of course, english varieties have been largely crossed with the two native scotch kinds; yet these still remain distinct, and are easily recognisable. as long ago as the time of the emperor constantine, the wool of english sheep had a high reputation, and had even then found its way to rome. of english monarchs, edward iii. seems to have been the first to endeavour to stimulate the pastoral industry by the manufacture of woollen cloths and the export of raw wool. but henry viii. thought that sheep-breeding had been carried too far, and the farmers were making too much money out of it; so he decreed that no one should keep more than two thousand four hundred sheep at one time, and that no man should be allowed to occupy more than two farms. in the time of charles ii. the export of both sheep and wool was strictly prohibited. as late as , there were curious prohibitory enactments with reference to sheep; and the date is interesting, because it was the date of the settlement of new south wales. there was a fine of three pounds upon the carrying off of any sheep from the british isles, except for use on board ship; and even between the islands and the mainland of scotland, or across a tidal river, sheep could not be transported without a special permit and the execution of a bond that the animals were not for exportation. indeed, no sheep could be shorn within five miles of the sea-coast without the presence of a revenue officer, to see that the law was not evaded. it is not surprising, then, that the first sheep settled in australia--the only great pastoral country that has never had a native variety--did not go from england. it is very curious that in australia, new zealand, and tasmania, where now lies a great portion of the pastoral wealth of the world, there never was any animal in the smallest degree resembling a sheep until some enterprising britons took it there. the first sheep introduced into australia were from the cape and from india. the ships which went out with the convicts of had a few sheep on board for the officers' mess, which were presumably consumed before the cape of good hope was reached. there, some animals were procured for the new settlement. the cape at the time was in the hands of the dutch, who had large flocks of sheep and immense herds of cattle. the sheep they had were not imported from europe, but were the native breed they had found in the hands of the aborigines when the dutch colony was founded one hundred and thirty years previously. the native african sheep is of the fat-tail kind. wool was not then an item of wealth in the dutch colony; but the fat tails were appreciated as an excellent substitute for butter. all over africa and over a large part of asia, varieties of the fat-tail species are still to be found. in tibet they abound; and the turcomans have vast flocks of them. but tibet has also other varieties, and notably one very like the llama of peru, with a very soft and most useful fleece, providing the famous tibetan wool. in palestine and syria the fat-tail sheep is abundant; and of the palestine breed it is recorded that they 'have a monstrous round of fat, like a cushion, in place of the tail, which sometimes weighs thirty or forty pounds. the wool of this sheep is coarse, much tangled, and felted, and mixed with coarse dark-coloured hair.' although the first sheep taken to australia were from the cape, the most important of the earlier consignments were from india, the nearest british possession to the new colony. indeed, for over thirty years australia was ecclesiastically within the see of the bishop of calcutta, and letters to england usually went by way of the indian capital. the bengalee sheep are described as 'small, lank, and thin, and the colour of three-fourths of each flock is black or dark gray. the quality of the fleece is worse than the colour; it is harsh, thin, and wiry to a very remarkable degree, and ordinarily weighs but half a pound.' not a very promising subject, one would think, for the australian pastures, but the flesh was excellent; and climate and crossing of breeds work wonders. that which gave value to the australian breed of sheep, however, was the introduction of the spanish merino, which in time found its way to the cape, and thence to australia. there is an old tradition that the famous merino sheep of spain came originally from england; but it appears from pliny and others that spain had a reputation for fine wool long before the roman occupation. the spanish word merino originally meant an inspector of sheepwalks, and is derived from the low latin _majorinus_, a steward of the household. some writers believe that the merino came originally from barbary, probably among the flocks of the moors when they captured southern spain. the merinos are considered very voracious, and not very prolific; they yield but little milk, and are very subject to cutaneous diseases. youatt describes two varieties of them in spain, and the wool is of remarkable fineness. about the year , the spanish merino began to be imported into the cape, and a few years later a certain captain waterhouse was sent from sydney to capetown to buy stock for the colonial establishment. he thought the service in which he was engaged 'almost a disgrace to an officer;' but when he left the cape again, he brought with him 'forty-nine head of black-cattle, three mares, and one hundred and seven sheep'--arriving at port jackson with the loss of nine of the cattle and about one-third of the sheep. three cows, two mares, and twenty-four of the sheep belonged to that officer, and with this voyage he founded not only his own fortune, but also the prosperity of the great australian colony. further importations followed; and a captain macarthur, early in the present century, went home to london to endeavour to form a company to carry on sheep-rearing on an extensive scale. he did not succeed, and returned to port jackson to pursue his enterprise himself. eventually he obtained the concession of a few square miles of land, and thus became the father of australian 'squatting.' he located himself on the nepean river, to the south-west of sydney; and to his industry and sagacity is attributed in great part the origin of the immense wool-trade which has developed between the colony and the mother-country. and what is now the wool wealth of australasia? in there were not more than ten thousand sheep of 'a good sort' in new south wales; and in the same year, wool from the colony was sold in london at an average of three shillings and sevenpence the pound. this led to the circulation of fabulous reports of the profits to be made out of sheep; and there was quite a run for some years on the squatting lots. in some australians started sheep-running in new zealand; and by the sheep in these islands had increased to , , . in the number there had grown to , , ; in , to , , ; and in , to , , . in the pastoral wealth of the whole of the australian colonies consisted of , , sheep. at only ten shillings per head, this represents a capital of over forty-two millions sterling, without counting the value of the land. the number of sheep in was over , , . but now as to the yield of the flocks. the value of the wool for was £ , , . the total importations of wool into england in - were , , bales, of which no fewer than , , bales, or nearly three-fourths of the whole, came from australasia. the rest came from the cape and natal, india, the mediterranean, russia, other european countries, china, and the falkland islands. the imports in , from all quarters, consisted of million pounds, of a value of £ , , . it would transcend the limits of our space to attempt to sketch the history and growth of the woollen industry in the manufacture of cloths. it is an industry, if not as old as the hills, at least very nearly as old as the fig-leaves of eden; for we may assume as a certainty that the next garments worn by our forefathers were constructed in some way from the fleecy coats of these bleating followers. we exported woollen and worsted yarns of a value of over four million pounds sterling in , and of woollen and worsted manufactures, a value of millions sterling. in the middle ages all the best wool was produced in england, and the woollen manufacture centred in norfolk, although both the west of england and ireland had also factories. there are in existence specimens of cloth made in these medieval days which show that the quality of the wool employed was not equal to that which we now use. the art of weaving is supposed to have been brought from the netherlands; at any rate there were strong political alliances between the english sovereigns and the weavers of bruges and of ghent. in these old days, when norwich, aylsham, and lynn had the lion's share of the woollen trade, the great mart for english and foreign cloths was at stourbridge, near cambridge, where a fair was held which lasted a month every year. there were woollen and worsted mills in the united kingdom in . the chief seats of the wool manufacture in england in the th century were bristol, london, and norwich. now wiltshire and gloucestershire are famous for broadcloths, while the towns of leeds and huddersfield in yorkshire are important centres. galashiels and hawick are noted for their tweeds. cotton. the father of history, in writing about india--'the last inhabited country towards the east'--where every species of birds and quadrupeds, horses excepted, are 'much larger than in any other part of the world,' and where they have also 'a great abundance of gold,' made the following remarkable statement. 'they possess likewise,' he said, 'a kind of plant, which, instead of fruit, produces wool of a finer and better quality than that of the sheep, and of this the natives make their clothes.' this was the vegetable wool of the ancients, which many learned authorities have identified with the byssus, in bandages of cloth made from which the old egyptians wrapped their mummies. but did egypt receive the cotton plant from india--or india from egypt--and when? however that may be, there is good reason to believe that cotton is the basis of one of the oldest industries in the world, although we are accustomed to think of it as quite modern, and at any rate as practically unknown in europe before the last century. as a matter of fact, nevertheless, cotton was being cultivated in the south of europe in the th century, although whether the fibre was then used for the making of cloth is not so certain. its chief use then seems to have been in the manufacture of paper. the beginning of the oriental fable of the vegetable lamb is lost in the dateless night of the centuries. when and how it originated we know not; but the story of a plant-animal in western asia descended through the ages, and passed from traveller to traveller, from historian to historian, until in our time the fable has received a practical verification. many strange things were gravely recorded of this plant-animal: as, that it was a tree bearing seed-pods, which, bursting when ripe, disclosed within little lambs with soft white fleeces, which scythians used for weaving into clothing. or, that it was a real flesh-and-blood lamb, growing upon a short stem flexible enough to allow the lamb to feed upon the surrounding grass. there were many versions of the marvellous tale as it reached europe; and the compiler and concocter of the so-called sir john mandeville's travels, as usual, improved upon it. he vouched for the flesh-and-blood lamb growing out of a plant, and declared that he had both seen and _eaten it_--whereby the writer proved himself a somewhat greater romancer than usual. nevertheless, he has a germ of truth amid his lies, for he relates of 'bucharia' that in the land are 'trees that bear wool, as though it were of sheep, whereof men make clothes and all things that are made of wool.' and again, of abyssinia, that mysterious kingdom of the renowned prester john, he related: 'in that country, and in many others beyond, and also in many on this side, men sow the seeds of cotton, and they sow it every year; and then it grows into small trees which bear cotton. and so do men every year, so that there is plenty of cotton at all times.' this statement, whencesoever it was borrowed, may be true enough, and if so, is evidence that, eighteen centuries after herodotus, cotton was still being cultivated, as the basis of a textile industry, both in western asia and in africa. it is said that in the sacred books of india there is evidence that cotton was in use for clothing purposes eight centuries before christ. the expedition of alexander the great from persia into the punjab was a good deal later, say, three hundred and thirty years before christ. on the retreat down the indus, admiral nearchus remarked 'trees bearing as it were flocks or bunches of wool,' of which the natives made 'garments of surpassing whiteness, or else their black complexions make the material whiter than any other.' the alexandrine general, aristobulus, is more precise: he tells of a wool-bearing tree yielding a capsule that contains 'seeds which were taken out, and that which remained was carded like wool.' and long before pliny referred to cotton in egypt--'a shrub which men call "gossypium," and others "xylon," from which stuffs are made which we call xylina'--strabo had noted the cultivation of the plant on the persian gulf. at the beginning of the christian era we find cotton in cultivation and in use in persia, arabia, and egypt--but whether indigenous to these countries, or conveyed westward during the centuries from india, we know not. thereafter, the westward spread was slow; but the plant is to be traced along the north coast of africa to morocco, which country it seems to have reached in the th century. the moors took the plant, or seeds, to spain, and it was being grown on the plains of valencia in the th century; and by the th century it was, as we have said, growing in various parts of southern europe. yet, although the indian cloths were known to the greeks and romans a century or two before the christian era, and although in the early centuries arab traders brought to the red sea ports indian calicoes, which were distributed in europe, we find cotton known in england only as material for candle-wicks down to the th century. at any rate, m'culloch is our authority for believing that the first mention of cotton being manufactured in england is in ; and that the 'english cottons,' of which earlier mention may be found, were really _woollens_. and now we come to a very curious thing in the romance of cotton. columbus discovered--or, as some say, rediscovered--america in ; and when he reached the islands of the caribbean sea, the natives who came off to barter with him brought, among other things, cotton yarn and thread. vasco da gama, a few years later than bartholomew diaz, in rounded the cape of good hope and reached the zanzibar coast. there the natives were found to be clothed in cotton, just as columbus found the natives of cuba to be, as pizarro found the peruvians, and as cortes found the mexicans. these europeans, proceeding from the iberian peninsula east and west, found the peoples of the new worlds clothed with a material of which they knew nothing. cotton was king in america, as in asia, before it began even to be known in western europe. not only that, but cotton must have been cultivated in africa at the time when the mariners of prince henry the navigator first made their way cautiously down the west coast. it is, at any rate, upwards of four hundred years since cotton cloth was brought from the coast of guinea and sold in london as a strange barbaric product. whether the plant travelled to the bight of benin from the land of prester john, or from the land of the pharaohs, or across from the mozambique coast, where the arabians are supposed to have had settlements and trading stations in prehistoric days, who can now say? but it is curious enough that when africa was discovered by europeans, the dark continent was actually producing both the fibre and the cloth for which african labour and english skill were afterwards to be needed. the cotton plantations of southern america were worked by the negroes of africa in order that the cotton-mills of lancashire might be kept running. and yet both africa and america made cotton cloth from the vegetable wool long before we knew of it otherwise than as a traveller's wonder. even in asia, the natural habitat of the cotton plant, the story has been curious. thus, according to the records above named, cotton has been in use for clothing for three thousand years in india, and india borders upon the ancient and extensive empire of china. yet cotton was not used in china for cloth-making until the coming of the tartars, and has been cultivated and manufactured there for only about five hundred years. this was because of the 'vested interests' in wool and silk, which combined to keep out the vegetable wool from general use. to understand aright the romance of cotton we must understand the nature of the plant in its relation to climate. it has been called a child of the tropics, and yet it grows well in other than tropical climes. as mr richard marsden--an authority on cotton-spinning--says: 'cotton is or can be grown (along) a broad zone extending forty-five degrees north to thirty-five degrees south of the equator. reference to a map will show that this includes a space extending from the european shores of the mediterranean to the cape of good hope, from japan to melbourne in australia, and from washington in the united states to buenos ayres in south america, with all the lands intermediate between these several points. these include the southern states of the american union, from washington to the gulf of mexico, and three-fourths of south america, the whole of the african continent, and southern asia from the bosphorus to pekin in china. the vast area of australia is also within the cotton zone, and the islands lying between that country and asia.' the exact period at which the manufacture of cotton was begun in england is not known with absolute certainty. but as we have said, the first authentic mention of it occurs in ; and it is in a book called _treasure of traffic_, by lewis roberts. the passage runs thus: 'the town of manchester, in lancashire, must be also herein remembered, and worthily for their encouragement commended, who buy the yarne of the irish in great quantity, and weaving it, returne the same again into ireland to sell. neither doth their industry rest here; for they buy _cotton-wool_ in london that comes first from cyprus and smyrna, and at home worke the same, and perfect it into fustians, vermilions, dimities, and other such stuffs; and then return it to london, where the same is vended and sold, and not seldom sent into foreign parts, who have means, at far easier terms, to provide themselves of the said first materials.' but here it should be explained that from the first introduction of the cotton fibre into this country, and until about the year , in the manufacture of cloth it was only the weft that was of cotton. down to about , the warp was invariably of linen yarn, brought from ireland and germany. the manchester merchants began in to employ the hand-loom weavers in the surrounding villages to make cloth according to prescribed patterns, and with the yarns supplied by the buyers. thus they sent linen yarn for warp, and raw cotton--which the weaver had first to card and spin on a common distaff--for weft. such was the practice when, in , james hargreaves of blackburn inaugurated the textile revolution by inventing the spinning-jenny, which, from small beginnings, was soon made to spin thirty threads as easily as one. the thread thus spun, however, was still only available for weft, as the jenny could not turn out the yarn hard and firm enough for warp. the next stage, therefore, was the invention of a machine to give the requisite quality and tenuity to the threads spun from the raw cotton. this was the spinning-frame of richard arkwright, the story of which every schoolboy is supposed to know. here, then, we reach another point in our romance. the manufacture of cotton cloths in england from raw cotton is older than the cotton culture of north america. it is, in fact, only about one hundred years since we began to draw supplies of raw cotton from the southern states, which, previous to , did not export a single pound, and produced only a small quantity for domestic consumption. the story of the development of cotton-growing in america is quite as marvellous as the story of the expansion of cotton-manufacturing in england. in both cases the most stupendous extension ever reached by any single industry in the history of the world has been reached in less than a hundred years. and yet columbus found the cubans, as pizarro found the peruvians, and cortes found the mexicans, clothed in cotton. was it from the same plant as now supplies 'half the calico used by the entire human race' (as an american writer has computed)? this estimate, by the way, was arrived at thus: in - the cotton crop of the world was millions of pounds, and the population of the world was computed at millions. this gave four pounds of raw cotton, equal to twenty yards of calico, per head; and the proportion of raw cotton provided by the southern states was equal to eleven and a half yards per head. the raw cotton imported by great britain in had a value of nearly million pounds sterling; the exports of cotton yarn and manufactured goods amounted to about millions sterling. there are several species of the cotton plant; but those of commercial importance are four in number. herbaceous cotton ('gossypium herbaceum') is the plant which yields the east indian 'surat' and some varieties of the egyptian cotton. its habitats are india, china, arabia, egypt, and asia minor. it is an annual: it grows to a height of five or six feet, it has a yellow flower, and it yields a short staple. tree cotton ('gossypium arboreum'), on the other hand, grows to a height of fifteen or twenty feet, has a red flower, and yields a fine silky wool. its habitats are egypt, arabia, india, and china. hairy cotton ('gossypium hirsutum') is a shrub of some six or seven feet high, with a white or straw-coloured flower, and hairy pods, which yield the staple known as american 'upland' and 'orleans' cotton. another variety, called 'gossypium barbadense,' because it was first found in barbadoes, grows to a height of about fifteen feet, and has a yellow flower, yielding a long staple, and fine silky wool known as 'sea island' cotton. this now grows most extensively on the coasts of georgia and florida; but has been experimented with in various parts of the world, notably in egypt, where it has succeeded; and in the polynesian islands, where, for some reason or another, it has failed. the cotton plant of the american cotton plantations is an annual, which shoots above ground in about a fortnight after sowing, and which, as it grows, throws out flower-stalks, at the end of each of which develops a pod with fringed calyces. from this pod emerges a flower which, in some of the american varieties of the general species, will change its colour from day to day. the complete bloom flourishes for only twenty-four hours, at the end of which time the flower twists itself off, leaving a pod or boll, which grows to the size of a large filbert, browns and hardens like a nut, and then bursts, revealing the fibre or wool encased in three or four (according to the variety) cells within. this fibre or wool is the covering of the seeds, and in each cell will be as many separate fleeces as seeds, yet apparently forming one fleece. upon the characteristics of this fleece depends the commercial value of the fibre. the essential qualities of good and mature cotton are thus enumerated by an expert: 'length of fibre; smallness or fineness in diameter; evenness and smoothness; elasticity; tensile strength and colour; hollowness or tube-like construction; natural twist; corrugated edges; and moisture.' the fibre of indian cotton is only about five-eighths of an inch long; that of sea island about two inches. then sea island cotton is a sort of creamy-white colour; and some kinds of american and egyptian cotton are not white at all, but golden in hue; while other kinds, again, are snow-white. although the term 'american cotton' is applied to all the cotton produced in the united states of america, it really applies to a number of different varieties--such as texas, mobile, upland, orleans, &c.--each one known by its distinctive name. the differences are too technical for explanation here; but, generally speaking, the members of the 'hirsutum' species of the 'gossypium' tribe now rule the world of cotton. they are the product of what is called the 'cotton-belt' of the united states, an area stretching for about two thousand miles between its extreme points in the southern states, which are north and south carolina, georgia, alabama, mississippi, florida, louisiana, arkansas, and texas. over this area, soil and climate vary considerably. the 'cotton-belt' lies, roughly speaking, between the thirtieth and fortieth parallels of north latitude. as an american expert says: 'cotton can be produced with various degrees of profit throughout the region bounded on the north by a line passing through philadelphia; on the south by a line passing a little south of new orleans; and on the west by a line passing through san antonio. this is the limit of the possibilities.' the cotton plant likes a light sandy soil, or a black alluvial soil like that of the mississippi margins. it requires both heat and moisture in due proportions, and is sensitive to cold, to drought, and to excessive moisture. the american cotton-fields are still worked by negroes, but no longer slaves, as before the war; and, in fact, the negroes are now not only free, but some of them are considerable cotton-growers on their own account. on the other hand, one finds nowadays little of the old system of spacious plantations under one ownership. instead, the cultivation is carried on on small farms and allotments, not owned but rented by the cultivators. large numbers of these cotton farmers are 'financed' by dealers, by landowners, or even by local storekeepers. the cotton factor is the go-between of the grower and the exporting agent in galveston or new orleans, or other centre of business. after the crop is picked by the negroes--men, women, and children--and the harvest is a long process--the seeds are separated from the fibre by means of a 'gin;' and then the cotton-wool is packed into loose bales for the factor, while the seeds are sent to a mill to be crushed for cotton-seed oil and oil-cake for cattle-feeding. the loose cotton bales are collected by the factors into some such central town as memphis, where they are sorted, sampled, graded, and then compressed by machinery into bales of about four hundred and forty pounds each, for export. in calculating crops, &c., a bale is taken as four hundred pounds net. the cotton then passes into the hands of the shipping agent, who brands it, and forwards it by river-steamer to one of the southern ports, or by rail to new york or boston, where it is put on board an ocean steamer for europe. the beautiful american clippers with which some of us were familiar in the days of our youth are no longer to be seen; they have been run off the face of the waters by the 'ocean liner' and the 'tramp.' arrived in liverpool, cotton enters upon a new course of adventures altogether, and engages the thoughts and energies of a wholly new set of people. [illustration: cotton plant.] [illustration] chapter v. gold and diamonds. gold.--how widely distributed--alluvial gold-mining--vein gold-mining--nuggets--treatment of ore and gold in the transvaal--story of south african gold-fields--gold-production of the world--johannesburg the golden city--coolgardie gold-fields--bayley's discovery of gold there. diamonds.--composition--diamond-cutting--diamond-mining--famous diamonds--cecil j. rhodes and the kimberley mines. in the getting of gold--the metal--for the purpose of possessing gold--as money--there has always been an element of excitement and romance. 'how quickly nature falls into revolt when gold becomes her object!' as shakespeare says: for gold the merchant ploughs the main, the farmer ploughs the manor. there is a vast difference between the way in which the precious metal is now extracted and the primitive methods which were considered perfect in the earlier part of the century. the miner of fifty years ago never dreamt of machinery, costly and magnificent, capable of crushing thousands of tons of quartz per week. he 'dollied,' or ground, his little bits of rock by means of a contrivance resembling a pestle and mortar, and it was only the very richest stone that repaid him for his labour. in fact, there was very little crushing in those days, quartz not being easily found sufficiently rich to make such work a paying concern, and it was therefore alluvial gold which was chiefly sought for. the gold-seeker having decided on the place where he was to make his first venture, provided himself with a shovel and pick and started for the 'diggings.' gold-mining was then carried on all over california, and he had his choice of many camps. [illustration: the hand-cradle method of extracting gold.] but what a wild and lawless place was california in those days! here in these gold-fields were gathered together thousands of the greatest desperadoes that the earth could boast of, and thousands of needy, if harmless, adventurers from every country in the world. fortunately with them were mixed thousands of honest hard-working men, of every condition in life, from the peer to the peasant, men who had been doing well, or fairly well, at their professions, or in their business offices at home, but for whom the attractions of this el dorado had proved too powerful. gold is perhaps the most widely and universally sought product of the earth's crust. in the very earliest writings which have come down to us gold is mentioned as an object of men's search, and as a commodity of extreme value for purposes of adornment and as a medium of exchange. the importance which it possessed in ancient times has certainly not lessened in our day. without the enormous supplies of gold produced at about the time when the steam-engine was being brought into practical use it is difficult to imagine how our commerce could have attained its present proportions; and but for the rush of immigrants to the gold-fields in the beginning of the second half of this century australia might have remained a mere convict settlement, california have become but a granary and vineyard, and the transvaal an asylum of the boers who were discontented with the cape government. on the score of geographical distribution, gold must be deemed a common metal, as common as copper, lead, or silver, and far more common than nickel, cobalt, platinum, and many others. theorists have propounded curious rules for the occurrence of gold on certain lines and belts, which have no existence but in their own fancy. scarcely a country but has rewarded a systematic search for gold, though some are more richly endowed than others, and discoveries are not always made with the same facility. the old prejudices, which made men associate gold only with certain localities hindered the development of a most promising industry even within the british shores. despite the abundant traces of ancient roman and other workings, the gold-mines of wales were long regarded as mythical; but recent extended exploitation has proved them to be rich. this is notably the case in the dolgelly district, where considerable gold occurs, both in alluvial gravels and in well-formed quartz veins traversing the lower silurian lingula beds and the intruded diabasic rocks called 'greenstone' in the geological survey. a peculiarity of the veins is the common association of magnesian minerals. the gold is about or carats fine, and often shows traces of iron sesquioxide. so long ago as some £ , worth of gold per annum was taken out of the clogan mine by imperfect methods. some samples have afforded to ounces per ton--a most remarkable yield. there are probably many veins still waiting discovery. a calculation was made in that the total gold extracted from all sources up to that date from the creation had been over , tons, with a value of about millions sterling. california, to the end of , was reckoned to have afforded over million pounds' worth, and this figure is exceeded by the australian colony of victoria. the origin of gold-bearing mineral veins is inseparably connected with that vexed question, the origin of mineral veins generally. by far the most common matrix of vein-gold is quartz or silica, but it is not the only one. to pass by the metals and metallic ores with which gold is found, there are several other minerals which serve as an envelope for the precious metal. chief among them is lime. some of the best mines of new south wales are in calcareous veins. sundry gold-reefs in queensland, new south wales, victoria, and bohemia are full of calcite. dolomite occurs in californian and manitoban mines; and apatite, aragonite, gypsum, selenite, and crystalline limestone have all proved auriferous, while in some cases neighbouring quartz has been barren. felspar in colorado and felsite magnesian slate in newfoundland carry gold. nuggets. [illustration: welcome nugget.] the physical conditions under which gold occurs are extremely variable. popularly speaking, the most familiar form is the 'nugget,' or shapeless mass of appreciable size. these, however, constitute in the aggregate but a small proportion of the gold yielded by any field, and were much more common in the early days of placer-mining in california and australia than they are now. one of the largest ever found, the 'welcome' nugget, discovered in at bakery hill, ballarat, weighed ounces dwt., and sold for £ , , whilst not a few have exceeded ounces. one found at casson hill, calaveras county, california, in , weighed pounds. the 'water moon' nugget, found in australia in , weighed pounds. the origin of these large nuggets has been a subject for discussion. like all placer or alluvial gold, they have been in part at least derived from the auriferous veins traversing the rocks whose disintegration furnished the material forming the gravel beds in which the nuggets are found. the famous nugget known as the 'welcome stranger' was discovered under singular circumstances in the dunolly district of victoria, which is one hundred and ten miles north-west of the capital, melbourne, by two cornish miners named deeson and oates. their career is remarkable, as showing how fortune, after frowning for years, will suddenly smile on the objects of her apparent aversion. these two cornishmen emigrated from england to australia by the same vessel in . they betook themselves to the far-famed sandhurst gold-field in victoria; they worked together industriously for years, and yet only contrived to make a bare livelihood by their exertions. thinking that change of place might possibly mean change of luck, they moved to the dunolly gold-field, and their spirits were considerably raised by the discovery of some small nuggets. but this was only a momentary gleam of sunshine, for their former ill-luck pursued them again, and pursued them even more relentlessly than before. the time at last came, on the morning of friday, february , , when the storekeeper with whom they were accustomed to deal refused to supply them any longer with the necessaries of life until they liquidated the debt they had already incurred. for the first time in their lives they went hungry to work, and the spectacle of these two brave fellows fighting on an empty stomach against continued ill-luck must have moved the fickle goddess to pity and repentance. gloomy and depressed as they naturally were, they plied their picks with indomitable perseverance, and while deeson was breaking up the earth around the roots of a tree, his pick suddenly and sharply rebounded by reason of its having struck some very hard substance. 'come and see what this is,' he called out to his mate. to their astonishment, 'this' turned out to be the 'welcome stranger' nugget; and thus two poverty-stricken cornish miners became in a moment the possessors of the largest mass of gold that mortal eyes ever saw, or are likely to see again. such a revolution of fortune is probably unique in the annals of the human race. almost bewildered by the unexpected treasure they had found at their feet, deeson and oates removed the superincumbent clay, and there revealed to their wondering eyes was a lump of gold, a foot long and a foot broad, and so heavy that their joint strength could scarcely move it. a dray having been procured, the monster nugget was escorted by an admiring procession into the town of dunolly, and carried into the local branch of the london chartered bank, where it was weighed, and found to contain - / ounces of gold. the bank purchased the nugget for £ , which the erstwhile so unlucky, but now so fortunate, pair of cornish miners divided equally between them. whether the storekeeper who refused them the materials for a breakfast that morning apologised for his harsh behaviour, history relates not, but the probability is that he was paid the precise amount of his debt and no more; whereas, had he acted in a more generous spirit towards two brothers in distress, he might have come in for a handsome present out of the proceeds of the 'welcome stranger.' the 'welcome' nugget above mentioned, found at bakery hill, ballarat, in victoria, on june , , was nearly as large as the one just described, its weight being ounces dwts. it was found at a depth of one hundred and eighty feet in a claim belonging to a party of twenty-four men, who disposed of it for £ , . a smaller nugget, weighing ounces, was found in close proximity to it. after being exhibited in melbourne, the 'welcome' nugget was brought to london and smelted in november . the assay showed that it contained . per cent. of gold. another valuable nugget, which was brought to london and exhibited at the crystal palace, sydenham, was the 'blanche barkly,' found by a party of four diggers on august , , at kingower, victoria, just thirteen feet beneath the surface. it was twenty-eight inches long, ten inches broad in its widest part, and weighed ounces dwts. it realised £ , s. d. a peculiarity about this nugget was the manner in which it had eluded the efforts of previous parties to capture it. three years before its discovery, a number of miners, judging the place to be a 'likely' locality, had sunk holes within a few feet of the spot where this golden mass was reposing, and yet they were not lucky enough to strike it. what a tantalising thought it must have been in after-years, when they reflected on the fact that they were once within an arm's length of £ without being fortunate enough to grasp the golden treasure! kingower, like dunolly, from which it is only a few miles distant, is a locality famous for its nuggets. one weighing ounces was actually found on the surface covered with green moss; and pieces of gold have frequently been picked up there after heavy rains, the water washing away the thin coating of earth that had previously concealed them. two men working in the kingower district in found a very fine nugget, weighing ounces, within a foot of the surface; and one of ounces was unearthed at daisy hill at a depth of only three and a half feet. a notable instance of rapid fortune was that of a party of four, who, having been but a few months in the colony of victoria, were lucky enough to alight on a nugget weighing ounces. they immediately returned to england with their prize and sold it for £ , s. d. the place where they thus quickly made their 'pile,' to use an expressive colonialism, was canadian gully, at ballarat, a very prolific nugget-ground. there was also found the 'lady hotham' nugget, called after the wife of sir charles hotham, one of the early governors of victoria. it was discovered on september , , at a depth of feet. its weight was ounces; and near it were found a number of smaller nuggets of the aggregate weight of ounces, so that the total value of the gold extracted from this one claim was no less than £ , . as showing the phenomenal richness of this locality, it may be added that on january , , a party of three brought to the surface a solid mass of gold weighing ounces; and two days afterwards, in the same tunnel, a splendid pyramidal-shaped nugget weighing ounces was discovered; the conjoint value of the two being £ . a case somewhat similar to one already described was that of the 'heron' nugget, a solid mass of gold to the amount of ounces, which was found at fryer's creek, victoria, by two young men who had only been three months in the colony. they were offered £ for it in victoria; but they preferred to bring it to england as a trophy, and there they sold it for £ . the 'victoria' nugget, as its name suggests, was purchased by the victorian government for presentation to her majesty. it was a very pretty specimen of ounces, worth £ , and was discovered at white horse gully, sandhurst. quite close to it, and within a foot of the surface, was found the 'dascombe' nugget, weighing ounces, which was also brought to london, and sold for £ . just as a book should never be judged by its cover, so mineral substances should not be estimated by superficial indications. a neglect of this salutary precept was once very nearly resulting in the loss of a valuable victorian nugget. a big lump of quartz was brought to the surface, and, as its exterior aspect presented only slight indications of the existence of gold, it was at first believed to be valueless; but as soon as the mass was broken up, there, embedded in the quartz, was a beautiful nugget of an oval shape. new south wales, the parent colony of the australian group, has produced a considerable quantity of gold, but not many notable nuggets. its most famous nugget was discovered by a native boy in june at meroo creek, near the present town of bathurst. this black boy was in the employ of dr kerr as a shepherd, and one day, whilst minding his sheep, he casually came across three detached pieces of quartz. he tried to turn over the largest of the pieces with his stick; but he was astonished to find that the lump was much heavier than the ordinary quartz with which he was familiar. bending down and looking closer, he saw a shining yellow mass lying near; and when he at last succeeded in lifting up the piece of quartz, his eyes expanded on observing that the whole of its under surface was of the same shining complexion. he probably did not realise the full value of his discovery; but he had sufficient sense to break off a few specimens and hasten to show them to his master. dr kerr set off at once to verify the discovery; and when he arrived at the spot, his most sanguine anticipations were fulfilled by the event. he found himself the possessor of ounces of gold; and he rewarded the author of his wealth, the little black boy, with a flock of sheep and as much land as was needed for their pasture. methods of mining. the more common form of alluvial gold is as grains, or scales, or dust, varying in size from that of ordinary gunpowder to a minuteness that is invisible to the naked eye. sometimes indeed the particles are so small that they are known as 'paint' gold, forming a scarcely perceptible coating on fragments of rock. when the gold is very fine or in very thin scales, much of it is lost in the ordinary processes for treating gravels, by reason of the fact that it will actually float on water for a considerable distance. from what has been already said it will be evident that gold-mining must be an industry presenting several distinct phases. these may be classed as alluvial mining, vein-mining, and the treatment of auriferous ores. in alluvial mining natural agencies, such as frost, rain, &c., have, in the course of centuries, performed the arduous tasks of breaking up the matrix which held the gold, and washing away much of the valueless material, leaving the gold concentrated into a limited area by virtue of its great specific gravity. hence it is never safe to assume that the portion of the veins remaining as such will yield anything like so great an equivalent of gold as the alluvials formed from the portion which has been disintegrated. as water has been the chief (but not the only) agent in distributing the gold and gravel constituting alluvial diggings or placers, the banks and beds of running streams in the neighbourhood of auriferous veins are likely spots for the prospector, who finds in the flowing water of the stream the means of separating the heavy grains of gold from the much lighter particles of rock, sand, and mud. often the brook is made to yield the gold it transports by the simple expedient of placing in it obstacles which will arrest the gold without obstructing the lighter matters. jason's golden fleece was probably a sheepskin which had been pegged down in the current of the phasis till a quantity of gold grains had become entangled among the wool. to this day the same practice is followed with ox-hides in brazil, and with sheepskins in ladakh, savoy, and hungary. this may be deemed the simplest form of 'alluvial mining.' if the gold deposited in holes and behind bars in the bed of the stream is to be recovered, greater preparations are needed. either the river-bed must be dredged by floating dredgers, worked by the stream or otherwise; or the gravel must be dug out for washing while the bed is left dry in hot weather; or the river must be diverted into another channel (natural or artificial) whilst its bed is being stripped. the first-named method is best adapted to large volumes of water, but probably is least productive of gold, passing over much that is buried in crevices in the solid bed-rock. the second plan is applicable only to small streams, and entails much labour. the third is most efficient, but very liable to serious interference by floods, which entail a heavy loss of plant. in searching for placers it is necessary to bear in mind that the watercourses of the country have not always flowed in the channels they now occupy. during the long periods of geological time many and vast changes have taken place in the contour of the earth's surface. hence it is not an uncommon circumstance to find beds of auriferous gravel occupying the summits of hills, which must, at the time the deposit was made, have represented the course of a stream. in the same way the remains of riverine accumulations are found forming 'terraces' or 'benches' on the flanks of hills. lacustrine beds may similarly occur at altitudes far above the reach of any existing stream, having been the work of rivers long since passed away. another form of alluvial digging occurs in western america and new zealand, where the sea washes up auriferous sands. these are known as 'ocean placers' or 'beach diggings,' and are of minor importance. whilst most placers have been formed by flowing water, some owe their origin to the action of ice, and are really glacial moraines. others are attributed to the effects of repeated frost and thaw in decomposing the rocks and causing rearrangement of the component parts. yet another class of deposits is supposed to have been accumulated by an outpouring of volcanic mud. and, finally, experts declare that some of the rich _banket_ beds of the transvaal became auriferous by the infiltration of water containing a minute proportion of gold in solution. in all cases the recovery of alluvial gold is in principle remarkably simple. it depends on the fact that the gold is about seven times as heavy, bulk for bulk, as the material forming the mass of the deposit. the medium for effecting the separation is water in motion. the apparatus in which it is applied may be a 'pan,' a 'cradle,' or a 'tom,' for operations on a very small scale, or a 'sluice,' which may be a paved ditch or a wooden 'flume' of great length, for large operations. the method is the same in all: flowing water removes the earthy matters, while obstructions of various kinds arrest the metal. as a rule, it is more advantageous to conduct the water to the material than to carry the material to water. in many cases a stream of water, conveyed by means of pipes, and acting under the influence of considerable pressure, is utilised for removing as well as washing the deposit. this method is known as 'piping' or 'hydraulicing' in america, where it has been chiefly developed, but is now forbidden in many localities, because the enormous masses of earth washed through the sluices have silted up rivers and harbours, and caused immense loss to the agricultural interest by burying the rich riverside lands under a deposit that will be sterile for many years to come. the plan permits of very economical working in large quantities, but is extremely wasteful of gold. the water-supply is of paramount importance, and has led to the construction of reservoirs and conduits, at very heavy cost, which in many places will have a permanent value long after gold-sluicing has ceased. these large water-supply works are often in the hands of distinct parties from the miners, the latter purchasing the water they use. to give an example of the results attained in alluvial mining, it may be mentioned that in a three-months' working in one victorian district in , over , tons of wash-dirt were treated for an average yield of - / grains of gold per ton, or, say, one part in , . where water cannot be obtained recourse is had to a fanning or winnowing process for separating the gold from the sand, which, however, is less efficacious. [illustration: hydraulic gold-mining.] vein-mining for gold differs but little from working any other kind of metalliferous lode. when the vein-stuff has been raised it is reduced to a pulverulent condition, to liberate the gold from the gangue. in some cases roasting is first resorted to. this causes friability, and facilitates the subsequent comminution. when the gold is in a very fine state, too, it helps it to agglomerate. but if any pyrites are present the effect is most detrimental, the gold becoming coated with a film of sulphur or a glazing of iron oxide. the powdering of the vein-stuff is usually performed in stamp batteries, which consist of a number of falling hammers. while simple in principle, the apparatus is complicated in its working parts, and is probably destined to give way to the improved forms of crushing-rolls and centrifugal roller mills, which are less costly, simpler, more efficient, and do not flatten the gold particles so much. one of the most effective is that by jordan. when the vein-stuff has been reduced to powder, it is akin to alluvial wash-dirt, and demands the same or similar contrivances for arresting the liberated gold and releasing the tailings--that is, mercury troughs, amalgamated plates, blanket strakes, &c.; but, in addition, provision is made for catching the other metalliferous constituents, such as pyrites, which almost always carry a valuable percentage of gold. these pyrites or 'sulphurets' are cleansed by concentration in various kinds of apparatus, all depending on the greater specific gravity of the portion sought to be saved. of the metals and minerals with which gold is found intimately associated in nature are the following: antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, copper, iridium, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, osmium, palladium, platinum, selenium, silver, tellurium, tungsten, vanadium, and zinc, often as an alloy in the case of palladium, platinum, selenium, silver (always), and tellurium. the methods of separation vary with the nature of the ore and the conditions of the locality. treatment of ore and gold in the transvaal. the method of treatment of ore and gold in the transvaal, the most perfect and effective known at the present time, has thus been described by arthur stenhouse: the rock when hoisted out of the mine is first assorted, the waste rock being thrown on one side and the gold-bearing ore broken into lumps by a stone-breaker. the lumps of ore now pass by gravitation and feeders through a battery (or stamp mill), each stamp of which weighs about pounds, every stamp being lifted and dropped separately by the cam shaft at a speed of about drops a minute. a stream of water is introduced, the ore is crushed into fine sand, and is carried by the water over a series of inclined copper plates, which are coated with quicksilver. the free gold in the sand at once amalgamates with the quicksilver on the plates, and the sand-laden stream continues on its course. the sand, having now passed over the plates, is carried by launders on to the concentrators, or frue vanners. these concentrators separate and retain the heavy sand (or concentrates), whilst the lighter sand is carried by gravitation through a trough (or launder) to the cyanide vats. the stream of water carrying the lighter sand empties itself into the cyanide vats, and as each successive vat is filled up, the water is allowed to drain through the sand. a solution of cyanide of potassium is then pumped up and evenly distributed (by distributors) over the sand, and dissolves the gold in its progress, leaving pure sand alone in the vat. the gold-containing liquid (or solution) having left the vat, is led into a series of boxes filled with zinc shavings, the gold separates from the liquid, and settles on the zinc shavings in the shape of a small black powder. the cyanide solution now freed from the gold runs into the solution vats, and is restrengthened and ready for further use. _gold recovery._--in the mill or battery the copper plates are scraped daily, and the amalgams (that is, quicksilver and gold) are weighed and placed in the safe in charge of the battery manager. this amalgam is generally retorted once a week, that is to say, the quicksilver is evaporated (but not lost) and the gold is left in the retort. this retorted gold is then smelted into bars. the concentrates recovered by the frue vanners are generally treated by chlorination (roasted). this process is gone through so that the iron can be separated from the gold. concentrates are sometimes treated by cyanide, but the process, if cheaper, is slow and less effective. chlorinated gold is also smelted into bars. _cyanide._--the gold from the zinc shavings is recovered by retorting. it is afterwards melted into bars and called 'cyanide gold.' slimes (or float gold) are generally conserved in a dam, and when the quantity is sufficient they are treated by chlorination, or by a solution of cyanide of potassium. after treatment all sand is still retained, and is really a small unbooked asset of the various gold-mining companies. the rand undoubtedly is the best field to-day for students who wish to acquire the details of gold recovery. in no other country has science produced such excellent results. at least per cent. of the gold in the ore can now be recovered, and scientific men from all countries are resident on the fields, and advantageous discoveries in the treatment of various ores are of almost daily occurrence. story of the south african gold-fields. there is material for the philosopher in the fact of gold-finding having occurred in connection with a part of the world to which king solomon the wise sent for supplies of gold and 'almug-trees,' for the mysterious ophir has been located in mashonaland, and the queen of sheba identified with the sabia districts, which, though not in 'the randt,' are curiously connected with the rise and progress of the mania. let us briefly trace that romantic history, merely mentioning by the way that, even in european history, african gold is no novelty, for the portuguese brought back gold-dust (and negro slaves) from cape bojador four hundred and fifty years ago. the ruins of mashonaland were discovered in by karl mauch, who also discovered the gold-field of taté on the zambesi, of which livingstone had reported that the natives got gold there by washing, being too lazy to dig for it. when karl mauch came back to civilisation, people laughed at his stories of ruined cities in the centre of africa as travellers' fables, but a number of australian gold-diggers thought his report of the taté gold-field good enough to follow up. so about , a band of them went out and set up a small battery on the taté river for crushing the quartz. this may be called the first serious attempt at gold-mining in south africa since the days of the lost races who built the cities whose ruins karl mauch discovered and which mr theodore bent has described. a natal company assisted the taté diggers with supplies, and enough gold was found to justify the floating of the limpopo mining company in london. this was in , and was practically the foundation of the 'kaffir circus,' though its founders knew it not. sir john swinburne was the moving spirit of this enterprise, and went out with a lot of expensive machinery, only to meet with a good deal of disappointment. the diamond discoveries in griqualand soon drew away the gold-seekers, who found the working expenses too heavy to leave gold-mining profitable, and for a time the taté fields were deserted. they were taken up again, however, twenty years later by a kimberley enterprise, out of which developed the taté concession and exploration company, to whom the unfortunate potentate lobengula granted a mining concession over no less than eight hundred thousand square miles of matabeleland. just as the australians were breaking ground on the taté, thomas baines, the traveller, was making up his mind to test the truth of tales of gold in the far interior, which the portuguese from da gama onwards had received from natives. in he set forth from natal with a small expedition, and in received from lobengula permission to dig for gold anywhere between the rivers gwailo and ganyona. some seventeen years later this same concession was repeated to mr rudd, and became the basis from which sprang the great chartered company of british south africa. in the course of his journey, baines encamped on the site of the present city of johannesburg, without having the least idea of the wealth beneath him, and intent only upon that he hoped to find farther inland. on the map which he prepared of this journey is marked the 'farm of h. hartley, pioneer of the gold-fields,' in the witwatersrandt district. hartley was known to the boers as 'oude baas,' and was a famous elephant-hunter, but as ignorant as baines himself that he was dwelling on the top of a gold-reef. and it was not in the witwatersrandt, foremost as it now is, that the african gold boom began. while the taté diggers were pursuing their work and baines his explorations, a natalian named button went, with an experienced californian miner named sutherland, to prospect for gold in the north-east of the transvaal. they found it near lydenburg, and companies were rapidly formed in natal to work it. such big nuggets were sent down that men hurried up, until soon there were some fifteen hundred actively at work on the lydenburg field. the operations were fairly profitable, but the outbreak of the zulu war, and then the boer war, put an end to them for some years. and now we come to one of the most romantic chapters in the golden history of south africa, a history which was marked by hard and disheartening days what time the lucky diamond-seekers at kimberley were swilling champagne, as if it were water, out of pewter beer-pots. there is more attraction for adventurers, however, in gold-seeking than in diamond-mining, for gold can be valued and realised at once, whereas diamonds may not be diamonds after all, and may be spoilt, lost, or stolen, before they can find a purchaser. it is to be noted that much as the transvaal republic has benefited from gold-mining, the boers were at first much averse to it, and threw all the obstacles they could in the way of the miners. and it was this attitude of the boers, especially towards the lydenburg pioneers, that led to the next development. one of the tributaries of the crocodile river (which flows into delagoa bay) is the kaap river, called also the river of the little crocodile, which waters a wide deep valley into which projects the spur of a hill which the dutch pioneers called de kaap (the cape). beyond this cape-like spur the hills rise to a height of three thousand feet, and carry a wide plateau covered with innumerable boulders of fantastic shape--the duivel's kantoor. the mists gather in the valley and dash themselves against de kaap like surf upon a headland; and the face of the hills is broken with caves and galleries as if by the action of the sea, but really by the action of the weather. upon the high-lying plateau of the duivel's kantoor were a number of farms, the chief of which was held by one g. p. moodie. one day a natal trader named tom m'laughlin had occasion to cross this plateau in the course of a long trek, and he picked up with curiosity some of the bits of quartz he passed, or kicked aside, on the way. on reaching natal he showed these to an old australian miner, who instantly started up-country and found more. the place was rich in gold, and machinery was as quickly as possible got up from natal, on to moodie's farm. on this farm was found the famous pioneer reef, and moodie, who at one time would gladly have parted with his farm for a few hundreds, sold his holding to a natal company for something like a quarter of a million. then there was a rush of diggers and prospectors back from the lydenburg district, and the de kaap 'boom' set in. the beginning was in , and two years later the whole kaap valley and kantoor plateau was declared a public gold-field. two brothers called barber came up and formed the centre of a settlement, now the town of barberton. every new reef sighted or vein discovered was the signal for launching a new company--not now in natal only, but also in london, to which the gold-fever began to spread (but was checked again by the de kaap reverses). some fifteen natalians formed a syndicate to 'exploit' this country on their own account. some were storekeepers in the colony, some wagon-traders, and some merely waiters on fortune. only eleven of them had any money, and they supplied the wherewithal for the other four, who were sent up to prospect and dig. after six months of fruitless toil, the money was all done, and word was sent to the four that no more aid could be sent to them. they were 'down on their luck,' when as they returned to camp on what was intended to be their last evening there, one edwin bray savagely dug his pick into the rock as they walked gloomily along. but with one swing which he made came a turn in the fortunes of the band, and of the land, for he knocked off a bit of quartz so richly veined with gold as to betoken the existence of something superexcellent in the way of a 'reef.' all now turned on the rock with passionate eagerness, and in a very short time pegged out what was destined to be known as 'bray's golden hole.' but the syndicate were by this time pretty well cleaned out, and capital was needed to work the reef, and provide machinery, &c. so a small company was formed in natal under the name of the sheba reef gold-mining company, divided into , shares of £ each, the capital of £ , being equitably allotted among the fifteen members of the syndicate. upon these shares they raised enough money on loan to pay for the crushing of tons of quartz, which yielded eight ounces of gold to the ton, and at once provided them with working capital. within a very few months the mine yielded , ounces of gold, and the original shares of £ each ran up by leaps and bounds until they were eagerly competed for at £ each. within a year, the small share-capital (£ , ) of the original syndicate was worth in the market a million and a half sterling. this wonderful success led to the floating of a vast number of hopeless or bogus enterprises, and worthless properties were landed on the shoulders of the british public at fabulous prices. yet, surrounded as it was by a crowd of fraudulent imitators, the great sheba mine has continued as one of the most wonderfully productive mines in south africa. millions have been lost in swindling and impossible undertakings in de kaap, but the sheba mountain, in which was bray's golden hole, has really proved a mountain of gold. the de kaap gold-field had sunk again under a cloud of suspicion, by reason of the company-swindling and share-gambling which followed upon the sheba success, when another startling incident gave a fresh impetus to the golden madness. among the settlers in the transvaal in the later seventies were two brothers called struben, who had had some experience, though not much success, with the gold-seekers at lydenburg, and who took up in the farm of sterkfontein in the witwatersrandt district. while attending to the farm they kept their eyes open for gold, and one day one of the brothers came upon gold-bearing conglomerates, which they followed up until they struck the famous 'confidence reef.' this remarkable reef at one time yielded as much as a thousand ounces of gold and silver to the ton of ore, and then suddenly gave out, being in reality not a 'reef' but a 'shoot.' there were other prospectors in the district, but none had struck it so rich as the strubens, who purchased the adjacent farm to their own, and set up a battery to crush quartz, both for themselves and for the other gold-hunters. the farms were worth little in those days, being only suitable for grazing; but when prospectors and company promoters began to appear, first by units, then by tens, and then by hundreds, the boers put up their prices, and speedily realised for their holdings ten and twenty times what they would have thought fabulous a year or two previously. and it was on one of these farms that the city of johannesburg was destined to arise as if under a magician's wand, from a collection of huts, in eight years, to a city covering an area three miles by one and a half, with suburbs stretching many miles beyond, with handsome streets and luxurious houses, in the very heart of the desert. [illustration: prospecting for gold.] it was one sunday evening in that the great 'find' was made which laid the base of the prosperity of the johannesburg-to-be. a farm-servant of the brothers struben went over to visit a friend at a neighbouring farm, and as he trekked homeward in the evening, knocked off a bit of rock, the appearance of which led him to take it home to his employer. it corresponded with what struben had himself found in another part, and following up both leads, revealed what became famous as the main reef, which was traced for miles east and west. a lot of the 'conglomerate' was sent on to kimberley to be analysed, and a thoughtful observer of the analysis there came to the conclusion that there must be more good stuff where that came from. so he mounted his horse and rode over to barberton, where he caught a 'coach' which dropped him on the rand, as it is now called. there he quietly acquired the langlaagte farm for a few thousands, which the people on the spot thought was sheer madness on his part. but his name was j. b. robinson, and he is now known in the 'kaffir circus' and elsewhere as one of the 'gold kings' of africa. he gradually purchased other farms, and in a year or two floated the well-known langlaagte company with a capital of £ , , to acquire what had cost him in all about £ , . in five years this company turned out gold to the value of a million, and paid dividends to the amount of £ , . the robinson company, formed a little later to acquire and work some other lots, in five years produced gold to the value of one and a half million, and paid to its shareholders some £ , in dividends. with these discoveries and successful enterprises the name and fame of 'the rand' were established, and for years the district became the happy hunting-ground of the financiers and company promoters. the rand, or witwatersrandt, is the topmost plateau of the high veldt of the transvaal, at the watershed of the limpopo and the vaal; and on the summit of the plateau is the gold-city of johannesburg, some five thousand seven hundred feet above the sea. soon the principal feature in johannesburg was the stock exchange, and the main occupation of the inhabitants was the buying and selling of shares in mining companies, many of them bogus, at fabulous prices. the inevitable reaction came, until once resplendent 'brokers' could hardly raise the price of a 'drink;' though, to be sure, drinks and everything else cost a small fortune. to-day the city is the centre of a great mining industry, and the roar of the 'stamps' is heard all round it, night and day. from a haunt of gamblers and 'wild-catters,' it has grown into a comparatively sedate town of industry, commerce, and finance, and the gold-fever which maddened its populace has been transferred (not wholly, perhaps) to london and paris. the stock exchange of johannesburg sprang into existence in , and before the end of that year some sixty-eight mining companies were on its list, with an aggregate nominal capital of £ , , . during the 'boom' in the market for mining shares in london and paris, the market value of the shares of the group of south african companies was in the aggregate over £ , , ! it is true that these are not all gold-mining shares, but the great majority are of companies either for or in connection with gold-mining. in the transvaal produced only about , ounces of gold; in the output was , , ounces; in it was , , ounces. just before the californian discoveries--namely, in , the world's annual output of gold was only about £ , , . then came the american and australian booms, raising the quantity produced in to the value of £ , , . after there was a gradual decline to less than £ , , in . this was the lowest period, and then the de kaap and other discoveries in africa began to raise the total slowly again. between and the el callao mine in south america and the mount morgan in australia helped greatly to enlarge the output, and then in the 'randt' began to yield of its riches. the following are the estimates of a mining-expert of the world's gold production during , £ , , ; , £ , , ; , £ , , ; , £ , , ; , £ , , ; , £ , , . as to the future of the south african sources of supply, it is estimated by messrs hatch and chalmers, mining engineers, who have published an exhaustive work on the subject, that before the end of the present century the witwatersrandt mines alone will be yielding gold to the value of £ , , annually; that early next century they will turn out £ , , annually; and that the known resources of the district are equal to a total production within the next half century of £ , , , of which, probably, £ , , will be clear profit over the cost of mining. these estimates are considered excessive by some authorities; nevertheless it is to be remembered that the productivity of deep level mining has not yet been properly tested, that even the transvaal itself has not yet been thoroughly exploited, and that there is every reason to believe that matabeleland and mashonaland are also rich in gold. but we have not to look to africa alone. in australia, besides the regular sources of supply which are being industriously developed, new deposits are being opened up in western australia at such a rate that some people predict that the 'cinderella of the colonies' will soon become the richest, or one of the richest, members of the family. the following shows the contributions towards the world's gold supply on the basis of : united states £ , , australasia , , south africa , , british columbia and south america , , russia , , other countries , , ----------- £ , , johannesburg--the golden. the railway journey from capetown to johannesburg of about three days is through a seemingly endless sandy country, with range succeeding range of distant mountains, all alike, and strikes a greater sense of vastness and desolation than an expanse of naked ocean itself. first and second class have sleeping accommodation, the third being kept for blacks and the lowest class dutch. well, we reach johannesburg, which has not even yet, with all its wealth, a covered-in railway station; whilst by way of contrast in the progress of the place, just across the road is a huge club, with tennis, cricket, football, and cycling grounds, gymnasium, military band, halls for dancing, operas, and oratorios, &c., which will bear comparison with any you please. its members are millionaires and clerks, lodgers and their lodging-house keepers, all equal there; for we have left behind caste, cliques, and cathedral cities, and are cosmopolitan, or, in a word, colonial. an institution like this gives us the state of society there in a nutshell, for, as wages are very high, any one in anything like lucrative employment can belong to it; and the grades in society are determined by money, and money only. johannesburg, the london of south africa, which was a barren veldt previous to , is now the centre of some one hundred thousand inhabitants, and increasing about as fast as bricks and mortar can be obtained. it is situated directly on top of the gold, and on looking down from the high ground above, it looks to an english eye like a huge, long-drawn-out mass of tin sheds, with its painted iron mine-chimneys running in a straight line all along the quartz gold-reef as far as you can see in either direction. the largest or main reef runs for thirty miles uninterruptedly, gold-bearing and honeycombed with mines throughout. this, even were it alone, could speak for the stability and continued prosperity of the transvaal gold trade. in a mail-steamer arriving from the cape there is sometimes as much as between £ , and £ , worth of gold, and the newspapers show that usually about £ , worth is consigned by each mail-boat. as we enter the town we find fine and well-planned streets, crossed at places with deep gutters--gullies rather--to carry off the water, which is often in the heavy summer rains deeper than your knees. crossing these at fast trot, the driver never drawing rein, the novice is shot about, in his white-covered two-wheeled cab with its large springs, like a pea in a bladder. indeed, one marvels at the daintily dressed _habitué_ of the place being swung through similarly, quite unconcerned, and without rumpling a frill. we pass fine public buildings, very high houses and shops--somewhat jerry-built, it is true--but now being added to, or replaced by larger and more solid buildings. indeed, bricks cannot be made fast enough for the demand, both there and in some of the outlying transvaal towns where the 'gold boom' is on. there are lofty and handsome shops, with most costly contents, which can vie with london or paris. let us watch from the high-raised stoep outside the post-office, looking down over the huge market-square. what strikes us first are the two-wheeled two-horse cabs with white hoods, recklessly driven by malays in the inseparable red fez, and these with the fast-trotting mule or horse wagons show the pace at which business or pleasure is followed. as a contrast comes the lumbering ox-wagon with ten or twelve span of oxen, a little kaffir boy dragging and directing the leading couple by a thong round the horns, and the unamiable dutch farmer revolving around, swearing, and using his fifteen-foot whip to keep the concern in motion at all. then passes a body of some two hundred prisoners, kaffirs, and a few whites leading, marched in fours by some dozen white-helmeted police and four or five mounted men, all paraded through the main streets, innocent and guilty alike, to the court-house, and many escaping _en route_ as occasion offers. well-dressed english men of business, and professional men, women in handsome and dainty costumes, hustle jews of all degrees of wealth; carelessly dressed miners, and chaps in rags come in from prospecting or up-country, with the dutchman everywhere in his greasy soft felt and blue tattered puggaree, chinese shopkeepers, italians, poles, germans; whilst outside in the roadways flows a continual stream of kaffirs in hats and cast-off clothing of every sort imagination can picture, who are not allowed by law to walk upon the pavement. gold-fields of coolgardie. it was at one time generally believed that the unexplored regions of the vast eastern division of western australia consisted merely of sandy desert or arid plains, producing at most scrub and spinifex or 'poison plants.' in recent years, however, a faith that the interior would prove rich in various mineral resources began to dawn, and rose in proportion as each report of a new 'find' was made to the government. but only a few ventured to cherish a hope that tracts of fertile country were lying beyond their ken, awaiting the advent of the explorer whose verdict upon the nature of the soil, or possibilities of obtaining water, would result in settlement, and prosperity, and civilisation. by the opening up of the country surrounding coolgardie--situated at a distance of three hundred and sixty-eight miles inland from fremantle, the port of perth--it has been proved that not only thousands of square miles of auriferous country are contained in these once despised 'back blocks,' but also large areas of rich pasturage and forest-lands. at coolgardie the country is undulating; and in the distance mount burgess makes a bold and striking feature in the landscape, isolated from the neighbouring low hills. a few miles to the south lies the vigorous little town, surrounded by a halo of tents. it is situated thirty-one degrees south, one hundred and twenty-one degrees east; the climate is therefore temperate, though very hot during the dry season. it has been judiciously laid out, and promises to be one of the prettiest inland towns in the colony. in the principal street all is bustle and activity: teams arriving from southern cross; camels unloading or being driven out by picturesque afghans; diggers and prospectors setting out for distant 'rushes;' black piccaninnies rolling in the dust, or playing with their faithful kangaroo dogs--their dusky parents lolling near with characteristic indolence--and men of every nation and colour under heaven combine to give the scene a character all its own. in march coolgardie was connected by rail with perth. there are good stores, numerous thriving hotels; and a hospital has lately been started in charge of two trained nurses. the spiritual needs of the population are supplied by wesleyan services and salvation army meetings, and other agencies. as yet the public buildings are not architecturally imposing; the principal one is a galvanised-iron shed which does duty for a post-office. when the mail arrives, the two officials, with the aid of an obliging trooper, vainly endeavour to sort the letters and newspapers quickly enough to satisfy the crowd, all eager for news from home. during the hot dry months, coolgardie has been almost cut off from the outside world. it was found necessary to limit the traffic between it and southern cross, owing to the great scarcity in the 'soaks' and wells along the road. condensers have been erected at various stations close to the salt lakes, and the water is retailed by the gallon; by this means the road can be kept open till the wet season sets in. prospectors are energetically exploring the country in every direction around coolgardie, and from all sides come glowing accounts of the quality of the land, which, besides being auriferous, is undoubtedly suitable for agricultural and pastoral purposes. to the eastward lie many thousands of acres of undulating pasture-land, wooded like a park with morrell, sandalwood, wild peach, zimlet-wood, salmon-gum, and other valuable timbers. the soil is a rich red loam, which with cultivation should equal the best wheat-growing districts of victoria. so green and abundant is the grass that it has been described as looking like an immense wheat-field before the grain has formed. several kinds of grass are to be found: the fine kangaroo variety; a species of wild oats; and a coarse jointed grass, all of which stock eat with relish, and thrive, it is said. a water-supply department has been formed by the western australian government, and measures are being taken to obtain supplies of artesian water, as well as to construct a system of reservoirs and dams on a large scale. mr bayley's discovery of coolgardie might serve as an apt illustration of the 'early-bird' theory. while on a prospecting expedition in september , he went one auspicious morning to look after his horse before breakfast. a gleaming object lying on the ground caught his eye. it was a nugget, weighing half an ounce. by noon, he, with his mate, had picked up twenty ounces of alluvial gold. in a couple of weeks they had a store of two hundred ounces. it was on a sunday afternoon that they struck the now world-famed reward claim, and in a few hours they had picked off fifty ounces. next morning they pegged out their prospecting area. but whilst thus profitably employed, they were unpleasantly surprised by the arrival of three miners who had followed up their tracks from southern cross. the discoverers worked on during the day at the cap of the reef, and by such primitive methods as the 'dolly-pot,' or pestle and mortar, easily obtained three hundred ounces of the precious metal. the unwelcome visitors stole two hundred ounces of the gold, a circumstance which obliged them to report their 'find' sooner than they would otherwise have done, fearing that, if they delayed, the thieves would do so instead, and claim the reward from the government. on condition that they would not molest his mate during his absence, mr bayley agreed to say nothing about their having robbed him, and set out on his long ride to southern cross. he took with him five hundred and fifty-four ounces of gold with which to convince the warden that his discovery was a genuine one. the field was declared open after his interview with the authorities. diamonds. the diamond is a natural form of crystallised carbon, highly valued as a precious stone, but of much less value than the ruby. the lustre of the diamond is peculiar to itself, and hence termed 'adamantine.' in a natural condition, however, the surface often presents a dull, lead-gray, semi-metallic lustre. the high refractive and dispersive powers of the diamond produce, when the stone is judiciously cut, a brilliancy and 'fire' unequalled by any other stone. a large proportion of the incident light is in a well-cut diamond reflected from the inner surface of the stone. the diamond, especially when coloured, is highly phosphorescent, that is to say, after exposure to brilliant illumination it emits the rays which it has absorbed, and thus becomes self-luminous in the dark. its excessive hardness serves to distinguish the diamond from other gem-stones: any stone which readily scratches ruby and sapphire must be a diamond. notwithstanding its hardness the diamond is brittle, and hence the absurdity of the ancient test which professed to distinguish the diamond by its withstanding a heavy blow struck by a hammer when placed on an anvil. in recent years, highly refined researches on this subject have been made by dumas, stas, roscoe, and friedel, all tending to prove that the diamond is practically pure carbon. chemists have generally experimented, for the sake of economy, with impure specimens, and have thus obtained on combustion a considerable amount of ash, the nature of which has not been well ascertained. it has been shown, however, that the purer the diamond the smaller is the proportion of ash left on its combustion. [illustration: square-cut brilliant.] [illustration: round-cut brilliant.] [illustration: rose-cut diamond.] the art of cutting and polishing the diamond is said to have been discovered in by louis de berguem of bruges. as now practised, the stone is first, if necessary, cleaved or split, and then 'bruted' or rubbed into shape. the faces of the stone thus 'cut' are ground and polished on flat metal discs, fed with diamond dust and oil, and revolving with great rapidity by steam-power. antwerp comes first, then amsterdam as the chief home of this industry, and the trade is chiefly in the hands of jews; but diamond cutting and polishing are also now extensively carried on in london, antwerp, &c. the common form of the diamond is either the _brilliant_ or the _rose cut_. the brilliant resembles two truncated cones, base to base, the edge of the junction being called the _girdle_, the large plane on the top is the _table_, and the small face at the base the _culet_; the sides are covered with symmetrical facets. the rose has a flat base, with sides formed of rows of triangular facets rising as a low pyramid or hemisphere; but this form of diamond is daily becoming less fashionable, and is therefore of comparatively little value. although the term 'carat' is applied to diamonds as well as to gold, it does not mean the same thing. used with regard to the metal, it expresses quality or fineness-- -carat being pure gold; and -carat equal to coined gold. but applied to the diamond, carat means actual weight, and - / carats are equal to one ounce troy. india was formerly the only country which yielded diamonds in quantity, and thence were obtained all the great historical stones of antiquity. the chief diamond-producing districts are those in the madras presidency, on the kistna and godavari rivers, commonly though improperly termed the golconda region; in the central provinces, including the mines of sumbulpur; and in bundelkhand, where the panna mines are situated. at present the diamond production of india is insignificant. it is notable, however, that in a fine diamond, weighing - / carats, was found near wajra karur, in the bellary district, madras. the stone was cut into a brilliant weighing - / carats, and is known as the 'gor-do-norr.' brazil was not regarded as a diamond-yielding country until , when the true nature of certain crystals found in the gold washings of the province of minas geraes was first detected. diamonds occur not only in this province, but in bahia, goyaz, matto grosso, and paraná. the geological conditions under which the mineral occurs have of late years been carefully studied by professors derby, gorceix, and chatrian. the diamonds are found in the sands and gravels of river-beds, associated with alluvial gold, specular iron ore, rutile, anatase, topaz, and tourmaline. in an extraordinary diamond was found by a negress in the river bogagem, in minas geraes. it weighed - / carats, and was cut into a brilliant of perfect water, weighing carats. this brilliant, known as the 'star of the south,' was sold to the gaikwar of baroda for £ , . both the indian and the brazilian diamond-fields have of late years been eclipsed by the remarkable discoveries of south africa. although it was known in the last century that diamonds occurred in certain parts of south africa, the fact was forgotten, and when in they were found near hopetown, the discovery came upon the world as a surprise. a traveller named o'reilly had rested himself at a farm in the hopetown district, when his host, a man named niekerk, brought him some nice-looking stones which he had got from the river. o'reilly, when examining the pebbles, saw a diamond, which afterwards realised £ . niekerk afterwards bought a diamond from a native for £ which realised £ , . the principal mines are situated in griqualand west, but diamonds are also worked in the orange river free state, as at jagersfontein. the stones were first procured from the 'river diggings' in the vaal and orange rivers. these sources have occasionally yielded large stones; one found in at waldeck's plant on the vaal weighed - / carats, and yielded a fine pale yellow brilliant, known as the 'stewart.' [illustration: kimberley diamond-mine.] it was soon found that the diamonds of south africa were not confined to the river gravels, and 'dry diggings' came to be established in the so-called 'pans.' the principal mines are those of kimberley, de beer's, du toit's pan, and bultfontein. the land here, previously worth only a few pence per acre, soon rose to a fabulous price. at these localities the diamonds occur in a serpentinous breccia, filling pipes or 'chimneys,' generally regarded as volcanic ducts, which rise from unknown depths and burst through the surrounding shales. the 'blue ground,' or volcanic breccia containing fragments of various rocks cemented by a serpentinous paste, becomes altered by meteoric agents as it approaches the surface, and is converted into 'yellow earth.' at kimberley the neighbouring schists, or 'reefs,' are associated with sheets of a basaltic rock, which are pierced by the pipes. about white men are employed in the industry, and about blacks, who earn, on an average, about £ a week. in the year the production of the principal mines was over £ , , . the production for was somewhat less, while the total value of diamonds exported from to was about £ , , . the great number of large stones found in the mines of south africa, as compared with those of india and brazil, is a striking peculiarity. in the earliest days of african mining a diamond of about carats was obtained from a boer. this stone, when cut, yielded a splendid colourless brilliant of - / carats, known as the 'star of south africa,' or as the 'dudley,' since it afterwards became the property of the countess of dudley, at a cost of £ , . some of the african stones are 'off coloured'--that is, of pale yellow or brown tints; but a large gem of singular purity was found at kimberley in . this is the famous 'blue-white' diamond of carats, known from the name of its possessor as the 'porter rhodes.' at the de beer's mine was found, in , the famous stone which was shown at the paris exposition. it weighed - / carats in the rough, and - / carats when cut. it measured one inch and seven-eighths in greatest length, and was about an inch and a half square. even larger than this remarkable stone is a diamond found in the jagersfontein mine in , and named the 'jagersfontein excelsior.' this is now the largest and most valuable diamond in the world. it is of blue-white colour, very fine quality, and measures three inches at the thickest part. the gross weight of this unique stone was no less than - / carats (or about - / oz.), and the following are its recorded dimensions: length, - / inches; greatest width, inches; smallest width, - / inches; extreme girth in width, - / inches; extreme girth in length, - / inches. it is impossible to say what is the value of so phenomenal a gem. we do not know that an estimate has been even attempted; but it may easily be half a million if the cutting is successful. the diamond has, however, a black flaw in the centre. it is the property of a syndicate of london diamond merchants. the native who found it evaded the overseer, and ran to headquarters to secure the reward, which took the form of £ in gold and a horse and cart. previous to this discovery, the most famous of the african diamonds was, perhaps, the 'pam' or 'jagersfontein' stone, not so much from its size, as because the queen had ordered it to be sent to osborne for her inspection with a view to purchase, when the untimely death of the duke of clarence put an end to the negotiations. the 'pam' is only of carats now; but it weighed carats before being cut, and is a stone of remarkable purity and beauty. its present value is computed at about twenty-five thousand pounds sterling. the most valuable diamond in the world is (if it is a diamond) the famous 'braganza' gem belonging to portugal. it weighed in the rough state carats, and was valued at upwards of - / millions sterling. it has long been known that diamonds occur in australia, but hitherto the australian stones have been all of small size, and it is notable that these are much more difficult to cut, being harder than other diamonds. although victoria and south australia have occasionally yielded diamonds, it is new south wales that has been the principal producer. the chief diamond localities have been near mudgee, on the cudjegong river, and near bingera, on the river horton. borneo also yields diamonds. the stone known as the 'matan' is said to have been found in in the landak mines, near the west coast of borneo. it is described as being an egg-shaped stone, indented on one side, and weighing, in its uncut state, carats. great doubt, however, exists as to the genuineness of this stone, and the dutch experts who examined it a few years ago pronounced it to be simply rock-crystal. among other diamond localities may be mentioned the ural mountains and several of the united states. the largest diamond yet recorded from north america was found at manchester, chesterfield county, virginia. it weighed - / carats, and yielded, when cut, a brilliant known as the 'ou-i-nur,' which weighed, however, only - / carats. a few special diamonds, from their exceptional size or from the circumstances of their history, deserve notice. of all the great diamonds, the 'koh-i-nur' is perhaps the most interesting. while tradition carries it back to legendary times, it is known from history that the sultan ala-ed-din in acquired this gem on the defeat of the rajah of malwa, whose family had possessed it for many generations. in it passed by conquest to humaiun, the son of sultan baber. when aurungzebe subsequently possessed this stone, he used it as one of the eyes of the peacock adorning his famous peacock throne. on the conquest of mohammed shah by nadir shah in , the great diamond was not found among the delhi treasures, but learning that mohammed carried it concealed in his turban, nadir, on the grand ceremony of reinstating the mogul emperor on the throne at the conclusion of peace, offered to exchange turbans, in token of reconciliation, and by this ruse obtained possession of the gem. it was when nadir first saw the diamond on unfolding the turban, that he exclaimed 'koh-i-nur,' or 'mountain of light,' the name by which the gem has ever since been known. at nadir's death it passed to his unfortunate son, shah rokh, by whom it was ultimately given to ahmed shah, the founder of the durani afghan empire. by ahmed it was bequeathed to his son, taimur shah; and from his descendants it passed, after a series of romantic incidents, to runjit-singh. on the death of runjit, in , the diamond was preserved in the treasury of lahore, and on the annexation of the punjab by the british in , when the property of the state was confiscated to the east india company, it was stipulated that the koh-i-nur should be presented to the queen of england. it was consequently taken in charge by lord dalhousie, who sent it to england in . after the great exhibition of , where it had been exhibited, it was injudiciously re-cut in london by voorsanger, a skilful workman from messrs coster's factory at amsterdam. the re-cutting occupied days of hours each, and the weight of the stone was reduced from - / to - / carats. the form is that of a shallow brilliant, too thin to display much fire. according to lady burton, it is believed to bring ill-luck to its possessor. the 'nizam' is the name of a stone said to have been found in the once famous diamond-mines of golconda. sir william hunter, however, gives us to understand that there were really no diamond-mines at golconda, and that the place won its name by cutting the stones found on the eastern borders of the nizam's territory, and on a ridge of sandstone running down to the rivers kistna and godavery, in the madras presidency. however that may have been, both regions are now unproductive of valuable stones. the 'nizam' diamond is said to weigh carats, and to be worth £ , ; but we are unable to verify the figures. the 'great table' is another indian diamond, the present whereabouts of which is not known. it is said to weigh - / carats, and that , rupees (or at par, £ , ) was once refused for it. the 'great table' is sometimes known as 'tavernier's' diamond. it was the first blue diamond ever seen in europe, and was brought, in , from india by tavernier. it was sold to louis xiv. in , and was described then as of a beautiful violet colour; but it was flat and badly cut. at what date it was re-cut we know not, but, as possessed by louis le grand, it weighed only - / carats. it was seized during the revolution, and was placed in the garde meuble; but it disappeared, and has not been traced since. some fifty years later, mr henry hope purchased a blue diamond weighing some - / carats (now known as the 'hope' diamond), which it was conjectured may have been part of the 'great table.' it is preserved in the green vaults, dresden, and is regarded as one of the most superb coloured diamonds known. another famous indian diamond is the 'great mogul,' which appears to have been found about , in the kollur mine, on the kistna. it was seen by the french jeweller tavernier at the court of aurungzebe in , and is described as a round white rose-cut stone of carats. its subsequent history is unknown, and it is probable that at the sacking of delhi by nadir shah in it was stolen and broken up. some authorities have sought to identify the great mogul with the koh-i-nur, and others with the orloff. [illustration: some of the principal diamonds of the world: _a_, great mogul; _b_, star of the south; _c_, koh-i-nur; _d_, regent; _e_, orloff. all actual size.] the 'orloff' is an indian stone which was purchased at amsterdam in by prince orloff for catharine ii. of russia. the stone at one time formed the eye of an idol in a temple in the island of seringham, in mysore, whence it is said to have been stolen by a french soldier, who sold it to an english trader for £ . the englishman brought it home, and sold it for £ , to a jew, who passed it on at a profit to an armenian merchant. from the armenian it was acquired, either by catharine of russia, or, for her, by one of her admirers, for £ , and a pension. it is now valued at £ , . it weighs carats, is about the size of a pigeon's egg, and is mounted in the imperial sceptre of the czar. other famous stones are: the 'austrian yellow,' belonging to the crown of austria, weighing - / carats, and valued at £ , ; the 'cumberland,' belonging to the crown of hanover, weighing carats, and worth at least £ , ; the 'english dresden,' belonging to the gaikwár of baroda, weighing - / carats, and valued at £ , ; the 'nassak'--which the marquis of westminster wore on the hilt of his sword at the birthday ceremonial immediately after the queen's accession--which weighs - / carats, and is valued at £ , . the 'regent' is a famous diamond preserved among the national jewels in paris. it was found in , at the parteal mines, on the kistna, by a slave, who escaped with it to the coast, where he sold it to an english skipper, by whom he was afterwards treacherously killed. thomas pitt, grandfather of the first earl of chatham, at that time governor of fort st george, purchased the stone, and had it re-cut in london, whence it is often known as the 'pitt.' its original weight was carats, but it was reduced in cutting to - / ; the result, however, was a brilliant of fine water and excellent proportions. pitt sold it in , through the financier john law, to the duke of orleans, then regent of france during the minority of louis xv. the price paid was £ , , and its value has since been estimated at £ , . the stone is now among the french jewels in the museum of paris. the large 'sancy' is an historical diamond, about which many contradictory stories have been told. it appears that the sancy was an indian stone, purchased about by m. de sancy, french ambassador at constantinople. it passed temporarily into the possession of henry iii. and henry iv. of france, and was eventually sold by sancy to queen elizabeth of england. by james ii. it was disposed of to louis xiv., about , for £ , . at the beginning of the th century it passed to the demidoff family in russia, and by them it was sold in to sir jamsetjee jeejeebhoy. in it was again in the market, the price asked being £ , . the russian diamond, 'moon of mountains,' is set in the imperial sceptre, weighs carats, and is valued at , roubles, or, say, about £ , . the 'mountain of splendour,' belonging to the shah of persia, weighs carats, and is valued at £ , . in the persian regalia there is said to be another diamond, called the 'abbas mirza,' weighing carats, and worth £ , . the hon. cecil j. rhodes, the diamond king. we get a good insight into the character of mr rhodes from all his utterances and public acts; and an anecdote about him when busy with the work that made him famous as the 'diamond king,' the amalgamation of the diamond-mines, shows up the man. he was looking at a map of africa hung in the office of a kimberley merchant. after looking at it closely for some time, he placed his hand over a large part of southern and central africa, right across the continent, and turning to a friend at his side, said, 'there, all that british! that is my dream.' 'i give you ten years,' said his friend. when he was in power at the cape, and the times were ripe, his dream was realised, and the shield of the great white queen was thrown over north and south zambesia, and railway and telegraphic communication was being pushed on towards the equator. the right hon. cecil john rhodes is the fourth son of a clergyman, of bishop stortford, where he was born in . he was educated at the local school, but his health being far from good, he was sent to natal to join his elder brother, a planter there. both brothers made for kimberley at the first diamond rush, cecil going into partnership as a diamond digger with mr c. d. rudd, who had also gone out to south africa for his health. while at kimberley, young rhodes read sufficiently to enable him to pass at oxford. his crowning achievement of the union of the de beers company and the kimberley central company was not the work of a day, but it was accomplished largely through mr rhodes's financial skill, and became known as the de beers consolidated mines, of which he was elected chairman and one of the life governors. the capital valuation of the company now stands at about twenty-five millions. regular dividends of twenty-five per cent. have been paid for some years. it was natural that an influential man like mr rhodes should be sent to the cape parliament, and in he rose to be a member of the cabinet. another successful attempt at company promoting was his association with mr rudd in the transvaal gold-fields. at first their mines on the witwatersrandt did not turn out well; but it is long since they began to pay enormously, the net profits of being over two millions, while the market value of the concern is ten millions sterling. several gold prospectors had dealings with and concessions from lobengula, in matabeleland, before mr rudd and mr rhodes joined forces in and secured mineral concessions covering the whole of his kingdom. then came the launching of the chartered company, incorporated in october , with a capital of one million, which has since been raised to two and a half millions. then mashonaland was prospected, and forts built and roads were made, and the telegraph was carried on to salisbury, giving connection with the cape. when it was found that the settlers could not live in peace with lobengula, a force under dr jameson, the administrator, broke the power of the matabele in the autumn of . the only serious affair was the deaths of forty-nine men of wilson's column. since that time the country has been slowly settled, and the railway is being pushed on to buluwayo. mr rhodes has interested himself also in pushing on the telegraph system towards the great central african lakes, by way of zumbo, in the central african protectorate, under the capable rule of sir h. h. johnston. matabeleland is an excellent pastoral country, and if a sufficient number of agricultural emigrants could be got to remain and develop the territory, its future would be secured. unfortunately, this class of emigrant has hitherto been lacking in south africa--the gold and diamond fields have been too tempting--but in time, doubtless, the slow and sure sort of emigrant will find it to his interest to develop the land. the residence of mr rhodes is at groote schnur, rondebosch, near cape town. in the twelve hundred acres which surround the house there are charming views, and a natural zoo, upon which he is said to have spent at least one hundred thousand pounds. he has thrown this place open to pleasure-seekers from the cape for all time coming. he enjoys riding over his estate, and watching the visitors enjoying themselves. lord salisbury once termed him a 'remarkable man.' this is well borne out by all who have come in contact with him. 'he presents,' says the _african review_, 'a character that is well worthy of analysis--that is a curious compound of generosity and almost repellent cynicism, of disinterestedness and ambition, of large aims that are dependent on things that are essentially trivial; the keen, hard-tempered character of a self-made man who has carved a career out of kimberley finance and cape colonial politics.... of giant force of mind and will, with practised judgment that nearly amounts to intuitive perception, with a grasp of cause and effect that is founded upon a microscopic observation of the laws of nature, he is decidedly a big man. he is a rarely accurate critic of his fellow-mortals.' dr jameson prophesied, when in this country in , that the annexation and occupation of matabeleland and mashonaland meant more than mere annexation of territory, but would lead to a commercial union, amalgamation, or federation of south african states. in rhodesia, a country nearly as large as europe, white men and women could live, and white children could be reared in health and vigour. gold was to be found there, and coal and iron. the country has been settled since the power of lobengula was broken, and the road and railway are doing their beneficent work. the revenue for nearly balanced the expenditure. when mashonaland and matabeleland needed the railway, mr rhodes was still the key of the position. 'krüger will not let us take the kimberley line into his country? very well,' in effect said mr rhodes, 'we will take it round him, and beyond, on the way to the transvaal of the zambesi.' and so the matter was arranged between the imperial and colonial government and the chartered company. so much land was to be given for taking the line to vryburg, so much to mafeking, in connection with the main trunk line from the cape. dr jameson's raid into transvaal territory, early in , ostensibly taken for the purpose of helping the people of johannesburg, who complained of their treatment by the boer government, and the complications which ensued, led to the resignation of mr rhodes as a member of the cape government, when he turned his attention to the development of rhodesia, the new and promising territory, which has been so named after him. [illustration: african village.] [illustration] chapter vi. big guns, small-arms, and ammunition. woolwich arsenal--enfield small-arms factory--lord armstrong and the elswick works--testing guns at shoeburyness--hiram s. maxim and the maxim machine gun--the colt automatic gun--ironclads--submarine boats. woolwich arsenal. since early days, woolwich has been an important centre for warships and war-material. here ships were built and launched when england first began to have a navy of specially constructed men-of-war, for henry viii. established the woolwich dockyard, and also appointed commissioners of the navy, and formed the navy office. some of the earliest three-deckers, or, as we may almost call them, five-deckers, were built at this dockyard; and of these the most famous was the _great harry_, so named after the king, which was launched here in . for the period, the ship was a large one, being of a thousand tons burden; though we should not think much of her size now, when we have ironclads of over eleven thousand tons. there are models of her in the greenwich naval museum, which is not far from woolwich; and a curious lofty wooden castle she is, rising far up above the water-line, and offering a fair target, if the cannon of those days had any accuracy. [illustration: the _great harry_.] on june , , queen elizabeth came down to woolwich to witness the launch of a large ship called after her name. in a ship half as large again as the _great harry_ was launched at woolwich. she was the marvel of her days, and though named the _royal sovereign_, was more often called the _golden devil_, from the amount of mischief she wrought in the dutch fleet. her guns were probably of small size; but she carried enough of them on her three flush-decks, her forecastle, her half-deck, her quarter-deck, and in her round-house; for in her lower tier were sixty ports; in the middle, thirty; in the third, twenty-six; in her forecastle were twelve; in her half-deck were fourteen. she was decorated in the emblematical style of the time with gilding and carvings; and these designs were the work of one thomas haywood, an actor, who has left us an account of the ship which he adorned, in a quarto volume published the same year in which she was launched. we can imagine what she looked like, with her lofty forecastle and poop, the latter provided with five lanterns, one of which, we are told, was large enough to contain ten persons. old samuel pepys gives us many references to woolwich in his famous _diary_. he paid frequent visits to the dockyard on his duties as secretary to the admiralty, and seems to have looked after his business well. for instance, on june , , he writes: 'povy and sir w. batten and i by water to woolwich; and there saw an experiment made of sir r. ford's holland yarn, about which we have lately had so much stir; and i have much concerned myself for our rope-maker, mr hughes, who represented it so bad; and we found it to be very bad, and broke sooner than, upon a fair trial, five threads of that against four of riga yarn; and also that some of it had old stuff that had been tarred, covered over with new hemp, which is such a cheat as hath not been heard of.' the next month he is looking after the hemp again, and writes: 'to woolwich to the rope-yard, and there looked over several sorts of hemp, and did fall upon my great survey of seeing the working and experiments of the strength and charge in the dressing of every sort; and i do think have brought it to so great a certainty, as i have done the king some service in it, and do purpose to get it ready against the duke's coming to town to present to him.' he adds pathetically: 'i see it is impossible for the king to have things done as cheap as other men.' of as early date probably as the dockyard, was the 'warren,' the name by which the arsenal was formerly called. this establishment seems to have begun as a cannon-foundry, and such, indeed, it chiefly continues to be. moreover, in other days when the dockyard flourished, stores of ships' cannon were kept here, ready to be placed on ships as soon as commissioned. but now that the dockyard is a thing of the past, and now that the large building-slips, workshops, and ropewalk are empty, the cannon at the arsenal are chiefly those for the royal artillery and for forts. the dockyard has been closed since ; its broad roads are deserted, its workshops are silent, and its large sheds are only used for stores; but the arsenal has increased in magnitude; and the 'warren,' in which, before the establishment of the plumstead magazines, powder was proved ('before the principal engineers and officers of the board of ordnance, to which many of the nobility and gentry were often invited, and afterwards sumptuously entertained by them'), has now become an enormous establishment, covering acres of ground, and containing workshops provided with the most complicated machinery, and foundries of enormous size. it is round this arsenal that we propose to take the reader. having gained admittance, the visitor is put in charge of a guide. the tapping of the great furnace is a remarkable sight. a stream of molten steel runs into a huge tank which can contain four or five tons of metal, and this tank is dragged off by some score of men to fill the various moulds. it is remarkable, also, to see a huge steam-hammer of some forty tons' force welding a mass of metal at white-heat. the arsenal is divided into four departments--the laboratory, the gun factory, the gun-carriage department, and the stores; and of these four divisions, the first two contain the chief things not to be found in very many other places. the gun-carriage department has workshops both for metal and wood work, and each branch contains many subdivisions. there is nothing, however, in this department which is peculiar to the arsenal, with the exception, of course, of the special articles which are manufactured; that is to say, forging, steam-carpentering, wheel-making, and so on, are carried out as they would be executed elsewhere. the guides always make a point of showing the wheel-shoeing pit, as it is called, in which the tyre is put on a gun-wheel. the machinery in this department is very complete, especially in the carpenters' shops, where the lathes which work automatically, and turn wheel-spokes and such things according to a given pattern, and the steam-saws for cutting dovetails for sides of boxes, and other machinery, are all constructed on highly ingenious principles. with regard to the articles constructed, the trail of a gun may be followed in all stages of its construction until it appears complete with its wheels, and ready for the gun to be placed on it. here, too, may be seen the ingenious moncrieff gun-carriage, by which the gun is only raised above a fortification at the moment when it is fired, the 'sighting' being done from below by an arrangement of mirrors. the stores, again, are remarkable only for the quantity of material stowed away ready for use. for instance, there are ten thousand complete sets of harness for guns and baggage wagons always kept in stock. but when the visitor has just walked once through these storehouses, he will probably have seen all that he cares to see there. it is, however, when we come to the gun factory that the special interest of the arsenal begins. imagine a huge mass of steel welded--for casting would not give sufficient strength--into the form of the trunk of a large fir-tree, and you have the first stage of a gun's existence. this solid mass is to form the tube of a cannon, and the solid core has to be removed by ingenious and powerful machinery. it takes a week or two to bore the interior of some of the larger guns. some of the machines are constructed to bore a hole which is continually enlarged by successive tools; while others actually cut out a round solid mass from the interior. the tube has also to be subjected to the process of being turned both within and without, and it is then fit for the next process, which is that of cutting the grooves within it which give the required spin to the projectile, commonly called rifling. this is a delicate and intricate process, for the utility of the gun of course depends largely on the accuracy with which the grooves are made. the actual cutting is performed by a machine which travels up the tube at the required spiral; but as the work proceeds, the man in charge carefully examines the grooves along their whole length with the aid of a candle fixed at the end of a long rod which he pushes up the tube. but when the tube has been bored, turned, and rifled, the gun is by no means finished. the tube by itself would be far too delicate for the large charges of powder employed; and, consequently, it has to be fitted at the breech end with two or three outer cases or jackets, the outside one of which bears the trunnions on which the gun rests. at last the gun is completed; and the next thing is to subject it to a severe test by firing from it a charge of powder proportioned to its size. for this purpose, it has to be taken to plumstead marshes, a portion of which forms the testing-ground and powder-magazines connected with the arsenal. lines of railway run down to the marshes, and the gun is mounted on a truck and dragged off by a locomotive to the place appointed for its trial. it may be mentioned that lines of railway run in all directions through the arsenal, one of narrow gauge being introduced into most of the workshops, so that the visitor has to keep a lookout lest a tiny locomotive with a train of what may almost be called toy trucks should bear down upon him as he is walking along.--but to return to the gun. when it has been finally tested, cleaned, polished, and stamped, it is coated with a particular varnish, and is fit for service. the next most interesting place to the gun factory is the laboratory, where shells and bullets are manufactured. shells are cast rough, and then finished off in a lathe. a band of copper now usually takes the place of the copper studs which were formerly inserted to enable the shell to fit into the rifled grooves. this band is expanded by the force of the explosion when the gun is fired, and fills up the grooves, so as to give the necessary spin to the shells. shells are charged with their interior bullets at the laboratory; but the powder is added down at the marshes. a shell when completed has become a very expensive article, especially if it is a large one. some of those projectiles are so heavy that the guns from which they have to be fired are provided with small cranes for lifting them up to the breech. the shells are, like the guns, beautifully finished off and varnished, and then sent off to the stores. perhaps the most interesting place in the laboratory department is the pattern room, which is a sort of museum where shot and shells of all sorts are to be seen, from the old-fashioned chain-shot, made of round balls fastened together, to the most perfect specimens of modern shells. here, also, are to be seen those strange weapons of modern warfare called torpedoes, amongst them the famous 'fish torpedo,' which with its complicated mechanism may be almost described as an under-water ship. it is so constructed that it finds its way unseen and unheard, with its terrible charge of dynamite, to the side of a hostile vessel. the enfield small-arms factory. it is at enfield, on the river lea, some twelve miles down the great eastern railway, that small-arms are manufactured, almost entirely, as required by our army. enfield factory has not, like woolwich arsenal, an ancient history of its own. in the days of henry viii. and of elizabeth, of the duke of york and his faithful secretary, samuel pepys, woolwich was famous for the production both of ships and of guns; but the small-arms factory on the borders of essex dates only from the early part of this century. its site seems to have been chosen regardless of any peculiar advantages for manufacturing purposes. it is simply a collection of workshops built in the flat meadows through which run the various branches, natural and artificial, of the lazy lea; and the nearest town, about a mile and a half distant, is quiet and remote little waltham, chiefly known for its abbey church, the burial-place of king harold, which rises in its midst. the situation of the enfield factory is, however, advantageous in this way: the canals form a safe means of water transit for the gunpowder which is manufactured in the adjacent mills at waltham, and which is required at enfield for use in the proving of the barrels of firearms; while the far-stretching marshes provide an apparently interminable range for carrying out the necessary experiments and trials with regard to the accuracy of the weapons manufactured. where one of the canals has been conducted into a square-shaped basin, the older and principal buildings of the manufactory have been located. they form a quadrangle of some extent; and here, too, are situated the offices and the quarters of the executive staff, which is composed partly of civilians and partly of military officers. behind these, on the east side of the enclosure, and on the banks of one of the canals, are rows of workmen's cottages. near the entrance gates are situated schools for the workmen's children; and at the other end of this street, as we may call it, is a church, which is served by the clergy of the parish of enfield. on the west side extend north and south the flat meadows or marshes which form so convenient a spot for the testing and proving of the rifles. all sorts of personal weapons required for the arming of a soldier in the english army are made here, not only firearms, such as rifles and revolvers, but lances, swords, and bayonets, the last having now become a sort of short sword. there is also one class of weapons which occupies a sort of intermediate position between those carried by the soldier himself and those drawn by horses--that of machine guns, as they are called, which, though not carried by men on their shoulders or in their hands, are drawn about by them on small carriages. these machine guns are classed with personal arms, because they are usually employed in connection with infantry; and also because--which is a far more important reason--the ammunition required for them is similar to that used in rifles. in fact, they are in principle only a collection of infantry rifles fastened together, or, as we shall see, a single rifle barrel with machinery attached which enables it to discharge with great rapidity. there is one more general principle which we shall do well to bear in mind before we enter the factory. it is this, that of course the manufacture of small-arms is in as much a condition of uncertainty as that of larger warlike weapons in these days. what we see now may become obsolete in a very short time, and we shall be shown specimens of firearms which formed the universal weapons of the british army only a very few years ago, but are now as much out of date for practical purposes as cross-bows. remembering this, let us go first when we enter to one of the offices, where we shall see arranged in a rack against the wall, amongst others, specimens of the old enfield muzzle-loader, of the same weapon converted into a breech-loader, of the martini-henry rifle, and of the latest pattern of all, the magazine rifle. while, stored away in some out-of-the-way corner, it is just possible we might come across a specimen of the old smooth-bore or 'brown bess,' which formed the weapon of certain english linesmen so late as the beginning of the crimean war. the enfield workshops are of course in appearance much like other workshops. there are the same processes of forging and casting, and the same machinery for hammering and turning and boring and drilling which we see elsewhere. a rifle, as every one knows, consists of three portions--the wooden stock, the barrel, and the lock. the stock is usually made of walnut wood, and is manufactured in what we should perhaps describe as a carpenter's shop. formerly, the stock of a rifle was formed out of one long piece of timber; but now the complicated machinery of the breech and lock cannot be contained in a hollow in the wood, as was formerly the case, but has to be enclosed in a steel case, to which the wooden butt and barrel support are screwed. to the rifles of the newest pattern there hangs, just below the lock, the magazine, in which are carried five or, in some cases, ten cartridges, which spring up into place in turn, ready to be discharged. in short, the rifle has become, as regards its rapidity of action, something similar to a revolver pistol. we shall find that a lock has in its manufacture to pass through an almost infinite number of processes, each part having to be forged or beaten out till the whole can be fitted together. let us pass on to the barrel-making shop. rifle barrels are made from a solid round bar of steel, which is at first considerably shorter and stouter than the finished barrel will be. this steel bar is heated red-hot, and is passed between several pairs of rollers, which convert it outwardly into the required form. it has, however, afterwards to be bored and then rifled--that is, furnished with the spiral grooves within, which gives the bullet the necessary spin. of course the barrel is by far the most important portion of a firearm, and the barrels of rifles are, at enfield, tested and proved in the most ingenious and searching manner. the first proof takes place after the barrel has been bored, but before it is rifled. the barrels are loaded with cartridges of considerably greater weight both in powder and bullet than those which will be used in them when they are ready for service, and are enclosed in a sort of strong box which has one side open. they are then discharged through the open side into a heap of sand, and examined; but it is a rare event to find a barrel that has not been able to bear this test. the second proof, which takes place after the rifling, is of a similar character. but these proofs are only to test the strength of a barrel; the test of its accuracy is a much more delicate operation. of course the machinery by which it is bored and rifled works with the most admirable precision; but yet it is necessary to put this machine-work to trial. there are, amongst others, two highly ingenious methods for doing this. in the one case it is placed on a stand which is so constructed that on it the barrel can be made to revolve rapidly. the barrel is pointed towards a window, and in front of it is a fixed sight. the workman looks through it while it is revolving; and if the sight remains steady to his eye, that is a proof that the barrel may be said to be straight. but there is yet another method. the mechanism of this testing apparatus is rather difficult to describe, but is something of this fashion. the barrel is made to revolve as before; but this time there is inserted in it a spindle, on which is fixed a short arm with a point which touches very lightly the interior of the barrel. if there is any inequality, or if the barrel is not perfectly straight, this short arm is of course shaken, and when this is the case, the motion is further communicated to a long arm at the end of which is an indicator, which is looked at by the workman through a magnifying glass. [illustration: gatling gun on field carriage.] barrel, stock, and lock being at last completed and tested, the rifle is put together; but even then it is subjected to one more trial. this is carried out on the proof-ground in the marshes, and takes the form of an actual discharge of the weapon at a target. the rifle is screwed to a fixed and firm support, and then a certain number of rounds are fired at ranges of five hundred and one thousand yards respectively. in this test the hitting of the centre of the target, or 'bull's-eye,' is not the end in view, as it is in ordinary target practice. that sort of shooting depends of course on the steadiness with which the marksman holds the rifle. in this case, however, the fixed _rest_ may be directed on any portion of the target, and the _grip_ will always be the same. the only object of the test is to see whether the rifle throws the bullet at each round on or near the same spot. a marker at the butt examines the position of each shot, and the smaller the space on which they strike, the better the weapon. we have not yet spoken of the machine guns. these weapons are, as part of the regular equipment of armies, quite modern, though the idea of binding together a quantity of barrels and then discharging them at once, or with great rapidity one after another, is not altogether novel. sometimes, instead of a number of barrels, one only is required, and the cartridges are discharged from short barrels or chambers which are brought in turn into position with the longer one. this is the ordinary revolver system; but modern machine guns are a great improvement on this method, and entirely dispense with the necessity of loading separate chambers. machine guns have succeeded one another with extraordinary rapidity, and a gun seems only to be adopted in order to be superseded. thus we have had during the last few years a series of these weapons bearing the names of gatling, gardner, nordenfelt, and maxim, described on a later page. [illustration: nordenfelt-palmcrantz gun mounted on ship's bulwark.] as we walk about the factory we see, besides the workmen, here and there groups of men in military uniform. these are armourer sergeants, who attend classes at which they are taught the mysterious mechanism of the breech-loaders and machine guns. in former days, tommy atkins could be instructed how to keep his weapon in order, lock and all; but now its complications are beyond the power of his understanding or of his fingers, perhaps of both, and he has to hand over his rifle to a more skilled superior when it is out of order. truly, military matters, from the movement of the vast army corps of the present day down to the mechanism of the soldier's weapons, have become a highly technical matter. lord armstrong and the elswick works. sir w. g. armstrong, the chairman and founder of this great firm of warship builders and makers of big guns at elswick, newcastle-on-tyne, is the son of a cumberland yeoman, and born at newcastle in . he early showed a turn for mechanical contrivances, and delicate youth as he was, when confined to the house he was quite happy making toys of old spinning-wheels and such-like things. he would also spend hours in a joiner's shop, copying the joiner's work, and making miniature engines. he had ample opportunity in his father's house of making himself acquainted with chemistry, electricity, and mechanics. in spite of his turn for mechanics, he was articled to a solicitor, who, at the finish of his apprenticeship, made him his partner. in his leisure hours he conducted his experiments. fishing was also a favourite pastime with him, and in , while rambling through dent dale, he saw a stream descending from a great height and driving only one single mill. this led him to think that there might be a more economical use of this water hydraulically, with the result that he produced a hydraulic engine, which was followed by the invention of a hydraulic crane for raising weights at harbours and in warehouses. it was soon adopted at the albert dock, liverpool, and elsewhere. [illustration: lord armstrong.] next he invented an apparatus for extracting electricity from steam, afterwards introduced into the polytechnic institution, london. napoleon iii. heard of this famous machine, and sent experts to examine it. armstrong began to receive recognition; he was elected a member of the royal society in , and a year later, aided by some friends, he began on a small scale the elswick engine-works in the suburbs of newcastle, which have grown to be the largest concern of the kind in the country. at first the enterprise chiefly consisted in the manufacture of hydraulic cranes, engines, accumulators, and bridges. the addition of ordnance and shipping, for which armstrong became chiefly known, came later. previous to the year , the weapon used by the infantry portion of the british army was a clumsy smooth-bore musket, which was only effective up to three hundred yards at the farthest; the usual distance at which practice was made by the soldier seldom exceeding one hundred yards. in the above-named year, an arm was brought into use, termed, from the locality of its manufacture, the enfield rifle. this weapon being lighter, and possessing a much greater range than the old small-arm, brown bess, as it was called, threatened very seriously to diminish the effect of field-artillery, if not to abolish that arm entirely, as, indeed, many infantry officers were sanguine enough to predict. nor were they without good reason for their boasting, the only field-artillery consisting of -pounder brass guns for horse-artillery, -pounder guns for field-batteries, and sometimes -pounder and -pounder guns as batteries of position--that is to say, batteries used when the general of a force meant to make any stand in a suitable position; on these occasions, the guns were taken to the requisite places, and there left. now, all these guns were smooth-bored; and as the range of the and pounders was limited in practice to about one thousand yards, it was a fair enough supposition that a company of concealed riflemen with their enfield rifles could pick off the gunners and remain themselves comparatively secure, especially as their muskets being sighted up to, and effective at, eleven hundred yards, the guns also would be a good mark to aim at, and the riflemen hard to see, even if exposed. such was the state of affairs when armstrong stepped in to the rescue of the artillery, and provided the british government with the rifled cannon now in use, and about which so much has been written. armstrong, during the crimean war, made an explosive apparatus for blowing up ships sunk at sebastopol. this led him to turn his attention to improvements in ordnance. he invented a kind of breech-loading cannon, and soon had an order for several field-pieces after the same pattern. he began with guns throwing lb. and lb. shot and shells, and afterwards lb. shells; and the results at the time were deemed almost incredible. he had both reduced the weight of the gun by one-half, reduced the charge of powder, and his gun sent the shell about three times farther. his success led to his offering to government all his past inventions, and any that he might in the future discover. a post was created for him, that of chief engineer of rifled ordnance for seven years provisionally. the founder of this great firm was knighted by the queen in , and made c.b. in he was raised to the peerage as baron armstrong of cragside. his mansion and estate of cragside is at rothbury, and it is fitted up with the electric light and every convenience of wealth and taste. armstrong's peculiar partnership between government and the elswick works was brought to a close in , since which time the progress of the firm has been continuous. in an amalgamation took place between the elswick works and the firm of charles mitchell & co., shipbuilders at low walker. dr mitchell, who was a native of aberdeen, and a munificent donor to newcastle and aberdeen, was one of the directors of armstrong, mitchell, & co. till his death in . this firm are now the leading warship builders in the world. krupp's works at essen (described in the earlier part of this book) are the only parallel to them in europe. the engineering works, begun, as we have seen, in , now occupy about nine acres; the ordnance works, founded ten years later, occupy about forty acres; while about five thousand men are employed. the shipbuilding yards are at low walker, nearer the sea. the hydraulic machinery for the tower bridge and the manchester ship canal were both produced by this great firm. some years ago one of his biographers wrote: 'he entertains the great institutes of england when they visit his native city on royal lines, in regal splendour. his works at elswick enjoy all modern improvements. his home at jesmond is the abode of art, literature, and luxury. when his health complained under its heavy load, he cultivated agriculture, botany, and forestry for recreation; bought an estate at rothbury, where the kindly invigorating air had healed him in days gone by; converted the barren hills into an earthly paradise; lighted his cragside mansion with swan's lamp and his own hydraulic power; applied water-power to his conservatory, that his plants might secure the sun. but amid all the luxuries which surround him, his life is as simple as nature; and now, at the ripe age of seventy-three, he maintains the freshness and elasticity of youth. he was wont to run like a deer along the moors of allenheads to examine the target fired at by the original armstrong gun.' lord armstrong has been honoured both at home and abroad, and has done much for the amenity of newcastle; and jesmond dene, part of his jesmond estate, was thrown open to the public by the prince of wales while his guest at cragside. the high-level bridge, giving easy access to the park for the town, cost £ , . other benefactions have been £ , towards a museum; a hall for the literary society, a mechanics' institute, schools at elswick, &c. a recent purchase was at bamborough, the ancient capital of the northumbrian kings, where, nearer our own time, grace darling was born and died. already great improvements are in progress there in the shape of workmen's houses; and the parish church is being restored. bamborough castle, which is also included in the purchase, is an imposing mass of masonry, standing on a pile of columnar basalt, which is mentioned early in history; there was a castle here as early as the fifth century. by the will of lord crewe it had been devoted as far back as to charitable purposes. in the autumn of , lord armstrong told the elswick shareholders that he believed the time was coming when armoured ships would be as obsolete as mail-clad men. 'do what we will,' he said, 'i believe that the means of attack will always overtake the means of defence, and that sooner or later armour will be abandoned.' his reason for this statement was the use of high explosives and quick-firing guns. in the future, light vessels of great speed, armed with quick-firing guns, are likely to be the order of the day. the life of a battleship, he also said, was far too valuable to be staked on the use of its ram; special ships should therefore be built for ramming. on another occasion he discussed the improvements in the manufacture of cordite which had made it possible to secure enormous power even with moderate-sized guns. with a -inch gun of calibre, and a lb. projectile, a velocity of nearly feet per second has been reached, giving an energy of tons, as against the tons of the -inch gun of ten years ago. this last gun could only fire four rounds in five minutes; now we hear of ten and eighteen rounds in three minutes. as to speed, some warships built for the argentine republic and for japan had reached a speed of - / miles an hour, and were at the time the fastest war-vessels afloat. at the annual meeting of shareholders in , lord armstrong said that the war-material which they supplied for the great naval war in the east thoroughly stood the test, and the quick-firing guns of the japanese navy had greatly helped their victory. the heavily-armed high-speed cruisers also deserve a share of the credit, and these had been built by their firm. in connection with an official inquiry it was found that in there were , men employed in the arsenal at elswick alone, and that ironclads and cruisers, and guns were being built. testing guns at shoeburyness. it is at shoeburyness, in the county of essex, that experiments are carried out with the guns, large and small, manufactured at woolwich and enfield. shoeburyness has become a military centre, not because of any advantages afforded by its position on the sea, but because it consists of a large tract of dreary marshes flanked to the south and east by the far-stretching maplin sands, which are almost entirely uncovered at low-water. these sands form the attraction from a scientific point of view. the first connection of shoeburyness with modern military matters appears to have been made so lately as the time of the crimean war, when the flat rough marshland was employed as a camping ground for men and horses with the view of accustoming both to the hard work which lay before them in the east. this tract of country has thus become the property of the war department, and that administrative body soon found another use for it, in which the half-submerged sands were to bear an important part. the idea was conceived that targets might be erected on these sands, and that the projectiles which were fired at them might be recovered at low-water. hence the first connection of shoeburyness with the artillery of the present day. a safe range can be found across the sands to almost any distance, and these marshes have therefore become the stage on which our great guns, such as armstrongs and whitworths, have made, so to speak, their first _début_. to reach shoeburyness we take the railway which runs along the south coast of essex and the northern bank of the thames. as we near the mouth of the estuary we pass southend, beloved of _trippers_, with its pier stretching out in its length of over a mile, and then cross the base of the ness itself, when we reach the sea again. on the south-eastern face of the ness we are at our journey's end, and the railway also, so far as the general public is concerned, has come to a full stop. we walk through the little town or village, and on the farther side find what we may call the original settlement of gunnery experiments, now for the most part a group of barracks and quarters such as we might find at any military station. a few differences we notice, however, for, as we pass through the barrack-yard, we observe that one building is labelled 'lecture-room,' and other evidences there are here and there that the artillerymen who are quartered here are not altogether engaged in their ordinary duties. we shall probably not linger long at the barracks, but we shall not fail to observe that the officers' quarters and mess-room occupy an extremely pleasant position on a wooded bank above the sea, and that at high-water the waves come rippling up to the very trees themselves. farther on are the houses appropriated to married officers, all alike situated on the pleasant sea-bank. we see in front of us huge wooden erections standing on the edge of the shore. these are conning-towers from which, when practice is going on, a view is obtained of the direction of the shot. beneath them are the batteries from which the guns are fired, and here go on the courses of instruction in practical artillery work, which are necessary for newly joined officers. but we have by no means seen the most important part of shoeburyness when we have visited the barracks and the batteries. we notice that a line of rails winds its way in and out amongst guns and storehouses, and if we have timed our visit right we shall find a little miniature train just about to start for what is called _the new range_. taking our places in this train we shall be carried first through the village and past the terminus of the public line, and then along a private railway which winds along amongst the corn-fields, until we reach a retired spot on the sea-shore hemmed in by lofty trees. in this private place are carried on all the experiments for which shoeburyness is famous, and here both guns and explosives are tested to their utmost capability. it is not altogether an unpicturesque spot at which we have arrived. grouped together in this immediate neighbourhood are certain nice old farmhouses and other buildings which have been taken possession of by the military. the space in front would no doubt be an admirable rabbit-warren, only the whole ground is now covered by guns of various sizes, targets, shields, breastworks, and models of portions of ironclad and other vessels. amongst these run lines of rails by which guns and materials can be moved to any part of the ground; and in places there are overhead travelling cranes by which heavy cannon may be hoisted on to or off from their carriages or into trucks, as need may require; and we again see lofty conning-towers, though target practice at a distance is not carried on here to the same extent as it is in that portion of the establishment which we first visited. the work at _the new range_ is connected rather with experiments as to the force of explosives and the penetrating power of projectiles than with accuracy of aim and the direction of the shot. we ought first to say a few words about modern explosives. old-fashioned gunpowder, or _black_ powder as it is now usually called, is composed, as everybody knows, of saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur mixed together in the proportion usually of seventy-five, fifteen, and ten parts respectively. two chief varieties of the new brown powders are now made, and are known as 'slow-burning cocoa'--from the fact that cocoa-nut fibres were first employed in the experiments--and 'prism brown i.' the former contains about four per cent. of sulphur, and burns rather more rapidly than the latter, which contains only two per cent. baked straw is the material now used to supplant the charcoal, as it provides a form of cellulose which may be readily reduced to a fine state of division. the shape is still the perforated hexagonal prism introduced in america. the burning of these powders is steady and the increase of pressure gradual, attaining a maximum when the bullet is about half-way down the barrel of the gun. the damage inflicted on the firing-chamber is very slight; perhaps as slight as ever will be obtained with such large charges of powder. uniformity of velocity is secured by ensuring that in the making the proportions employed shall be accurate and the mixing complete. the prisms of any given class of powder are made exactly the same in weight and composition, and in consequence, a charge composed of a given number of prisms will give in every case almost exactly the same propelling force. it is thus that fine aiming adjustments are made possible, as two consecutive bullets of the same weight may be propelled almost exactly the same distance--varying only a few yards in a range of several miles--by equal weights of powder of uniform composition. but explosives of the present day are composed of other substances. cordite, of which we now hear so much, is made of nitro-glycerine, gun-cotton, and mineral jelly in the proportion of fifty-seven, thirty-eight, and five parts. it is also steeped in a preparation of acetone. gun-cotton itself is dipped in a mixture of three parts of sulphuric to one of nitric acid. the force of cordite over gunpowder may be judged from the following facts. a cartridge containing seventy grains of black powder fired in the ordinary rifle of the army will give what is called a muzzle velocity of one thousand three hundred and fifty feet a second, while thirty grains only of cordite will give a velocity of two thousand feet. in larger arms, a little less than a pound of cordite fired in a twelve-pounder gun will give more velocity than four pounds of black powder fired in the same weapon. it need hardly be said that in the experiments at shoeburyness it is the new-fashioned explosive which is chiefly used. let us examine one of the guns, a breech-loader, and see what improvements have been made which may conduce to rapidity of fire. we see that in the older pattern three motions were necessary to open the breech. first the bar which is fixed across the base of the block had to be removed, then a half turn had to be given to the block to free it in its bed, and then it had to be pulled forward. firstly, it had to be thrown back on its hinge so as to open the gun from end to end. we are shown that in later patterns the cavity or bed into which the block fits is made in the form of a cone, so that the breech-block itself can be turned back without any preliminary motion forward. in artillery work, time is everything, and any one motion of the gunner's hands and arms saved is a point gained. now let us look at the mechanism by which the recoil or backward movement of the gun is checked at the moment of firing. the gun slides in its cradle, and its recoil is counteracted by buffers which work in oil, something in the fashion of the oil springs which we see on doors. iron spiral springs push the gun back again into place. another interesting piece of mechanism is the electric machinery by which the gun is fired. when the recoil has taken place, the wire, along which runs the electric current, is pushed out of place, so that it is impossible to fire the gun, even though it be loaded, until it has been again fixed in its proper position on the cradle. truly a modern cannon is a wonderful machine, and yet it is only a development from the sort of iron gas-pipe which was used in the middle ages. hard by is a gun which has come to grief. in experiments which are carried on at shoeburyness, guns are charged to their full, or, as in this case, more than their full strength. there is an ugly gash running down the outer case or jacket, as it is called, of the gun, and the latter has broken, and nearly jumped out of its cradle. nursery phraseology certainly comes in strongly in the technical slang of gunnery when we have to do with _woolwich infants_. after looking at the guns we naturally go on to look at the targets at which they are fired. targets at _the new range_ are not so much marks as specimens of armour-plates and other protections. some of these are built up with a strength which to the uninitiated appears to be proof against any attack. here, for instance, we find a steel plate of eighteen inches in thickness, and behind this six inches of iron, the whole backed up by huge balks of timber. but notwithstanding its depth, the enormous mass has been dented and cracked, and in places pierced. when we look at plates which are not quite so thick, we see that the shells have formed what are pretty and regular patterns, for small triangles of metal have been splintered off and turned back, so that the aperture is decorated with a circle of leaves, and resembles a rose with the centre cut out. where the shell has entered the plate before it bursts, the pattern remains very perfect; but when it explodes as it touches the surface, some of the encircling leaves are entirely cut off. one target is pointed out to us which represents the iron casing of the vulnerable portions of a torpedo boat, consisting of engine-room, boilers, and coal-bunkers. these compartments have been riddled again and again. even a service-rifle bullet can penetrate one side, and a shell of the smallest size will go through both, for torpedo boats are not very heavily built. hiram s. maxim and the maxim machine gun. statisticians inform us that the entire loss of life in wars between so-called civilised countries from the year down to had reached the enormous amount of four million four hundred and seventy thousand. to many persons these figures convey a sad and salutary lesson. but, leaving the sentimental part of the subject aside, all will readily unite in admiring the wonderful mechanism which makes the maxim machine gun an engine of terrible destructiveness. stanley provided himself with this formidable weapon, to be used defensively in the expedition on which he started for the relief of emin bey. it obtained a gold medal at the inventions exhibition, and has been approved of, if not actually adopted, by many governments. [illustration: rifle-calibre maxim gun.] its rate of firing-- shots a minute--is at least three times as rapid as that of any other machine gun. it has only a single barrel, which, when the shot is fired, recoils a distance of three-quarters of an inch on the other parts of the gun. this recoil sets moving the machinery which automatically keeps up a continuous fire at the extraordinary rate of rounds a second. each recoil of the barrel has therefore to perform the necessary functions of extracting and ejecting the empty cartridge, or bringing up the next full one and placing it in its proper position in the barrel, of cocking the hammer, and pulling the trigger. as long as the firing continues, these functions are repeated round after round in succession. the barrel is provided with a water jacket, to prevent excessive heating; and is so mounted that it can be raised or lowered or set at any angle, or turned horizontally to the left or to the right. the bore is adapted to the present size of cartridges; and the maximum range is eighteen hundred yards. the gun can therefore be made to sweep a circle upwards of a mile in radius. nor is the gun excessively heavy, its total weight being only one hundred and six pounds, made up thus: tripod, fifty pounds; pivot (on which the gun turns and by which it is attached to the tripod), sixteen pounds; gun and firing mechanism, forty pounds. the parts can be easily detached and conveniently folded for carriage, and may be put together again so quickly that, if the belt containing the cartridges is in position, the first shot can be delivered within ten seconds. it would therefore be extremely serviceable in preventing disaster through a body of troops being surprised. reconnoitring parties, too, would deem it prudent to pay greater deference to an enemy's lonely sentry on advanced outpost duty if the latter were provided with this new machine gun, instead of the ordinary rifle. immediately below the barrel of the gun, a box is placed, containing the belt which carries the cartridges. the belts vary in length. those commonly used are seven feet long, and capable of holding three hundred and thirty-three cartridges; shorter ones hold one hundred and twenty cartridges; but the several pieces can be joined together for continuous firing. single shots can be fired at any time whether the belt is in position or not--in the former case by pressing a button, which prevents the recoil; in the latter, by hand-loading in the ordinary way. to start firing, one end of the belt is inserted in the gun, the trigger is pulled by the hand once, after which the movement becomes continuous and automatic as long as the supply of cartridges lasts. at each recoil of the barrel, the belt is pushed sufficiently onward to bring the next cartridge into position; the mechanism grasps this cartridge, draws it from the belt, and passes it on to the barrel. should a faulty or an empty cartridge find its way in, and the gun does not go off in consequence, there is of course no recoil to keep up the repeating action, and the mechanism ceases to work until the obstruction is removed. to devise and adjust the necessary parts of the machine with such precision that each part performs its proper function at the exact moment pre-arranged for it--to do all this while the gun fires at the enormous rate of six hundred rounds a minute, must have cost an immensity of thought, of labour, and of time. the 'colt automatic gun,' a new machine gun manufactured by the colt firearms company, of hartford, connecticut, promised in to be a rival to the maxim, as it fired shots a minute. hiram s. maxim was born in the state of maine in , and in his fourteenth year was apprenticed to a carriage-builder. from his father, who had a wood-working factory and mill, he learned the use of tools and derived his inventive turn of mind. after some experience in metal-working in his uncle's works at fitchburg, he was in turn a philosophical instrument maker, and on the staff of some ironworkers and shipbuilders. about he became a consulting electrical engineer, a branch of science which he studied and became master of in a short time. some of the earliest electric lights in the states were devised and erected by him. he was in england and europe in in order to investigate electrical methods there. he was back in london in , and after that visit, like siemens, he made it his headquarters. what leisure he now had ( - ) on hand he devoted to inventing his automatic machine gun, which should load and fire itself, and the british government was the first to recognise its merits and adopt it. the making of it has been taken over by the maxim-nordenfelt gun company, which has a capital of about two millions sterling. like edison he has taken out about a hundred different patents, some of which are connected with oil motors and smokeless gunpowder. his flying-machine, as described in his paper at the british association in , burns oil fuel, which developed three hundred and sixty horse-power. it was driven at sixty miles an hour horizontally, and the machine contained an aeroplane sloping six degrees to the horizon. the weight to be lifted was eight thousand pounds. after running nine hundred feet, the machine exerted an upward thrust of two thousand pounds greater than its own weight. the machine, after one thousand feet, broke loose; the steam was shut off, and it fell. the experiments have been conducted at bexley, in kent, where mr maxim had a light track of railway laid down, sixteen hundred feet long, on which the machine moved. the back part of the machine having been liberated from the check-rail too soon caused the accident at the experiment, and sent the whole machine off the track. there is sufficient evidence that it did rise from the ground, and lords rayleigh and kelvin have become believers in its possibilities. this machine, as described at the time, with its four side sails and aeroplanes set, is over one hundred feet wide, and looks like a huge white bird with four wings instead of two. it is propelled by two large two-bladed screws, resembling the screw-propellers of a ship, driven by two powerful compound engines. ironclads. a modern ironclad is an enormous piece of complicated mechanism. in order to protect this mechanism from hostile shot, the greater part of it is placed under water and covered by a thick steel deck; the remainder above water being protected by vast armour-plates varying from eight to twenty-four inches in thickness. from the exterior, an ironclad is by no means a thing of beauty; one writer has described it as 'a cross between a cooking apparatus and a railway station;' but in place of this ingenious parallel, imagine a low flat-looking mass on the water; from the centre rises a huge funnel, on either side of which are a turret and a superstructure running to the bow and stern; two short pole masts, with platforms on the top for machine guns, complete an object calculated to bring tears to the eyes of the veteran sailor who remembers the days of the grand old line-of-battle ship, with its tall tapering masts and white sails glistening in the sun. a stranger going on board one of our newest types of ironclads would lose himself amid the intricacies and apparent confusion of the numerous engines, passages, and compartments; it is a long time, in fact, before even the sailors find their way about these new ships; and the admiralty allow a new ironclad to remain three months in harbour on first commissioning before going to sea, in order that the men may become acquainted with the uses of the several fittings on board, each ironclad that is built now being in many ways an improvement on its predecessor. those who have not been on board a modern ironclad can form no idea of the massiveness and solidity of the various fittings; the enormous guns, the rows of shot and shell, the huge bolts, bars, and beams seem to be meant for the use of giants, not men. although crowded together in a comparatively small space, everything is in perfect order, and ready at any moment to be used for offensive or defensive purposes. it is not, perhaps, generally known that the captain of a man-of-war is ordered to keep his ship properly prepared for battle as well in time of peace as of war. every evening before dark the quarters are cleared and every arrangement made for night-battle, to prevent surprise by a better prepared enemy. when at anchor in a harbour, especially at night, the ship is always prepared to repel any attempts of an enemy to board or attack with torpedoes or fireships. in addition to the daily and weekly drills and exercises, once every three months the crew are exercised at night-quarters, the time of course being kept secret by the captain, so that no preparations can be made beforehand, the exercise being intended to represent a surprise. in the dead of night, when only the officers of the watch and the sentries posted in the various parts of the ship are awake, the notes of a bugle vibrate between the decks; immediately, as if by magic, everything becomes alive; men are seen scrambling out of their hammocks, and lights flash in all directions; the huge shells are lifted by hydraulic power from the magazines, placed on trucks, and wheeled by means of railways to the turrets; men run here and there with rifles, boarding-pikes, axes, cases of powder and ammunition; others are engaged laying fire-hose along the decks, others closing the water-tight doors; while far down below, the engineers, stokers, and firemen are busy getting up steam for working the electric-light engines, turrets, &c. at the torpedo ports, the trained torpedo-men are placing the whiteheads in their tubes; others are preparing cases of gun-cotton for boom-torpedoes. in ten minutes, however, all is again silent and each man stands at his station ready for action. the captain, followed by his principal officers, now walks round the quarters and inspects all the arrangements for battle, after which various exercises are gone through. a bugle sounds, and numbers of men rush away to certain parts of the ship to repel imaginary boarders; another bugle, and a large party immediately commence to work the pumps; another low, long blast is a warning that the ship is about to ram an enemy, and every man on board stretches himself flat on the decks until the shock of the (supposed) collision takes place. after a number of exercises have been gone through, the guns are secured, arms and stores returned to their places, the men tumble into their hammocks again, and are soon fast asleep. [illustration: one of the 'wooden walls of old england.' _the duke of wellington_ screw line-of-battle ship. one hundred and thirty-one guns.] it would be interesting to glance at some of the principal offensive and defensive capabilities of a modern ironclad. the first-class line-of-battle ship of fifty years ago carried as many as a hundred and thirty, what would be called in the present day, very light guns; in contrast to this, her majesty's armour-plated barbette ram _benbow_ carries _two_ guns weighing a hundred and ten tons each. these enormous weapons are forty-three feet eight inches long, and are capable of sending a shot weighing three quarters of a ton to a distance of seven miles. the effect of a shell from one of these guns piercing the armour of a ship and bursting would be very disastrous, and there are few, if any, ships whose armour, when fairly hit at a moderate distance, could withstand such a blow. guns, however, although terrible in effect, are now supplemented by other and more deadly means of offence. foremost amongst these stands the whitehead or fish torpedo. this infernal machine can be discharged from tubes in the side of a ship to a distance of a thousand yards under water at a speed of twenty-five miles per hour. armed with its charge of gun-cotton it rushes forth on its mission; and, if successful in striking the ship against which it is aimed, explodes, and rends a large hole in her side, through which the water pours in huge quantities. in order to protect a man-of-war from this danger, she can be surrounded at short notice with thick wire-nettings, hanging from projecting side-spars, against which the torpedo explodes with harmless effect. these nettings are, however, principally intended for use when ships are at anchor in harbour at night; they could not well be employed in action with an enemy, as they offer such resistance to the water as to reduce the speed of the ship by four or five knots, and so encumber her as to render her liable to be rammed by a more active opponent. all large ironclads now have two or three torpedo boats. these craft are constructed of steel one-sixteenth of an inch thick, and steam at a speed of sixteen knots, some of the larger kind reaching twenty or twenty-one knots an hour. carrying two whiteheads, they are valuable auxiliaries to the parent ship; their rapid movements, together with their dangerous freight, distracting the attention of an enemy. [illustration: the _majestic_.] machine-guns, however, form a very effective remedy for them; a single torpedo boat attacking an ironclad would, directly she got within range, be riddled with gardner and nordenfelt shot, and sunk in about fifteen seconds. it is only when three or four approach in various directions, or during night attacks, that they become really dangerous. the electric search-lights, with which most large men-of-war are now provided, will show a torpedo boat at the distance of a mile on the darkest night; but there is of course always a chance of their getting close enough to a ship to discharge a torpedo before they are discovered. the bow of many of our ironclads is constructed for the purpose of ramming (running down and sinking) an antagonist. to use a ram requires great speed and facilities for turning and manoeuvring quickly; for the latter purposes, short ships are better than long ones. it would be a comparatively easy thing for a ship steaming fourteen knots to ram another that could only steam ten; a small ship might also outmanoeuvre and ram a long one; but it would be extremely difficult, in fact almost impossible, for a ship to ram another vessel of equal speed and length. to secure facilities in turning and manoeuvring, all our modern ships are built as short as possible, and have two screws, each worked by entirely separate sets of engines, so that one can go ahead whilst the other goes astern. if one set of engines is disabled, the other can still work independently, and a fair speed be maintained. we always think that two ships at close quarters trying to ram one another, must be like a game at chess, requiring the closest observation of your opponent's movements and the nicest judgment for your own, a wrong move being fatal to either. it is the opinion of many naval men of authority that a modern naval battle would only occupy about half the time of a fight in the old trafalgar days; that half the ships employed would be sunk, and that most of the remainder would be so battered as to be unfit for further service for months to come. in connection with the navy estimates for - it was announced in the house of commons that the following vessels would be constructed: first-class battleships, first-class cruisers, second-class cruisers, third-class cruisers, and torpedo-boat destroyers. submarine boats. in , during the american civil war, a submarine boat succeeded in sinking the federal frigate _housatonic_. this boat, however, was hardly an unqualified success, as, running into the hole made by its torpedo, it went down with the ship; and three crews had previously been lost while carrying out its initial experiments. since then, many methods of submersion have been tried; but it is only within recent years that naval powers have awakened to the fact that a submersible boat, though by no means so formidable for offensive purposes as its name at first leads one to believe, is a factor which might have to be taken into consideration in the next naval war. modern types of these boats are the holland, nordenfelt, tuck, and goubet. the holland boat comes to us from over the atlantic, and is peculiar in its weapon of offence. it is fifty feet long, eight feet in diameter, and is driven by a petroleum engine carrying sufficient fuel for two days' run. the diving is effected by means of two horizontal rudders, one on each side of the stern. this only allows of submersion when the boat is in motion; and the boat cannot be horizontal while submerged. it carries ten-inch gelatine blasting shells, fired from a pneumatic gun twenty feet long, whose radius of action is two hundred yards under water and one thousand yards above. the use of gelatine is also objectionable, as the confined space and the vibration of the boat prevent such explosives being carried without some risk of premature explosion. it is for this reason that gun-cotton is adopted in torpedo work, as it will not explode on concussion, and is little affected by change of temperature. the principal features of the nordenfelt boat are its method of submersion and its propulsion by steam. the boat is one hundred and twenty-five feet long, twelve feet beam, and displaces two hundred and fifty tons when entirely submerged, one hundred and sixty tons when running on the surface. her propelling machinery consists of two double cylinder compound engines, with a horse-power of one thousand, and propelling the boat at fifteen knots on the surface. the submersion of the boat is effected by means of two horizontal propellers working in wells at each end. two conning-towers project about two feet above the deck, of one-inch steel, surmounted by glass domes, protected with steel bars, for purposes of observation. the boat usually runs on the surface with these towers showing, unless the buoyancy, which is never less than half a ton, is overcome by the horizontal propellers, when the boat becomes partially or totally submerged according to their speed. to ascend to the surface it is only necessary to stop the horizontal propellers, which also stop automatically on reaching a set depth. in the forward tower are the firing keys, machinery and valves necessary for driving or steering the vessel, for controlling the horizontal propellers, and for discharging the whitehead torpedoes. four of these are carried, and they are discharged with powder from two tubes in the bows. in the conning-tower are also placed the instruments indicating the depth, level, and course. when the boat is awash, the funnels have to be unshipped and the boat closed up before submersion. the length of time, twenty-five minutes, required for this operation is an objection to this boat, though when submerged it does not get unpleasantly hot. the temperature after a three hours' submerged run was only ninety degrees fahrenheit. the crew consists of a captain and eight men. the tuck also comes from america. it is of iron, cigar-shaped, thirty feet long and six feet in diameter. it is submerged by means of a horizontal rudder in the stern and a horizontal propeller acting vertically amidships beneath the boat. it is driven by electricity, supplied from storage batteries packed closely in the bows. compressed air is carried in reservoirs, but a supply is usually obtained when the boat is not far from the surface, by means of an iron pipe twenty feet long, which usually lies on deck, but which can be raised to an upright position by gearing from within. the top then rises above the surface of the water, and by opening a valve in the foot and attaching a pump, fresh air is drawn into the interior. the crew need not exceed three men. [illustration: section of the goubet submarine boat.] the goubet class are of iron, sixteen feet long, three feet wide, and about six feet deep. the motive power is a siemens motor driven by storage batteries. fifty of these boats were purchased by the russian government. they have no rudder, but a universal joint in the screw shaft permits of the screw being moved through an arc of ninety degrees. the torpedo is carried outside the boat, secured by a catch worked from inside. on arriving under the enemy, the torpedo is released, and striking the ship's bottom, is held there by spikes. the boat then withdraws, unreeling a connecting wire; and when at a safe distance, fires. the absence of a rudder, however, causes erratic steering, and the spikes with which the torpedo is fitted might fail to stick in steel-bottomed ships. submarine boats cannot be driven under water at a speed exceeding six knots. if driven beyond, they are inclined to dive, and in deep water, before the corrective forces against a dive have had time to act, might reach a depth where the pressure would drive in the sides or compress them to a sufficient extent to seriously reduce the displacement. in shallow water, the boat might be driven on to the bottom, and if it be clay, held there, an accident attended with fatal consequences in the case of one boat. it is also difficult to direct the course of a submarine boat; and it is doubtful whether the advantage of not being seen counteracts the disadvantage of not being able to see. according to mr nordenfelt in a lecture on submarine boats, 'the mirror of the surface throws a strong light into the boat; you cannot see forward at all, and you cannot see far astern; it is as black as ink outside; you can only see a sort of segment.' this means that you cannot safely advance at a great speed under water. it is impossible to think of a submarine boat as a boat that actually manoeuvres and does its work under water. the boat should run awash, and you can then see where you are. when we consider, then, that a boat totally submerged cannot be driven over six knots, and cannot be properly directed; when we consider the speeds of seventeen and eighteen knots attained by modern battleships, we arrive at the conclusion that boats totally submerged are useless against modern battleships in motion. running awash, they could be tackled by torpedo catchers and torpedo boats. [illustration] chapter vii. evolution of the cycle. in praise of cycling--number of cycles in use--medical opinions-- pioneers in the invention--james starley--cycling tours. sir walter scott once told a friend that if he did not see the heather once a year he would die. he saw it much oftener than once a year. when the building and planting of abbotsford had become a passion with him, and when the vacation came round in connection with his duties in the court of session, he would not stay ten minutes longer in edinburgh than he could help. sometimes his carriage would be waiting in parliament square to bear him off as swiftly as possible to abbotsford. john locke says there is a good vein of poetry buried in the breast of most business men; there is at least in the breast of most men, strong or latent, a longing, a passion for freedom, for change. when the buds swell and burst; when the may-blossom breaks forth on the hawthorn, and makes a spring snowstorm in the valley; when the cuckoo is heard, and the lark rains down his drops of melody above the springing clods; when the lambs gambol in the green fields, and the hives are murmurous with their drowsy insect hum--the awakening comes in man, too, for freedom, freshness, change. they are happy who can enjoy such, and be rested and refreshed; for millions are chained to the oar, and know not what they miss, and millions more have not had their eyes or their desires awakened to what they miss. lowell expresses the feeling: what man would live coffined with brick and stone, imprisoned from the healing touch of air, and cramped with selfish landmarks everywhere, when all before him stretches, furrowless and lone, the unmapped prairie none can fence or own? what man would read and read the self-same faces, and like the marbles which the windmill grinds, rub smooth for ever with the same smooth minds, this year retracing last year's, every year's, dull traces, when there are woods and unpenfolded spaces? * * * * * to change and change is life, to move and never rest: not what we are, but what we hope, is best. the wild, free woods make no man halt or blind; cities rob men of eyes and hands and feet. we want, then, to recover our eyes, and hands, and feet, remembering the story of eyes and no eyes. for this end, few things are better than a day now and then in the open air, in order to bring a man to himself. the best stimulant in the world is mountain air, and the grandest restorative music the rhythmic beat of the waves along the shore. the cyclist covers a wonderful stretch of country, going and returning, and comes back refreshed too, though tired, thinking that nobody in the universe can have had a better or pleasanter holiday than he has enjoyed. he has whizzed along leafy lanes, with glimpses of running streams to right and left; he has heard the musical monotony of the hill burns as he rested on the bridge; he has awakened sleepy villages, and enjoyed his repasts at country inns. and so the cyclist has a ready power to give himself the requisite and healthful change of scene. cycling. the pastime of cycling, at first only patronised by athletic youth, has now spread to every class of the community. the vast improvement in machines, and the health and exhilaration to be gained by the exercise, have had much to do with its popularity alike with aristocracy and democracy. like golf, it has come to stay, although many who take cycling up for amusement will drop it again as they would do anything else. but there will always remain a strong and increasing contingent, fully aware, by practical experience, of its health and pleasure giving powers, who will place it second to no existing recreation. and so the cyclist gets gleams and glances of beauty from many a nook and corner of the land, where railway, coach, or his unaided pedestrian powers would never carry him. it has widened a twenty-mile radius to a forty-mile radius, and increased man's locomotive powers threefold. let no one imagine that there is not a considerable amount of exertion and fatigue, and sometimes hardship. but it is of a wholesome kind, when kept within limits, and physically, morally, and socially, the benefits that cycling confers on the men of the present day are almost unbounded. truly, we have here a great leveller; as one says: 'it puts the poor man on a level with the rich, enabling him to "sing the song of the open road" as freely as the millionaire, and to widen his knowledge by visiting the regions near to or far from his home, observing how other men live. he could not afford a railway journey and sojourn in these places, and he could not walk through them without tiring sufficiently to destroy in a measure the pleasure which he sought. but he can ride through twenty, thirty, fifty, even seventy miles of country in a day, without serious fatigue, and with no expense save his board and lodging.' this is very well put. another enthusiast has said: 'if you want to come as near flying as we are likely to get in this generation, learn to ride on a pneumatic bicycle.' 'sum up,' says another, 'when summer is done, all the glorious days you have had, the splendid bits of scenery which have become a possession for ever, your adventures worth telling, and see how you have been gladdened and enriched.' an enthusiastic journalist who had been burning the candle at both ends betook himself to the wheel, and found it of so much service to body and mind that he straightway, in the columns of his newspaper, began to advise the whole world to learn the bicycle. he could hardly tell the difference it had made to his feelings and general health, and he knew of no exercise which brought so easily such a universal return in good health, good spirits, and amusement. mr g. lacy hillier, of the badminton volume on cycling, confirms this. the cyclist seems to enter into the spirit of emerson's saying as thoroughly as thoreau might have done: 'give me health and a day, and i will make the pomp of empires ridiculous.' many overdo the exercise, then renounce it, or give it a bad name; others, by over-rapid riding in towns, make themselves public nuisances, and vastly increase the dangers of overcrowded streets. the sensible cyclist rides for health, increase of knowledge, and amusement. though at one time mr ruskin was prepared to spend all his best bad language in abusing the wheel, the world has gone its own way, and the careering multitudes in battersea park and elsewhere, on country and suburban roads, in crowded towns, have been the means of creating new manufactures, which have vastly benefited our home industries. mr h. j. lawson, inventor of the rear-driving safety, lately estimated the annual output of cycles at over a million, and the money spent at over ten millions. but in the absence of statistics this is only guesswork. the periodical called _invention_ has stated that in there were bicycle factories, which turned out machines. in there were about factories, with an estimated output of , bicycles. the bicycle tax in france is said to yield not less than £ , a year. in the united states, where cycling has become a greater craze than with us, two hundred and fifty thousand cycles at least were purchased in ; in more than four hundred thousand changed hands. when the proposal was made some time ago to impose a tax on cycles, it was calculated that there were at least eight hundred thousand riders in the united kingdom. now the number is estimated at over a million. the past few seasons have witnessed quite a 'boom' in cycling and a great increase in the number of riders. ladies have taken more rapidly to the pastime in america and france than in england. the rubber and then the pneumatic or inflated tyre have wrought a marvellous revolution; the high 'ordinary,' the tricycle, and the heavy 'solid,' and even the 'cushion,' have in most cases been relegated to the home of old iron. the pneumatic tyre company, with a capital of four millions sterling, when in full swing, turns out twenty-five thousand tyres per week. the profits of this concern in were at the rate of £ , a year. coventry, birmingham, wolverhampton, london, and other towns, have largely benefited by the cycle trade. sir b. w. richardson has often called attention to the benefit of cycling in the case of dwellers in towns. dr turner finds that nothing neutralises better the poison introduced into the blood through faulty digestion than gentle and continued exercise on the wheel. mr a. j. watson, the english amateur one-mile and five-mile champion in , declared that he never suffered from any ill effects, save perhaps during the hard days in winter, when prevented from riding. dr andrew wilson once quoted a budget of correspondence from ladies who had tried the wheel, all of which was in the same direction, provided that overstrain was avoided. where the heart is weak, cycling should be left alone. the muscles of the legs are developed and the circumference of the chest increased in the case of healthy riders. here are a few hints by a medical man: 'never ride within half an hour of a meal, either before or after. wheel the machine up any hill the mounting of which on the wheel causes any real effort. see that the clothing round the stomach, neck, and chest is loose. have the handle-bar sufficiently raised to prevent stooping. be as sparing as possible of taking fluids during a long ride. unless the wind, road, &c., be favourable, never ride more than ten miles an hour, save for very short distances, and never smoke while riding.' the cycle as we know it did not burst upon the world in all its present completeness, but has been a gradual evolution, the work of many a busy hand and brain, guided by experience. as far back as we find that richard lovell edgeworth had something of the nature of a velocipede; and about the same date, william murdoch, inventor of gas for illuminating purposes, had a wooden horse of his own invention upon which he rode to school at cumnock. the french appear to be entitled to whatever of credit attaches to the original invention of the hobby-horse, a miserable steed at best, which wore out the toes of a pair of boots at every journey. m. blanchard, the celebrated aëronaut, and m. masurier conjointly manufactured the first of these machines in , which was then described as 'a wonder which drove all paris mad.' the dandy-horse of , the two wheels on which the rider sat astride, tipping the ground with his feet in order to propel the machine, was laughed out of existence. in , a blacksmith named kirkpatrick macmillan, of courthill, parish of keir, dumfriesshire, made a cycle on which he rode to glasgow, and caused a big sensation on the way. this worthy man died in , aged . the notable fact regarding macmillan's cycle is, that he had adapted cranks and levers to the old dandy or hobby-horse. gavin dalziel, of lesmahagow, lanarkshire, had a bicycle of his own invention in daily use in . the french are probably justified, moreover, in claiming as their own the development of the crude invention into the present velocipede, for, in , a m. rivière, a french subject residing in england, deposited in the british patent office a minute specification of a bicycle. his description was, however, unaccompanied by any drawing or sketch, and he seems to have taken no further steps in the matter than to register a theory which he never carried into practice. subsequently, the bicycle was re-invented by the french and by the americans almost simultaneously, and indeed, both nations claim priority in introducing it. it came into public notoriety at the french international exhibition of , from which time the rage for them gradually developed itself, until in paris became enthusiastic over velocipedes. extensive foundries were soon established in paris for the sole purpose of supplying the ironwork, while some scores of large manufactories taxed their utmost resources to meet the daily increasing demand for these vehicles. there was a revival of cycling between - . an ingenious frenchman, m. michaux, had some years before fitted pedals and a transverse handle to the front wheel of what came to be irreverently known as the 'bone-shaker.' this embryo bicycle had a considerable vogue, and was introduced to mr charles spencer's gymnasium in london in . spencer was in paris in , in company with mr r. turner, representative of the coventry machinists' company, and they were each admiring the graceful evolutions of henri tascard on his velocipede over the broad asphalt paths of the luxemburg gardens. 'charlie, do you think you could do that?' said turner. spencer said he thought he would have a trial, and would take home a machine that very night. he accordingly brought over a machine to london, practised riding stealthily in some of the most out-of-the-way london streets, and soon gained sufficient confidence to appear in public. mr john mayall, jun., photographer, regent street, witnessed the arrival of one of the first bicycles at spencer's gymnasium, in old street, st luke's. 'it produced but little impression upon me,' he says, 'and certainly did not strike me as being a new means of locomotion. a slender young man, whom i soon came to know as mr turner of paris, followed the packing-case and superintended its opening. the gymnasium was cleared, mr turner took off his coat, grasped the handles of the machine, and, with a short run, to my intense surprise, vaulted on to it, and putting his feet on the treadle made the circuit of the room. we were some half-a-dozen spectators, and i shall never forget our astonishment at the sight of mr turner whirling himself round the room--sitting on a bar above a pair of wheels in a line, that ought, as we inadvertently supposed, to fall down as soon as he jumped off the ground.' it is almost laughable, now, to read how spencer at first always rode on the pavement, and how politely everybody cleared out of his way. even policeman x helped to make a passage for him. some wiseacre, on being quizzed as to the uses of this strange new machine, would reply, 'why, it is a machine for measuring roads, of course;' and a street arab would shout, 'oh, crikey, bill, 'ere's a lark. a swell a ridin' on two wheels. mind how you fall, sir,' &c. spencer's speed at first was but five miles an hour. soon there were many inquiries for this wonderful new aid to locomotion. spencer and turner entered heartily into the business. an order for machines was given to the coventry machinists' company in the end of . this was the firm with which mr james starley, inventor of the 'coventry tricycle,' was connected, and this order helped the start of what has grown to be an enormous and beneficial industry to the town of coventry. the account of feats of long-distance riding, of forty and fifty miles a day, got abroad--the feat by turner, spencer, and mayall particularly, in riding to brighton and back in a day, in february , further popularised cycling. charles dickens and james payn were amongst those who were bitten by the velocipede 'mania.' yet the bone-shaker craze might have died a natural death but for the introduction of the rubber tyre and other improvements. mr james starley, of coventry, through whose inventive genius the tricycle was evolved from the bicycle, was also an improver and pioneer. starley says of his improvements: 'i regarded the rider as the motive force; and believing it absolutely necessary that he should be so placed that he could exert the greatest amount of power on his pedals, with the least amount of fatigue to himself--believing, also, that the machine of the future must be so made that such essentials as the crank-shaft, pedals, seat, and handles could easily be made adjustable--i decided to change my shape, make my wheels of a good rolling size, place my crank-shaft as near the ground as safety would permit, connect my back wheel with my crank by means of a chain, so that the gear might be adjusted and varied at pleasure, and a short, strong man could ride with a fifty, a sixty, a seventy, or even a higher gear, while a tall, weak man could ride with a lower gear than the short, strong one; to give my saddle a vertical adjustment so that it could be raised or lowered at will; so to place my handles that they could be set forward or backward, raised or lowered, as might be desired; and finally, to make it impossible for the pedalling to interfere with the steering.' in the 'rover' bicycle he gave an impetus to the early history of the machine, which has been crowned in the pneumatic tyre, the invention of john boyd dunlop, born at dreghorn, ayrshire, in . mr dunlop was engaged as a veterinary surgeon near belfast, where he built himself an air-wheel from ordinary thin rubber sheets, with rubber valve and plug. mr c. k. welch followed with the detachable tyre. the big, ungainly looking wheels were at first laughed at, but when pneumatic tyred machines won race after race, they became the rage. and when the company formed to make the dunlop tyre sold their interest in the concern, in it was worth about £ , , . the capital originally subscribed was £ , , and £ , had been paid in dividends. a cycling tour is health-giving and enjoyable when gone about rationally and prudently. it is pleasant to plan, and no less so to carry out, as it is always the unexpected which happens. there are halts by the wayside, conversations with rustics, fine views; and every part of the brain and blood is oxygenated, giving that kind of wholesome intoxication which thoreau said he gained by living in the open air. one's own country is explored as it has never been explored before. some wheelmen have been credited with seven and eight thousand miles in a single season. others, more ambitious, have made a track round the globe. mr thomas stevens, starting from san francisco in april , occupied three years in going round the world. mr t. allen and mr l. sachtleben, two american students, as a practical finish to a theoretical education, occupied three years in riding round the world-- , miles on the wheel. they climbed mount ararat by the way, and interviewed li hung chang, the chinese viceroy. the wheel ridden by these 'foreign devils' was described by one chinaman as 'a little mule that you drive by the ears, and kick in the sides to make him go.' mr frank g. lenz, who started from america in june to ride round the world, was unfortunately killed by six kurds, sixty-five miles from erzeroum, between the villages of kurtali and dahar, on may , . there have been many interesting shorter rides. mr walter goddard of leeds, and mr james edmund of brixton, started from london and rode entirely round europe on wheels; mr hugh callan rode from glasgow to the river jordan; mr r. l. jefferson, in , rode from london to constantinople, between march and may . in the same gentleman rode from london to moscow, miles, and had nothing good to say of russian inns or roads. a lady of sixty has done seventy miles in one day; while an english lady tourist did twelve hundred miles in her various ups and downs between london and glasgow during one holiday. the lighter the machine, the more expensive it is. racing-machines are built as light as twenty pounds in weight. some of the swiftest road-riders patronise machines of twenty-six or twenty-seven pounds; but for all-round work, one of thirty-three pounds, without lamp or bell, is a good average machine. as to speed, we have had miles in the twenty-four hours on the racing-track, and miles on the road. huret, a french rider, has done miles between one midnight and another; the swiss cyclist lesna has done miles an hour; while mr mills and mr t. a. edge, in a ride from land's end to john o' groat's on a tandem, beat all previous records, doing the journey in three days four hours and forty-six minutes. a very sensible american rider, when on tour, starts shortly after breakfast, and with a brief rest for lunch, has his day's work of about fifty miles over by four p.m. then he changes underclothing--a most important and never-to-be-forgotten matter--has dinner, and an enjoyable ramble over the town or village where he stays over-night. but he is a luxurious dog, and not many will carry such an abundant kit in the triangular bag below the handle bar. imagine three light outing shirts, three suits, gauze underclothing, a dark flannel bicycle suit, laced tanned gaiters, light-weight rubber coat, comb; clothes, hair, and tooth brushes; soap and towel, writing-pad and pencil, map and matches, and tool bag! many a cyclist carries a hand camera, and brings home a permanent record of his journeys. it has been well said that many a boy will start in life with a more vigorous constitution because of the bicycle, and many a man who is growing old too fast by neglect of active exercise will find himself rejuvenated by the same agency. only let the getting over a certain distance within a certain time not be the main object. and winter riding, when the roads permit, need not be neglected, for nothing is more invigorating than a winter ride. the doctors tell us that as long as one can ride with the mouth shut, the heart is all right. a fillip should be given to the appetite; whenever this is destroyed, and sleeplessness ensues, cycling is being overdone. cycling, of course, as we have already said, is not all pleasure or romance. there is a considerable amount of hard work, with head-winds, rain, mud, hills, and misadventures through punctures of the tyre. this last may happen at the most inopportune time; but the cyclist is generally a philosopher, and sets about his repairs with a cool and easy mind. a word in closing about accidents, which are often due to carelessness and recklessness. a cyclist has no right to ride at ten or fourteen miles an hour in a crowded thoroughfare. he takes his life--and other people's!--in his hands if he does so. no less is caution needed on hills, the twists and turns in which are unseen or unfamiliar, and where the bottom of the incline cannot be seen. as the saying goes, 'better be a coward for half an hour than a corpse for the rest of your lifetime.' but experience is the best guide, and no hard-and-fast rules can be laid down for exceptional circumstances. [illustration: the dandy-horse.] [illustration] chapter viii. steamers and sailing-ships. early shipping--mediterranean trade--rise of the p. and o. and other lines--transatlantic lines--india and the east--early steamships--first steamer to cross the atlantic--rise of atlantic shipping lines--the _great eastern_ and the new cunarders _campania_ and _lucania_ compared--sailing-ships. the carrying-trade of the world. of all the industries of the world, that which is concerned with the interchange of the products of nations is suffused with the most interest for the largest number of people. not only is the number of those who go down into the sea in ships, and who do business on the great waters, legion, but three-fourths of the population of the globe are more or less dependent on their enterprise. the ocean-carrying trade we are accustomed to date from the time of the phoenicians; and certainly the phoenicians were daring mariners, if not exactly scientific navigators, and their ships were pretty well acquainted with the waters of europe and the coasts of africa. but the phoenicians were rather merchant-adventurers on their own account than ocean-carriers, as, for instance, the arabians were on the other side of africa, acting as the intermediaries of the trade between egypt and east africa and india. in the early days, too, there is reason to believe that the chinese were extensive ocean-carriers, sending their junks both to the arabian gulf and to the ports of hindustan, long before alexander the great invaded india. but there is nothing more remarkable in the history of maritime commerce than the manner in which it has changed hands. even down to the beginning of the present century, almost the whole of the carrying-trade of the baltic and the mediterranean was in the hands of the danes, norwegians, and germans, while our own harbours were crowded with foreign ships. this was one of the effects of our peculiar navigation laws, under which foreigners were so protected that there was hardly a trade open to british vessels. it is, indeed, just ninety years since british ship-owners made a formal and earnest appeal to the government to remove the existing shackles on the foreign trade of the country, and to promote the development of commerce with the american and west indian colonies. one argument of the time was the necessity for recovering and developing the mediterranean trade, as affording one of the best avenues for the employment of shipping and the promotion of international commerce. it was a trade of which england had a very considerable share in the time of henry vii., who may very fairly be regarded as the founder of british merchant shipping. he not only built ships for himself for trading purposes, but encouraged others to do so, and even lent them money for the purpose. and it was to the mediterranean that he chiefly directed his attention, in eager competition with the argosies of venice and genoa. there resulted a perfect fleet of what were called 'tall ships' engaged in carrying woollen fabrics and other british products to italy, sicily, syria, and the levant, and in bringing home cargoes of silk, cotton, wool, carpets, oil, spices, and wine. steam has worked a change in favour of this country nowhere more remarkable than in the mediterranean trade. when the trade began to revive for sailing-vessels, by a removal of some of the irksome restrictions, lisbon was the most important port on the iberian peninsula for british shipping. there was a weekly mail service by sailing-packets between falmouth and lisbon, until the admiralty put on a steamer. some time in the 'thirties,' two young scotchmen named brodie wilcox and arthur anderson had a small fleet of sailing-vessels engaged in the peninsular trade, and in the year they chartered the steamer _royal tar_ from the dublin and london steam-packet company. this was the beginning of the great peninsular and oriental steam navigation company, destined to revolutionise the carrying-trade both of the mediterranean and the east. when the spanish government negotiated for a line of steamers to be established between england and spain, wilcox and anderson took up the project, organised a small company, and acquired some steamers, which at first did not pay. they persevered, however, until shippers saw the superiority of the new vessels to the old sailers, and at last the peninsular company obtained the first mail-contract ever entered into by the english government. this was in ; the cunard and royal mail (west indian) lines were not established until . in a couple of years the peninsular company extended their line through the straits to malta and alexandria, and again to corfu and the levant. in they applied for and obtained a charter as the peninsular and oriental steam-navigation company, with the object of establishing a line of steamers on the other side of the isthmus of suez, from which have developed the great ramifications to india, china, japan, the straits settlements, and australia. it was, indeed, through the mediterranean that we obtained our first hold on the eastern carrying-trade. in considering the development of maritime commerce, it is always to be remembered that the design of columbus and the early navigators in sailing westwards was not to find america, but to find a new way to india and far cathay. mighty as america has become in the world's economy, its first occupation was only an incident in the struggle for the trade of the far east. but with the occupation of america came two new developments in this carrying-trade--namely, one across the atlantic, and one upon and across the pacific. to the eventful year in which so many great enterprises were founded--namely, --we trace the beginning of steam-carrying on the pacific, for in that year william wheelwright took or sent the first steamer round cape horn, as the pioneer of the great pacific steam-navigation company. within about a dozen years thereafter, the americans had some fifty steamers constantly engaged on the pacific coast of the two continents, besides those of the english company. out of one of those pacific lines grew commodore vanderbilt's nicaragua transit company, a double service of two lines of steamers, one on each side of the continent, with an overland connection through nicaragua. out of another grew the new york and san francisco line, connecting overland across the isthmus of panama--where m. de lesseps did _not_ succeed in cutting a canal. and out of yet another of those pacific enterprises, all stimulated by wheelwright's success, grew in the course of years a line between san francisco and hawaii, and another between san francisco and australia. some forty years ago the boats of this last-named line used to run down to panama to pick up passengers and traffic from europe, and it is interesting to recall that at that period the design was greatly favoured of a regular steam service between england and australia _viâ_ panama. a company was projected for the purpose; but it came to nothing, for various reasons not necessary to enter upon here. but as long ago as the early fifties, when the panama railway was in course of construction, there were eight separate lines of steamers on the atlantic meeting at aspinwall, and five on the pacific meeting at panama. later on, when the americans had completed their iron-roads from ocean to ocean across their own dominions, they started lines of steamers from san francisco to china and japan. and later still, when the canadian pacific railway was completed across canada, a british line of ships was started across the pacific to far cathay, and afterwards to australia and new zealand. so that the dream of the old navigators has, after all, been practically realised. the repeal of the corn laws gave an immense impetus to british shipping, by opening up new lines of traffic in grain with the ports of the baltic, the black sea, and egypt; and the extension of steamer communication created another new carrying-business in the transport of coals abroad to innumerable coaling stations. thus demand goes on creating supply, and supply in turn creating new demand. from the old fruit and grain sailers of the mediterranean trade have developed such extensive concerns as the cunard line (one of whose beginnings was a service of steamers between liverpool and havre), which now covers the whole mediterranean, and extends across the atlantic to new york and boston; the anchor line, which began with a couple of boats running between the clyde and the peninsula, and now covers all the mediterranean and adriatic, and extends from india to america; the bibby line, which began with a steamer between liverpool and marseilles, and now covers every part of the mediterranean (leyland line), and spreads out to burma and the straits. these are but a few of many examples of how the great carrying-lines of the world, east and west, have developed from modest enterprises in mid-europe. and even now the goods traffic between the mediterranean and the united kingdom, north europe and america, is less in the hands of these great lines than in that of the vast fleets of ocean tramps, both sail and steam. one of the most wonderful developments in the carrying-trade of the world is the concern known as the messageries maritimes of france--now probably the largest steamer-owning copartnery in the world. prior to the crimean war, there was an enterprise called the messageries impériales, which was engaged in the land-carriage of mails through france. in this company entered into a contract with the french government for the conveyance of mails to italy, egypt, greece, and the levant; and as years went on, the mail subsidies became so heavy that the enterprise was practically a national one. during the war, the messageries company's vessels were in such demand as transports, &c., that the company had to rapidly create a new fleet for mail purposes. with peace came the difficulty of employing the enormously augmented fleet. new lines of mail and cargo boats were therefore successively established between france and the danube and black sea; bordeaux and brazil and the river plate; marseilles and india and china, &c. in fact, the messageries company's ramifications now extend from france to great britain, south america, the whole of the mediterranean, the levant, the black sea, the red sea, the indian ocean and the china seas, and the south pacific. few people, perhaps, have any conception of the numbers of regular and highly organised lines of steamers now connecting europe and america. besides the messageries, the austro-hungarian lloyd's and the italian mail lines run between the mediterranean and the river plate. argentina and brazil are connected with different parts of europe by about a dozen lines. between the united states and europe there are now about thirty distinct regular lines of steamers carrying goods and passengers; and about a dozen more carrying goods only. four of these lines are direct with germany, two with france, two with holland, two with belgium, one with denmark, and two with italy, one of which is under the british flag. all the rest of the passenger lines and most of the cargo lines run between the united kingdom and the united states. as for the 'tramps' steaming and sailing between north america and europe, they are of all nations; but again the majority fly the british flag, though once upon a time the american-built clippers, of graceful lines and 'sky-scraping' masts, used to monopolise the american carrying-trade under the stars and stripes. once upon a time, too, these beautiful american clippers had the bulk of the china tea-trade, and of the anglo-australian general trade. but they were run off the face of the waters by the navigation laws of america and the shipping enterprise of britain. the great and growing trade between the united states and india, too, is now nearly all carried in british vessels; and a large part of the regular steam service between new york and the west indies is under the british flag. that a change will take place when america repeals the laws which forbid americans to own vessels built abroad or manned by foreigners is pretty certain. with regard to india, the growth in the carrying-trade has been enormous since vasco da gama, four hundred years ago, found his way round the cape of good hope to calicut. for an entire century, down to , the portuguese monopolised the trade of the east, and as many as two and three hundred of their ships would often be gathered together in the port of goa, taking in cargo for different eastern and european ports. to-day, goa is a deserted port, and the portuguese flag is rarely seen--a ship or two per annum now being sufficient for all the trade between portugal and india. in the century of portuguese prosperity the english flag was hardly known in eastern waters. it was the dutch who drove out the portuguese; and the reason why the dutch were tempted out to india was because the rich cargoes brought home by the portuguese could not be disposed of in portugal, and had to be taken to amsterdam, or rotterdam, or antwerp, where the opulent dutch merchants purchased them for redistribution throughout europe. this is how the dutch came into direct relations with the indian trade before the english, and why barentz and others tried to find a near way to india for the dutch vessels by way of the north of europe and asia. failing in the north, the dutch followed the portuguese round the cape, and reaching sumatra, founded the wide domain of netherlands-india. this occupation was effected before ; and between that year and they expelled the portuguese from every part of the eastern archipelago, from malacca, from ceylon, from the malabar coast, and from macassar. the dutch in turn enjoyed a monopoly of the indian trade for about a hundred years. then with the rise of clive came the downfall of the dutch, and by they were stripped of every possession they had in the east. later, we gave them back java and sumatra, with which holland now does a large trade, reserved exclusively to dutch vessels. but in india proper the dutch have not a single possession, and it is doubtful if in all the indian peninsula there are now a hundred dutchmen resident. two immense streams of trade are constantly setting to and from india and europe through the suez canal and round the cape. not only is the bulk of that trade conducted by the well-known peninsular and oriental, british india, city, clan, anchor, and other lines (though the messageries maritimes, north german lloyd's, and other foreign lines have no mean share), but the whole coast-line of india is served by the steamers of the british-india and asiatic lines; and british vessels conduct the most of the carrying-trade between india and australia, china, japan, the straits, mauritius, &c. a new carrying-trade was created when the australasian colonies were founded one after the other--in the taking out of home manufactures, implements, machinery, &c., and bringing back wool and tallow; and then gold, wheat, fruit, and frozen meat. this colonial trade is now divided between sailers and steamers, and in the steamer traffic some of the foreign lines are eagerly bidding for a share. similarly, a new carrying-trade has been of quite recent years developed by the opening up of south africa, and this is practically all in british hands. an important item of international carriage of recent development is the mineral oil of america and russia. the carriage of these oils is a trade of itself. another special branch of the world's carrying-trade is connected with the sea-fisheries. all the fishing-grounds of the atlantic and north sea may be said to be now connected with the consuming markets by services of steamers. the cod-fishers off the banks of newfoundland transfer their dried and salted fish to vessels which speed them to the good catholics of spain and france and italy, just as the steam auxiliaries bring to london the harvests gathered by the boats on the dogger bank. of late years not unsuccessful efforts have been made, especially by captain wiggins, to establish direct communication between great britain and the arctic coasts of russia once every summer. and hopes are entertained that on the completion of the railway from winnipeg to fort churchill, the greatly shorter sea-route _viâ_ hudson strait and hudson bay may greatly facilitate communication with manitoba and the canadian north-west. it is computed that on the great ocean highways there are not fewer than ten thousand large and highly-powered steamers constantly employed. if it be wondered how sailing-vessels can maintain a place at all in the race of competition in the world's carrying-trade, a word of explanation may be offered. do not suppose that only rough and low-valued cargo is left for the sailers. they still have the bulk of the cotton and wheat and other valuable products, not only because they can carry more cheaply, but because transport by sailing-vessels gives the merchant a wider choice of market. cargoes of staple products can always be sold 'to arrive' at some given port, and it is cheaper to put them afloat than to warehouse them ashore and wait for an order. what, then, are the proportions borne by the several maritime nations in this great international carrying-trade? the question is not one which can be answered with absolute precision, but the tables of the marine department of the board of trade enable one to find an approximate answer. in the tonnage of steam and sailing vessels of all nationalities in the foreign trade entering and clearing at ports in the united kingdom was , , , of which , , tons were british, and , , tons were foreign. in the foreign total, the largest proportions were norwegian, german, dutch, swedish, danish, and french. the teutonic races have thus the most of the ocean-carrying; the united states proportion of the above total was small. so far the united kingdom. now let us see what part british shipping plays in the foreign trade of other countries. we find that the total tonnage of the british empire was , , . the other principal maritime countries owned , , tons. therefore, roughly speaking, the british empire owns about five-elevenths of the entire shipping of the world. even so recently as thirty years ago, about two-thirds of the ocean-carrying trade was performed by sailing-vessels; to-day, about four-fifths of it is performed by steamers. the first steamer to cross the atlantic. the earliest steamers the world ever saw, not reckoning the experimental craft constructed by such men as fulton, bell, symington, and watt, were those employed in the transatlantic trade. as far back as the year , the yankee paddle-steamer _savannah_, of three hundred tons burden, crossed from the port of that name, in georgia, to liverpool. she occupied twenty-five days upon the passage; but, as she was fully rigged, and under all sail during at least two-thirds of the voyage, the merit of her performance, as an illustration of the superiority of the engine over canvas, is somewhat doubtful. yet she was beyond dispute the first steamer to accomplish a long sea-voyage, and to the americans belong the credit of her exploit. indeed, from the time of their last war with us, down to within a quarter of a century ago, our yankee neighbours generally seemed to be a little ahead of this country in maritime matters. they taught us a lesson in shipbuilding by their famous baltimore clippers, and they were the first to demonstrate in a practical manner, and to the complete capsizal of the learned dr lardner's theories, the possibility of employing steam for the purposes of ocean navigation. although in the _sirius_ and the _great western_ successfully made the journey from england to america, yet five years before that date, canadian enterprise accomplished the feat of bridging the atlantic ocean with a little vessel propelled wholly by steam. this was the _royal william_, whose beautiful model was exhibited at the british naval exhibition in london, where she attracted the attention and curiosity of the first seamen in the empire. the _royal william_--named in honour of the reigning sovereign--was built in the city of quebec by a scotchman, james goudie, who had served his time and learned his art at greenock. the keel was laid in the autumn of ; and her builder, then in his twenty-second year, writes: 'as i had the drawings and the form of the ship, at the time a novelty in construction, it devolved upon me to lay off and expand the draft to its full dimensions on the floor of the loft, where i made several alterations in the lines as improvements. the steamship being duly commenced, the work progressed rapidly; and in may following was duly launched, and before a large concourse of people was christened the _royal william_. she was then taken to montreal to have her engines, where i continued to superintend the finishing of the cabins and deck-work. when completed, she had her trial trip, which proved quite satisfactory. being late in the season before being completed, she only made a few trips to halifax.' the launching of this steamer was a great event in quebec. the governor-general, lord aylmer, and his wife were present, the latter giving the vessel her name. military bands supplied the music, and the shipping in the harbour was gay with bunting. the city itself wore a holiday look. the _royal william_, propelled by steam alone, traded between quebec and halifax. while at the last-named place, she attracted the notice of mr samuel cunard, afterwards sir samuel, the founder of the great trans-continental line which bears his name. it is said that the _royal william_ convinced him that steam was the coming force for ocean navigation. he asked many questions about her, took down the answers in his note-book, and subsequently became a large stockholder in the craft. the cholera of paralysed business in canada, and trade was at a standstill for a time. like other enterprises at this date, the _royal william_ experienced reverses, and she was doomed to be sold at sheriff's sale. some quebec gentlemen bought her in, and resolved to send her to england to be sold. in the eventful voyage to britain was made successfully, and without mishap of any kind. the _royal william's_ proportions were as follows: builder's measurement, tons; steamboat measurement, as per act of parliament, tons; length of keel, feet; length of deck from head to taffrail, feet; breadth of beam inside the paddle-boxes, feet inches; outside, feet inches; depth of hold, feet inches. on the th of august , commanded by captain john m'dougall, she left quebec, viâ pictou, nova scotia, for london, under steam, at five o'clock in the morning. she made the passage in twenty-five days. her supply of coal was chaldrons, or over tons. her captain wrote: 'she is justly entitled to be considered the first steamer that crossed the atlantic by steam, having steamed the whole way across.' about the end of september , the _royal william_ was disposed of for ten thousand pounds sterling, and chartered to the portuguese government to take out troops for dom pedro's service. portugal was asked to purchase her for the navy; but the admiral of the fleet, not thinking well of the scheme, declined to entertain the proposition. captain m'dougall was master of the steamer all this time. he returned with her to london with invalids and disbanded portuguese soldiers, and laid her up off deptford victualling office. in july, orders came to fit out the _royal william_ to run between oporto and lisbon. one trip was made between these ports, and also a trip to cadiz for specie for the portuguese government. on his return to lisbon, captain m'dougall was ordered to sell the steamer to the spanish government, through don evanston castor da perez, then the spanish ambassador to the court of lisbon. the transaction was completed on the th of september , when the _royal william_ became the _ysabel segunda_, and the first war-steamer the spaniards ever possessed. she was ordered to the north coast of spain against don carlos. captain m'dougall accepted the rank and pay of a commander, and, by special proviso, was guaranteed six hundred pounds per annum, and the contract to supply the squadron with provisions from lisbon. the _ysabel segunda_ proceeded to the north coast; and about the latter part of she returned to gravesend, to be delivered up to the british government, to be converted into a war-steamer at the imperial dockyard. the crew and officers were transferred to the _royal tar_, chartered and armed as a war-steamer, with six long thirty-two pounders, and named the _reyna governadoza_, the name intended for the _city of edinburgh_ steamer, which was chartered to form part of the squadron. when completed, she relieved the _royal tar_ and took her name. in his interesting letter, from which these facts are drawn, to robert christie, the canadian historian, captain m'dougall thus completes the story of the pioneer atlantic steamer: 'the _ysabel segunda_, when completed at sheerness dockyard, took out general alava, the spanish ambassador, and general evans and most of his staff officers, to saint andero, and afterwards to st sebastian, having hoisted the commodore's broad pennant again at saint andero; and was afterwards employed in cruising between that port and fuente arabia, and acting in concert with the legion against don carlos until the time of their service expired in . she was then sent to portsmouth with a part of those discharged from the service, and from thence she was taken to london, and detained in the city canal by commodore henry until the claims of the officers and crew on the spanish government were settled, which was ultimately accomplished by bills, and the officers and crew discharged from the spanish service about the latter end of , and _ysabel segunda_ delivered up to the spanish ambassador, and after having her engines repaired, returned to spain, and was soon afterwards sent to bordeaux, in france, to have the hull repaired. but on being surveyed, it was found that the timbers were so much decayed that it was decided to build a new vessel to receive the engines, which was built there, and called by the same name, and now [ ] forms one of the royal steam-navy of spain, while her predecessor was converted into a hulk at bordeaux.' this, in brief, is the history of the steamer which played so important a rôle in the maritime annals of canada, england, and spain. her model is safely stored in the rooms of the literary and historical society of quebec, where it is an object of profound veneration. at the request of the government, a copy of the model was made, and formed part of the canadian exhibit to the world's fair at chicago in . it was not, however, until five years later that the successful passages of two memorable vessels from england to america fairly established the era of what has been called the atlantic steam-ferry. these ships were respectively the _sirius_ and the _great western_. the former was a craft of about tons burden, with engines of three hundred and twenty horse-power: she sailed from cork on the th of april , under the command of lieutenant roberts, r.n., bound for new york. the latter vessel was a steamer of tons, builders' measurement, with engines of four hundred and forty horse-power: she was commanded by captain hoskins, r.n., and sailed from bristol on the th of april in the same year, bound likewise for new york. the _sirius_, it was calculated, had a start of her competitor by about seven hundred nautical miles; but it was known that her utmost capabilities of speed scarcely exceeded eight knots an hour; whilst the _great western_, on her trial trip from blackwall to gravesend, ran eleven knots an hour without difficulty. the issue of the race was therefore awaited with the utmost curiosity on both sides of the atlantic. contemporary records usually afford good evidence of the significance of past events, and the interest in this novel ocean match was prodigious, to judge from the accounts with which the liverpool and new york papers of the day teemed. the following is in brief the narrative of the voyage of these two famous ships across the western ocean. the _sirius_, after leaving cork on the th of april, encountered very heavy weather, which greatly retarded her progress. she arrived, however, off sandy hook on the evening of sunday, the d of april; but going aground, she did not get into the north river until the following morning. when it was known that she had arrived, new york grew instantly agitated with excitement. 'the news,' ran the account published by the _journal of commerce_ in the united states, 'spread like wildfire through the city, and the river became literally dotted all over with boats conveying the curious to and from the stranger. there seemed to be a universal voice in congratulation, and every visage was illuminated with delight. a tacit conviction seemed to pervade every bosom that a most doubtful problem had been satisfactorily solved; visions of future advantage to science, to commerce, to moral philosophy, began to float before the "mind's eye;" curiosity to travel through the old country, and to inspect ancient institutions, began to stimulate the inquiring. 'whilst all this was going on, suddenly there was seen over governor's island a dense black cloud of smoke spreading itself upward, and betokening another arrival. on it came with great rapidity, and about three o'clock in the afternoon its cause was made fully manifest to the accumulated multitudes at the battery. it was the steamship _great western_, of about tons burden (_sic_) [the difference probably lies between the net and the gross tonnage], under the command of lieutenant hoskins, r.n. she had left bristol on the th inst., and on the d was making her triumphant entry into the port of new york. this immense moving mass was propelled at a rapid rate through the waters of the bay; she passed swiftly and gracefully round the _sirius_, exchanging salutes with her, and then proceeded to her destined anchorage in the east river. if the public mind was stimulated by the arrival of the _sirius_, it became almost intoxicated with delight upon view of the superb _great western_. the latter vessel was only fourteen clear days out; and neither vessel had sustained a damage worth mentioning, notwithstanding that both had to encounter very heavy weather. the _sirius_ was spoken with on the th of april in latitude ° north, longitude ° west. the _great western_ was spoken on the th of april in latitude ° ´ north, longitude ° west. at these respective dates the _great western_ had run miles in seven days from king road; and the _sirius_ miles in ten days from cork. the _great western_ averaged - / miles per day, and the _sirius_ - / miles; _great western_ gained on the _sirius_ fifty-six miles per day. the _great western_ averaged seven and three-quarter miles per hour; the _sirius_ barely averaged five and a half miles per hour.' such was the first voyage made across the atlantic by these two early steamships, and there is something of the true philosophy of history to be found in the interest which their advent created. it is worthy of passing note to learn what ultimately became of these celebrated vessels. the _sirius_, not proving staunch enough for the atlantic surges, was sent to open steam-communication between london and st petersburg, in which trade she was for several years successfully employed. the _great western_ plied regularly from bristol to new york until the year , when she was sold to the royal mail company, and ran as one of their crack ships until , in which year she was broken up at vauxhall as being obsolete and unable profitably to compete with the new class of steamers being built. the success of these two vessels may be said to have completely established steam as a condition of the transatlantic navigation of the future. 'in october ,' says lindsay, in his _history of merchant shipping_, 'sir john tobin, a well-known merchant of liverpool, seeing the importance of the intercourse now rapidly increasing between the old and new worlds, despatched on his own account a steamer to new york. she was built at liverpool, after which place she was named, and made the passage outwards in sixteen and a half days. it was now clearly proved that the service could be performed, not merely with profit to those who engaged in it, but with a regularity and speed which the finest description of sailing-vessels could not be expected to accomplish. if any doubts still existed on these important points, the second voyage of the _great western_ set them at rest, she having on this occasion accomplished the outward passage in fourteen days sixteen hours, bringing with her the advices of the fastest american sailing-ships which had sailed from new york long before her, and thus proving the necessity of having the mails in future conveyed by steamers.' in fact, as early as october , the british government, being satisfied of the superiority of steam-packets over sailing-ships, issued advertisements inviting tenders for the conveyance of the american mails by the former class of vessels. the owners of the _great western_, big with confidence in the reputation of that ship, applied for the contract; but, not a little to their chagrin, it was awarded to mr (afterwards sir samuel) cunard, who as far back as had proposed the establishment of a steam mail service across the atlantic. the terms of the original contract were, that for the sum of fifty-five thousand pounds per annum, messrs cunard, burns, and maciver should supply three ships suitable for the purpose, and accomplish two voyages each month between liverpool and the united states, leaving england at certain periods; but shortly afterwards it was deemed more expedient to name fixed dates of departure on both sides of the western ocean. subsequently, another ship was required to be added to the service, and the amount of the subsidy was raised to eighty-one thousand pounds a year. the steam mail service between liverpool, halifax, and boston was regularly established in , the first vessel engaged in it being the _britannia_, the pioneer ship of the present cunard line. we get an admirable idea of what these early steamships were from dickens's account of this same _britannia_, which was the vessel he crossed to america in on his first visit to that country in . in one of his letters to john forster, describing a storm they were overtaken by, he unconsciously reflects the wondering regard with which the world still viewed the triumphant achievements of the marine engine. 'for two or three hours,' he writes, 'we gave it up as a lost thing. this was not the exaggerated apprehension of a landsman merely. the head-engineer, who had been in one or the other of the cunard vessels since they began running, had never seen such stress of weather; and i afterwards heard captain hewitt say that nothing but a steamer, and one of that strength, could have kept her course and stood it out. a sailing-vessel must have beaten off and driven where she would; while through all the fury of that gale they actually made fifty-four miles headlong through the tempest, straight on end, not varying their track in the least.' what would the skipper of one of the modern 'atlantic greyhounds' think of such a feat? and, more interesting speculation still, what must dickens himself have thought of the performances he lived to witness as against this astonishing accomplishment on the part of the old _britannia_? there exists a tendency to ridicule the early steamers as they appear in portraits, with their huge paddle-boxes; tall, thin, dog-eared funnels; and heavily-rigged masts, as though their engines were regarded as quite auxiliary to their sail-power, and by no means to be relied upon. contrasted with some of the leviathans of the present day, the steamers of half a century ago are no longer calculated to strike an awe into the beholder; but, in truth, some very fine vessels were built whilst the marine engine was still quite in its infancy. in a volume of the _railway magazine_ for is an account of what are termed colossal steamers. 'an immense steamer,' runs the description, 'upwards of two hundred feet long, was lately launched at bristol, for plying between england and america; but the one now building at carling & co.'s, limehouse, for the american steam-navigation company, surpasses anything of the kind hitherto made. she is to be named after our queen, the _victoria_; will cost from eighty to one hundred thousand pounds, has about one hundred and fifty men now employed daily upon her, and is expected to be finished in november next. the extreme length is about feet; but she is feet between the perpendiculars, - / feet beam between the paddle-boxes, and twenty-seven feet one inch deep from the floor to the inner side of the spar-deck. the engines are two, of horse-power each, with six feet four inch cylinders, and seven feet stroke. they are to be fitted with hall's patent condensers, in addition to the common ones. she displaces at sixteen feet tons of water; her computed tonnage is tons. at the water-line every additional inch displaces eighteen and a half tons. the average speed is expected to be about two hundred nautical miles a day, and consumption of coal about thirty tons. the best welsh coal is to be used. it is calculated she will make the outward passage to new york in eighteen days, and the homeward in twelve, consuming tons of coal out, and home. expectation is on tiptoe for the first voyage of this gigantic steamer, alongside of which other steamers look like little fishing-boats.' the next route on which steam-navigation was opened, following upon that of the north atlantic passage, was between great britain and india. the steamers of the honourable company had indeed doubled the cape nearly two years before the _sirius_ and _great western_ sailed upon their first trip. the _nautical magazine_ for contains the original prospectus issued by a syndicate of london merchants upon the subject of steam-communication with the east indies. as an illustration of the almost incredible strides that have been made in ocean travelling since that period, this piece of literature is most instructive. the circular opens by announcing that it is proposed to establish steam traffic with india, extending, perhaps, even to australia! it points out in sanguine terms how those distant parts of the earth, by the contemplated arrangement, 'will be reached at the outset in the short period of seventy-three days; and, when experience is obtained, this time will in all probability be reduced by one-third; shortening the distance by the route in question, from england to australia, in forty days' steaming, at ten miles an hour. if two days be allowed for stoppages at stations, not averaging more than a thousand miles apart throughout the line, the whole time for passing between the extreme points would only be sixty days, but a relay of vessels will follow, if the undertaking be matured, in which case twenty-four hours will be ample time at the depots, and a communication may be expected to be established, and kept up throughout the year, between england and australia, in fifty days. it is reasonably expected that bombay will be reached in forty-eight days, madras in fifty-five, calcutta in fifty-nine, penang in fifty-seven, singapore in sixty, batavia in sixty-two, canton in sixty-eight, and mauritius in fifty-four days.' the _nautical magazine_ writer gravely comments upon this scheme as quite plausible. he is indeed inclined to be anticipatory. instead of seventy-three days to australia, he is of opinion that the voyage may ultimately be accomplished in fifty, and that the table of time generally may be reduced by about one-third throughout; although, to qualify his somewhat daring speculations, he admits that it is well to base the calculations on the safe side. but the honourable east india company asserted their prerogatives, and put a stop to the scheme of the new bengal steam company, as the undertaking was to have been called. this raised a strong feeling of dissatisfaction, and the court of directors was obliged to provide a substitute in lieu of the new line they had refused to sanction. their own homely, lubberly craft were quite unequal to the requirements of 'prompt despatch' which even then was beginning to agitate the public mind. the possibility of establishing steam-communication between england and india had been clearly demonstrated as early as the year , when the _enterprise_, of tons and horse-power, sailed from london on the th of august, and arrived in calcutta on the seventh of december. she was the first steamer to make the passage from this country to our great eastern empire; the first, indeed, ever to double the stormy headland of the cape. but it was not until the people of india began to petition and the merchants of london to clamour for the adoption of steam-power in the indian navigation that the conservative old magnates of john company were stimulated into action. lieutenant waghorn's overland route had almost entirely superseded the sea-voyage by way of the cape; but the want of an efficient packet service between london and alexandria, and suez and bombay, was greatly felt. accordingly, in december , the steamship _atalanta_ was despatched from falmouth to ply on the indian side of the route. she was a vessel of tons burden, with engines of horse-power, and was built at blackwall by the once famous firm of wigram & green. the orders of captain campbell, who commanded her, were that he was to steam the whole distance, only resorting to sail-power in case of a failure of machinery, in order fully to test the superiority of the marine engine over canvas. she sustained an average speed of about eight knots an hour during the entire passage, and but for her repeated stoppages would undoubtedly have accomplished the quickest voyage yet made to india. she was followed, in march , by the _bernice_, of tons and horse-power. this vessel, which likewise made the run without the assistance of her sails, left falmouth on march , and arrived at bombay on the th of june. as the race between the _sirius_ and the _great western_ may be said to have inaugurated the steam-navigation of the atlantic, so did the voyages of the _atalanta_ and _bernice_ first establish regular communication by steamers between great britain and india. true, there had been desultory efforts of enterprise prior to this time, and the pioneer of the peninsular and oriental steamers, the _royal tar_, had sailed some three years before; but there was no continual service. the _times_ of november , , pointed out the approaching change. 'scarcely,' it says, 'has the wonder created in the world by the appearance of the _great western_ and _british queen_ begun to subside, when we are again called upon to admire the rapid strides of enterprise by the notice of an iron steamship, the first of a line of steamers to ply between england and calcutta, to be called the _queen of the east_, tons, and horse-power. this magnificent vessel is designed by mr w. d. holmes, engineer to the bengal steam committee, for a communication between england and india. great praise is due to captain barber, late of the honourable east india company's service, the agent in london for the steam committee in bengal, who has given every encouragement to mr holmes in carrying forward his splendid undertaking. when these vessels are ready, we understand the voyage between falmouth and calcutta will be made in thirty days.' from this time ocean steamers multiplied rapidly. one after another of the now famous shipping firms sprang up, beginning with the cunard and the peninsular and oriental lines. the first british steamship was registered at london in the year : in there were steamers registered; and already was the decay of the sailing-ship so largely anticipated, that mr sydney herbert, in a committee of the house of commons, had this same year pointed out 'that the introduction of steamers, and the consequent displacement of the leith smacks, margate hoys, &c., would diminish the nursery for seamen by lessening the number of sailing-vessels.' the new cunarders. less than fifty years ago the eastern steam-navigation company having failed to obtain the contract to carry the mails from plymouth to india and australia--in vessels of from twelve hundred to two thousand tons, with engines of from four to six hundred horse-power, which were never built--began to consider a new enterprise, suggested by the late isambard k. brunei. this was to build the largest steamer ever yet constructed, to trade with india round the cape of good hope. the general commercial idea was, that this leviathan vessel was to carry leviathan cargoes at large freights and great speed, to ceylon, where the goods and passengers would be rapidly trans-shipped to smaller swift steamers for conveyance to various destinations in india, china, and australia. the general mechanical idea was, that in order to obtain great velocity in steamers it was only necessary to make them large--that, in fact, there need be no limit to the size of a vessel beyond what might be imposed by the tenacity of material. on what was called the tubular principle, brunei argued--and proved to the satisfaction of numerous experts and capitalists--that it was possible to construct a vessel of six times the capacity of the largest vessel then afloat that would steam at a speed unattainable by smaller vessels, while carrying, besides cargo, all the coal she would require for the longest voyage. thus originated the _great eastern_, which never went to india, which ruined two or three companies in succession, which cost £ , to launch, which probably earned more as a show than ever she did as an ocean-carrier--except in the matter of telegraph cables--and which ignobly ended a disastrous career by being sold for £ , , and broken up at new ferry, on the mersey. we are now entering upon a new era of big ships, in which such a monster as the _great eastern_ would be no longer a wonder. two additions to the cunard fleet, the _campania_ ( ) and _lucania_ ( ), are within a trifle as large as she, but with infinitely more powerful engines and incomparably greater speed. we need not suppose, however, that the idea of big ocean steamers has been the monopoly of this country. so long ago as or thereabouts, mr randall, a famous american shipbuilder, designed, drafted, and constructed the model of a steamer for transatlantic service, feet long by feet beam, to measure tons. a company was formed in philadelphia in to carry out the project; but the civil war broke out soon after, and she was never built. the _great eastern_ was launched in january , and her principal dimensions were these: length between perpendiculars, feet; breadth of beam, feet; length of principal saloons, feet; tonnage capacity for cargo and coals, , tons; weight of ship as launched, , tons; accommodation for passengers, ( ) , ( ) , ( ) = ; total horse-power, . she had both screw and paddles for propulsion, and her displacement was , tons. by this time the cunard company had been eighteen years in existence. they started in with the _britannia_--quickly followed by the _acadia_, _columbia_, and _caledonia_, all more or less alike--which was a paddle-steamer of wood, feet long, feet broad, feet deep, and of tons, with side-lever engines developing indicated horse-power, which propelled the vessel at the average speed of nine knots an hour. there was accommodation for tons of cargo and cabin passengers--no steerage in those days--who paid thirty-four guineas to halifax and thirty-eight guineas to boston, for passage, including provisions and wine. at the time of the _great eastern_ the latest type of cunarder was the _persia_, and it is interesting to note the development in the interim. this vessel was feet long, feet broad, feet deep, of tons, with engines developing indicated horse-power, propelling at the rate of thirteen and a half knots an hour. the _persia_ and the _scotia_, sister-ships, were the last of the atlantic side-wheelers. in the first screw-steamer was added to the cunard fleet. this was the _china_, built by the napiers of glasgow, feet long by - / feet broad, and - / feet deep, of tons, and with an average speed of about twelve knots. such was the type of cunarder in the early days of the _great eastern_, whose dimensions have now been nearly reached. the _campania_, however, was not built with a view to outshine that huge failure, but is the outcome of a wholly different competition. the _campania_ and the _lucania_ represent the highest development of marine architecture and engineering skill, and are the product of long years of rivalry for the possession of the 'blue ribbon' of the transatlantic race. [illustration: the _great eastern_ and the _persia_.] the competition is of ancient date, if we go back to the days when the american 'collins' company tried to run the cunard company off the waters; and during the half-century since the inauguration of steam service the cunard company have sometimes held and sometimes lost the highest place for speed. the period of steam-racing--the age of 'atlantic greyhounds'--may be said to have begun in the year , when the cunard _gallia_, the guion _arizona_, and the white star _britannic_ and _germanic_ had all entered upon their famous careers. it is matter of history now how the _arizona_--called the 'fairfield flyer,' because she was built by messrs john elder & company, of fairfield, glasgow--beat the record in an eastward run of seven days twelve and a half hours, and a westward run of seven days ten and three-quarter hours. to beat the _arizona_, the cunard company built the _servia_, of tons and , horse-power; but she in turn was beaten by another fairfield flyer, the _alaska_, under the guion flag. the race continued year by year, as vessels of increasing size and power were entered by the competing companies. while all the lines compete in swiftness, luxury, and efficiency, the keenest rivalry is now between the cunard and the white star companies. and just as the _campania_ and _lucania_ were built to eclipse the renowned _teutonic_ and _majestic_, so the owners of these boats prepared to surpass even the two cunarders we describe. let us now see something of these marvels of marine architecture. they are sister-ships, both built on the clyde by the fairfield shipbuilding and engineering company, and both laid down almost simultaneously. they are almost identical in dimensions and appointments, and therefore we may confine our description to the _campania_, which was the first of the twins to be ready for sea. this largest vessel afloat does not mark any new departure in general type, as the _great eastern_ did in differing from all types of construction then familiar. in outward appearance, the _campania_, as she lies upon the water, and as seen at a sufficient distance, is just like numbers of other vessels we have all seen. nor does her immense size at first impress the observer, because of the beautiful proportions on which she is planned. her lines are eminently what the nautical enthusiast calls 'sweet;' and in her own class of naval art she is as perfect a specimen of architectural beauty as the finest of the grand old clippers which used to 'walk the waters as a thing of life.' the colossal size of st peter's at rome does not strike you as you enter, because of the exquisite proportions. and so with the _campania_--you need to see an ordinary merchant-ship, or even a full-blown liner, alongside before you can realise how vast she is. yet she is only feet shorter than the mammoth _great eastern_, and measures feet in length, feet inches in breadth, and feet in depth from the upper deck. her tonnage is , , while that of the _great eastern_ was , ; but then her horse-power is , as against the _great eastern's_ ! this enormous development of engine-power is perhaps the most remarkable feature about these two new vessels. each of them is fitted with two sets of the most powerful triple-expansion engines ever put together. a visit to the engine-room is a liberal education in the mechanical arts, and even to the eye of the uninitiated there is the predominant impression of perfect order in the bewildering arrangement of pipes, rods, cranks, levers, wheels, and cylinders. the two sets of engines are placed in two separate rooms on each side of a centre-line bulkhead fitted with water-tight doors for intercommunication. each set has five inverted cylinders which have exactly the same stroke, and work on three cranks. two of the cylinders are high-pressure, one is intermediate, and two are low-pressure. besides the main engines, there are engines for reversing, for driving the centrifugal pumps for the condensers, for the electric light, for the refrigerating chambers, and for a number of other purposes--all perfect in appointment and finish. in fact, in these vast engine-rooms one is best able to realise not only the immense size and power of the vessel, but also the perfection to which human ingenuity has attained after generations of ceaseless toil--and yet it is only half a century since the _britannia_ began the transatlantic race. each of the various engines has its own steam-supplier. the main engines are fed by twelve double-ended boilers, arranged in rows of six on each side of a water-tight bulkhead. the boilers are heated by ninety-six furnaces, and each set of six boilers has a funnel with the diameter of an ordinary railway tunnel. in the construction of these boilers some eight hundred tons of steel were required, the plates weighing four tons each, with a thickness of an inch and a half. from these mighty machines will be developed a power equal to that of , horses! compare this with the _great eastern's_ horse-power, or even with the later 'greyhounds.' the greatest power developed by the two previous additions to the cunard fleet, the _etruria_ and _umbria_, is about , horses, which is the utmost recorded by any single-screw engines. the _city of paris_ has a power of , , and the _teutonic_ a power of , by twin-screw engines. the _campania_, therefore, is upwards of half as much again more powerful than the largest, swiftest, and most powerful of her predecessors. these engines of the _campania_ work two long propeller-shafts, each carried through an aperture in the stern close to the centre-line, and fitted to a screw. unlike other twin-screw vessels, the propellers and shafts are, as it were, carried within the hull, and not in separate structures. abaft of the screws, the rudder is completely submerged, and is a great mass of steel-plating weighing about twenty-four tons. with a straight stem, an elliptic stern, two huge funnels, and a couple of pole-masts--intended more for signalling purposes than for canvas--the _campania_ looks thoroughly business-like, and has none of the over-elaborated get-up of the _great eastern_, with her double system of propulsion and small forest of masts. the bulwarks are close fore and aft; and from the upper deck rise two tiers of houses, the roofs of which form the promenade deck and the shade deck. in the structure of the hull and decks enormous strength has been given, with special protection at vital parts, as the vessel is built in compliance with the admiralty requirements for armed cruisers. below the line of vision are four other complete tiers of beams, plated with steel sheathed in wood, on which rest upper, main, lower, and orlop decks. the last is for cargo, refrigerating-chambers, stores, &c.--all the others are devoted to the accommodation of passengers. the _campania_ is fitted to carry first-class passengers, second-class, and steerage passengers--in all, , besides a crew of . she has cargo-space for tons, which seems a trifle in comparison with her size, but then it is to be remembered that the fuel consumption of those furnaces is enormous, and requires the carrying of a very heavy cargo of coals for internal consumption. [illustration: the _campania_.] the accommodation for passengers is probably the most perfect that has yet been provided on an ocean steamer, for here the experience of all previous developments has been utilised. the dining-room is an apartment feet long and feet broad, furnished in handsome dark old mahogany, to seat persons. the upholstery is tastefully designed, and the fittings generally are elegant; but the peculiar feature is a splendid dome rising to a height of thirty-three feet from the floor to the upper deck, and designed to light both the dining-room and the drawing-room on the deck above it. the grand staircase which conducts to these apartments is of teak-wood; the drawing-room is in satin-wood relieved with cedar and painted frieze panels. the smoking-room on the promenade deck is as unlike a ship's cabin as can be imagined; it is, in fact, a reproduction of an old baronial hall of the elizabethan age, with oaken furniture and carvings. the other public apartments, library, boudoir, &c., are all more remarkable for quiet taste and artistic effect than for the gorgeousness of gilded saloons affected on some lines, but the prevailing feeling is one of luxurious comfort. the staterooms for first-class passengers occupy the main, upper, and promenade decks, and they are as much like real bedrooms as the old type of 'berths' are not. besides the single bedrooms, there are suites of rooms for families or parties, finely appointed with ornamental woods, rich carpets, and with brass bedsteads instead of the old wooden bunks. all the sleeping-rooms are as light, lofty, and well ventilated as the sleeping-rooms on the old liners were the reverse. the first-class passengers are placed amidships; the second-class are placed aft; and the steerage, forward. the steerage accommodation is superior to anything yet provided in that class; while the second-class accommodation is quite up to the usual first-class, with spacious, beautifully furnished staterooms, a handsome dining-room in oak, an elegant drawing-room in satin-wood, and a cosy smoking-room. indeed, some of the second-class apartments look as if they were intended to be utilised for first-class passengers in times of extra pressure. these are details of interest to possible passengers and to those who have already experienced the comforts and discomforts of the atlantic voyage. but the great interest of the ship, of course, is in her immense size and enormous power. the navigating-bridge from which the officer in charge will direct operations, is no less than sixty feet above the water-level, and from there one obtains a survey unique of its kind. the towering height, the vast expanse of deck, the huge circumference of the funnels, the forest of ventilators indicative of the hives of industry below, the great lighthouse structures which take the place of the old angle-bedded side-lights--everything beneath you speaks of power and speed, of strength and security. the following table shows at a glance how the _campania_ compares with her largest predecessors in point of size and power: tonnage. length breadth horsepower. in feet. in feet. great eastern , , britannic , , arizona , , servia , , alaska , , city of rome , , aurania , , oregon , , america , , umbria , , etruria , , city of paris , , teutonic , - / , normannia ---- - / , campania } lucania } , , as to speed, the record of course has been broken. in the average passage of a cunarder westward was thirteen days, and eastward twelve days sixteen hours; in , the average was reduced to seven days fifteen hours twenty-three minutes, and seven days four hours and fifty-two minutes, respectively. the fastest individual passages down to were made by the _etruria_, westwards in six days one hour and forty-seven minutes; and by the _umbria_, eastwards in six days three hours and seventeen minutes. but these were beaten by the _teutonic_, which reduced the homeward record to five days and twenty-one hours; and by the _city of paris_, which reduced the outward passage to five days and sixteen hours. roughly speaking, these new cunarders are about ten times the size and forty times the power of the pioneers of the fleet, and the _campania_ will run every twenty minutes almost as many miles as the _britannia_ could laboriously make in an hour. is it possible that within the next fifty years we shall be able to make the voyage to new york in three days? the old _britannia_ took fourteen days to boston, and it was not until that the ten days' record to new york was broken by the 'collins' company. if, then, in forty years we reduced the record from ten to five, who can say that the limit of speed has yet been reached? sailing-ships. a modern sailing-ship replete with labour-saving appliances is a veritable triumph of the naval architect's art, and an excellent object lesson on man's power over the forces of nature. if christopher columbus could revisit our planet from the shades, he would doubtless be astonished by a critical comparison between the tiny wooden caravel with which he discovered a new world, and a leviathan four-masted steel sailing-ship, now navigated in comparative comfort to every possible port where freight is obtainable. wooden cargo-carrying craft impelled by the unbought wind are surely diminishing in numbers; and in the near future it is not improbable that a stately sailing-ship will be as seldom seen on the waste of waters as a screw steamship was half a century ago. even looking leisurely backward down the imposing vista of the last thirty years of the victorian era, it will be readily perceived with what marvellous mastery iron and steel have supplanted, not only wood in the hulls, masts, and yards of sailing-ships, but also hemp in their rigging. [illustration: clipper sailing-ship of - .] a radical revolution has been effected in the form, size, and construction of these cargo-carriers during such a relatively insignificant interval, and the end is not yet. the old-fashioned type of wooden merchantman remained practically invariable for more than a hundred years; but change is all-powerful at present, so that a vessel is almost of a bygone age before she shall have completed her maiden voyage. it would appear, however, that the limit of size has been reached. ship-owning firms and shipbuilders will probably soon be compelled to keep the modern steel sailing-ship within more moderate dimensions. vessels of exceptionally large carrying capacity are in demand owing to the fact that experience proves them to be the best kind for affording a fair return to the capital invested. salvage appliances and docks do not keep pace with the requirements of such leviathans; so that underwriters evince an increasing dislike to big ships, and the premium for insurance rises accordingly, to compensate for extra risk. many mariners and some shipbuilders were at one time quick to express a pronounced opinion that it was quite unnatural for an iron ship to remain afloat. wood was made to swim, but iron to sink, said these sincere but mistaken admirers of the good old days. their misgivings have proved to be without foundation in fact, for iron ships have ousted wooden craft almost utterly from the ocean-carrying traffic. iron has also reached its meridian altitude, and steel is rapidly rising above the horizon of progress. the shipbuilding yards of nova scotia, canada, the united states of america, and british columbia, however, still launch wooden sailing-vessels, although in decreasing numbers, and, as a rule, of inconsiderable tonnage. it seems scarcely credible that only as recently as there were not more than ten sailing-ships afloat of two thousand tons register and upwards under the red ensign of the british mercantile marine. to-day we have more than that number of splendid steel sailing-ships, each having a register tonnage in excess of three thousand. during the twelve months of there were turned out from one yard alone on the clyde, that of messrs russell & co., no fewer than thirteen huge sailing-vessels, varying in register tonnage from two thousand three hundred to three thousand five hundred! one of the largest wooden sailing-ships afloat in was the _british empire_, of two thousand seven hundred tons register, which, under the command of captain a. pearson, was an ark of safety to the families of european residents in bombay during the indian mutiny. she had been originally intended for a steamship, and this will account for her exceptional dimensions. the shipbuilding firm of a. sewall & co., of bath, maine, u.s.a., in built the _rappahannock_, of tons register; in , the _shenandoah_, tons; in , the _susquehanna_, tons; and in , the _roanoke_, of tons register. several cities claim to be the birthplace of homer, and there exists similar rivalry with respect to the first iron ship. this at least is certain, that the first iron vessel classed by lloyd's was the british barque _ironsides_, in . she was but tons register. the clyde stands _facile princeps_ in this most important branch of industry. vessels built on the banks of that river have rendered a praiseworthy account of themselves on every sea and under every flag. no other country, save ourselves, launched any iron or steel ships of tons register or above, but preferred to obtain them from our shipbuilding yards. the so-called protection of native industry principle prevailing in america precludes ship-owners over there from taking advantage directly of the cheapest market. several of the large sailers, however, built on the clyde for citizens of the united states are therefore necessarily sailed under the british, hawaiian, or some flag other than that of the country to which they actually belong. the number of seamen carried per one hundred tons in the modern four-masted sailing-ship is cut down to the uttermost limit consistent with safety; and, as a consequence, dismasting and tedious passages are not infrequent. the _hawaiian isles_, tons register, a united states ship under a foreign flag, bound to california with a cargo of coal, found it impossible to weather cape horn by reason of violent westerly gales. she was turned round, ran along the lone southern ocean, before the 'brave west winds' so admirably described by maury, and eventually reached her destination by the route leading south of australia. she was one hundred and eighty-nine days on the passage, and no fewer than sixty guineas per cent. had been freely paid for her re-insurance. a similar ship, the _john ena_, carrying a substantial cargo of tons of coal from barry to san francisco, also encountered bad weather, made a long passage, and twenty guineas per cent. was paid on her for re-insurance. another new ship, the _achnashie_, tons register, got into still more serious difficulty under like circumstances. she had to put back to cape town, damaged and leaky, after attempting in vain to contend against the bitter blast off cape horn. there, her cargo was discharged, and she went into dry-dock for the absolutely necessary repairs. the _austrasia_, tons register, was almost totally dismasted near the island of tristan da cunha, in the south atlantic, on her maiden passage, while bound from liverpool to calcutta with a cargo of salt. by dint of sterling seamanship she was brought to rio janeiro in safety, returned to liverpool under improvised masts, discharged her cargo, refitted, took in quite a different cargo at london, and sailed for california. the _somali_, tons register, the largest sailing-ship launched in , was dismasted in the china sea. everything above the lower masts had to be made for her on the clyde; yet, within fifteen days of the order being received by messrs russell & co., the spars and gear were completed and shipped for passage to the _somali_ at hong-kong. underwriters suffer severely with such ships. one of the largest sailing-ships afloat is the french five-master, _la france_, launched in on the clyde, and owned by messrs a. d. bordes et fils, who possess a large fleet of sailing-vessels. in she came from iquique to dunkirk in one hundred and five days with tons of nitrate; yet she was stopped on the tyne when proceeding to sea with tons of coal, and compelled to take out tons on the ground that she was overladen. there is not a single five-masted sailing-ship under the british flag. the united states has two five-masters, the _louis_ of tons, and the _gov. ames_ of tons, both fore-and-aft schooners, a rig peculiar to the american coast. ships having five masts can be counted on the fingers of one hand; but, strange to say, the steamship _coptic_, of the shaw, savill, & albion co., on her way to new zealand, in december , passed the _gov. ames_ in fourteen degrees south, thirty-four degrees west, bound for california; and two days later, in six degrees south, thirty-one degrees west, the french five-master, _la france_, bound south. passengers and crew of the _coptic_ might travel over many a weary league of sea, and never again be afforded two such excellent object lessons in the growth of sailing-ships in quick succession. some large sailing-ships experience a decided difficulty in obtaining freights that will repay expenses, even ignoring a margin for profit, and we are reluctantly compelled to confess that the days of sailing-ships are almost numbered. the cry for huge sailers is an evidence that steam is determining the dimensions of the most modern cargo-carriers under sail. [illustration: _la france._] [illustration] chapter ix. post-office--telegraph--telephone--phonograph. rowland hill and penny postage--a visit to the post-office--the post-office on wheels--early telegraphs--wheatstone and morse--the state and the telegraphs--atlantic cables--telephones--edison and the phonograph. the story of rowland hill and penny postage. the story of penny postage and its inception by sir rowland hill is full of romantic interest, and that great social reform, introduced more than fifty years ago, has unquestionably spread its beneficial influence over every country in which a postal system of any kind exists. the hill family were, we know, in those bygone days far from being well off, and were often hard put to to find the money to pay the high postage on letters which they received. born in , rowland hill was considerably past middle life before he entertained any idea of practising his reforming hand on the post-office, and had passed a busy existence chiefly as a schoolmaster, in which capacity he had indulged in many schemes, scholastic and otherwise, with more or less success. at the time that his attention was first directed to post-office matters, he was employed as secretary of the commissioners for the colonisation of south australia. he was no doubt attracted to the subject of postal reform by the frequent discussions which were then taking place in parliament in regard to the matter. mr wallace of kelly, the member for greenock, who was the champion of the cause in the house of commons, was fierce in his denunciation of the existing abuses and irregularities of the post, and subsequently proved a strong and able advocate of the scheme for postage reform. once arrested by the subject which has since made his life famous, rowland hill went to work in a very systematic manner. firstly, he read very carefully all the reports relative to the post-office; then he placed himself in communication with mr wallace and the postmaster-general, both of whom readily supplied him with all necessary information. in this manner he made himself acquainted with his subject, with the result that, in , he published his famous pamphlet on _post-office reform: its importance and practicability_, the first edition being circulated privately amongst the members of parliament and official people; while some months later a second edition was published which was given to the public. we have to remember that at this time the postage charges were enormously high, that they depended not upon weight alone, but also upon the number of enclosures, and that they varied according to distance. thus, for example, a letter under one ounce in weight and with one enclosure (that is, sheet or scrap of paper) posted in london for delivery within the metropolitan area, or even, we believe, fifteen miles out, cost d.; if for delivery thirty miles out, d.; eighty miles out, d.; and so on. again, as showing how the charges according to enclosure operated, a letter with a single enclosure from london to edinburgh was charged s. - / d.; if double, s. d.; and if treble, s. - / d. moreover, the charges were not consistently made, for whereas an edinburgh letter (posted in london) was charged s. - / d., a letter for louth, which cost the post-office fifty times as much as the former letter, was only charged d. the public, however, found means of their own of remedying the evil, which, if not wholly legitimate, were under the circumstances to be regarded with some degree of leniency. letter-smuggling was a not unnatural result of the high and disproportionate charges referred to, and was almost openly adopted to an extent that is hardly credible. thus, many manchester merchants--mr cobden amongst the number--stated before the post-office inquiry committee appointed in , their belief that four-fifths of the letters written in that town did not pass through the post-office. a carrier in scotland confessed to having carried sixty letters daily for a number of years, and knew of others who carried five hundred daily. a glasgow publisher and bookseller said he sent and received fifty letters or circulars daily, and added that he was not caught until he had sent twenty thousand letters otherwise than through the post! there were also other methods of evading the postage rates at work. letters were smuggled in newspapers, which in these days passed free within a stated period through the post, the postage being covered by the stamp-duty impressed on the papers. invisible ink, too, was used for inditing messages on the newspapers themselves; while the use of certain pre-arranged codes on the covers of letters was likewise systematically adopted, the addressees, after turning the letters over and learning from the covers all they desired to know, declining to take in the letters on the ground that they could not afford to pay the postage. the system of 'franking' letters in the high-postage days led to an appalling abuse of that privilege, which belonged to peers and members of the house of commons. it was no doubt originally allowed to enable members to correspond with their constituents; but under the circumstances it is perhaps not surprising that the plan soon became abused, and was ultimately used to cover all kinds of correspondence, not only members' but other people's as well. at one time, indeed, all sorts of curious packages passed free under the franking privilege, such as dogs, a cow, parcels of lace, bales of stockings, boxes of medicine, flitches of bacon, &c. sometimes, indeed, franked covers were actually sold; and they have even been known to be given in lieu of wages to servants, who speedily converted them into ready money. this abuse, taken together with the illicit traffic in letters, so openly and widely carried on, formed of course a most important argument in favour of the proposals for cheap postage formulated by rowland hill, and no doubt did much to damage the cause of his opponents. but there is one other abuse to which londoners were subject which may just be mentioned. at that time the twopenny post was in operation in the english metropolis, and would have fairly served the inhabitants in postal matters if it had not been for the practice which existed of allowing commercial houses and other firms who were willing to pay for the privilege to have their letters picked out from the general heap and delivered by special postmen, and so enable them to get their correspondence an hour earlier than those who did not pay the 'quarterage,' as it was called, of five shillings (per quarter), and which, it appears, went into the pockets of the postmen concerned, many of whom, we are told, and it can easily be understood, thus made incomes of from three to four hundred pounds a year. however beneficial such a system was to commerce and trade in london, it operated most unfairly on ordinary correspondents, and it was certainly not the least of the evils which the introduction of penny postage swept away. it is not necessary to enter at any length into all the arguments that weighed with rowland hill in propounding his great scheme. it need only be very briefly stated that the great point to which he applied himself was the cost to the post-office of receiving, transmitting, and delivering a letter. having roughly and, as subsequently proved, not inaccurately calculated the average postage at sixpence farthing per letter, he then went to work to ascertain the expenses of management; and the result of his investigations showed that, no matter what distance had to be traversed, the average cost of each letter to the government was less than one-tenth of a penny! from this there was only one conclusion that could well be forced on his mind, and that was a uniform rate of postage. having solved this great problem, there were many other matters of adjustment and improvement to which his attention had to be given. he was, for example, not long in deciding that the charge according to enclosures was an iniquitous one, and that a just and fair tax could only be made according to weight. then, again, he clearly saw that the principle of throwing the postage on the recipients of letters was an improper one, while it was also a burden on the post-office employees. the prepayment of postage became necessarily a feature of his plan; but he experienced some difficulty in arriving at a feasible method of adopting it. at first he considered that this might be carried out by payment of money over the counter; but he subsequently came to the conclusion that the purposes of the public and the post-office would be better served by the use of some kind of stamp or stamped covers for letters, and this arrangement he brought forward and fully explained before the commissioners of post-office inquiry, referring to it as 'mr knight's excellent suggestion.' charles knight had suggested the idea of stamps for prepayment in - . the following extract from the commissioners' report, which gives a brief description of the proposed arrangement, may perhaps be read with interest at the present time: 'that stamped covers, or sheets of paper, or small vignette stamps--the latter, if used, to be gummed on the face of the letter--be supplied to the public from the stamp-office, and sold at such a price as to include the postage. letters so stamped to be treated in all respects as franks. that each should have the weight it is entitled to carry legibly printed upon the stamp. that the stamp of the receiving-house should be struck upon the superscription or duty stamp, to prevent the latter being used a second time. the vignette stamps being portable, persons could carry them in their pocket-books.' the proposed arrangement met with approval from the commissioners, and also from the committee on postage in and ; and, in consequence, the penny postage act of contained a clause providing for the use of such stamps and stamped covers. such were the main points of rowland hill's plan, which was so logical and reasonable in all its features, and so intelligible to the popular mind, that it can be readily understood how heartily it was embraced by the general public. but popular as his scheme was with the mass of the people, it encountered the bitterest opposition from many quarters; and in successfully carrying it through, rowland hill had, like most other great reformers, to overcome huge difficulties and obstacles. it is very amusing at this distance of time, when we have become so accustomed to the immense advantages of penny postage as to view them almost as part of the ordinary conditions of life, to recall some of the arguments used fifty years ago against the measure. lord lichfield, as postmaster-general, in adverting to the scheme in the house of lords, described it thus: 'of all the wild visionary schemes which i have ever heard of, it is the most extravagant;' and endorsed this statement six months later when he had given more attention to the subject, being 'even still more firmly of the same opinion.' on a subsequent occasion he contended that the mails would have to carry twelve times as much in weight as before, and therefore the charge would be twelve times the amount then paid. 'the walls of the post-office,' he exclaimed, 'would burst; the whole area in which the building stands would not be large enough to receive the clerks and letters.' outside the post-office, too, as well as by both the government and opposition, much animosity was exhibited against the proposal. if, however, the opposition against the introduction of penny postage was strong, the advocacy of the plan was no less powerful, while, moreover, it was thoroughly backed by popular opinion. complaints as to the high rates of postage flowed in, and parliament was nearly inundated with petitions in favour of the scheme, which also received much literary support. the mercantile committee during all the time of agitation actively spread information of the progress of the measure, with a view to rouse the public to a sense of its importance. the _post_ circular kept circulating; and handbills, fly-sheets, and pictorial illustrations were freely distributed. one print took a dramatic form, representing 'a scene at windsor castle,' in which the queen, being in the council chamber, is made to say: 'mothers pawning their clothes to pay the postage of a child's letter! every subject studying how to evade the postage without caring for the law!'--(to lord melbourne): 'i trust, my lord, you have commanded the attendance of the postmaster-general and mr rowland hill, as i directed, in order that i may hear the reasons of both about this universal penny postage plan, which appears to me likely to remove all these great evils.' after the interview takes place, the queen is made to record the opinion that the plan 'would confer a great boon on the poorer classes of my subjects, and would be the greatest benefit to religion, morals, to general knowledge, and to trade.' this _jeu d'esprit_, which was published by the london committee, was circulated by thousands, and proved extremely useful in bringing the burning question home in an attractive form to the masses of the nation. the agitation as to rowland hill's scheme lasted for two years, and with such vehemence that the period has become an epoch in the history of this country. the end of the story of this memorable reform is soon told; for an agitation which may be said to have shaken the nation to its core and was felt from end to end of the kingdom could have but one conclusion, and that a successful one. a parliamentary committee was appointed to inquire into the whole matter; and after a session of sixty-three days, reported in favour of penny postage. that was in august . next year a bill for cheap postage passed through parliament with slight opposition; and on the th of november the treasury issued a minute authorising a uniform rate of fourpence for inland letters. this was, however, merely a temporary measure, in which rowland hill concurred, and was resorted to chiefly to accustom the post-office clerks to a uniform rate and the system of charging by weight. the full measure of the penny postage scheme was accomplished a few months later on, when, on the th of january , the uniform rate of one penny for letters not exceeding half an ounce in weight was officially introduced. such in brief is the story of penny postage, which has caused such a revolution not only in the postal arrangements of this country, but in the conditions of all sections and grades of society. in the first year of its operation the number of letters posted was more than doubled, the number sent in being , , , as against , , posted in , including , , letters sent under the franking privilege, which was abolished with the introduction of the penny postage system. in the number of letters posted in great britain and ireland had risen to , , ; while in the quantity sent reached the fabulous number of millions, or about forty-five letters per head of the population. this refers to letters pure and simple. if we take into account post-cards, newspapers, book-packets, &c., the aggregate number of postal packets posted in will be found to fall not far short of millions. truly may it be said that the results of penny postage have been stupendous. but more than this; the net revenue derived from postage has long, long since exceeded that which accrued under the old system. the story of penny postage would be incomplete if we did not add a word as to how the great reformer fared at the hands of his country. with the introduction of his scheme he of course became associated with the post-office, although at first he held a treasury appointment, from which, however, after about three years' service, he was dismissed on the ground that his work was finished. public indignation was aroused at this treatment of one who had already done so much for his country; and the nation seemed to think that the right place for rowland hill was at the post-office, where further useful reforms might well be expected to follow from one who had begun so well. at all events, in he was restored to office, being appointed secretary to the postmaster-general, and eight years later he became chief secretary of the post-office, an appointment which he held for ten years, when, from failing health, he retired with full pay into private life, full of years and honours. soon after his dismissal from the treasury, a grateful country subscribed and presented him with the sum of fifteen thousand pounds; and on his retirement, parliament voted him the sum of twenty thousand pounds. in he received at her majesty's hands the dignity of knight commander of the bath; and both before and after his retirement he was the recipient of many minor honours. in sir rowland hill was presented with the freedom of the city of london; but he was an old man then, and only lived a few months to enjoy this civic honour. he had a public funeral, and was accorded a niche in the temple of fame at westminster. a visit to the post-office. without a personal visit to the post-office, it is perhaps difficult to gain any correct impression of its immensity, or of the perfect discipline and order which prevade the buildings devoted to postal and telegraphic work. it is a visit which should be made by every one interested, if possible. they would then marvel that we get our letters and papers in the short time we do, if they were to see the thousands upon thousands that are poured into st martin's-le-grand day by day. the general post-office never sleeps save on sunday between twelve and half-past one. the work is never at a standstill. we began our visit to st martin's-le-grand by inspecting what is known as the 'blind' department, where letters with indistinct, incomplete, and wrongly spelt addresses are puzzled out by those specially trained in solving such mysteries. scrap-books are kept in this department, into which the curious and amusing addresses originally inscribed on the face of letters transmitted through the post-office are copied and preserved. whilst we were looking at these a post-card was handed in to one of the officials merely addressed jackson. whether the sender thought it would go around to the various jacksons in london, we know not, but anyway it was decided to take the trouble to return it to the sender, advising him that it was insufficiently addressed. the trouble careless persons give the post-office is inconceivable, and the way some try to cheat in the manner of registering letters needs to be seen to be believed. from the 'blind' department we were conducted to the 'hospital,' where badly done up letters and parcels which have come to grief are doctored and made sufficiently secure to reach their destination. when it is recollected that postage is so cheap, the outside public might at least take the trouble to do up letters and parcels properly without putting the post-office to the enormous trouble thus caused--needless trouble sustained without a murmur and without extra charge. some are put into fresh envelopes, others are sealing-waxed where slits have occurred, and others are properly tied up with string. all this trouble might be saved by a little forethought on the part of the senders. the number of samples that different firms send through the post each day is astonishing. it is said that , , pattern and sample packets are posted annually in the metropolis. in addition to those just mentioned, alpaca, corduroy, gloves, ribbons, plush, whalebone, muslin, linen, biscuits, oilcakes, pepper, yeast, toilet soap, sperm candles, mustard, raisins, &c, are sent by sample post. one firm alone posted , packets containing spice. the time to visit the sorting process at the post-office is between half-past five and eight o'clock in the evening. at closing time the letters are simply poured by thousands into the baskets waiting to receive them, and each one as soon as full is wheeled off in an instant to the sorters and other officials waiting to deal with them. when they have been deposited on the innumerable tables, the first process is to face the letters--not so easy a task when the shapes and sizes of the letters are so varied. as soon as the facing process is over, they are passed as quick as lightning on to the stampers, who proceed to deface the queen's head. the noise whilst this process is being gone through is deafening. some stampers have a hand-machine, whilst others are making a trial of a treadle stamping-machine which stamps some four hundred letters per minute. from the stampers the letters pass on to the sorters. whilst all this is proceeding, the visitor should step up into the gallery for a minute or two and look down on the busy scene below. it is a sight well worth seeing and not likely to be forgotten--the thousands of letters heaped on the tables, and the hundreds of workers as hard at work as it is possible for them to be. the envelopes are separated and placed in the several pigeon-holes which indicate the various directions they are to travel. liverpool, manchester, birmingham, edinburgh, and glasgow have special receptacles for themselves, as the first three cities have on an average fifteen thousand letters a day despatched to each; and further, there are eight despatches a day to these places, eleven thousand per day go to glasgow, and between eight and nine thousand to edinburgh. all official letters--that is, 'on her majesty's service'--have a special table to themselves. some eighty-nine thousand savings-bank books pass through st martin's-le-grand daily. some sorters get through between forty and fifty letters a minute, whilst a new-comer will not be able to manage more than twenty or thirty. the nights on which various mails go out are extra busy ones, especially friday evening, when the indian, chinese, and australian mails are sent. the reduction of the postage has made an enormous difference in the contents of the mail-bags to these parts of the world. it may be interesting here to note how the mails are dealt with at brindisi. van after van conveys the mail-bags from the train to the ship, where two gangways are put off from the shore to the ship's side. lascars run up one and down the other with the bags. each lascar has a smooth flat stick like a ruler, and as he deposits his mail-bag on a long bench over the hold, he gives up his stick to a man standing by. when five lascars have arrived, the sticks go into one compartment of a small wooden box; and when the box is full--that is, when a hundred have been put in--the box is carried off and another brought forward. three hundred and ninety-two bags is a good average, and they take just under forty minutes to put on board. the french and italian mails are included in these; but no other european mails go by the peninsular and oriental company. at aden, two sorters come on board and spend their days in some postal cabins sorting the mails for the different parts of india, &c. the bags in which these mails are enclosed are only used once. they are made in one of our convict prisons, and fresh ones are distributed each week both outward and homeward. turning from the general post-office south, which is now exclusively utilised for letters and papers, we proceed to the general post-office north, which is devoted solely to the telegraph department. the savings-bank department was originally in the same building as the telegraph; but owing to the rapid increase in both departments, the savings-bank has been removed to queen victoria street. coldbath-fields prison was converted into a home for the parcel post. some three thousand male and female clerks are employed in the telegraph department alone. the top floor of the building is devoted to the metropolitan districts. a telegram sent from one suburb of london to another is bound to pass through st martin's-le-grand; it cannot be sent direct. the second floor deals with the provinces. the pneumatic tube is now used a great deal; and by means of it some fifty telegrams can be sent on at once, and not singly, as would be the case if the telegraphic instrument was the only instrument in use. the tube is mostly used at the branch offices. the press is a great user both of the postal and telegraphic department. in the postal department the representatives can call for letters at any hour, provided their letters are enclosed in a distinctive-coloured envelope, such as bright red or orange. of course this privilege has to be paid for. in the telegraph department the press can obtain their 'private wires' after six in the evening, as the wires are no longer required for commercial purposes. the plan adopted in sending the same message to every provincial town which has a daily journal is the following: all along the route the operators are advised of the fact, and whilst the message is only actually delivered at its final destination, the words are caught as they pass each town by means of the 'sounder.' by this ingenious arrangement, dozens of towns are placed in direct communication with the central office whence the message is despatched. to carry on our telegraphic arrangements three miles of shelves are needed, on which are deposited forty thousand batteries. the post-office on wheels. the particular portion of the 'post-office on wheels' which we purpose describing is the special mail which leaves london from euston station daily. we have selected this mail, not only because all the duties appertaining to the travelling post-office are performed therein, but also because it is the most important mail in the united kingdom, probably in the whole world. in the special mail, the post-office vehicles are forty-two feet in length, and one of thirty-two feet. there is a gangway communication between all the carriages, so that the officers on duty can pass from one to another throughout the entire length without going outside. all the carriages are lighted with gas. the pair-horse vans which convey the london bags for provincial towns come dashing into the station in rapid succession, and as there are only fifteen minutes before the train starts, no time is to be lost. the bags are quickly removed from the vans, the name of each being called out in the process, thus enabling an officer who stands near to tick them off on a printed list with which he is provided. they are then stowed away in the respective carriages in appointed places. having proceeded to the principal sorting carriage, we see that there are some thousands of the letters which have come from the london offices still to be disposed of. they lie on the desks in large bundles; but every minute there is a perceptible diminution of their numbers by means of the vigorous attacks of the men engaged. from end to end of one side of the carriage--that farthest from the platform--rows of sorting-boxes, or 'pigeon-holes,' are fixed nearly up to the roof, starting from the sorting-table, which is about three feet from the floor. the boxes into which the ordinary letters are sorted are divided into sets, numbered consecutively from to , and one sorter works at each set. the numbers on the boxes are in accordance with a prescribed plan, each number representing the names of certain towns, and into such boxes the letters for those towns are sorted. the plan mentioned is carried out as follows: suppose we say that no. represents rugby, of course when the mail-bag for that town is despatched the box is empty. it is then used, say, for crewe, and when the bag for that place is gone the box again becomes empty. it is then used for some other town farther down the line, and so on to the end of the journey. the set of boxes nearest the fore-end of the carriage is used by the officer who deals with the registered letters. this set can be closed by means of a revolving shutter, which is fitted with a lock and key; so that, should the registered-letter officer have to quit his post for any purpose, he can secure the contents of his boxes, and so feel satisfied that they are in a safe place. this officer also disposes of all the letter-bills on which the addresses of the registered letters are advised. the set of boxes into which the newspapers and book packets are sorted is about twice the size of an ordinary letter set, and occupies the centre part of the whole box arrangement. this space is assigned to the newspaper boxes for two reasons: the set is exactly opposite the doorway through which the bags are taken in at the stopping station, so that they lie on the floor behind the sorter who opens them; he has therefore simply to turn round and pick them up one by one as he requires them, thereby saving both time and labour. again, as the bags are opened, the bundles of letters which are labelled no. and no. respectively, in accordance with the list supplied to postmasters for their guidance, have to be distributed to the letter-sorters--no. bundles to the left, no. to the right; and this distribution could not be so conveniently performed with the newspaper or bag-opening table placed in a different position. most of the newspaper boxes, as we have said, are about twice the size of a letter box; some, however, such as those used for large towns like liverpool, manchester, birmingham, &c., are four times the size; and the necessity for this can be readily understood. we will now look at the other side of the carriage--or that nearest the platform. along the whole length of that side, strong iron pegs are fixed about an inch apart, and on these pegs the bags to be made up and despatched on the way are hung. most of the bags used in the travelling post-office are of one size--three feet six inches long, and two feet four inches wide; but for the large towns, bags of greater dimensions are required. each bag is distinctly marked on both sides with the name of the town to which it is to be forwarded, the letters forming the name being an inch and a quarter in length. the name is also stencilled inside the mouth of the bag, so that the sorter has it immediately before his eyes when putting the letters, &c., away. on reaching its destination the bag is emptied of its contents, is turned inside out, and then the name of the travelling post-office from which it was received appears in view. the bag is then folded up and kept ready for the return despatch on the following night. in this way it passes and repasses until it is worn out, when it is withdrawn, and a new one takes its place. we will now assume the train is fairly on its way, and that we are approaching harrow, the first station at which the mail-bags are received by means of the apparatus. as the machinery constituting the apparatus is of great importance in the system of working, we shall here endeavour to describe it. we may say that the apparatus in the special mail is worked in a separate carriage which runs immediately behind the one to which we have referred in the preceding details. a large and very strong net is firmly fixed on the side of the carriage on the near end, and the woodwork being cut away, an aperture is formed through which the pouches containing the bags are taken into the carriage. the net is raised or lowered by pressing down a lever very similar in structure and appearance to the levers which are seen in a signalman's cabin. when the net is lowered, a strong rope is seen to stretch across from the fore-part, and this rope, being held in position by a chain attached to the back-part of the net, forms what is called a detaching line in the shape of the letter v placed thus, <; and as the carriage travels along, the rope at the point forming the angle strikes the suspended pouch, and detaches it from the standard, when it falls into the net, and is removed by the officer attending to the apparatus. the machinery is also arranged so that a bag can be despatched as well as received. a man doing this work should possess keen eyes, steady nerves, and a full average amount of strength. on a dark or foggy night it is difficult to see the objects which serve as guides to the whereabouts of the train, and which are technically known in the office as 'marks.' the net is now lowered for the receipt at harrow. in a second or two, a tremendous thud is heard, and a large pouch comes crashing into the carriage through the aperture, the men meanwhile keeping a respectful distance. i should perhaps explain that in the special mail a new form of net is used. the bottom of it is flush with the carriage floor, and as the lower portion is constructed with an angle of about forty-five degrees, the pouches roll into the carriage by their own weight. we will now see what the pouch from harrow contains. it is quickly unstrapped; the bags are taken out; and it is then laid aside, to be used for despatch at a subsequent station. there are three bags for the travelling post-office received in this pouch--two containing correspondence for england and scotland, and one for ireland. the bags are immediately opened by the proper officers. the first duty is to find the letter-bill; and if there are any registered letters, to compare them with the entries on the bill, when, if correct, the bill is signed and passed over, together with the registered letters, to the officer who disposes of that class of correspondence, and by whom an acknowledgment of the receipt of the letters is at once given to the bag-opener. it is in this way that a hand-to-hand check is established which ensures the practical safety of such letters. the bag-opener then proceeds to pick out from amongst the mass of correspondence the bundles of ordinary letters, and to pass them to the right or left according as they are labelled no. or no. . these bundles are cut open by the respective sorters who work at the several sets of boxes, the letters being laid in a row on the desk, and the men then proceed to sort them in accordance with the addresses they bear. as the boxes (each of which will hold about one hundred and fifty) become full, the letters are tied up securely in bundles, and the sorters, turning round, drop them into the bags which hang along the other side of the carriage. and so the work goes on in the same way throughout the entire journey. let us now try to show to how great an extent the travelling post-office has contributed to the acceleration of correspondence from place to place. on an examination of the letters received from harrow, it is found that there are three for aberdeen; and a similar number for that city will be received from the several towns between london and rugby, and so on. of course, the number of letters mentioned would not be sufficient for a direct bag between each of these places and aberdeen; but the small numbers referred to being brought together in the travelling post-office, it is found that when the train arrives at carlisle a sufficient amount of correspondence for the northern city has been received to fill a large bag. this bag is therefore closed at that point, and a fresh one hung up, to contain the correspondence for that city received northwards of carlisle. the same may be said of the other large towns in scotland. now, if there were no travelling post-office, how would the few letters for aberdeen emanating from the various towns in england be dealt with? in the first place, they would have to be picked up by a stopping train, and even if this train ran direct to aberdeen, there would be a difference in the time of arrival of at least eight hours. but the letters could not go direct in such a case, as that would mean the making-up of separate bags at each place; and we have already shown that the letters are too few in number to justify such an arrangement. they would have to be collected at some central office, say at birmingham, where they would of necessity be detained some time; so that altogether it is probable they would not arrive at their destination early enough to be delivered on the day following that of posting. what, however, is the case now? thanks to the travelling post-office with its mail-bag apparatus, the letters are whirled along at close upon fifty miles an hour without intermission, thus admitting of the delivery of letters from london at so remote a place as aberdeen long before noon on the following day. we will now assume that the train has arrived at rugby--the distance eighty-four miles. at this station mails for coventry, birmingham, &c., are left to be forwarded by a branch train. after a stop of four minutes, the train again speeds on its way, the next stopping-place being tamworth. here a large number of mail-bags are despatched, including those for the midland travelling post-office, going north to newcastle-on-tyne, which serves derbyshire, yorkshire, and the whole country-side bordering on the north-east coast; for the shrewsbury mail-train, which serves the whole of mid-wales; and for the lincoln mail-train, which serves nottinghamshire and lincolnshire. the next halt is at crewe, where formerly a large exchange of bags took place, having been passed without stopping. crewe is, for travelling post-office purposes, by far the most important junction in the kingdom. within three hours--that is, between half-past eleven at night and half-past two in the morning--over a dozen mail-trains, each with sorting-carriages attached, arrive and depart; whilst the weight of mails exchanged here within the hours mentioned is not less than twenty tons. a great amount of labour is involved in receiving and delivering such an immense weight of bags, the work being all done by hand, and the mail-porters have to exercise great care in keeping them in proper course for the respective trains. nevertheless, these responsible duties are remarkably well performed, mistakes very rarely occurring. the irish mail which runs from london to holyhead, and in which correspondence for ireland is almost exclusively dealt with, branches off at crewe, the remainder of the journey being run by way of chester and north wales. leaving warrington, the next stoppage is at wigan. here the mails for liverpool are despatched, and the receipt includes bags which have been brought through a long line of country, stretching from newcastle-on-tyne through york, normanton, and stalybridge, and thence to wigan. the mails for preston and east lancashire are left at preston, and, running through lancaster, carnforth is soon reached. at this station the mails for north-west lancashire and west cumberland are despatched, and this is the last stopping-place before arriving at carlisle, which is the terminal point of the north-western railway. mention should be made of the noteworthy despatch of mails by apparatus at oxenholme, the junction for kendal, windermere, and the lake district. it is the largest despatch by that method in the kingdom, as many as nine pouches being delivered into two nets. each pouch at this station weighs on an average fifty pounds, so that altogether four hundred and fifty pounds of mail-matter is despatched at this one station--no inconsiderable feat. at carlisle the mails for the waverley route country and for the whole of the south-west of scotland, including ayrshire, are left. there is another long run over the caledonian railway--about seventy-eight miles--without a stop, the apparatus being worked seven times in that distance until carstairs is reached. here, one of the sorting-carriages is detached, and proceeds to edinburgh; and a few miles farther on three more are detached, and proceed to glasgow from holytown junction. from that point, therefore, only two sorting-carriages remain in the train, and these go on to aberdeen. the next stop is at stirling, where the bags for the western highlands are left; and we then run on to perth. at perth, the mails for dundee and the northern highlands are despatched, the latter being forwarded by a mail-train which runs on the highland railway _viâ_ inverness. again the special mail starts on its way, there being only one stop--at forfar--before arriving at aberdeen, where the journey ends. here the last bags are despatched. the carriage is clear. the sorting-boxes are carefully searched, to see that no letters have been left in them; and the carriage is then taken charge of by the railway officials, to be thoroughly cleansed and made ready for the return journey on the following day. the duties on the way to london are performed in a precisely similar manner to those on the journey northwards. early telegraphs. the ancient greeks and romans practised telegraphy with the help of pots filled with straw and twigs saturated in oil, which, being placed in rows, expressed certain letters according to the order in which they were lighted; but the only one of their contrivances that merits a detailed description was that invented by a grecian general named Ã�neas, who flourished in the time of aristotle, intended for communication between the generals of an army. it consisted of two exactly similar earthen vessels, filled with water, each provided with a cock that would discharge an equal quantity of water in a given time, so that the whole or any part of the contents would escape in precisely the same period from both vessels. on the surface of each floated a piece of cork supporting an upright, marked off into divisions, each division having a certain sentence inscribed upon it. one of the vessels was placed at each station; and when either party desired to communicate, he lighted a torch, which he held aloft until the other did the same, as a sign that he was all attention. on the sender of the message lowering or extinguishing his torch, each party immediately opened the cock of his vessel, and so left it until the sender relighted his torch, when it was at once closed. the receiver then read the sentence on the division of the upright that was level with the mouth of the vessel, and which, if everything had been executed with exactness, corresponded with that of the sender, and so conveyed the desired intimation. we must here pause a moment to point out one great advantage that this contrivance, simple as it undoubtedly was, will be seen to possess over the more scientific ones that follow, and that was, its equal efficacy in any sort of country and in any position, whether on a plain, on the summit of a hill, or in a sequestered valley. to descend to more modern times. kessler in his _concealed arts_ advised the cutting out of characters in the bottom of casks, which would appear luminous when a light was placed inside. in the _spectator_ of december , , there is an extract from strada, an italian historian, who published his _prolusiones academicæ_ in . in the passage referred to, the modern system of telegraphy is curiously indicated. it is as follows: 'strada, in one of his prolusions, gives an account of a chimerical correspondence between two friends by the help of a certain loadstone, which had such virtue in it, that if it touched two several needles, when one of the needles so touched began to move, the other, though at never so great a distance, moved at the same time and in the same manner. he tells us that the two friends, being each of them possessed of one of these needles, made a kind of dial-plate, inscribing it with the four-and-twenty letters, in the same manner as the hours of the day are marked upon the ordinary dial-plate. they then fixed one of the needles on each of these plates in such a manner that it could move round without impediment so as to touch any of the four-and-twenty letters. upon their separating from one another into distant countries, they agreed to withdraw themselves punctually into their closets at a certain hour of the day, and to converse with one another by means of this their invention. accordingly, when they were some hundred miles asunder, each of them shut himself up in his closet at the time appointed, and immediately cast his eye upon his dial-plate. if he had a mind to write anything to his friend, he directed his needle to every letter that formed the words which he had occasion for, making a little pause at the end of every word or sentence, to avoid confusion. the friend, in the meanwhile, saw his own sympathetic needle moving of itself to every letter which that of his correspondent pointed at. by this means they talked together across a whole continent, and conveyed their thoughts to one another in an instant over cities or mountains, seas or deserts. it was not till near the close of the seventeenth century that a really practical system of visual signalling from hill to hill was introduced by dr hooke, whose attention had been turned to the subject at the siege of vienna by the turks. he erected on the top of several hills having a sky-line background three high poles or masts, connected at their upper ends by a cross-piece. the space between two of these poles was filled in with timbers to form a screen, behind which the various letters were hung in order on lines, and, by means of pulleys, run out into the clear space between the other two, when they stood out clear against the sky-line. the letters were thus run out and back again in the required order of spelling, and were divided into day and night letters--the former being made of deals, the latter with the addition of links or lights; besides which there were certain conventional characters to represent such sentences as, 'i am ready to communicate,' 'i am ready to receive.' in his description of the device, read before the royal society on the st of may , dr hooke, after claiming for it the power of transmitting messages to a station thirty or forty miles distant, said: 'for the performance of this we must be beholden to a late invention, which we do not find any of the ancients knew; that is, the eye must be assisted with telescopes, that whatever characters are exposed at one station may be made plain and distinguishable at the other.' a cipher code was subsequently added by an ingenious frenchman named amontons. in we find mr richard l. edgeworth, the father of maria edgeworth, employing the sails of a common windmill for communicating intelligence, by an arranged system of signals according to the different positions of the arms. the signals were made to denote numbers, the corresponding parties being each provided with a dictionary in which the words were numbered--the system in vogue for our army-signalling till , when the morse alphabet was substituted for it. a great stride was made in by m. chappe, a citizen of paris, when the french revolution directed all the energies of that nation to the improvement of the art of war; reporting on whose machine to the french convention in august of the following year, barère remarked: 'by this invention, remoteness and distance almost disappear, and all the communications of correspondence are effected with the rapidity of the twinkling of an eye.' it consisted of a strong wooden mast some twenty-five feet high, with a cross-beam twelve feet by nine inches jointed on to its top, so as to be movable about its centre like a scale-beam, and could thus be placed horizontally, vertically, or anyhow inclined by means of cords. to each end of this cross-beam was affixed a short vertical indicator about four feet long, which likewise turned on pivots by means of cords, and to the end of each was attached a counterweight, almost invisible at a distance, to balance the weight of it. this machine could be made to assume certain positions which represented or were symbolical of letters of the alphabet. in working, nothing depended on the operator's manual skill, as the movements were regulated mechanically. the time taken up for each movement was twenty seconds, of which the actual motion occupied four; during the other sixteen, the telegraph was kept stationary, to allow of its being distinctly observed and the letter written down by those at the next station. all the parts were painted dark brown, that they might stand out well against the sky; and three persons were required at each station, one to manipulate the machine, another to read the messages through a telescope, and the third to transfer them to paper, or repeat them to no. to send on. the first machine of this kind was erected on the roof of the paris louvre, to communicate with the army which was then stationed near lille, between which places intermediate ones from nine to twelve miles apart were erected, the second being at montmartre. the different limbs were furnished with argand lamps for night-work. shortly after this, our own government set up lines of communication from the admiralty to deal, portsmouth, and other points on the coast, which we find thus reported in the _annual register_ for : march th. 'a telegraph was this day erected over the admiralty, which is to be the point of communication with all the different sea-ports in the kingdom. the nearest telegraph to london has hitherto been in st george's fields; and to such perfection has this ingenious and useful contrivance been already brought, that one day last week information was conveyed from dover to london in the space of only seven minutes. the plan proposed to be adopted in respect to telegraphs is yet only carried into effect between london and dover; but it is intended to extend all over the kingdom. the importance of this speedy communication must be evident to every one; and it has this advantage, that the information conveyed is known only to the person who sends and to him who receives it. the intermediate posts have only to answer and convey the signals.' the machines used consisted of three masts connected by a top-piece. the spaces between the masts were divided into three horizontally, and in each partition a large wooden octagon was fixed, poised upon a horizontal axis across its centre, so that it could be made to present either its surface or its edge to the observer. the octagons were turned by means of cranks upon the ends of the axles, from which cords descended into a cabin below. by the changes in the position of these six octagonal boards, thirty-six changes were easily exhibited, and the signal to represent any letter or number made: thus, one board being turned into a horizontal position so as to expose its edge, while the other five remained shut or in a vertical position, might stand for a, two of them only in a horizontal position for b, three for c, and so on. it was, however, found that the octagons were less evident to the eye at a distance than the indicators of chappe's machine, requiring the stations to be closer together; nor could this telegraph be made to change its direction, so that it could only be seen from one particular point, which necessitated having a separate machine at the admiralty for each line, as well as an additional one at every branch-point. it was, moreover, too bulky and of a form unsuitable for illumination at night. here we may notice that in mr john boaz of glasgow obtained a patent for a telegraph which effected the signal by means of twenty-five lamps arranged in five rows of five each, so as to form a square. each lamp was provided with a blind, with which its light could be obscured, so that they could be made to exhibit letters and figures by leaving such lamps only visible as were necessary to form the character. the next improvement again came from france, in , when an entirely new set of telegraphs on the following principle was established along the whole extent of the coast of the french empire. a single upright pole was provided with three arms, each movable about an axis at one end--one near the head, the other two at points lower down, all painted black, with their counterpoises white, so as to be invisible a short way off. each arm could assume six different positions--one straight out on either side of the pole, two at an angle of forty-five degrees above this line, and two at forty-five degrees below it. the arm near the head could be made to exhibit seven positions, the seventh being the vertical; but as this might have been mistaken for part of the pole, it was not employed. the number of combinations or different signals that could be rendered by this machine, employing only three objects, was consequently three hundred and forty-two against sixty-three by that of our admiralty just described, and which employed six objects. it was not long, however, before we copied the advancement of our neighbours across the channel, and in some respects improved upon it, the main differences being that only two arms were employed--one at the top, the other half-way down, and that the mast was made to revolve on a vertical axis, so that the arms could be rendered visible from any desired quarter. its mechanism, the invention of sir home popham, enabled the arms to be moved by means of endless screws worked by iron spindles from below, a vast improvement on the old cords, the more so as they worked inside the mast, which was hollow, hexagonal in section, and framed of six boards bound together by iron hoops, and were thus protected from the weather. inside the cabin he erected two dials, one for each arm, each having an index finger that worked simultaneously with its corresponding arm above, on the same principle as the little semaphore models to be seen nowadays in our railway signal cabins. we have now described the most prominent of the numerous contrivances which, prior to the application of electricity to that end, were devised and made use of for telegraphic communication, all of which, unlike that subtle power that is not afraid of the dark and can travel in all weathers, possessed a common weakness in their liability to failure through atmospheric causes, fog, mist, and haze. to us who live in this age of electrical marvels, when that particular science more than all others progresses by leaps and bounds, it appears passing strange and almost incredible that so many years were allowed to elapse before the parents of the electric telegraph, the electrical machine and magnetic compass, were joined in wedlock to produce their amazing progeny, which now enables all mankind, however distant, to hold rapid, soft, and easy converse. the telegraph of to-day. a veil of mystery still hangs around the first plan for an electric telegraph, communicated to the _scots magazine_ for by one 'c. m.' of renfrew. even the name of this obscure and modest genius is doubtful; but it is probable that he was charles morrison, a native of greenock, who was trained as a surgeon. at this period only the electricity developed by friction was available for the purpose, and being of a refractory nature, there was no practical result. but after volta had invented the chemical generator or voltaic pile in the first year of our century, and oersted, in , had discovered the influence of the electric current on a magnetic needle, the illustrious laplace suggested to ampère, the famous electrician, that a working telegraph might be produced if currents were conveyed to a distance by wires, and made to deflect magnetic needles, one for every letter of the alphabet. this was in the year ; but it was not until sixteen years later that the idea was put in practice. in mr william fothergill cooke, an officer of the madras army, at home on furlough, was travelling in germany, and chanced to see at the university of heidelberg, in the early part of march, an experimental telegraph, fitted up between the study and the lecture theatre of the professor of natural philosophy. it was based on the principle of laplace and ampère, and consisted of two electric circuits and a pair of magnetic needles which responded to the interruptions of the current. mr cooke was struck with this device; but it was only during his journey from heidelberg to frankfort on the th of the month, while reading mrs mary somerville's book on the _correlation of the physical sciences_, that the notion of his practical telegraph flashed upon his mind. sanguine of success, he abandoned his earlier pursuits and devoted all his energies to realise his invention. the following year he associated himself with professor wheatstone; a joint patent was procured; and the cooke and wheatstone needle telegraph was erected between the euston square and camden town stations of the london and birmingham railway. to test the working of the instruments through a longer distance, several miles of wire were suspended in the carriage-shed at euston, and included in the circuit. all being ready, the trial was made on the evening of the th of july , a memorable date. some friends of the inventors were present, including mr george stephenson and mr isambard brunel, the celebrated engineers. mr cooke, with these, was stationed at camden town, and mr wheatstone at euston square. the latter struck the key and signalled the first message. instantly the answer came on the vibrating needles, and their hopes were realised. 'never,' said professor wheatstone--'never did i feel such a tumultuous sensation before, as when, all alone in the still room, i heard the needles click; and as i spelled the words i felt all the magnitude of the invention, now proved to be practical beyond cavil or dispute.' it was in , during a voyage from havre to new york in the packet _sully_, that mr s. f. b. morse, then an artist, conceived the idea of the electro-magnetic marking telegraph, and drew a design for it in his sketch-book. but it was not until the beginning of that he and his colleague, mr alfred vail, succeeded in getting the apparatus to work. judge vail, the father of alfred, and proprietor of the speedwell ironworks, had found the money for the experiments; but as time went on and no result was achieved, he became disheartened, and perhaps annoyed at the sarcasms of his neighbours, so that the inventors were afraid to meet him. 'i recall vividly,' says mr baxter, 'even after the lapse of so many years, the proud moment when alfred said to me, "william, go up to the house and invite father to come down and see the telegraph-machine work." i did not stop to don my coat, although it was the th of january, but ran in my shop-clothes as fast as i possibly could. it was just after dinner when i knocked at the door of the house, and was ushered into the sitting-room. the judge had on his broad-brimmed hat and surtout, as if prepared to go out; but he sat before the fireplace, leaning his head on his cane, apparently in deep meditation. as i entered his room he looked up and said, "well, william?" and i answered: "mr alfred and mr morse sent me to invite you to come down to the room and see the telegraph-machine work." he started up, as if the importance of the message impressed him deeply; and in a few minutes we were standing in the experimental room. after a short explanation, he called for a piece of paper, and writing upon it the words, "a patient waiter is no loser," he handed it to alfred, saying, "if you can send this, and mr morse can read it at the other end, i shall be convinced." the message was received by morse at the other end, and handed to the judge, who, at this unexpected triumph, was overcome by his emotions.' the practical value of the invention was soon realised; by telegraph lines were being made in civilised countries, and ere long extended into the network of lines which now encircle the globe and bring the remotest ends of the earth into direct and immediate communication. atlantic cables. a year or two before the first attempt to lay an atlantic cable, there were only eighty-seven nautical miles of submarine cables laid; now, the total length of these wonderful message-carriers under the waves is over , english statute miles. there are now fourteen cables crossing the atlantic, which are owned by six different companies. the charter which mr cyrus w. field obtained for the new york, newfoundland, and london telegraph company was granted in the year . it constructed the land-line telegraph in newfoundland, and laid a cable across the gulf of st lawrence; but this was only the commencement of the work. soundings of the sea were needed; electricians had to devise forms of cable most suitable; engineers to consider the methods of carrying and of laying the cable; and capitalists had to be convinced that the scheme was practicable, and likely to be remunerative; whilst governments were appealed to for aid. great britain readily promised aid; but the united states senate passed the needful bill by a majority of one. but when the first atlantic cable expedition left the coast of kerry, it was a stately squadron of british and american ships of war, such as the _niagara_ and the _agamemnon_, and of merchant steamships. the lord-lieutenant of ireland, directors of the atlantic telegraph company, and of british railways, were there, with representatives of several nations; and when the shore-end had been landed at valentia, the expedition left the irish coast in august . when miles of the cable had been laid, it parted, and high hopes were buried many fathoms below the surface. the first expedition of also failed; the second one was successful; and on the th of august in that year, queen victoria congratulated the president of the united states 'upon the successful completion of this great international work;' and president buchanan replied, trusting that the telegraph might 'prove to be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred nations.' but after a few weeks' work, the cable gave its last throb, and was silent. not until was another attempt made, and then the cable was broken after miles had been successfully laid. then, at the suggestion of mr (afterwards sir) daniel gooch, the anglo-american telegraph company was formed; and on th july another expedition left ireland; and towards the end of the month, the _great eastern_ glided calmly into heart's content, 'dropping her anchor in front of the telegraph house, having trailed behind her a chain of two thousand miles, to bind the old world to the new.' but the success of the year was more than the mere laying of a cable: the _great eastern_ was able, in the words of the late lord iddesleigh, to complete the 'laying of the cable of , and the recovering that of .' the queen conferred the honour of knighthood on captain anderson, on professor thomson, and on messrs glass and channing; whilst mr gooch, m.p., was made a baronet. the charge for a limited message was then twenty pounds; and it was not long before a rival company was begun, to share in the rich harvest looked for; and thus another cable was laid, leading ultimately to an amalgamation between its ordinary company and the original anglo-american telegraph company. [illustration: the _great eastern_ paying out the atlantic cable.] then, shortly afterwards, the direct united states cable company came into being, and laid a cable; a french company followed suit; the great western union telegraph company of america entered into the atlantic trade, and had two cables constructed and laid. the commencement of ocean telegraphy by each of these companies led to competition, and reduced rates for a time with the original company, ending in what is known as a pool or joint purse agreement, under which the total receipts were divided in allotted proportions to the companies. these companies have now eight cables usually operative; and it was stated by sir j. pender that these eight cables 'are capable of carrying over forty million words per annum.' in addition to the cables of the associated companies, the commercial cable company own two modern cables; and one of the two additional ones was laid by this company--the other by the original--the anglo-american company. but the work is simple now to what it was thirty years ago. then, there were only one or two cable-ships; now, mr preece enumerates thirty-seven, of which five belong to the greatest of our telegraph companies, the eastern. the authority we have just named says that 'the form of cable has practically remained unaltered since the original calais cable was laid in ;' its weight has been increased; and there have been additions to it to enable it to resist insidious submarine enemies. the gear of the steamships used in the service has been improved; whilst the 'picking-up gear' of one of the best known of these cable-ships is 'capable of lifting thirty tons at a speed of one knot per hour.' and there has been a wide knowledge gained of the ocean, its depth, its mountains, and its valleys, so that the task of cable-laying is much more of an exact science than it was. when the first attempt was made to lay an atlantic cable, 'the manufacture of sea-cables' had been only recently begun; now, , knots are at work in the sea, and yearly the area is being enlarged. when, in , mr thackeray subscribed to the atlantic telegraph company, its share capital was £ , --that being the estimated cost of the cable between newfoundland and ireland; now, five companies have a capital of over £ , , invested in the atlantic telegraph trade. the largest portion of the capital is that of the anglo-american telegraph company, which has a capital of £ , , , and which represents the atlantic telegraph company, the new york, and newfoundland, and the french atlantic companies of old. though the traffic fluctuates greatly, in some degree according to the charge per word (for in one year of lowest charges the number of words carried by the associated companies increased by per cent., whilst the receipts decreased about per cent.), yet it does not occupy fully the carrying capacity of the cables. but their 'life' and service is finite, and thus it becomes needful from time to time to renew these great and costly carriers under the atlantic. the state and the telegraphs. since the telegraphs of the united kingdom passed into the hands of the state, the changes which have taken place during that period in the volume of the business transacted, the rapidity in the transit of messages, and the charges made for sending telegrams, are little short of marvellous. it was in the year that the acquisition of the telegraph system by the state was first suggested, but not until late in the year , when mr disraeli was chancellor of the exchequer, did the government definitely determine to take the matter up. at that time, as mr baines, c.b., tells us in his book, _forty years at the post-office_: 'five powerful telegraph companies were in existence--the electric and international, the british and irish magnetic, the united kingdom, the universal private, and the london and provincial companies. there were others of less importance. terms had to be made with all of them. the railway interest had to be considered, and the submarine companies to be thought of, though not bought.' with strong and well-organised interests like these fighting hard to secure for themselves the very best possible terms, the government had not unnaturally to submit to a hard bargain before they could obtain from parliament the powers which they required. however, after a severe struggle, the necessary bill was successfully passed, and the consequent money bill became law in the following session. as the result of this action, the telegraphs became the property of the state upon the th of january , and upon the th of the following month the actual transfer took place. the step seems to have been taken none too soon, for under the companies the telegraphs had been worked in a manner far from satisfactory to the public. many districts had been completely neglected, and even between important centres the service had been quite inadequate. moreover, charges had been high, and exasperating delays of frequent occurrence. six million pounds was the sum first voted by parliament for the purchase of the telegraphs, and this was practically all swallowed up in compensation. the electric and international company received £ , , ; the magnetic company, £ , , ; reuter's telegram company, £ , ; the united kingdom company, £ , ; the universal private company, £ , ; and the london and provincial company, £ , . but large as these amounts were, they only made up about one-half of the expenditure which the government had to incur, and the total cost ultimately reached the enormous sum of eleven millions. some idea of the manner in which the extra five millions was expended may be gathered from the fact that between october and october , about , miles of iron wire, nearly miles of gutta-percha-covered copper wire, about , poles, and , , other fittings were purchased and fixed in position, telegraph instruments and , batteries were acquired, and about new telegraphists and temporary assistants were trained. the total expenditure was so vast that the treasury eventually took fright, and in a committee was appointed 'to investigate the causes of the increased cost of the telegraph service since the acquisition of the telegraphs by the state.' this committee found that the following were the three main causes of the increase: the salaries of all the officials of the telegraph companies had been largely increased after their entry into the government service; the supervising staff maintained by the state was much more costly than that formerly employed by the companies; and a large additional outlay had been forced upon the government in connection with the maintenance of the telegraph lines. 'it would not,' they say in their report, 'be possible, in our opinion, for various reasons, for the government to work at so cheap a rate as the telegraph companies, but ... a reasonable expectation might be entertained that the working expenses could be kept within seventy or seventy-five per cent. of the gross revenue, and the responsible officers of the post-office telegraph service should be urged to work up to that standard. such a result would cover the cost of working, and the sum necessary for payment of interest on the debt incurred in the purchase of the telegraphs.' in regard to this question of cost, mr baines most truly remarks that the real stumbling-block of the department was, and still is, 'the interest payable on £ , , capital outlay, equal at, say, three per cent, to a charge of £ , a year.' the transfer of the telegraphs to the state was immediately followed by a startling increase in the number of messages sent. in fact, the public, attracted by the shilling rate, poured in telegrams so fast, and were so well supported by the news-agencies, who took full advantage of the reduced scale, that there was at first some danger of a collapse. fortunately, however, the staff was equal to the emergency, and after the first rush was over, everything worked with perfect smoothness. during the next four years the enlargement of business was simply extraordinary. in the rate of increase was not maintained at quite so high a level, but nevertheless nearly , , more messages were dealt with than during the previous year. the quantity of matter transmitted for press purposes was also much greater than it had ever been before, and amounted to more than , , words. in the number of telegraph offices at post-offices was , in addition to at railway stations, or a grand total of . the number of ordinary inland messages sent during the year was , , . in regard to the great increase of pace in the transmission of telegraphic messages, mr baines tells us that, 'looking back fifty years, we see wires working at the rate of eight words a minute, or an average of four words per wire per minute, over relatively short distances. now, there is a potentiality of words--nay, even or words--per wire per minute, over very long distances. as the invention of duplex working has been supplemented by the contrivances for multiplex working (one line sufficing to connect several different offices in one part of the country with one or more offices in another part), it is almost impossible to put a limit to the carrying capacity of a single wire.' in the time occupied in sending a telegram between london and bournemouth was two hours, and between manchester and bolton, two hours and a quarter; while in the times occupied were ten minutes and five minutes respectively. press telegrams have enormously increased in number and length since the purchase of the telegraph system by the state. when the companies owned the wires, the news service from london to the provinces was ordinarily not more than a column of print a night. at the present time the news service of the press association alone over the post-office wires to papers outside the metropolis averages fully columns nightly. since this association has paid the post-office £ , for telegraphic charges, and in addition to this, very large sums have been paid by the london and provincial daily papers for the independent transmission of news, and by the principal journals in the country for the exclusive use, during certain hours, of 'special wires.' some of the leading papers in the provinces receive ten or more columns of specially telegraphed news on nights when important matters are under discussion in parliament; and from this some idea may be formed of the amount of business now transacted between the press and the telegraph department. the telephone. so much have times altered in the last fifty years, that the electric telegraph itself, which now reaches its thin arms into more than six thousand offices, is threatened in its turn with serious rivalry at the hands of a youthful but vigorous competitor, the telephone. its advantages are such that its ultimate popularity cannot be a matter of doubt. it is no small benefit to be able to recognise voices, to transact business with promptitude by word of mouth, to get a reply, 'yes' or 'no,' on the spot, instead of having to rush to the nearest telegraph office. great inventions are often conceived a long time before they are realised in practice. sometimes the original idea occurs to the man who subsequently works it out; and sometimes it comes as a happy thought to one who is either in advance of his age, or who is prevented by adverse circumstances from following it up, and who yet lives to see the day when some more fortunate individual gives it a material shape, and so achieves the fame which was denied to him. such is the case of m. charles bourselle, who in proposed a form of speaking-telephone, which, although not practicable in its first crude condition, might have led its originator to a more successful instrument if he had pursued the subject further. the telephone is an instrument designed to reproduce sounds at a distance by means of electricity. it was believed by most people, and even by eminent electricians, that the speaking-telephone had never been dreamed of by any one before professor graham bell introduced his marvellous little apparatus to the scientific world. but that was a mistake. more than one person had thought of such a thing, bourselle among the number. philip reis, a german electrician, had even constructed an electric telephone in , which transmitted words with some degree of perfection; and the assistant of reis asserts that it was designed to carry music as well as words. professor bell, in devising his telephone, copied the human ear with its vibrating drum. the first iron plate he used as a vibrator was a little piece of clock-spring glued to a parchment diaphragm, and on saying to the spring on the telephone at one end of the line: 'do you understand what i say?' the answer from his assistant at the other end came back immediately: 'yes; i understand you perfectly.' the sounds were feeble, and he had to hold his ear close to the little piece of iron on the parchment, but they were distinct; and though reis had transmitted certain single words some ten years before, bell was the first to make a piece of matter utter sentences. reis gave the electric wire a tongue so that it could mumble like an infant; but bell taught it to speak. the next step is attributed to mr elisha gray of chicago, who sent successions of electrical current of varying strength as well as of varying frequency into the circuit, and thus enabled the relative loudness as well as the pitch of sounds to be transmitted; and who afterwards took the important step of using the variations of a steady current. these variations, positive and negative, are capable of representing all the back-and-fore variations of position of a particle of air, however irregular these may be: and he secured them by making the sound-waves set a diaphragm in vibration. this diaphragm carried a metallic point which dipped in dilute sulphuric acid; the deeper it dipped the less was the resistance to a current passing through the acid, and _vice versâ_: so that every variation in the position of the diaphragm produced a corresponding variation in the intensity of the current: and the varying current acted upon a distant electro-magnet, which accordingly fluctuated in strength, and in its attraction for a piece of soft iron suspended on a flexible diaphragm: this piece of soft iron accordingly oscillated, pulling the flexible diaphragm with it; and the variations of pressure in the air acted upon by the diaphragm produced waves, reproducing the characteristics of the original sound-waves, and perceived by the ear as reproducing the original sound or voice. mr gray lodged a _caveat_ for this contrivance in the united states patent office on th february ; but on the same day professor alexander graham bell filed a specification and drawings of the original bell telephone. bell's telephone was first exhibited in america at the centennial exhibition in philadelphia in ; and in england, at the glasgow meeting of the british association in september of that year. on that occasion, sir william thomson (now lord kelvin) pronounced it, with enthusiasm, to be the 'greatest of all the marvels of the electric telegraph.' the surprise created by its first appearance was, however, nothing to the astonishment and delight which it aroused in this country when professor bell, the following year, himself exhibited it in london to the society of telegraph engineers. since then, its introduction as a valuable aid to social life has been very rapid, and the telephone is now to be found in use from china to peru. thomas alva edison and the phonograph. the phonograph is an instrument for mechanically recording and reproducing articulate human speech, song, &c. it was invented by mr t. a. edison in the spring of , at his menlo park laboratory, new jersey, and came into existence as the result of one of the many lines of experiment he was then engaged upon. thomas alva edison, this notable american inventor, was born at milan, ohio, th february , but his early years were spent at port huron, michigan. his father was of dutch, and his mother of scotch descent; the latter, having been a teacher, gave him what schooling he received. edison was a great reader in his youth, and at the age of twelve he became a newsboy on the grand trunk line running into detroit, and began to experiment in chemistry. gaining the exclusive right of selling newspapers on this line, and purchasing some old type, with the aid of four assistants he printed and issued the _grand trunk herald_, the first newspaper printed in a railway train. a station-master, in gratitude for his having saved his child from the front of an advancing train, taught him telegraphy, in which he had previously been greatly interested; and thenceforward he concentrated the energies of a very versatile mind chiefly upon electrical studies. [illustration: edison with his phonograph.] edison invented an automatic repeater, by means of which messages could be sent from one wire to another without the intervention of the operator. his system of duplex telegraphy was perfected while a telegraph operator in boston, but was not entirely successful until . in he became superintendent of the new york gold and stock company, and here invented the printing-telegraph for gold and stock quotations, for the manufacture of which he established a workshop at newark, n.j., continuing there till his removal to menlo park, n.j., in . ten years later he settled at orange, at the foot of the orange mountains, his large premises at menlo park having grown too small for him. his inventive faculties now getting full play, he took out over fifty patents in connection with improvements in telegraphy, including the duplex, quadruplex, and sextuplex system; the carbon telephone transmitter; microtasimeter; aerophone, for amplifying sound; the megaphone, for magnifying sound. thence also emanated his phonograph, a form of telephone, and various practical adaptations of the electric light. his kinetoscope ( ) is a development of the zoetrope, in which the continuous picture is obtained from a swift succession of instantaneous photographs (taken or more in a second), and printed on a strip of celluloid. of late he has devoted himself to improving metallurgic methods. he has taken out some patents, and founded many companies at home and in europe. following up some of his telegraphic inventions, he had developed a machine which, by reason of the indentations made on paper, would transfer a message in morse characters from one circuit to another automatically, through the agency of a tracing-point connected with a circuit-closing device. upon revolving with rapidity the cylinder that carried the indented or embossed paper mr edison found that the indentations could be reproduced with immense rapidity through the vibration of the tracing-point. he at once saw that he could vibrate a diaphragm by the sound-waves of the voice, and, by means of a stylus attached to the diaphragm, make them record themselves upon an impressible substance placed on the revolving cylinder. the record being made thus, the diaphragm would, when the stylus again traversed the cylinder, be thrown into the same vibrations as before, and the actual reproduction of human speech, or any other sound, would be the result. the invention thought out in this manner was at once tried, with paraffined paper as the receiving material, and afterwards with tinfoil, the experiment proving a remarkable success, despite the crudity of the apparatus. in mr edison made a number of phonographs, which were exhibited in america and europe, and attracted universal attention. the records were made in these on soft tinfoil sheets fastened around metal cylinders. for a while mr edison was compelled to suspend work on this invention, but soon returned to it and worked out the machine as it exists practically to-day. it occupies about the same space as a hand sewing-machine. a light tube of wax to slide on and off the cylinder is substituted for the tinfoil, which had been wrapped round it, and the indenting stylus is replaced by a minute engraving point. under the varying pressure of the sound-waves, this point or knife cuts into the tube almost imperceptibly, the wax chiselled away wreathing off in very fine spirals before the edge of the little blade, as the cylinder travels under it. each cylinder will receive about a thousand words. in the improved machine mr edison at first employed two diaphragms in 'spectacle' form, one to receive and the other to reproduce; but he has since combined these in a single efficient attachment. the wax cylinders can be used several hundred times, the machine being fitted with a small paring tool which will shave off the record previously made, leaving a smooth new surface. the machine has also been supplemented by the inventor with an ingenious little electric motor with delicate governing mechanism, so that the phonograph can be operated at any chosen rate of speed, uniformly. this motor derives its energising current either from an edison-lalande primary battery, a storage battery, or an electric-light circuit. the new and perfected edison phonograph has already gone into very general use, and many thousands are distributed in american business offices, where they facilitate correspondence in a variety of ways. they are also employed by stenographers as a help in the transcription of their shorthand notes. heretofore these notes have been slowly dictated to amanuenses, but they are now frequently read off to a phonograph, and then written out at leisure. the phonograph is, however, being used for direct stenograph work, and it reported verbatim , words of discussion at one convention held in , the words being quietly repeated into the machine by the reporter as quickly as they were uttered by the various speakers. a large number of machines are in use by actors, clergymen, musicians, reciters, and others, to improve their elocution and singing. automatic phonographs are also to be found in many places of public resort, equipped with musical or elocutionary cylinders, which can be heard upon the insertion of a small coin; and miniature phonographs have been applied to dolls and toys. the value of the phonograph in the preservation of dying languages has been perceived too, and records have already been secured of the speech, songs, war-cries, and folklore of american tribes now becoming extinct. it is also worthy of note that several voice records remain of distinguished men, who 'being dead yet speak.' their tones can now be renewed at will, and their very utterances, faithful in accent and individuality, can be heard again and again through all time. improvements are being made in the wholesale reproduction of phonographic cylinders, by electrotyping and other processes; and the machine, in a more or less modified form, is being introduced as a means of furnishing a record of communications through the telephone. phonographic clocks, books, and other devices have also been invented by mr edison, whose discovery is evidently of a generic nature, opening up a large and entirely new field in the arts and sciences. the end. edinburgh: printed by w. & r. chambers, limited. books compiled by robert cochrane published by w. & r. chambers, limited. adventure and adventurers. being true tales of daring, peril, and heroism. illustrated. / good and great women. lives of queen victoria, florence nightingale, jenny lind, &c. illustrated. / beneficent and useful lives. lives of lord shaftesbury, george peabody, sir w. besant, samuel morley, sir j. y. simpson, &c. illustrated. / great thinkers and workers. lives of thomas carlyle, lord armstrong, lord tennyson, charles dickens, w. m. thackeray, sir h. bessemer, james nasmyth, &c. illustrated. / recent travel and adventure. travels of h. m. stanley, lieutenant greely, joseph thomson, dr livingstone, lady brassey, arminius vambéry, sir richard burton, &c. illustrated. / great historic events. indian mutiny, french revolution, the crusades, conquest of mexico, &c. illustrated. / london and edinburgh. faraday had found that a current flowing around a piece of iron will make the iron a magnet, and that a magnet in motion will cause a current to flow in a wire. it seemed to him that a second wire placed near the first should have a current produced in it without the presence of iron. he wound two coils of copper wire upon the same wooden spool. the wire of the two coils he separated with twine and calico. one coil was connected with a galvanometer, the other with a battery of ten cells, yet not the slightest turning of the needle could be observed. but he was not deterred by one failure. he raised his battery from ten cells to one hundred cells, but without avail. the current flowed calmly through the battery wire without producing, during its flow, any effect upon the galvanometer. during its flow was the time when an effect was expected. again the unexpected happened. at the instant of making contact with the battery there was a slight movement of the needle. when the contact was broken, another slight movement, but in the opposite direction to the first (fig. ). the current in one wire caused a current to flow in the other, but the current in the second wire continued for an instant only at the making and breaking of the contact with the battery. this was the beginning of the induction-coil used to-day in wireless telegraphy. [illustration: fig. --faraday's induction-coil starting and stopping the battery current in the primary coil causes a changing magnetic field, and this causes a current to flow in the secondary coil. drawing reproduced by permission of joseph g. branch.] what was the secret of it? simply this: that a current in one wire will cause a current to flow in another wire near it, but only while the current in the first wire is changing. that is, at the instant when the first wire is connected to the battery, or its connection broken, a current is induced in the second wire. there is no battery or other source of current connected to the second wire; but a current flows in this wire because it is near a wire in which a current is rapidly starting and stopping. when these two wires are wound in coils, together they form an induction-coil. the wire which we have called the first wire forms the "primary" coil, and the one we have called the second wire forms the "secondary" coil. by repeatedly making and breaking the circuit in the primary coil we get an alternating current in the secondary coil. fig. is from a photograph of some of the coils actually used by faraday. [illustration: fig. --historical apparatus of faraday in the royal institution some of faraday's transformer coils are shown here. the instrument on the left in a glass case is his galvanometer.] faraday's dynamo to invent a new electrical machine was faraday's next aim. arago's disk of copper whirling near a magnet had a current induced in it, so faraday thought. it was the action of this induced current which caused the magnet to follow the whirling disk. could the current in arago's disk be collected and caused to flow through a wire? he placed a copper disk between the poles of a magnet. one galvanometer wire passed around the axis of the disk, the other he held in contact with the edge. he whirled the disk. the galvanometer needle moved. a current was flowing in the disk as it whirled. the current from the whirling disk flowed through the galvanometer. faraday had discovered the dynamo (fig. ). [illustration: fig. --faraday's first dynamo a current flows in the copper disk as it whirls between the poles of the magnet. by permission of joseph g. branch.] all this work occupied but ten days in the autumn of , though years of preparation had gone before. in these ten days the foundation was laid for the induction-coil, modern dynamo-electric machinery, and electric lighting. fig. shows the laboratory in which faraday did this work. [illustration: fig. --faraday's laboratory, where the first dynamo was made from the water-color drawing by miss harriet moore.] faraday continued to explore the field opened up before him. in one experiment two small pencils of charcoal lightly touching were connected to the ends of a secondary coil. a spark passed between the charcoal points when the primary circuit was closed. this was the first transformer producing a tiny electric light (fig. ). [illustration: fig. --the first transformer] faraday discovered the induction-coil, the dynamo, and the transformer, and he showed that, in each of these, it is magnetism which produces the electric current. he had discovered the secret when he obtained a current by thrusting a magnet into a coil of wire. the space about a magnet in which the magnet will attract iron he called the "magnetic field" (figs. and ). in every case of magnetism causing an electric current to flow in a coil of wire, the coil is in a magnetic field, and the magnetic field is changing--that is, the magnetic field is made alternately stronger and weaker, or the coil moves across the magnetic field. the point is that magnetism at rest will not produce an electric current. there must be a changing magnetic field or motion. in faraday's dynamo a copper disk whirled between the poles of a magnet and the whirling of the disk in the magnetic field caused an electric current. in the modern dynamo it is the whirling of a coil of wire in a magnetic field that causes a current to flow. in the induction-coil it is the change in the magnetic field that causes a current to flow in the secondary coil. a coil of wire with an electric current flowing through it will attract iron like a magnet. the primary coil with a current from a battery flowing through it acts in all respects like a magnet; but as soon as the current ceases to flow the magnetic field disappears--the coil is no longer a magnet. when we make and break the connection between the primary coil and the battery, then, we repeatedly make and destroy the magnetic field, and this changing magnetic field causes a current to flow in the secondary coil. the induction-coil is one form of transformer. we shall see later how the dynamo and the transformer developed in the nineteenth century. [illustration: fig. --the "magnetic field" is the space around a magnet in which it will attract iron the iron filings over the magnet arrange themselves along the "lines of force."] [illustration: fig. --magnetic field of a horseshoe magnet] when a boy, faraday had passed the current from his little battery through a jar of cistern-water, and saw in the water a "dense white cloud" descending from the positive wire, and bubbles arising from the negative wire. something was being taken out of the water by the electric current. when he tried the experiment later in his laboratory, he found that, whenever an electric current is passed through water, bubbles of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, rise through the water. he found that if the current is made stronger the bubbles are formed faster. the water in time disappears, for it has been changed or "decomposed" into the two gases. it was the current from a battery that would decompose water. the electricity from the electrical machine would do other things that he had never seen a battery current do. "do the battery and the electrical machine produce different kinds of electricity, or is electricity one and the same in whatever way it is produced?" this was the query that troubled him. the answer to this question had been so uncertain that the effect of the voltaic battery had been termed "galvanism," while that of the friction machine retained the name "electricity." faraday tried many experiments in searching for an answer to this question. he found that the electricity of the machine will produce the same effect as that of a battery if the machine is compelled to discharge slowly. an electrical machine or a battery of leyden jars can be made to give out an electric current, and this current will affect a magnetic needle in the same way that a battery current will. it will magnetize steel. if passed through water, it will decompose the water into the two gases oxygen and hydrogen. in short, a current from an electrical machine or a leyden jar will do everything that a current from an electric battery will do. faraday caused the leyden jar to give a current instead of a spark by connecting the two metal coatings with a wet string. on the other hand, the discharge from a powerful electric battery will produce a spark and affect the human nerves in the same way as the discharge from the electrical machine. the same effects may be obtained from one as from the other. in the discharge from the machine, a small quantity of electricity is discharged under high pressure, as water may be forced through a small opening by very high pressure. the voltaic cell, on the other hand, furnishes a large quantity of electricity at low pressure, as a street may be flooded by a broken water-main though the pressure is low. in fact, the quantity of electricity required to decompose a grain of water is equal to that discharged in a stroke of lightning, while the action of a dilute acid on the one-hundredth part of an ounce of zinc in a battery yields electricity sufficient for a powerful thunder-storm. many tests were made, and the result was a convincing proof that electricity is the same whatever its source, the different effects being due to difference in pressure and quantity. "but in no case," said faraday, "not even in those of the electric eel and torpedo, is there a production of electric power without something being used up to supply it." faraday's professional work would have made him wealthy. in one year he made £ ($ ), and the amount would have increased had he sold his services at their market value. but then there would have been no faraday the discoverer. the world would have had to wait, no one knows how long, for the laying of the foundations of electrical industries. he chose to give up wealth for the sake of discovery. he gave up professional work with the exception of scientific adviser to trinity house, the body which has charge of great britain's lighthouse service. nor did he carry his discoveries to the point of practical application. as soon as he discovered one principle, he set out in pursuit of others, leaving the practical application to the future. faraday loved the beauty of nature. the sunset he called the scenery of heaven. he saw the beauty of electricity, which he said lies not in its mystery, but in the fact that it is under law and within the control of the human intellect. a wonderful law of nature not long after faraday made his first dynamo, robert mayer, a physician from germany, was making a voyage to the east indies which proved to be a voyage of discovery. he had sailed as the ship's physician, and after some months an epidemic broke out among the ship's company. in his treatment he drew blood from the veins of the arms. he was startled to see bright-red blood issue from the veins. he might almost have believed that he had opened an artery by mistake. it was soon explained to him by a physician who had lived long in the tropics that the blood in the veins of the natives, and of foreigners as well, in the tropics is of nearly the same color as arterial blood. in colder climates the venous blood is much darker than the arterial. he reasoned upon this curious fact for some time, and came to the conclusion that the human body does not make heat out of nothing, but consumes fuel. the fuel is consumed in the blood, and there the heat is produced. in the tropics less heat is needed, less fuel is consumed, and therefore there is less change in the color of the blood. when a man works he uses up fuel. if a blacksmith heats a piece of iron by hammering, the heat given to the iron and the heat produced in his body are together equal to the heat of the fuel consumed in his blood. the work a man does, as well as the heat of his body, comes from the burning of the fuel in his blood. what is true of a man is true of an engine. the work the engine does, as well as the heat it produces, comes from the heat of the fuel in the furnace. mayer found that one hundred pounds of coal in a good working engine produces the same amount of heat as ninety-five pounds in an engine that is not working. in the working engine the heat of the five pounds of coal is used up in the work of running the engine, and therefore does not heat the engine. heat that is used in running the engine is no longer heat, but work. so mayer said the heat is not destroyed, but only changed into work. he said, further, that the work of running the engine may be changed again into heat. mayer's theory was opposed by many scientific men of europe. one great scientist said to him that if his theory were correct water could be warmed by shaking. he remembered what the helmsman had remarked to him on the voyage to java, that water beaten about by a storm is warmer than quiet sea-water; but he said nothing. he went to his laboratory, tried the experiment, and some weeks later returned, exclaiming: "it is so! it is so!" he had warmed water simply by shaking it. these results mean that work or energy cannot be destroyed. though it changes form in many ways, it is never destroyed. neither can man create energy; he can only direct its changes as the engineer, by the motion of his finger in opening a valve, sets the locomotive in motion. he does not move the locomotive. he directs the energy already in the steam. since the time of galileo, men had caught now and then a glimpse of this great law. galileo had stated his law of machines; that, when a machine does work, a man or a horse or some other power does an equal amount of work upon the machine. count rumford had performed his experiment with the cannon, showing that heat is produced by the work of a horse. davy had proved that, in the voltaic battery, something must be used up to produce the current--the mere contact of the metals is not sufficient. faraday had said that in no case is there a production of electrical power without something being used up to supply it. mayer stated clearly this law of energy when he said that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only changed from one form to another. and yet inventors have not learned the meaning of this law. they continue trying to invent perpetual-motion machines--machines that will produce work from nothing. this is what a perpetual-motion machine would be if such a machine were possible. for a machine without friction is impossible, and friction means wasted work--work changed into heat. a machine to keep itself running and supply the work wasted in friction must produce work from nothing. the great law of nature is that you cannot get something for nothing. whether you get work, heat, electricity, or light, something must be used up to produce it. for whatever you get out of a machine you must give an equivalent. this law cannot be evaded, and from it there is no appeal. chapter v great inventions of the nineteenth century the discoveries of faraday prepared the way for the great inventions of the nineteenth century. by the middle of the century men knew how to control the wonderful power of electricity. they did not know what electricity is, nor do we know to-day, though we have made some progress in that direction; but to control it and make it furnish light, heat, and power was more important. before the inventions of james watt made it possible to use steam-power, factories were built near falling water, so that water-power could be used. but the steam-engine made it possible to build great factories wherever a supply of water for the boilers could be obtained. cities were built around the factories. cities already great became greater. with the growth of cities the need of a new means of producing light and power made itself felt. electricity promised to become the hercules that should perform the tasks of the modern world. discovery gave way to invention. during the second half of the nineteenth century many great inventions were made and industries were developed, while discoveries were few until near the close of the century. within this period the great industries which characterize our modern civilization, and which arose out of the discoveries that science had made in the centuries preceding, attained a high degree of development. in this chapter we shall trace the applications of some of the discoveries with which we have now become familiar. this will lead us into the field of electrical invention, for we are dealing now with the beginning of the world's electrical age. electric batteries from the time of volta to the time of faraday the only means of producing an electric current was the "voltaic battery," so called in honor of volta. the voltaic cell is the simplest form of electric battery. in this cell the zinc and copper plates are placed in sulphuric acid diluted with water. as the acid eats the zinc, hydrogen gas is formed. this gas collects in bubbles on the copper plate and weakens the current. the aim of inventors was to produce a steady current, to devise a battery in which no gas would collect on the copper plate. they saw the need of a battery that would give out a current of unchanging strength until the zinc or the acid was used up. the first real improvement in the battery was made by professor daniell, of king's college, london. in the daniell cell the zinc plate is in dilute sulphuric acid, and the copper plate is in a solution of blue vitriol or copper sulphate. professor daniell separated the two liquids by placing one of them in a tube formed of the gullet of an ox. this tube dipped into the other liquid. the hydrogen gas, as it was formed by the acid acting on the zinc, could go through the walls of the tube, but was stopped by the copper sulphate, and copper was deposited on the copper plate. this copper deposit in no way interfered with the current, so that the current was not weakened until the zinc plate or one of the solutions was nearly consumed. a cup of porous earthenware is now used in daniell cells to separate the liquids (fig. ). by placing crystals of blue vitriol in the battery jar, the solution of blue vitriol can be kept up to its full strength for a very long time. the zinc in time is consumed, and must be replaced. [illustration: fig. --a daniell cell] in the gravity cell (fig. ) the same materials are used as in the daniell cell--copper in copper sulphate, and zinc in sulphuric acid; but there is no porous cup. the solutions are kept separate by gravity, the heavy copper sulphate being at the bottom. the gravity cell has until recently been extensively used in telegraphy, and continues in use in short-distance telegraphy and in automatic block signals. the gravity and daniell cells are used for closed-circuit work--that is, for work in which the current is flowing almost constantly. [illustration: fig. --a gravity cell] the dry battery another important improvement was the invention of the dry battery. you will remember that the first battery, the one invented by volta, was a form of dry battery; but it was a very feeble battery compared with the dry batteries now in use, so that we may call the dry battery a new invention. the dry battery is falsely named. there can be no battery without a liquid. in the dry battery the zinc cup forming the outside of the cell is one of the plates of the cell (fig. ). the battery appears to be dry because the solution of sal ammoniac is absorbed by blotting-paper or other porous substance in contact with the zinc. the inner plate is carbon, and this is surrounded by powdered carbon and manganese dioxide--the latter to remove the hydrogen gas which collects on the carbon plate. this gas weakens the current when the circuit has been closed for a short time, but is slowly removed when the circuit is broken. thus the battery is said to "recover." [illustration: fig. --showing what is in a dry battery] the dry cell will give a strong current, but for a short time only. it recovers, however, if allowed to rest. it can be used, therefore, only in "open-circuit" work--such as door-bell circuits, and some forms of fire and burglar alarm. a door-bell circuit is open nearly all the time, the current flowing only while the button is being pressed. some forms of wet battery work in the same way as the dry battery, and are used like-wise for open-circuit work. in these batteries carbon and zinc plates in a solution of sal ammoniac are used, the same materials as in the dry battery. the only difference is that in the dry battery the solution is absorbed by some porous substance and the battery sealed so that it appears to be dry. the storage battery one of the greatest improvements in electric batteries is the storage battery. a simple storage battery may be made by placing two strips of lead in sulphuric acid diluted with water and connecting the lead strips to a battery of daniell cells or dry cells. in a short time one of the lead strips will be found covered with a red coating. the surface of this lead strip is no longer lead but an oxide of lead, somewhat like the rust that forms on iron. if the lead strips are now disconnected from the other battery and connected to an electric bell, the bell will ring. we have here two plates, one of lead and one of oxide of lead, in dilute sulphuric acid. this forms a storage battery. the first storage battery was made of two sheets of lead rolled together and kept apart by a strip of flannel. the lead strips thus separated were immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. a current from another battery was passed through this cell for a long time--first in one direction, then in the other. this roughened the surface of the lead plates, so that the battery would hold a greater charge. the battery was then charged by passing a current through it in one direction only for a considerable length of time. feeble cells were used for charging. it took days, and sometimes weeks, to charge the first storage batteries. then the storage battery would give out a strong current lasting for a few hours. it slowly accumulated energy while being charged, and then gave out this energy rapidly in the form of a strong electric current. for this reason the storage battery was called an "accumulator." while charging the storage cell there was formed on the negative plate a coating of soft lead, and on the positive plate a coating of dark-brown oxide of lead. it was found better to apply these coatings to the lead plates before making up the battery. later it was found that the battery would hold a still greater charge if the plates were made in the form of "grids" (fig. ), and the cavities filled with the active material--the negative with spongy lead, and the positive with dark-brown lead oxide. some excellent commercial storage batteries are made from lead plates by the action of an electric current, very much as planté made his batteries. fig. shows one of these plates. [illustration: fig. --a storage battery, showing the "grids"] [illustration: fig. --a storage-battery plate made from a sheet of lead] the storage battery does not store up electricity. it produces a current in exactly the same way as any other battery--by the action of the acid on the plates. when this action ceases it is no longer a battery, though it may be made one again by passing a current through it in the opposite direction from that which it gives out. in this it differs from the voltaic battery, for when such a battery is run down it can be restored only by adding new solution or new plates. the storage battery is especially useful for "sparking" in gas or gasolene motors. edison has invented a storage battery that will do as much work as a lead battery of twice its weight. edison's battery is intended especially for use in electric automobiles. by reducing the weight of the battery which the machine must carry the weight of the truck may also be reduced. in the edison battery the positive plates are made of a grid of nickel-plated steel containing tubes filled with pure nickel. the negative plate consists of a nickel-plated steel grid containing an oxide of iron similar to common iron-rust. after working a number of years on this battery and making nine thousand experiments, edison thought he had it perfected, and indeed it was a great improvement over the storage batteries that had been used--much lighter and cheaper, and more successful in operation. two hundred and fifty automobiles were equipped with it, and it proved superior to lead batteries for this purpose. but it was not to edison's liking. he threw the machinery, worth thousands of dollars, on the scrap-heap, and worked on for six years. he had then produced a battery as much better than the first as the first was better than the lead battery, and he was content to have the new battery placed on the market. the dynamo for the purpose of lighting and power the electric battery proved too costly. davy produced an arc light with a battery of four thousand cells. the arc was about four inches in length and yielded a brilliant light, but as the cost was six dollars a minute it was not thought practical. attempts were made early in the century to use a battery current for power, but they failed because of the cost and the fact that no good working motor had been invented. light and power were needed. electricity could supply both. but how overcome the difficulty of cost, and produce an electric current from burning coal or falling water? for answer man looked to the great discovery of faraday and his "new electrical machine." inventors in germany, france, england, italy, and america made improvements until from the disk dynamo of faraday there had evolved the modern dynamo. electroplating and the telegraph are the only applications of the electric current that became factors in the world's industry before the dynamo, yet in long-distance telegraphy and in electroplating to-day the dynamo is used. without the dynamo, electric lighting, electric power, and electric traction as developed in the nineteenth century would have been impossible; in fact, the dynamo with the electric motor (which, as we shall see, is only a dynamo reversed) is master of the field. the way had been prepared for the application of faraday's discovery by william sturgeon, an englishman, and joseph henry, an american. sturgeon discovered that soft iron is more quickly magnetized than steel, and found that the strength of an electromagnet can be greatly increased by making the core of a soft-iron rod and bending the rod into the form of a horseshoe (fig. ). the iron rod was coated with sealing-wax and wound with a single layer of copper wire, the turns of wire not touching. this was in , before faraday discovered the principle of the dynamo. [illustration: fig. --sturgeon's electromagnet] professor henry still further increased the strength of the electromagnet by covering the wire with silk, which made it possible to wind several layers of wire on the iron core, and many times the length of wire that had been used by sturgeon. fig. shows such a magnet. one of henry's magnets weighed fifty-nine and a half pounds, and would hold up a ton of iron. sturgeon said: "professor henry has produced a magnetic force which completely eclipses every other in the whole annals of magnetism." with professor henry's invention the electromagnet was ready for use in the dynamo. fig. shows a strong electromagnet. [illustration: fig. --an electromagnet with many turns of insulated wire] [illustration: fig. --an electromagnet lifting twelve tons of iron] a moving magnet causes a current to flow in a coil, but a magnet at rest has no effect. a moving magnet is equal to a battery. in faraday's experiments a current was induced in a coil of wire by moving a magnet in the coil or by making and breaking the circuit in another coil wound on the same iron core. a current was induced in a metal disk by revolving it between the poles of a magnet. in every case there was motion in a magnetic field, or the field itself was changed. a changing magnetic field is equal to a moving magnet. what is needed to induce a current in a coil, whether it be in a dynamo, an induction-coil, or a transformer, is a changing magnetic field about the coil or motion of the coil in the magnetic field. if fine iron filings are sprinkled over the poles of a magnet the filings arrange themselves in definite lines. this is a simple experiment which any boy can try for himself. faraday called the lines marked out by the iron filings "lines of force" (the lines of force of a horseshoe magnet are shown in fig. ), because they indicate the direction in which the magnet pulls a piece of iron--that is, the direction of the magnetic force. now, if a current is to be induced in a wire, the wire must move across the lines of force. if the wire moves along the lines marked out by the iron filings, there will be no current. when a coil rotates between the poles of a magnet, the wire moves across the lines of force and a current is induced in the coil if the circuit is closed. this is the way a current is produced in a dynamo. faraday produced a current by rotating a coil between the poles of a steel magnet. he made a number of such machines, and used them with some success in producing lights for lighthouses, but the defects of these machines were so great that the lighting of a city or the development of power on a large scale was impractical. the electromagnet was needed to solve the problem. siemens' dynamo the war of between austria and prussia and the certainty of a coming struggle with france turned the attention of german inventors to the use of electricity in warfare. werner von siemens, an artillery officer, was improving an exploding device for mines. an electric current was needed to produce a spark or heat a wire to redness in the powder. faraday had used a coil of wire turning between the poles of a steel magnet to produce a current. in england a coil turning between the poles of an electromagnet had been used, but the electromagnet received its current from another machine in which a steel magnet was used. siemens found that the steel magnet could be dispensed with, and that a coil turning between the poles of an electromagnet could furnish the current for the electromagnet. two things are needed, then, to make a dynamo: an electromagnet and a coil to turn between the poles of that magnet. the rotating coil, which usually contains a soft-iron core, is called the "armature." the coil will furnish current for the magnet and some to spare; in fact, only a small part of the current induced in the coil is needed to keep the magnet up to its full strength, and the greater part of the current may be used for lighting or power. the new machine was named by its inventor "the dynamo-electric machine." the name has since been shortened to "dynamo." the first practical problem which the dynamo solved was the construction of an electric exploding apparatus without the use of steel magnets or batteries. a dynamo with siemens' armature is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --a dynamo with siemens' armature] in his first enthusiasm the inventor dreamed of great things for the new machine, among others an electric street railway in berlin. but the dynamo was not yet ready. the difficulty was the heating of the iron core of the armature, caused by the action of induced currents. there are induced currents in the iron core as well as in the coil, and, for the same reason, the coil and the iron core within it are both moving in a magnetic field. these little currents circling round and round in the iron core produce heat. the rapid changing of the magnetism of the iron also heats the iron. it remained for gramme, in france, to apply the proper remedy. this remedy was an armature in which the coil was wound on an iron ring, invented by an italian, pacinotti. gramme applied the principle discovered by siemens to pacinotti's ring, and produced the first practical dynamo for strong currents. this was in . a ring armature is shown in fig. . the first dynamo patented in the united states is shown in fig. . this dynamo is only a curiosity. [illustration: fig. --ring armature] [illustration: fig. --first dynamo patented in the united states intended to be used for killing whales. photo by claudy.] the drum armature an improvement in the siemens armature was made four years later by von hefner-alteneck, an engineer in the employ of siemens. this improvement consisted in winding on the iron core a number of coils similar to the one coil of the siemens armature, but wound in different directions. this is called the "drum armature" (fig. ). the heating of the core is prevented by building it up of a number of thin iron plates insulated from one another and by air-spaces within the core. the insulation prevents the small currents from flowing around in the core. the air-spaces serve for cooling. the drum armature was a great improvement over both the siemens and the gramme armatures. with the siemens one-coil armature there is a point in each revolution at which there is no current. the current, therefore, varies during each revolution of the armature from zero to full strength. in the gramme armature only half the wire, the part on the outside of the ring, receives the full effect of the magnetic field. the inner half is practically useless, except to carry the current which is generated in the outer half. both these difficulties are avoided in the drum armature. the dynamos of to-day are modifications of the two kinds invented by siemens and gramme. many special forms have been designed for special kinds of work. [illustration: fig. --a drum armature, showing how an armature of four coils is wound] edison's compound-wound dynamo edison, in his work on the electric light and the electric railway, made some important improvements in the dynamo. the armature of a dynamo is usually turned by a steam-engine. edison found that much power was wasted in the use of belts to connect the engine and the dynamo. he therefore connected the engine direct to the dynamo, placing the armature of the dynamo on the shaft of the engine. he also used more powerful field-magnets than had been used before. his greatest improvement, however, was in making the dynamo self-regulating, so that the dynamo will send out the strength of current that is needed. such a dynamo will send out more current when more lights are turned on. whether it supplies current for one light or a thousand, it sends out just the current that is needed--no more, no less. it will do this if no human being is near. an attendant is needed only to keep the machinery well oiled and see that each part is in working order. edison brought about this improvement by his improved method of winding. this method is known as "compound winding." to understand compound winding we must first understand two other methods of winding. in the series winding (fig. ), all the current generated in the armature flows through the coils of the field-magnet. there is only one circuit. the same current flows through the coils of the magnet and through the outer circuit, which may contain lights or motors. such a dynamo is commonly used for arc lights. it will not regulate itself. if left to itself it will give less electrical pressure when more pressure is needed. it requires a special regulator. [illustration: fig. --a series-wound dynamo] in the second form of winding the current is divided into two branches. one branch goes through the coils of the field-magnet. the other branch goes through the line wire for use in lights or motors. this is called the "shunt winding" (fig. ). the shunt-wound dynamo is used for incandescent lights. it also requires a special regulator, for if left to itself it gives less electrical pressure when the pressure should be kept the same. [illustration: fig. --a shunt-wound dynamo] the compound winding (fig. ), which was first used by edison, is a combination of the series and shunt windings. [illustration: fig. --a compound-wound dynamo] the current is divided into two branches. one branch goes only through the field-coils. the other branch goes through additional coils which are wound on the field-magnet, and also through the external circuit. such a dynamo can be made self-regulating, so that it will give always the same electrical pressure whatever the number of lamps or motors thrown into the circuit. in maintaining always the same pressure it of course supplies more or less current, according to the amount of current that is needed. this is clear if we compare the flow of electric current with the flow of water. open a water-faucet and notice how fast the water flows. then open several other faucets connected with the same water-pipe. probably the water will not flow so fast from the first faucet. that is because the pressure has been lowered by the flow of water from the other faucets. if we could make the water adjust its own pressure and keep the pressure always the same, then the water would always flow at the same rate through a faucet, no matter how many other faucets were opened. this is what happens in the edison compound-wound dynamo. turn on one -candle-power carbon lamp. it takes about half an ampere of current. turn on a hundred lamps connected to the same wires, and the dynamo of its own accord keeps the pressure the same, and supplies fifty amperes, or half an ampere for each lamp. with this invention of edison the dynamo was practically complete, and ready to furnish current for any purpose for which current might be needed. fig. shows one of edison's first dynamos. fig. shows a dynamo used for lighting a railway coach. [illustration: fig. --one of edison's first dynamos permission of association of edison illuminating companies.] [illustration: fig. --a dynamo mounted on the truck of a railway car the dynamo furnishes current for the electric lights in the car. when the train is not running the current is furnished by a storage battery.] electric power it has been said that the nineteenth century was the age of steam, but the twentieth will be the age of electricity. before the end of the nineteenth century, however, electric power had become a reality, and there remained only development along practical lines. we must turn to oersted, ampère, and faraday to find the beginning of electric power. in oersted's experiment, motion of a magnet was produced by an electric current. ampère found that electric currents attract or repel each other, and this because of their magnetic action. faraday found that one pole of a magnet will spin round a wire through which a current is flowing. here was motion produced by an electric current. these great scientists discovered the principles that were applied later by inventors in the electric motor. a number of motors were invented in the early years of the century, but they were of no practical use. it was not until after the invention of the gramme and siemens dynamos that a practical motor was possible. it was found that one of these dynamos would run as a motor if a current were sent through the coils of the armature and the field-magnet; in fact, the current from one dynamo may be made to run another similar machine as a motor. thus the dynamo is said to be reversible. if the armature is turned by a steam-engine or some other power, a current is produced. if a current is sent through the coils, the armature turns and does work. if the machine is used to supply an electric current, it is a dynamo. if used to do work--as, for example, to propel a street-car and for that purpose receives a current--it is a motor. the same machine may be used for either purpose. in practice there are some differences in the winding of the coils of dynamos and motors, yet any dynamo can be used as a motor and any motor can be used as a dynamo. this discovery made it possible to transmit power to a distance with little waste as well as to divide the power easily. the current from one large dynamo may light streets and houses, and at the same time run a number of motors in factories or street-cars at great distances apart. a central-station dynamo may run the motors that propel hundreds of street-cars. dynamos at niagara furnish current for motors in buffalo and other cities. one great scientist, who no doubt fore-saw the wonders of electricity which we know so well to-day, said that the greatest discovery of the nineteenth century was that the gramme machine is reversible. the first electric railway the electric railway was made possible by the invention of the dynamo and the discovery that the dynamo is reversible. at the industrial exposition in berlin in there was exhibited the first practical electric locomotive, the invention of doctor siemens. the locomotive and its passenger-coach were absurdly small. the track was circular, and about one thousand feet in length. this diminutive railway was referred to by an american magazine as "siemens' electrical merry-go-round." but the electrical merry-go-round aroused great interest because of the possibilities it represented (fig. ). [illustration: fig. --first electric locomotive] the current was generated by a dynamo in machinery hall, this dynamo being run by a steam-engine. an exactly similar dynamo mounted on wheels formed the locomotive. the current from the dynamo in machinery hall was used to run the other as a motor and so propel the car. the rails served to conduct the current. a third rail in the middle of the track was connected to one pole of the dynamo and the two outer rails to the other pole. a small trolley wheel made contact with the third rail. the rails were not insulated, but it was found that the leakage current was very small, even when the ground was wet. the success of this experiment aroused great interest, not only in germany, but in europe and america. america's greatest inventor, edison, took up the problem. edison employed no trolley line or third rail, but only the two rails of the track as conductors, sending the current out through one rail and back through the other. of course, this meant that the wheels must be insulated, so that the current could flow from one rail to the other only through the coils of the motor. as in siemens' experiment, the motor was of the same construction as the dynamo. the rails were not insulated, and it was found that, even when the track was wet, the loss of electric current was not more than per cent. edison found that he could realize in his motor per cent. of the power applied to the dynamo, whereas the german inventor was able to realize only per cent. the improvement was largely due to the improved winding. edison was the first to use in practical work the compound-wound dynamo, and this was done in connection with his electric railway. fig. shows edison's first electric locomotive. [illustration: fig. --first edison electric locomotive] the question of gearing was a troublesome one. the armature shaft of the motor was at first connected by friction gearing to the axle of two wheels of the locomotive. later a belt and pulleys were used. an idler pulley was used to tighten the belt. when the motor was started and the belt quickly tightened the armature was burned out. this happened a number of times. then mr. edison brought out from the laboratory a number of resistance-boxes, placed them on the locomotive, and connected them in series with the armature. these resistances would permit only a small current to flow through the motor as it was starting, and so prevent the burning-out of the armature coils. the locomotive was started with the resistance-boxes in circuit, and after gaining some speed the operator would plug the various boxes out of circuit, and in that way increase the speed. when the motor is running there is a back-pressure, or a pressure that would cause a current to flow in the opposite direction from that which is running the motor. because of this back-pressure the current which actually flows through the motor is small, and the resistance-boxes may be safely taken out of the circuit. finding the resistance-boxes scattered about under the seats and on the platform as they were a nuisance, mr. edison threw them aside, and used some coils of wire wound on the motor field-magnet which could be plugged out of the circuit in the same way as the resistance-boxes. this device of edison's was the origin of the controller, though in the controller now used on street-cars not only is the resistance cut out as the speed of the car increases, but the electrical connections of the motor are changed in such a way as to increase its speed gradually. fig. shows edison's first passenger locomotive. [illustration: fig. --edison's first passenger locomotive] the news of the little electric railway at the industrial exposition in berlin was soon noised abroad, and the german inventor received inquiries from all parts of the world, indicating that efforts would be made in other countries to develop practical electrical railways. the firm of siemens & halske therefore determined to build a line for actual traffic, not for profit, but that germany might have the honor of building the first practical electric railway. the line was built between berlin and lichterfelde, a distance of about one and a half miles. a horse-car seating twenty-six persons was pressed into service. a motor was mounted between the axles, and a central-station dynamo exactly like the motor was installed. as in edison's experimental railway, the two rails of the track were used to carry the current. this electric line replaced an omnibus line, and was immediately used for regular traffic, and thus the electric railway was launched upon its remarkable career. the first electric car used for commercial service is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --first commercial electric railway an old horse-car converted into an electric car.] electric lighting from the time when the night-watchman carried a lantern to the time of brilliantly lighted streets was less than a century. it was a time when the rapid growth of railways and commerce brought about a rapid growth of cities, and with the growth of cities the need of illumination. factories must run at night to meet the world's demands. commerce cannot stop when the sun sets. the centres of commerce must have light. during this time scientists were at work in their laboratories developing means for producing a high vacuum. they were able to pump the air out of a glass bulb until less than a millionth part of the air remained. they little dreamed that there was any connection between the high vacuum and the problem of lighting. discoverers were at work bringing to light the principles now utilized in the dynamo. in the fulness of time these factors were brought together to produce an efficient system of lighting. for a time gas replaced the lantern of the night-watchman, only to yield the greater portion of the field to its rival, electricity. the first efforts were in the direction of the arc light. from the earliest times the light given out by an electric spark had been observed. it was the aim of inventors to produce a continuous spark that should give out a brilliant light. it was thought for a time that the electric battery would solve the problem, but the cost of the battery current was too great. again we are indebted to faraday, for it was the dynamo that made electric lighting possible. an arc light is produced by an electric current flowing across a gap between two sticks of carbon. the air offers very great resistance to the flow of electric current across this gap. now whenever an electric current flows through something which resists its flow, heat is produced. the high resistance of the air-gap causes such intense heat that the tips of the carbons become white hot and give out a brilliant light. if examined through a smoked glass a beautiful blue arc of carbon vapor may be seen between the carbon tips. if the current flows in one direction only, one of the carbons, the positive, becomes hotter and brighter than the other. in the streets of paris were lighted with the "jablochkoff candle," a form of arc light supplied with current by the gramme machine. in the same year the brush system of arc lighting was given to the public. this was the beginning of our present system of arc lighting. the electric arc is suitable for lighting streets and for large buildings, but cannot be used for lighting houses. the light is too intense. one arc would furnish enough light for a number of houses if the light could be divided so that there might be just the right amount of light in each room. but this is impossible with the electric arc. the edison system of incandescent lighting was required to solve the problem of lighting houses by electricity. in the edison system was brought out for commercial use. edison's problem was to produce a light that could be divided into a number of small lights, and one that would require less attention than the arc light. he tried passing a current through platinum wire enclosed in a vacuum. this gave a fairly good light, but was not wholly satisfactory. he sat one night thinking about the problem, unconsciously fingering a bit of lampblack mixed with tar which he had used in his telephone. not thinking what he was doing, he rolled this mixture of tar and lampblack into a thread. then he noticed what he had done, and the thought occurred to him: "why not pass an electric current through this thread of carbon?" he tried it. a faint glow was the result. he felt that he was on the right track. a piece of cotton thread must be heated in a furnace in an iron mold, which would prevent the thread from burning by keeping out the air. then all the other elements that were in the thread would be driven out and only the carbon remain. for three days he worked without sleep to prepare this carbon filament. at the end of two days he succeeded in getting a perfect filament, but when he attempted to seal it in the glass bulb it broke. he patiently worked another day, and was rewarded by securing a good carbon filament, sealed in a glass globe. he pumped the air out of this globe, sealed it, and sent a current through the carbon thread. he tried a weak current at first. there was a faint glow. he increased the current. the thread glowed more brightly. he continued to increase the current until the slender thread of carbon, which would crumble at a touch, was carrying a current that would melt a wire of platinum strong enough to support a weight of several pounds. the carbon gave a bright light. he had found a means of causing the electric current to furnish a large number of small lights. fig. is an excellent photograph of edison at work in his laboratory. fig. shows some of edison's first incandescent lamps. he next set out in search of the best kind of carbon for the purpose. he carbonized paper and wood of various kinds--in fact, everything he could find that would yield a carbon filament. he tried the fibres of a japanese fan made of bamboo, and found that this gave a better light than anything he had tried before. he then began the search for the best kind of bamboo. he learned that there are about twelve hundred varieties of bamboo. he must have a sample of every variety. he sent men into every part of the world where bamboo grows. one man travelled thirty thousand miles and had many encounters with wild beasts in his search for the samples of bamboo. at last a japanese bamboo was found that was better than any other. the search for the carbon fibre had cost about a hundred thousand dollars. later it was found that a "squirted filament" could be made that worked as well as the bamboo fibre. this was made by dissolving cotton wool in a certain solution, and then squirting this solution through a small hole into a small tank containing alcohol. the alcohol causes the substance to set and harden, and thus forms a carbon thread the size of the hole. fig. shows the first commercial electric-lighting plant, which was installed on the steamship _columbia_ in . [illustration: copyright, , by byron, n. y. fig. --edison, america's greatest inventor, at work in his laboratory] [illustration: copyright, , by william j. hammer fig. --edison's famous horseshoe paper-filament lamp of ] [illustration: fig. --first commercial edison electric-lighting plant; installed on the steamship "columbia" in may, ] the carbon thread in the incandescent light is heated to a white heat, and because it is so heated it gives out light. in air such a tiny thread of white-hot carbon would burn in a fraction of a second. the carbon must be in a vacuum, and so the air is pumped out of the light bulb with a special kind of air-pump invented not long before edison began his work on the electric light. this pump is capable of taking out practically all the air that was in the bulb. perhaps a millionth part of the original air remains. a great invention is never completed by one man. it was to be expected that the electric light would be improved. a number of kinds of incandescent light have been devised, using different kinds of filaments and adapted to a variety of uses. the original edison carbon lamp, however, continues in use, being better adapted to certain purposes than the newer forms. the mercury vapor light deserves mention as a special form of arc light. in the ordinary arc light the arc is formed of carbon vapor, and the light is given out from the tips of the white-hot carbons. in the mercury vapor light the light is given out from the mercury vapor which forms the arc. this arc may be of any desired length, and yields a soft, bluish-white light which is a near approach to daylight. the telegraph the need of some means of giving signals at a distance was early felt in the art of war. flag signals such as are now used by the armies and navies of the world were introduced in the middle of the seventeenth century by the duke of york, admiral of the english fleet, who afterward became james ii. of england. other methods of communicating at a distance were devised from time to time, but the distance was only that at which a signal could be seen or a sound heard. no means of communicating over very long distances was possible until the magnetic action of an electric current was discovered. when oersted's discovery was made known men began to think of signalling to a distance by means of the action of an electric current on a magnetic needle. a current may be sent over a very long wire, and it will deflect a magnetic needle at the other end. the movements of the needle may be controlled by opening and closing the circuit, and a system of signals or an alphabet may be arranged. a number of needle telegraphs were invented, but they were too slow in action. two other great inventions were needed to prepare the way for the telegraph. one was the electromagnet in the form developed by professor henry, a horseshoe magnet with many turns of silk-covered wire around the soft-iron core, so that a very feeble current will produce a magnet strong enough to move an armature of soft iron. the magnet has this strength because the current flows so many times around the iron core. another need was that of a battery that could be depended on to give a constant current for a considerable length of time. this need was met by the daniell cell. the electromagnet made the telegraph possible. the locomotive made it a necessity. without the telegraph it would be impossible to control a railway system from a central office. a train after leaving the central station would be like a ship at sea before the invention of the wireless telegraph. nothing could be known of its movements until it returned. the need of a telegraph was keenly felt in america when the new republic was extended to the pacific coast. an english statesman said, after the united states acquired california, that this marked the end of the great american republic, for a people spread over such a vast area and separated by such natural barriers could not hold together. he did not know that the iron wire of the telegraph would bind the new nation firmly together. the morse telegraph system now in use throughout the civilized world was made possible by the work of sturgeon and henry. sturgeon's electromagnet might have been used for telegraphy through very short distances, but henry's magnet, with its coils of many turns of insulated wire, was needed for long-distance signalling. in one of the rooms of the albany academy, professor henry caused an electromagnet to sound a bell when the current was transmitted through more than a mile of wire. this might be called the first electromagnetic telegraph. but the application to actual practice was made by morse, and the man who first makes the practical application of a principle is the true inventor. in , on board the packet-ship _sully_, samuel f. b. morse, an american artist, forty-one years of age, was returning from europe. in conversation a doctor jackson referred to the electrical experiments of ampère, which he had witnessed while in europe, and, in reply to a question, said that electricity passes instantaneously over any known length of wire. the thought of transmitting words by means of the electric current at once took possession of the artist's mind. after many days and sleepless nights he showed to friends on board the drawings and notes he had made of a recording telegraph. in new york, in a room provided by his brothers, he gave himself up to the working-out of his idea, sleeping little and eating the simplest food. receiving an appointment as professor in the university of the city of new york, he moved to one of the buildings of that university and continued his experiments in extreme poverty, and at times facing starvation, as his salary depended on the tuition fees of his pupils. a story told by one of his pupils describes his condition at the time. "i engaged to become one of morse's pupils. he had three others. i soon found that the professor had little patronage. i paid my fifty dollars; that settled one quarter's tuition. i remember, when the second was due, my remittance from home did not come as expected, and one day the professor came in and said, courteously: "'well, strother, my boy, how are we off for money?' "'why, professor, i am sorry to say i have been disappointed; but i expect a remittance next week.' "'next week!' he repeated, sadly; 'i shall be dead by that time.' "'dead, sir?' "'yes; dead by starvation!' "i was distressed and astonished. i said, hurriedly: 'would ten dollars be of any service?' "'ten dollars would save my life; that is all it would do.'" the money was paid, all the student had, and the two dined together. it was morse's first meal in twenty-four hours. the morse telegraph sounder (fig. ) consists of an electromagnet and a soft-iron armature. when no current is flowing the armature is held away from the magnet by a spring. when the circuit is closed a current flows through the coils of the magnet and the armature is attracted, causing a click. when the circuit is broken the spring pulls the armature away from the magnet, causing another click. the circuit is made and broken by means of a key at the other end of the line. in morse's first instrument (fig. ) the armature carried a pen, which was drawn across a ribbon of paper when the armature was attracted by the magnet. if the pen was held by the magnet for a very short time, a dot was made; if for a longer time, a dash. the pen was soon discarded, and the message taken by sound only. the morse alphabet now in use was devised by a mr. vail, who assisted morse in developing the telegraph. the thought occurred to mr. vail that he could get help from a printing-office in deciding the combinations of dots and dashes that should be used for the different letters. the letters requiring the largest spaces in the type-cases are the ones that occur most frequently, and for these letters he used the simplest combinations of dots and dashes. [illustration: fig. --a telegraph sounder] [illustration: fig. --morse's first telegraph instrument a pen was attached to the pendulum and drawn across the strip of paper by the action of the electromagnet. the lead type shown in the lower right-hand corner was used in making electrical contact when sending a message. the modern instrument shown in the lower left-hand corner is the one that sent a message around the world in . photo by claudy.] morse repeatedly said that, if he could make his telegraph work through ten miles, he could make it work around the world. this promise of long-distance telegraphy he fulfilled by the use of the relay. the relay works in the same way as the sounder. the current coming over a long line may be too feeble to produce a click that can be easily heard, yet strong enough to magnetize the coils of the relay and cause the armature to close another circuit. this second circuit includes the sounder and a battery in the same station as the sounder, which we shall call "the local battery." the relay simply acts as a contact key, and closes the circuit of the local battery. thus the current from the local battery flows through the sounder and produces a loud click. sometimes a relay is used to control a second very long circuit. at the farther end of the second circuit may be a sounder or a second relay which controls a third circuit. any number of circuits may be thus connected by means of relays. this is a form of repeating system used for telegraphing over very long distances. fig. shows a circuit with relay and sounder. [illustration: fig. --a telegraphic circuit with relay and sounder] in the telegraphic circuit only one connecting wire is needed. the earth, being a good conductor of electricity, is used as part of the circuit. it is necessary, therefore, to make a ground connection at each end of the line, the instruments being connected between the line wire and the earth. for long-distance telegraphy a current from a dynamo is used instead of a battery current. fig. shows a simple telegraphic circuit. [illustration: fig. --a simple telegraphic circuit two keys are shown at _k k_, and two switches at _s s_. when one key is to be used the switch at that station must be open, and the switch at the other station closed.] a telegraphic message travels with the speed of light, for the speed of electricity and the speed of light are the same. a telegraphic signal would go more than seven times around the earth in one second if it travelled on one continuous wire. the relays that must be used, however, cause some delay. in morse's experimental telegraph was completed, and in it was exhibited to the public, but seven years more passed before a line was established for public use. aid from congress was necessary. going to washington, morse exhibited his instrument in the halls of the capitol, sending messages through ten miles of wire wound on a reel. the invention was ridiculed, but the inventor did not despair. a bill for an appropriation to establish a telegraphic line between washington and baltimore passed the house by a small majority. the last day of the session came. ten o'clock at night, two hours before adjournment, and the senate had not acted. a senator advised morse to go home and think no more of it, saying that the senate was not in sympathy with his project. he went to his hotel, counted his money, and found that he could pay his bill, buy his ticket home, and have thirty-seven cents left. all through his work he had firmly believed that a higher power was directing his work, and bringing to the world, through his invention, a new and uplifting force; and so when all seemed lost he did not lose heart. in the morning a friend, miss ellsworth, called and offered her congratulations that the bill had been passed by the senate and thirty thousand dollars appropriated for the telegraph. being the first to bring the news of his success, mr. morse promised her that the first message over the new line should be hers. in about a year the line was completed, and miss ellsworth dictated the now famous message: "what hath god wrought!" soon afterward the democratic convention, in session in baltimore, received a telegraphic message from senator silas wright, in washington, declining the nomination for the vice-presidency, which had been tendered him. the convention refused to accept a message sent by telegraph, and sent a committee to washington to investigate. the message was confirmed, and morse and his telegraph became famous. fig. shows the first telegraph instrument used for commercial work. [illustration: fig. --first telegraph instrument used for commercial work photo by claudy.] the desire to telegraph across the ocean came with the introduction of the telegraph on land. bare wires in the air with glass insulators at the poles are used for land telegraphy, but bare wires in the water could not be used, for ocean water will conduct electricity. something was needed to cover the wire, protect it from the water, and prevent the escape of the electric current. just when it was needed such a substance was discovered. in , when morse was working on his telegraph, it was found that the juice of a certain kind of tree growing in the malayan archipelago formed a substance somewhat like rubber but more durable, and especially suited to the insulation of wires in water. this substance is gutta-percha. ocean cables are made of a number of copper wires, each wire covered with gutta-percha, the wires twisted together and protected with tarred rope yarn and an outer layer of galvanized iron wires. the earth is used for the return circuit, as in the land telegraph. duplex telegraphy the telegraph was a success, but many improvements were yet to be made. economy of construction was the thing sought for. to make one wire do the work of two was accomplished by the invention of the duplex system. in duplex telegraphy two messages may be sent in opposite directions over the same wire at the same time. let us take a look at some of the methods by which this is accomplished. one method with a long name but very simple in its working is the differential system (fig. ). in the differential system the current from the home battery divides into two branches passing around the coils of the electromagnet in opposite directions. now if these two branches are so arranged that the currents flowing through them are equal, the relay will not be magnetized, because one current would tend to make the end a a north pole, and the other current would tend to make the same end a south pole. the result is that the relay coil is not magnetized, and does not attract the armature. but the current from the distant battery comes over one of these branches only, and will magnetize the relay. hence, with a similar arrangement at the second station, two messages may be sent at the same time in opposite directions. [illustration: fig. --how two messages are sent over one wire at the same time] another method not quite so simple in principle is the bridge method. when the key at station _a_ (see fig. ) is closed, the current from the battery at station _a_ divides at _c_, and if the resistances _ _ and _ _ are equal, and the resistance _ _ is equal to the resistance of the line, no current will flow through the sounder. but if a current comes over the line from the distant station this current divides at _d_, and a part goes through the sounder, causing it to click. the sounder is not affected, therefore, by the current from the home battery, but is affected by the current from the distant battery. therefore, a message may be sent and another received at the same time. if there is a similar arrangement at the other station, two messages may travel over the line in opposite directions at the same time. [illustration: fig. --how two messages are sent over one wire at the same time. bridge method] the differential method is used in land telegraphy, the bridge method almost exclusively in submarine telegraphy. the next step was a quadruplex system, by means of which four messages may be transmitted over one wire at the same time. the first quadruplex system was invented by edison in , and in four years it saved more than half a million dollars. other systems have been invented which make it possible to send even a larger number of messages at one time over a single wire. the telephone the idea of "talking by telegraph" began to grow in the minds of inventors soon after the morse instrument came into use. the sound of the voice causes vibrations in the air. (this is simply shown in the string telephone. this telephone is made by stretching a thin membrane, such as thin sheepskin, or gold-beaters' skin, over a round frame of wood or metal. two such instruments are connected by a string, the end of the string being fastened to the middle of the stretched membrane. the sound of the voice causes this membrane to vibrate. as the membrane moves rapidly back and forth, it pulls and releases the string, and so causes the membrane at the other end to vibrate and give out the sound. this is the actual carrying of the sound vibrations along the string.) in the telephone it is not sound vibrations but an electric current that travels over the line wire. the telephone message, therefore, travels with the speed of electricity, not with the speed of sound. if it travelled with the speed of sound in air, a message spoken in chicago would be heard in new york one hour later; but we know that a message spoken in chicago may be heard in new york the instant it is spoken. the telephone, like the telegraph, depends on the electromagnet. the thought of inventors at first was to make the vibrations of a thin membrane, caused by the sound of the voice, open and close a telegraphic circuit. an electromagnet at the other end of the line would cause a thin membrane with a piece of soft iron attached to it to vibrate, just as the magnet in the telegraph receiver pulls and releases the soft-iron armature as the circuit is made and broken. the thin membrane caused to vibrate in this way would give out the sound. a telephone on this principle was invented by philip reis, a schoolmaster in germany. the transmitter was carved out of wood in the shape of a human ear, the thin membrane being in the position of the ear-drum. musical sounds and even words were transmitted by this telephone, but it could never have been successful as a practical working telephone. the membrane in the receiver would vibrate with the same speed as the membrane in the transmitter, but sound depends on something more than speed of vibration. the bell telephone, as known to-day, began with a study of the human ear. alexander graham bell was a teacher of the deaf. his aim was to teach the deaf to use spoken language, and for this purpose he wished to learn the nature of the vibrations caused by the voice. his plan was to cause the ear itself to trace on smoked glass the waves produced by the different letters of the alphabet, and to use these tracings in teaching the deaf. accordingly, a human ear was mounted on a suitable support, the stirrup-bone removed, leaving two bones attached, and a stylus of wheat straw attached to one of the bones. the ear-drum, caused to vibrate by the sound, moved the two small bones and the pointer of straw, so that when he sang or talked to the ear delicate tracings were made on the glass. this experiment suggested to mr. bell that a membrane heavier than the ear-drum would move a heavier weight. if the ear-drum, no thicker than tissue-paper, could move the bones of the ear, a heavier membrane might vibrate a piece of iron in front of an electromagnet. he was at the same time devising a telegraph for transmitting messages by means of musical sounds. in this telegraph he was using an electromagnet in the transmitter and another electromagnet in the receiver. he attached the soft-iron armature of each electromagnet to a stretched membrane of gold-beaters' skin, expecting that the sound of his voice would cause the membrane of the transmitter to vibrate, and that, by means of the electromagnets, the membrane of the receiver would be made to vibrate in the same way (fig. ). at first he was disappointed, but after making some changes in the armatures a distinct sound was heard in the receiver. later the membrane was discarded, and a thin iron disk used with better effect. [illustration: fig. --first bell telephone receiver and transmitter the receiver is on the left in the picture. a thin membrane of gold-beaters' skin tightly stretched and fastened with a cord can be seen on the end of the transmitter and of the receiver. an electromagnet is also shown over each membrane. this thin membrane, with a piece of soft iron attached, was used in place of the soft-iron disk of the modern receiver.] the story of bell's struggles might seem like the repetition of the life story of many another great inventor. he knew that he had discovered something of great value to the world. he devoted his time to the perfecting of the telephone, neglecting his professional work and finally giving it up, that he might give his whole time to his invention. he was forced to endure poverty and ridicule. he was called "a crank who says he can talk through a wire." men said his invention could never be made practical. even after he succeeded in finding a few purchasers and some of the telephones were in actual use, people were slow to adopt it. the idea of talking at a piece of iron and hearing another piece of iron talk seemed like a kind of witchcraft. in the telephone we see another use of the electromagnet. a very thin iron disk near the poles of an electromagnet forms the telephone receiver (fig. ). an electric current travels over the telephone wire. if the current grows stronger, the magnet is made stronger and pulls the disk toward it. if the current grows weaker, the magnet becomes weaker and does not pull so hard on the disk. the disk then springs back from the magnet. if these changes take place rapidly the disk moves back and forth rapidly and gives out a sound. the sound of the voice at the other end of the line sets the disk in the mouthpiece vibrating. the vibrations of this disk cause the changes in the electric current flowing over the line-wire, and the changes in the electric current cause the disk of the receiver to vibrate in exactly the same way as the disk at the mouthpiece. thus the words spoken into the mouthpiece may be heard at the receiver. [illustration: fig. --a telephone receiver] the transmitter used by bell was like the receiver. two receivers from the common telephone connected by two wires may be used as a telephone without batteries. fig. shows a complete telephone made of two receivers connected by two wires. the disk in one receiver which is now used as a transmitter is made to vibrate by the sound of the voice. now when a piece of iron moves back and forth in a magnetic field it strengthens and weakens the field. so the magnetic field in the transmitter is rapidly changed by the movement of the iron disk. now we have found that whenever a coil of wire is in a changing magnetic field a current is induced in the coil. the small coil in the transmitter, therefore, has a current induced in it. we have also found that when the magnetic field is made stronger the induced current flows in one direction, and when the field is made weaker the current flows in the opposite direction. since the field in the transmitter is made alternately stronger and weaker, the current in the coil flows first in one direction, then in the opposite direction--that is, we have an alternating current. this alternating current, of course, flows over the line-wire and through the coil in the receiver. in the receiver the alternating current will alternately strengthen and weaken the magnetic field, and as it does so the pull of the magnet on the iron disk is strengthened and weakened. the iron disk in the receiver, therefore, vibrates in exactly the same way as the disk in the transmitter, and so gives out a sound just like that which is acting on the transmitter. [illustration: fig. --two receivers used as a complete telephone] in the blake transmitter, which is now commonly used, the disk moves a pencil of carbon which presses against another pencil of carbon. this varies the pressure between the two pencils of carbon. a battery current flows through the two carbons, and as the pressure of the carbons changes the strength of the current changes. when the carbons are pressed together more closely the current is stronger. when the pressure is less the current is weaker. we have, then, a varying current through the carbons. this current flows through the primary coil of an induction-coil, the secondary being connected to the line-wire. now a current of varying strength in the primary induces an alternating current in the secondary. we have, then, an alternating current flowing over the line-wire. this alternating current acts on the magnetic field of the receiver in the way described before, causing the disk in the receiver to vibrate and give out the sound. for long-distance work a carbon-dust transmitter (fig. ) is used. in this there are many granules of carbon, so that instead of two carbon-points in contact there are many. this makes the transmitter more sensitive. [illustration: fig. --carbon-dust transmitter] the strength of current required for the telephone is very small. to transmit a telephone message requires less than a hundred-millionth part of the current required for a telegraphic message. the work done in lifting the telephone receiver a distance of one foot, if changed into an alternating current, would be sufficient to keep up a sound in the receiver for a hundred thousand years. because of its extreme sensitiveness the telephone requires a complete wire circuit. the earth cannot be used for the return circuit, as in the case of the telegraph. disturbances in the earth, vibration, leakage currents from trolley lines, and so forth, would interfere seriously with the action of the telephone. when the telephone was invented it was commonly remarked that it could not take the place of the telegraph in commerce, for the latter gave the merchant some evidence of a business transaction, while the telephone left no sign. there was a time when men feared to trust each other, but now large business deals are made by telephone; products of the farm, the factory, and the mine are bought and sold in immense quantities without a written contract or even the written evidence of a telegram. thus the telephone has developed a spirit of business honor. the phonograph the phonograph grew out of the telephone. it is said to be the only one of edison's inventions that came by accident, yet only a man of genius would have seen the meaning of such an accident. he was singing into the mouthpiece of a telephone when the vibrations of the disk caused a fine steel point to pierce one of his fingers held just behind the disk. this set him to thinking. if the sound of his voice could cause the disk to vibrate with force enough to pierce the skin, would it not make impressions on tin-foil, and so make a record of the voice that could be reproduced by passing the point rapidly over the same impressions? he gave his assistants the necessary instructions, and soon the first phonograph was made. this disk in the phonograph is set in vibration by sound vibrations in the air in the same way as the disk in the telephone transmitter. attached to the disk is a needle-point which, of course, vibrates with the disk. if a cylinder with a soft surface is turned rapidly under the steel point as it vibrates, impressions are made in the cylinder corresponding to the movements of the disk. the cylinder must move forward as it turns, so that its path will be a spiral. if, now, the stylus is placed at the starting-point and the cylinder turned rapidly the stylus will move rapidly up and down as it goes over the indentations in the cylinder, and so cause the metal disk to vibrate and give out a sound like that received at first. in the earliest phonographs the cylinder was covered with tin-foil. later the so-called "wax records" came into use. these cylinders are not made of wax, but of very hard soap. fig. shows an instrument in which the sound of the voice caused a pencil-point to trace a wavy line on a cylinder. this instrument may be called a forerunner of the phonograph. fig. shows edison's first phonograph with a modern instrument placed beside it for comparison. [illustration: fig. --the phonautograph, a forerunner of the phonograph] [illustration: fig. edison's first phonograph and a modern instrument photo by claudy.] gas-engines cannons are the oldest gas-engines. indeed, the principle of the cannon is the same as that of the modern gas-engine, the piston in the engine taking the place of the cannon-ball. the power in each case is obtained by explosion--in the cannon the explosion of powder, in the engine the explosion of a mixture of air and gas. powder-engines with pistons were proposed in the seventeenth century, and some were actually built, but it proved too difficult to control them, and the idea of the gas-engine was abandoned for more than a hundred years. the discovery of coal-gas near the close of the eighteenth century gave a new impetus to the gas-engine. john barber, an englishman, built the first actual gas-engine. he used gas distilled from wood, coal, or oil. the gas, mixed with the proper proportion of air, was introduced into a tank which he called the exploder. the mixture was fired and issued out in a continuous stream of flame against the vanes of a paddle-wheel, driving them round with great force. in lebon, a french engineer, was assassinated, and the progress of the gas-engine set back a number of years, for this engineer had proposed to compress the mixture of gas and air before firing, and to fire the mixture by an electric spark. this is the method used in gas-engines to-day. the first practical working gas-engine was invented by lenoir, a frenchman, in . from this time to the end of the century the gas-engine developed rapidly, receiving a new impulse from the increasing demand for the motor-car. the engine of the german inventors, otto and langen, brought out in , marked the beginning of a new era. the greater number of engines used in automobiles to-day are of the kind known as the otto cycle, or four-cycle, engine. this engine is called four-cycle because the piston makes four strokes for every explosion. there is one stroke to admit the mixture of gas and air to the cylinder, another to compress the gas and air, at the beginning of the third stroke the explosion takes place, and in the fourth stroke the burned-out gases are driven out of the cylinder. the working of the four-cycle gas-engine is made clear in figs. , , , and . [illustration: fig. --first stroke. gas and air admitted to the cylinder] [illustration: fig. --second stroke. mixture of gas and air compressed] [illustration: fig. --third stroke. the mixture is exploded and expands, driving the piston forward] [illustration: fig. --fourth stroke, exhaust. the burned-out mixture of gas and air expelled from the cylinder] the four-cycle gas-engine in such a gas-engine the power is applied to the piston only in one stroke out of every four, while in the steam-engine the power is applied at every stroke. it would seem, therefore, that a steam-engine would do more work than a gas-engine for the same amount of heat, but such is not the case; in fact, a good gas-engine will do about twice as much work as a good steam-engine for the same amount of fuel. the reason is that the steam-engine wastes its heat. heat is given to the condenser, to the iron of the boiler, to the connecting pipes and the air around them, while in the gas-engine the heat is produced in the cylinder by the explosion and the power applied directly to the piston-head. more than this, a steam-engine when at rest wastes heat; there must be a fire under the boiler if the engine is to be ready for use on short notice. when a gas-engine is at rest there is no fire, nothing is being used up, and yet the engine can be started very quickly. a gas-engine can be made much lighter than a steam-engine of the same horse-power. the automobile and the flying-machine require very light engines. without the gas-engine the automobile would have remained imperfect and crude, while the flying-machine would have been impossible. in a two-cycle gas-engine there is an explosion for every two strokes of the piston, or one explosion for every revolution of the crank-shaft. during one stroke the mixture of gas and air on one side of the piston is compressed and a new mixture enters on the opposite side of the piston. at the end of this stroke the compressed mixture is exploded, and power is applied to the piston during about one-fourth of the next stroke. during the remainder of the second stroke the burned-out gas escapes, and the fresh mixture passes over from one side of the piston to the other ready for compression. the two-cycle engine is simpler in construction than the four-cycle, having no valves. it also has less weight per horse-power. the cylinder of a two-cycle engine is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --two-cycle gas-engine. crank and connecting-rod are enclosed with the piston] a steam-engine is self-starting. the engineer has only to turn the steam into the cylinder, but the gas-engine requires to be turned until at least one explosion takes place, for until there is an explosion of gas and air in the cylinder there is no power. a gas-engine may have a number of cylinders. four-cylinder and six-cylinder engines are common. in a four-cylinder, four-cycle engine, while one cylinder is on the power stroke the next is on the compression stroke, the third on the admission stroke, and the fourth on the exhaust stroke. fig. shows the selden "explosion buggy" propelled by a gas-engine. this machine was the forerunner of the modern automobile. [illustration: fig. --selden "explosion buggy." forerunner of the modern automobile] the steam locomotive late in the eighteenth century a mischievous boy put some water in a gun-barrel, rammed down a tight wad, and placed the barrel in the fire of a blacksmith's forge. the wad was thrown out with a loud report, and the boy's play-mate, oliver evans, thought he had discovered a new power. the prank with the gun-barrel set young evans thinking about the power of steam. it was not long until he read a description of a newcomen engine. in the newcomen engine, you will remember, it was the pressure of air, not the pressure of steam, that lifted the weight. evans soon set about building an engine in which the pressure of steam should do the work. he is sometimes called the "watt of america," for he did in america much the same work that watt did in scotland. evans built the first successful non-condensing engine--that is, an engine in which the steam, after driving the piston, escapes into the air instead of into a condenser. the non-condensing engine made the locomotive possible, for a locomotive could not conveniently carry a condenser. evans made a locomotive which travelled very slowly. he said, however: "the time will come when people will travel in stages moved by steam-engines from one city to another, almost as fast as birds can fly, fifteen or twenty miles an hour." the inventor who made the first successful locomotive was george stephenson, and it is worth noting that one of his engines, the "rocket," possessed all the elements of the modern locomotive. he combined in the "rocket" the tubular boiler, the forced draft, and direct connection of the piston-rod to the crank-pin of the driving-wheel. the "rocket" was used on the first steam railway (the stockton & darlington, in england), which was opened in . there had been other railways for hauling coal by means of horses over iron tracks, and other locomotives that travelled over an ordinary road; but this was the first road on which a steam-engine pulled a load over an iron track, the first real railroad. fig. shows the "rocket" and two other early locomotives. [illustration: fig. --some early locomotives the one on the right is stephenson's "rocket." photo by claudy.] in order to build a railroad between liverpool and manchester for carrying both passengers and freight it was necessary to secure an act of parliament. stephenson was compelled to undergo a severe cross-examination by a committee of parliament, who feared there would be great danger if the speed of the trains were as high as twelve miles an hour. he was asked: "have you seen a railroad that would stand a speed of twelve miles an hour?" "yes." "where?" "any railroad that would bear going four miles an hour. i mean to say that if it would bear the weight at four miles an hour it would bear it at twelve." "do you mean to say that it would not require a stronger railway to carry the same weight at twelve miles an hour?" "i will give an answer to that. i dare say every person has been over ice when skating, or seen persons go over, and they know that it would bear them better at a greater velocity than it would if they went slower; when they go quickly the weight, in a measure, ceases." "would not that imply that the road must be perfect?" "it would, and i mean to make it perfect." for seven miles the road must be built over a peat bog into which a stone would sink to unknown depths. to convince the committee, however, and secure the act of parliament was more difficult than to build the road. but stephenson was one of the men who do things because they never give up, and the road was built. how a locomotive works to understand how a locomotive works, let us consider how the steam is produced, how it acts on the piston, and how it is controlled. the steam is produced in a locomotive in exactly the same way that steam is produced in a tea-kettle. now everybody knows that a quart of water in a tea-kettle with a wide bottom placed on a stove will boil more quickly than the same amount of water in a tea-pot with a narrow bottom. the greater the heating-surface--that is, the greater the surface of heated metal in contact with the water--the more quickly the water will boil and the more quickly steam can be produced. in a locomotive the aim is to use as large a heating-surface as possible. this is done by making the fire-box double and allowing the water to circulate in the space between the inner and outer parts, except underneath; also by placing tubes in the boiler through which the heated gases and smoke from the fire must pass. an ordinary locomotive contains two hundred or more of these tubes. the water surrounds these tubes, and is therefore in contact with a very large surface of heated metal. in some engines the water is in the tubes, and the heated gases surround the tubes. the steam as it enters the cylinder should be dry--that is, it should not contain drops of water. this is accomplished by allowing the steam from the boiler to pass into a dome above the boiler. here the steam, which is nearly dry, enters a steam-pipe leading to the cylinder (fig. ). the steam is admitted to the cylinder by means of a slide-valve. from the diagram it can easily be seen that the valve admits steam first on one side of the piston, then on the other. it can also be seen that the valve closes the admission-port, and so cuts off the steam before the piston has made a full stroke. the steam that is shut up in the cylinder continues to expand and act on the piston. at the same time the valve opens the exhaust-port, allowing the steam to escape from the other side of the piston; but it closes this port before the piston has quite finished the stroke. the small quantity of steam thus shut up acts like a cushion to prevent the piston striking the end of the cylinder with too great force. the exhaust-steam escapes through a blast-pipe into the chimney, drives the air before it up the chimney, and thus makes a greater draft of air through the fire-box. this is called the forced draft. the escape of the exhaust-steam causes the puffing of the locomotive just after starting. after the engine is under way the engineer partly shuts off the steam by means of the reversing lever and the puffing is less noticeable. [illustration: fig. --how a locomotive works the arrows show the course of the steam.] the action of the steam may be summed up as follows: . steam admitted to the cylinder (admission). . valve closes admission-port (cut-off). . steam shut up in the cylinder expands, acting on the piston (expansion period). . valve opens exhaust-port to allow used steam to escape (exhaust). the devices for controlling the steam are the throttle-valve and the valve-gear. the throttle-valve is at the entrance to the steam-pipe in the steam-dome. this valve is opened and closed by means of a rod in the engineer's cab. stephenson's link-motion valve-gear is used on most locomotives. the forward rod in the diagram is in position to act upon the valve-rod through the lever _l_. suppose the reversing-lever is drawn back to the dotted line; then the forward rod will be raised and the backward rod will come into position to act on the lever _l_. if this is done while the locomotive is at rest the valve is moved through one-half a complete stroke. in the diagram the steam enters the cylinder on the right of the piston. after this movement of the valve the steam would enter on the left side of the piston. in the present position the locomotive would move forward, but if the valve is changed so as to admit steam to the left of the piston while the connecting-rod is in the position shown then the engine will move backward. thus the direction can be controlled by the engineer in the cab. of course, this can be done while the engine is in motion. the forward rod and the backward rod are each moved by an eccentric on the axle of the front driving-wheel. the two eccentrics are in opposite positions on the axle. an eccentric acts just like a crank, causing the rod to move forward and backward as the axle turns, and of course this motion is given to the valve-rod through the lever. when the link is set midway between the forward and the backward rod the valve cannot move. when the link is raised or lowered part way the valve makes a short stroke, and less steam is admitted to the cylinder than with a full stroke. in starting the locomotive the valve is set to make a full stroke. when the train is under headway the valve is set for a short stroke to economize steam. the valve-gear and the throttle-valve together take the place of the governor in the stationary engine, but while the governor acts automatically these are controlled by the engineer. in reality a locomotive is two engines, one on either side, connected to the same driving-wheels. but the two piston-rods are connected to the driving-wheels at points which are at right angles with each other, so that when the crank on one side is at the end of a stroke--the "dead centre"--that on the other side is on the quarter, either above or below the axle, ready for applying the greatest turning force. the expansion-engine was designed to use more of the power of the steam than can be done in the single-cylinder engine. in the double expansion-engine the steam expands from one cylinder into another. the second cylinder must be larger in diameter than the first. in the triple expansion-engine the steam expands from the second cylinder into a third, still larger. the second and third cylinders use a large part of the power that would be wasted with only one cylinder. the turbine one of the great inventions relating to steam-power is the steam-turbine. the water-turbine is equally useful in relation to water-power. the water-turbine and the steam-turbine work in very much the same way, the difference being due to the fact that steam expands as it drives the engine, while water drives it by its weight in falling, or by its motion as it rushes in a swift stream or jet against the blades of the turbine. the first steam-engine, that of hero in the time of archimedes, was a form of turbine (fig. ). it was driven by the reaction of the steam as it escaped into the air. the common lawn-sprinkler, that whirls as the water rushes through it, is a water-turbine that works in the same way. "barker's mill" is the name applied to a water-turbine that works like the lawn-sprinkler. as the water rushes out of the opening it pushes against the air. it cannot push against the air without pushing back at the same time. never yet has any person or object in nature been able to push in one direction only. it cannot be done. if you push a cart forward you push backward against the ground at the same time. if there were nothing for you to push back against your forward push would not move the cart a hair's-breadth. if you doubt this, try to push a cart when you are standing on ice so slippery that you cannot get a foothold. it is the backward push of the water in the lawn-sprinkler and the backward push of the steam in hero's engine that cause the machine to turn. [illustration: fig. --hero's engine] the turbines in common use for both water and steam power have curved blades. the reason for curving the blades can best be seen by referring to an early form of water-wheel. the best water-turbine is only an improved form of water-wheel. the first water-wheels had flat blades, and these answered very well so long as only a low power was needed and it was not necessary to save the power of the water. it was found, however, that there was a great waste of power in the wheel with flat blades. one inventor proposed to improve the wheel by curving the blades in such a way that the water would glide up the curve and then drop directly downward (fig. ). the water then gives up practically all of its power to the wheel and falls from the wheel. it would have no power to move a second wheel. in this way he used practically all the power of the water. to save the power of the water by making all of the water strike the wheel at high speed the channel was made narrow just above the wheel, forming a mill-race. this applies to the undershot wheel. in the overshot wheel (fig. ) the power depends on the weight of the water and on its height. the water runs into buckets attached to the wheel, and, as it falls in these buckets, turns the wheel. the undershot wheel and the mill-race represent a common form of turbine, that form in which the steam or the water is forced in a jet against a set of curved blades. fig. shows a steam-turbine run by a jet of steam. in the water-turbine there are two sets of blades. one set rotates, the other remains fixed. the use of the fixed blades is to turn the water and drive it in the right direction against the moving blades. in some forms of turbine there are more than two sets of blades. the steam, as it passes through, gives up some of its power to each set of blades until, after passing the last set, it has given up nearly all its power. the action of the steam in this turbine is somewhat like that in the expansion-engine, in which the steam gives up a portion of its power in each cylinder. fig. is from a photograph of a modern steam-turbine, and fig. is a drawing of the same turbine showing the course of the steam. fig. is a turbine that runs a large dynamo. [illustration: fig. --an undershot water-wheel with curved blades] [illustration: fig. --an overshot water-wheel] [illustration: fig. --de laval steam-turbine driven by a jet of steam striking the blades.] [illustration: fig. --a modern steam-turbine with top casing raised showing blades] [illustration: fig. --diagram of turbine shown in fig. the arrows show the course of the steam.] [illustration: fig. --a steam-turbine that runs a dynamo generating , electrical horse-power the steam enters through the large pipe at the left.] in , as the battle-ships of the british fleet were assembled to celebrate the diamond jubilee of queen victoria, a little vessel a hundred feet long darted in and out among the giant ships, defied the patrol-boats whose duty it was to keep out intruders, and raced down the lines of battle-ships at the then unheard-of speed of thirty-five knots an hour. it was the _turbinia_, fitted with the parsons turbine. this event marked the beginning of the modern turbine. it also marked the beginning of a revolution in steam propulsion. the parsons turbine does not use the jet method, but the steam enters near the centre of the wheel and flows toward the rim, passing over a number of rows of curved blades. the parsons turbine is used on the fastest ocean liners. the _lusitania_, one of the fastest steamships in the first decade of the twentieth century, has two sets of high and low pressure turbines with a total of , horse-power. the windmill is a form of turbine driven by the air. as the air rushes against the blades of the windmill, it forces them to turn. if the windmill were turned by some mechanical power, it would drive the air back, and we should have a blower. this is what we have in the electric fan, a small windmill driven by an electric motor so that it drives the air instead of being driven by it. the blades of the windmill and the electric fan are shaped very much like the screw propeller. the screw propeller, driven by an engine, would drive the water back if the ship were firmly anchored, just as the fan drives the air. but it cannot drive the water back without pushing forward on the ship at the same time, and this forward push propels the ship. it is difficult to attain what is now regarded as high speed with a single screw. with engines in pairs and two lines of shafting higher power can be used. the best steamers, therefore, are fitted with the twin-screw propeller. some large steamers have three and some four screws. the screw propellers of turbine steamships are made of small diameter, that they may rotate at high speed without undue waste of power. by the use of turbine engines and twin-screw propellers, the weight of the machinery has been greatly reduced. the old paddle-wheels, with low-pressure engines, developed only about two horse-power for each ton of machinery. the turbine, with the twin-screw propeller, develops from six to seven horse-power for every ton of machinery. the modern steamer, with all its machinery and coal for an atlantic voyage, weighs no more than the engines of the old paddle-wheel type and coal would weigh for the same horse-power. the steam-turbine and the twin-screw propeller have made rapid ocean travel possible. chapter vi the twentieth-century outlook we have seen that the latter half of the nineteenth century was a time of invention. it was a time when the great discoveries of many centuries bore fruit in great inventions. it was thought by some scientists that all the great discoveries had been made, and that all that remained was careful work in applying the great principles that had been discovered. so far was this from being true that in the last ten years of the nineteenth century discoveries were made more startling, if possible, than any that had preceded. the nineteenth century not only brought forth many great inventions, but handed down to the twentieth century a series of discoveries that point the way to still greater inventions. air-ships for centuries men sailed over the water at the mercy of the wind. the sailing vessel is helpless in a storm. early in the nineteenth century they learned to use the power of steam for ocean travel, and the wind lost its terrors. late in the eighteenth century men learned to sail through the air in balloons even more at the mercy of the wind than the sailing vessels on the ocean. more than a hundred years later they learned to propel air-ships in the teeth of the wind. the nineteenth century saw the mastery of the water. the twentieth is witnessing the mastery of the air. the first balloon ascension was made in , two men being carried over paris by what benjamin franklin called a "bag of smoke." the balloon was a bag of oiled silk open at the bottom. in the middle of the opening was a grate in which bundles of fagots and sheaves of straw were burned. the heated air filled the balloon, and as the heated air was lighter than the air around it the balloon could rise and carry a load. beneath the grate was a wicker car for the men. they were supplied with straw and fagots with which to feed the fire. when they wanted to rise higher they added fuel to heat the air in the balloon. when they wished to descend they allowed the fire to die out, so that the air in the balloon would cool. they could not guide the balloon, but drifted with the wind. that great philosopher benjamin franklin, who saw the ascension, said that the time might come when the balloon could be made to move in a calm and guided in a wind. in the second ascension bags of sand were taken as ballast, and the car was suspended from a net which enclosed the balloon. in this second ascension hydrogen gas was used in place of heated air. the greatest height ever reached by a human being is about seven miles. this height was first reached in by two balloonists who nearly lost their lives in the adventure. at a height of nearly six miles one of the men became unconscious. the other tried to pull the valve-cord to allow the gas to escape, but found that the cord was out of his reach. his hands were frozen, but he climbed out of the car into the netting of the balloon, secured the cord in his teeth, returned to the car, and threw the weight of his body on the cord. this opened the valve and the balloon descended. those who go to great heights now provide themselves with tanks of compressed oxygen. then when the air becomes so thin and rare that breathing is difficult they can breathe from the oxygen tanks. a captive balloon in war serves as an observation tower from which to observe the enemy. it is connected to the ground by a cable. this cable is wound on a drum carried by the balloon wagon. the balloon can be lowered or raised by winding or unwinding the cable. the gas-bag is sometimes made of oiled silk, sometimes of two layers of cotton cloth with vulcanized rubber between. the cotton cloth gives the strength needed, and the rubber makes the bag gas-tight. the most convenient gas for filling balloons is heated air, but the air cools rapidly and loses its lifting power. coal-gas furnished by city gas-plants is sometimes used. this gas will lift about thirty-five pounds for every thousand cubic feet. a balloon holding thirty-five thousand cubic feet of coal gas will easily lift the car and three persons. the lightest gas is hydrogen. this gas will lift about seventy pounds for every thousand cubic feet. hydrogen is made by the action of sulphuric acid and water on iron. if a bit of iron is thrown into a mixture of sulphuric acid and water bubbles of hydrogen gas will rise through the liquid. this gas will burn if a lighted match is brought near. a balloon without propelling or steering apparatus is not an air-ship. it may be raised by throwing out ballast or lowered by letting out gas, but further than this the aeronaut has no control over its movements. the balloon moves with the wind. no breeze is felt, for balloon and air move together. to the aeronaut the balloon seems to be in a dead calm. it is only when he catches sight of houses and trees and rivers darting past below that he realizes that the balloon is moving. if a balloon has a propelling apparatus it may move against the wind, or it may outspeed the wind. a balloon with propelling and steering apparatus is called a "dirigible" balloon, which means a balloon that can be guided. figs. and are from photographs of a "dirigible" used in the british army. such a balloon is usually long and pointed like a spindle or a cigar. it is built to cut the air, just as a rowboat built for speed is long and pointed so that it may cut the water. the propeller acts like an electric fan. an electric fan drives the air before it, but the air pushes back on the fan just as much as the fan pushes forward on the air, and if the fan were suspended by a long cord it would move backward. so the large fan or screw propeller on an air-ship drives the air backward, and the air reacts and drives the ship forward. in the same way the screw-propeller of an ocean liner drives the vessel forward by the reaction of the water. [illustration: fig. --british army air-ship "nulli secundus" ready for flight] [illustration: fig. --basket, motor, and propeller of the british army air-ship "nulli secundus"] a balloon rises for the same reason that wood floats on water. the wood is lighter than water, and the water holds it up. the balloon is lighter than air and the air pushes it up. the upward push of the air is just equal to the weight of the air that would fill the same space the balloon fills. the balloon can support a load that makes the whole weight of the balloon and its load together equal to the weight of the air that would fill the same space. for the balloon to rise the load must be somewhat lighter than this. a balloon may be made lighter than air by filling it with heated air or coal-gas. hydrogen, however, is used in the better balloons and in air-ships of the "lighter than air" type. the air-ship must, of course, use a very light motor. a steam-engine cannot be made light enough. neither can an electric motor, if we add the weight of the storage battery that would be required. air-ships have been propelled by both steam-engines and electric motors, but with low speed because of the weight of the engine or motor. the only successful motor for this purpose is the gasolene motor, which is a form of gas-engine using gas formed by the evaporation of gasolene. the first air-ship that could be controlled and brought back to the starting-point was made in france, in , by captain renard, of the french army. it was a cigar-shaped balloon, with a screw propeller run by an electric motor of eight horse-power. the ship attained a speed of thirteen miles an hour. a more successful air-ship was that built by santos dumont. with this ship, in , he won a prize of $ , , which had been offered to the builder of the first air-ship that would sail round the eiffel tower in paris from the aerostatic park of vaugirard, a distance of about three miles, and return in half an hour. the balloon part of this air-ship was - / feet long and - / feet in diameter, holding about cubic feet of gas. the car was built of pine beams no larger in section than two fingers and weighing only pounds. this car could be taken apart and put in a trunk. a gasolene automobile motor was used, and thus it is seen that the automobile aided in solving the problem of sailing through the air. it was the automobile that led to the construction of light and powerful gasolene motors. the car and motor were suspended from the balloon by means of piano wires, which at a short distance were invisible, so that the man in the car appeared in some mysterious way to follow the balloon. the ship was turned to the left or right by means of a rudder. it was made to ascend or descend by shifting the weight of a heavy rope that hung from the car, thus inclining the ship upward or downward. count zeppelin, of germany, constructed a much larger dirigible balloon than that of santos dumont. the balloon of the first zeppelin air-ship was feet in length, with a diameter of about feet. it was divided into seventeen sections, each section being a balloon in itself. these sections serve the same purpose as the water-tight compartments of a battle-ship. an accident to one section would not mean the destruction of the entire ship. within the balloon is a framework of aluminum rods extending from one end to the other and held in place by aluminum rings twenty-four feet apart. the balloon contains about , cubic feet of gas, and it costs about $ to fill it. one filling of gas will last about three weeks. there are two cars, each about ten feet long, five feet wide, and three feet deep. the cars are connected by a narrow passageway made of aluminum wires and plates, making a walking distance of feet--longer than the decks of many ocean steamers. a sliding weight of kilograms (about pounds) serves the same purpose as the guide-ropes in the santos dumont air-ship. by moving this weight forward or backward the ship is raised or lowered at the bow or stern, and thus caused to glide up or down. anchor-ropes are carried for use in landing. the ship is propelled by four screws, and guided by a number of rudders placed some in front and some in the rear. the first zeppelin air-ship carried four passengers. the work of dumont and zeppelin has led the great powers to manufacture dirigible balloons for use in time of war. fig. shows one of the zeppelin air-ships sailing over a lake. [illustration: fig. --a zeppelin air-ship] a larger air-ship, the _deutschland_, built later by count zeppelin, was the first air-ship to be used for regular passenger service. the _deutschland_ is shown in fig. . the _deutschland_ carried the crew and twenty passengers. it operated for a time as a regular passenger air-ship between friedrichshafen and düsseldorf, a distance of three hundred miles. the _deutschland_ was wrecked in a storm on june , , but it was successfully operated long enough to give germany the honor of establishing the first air-ship line for regular passenger service. this is an honor perhaps equally as great as that of establishing the first commercial electric railway, which also belongs to germany. an american army air-ship is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --count zeppelin's "deutschland," the first air-ship in regular passenger service] [illustration: copyright by pictorial news co. fig. --the baldwin air-ship used in the united states army] the aeroplane the aeroplane is a later development than the dirigible balloon. the aeroplane is heavier than air. so is a bird and so is a kite. what supports a kite or a bird as it soars? every boy knows that the strings of a kite must be attached so that the kite is inclined and catches the wind underneath. then the wind lifts the kite. in still air the kite will not fly unless the boy who holds the string runs very fast and so causes an artificial breeze to blow against the kite. in much the same way a hovering bird is held aloft by the wind. in a dead calm the bird must flap its wings to keep afloat. if the kite string is cut the kite tips over and drops to the earth because it has lost its balance. the lifting power of the wind is well shown in the man-lifting kites which are used in the british army service. in a high wind a large kite is used in place of a captive balloon. it is a box-kite made of bamboo and carries a passenger in a car, the car running on the cable which attaches the kite to the ground. now suppose a kite with a motor and propeller in place of a string and a boy to run with it, and that the kite is able to balance itself, then it will sail against a wind of its own making and you have a flying-machine heavier than air. the first aeroplane that would fly under perfect control of the operator was built by the wright brothers at dayton, ohio. when they were boys, bishop wright gave his two sons, orville and wilbur, a toy flyer. from that time on the thought of flying through the air was in their minds. a few years later the death of lilienthal, who was killed by a fall with his glider in germany, stirred them, and they took up the problem in earnest. they read all the writings of lilienthal and became acquainted with mr. octave chanute, an engineer of chicago who had made a successful glider. they soon built a glider of their own, and experimented with it each summer on the huge sand-dunes of the north carolina coast. a glider is an aeroplane without a propeller. with it one can cast off into the air from a great height and sail slowly to the ground. before attempting to use a motor and propeller, the wrights learned to control the glider perfectly. they had to learn how to prevent its being tipped over by the wind, and how to steer it in any direction. this took years of patient work. but the problem was conquered at last, and they attached a motor and propeller to the glider, and had an air-ship under perfect control and with the speed of an express-train. their flyer of , which made a flight of twenty-four miles at a speed of more than thirty-eight miles an hour, carried a twenty-five-horse-power gasolene motor, and weighed, with its load, pounds. figs. and show the wright air-ship in flight. fig. shows the mechanism. [illustration: fig. --in full flight] [illustration: copyright, , by pictorial news co. fig. --wright air-ship in flight rear view, showing propellers.] [illustration: fig. --the seat and motor of the wright aeroplane photo by pictorial news co.] how the wright aeroplane is kept afloat the wright aeroplane is balanced by a warping or twisting of the planes and , which form the supporting surfaces (fig. ). if left to itself the machine would tip over like a kite when the string is cut and drop edgewise to the ground. suppose the side _r_ starts to fall. the corners _a_ and _e_ are raised by the operator while _b_ and _f_ are lowered, thus twisting the planes, as shown in the dotted lines of the figure. the side _r_ then catches more wind than the side _l_. the wind exerts a greater lifting force on _r_ than on _l_, and the balance is restored. the twist is then taken out of the machine by the operator. a ship when sailing on an even keel presents true unwarped planes to the wind. [illustration: fig. --how the wright air-ship is kept afloat this picture represents a glider. the motor-driven aeroplane is balanced by the warping of the planes in the same way as the glider.] the twisting is brought about by a pull on the rope , which is attached at _d_ and _c_, and passes through pulleys at _g_ and _h_. when the rope is pulled toward the left the right end is tightened and slack is paid out at the left end. this pulls down the corner _d_, and raises _e_. the corner _a_ is raised by the post which connects _a_ and _e_. the rope , passing from _a_ to _b_ through pulleys at _m_ and _n_, is thus drawn toward _a_ and pulls down the corner _b_. thus _a_ is raised and _b_ is lowered. at the same time rope turns the rear rudder to the left, as shown by the dotted lines, thus forcing the side _r_ against the wind. of course, if the left side of the machine starts to fall, the rope is pulled toward the right, and all the movements take place in the opposite direction. the ropes are connected to a lever, by which the operator controls the warping of the planes. these movements are possible because the joints are all universal, permitting movement in any direction. in whatever position the planes may be set, they are held perfectly rigid by the two ropes, together with others not shown in the figure. the machine is guided up or down by the front horizontal rudder. when the aeroplane swings round a curve the outer wing is raised because it moves faster than the inner wing, and therefore has greater lifting force. thus the aeroplane banks its own curves. the wright flying-machine is called a biplane because it has two principal planes, one above the other. a number of successful flying-machines have been built with only one plane, and these are called monoplanes. a monoplane that early became famous is that of blériot (fig. ). the blériot monoplane was the first flying-machine to cross the english channel. this machine is controlled by a single lever mounted with a ball-and-socket coupling, so that it can move in any direction. when on the ground it is supported by three wheels like bicycle wheels, so that it does not require a track for starting, but can start anywhere from level ground. the wright and the blériot represent the two leading types of early successful flying-machines. [illustration: copyright by m. brauger, paris fig. --the blÉriot monoplane] submarines successful navigation beneath the surface of the water, though not carried to the extent imagined by jules verne, was a reality at the beginning of the twentieth century. instead of twenty thousand leagues under the sea, less than a hundred leagues had been accomplished, but no one can foretell what the future may have in store. the principal use of the submarine is in war. it is a diving torpedo-boat, and acts under cover of water, as the light artillery on land is secured behind intrenchments. the weapon used by the submarine is the torpedo. the torpedo is itself a small submarine able to propel itself, and if started in the water toward a certain object, to go under water straight to the mark. it carries a heavy charge either of guncotton or dynamite, which explodes when the torpedo strikes a solid object, such as a battle-ship. the first torpedo was intended to be steered from the shore by means of long tiller-ropes, and to be propelled by a steam-engine or by clockwork. the whitehead fish torpedo, invented in , is self-steering. at the head of the torpedo is a pointed steel firing-pin. when the torpedo strikes a ship or any rigid object this steel pin is driven against a detonator cap which is in the centre of the charge of dynamite. the blow causes the cap to explode, and the explosion of the cap explodes the dynamite. the torpedo is so arranged that it cannot explode until it is about thirty yards away from the ship from which it is fired. the steel pin cannot strike the cap until a small "collar" has been revolved off by a propeller fan, and this requires a distance of about thirty yards. the screw propeller is driven by compressed air. a valve which is worked by the pressure of the water keeps the torpedo at any depth for which the valve is set. the torpedo contains many ingenious devices for bringing it quickly to the required depth and keeping it straight in its course. one of these devices is the gyroscope, which will be described under the head of "spinning tops." whitehead torpedoes are capable of running at a speed of over thirty-seven miles an hour for a range of two thousand yards and hitting the mark aimed at almost as accurately as a gun. the submarine boat carries a number of torpedoes, and has one torpedo-tube near the forward end from which to fire the torpedoes. it would be very difficult for one submarine to fight another submarine, for the submarine when completely submerged is blind. it could not see in the water to find its enemy. the torpedo-boat-destroyer is able to destroy a submarine by means of torpedoes, shells full of high explosives, or quick-firing guns. advantage must be taken of the moment when the submarine comes to the surface to get a view of her enemy. one of the great enemies of the submarine will probably be the air-ship, for while the submarine when under water cannot be seen from a ship on the surface, it can, under favorable conditions, be seen from a certain height in the air. most submarines use a gasolene motor for surface travel, and an electric motor run by a storage battery for navigation below the surface. the best submarines can travel at the surface like an ordinary boat, or "awash"--that is, just below the surface--with only the conning tower projecting above the water, or they can travel completely submerged. the rising and sinking of the submarine depend on the principle of archimedes. the upward push of the water is just equal to the weight of the water displaced. if the water displaced weighs more than the boat, then the upward push of the water is greater than the weight of the boat and the boat rises. however, the boat can be made to dive when its weight is just a little less than the weight of the water displaced. this is done by means of horizontal rudders which may be inclined so as to cause the boat to glide downward as its propeller drives it forward. the magnetic compass is not reliable in a submarine with a hull made of steel. the electric motor used for propelling the boat under water also interferes with the action of the compass, because of its magnetic field. the gyroscope, which we shall describe later, is not affected by magnetic action, and may take the place of the compass. water ballast is used, and when the submarine wishes to dive, water is admitted into the tanks until the boat is nearly heavy enough to sink of its own weight. it is then guided downward by the horizontal rudder. the submarine is driven by a screw propeller, and some submarines are lowered by means of a vertical screw. just as a horizontal screw propels a vessel forward, so a vertical screw will propel it downward. when the submarine wishes to rise, it may do so by the action of its rudder, or the water may be pumped out of its tanks, when the water will raise it rapidly. a submarine which is kept always a little lighter than water will rise to the surface in case of accident to its machinery. figs. , , and are from photographs of united states submarines. [illustration: fig. --the "plunger" photo by pictorial news co.] [illustration: fig. --u. s. submarine "shark" ready for a dive photo by pictorial news co.] [illustration: fig. --first submarine constructed in united states. it went to the bottom with seven men, who were drowned photo by pictorial news co.] there is one kind of submarine built for peaceful pursuits which deserves mention. it is the _argonaut_, invented by simon lake. this remarkable boat crawls along the bottom of the sea, but not at a very great depth. it is equipped with divers' appliances, and is used in saving wreckage. divers can go out through the bottom of the boat, walk about on the sea bottom, and when through with their work re-enter the boat; all the while boat and men are, perhaps, a hundred feet below the surface. the divers' compartment, from which the divers go out into the water, is separated by an air-tight partition from the rest of the boat. compressed air is forced into this compartment until the pressure of the air equals the pressure of the water outside. then the door in the bottom is opened, and the air keeps the water out. the men in their diving-suits can then go out and in as they please. for every boat there is a depth beyond which it must not go. the penalty for going beyond this depth is a battered-in vessel, for the pressure increases with the depth. every time the depth is increased thirty-two feet the pressure is increased fifteen pounds on every square inch. beyond a certain depth the vessel cannot resist the pressure. submarines have been made strong enough to withstand the pressure at a depth of five thousand feet, or nearly a mile. most submarines, however, cannot go deeper than a hundred and fifty feet. air is supplied to the occupants of the boat either from reservoirs containing compressed air or oxygen, or by means of chemicals which absorb the carbon dioxide produced in breathing and restore the needed quantity of oxygen to the air. while the men in the boat cannot see in the water, they can see objects on the surface of the water, even when their boat is several feet below the surface, by means of the periscope. this is an arrangement of lenses and mirrors in a tube bent in two right angles, which projects a short distance above the surface and can be turned in any direction (fig. ). thus the boat, while itself nearly invisible, can have a clear view of the battle-ship which it is about to attack. [illustration: fig. --how men in a submarine see when under the water] some spinning tops that are useful every one knows that a top will stand upright only when it is spinning. most tops when spinning will stand very rough treatment without being upset. the whip-top will stand a severe lashing. spin a top upright and give it a knock. it will go round in a circle in a slanting position, and after a time will right itself. if the top is struck toward the south it will not bow toward the south but toward the east or west. in throwing a quoit, the quoit must be given a spinning motion or the thrower cannot be certain how it will alight. a coin thrown up with a spinning motion will not turn over. the quoit and the coin are like the top. they will not turn over easily when spinning. for the same reason a rifle bullet is set spinning by the spiral grooves in the bore of the gun, and it goes straight to its mark. with a smooth-bore gun that does not set the bullet spinning the gunner cannot be sure of his aim. it took a long time to discover that the spinning top is a useful machine. it is useful because of its steady motion, because it is difficult to turn over. it was discovered by newton long ago that every moving object tries to keep on in the direction in which it is moving. a moving object always requires some force to change its direction. the spinning top is a beautiful illustration of this principle. the top that is most useful is the gyroscope top (fig. ). it is mounted on pivots so arranged that the top can turn in any direction within the frame that supports it. if the top is set spinning one may turn the frame in any direction, but the top does not change direction. the axis of the top will point in the same direction all the while the top is spinning, no matter how the supporting frame is moved about. the top will spin on a string. if attached inside a box the box can be made to stand on one corner while the top is spinning. [illustration: fig. --a top that spins on a string] this top, which is so hard to upset, has been used in ships to prevent the ship being rolled by the waves. a large fly-wheel is mounted in the middle of the vessel on a horizontal axle. a fly-wheel is only a large top. it spins with a steady motion, and because of its larger size it is very much harder to overturn than a toy top. the fly-wheel in the ship resists the rolling force of the waves and steadies the ship, so that even with high waves the rolling can scarcely be felt. the waves do not so readily break over the ship when thus steadied by the revolving wheel. the gyroscope is also used in some forms of torpedo to give the torpedo steady motion. by means of a spring released by a trigger the gyroscope within the torpedo is set spinning before the torpedo enters the water. the gyroscope keeps its direction unchanged, and as the torpedo turns one way or the other the gyroscope acts upon one or the other of two valves connected with the compressed-air chambers from which the screws of the torpedo are driven. the air thus set free by the gyroscope drives a piston-rod connected with a rudder in such a way as to right the torpedo. the torpedo goes through the water with a slightly zigzag motion, but never more than two feet out of the line in which it was aimed. the monorail-car another use of the gyroscope is in the monorail-car. to make a car run on a single rail, with its weight above the rail, was impossible until the use of the gyroscope was discovered. in the monorail-car invented by brennan (fig. ) there are two gyroscopes, each weighing fifteen hundred pounds, driven at a speed of three thousand revolutions a minute by an electric motor. each gyroscope wheel with its motor is mounted in an air-tight casing from which the air is pumped out. the wheel will run much more easily in a vacuum than in air, for the air offers very great resistance to its motion. the wheels are placed one on each side of the car with their axles horizontal. when the car starts to fall the spinning gyroscopes right it much as a spinning top rights itself if tipped to one side by a blow. if the wind tips the car to the left the gyroscopes incline to the right until the car is again upright. if the load is heavier on the right side the car inclines itself toward the left just as a man leans to the left when carrying a load on his right shoulder. in rounding a curve the car leans to the inside of the curve just as a bicycle rider does, and as a railway train is made to do by laying the outer rail of the curve higher than the inner rail. two gyroscopes spinning in opposite directions are necessary to keep the car from falling when rounding a curve. [illustration: fig. --a car that runs on one rail louis brennan's full-size monorail.] the gyroscope may be used in place of a compass. if it is set spinning in a north and south direction it will continue to spin in a north and south direction, no matter how the ship may turn. it is even more reliable than the compass, for it is not affected by magnetic action. possibly some of the great inventions yet to be made will be new uses of the spinning top. liquid air and the greatest cold for a long time after men had learned the use of the furnace and could produce great heat, the greatest cold known was that of the mountain-top. men wondered what would happen if air could be made colder than the frost of winter, but knew not how to bring about such a result. they wondered what things could be frozen that remain liquid or gaseous even in the cold of winter. the first artificial cold was produced by a mixture of salt and ice, such as we now use in an ice-cream freezer. in time men learned other ways of producing great cold and even to manufacture ice in large quantities. the cold of liquid air is far greater than that of ice or even a freezing mixture of salt and ice. liquid air is simply air that is so cold that it becomes a liquid just as steam when cooled forms water. steam has only to be cooled to the temperature of boiling water, while air must be cooled to degrees below zero on the fahrenheit scale. if it were possible for us to live in such a climate, and the world were cooled to the temperature of liquid air, we should have a curious world. watch-springs might be made out of pewter, bells of tin, and piano wires of solder, for these metals are made stronger by the extreme cold of liquid air. there would be no air to breathe. oceans and rivers would be frozen solid, and the air would form a liquid ocean about thirty-five feet deep. this ocean of liquid air would be kept boiling a long time by the heat of the ice beneath it, for ice is hot compared with liquid air. the ice would cool as it gave up its heat to the liquid air and in time become as cold as the liquid air itself. liquid air has been shipped thousands of miles in a double walled tin can, the space between the two walls being filled with felt. the felt protects the liquid air from the heat of the air without. the liquid air evaporates slowly, and escapes through a small opening at the top. professor dewar, a successor of faraday in the royal institution, invented the dewar bulb, by means of which the evaporation of the liquid air is prevented. this bulb is a double-walled flask. in the space between the two walls of the flask is a vacuum. now a vacuum is the best possible protection against heat. if we were to take a bottle full of air and pump out from the bottle all except about a thousandth of a millionth of the air it contained at first we should have such a vacuum as that of the dewar bulb. with such a vacuum around it ice could be kept from melting for many days even in the hottest weather, for no heat can go through a vacuum. but the greatest cold is not the cold of liquid air. liquid hydrogen is so cold that it freezes air. when a flask of liquid hydrogen is opened there is a small snow-storm of frozen air in the mouth of the flask. but even this is not the greatest cold. the liquid hydrogen may be frozen, forming a hydrogen snow whose temperature is degrees below zero. this is nearly equal to the cold of the space beyond the earth's atmosphere, which is the greatest possible cold. the electric furnace and the greatest heat the greatest heat that has yet been produced artificially is that of the electric arc. the exact temperature of the electric arc is not known with certainty. it is known, however, that the temperature of the hottest part of the arc is not less than degrees fahrenheit. when we compare this with the temperature of the hottest coal furnace, which is about degrees, we can very easily understand that something is likely to happen at the temperature of the electric arc that could not happen in an ordinary furnace. if an electric arc is enclosed by something that will hold the heat in we have an electric furnace, and any substance placed in the furnace may be made nearly as hot as the arc itself. in the electric furnace any substance, whether found in nature or prepared artificially, may be melted or vaporized. it was henri moissan, professor of chemistry at the sorbonne in paris, who made the first great discoveries in the use of the electric furnace and produced the first artificial diamonds. the study of diamonds led moissan to believe that in nature they are formed by the cooling of a melted mixture of iron and carbon. he could prepare such a mixture with his electric furnace, he thought, and so make diamonds like those of the diamond mines. so, with an electric furnace having electrodes as large as a man's wrist, a mixture of iron and charcoal in a carbon crucible, and a glass tank filled with water, moissan set out to change the charcoal to diamonds. at a temperature of more than six thousand degrees the iron and charcoal were melted together. for a time of from three to six minutes the mixture was in the intense heat. then the covering of the furnace was removed and the crucible with the melted mixture dropped into the tank of water. with some fear this was done for the first time, for it was not known what would happen when such a hot object was dropped into cold water. but no explosion occurred, only a violent boiling of the water, a fierce blazing of the molten mass, and then a gradual change of color from white to red and red to black. with boiling acids and other chemicals the refuse was removed, and the fragments that remained were found to be diamonds, small, it is true, so small that they could be seen only with the aid of a microscope, but giving promise of greater things to come. the outer crust of iron held the melted charcoal under enormous pressure while it slowly cooled and formed the diamond crystals. the process of manufacturing diamonds is illustrated in figs. , , and . [illustration: fig. --manufacturing diamonds--first operation preparing the furnace. charcoal and iron ore placed in a crucible and subjected to enormous heat electrically.] [illustration: fig. --manufacturing diamonds--second operation the furnace at work.] [illustration: fig. --manufacturing diamonds--third operation plunging the crucible into cold water. observe the white-hot carbon just removed from the furnace.] the electric furnace has made possible the preparation of substances unknown before, and the production in large quantities at low cost of substances that before were too costly for general use. one of the best known of these substances is aluminum. with the discovery of the electric-furnace method of extracting aluminum from its ores, the price of aluminum fell from one hundred and twenty-four dollars per pound to twelve cents per pound. among the many uses of the electric furnace we may mention the preparation of calcium carbide, which is used in producing the acetylene light; carborundum, a substance almost as hard as diamond; and phosphorus, which is used in making the phosphorus match. it is used also to some extent in the manufacture of glass, and, in some cases, for extracting iron from its ores. the wireless telegraph a ship in a fog is struck by another ship. the water rushes in, puts out the fires in the boilers, the engines stop, the ship is helpless in mid-ocean in the darkness of the night. but the snapping of an electric spark is heard in one of the cabins. soon another vessel steams alongside. the life-boats are lowered and every person is saved. the call for help had gone out over the sea in every direction for two hundred miles. another ship had caught the signal and hastened to the rescue, and the world realized that the wireless telegraph had robbed the sea of its terrors. without the curious combination of magnets, wires, and batteries on the first ship no signal could have been sent, and without such a combination on the second ship the signal would have passed unheeded. how was this combination discovered, and how does it work? faraday, as we have seen, discovered the principle of the induction-coil. with the induction-coil a powerful electric spark can be produced. the friction electrical machine was known long before the time of faraday. franklin proved that a stroke of lightning is like a spark from an electrical machine, only more powerful. these great discoverers did not know, however, that an electric spark sends out something like light which travels in all directions. they did not know it, because they had no eyes to see this strange light. i will tell you a fable to make the meaning clear. there once lived a race of blind men. not one of them could see. they built houses and cities, railroads and steamships, but they did everything by touch and sound. when they met they touched each other and spoke, and each man knew his friend by the sound of his voice. one day a wise man among them said he believed there was something besides the sound of the voice with which they could make signals to each other. another wise man thought upon this matter for some time and brought forth a proof that there is something called light, though no man could see it. another, wiser and more practical, invented an eye which any man could carry about with him and see the light when he turned it in the direction from which the light was coming. thereafter each man carried a light that flashed like the flashing of a firefly. each man also carried an eye, and each could see his friend as well as hear the sound of his voice. the fable is true. the light which no man had seen we now call electric waves. the eye with which any one can perceive this light is the receiving instrument of the wireless telegraph. the strange light flashed out whenever an electric spark passed from an electrical machine, a leyden jar, an induction-coil, or as lightning in the clouds, but for hundreds of years this light was unseen. the human eye could not see it, and no artificial eye that would catch electric waves had been invented. a man in england, james clerk-maxwell, first proved that there is such a light. heinrich hertz, a german, first made an eye that would catch the waves from the electric spark, and the man who first perfected an eye with which one could catch the electric waves at a great distance and improved the instruments for sending out such waves was marconi. the fable is true, for electric waves are like the light from the sun. they go through space in all directions as light does. they will not merely go through air, but through what we call empty space, or a vacuum, as light will. if we think of waves somewhat like water waves, but not exactly like them, rushing through space, we have about as good a picture of electric waves as we can well form in our minds. as the light of a lamp goes out in all directions, so do the electric waves go out in all directions from the place where the electric spark passes. since these waves go through what we call empty space, we must think of something in that space and that it is not really empty. examine an incandescent electric lamp. the bulb was full of air when the carbon thread was placed in it. the air was then pumped out until only about a millionth part remained. the bulb was then sealed at the tip and made air-tight. we say the space inside is a vacuum. if the bulb is broken there is a loud report as the air rushes in. is the bulb really empty after the air is pumped out? is anything left in the bulb around the carbon thread? turn on the electric current and the carbon thread becomes white hot. the light from the white-hot carbon thread goes out through the vacuum. there is nothing in the vacuum that we can see or feel or handle, but something must be there to carry the light from the carbon thread. the light of the sun comes to the earth through ninety-three million miles of space. is there anything between the earth and the sun through which this light can pass? light, we know, is made up of waves, and we cannot think of waves going through empty space. there must be something between the sun and the earth. that something through which the light of the sun comes to the earth we call the ether. it is the ether that carries the light across the vacuum in the light bulb as well as from the sun to the earth. electric waves used in wireless telegraphy go through this same ether. the light of the sun is made up of the same kind of waves, and we do not think it strange because it is so common. it is true we do not see light waves, but they affect our eyes so that by means of them we can see objects and perceive the flashing of a light. so with the wireless receiving instrument we do not see the electric waves, but we perceive the flashing of the strange light. electric waves and light travel with the same speed-- , miles in a second. a wireless message will go around the earth in about one-seventh of a second. electric waves will go through a brick wall as readily as sunlight will go through a glass window, but that is not so strange as it may seem. red light will not go through blue glass. blue glass holds back the red light, but lets the blue light go through. so the brick wall holds back common light, but allows the light which we call electric waves to go through. some waves on water are longer than others. so electric waves are longer than light waves. that is the only difference between them. in fact, the light of the sun is made up of very short electric waves. these short waves affect our eyes, but the longer electric waves do not. we are daily receiving the wireless-telegraph waves from the sun, which we call light. electric waves used in wireless telegraphy vary from about six hundred feet to two miles in length, while the longest light waves that affect our eyes are only one thirty-three-thousandth of an inch in length. the sensitive part of the marconi receiving apparatus is the coherer. the first coherer was made in by prof. edward branly, of the catholic university of paris. very fine metal filings were enclosed in a tube of ebonite and connected in a circuit with a battery and a galvanometer. the filings have so high a resistance that no current flows. the waves from an electric spark, however, affect the filings so that they allow the current to flow. the electric waves are said to cause the filings to cohere--that is, to cling together more closely. it is a peculiar form of electric welding. branly discovered that a slight tapping of the tube loosens the filings and stops the flow of the current. all that was needed for wireless telegraphy was at hand. men knew how to produce electric waves of any desired length. they knew how they would act. a sensitive receiver had been discovered. there was needed the practical man who should combine the parts, improve details, and apply the wireless telegraph to actual use. this was the work of guglielmo marconi. in , at the age of twenty, marconi began his experiments on his father's estate, the villa grifone, bologna, italy. fig. is from a photograph of marconi and his wireless sending and receiving instruments. [illustration: fig. --marconi and his wireless-telegraph sending and receiving instruments] to marconi, telegraphing through space without wires appears no more wonderful than telegraphing with wires. in the wire telegraph electric waves, which we then call an electric current, follow a wire somewhat as the sound of the voice goes through a speaking-tube. in the wireless telegraph the electric waves go out through space without any wire to guide them. the light and heat waves of the sun travel to us through millions of miles of space without requiring any conducting wire. that electric waves should go though space in the same way that light does is no more wonderful than that the waves should follow all the turns of a wire. the sending instrument used by marconi includes an induction-coil, one side of the spark-gap being connected to the earth and the other to a vertical wire (fig. ). there must be a battery of leyden jars in the circuit of the secondary coil. the induction-coil may be operated by a storage battery or dynamo. the vertical wire, or antenna, is to the sending instrument what the sounding-board is to a violin. it is needed to increase the strength of the waves. in the wireless telegraph some wires must be used. it is called wireless because the stations are not connected by wires. the antenna for long-distance work consists of a network of overhead wires. when the key is pressed a rapid succession of sparks passes across the spark-gap. the antenna, or overhead wire, is thus made to send out electric waves. by pressing the key for a longer or shorter time, a longer or shorter series of waves may be produced and a correspondingly longer or shorter effect on the receiver. in this manner the dots and dashes of the morse alphabet may be transmitted. [illustration: fig. --diagram of wireless-telegraph sending apparatus] at the receiving station there are two circuits. one includes a coherer, a local battery, and a telegraph relay (fig. ). the other circuit, which is opened and closed by the relay, includes a recording instrument and a tapper. one end of the coherer is connected to the earth and the other to a vertical wire like that used for the transmitter. the electric waves weld the filings in the coherer, and this closes the first circuit. the relay then closes the second circuit, the recording instrument records a dot or a dash, and the tapper strikes the coherer and breaks the filings apart ready for another stream of electric waves. [illustration: fig. --diagram of marconi wireless-telegraph receiving apparatus the second circuit described in the text is not shown here. the relay and the second circuit would take the place of the electric bell. in the circuit as shown here the electric waves would cause the coherer to close the circuit and ring the bell.] with this arrangement it was possible to work only two stations at one time. though stations were to be established in all the cities of great britain, only one message could be sent at one time, and all stations but one must keep silence, because a second series of waves would mingle with the first and confusion would result. marconi's next effort was to make it possible to send any number of messages at one time. this led to his system of tuning the sending and receiving instruments. with this system the receiving instrument will take a message only from a sending instrument with which it is in tune. it is possible, therefore, for any number of wireless-telegraph stations to operate at the same time, the waves crossing one another in all directions without interfering, each receiver responding to the waves intended for it. an ocean steamer can, with the tuned system, send one message and receive another from a different station at the same time. marconi's ambition was to send a wireless message across the atlantic. quietly he made his preparation, building at poldhu, cornwall, england, a more powerful transmitter than had yet been used. at noon on the th of december, , he sat in a room of the old barracks on signal hill, near st. johns, newfoundland, waiting for a signal from england. his assistants at the poldhu station were to telegraph across the ocean the letter "s" at certain times each day. on the table was the receiving apparatus, made very sensitive, and including a telephone receiver. a wire led out of the window to a huge kite, which the furious wind held four hundred feet above him. one kite and a balloon used for supporting the antenna had been carried out to sea. he held the telephone receiver to his ear for some time. the critical time had come for which he had worked for years, for which his three hundred patents had prepared the way, and for which his company had erected the costly power station at poldhu. calmly he listened, his face showing no sign of emotion. suddenly there sounded the sharp click of the tapper as it struck the coherer. after a short time marconi handed the telephone receiver to his assistant. "see if you can hear anything," he said. a moment later, faintly and yet distinctly, came the three little clicks, the dots of the letter "s" tapped out an instant before in england. marconi's victory was won. a flying-machine can be equipped with a wireless-telegraph outfit, so that a man can telegraph while flying through the air. two men are needed, one to operate the flying-machine, the other to send the telegraphic messages. this has been done with the wright machine and with some dirigible balloons. of course, the wireless instruments on the flying-machine cannot be connected to the ground. instead of the ground connection there is a second antenna.--one antenna on each side of the spark-gap. while in the ordinary wireless instruments the discharge surges back and forth between the antenna and the earth, in the flying-machine wireless the discharge surges back and forth between the two antennæ. in the wright machine, when equipped for wireless telegraphy, the two antennæ are placed one under the upper plane, the other under the lower plane of the flying-machine. more power is required for the wireless than for the wire telegraph. in the wire telegraph about one-hundredth horse-power is required to send a message one hundred and twenty miles. to send a message the same distance with the wireless requires about ten horse-power, or a thousand times as much as with the wire telegraph. this is because in the wireless telegraph the waves go out in all directions, and much of the power is wasted. in the wire telegraph the electric waves are directed along the wire and very little of the power is wasted. for the same reason a person's voice can be heard a long distance through a speaking-tube. the speaking-tube guides the sound and prevents it from scattering somewhat as the wire guides the electric waves. the overhead wires of a wireless-telegraph station send out a "dark" light while a message is being sent. (see frontispiece.) standing near the station on a dark night one can see nothing, but can hear only the terrific snapping of the electric discharge. the camera, however, shows that light goes out from the wires. it is light of shorter waves than any that the eye can perceive, but the sensitive film of the photographic plate makes it known to us. the wireless telephone in sending a message by the wire telegraph the current flows over the line wire when the key is pressed. when the key is released the current stops. the circuit is made and broken for every dot or dash. this we may call an interrupted current. now we have seen that the attempt to invent a wire telephone using an interrupted current failed. while one is talking over the wire telephone a current (alternating) must be flowing over the line wire. the sound of the voice does not make and break the circuit, but changes the strength of the current. this alternating current is wonderfully sensitive. it can vary in the rate at which it alternates or the number of alternations per second to correspond to sound of every pitch. it varies in strength to correspond to all the variations in the voice, and reproduces in the receiver not merely the words that are spoken but the quality of the voice, so that the voice of a friend can be recognized by telephone almost as well as if talking face to face. the same things are true of the wireless telegraph and telephone. instead of an electric current, let us say "a stream of electric waves." then we may say of the wireless everything that we have said of the wire telegraph and telephone. in sending a message by wireless telegraph the stream of electric waves flows when the key is pressed and stops when the key is released. we have an interrupted stream of electric waves. but an interrupted stream of waves cannot be used for a wireless telephone any more than an interrupted current can be used for a wire-telephone. there must be a constantly flowing stream of electric waves, and these waves must be changed in strength and form by the sound of the voice. fig. shows a wireless-telephone receiver in which light is used to carry the message. the light acts on the receiver in such a way as to reproduce the sound. [illustration: fig. --receiver of bell's photophone an early idea in wireless telephony.] in the wireless-telegraph receiver the interrupted stream of electric waves makes and breaks the circuit of an electric battery. the wireless-telephone receiver must not make and break a circuit, but it must be sensitive to all the changes in the electric waves. one such receiver is the audion, which we shall now describe. the audion was invented by dr. lee de forest. de forest had taken the degree of doctor of philosophy at yale university, having written his thesis for that degree on the subject of electric waves. he then entered the employ of the western electric company in chicago, and while in this position worked at night in his room on experiments with electric waves. here he found that a gas flame is sensitive to electric waves (fig. ). if a gas flame is made part of the circuit of an electric battery, which includes also an induction-coil connected to a telephone receiver, then when a stream of electric waves comes along there is a click in the receiver. the waves change the resistance of the flame, and so change the strength of the current. the flame is a simple audion. it is the heated gas in the flame that responds to the electric waves. [illustration: fig. --a gas flame is sensitive to electric waves] if instead of a gas flame an incandescent-light bulb is used having a metal filament, and on either side of the filament a small strip of platinum, a more sensitive receiver is obtained. this is the audion, which is the distinguishing feature of the de forest wireless telegraph and wireless telephone. the metal filament is made white hot by the current from a storage battery. the vacuum in the bulb is about the same as that of the ordinary incandescent electric light. a very small quantity of gas is therefore left in the bulb. the electrified particles of gas respond more freely to electric waves in this bulb than in the gas flame. the de forest wireless telephone was adopted for use in the united states navy shortly before the cruise around the world in . every ship in the navy was equipped with the wireless telephone, enabling the admiral to talk with the officers of any vessel up to a distance of thirty-five miles. the wireless telephone in use on a battle-ship is shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. --captain ingersoll on board the u. s. battle-ship "connecticut" using the wireless telephone] wonders of the alternating current before the days of the electric current, men used the power of falling water. the mill or factory using the water-power was placed beside the fall. the water turned a great wheel, to which was connected the machinery of the mill, it was not until the invention of the dynamo and motor that water-power could be used at a great distance. if a hundred years ago a man had said that the time would come when a waterfall could turn the wheels of a mill a hundred miles away he would have been laughed at. yet this very thing has come to pass. indeed, one waterfall may turn the wheels of many factories, run street-cars, and light cities up to a distance of a hundred miles and even more. the power of the falling water goes out over slender copper wires from a great dynamo near the fall to the motors in the factories and street-cars. the falling water of niagara has about five million horse-power. about the hundredth part of this power is now being used. the water, falling in a wheel-pit feet deep, turns a great dynamo weighing , pounds with a speed of turns per minute. a number of such dynamos are used supplying an alternating current at a pressure of , volts, the current alternating or changing direction twenty-five times per second. such a pressure is too high for the motors and electric lights, but the current is carried at high pressure to the place where it is to be used and there transformed to a current of low pressure. in carrying a current over a long line, there is less loss if the current is carried at high pressure. with an alternating current this can be done and the current changed by means of a transformer to a current of low pressure. a transformer is simply two coils of wire wound on an iron core. the simplest transformer is the form used by faraday when he discovered electromagnetic induction. if instead of making and breaking a circuit that flows only in one direction as faraday did, we cause an alternating current to flow through one of the coils, which we may call the primary, each time the current changes direction in the primary the magnetic field is reversed--that is, the end of the coil which was the north pole becomes the south pole. this rapidly changing magnetic field induces a current in the secondary coil. each time the magnetic field of the primary coil is reversed the current in the secondary changes direction. thus an alternating current in the primary induces an alternating current in the secondary. one of these coils is of fine wire, which is wound a great many times around the iron. the other is of coarser wire wound only a few times around the iron. suppose the current is to be changed from high pressure to low pressure. then the high-pressure current from the line is made to flow through the coil of many turns, and a current of low pressure is given out from the coil of few turns. by changing the number of turns of wire in the coils we can make the pressure whatever we please. if the pressure or voltage of the secondary coil is less than that of the primary, we have a "step-down" transformer. on the other hand, if we send the current from the line wire through the coil of few turns, then we get a higher voltage from the secondary coil than that of the line wire, and we have a "step-up" transformer. the niagara current is "stepped down" from , volts to volts for use in motors. an electric lamp may be lighted though not connected to any battery or dynamo, but connected only to a coil of wire (fig. ). more than this, the coil may be insulated so that no current can enter it from any other coil or wire, and yet the lamp can be lighted. this can be done only by means of an alternating current. if the coil to which the lamp is connected is held in the magnetic field of an alternating current, then another alternating current is induced in the coil, and this second current flows through the lamp. [illustration: fig. --incandescent electric lamp lighted though not connected to any battery or dynamo] we have already learned that a changing magnetic field induces a current in a coil. now the coil through which an alternating current is flowing has a changing magnetic field all around it, and if the lamp-coil is brought into this changing magnetic field an alternating current will flow through the coil and the lamp. the insulation on the lamp-coil does not prevent the magnetic field from acting, though it does prevent a current from entering the coil. the current is induced in the coil itself, and does not enter it from any outside source. the transformer works in the same way, the only difference being that in the transformer the two coils are on the same iron core. but in the transformer the two coils are insulated so that no current can flow from one coil to the other. when an alternating current and transformers are used, the current that lights the lamps in the houses or on the streets is not the current from the dynamo. it is a new current induced in the secondary coil of the transformer by the magnetic field of the primary coil. a peculiar transformer which produces an alternating current that changes direction millions of times in a second has been made by nikola tesla. this current will do many wonderful things which no ordinary current will do. it will light a room or run a motor without connecting wires. it has produced an electric discharge sixty-five feet in length (figs. and ). though this current is caused to flow by a pressure of millions of volts, it may be taken with safety through the human body. strange as it may seem, the safety of this current is due to the high pressure and the rapidity with which it changes direction. while the current used at sing sing in executing criminals has a pressure of about twenty-five hundred volts, a current having a pressure of a million volts and alternating hundreds of thousands or millions of times per second is harmless; with such a current the human body may become a "live wire," and an electric lamp to be lighted held in one hand while the other hand grasps the wire from the transformer. [illustration: fig. --an electric discharge at a pressure of , , volts, a current of amperes in the secondary coil] [illustration: fig. .--an electric discharge sixty-five feet in length] x-rays and radium a strange light which passes through the human body as readily as sunlight through a window was discovered by prof. wilhelm konrad roentgen, of the university of würzburg. this light, which professor roentgen named x-rays, is given out when an electric discharge at high pressure passes through a certain kind of glass tube from which the air has been pumped out until there is a nearly perfect vacuum. x-rays were discovered by accident. professor roentgen was working at his desk with one of the glass tubes when he was called to lunch. he laid the tube with the electric discharge passing through it on a book. returning from lunch he took a photographic plate-holder which was under the book and made some outdoor exposures with his camera. on developing the plates a picture of a key appeared on one of them. he was greatly puzzled at first, but after a search for the key found it between the leaves of the book. the strange light from the electric discharge in the glass tube had passed through the book and the hard-rubber slide of the plate-holder and made a shadow-picture of the key on the photographic plate. he tried the strange light in many ways, and found that it would go through many objects. it would even go through the human body, so that shadow-pictures of the bones and organs of the body could be obtained. in fig. is shown a physician using x-rays. fig. is an x-ray photograph of the eye. [illustration: fig. --a physician examining the bones of the arm by means of x-rays] [illustration: fig. --x-ray photograph of the eye the eye is above and to the left of the larger black circle. the smaller black circle is a shot which has lodged back of the eye.] not long after the discovery of x-rays it was discovered that light very much like the x-rays is given out by certain minerals. one of the most interesting and the best known of these is radium. radium gives out a light somewhat like x-rays that will go through copper and other metals. it does many other strange things. it gives out heat as well as light; so much heat, in fact, that it is always about five degrees warmer than the air around it. it continues to give out heat at such a rate that a pound of radium will melt a pound of ice every hour. it can probably keep this up for at least a thousand years. if this heat could be used in running an engine, a hundred pounds of radium would run a one-horse-power engine without stopping for many hundred years. the power of niagara might be replaced by the power of radium if an engine that could use this power were invented. fig. is from a photograph made with radium. [illustration: fig. --photograph made with radium a purse containing a coin. the strange light from the radium goes through the purse and the slide of the plate-holder and makes a shadow-picture.] the great inventor of the future may be able to use the heat of radium or some new power now unknown. we have seen how, through the toil of many years and the labors of many men, the great inventions of our age have come into being. it may be that we are now witnessing other great inventions in the making. appendix brief notes on important inventions aerial navigation first air balloon--montgolfier brothers, france, . first balloon ascension--rozier, france, . first gas balloon--charles, france, . first crossing of the english channel in a balloon--blanchard, . first successful dirigible balloon--la france, renard and krebs, france, . first successful motor-driven aeroplane--wright brothers, united states; date of patent, . first crossing of the english channel by an aeroplane--blériot, . first air-ship in regular passenger service--count zeppelin, germany, . agriculture plough with cast-iron mold-board and iron shares--james small, scotland, . grain-threshing machine--andrew meikle, england, . mccormick reaper, first practical grain-harvesting machine--cyrus h. mccormick, united states, . self-raker for harvesters--mccormick, . inclined platform and elevator in the reaper, to enable men binding the grain to ride with the machine--j. s. marsh, united states, . barbed-wire fence introduced--united states, . self-binder, first automatic grain-binding device for the reaper--jacob behel, united states, . sulky plough--b. slusser, united states, . twine-binder for harvesters--m. l. gorham, united states, . improved self-binding reaper--lock and wood, united states, . barbed-wire machine--glidden and vaughn, united states, . rotary disk cultivator--mallon, united states, . steam-plough--w. foy, united states, . combined harvester and thresher--matteson, united states, . automobile mower--deering harvestor company, united states, . automobile first steam-automobile--cugnot, france, . first chain transmission of power in an automobile--gurney, england, . application of gas-engine to road vehicles, beginning of the modern motor-car--gottlieb daimler and carl benz working independently, germany, . daimler's invention consisted of a two-cylinder air-cooled motor. it was taken up in , by panhard and levassor, of paris, who began immediately the construction of the motor-car. this was the beginning of the motor-car industry. bicycle first bicycle--branchard and magurier, france, . rear-driven chain safety bicycle--george w. marble, united states, . bicycles first equipped with pneumatic tires-- . electrical inventions william gilbert, england, - , called "the father of magnetic philosophy," first to use the terms "electric force," "electric attraction," "magnetic pole." first electrical machine, a machine for producing electricity by friction--otto von guericke, germany, about . discovery of conductors and insulators--stephen gray, england, - . first to discover that electric charges are of two kinds--cisternay du fay, france, - ; du fay was also the first to attempt an explanation of electrical action. he supposed that electricity consists of two fluids which are separated by friction, and which neutralize each other when they combine. this theory was more fully set forth by robert symmer. leyden jar--discovered first by von kleist in . the same discovery was made and the leyden jar brought to the attention of the public in by pieter van musschenbroek in holland. lightning-rod--benjamin franklin, . electroplating--luigi brugnatelli, italy, . voltaic arc, a powerful arc light produced with a battery current--sir humphry davy, england, . storage battery--ritter, germany, . platinum wires were dipped in water and a battery current passed through. hydrogen collected on one wire and oxygen on the other. if the platinum wires were disconnected from the battery and connected with each other by a conductor, the two wires acted like the plates of a battery, and a current would flow for a short time in the new circuit. electromagnetism discovered--h. c. oersted, denmark, . galvanometer, a coil of wire around a magnetic needle for measuring the strength of an electric current--schweigger, germany, . motion of magnet produced by an electric current--m. faraday, england, . thermo-electricity, an electric current produced by heating the junction of two unlike metals--discovered by professor seebeck england, . principles of electrodynamics, motion produced by an electric current--ampère, france. announced in . law of electric circuits, ohm's law, current strength equals electromotive force divided by resistance of the circuit--george s. ohm, germany. proven by experiment in ; mathematical proof published in . magneto-electric induction, induction of electric currents by means of a magnetic field--m. faraday, england, . electric telegraph--prof. s. f. b. morse, united states, . first telegram sent in --morse. constant electric battery--j. p. daniell, england, . first electric motor-boat--jacobi, russia, . induction-coil--rhumkorff, germany, . duplex telegraph, first practical system--stearns, united states, about - . storage battery, lead plates in sulphuric acid--gaston planté, france, . telephone, make-and-break system, first electrical transmission of speech--philip reiss, germany, . atlantic cable laid--cyrus w. field, . dynamo, armature coil rotates in the field of an electromagnet, armature supplies current for the electromagnet as well as for the external circuit--william siemens, germany, . gramme ring armature for dynamo--gramme, france, . theory that light consists of electromagnetic waves--clerk-maxwell, england, . quadruplex telegraph, sending four messages over one wire at the same time--edison, . siphon recorder for submarine telegraph, sensitive to very feeble currents--sir william thomson, england, . telephone, varying current, first practical working telephone--alexander graham bell, united states, . electric candle, beginning of present arc light--paul jablochkoff, russia, . telephone transmitter of variable resistance--emil berliner and edison working independently, united states, . edison used carbon contacts, berliner used metal contacts. brush system of arc lighting-- . incandescent electric lamp with carbon filament--edison, . first electric locomotive--siemens, germany, . blake telephone transmitter--blake, united states, . storage battery, lead grids filled with active material--faure, france, . electric welding--elihu thompson, united states, . electric waves discovered by experiment--heinrich hertz, germany, . coherer for receiving electric waves--edward branly, france, . x-rays--discovered by prof. w. c. roentgen, germany; announced to the public in . wireless telegraphy--g. marconi, italy, . nernst electric light, a clay capable of conducting electricity when heated is used; it becomes incandescent without a vacuum--walter nernst, germany, . radium discovered by madame curie, france, . explosives gunpowder--inventor and date unknown. guncotton--schönbein, germany, . nitroglycerine--sobrero, . explosive gelatine--a. nobel, france, . dynamite--a. nobel, france, . smokeless powder--vielle, france, . firearms and ordnance spirally grooved rifle barrel--koster, england, . breech-loading shot-gun--thornton and hall, united states, . the revolver; a device "for combining a number of long barrels so as to rotate upon a spindle by the act of cocking the hammer"--samuel colt, united states, . breech gun-lock, interrupted thread--chambers, united states, . magazine gun--walter hunt, united states, . breech-loading rifle--maynard, united states, . iron-clad floating batteries first used in crimean war-- . breech-loading ordnance--wright and gould, united states, . revolving turret for floating batteries--theodore timby, united states, . first iron-clad floating battery propelled by steam: the _monitor_--john ericsson, united states, . gatling gun--dr. r. j. gatling, united states, . automatic shell-ejector for revolver--w. c. dodge, united states, . torpedo--whitehead, united states, . disappearing gun-carriage--moncrief, england, . rebounding gun-lock--l. hailer, united states, . magazine rifle--lee, united states, . hammerless gun--greener, united states, . gun silencer, to be attached to barrel of gun; gun can be fired without noise--maxim, . gas used for light and power gas first used for illuminating purposes--william murdoch, england, . first street gas-lighting in england--f. a. winsor, . gas-meter--s. clegg, england, . water-gas, prepared by passing steam over white-hot anthracite coal--first produced in england in . illuminating water-gas--lowe, united states, . gas-engine, -cycle, beginning of modern gas-engine--otto and langen, germany, . incandescent gas-mantle--carl a. von welsbach, austria, . iron and steel blast-furnace, beginning of iron industry--belgium, . use of coke in blast-furnace--abram darby, england, about . puddling iron--henry cort, england, - . process of making malleable-iron castings--lucas, england, . hot-air blast for iron furnaces--j. b. neilson, scotland, . the galvanizing of iron--henry craufurd, england, . process of making steel, blowing air through molten pig-iron to burn out carbon, then adding spiegel iron; first production of cheap steel--sir henry bessemer, england, . regenerative furnace, a gas-furnace in which gas and air are heated before being introduced into the furnace, giving an extremely high temperature--william siemens, england, . open-hearth process of making steel--siemens-martin, england, . nickel steel, much stronger than ordinary steel, used for armorplate--schneider, united states, . mining miners' safety-lamp--sir humphry davy, england, . compressed-air rock-drill--c. burleigh, united states, . diamond rock-drill, a tube of cast-steel with a number of black diamonds set at one end. the machine cuts a circular groove, leaving a core inside the tube. this core is brought to the surface with a rod, and the powdered rock is washed out by water forced down the tube and flowing up the sides of the hole. the drill does not have to stop for cleaning out--herman, united states, . photography first photographic picture, not permanent--thomas wedgewood, england, . daguerreotype, first developing process--louis daguerre, france, . first photographic portraits, daguerreotype process--prof. j. w. draper, united states, . collodion process in photography--scott archer, england, . photographic roll films--melhuish, england, . dry-plate photography--dr. j. m. taupenot, . photographic emulsion, bromide of silver in gelatine, basis of present rapid photography--r. l. maddox, england, . hand photographic camera for plates--william schmid, united states, . printing first printing with movable types in europe and first printing-press--guttenberg, germany, about . screw printing-press--blaew, germany, . first newspaper of importance--_london weekly courant_, . stereotyping, making plates from casts of the type after it is set up--william ged, scotland, . first practical steam rotary printing-press, paper printed on both sides, impressions per hour--frederick koenig, germany, . printing from curved stereotype plates--h. cowper, england, . hoe's lightning press, impressions per hour--r. hoe, united states, . printing from a continuous web, paper wound in rolls, both sides printed at once--william bullock, united states, . "straightline newspaper perfecting" press, prints , eight-page papers per hour--goss company, united states. linotype machine. the operator uses a keyboard like that of a typewriter. the machine sets the matrices which correspond to the type, casts the type in lines from molten metal, delivers the lines of type on a galley, and returns the matrices to their appropriate tubes. it does the work of five men setting type in the ordinary way--othmar mergenthaler, united states, . steam navigation first steamboat in the world--papin, river fulda, germany, . first steamboat in america--john fitch, delaware river, . first passenger steamboat in the world, the _clermont_--robert fulton, hudson river, . first steamer to cross the atlantic, the _savannah_, built at new york--first voyage across the atlantic, . the screw propeller first used on a steamboat--john ericsson, united states, about . compound engines adopted for steamers-- . first turbine-steamer, the _turbinia_--parsons, . first mercantile steam-turbine ship, the _king edward_--denny and brothers, england, . steam used for power and land transportation first steam-engine with a piston--denys papin, france, . first practical application of the power of steam, pumping water--thomas savery, england, . double-acting steam-engine and condenser--james watt, scotland, . steam-locomotive first used to haul loads on a railroad--richard trevethick, england, . first passenger steam railway, the "stockton & darlington"--george stephenson, england, . first steam-locomotive in the united states, the "stourbridge lion"-- . link motion for locomotives--george stephenson, england, . steam-whistle, adopted for use on locomotives--george stephenson, . steam-hammer--james nasmyth, scotland, . steam-pressure gauge--bourdon, france, . corliss engine--g. h. corliss, united states, . first practical steam-turbine--c. a. parsons, england, . textile industries flying shuttle, first important invention in weaving, leading to modern weaving machinery--john kay, england, . spinning-jenny--james hargreaves, england, . power loom--james cartwright, england, . cotton-gin, for separating the seeds from the fibre, gave a new impetus to the cotton industry. the production of cotton increased in five years from , to , bales--eli whitney, united states, . pattern loom, for the weaving of patterns--m. j. jacquard, france, . application of steam to the loom--william horrocks, england, . knitting-machine--brunel, england, . sewing-machine--elias howe, united states, . mercerized cotton--john mercer, england, . process of making artificial silk--h. de chardonnet, france, . wood-working circular wood-saw--miller, england, . wood-planing machine--samuel benthem, england, . wood-mortising machine--m. j. brunel, england, . band wood-saw--newberry, england, . lathe for turning irregular wood forms--thomas blanchard, united states, . improved planing-machine--william woodworth, united states, . miscellaneous first fireproof safe--richard scott, england, . steel pen, quill pen used up to this time--wise, england, . first life-preserver--john edwards, england, . calculating machine--charles babbage, england, . first friction matches--john walker, united states, . flint and steel were used for starting fires before matches were invented. first portable steam fire-engine--brithwaite and ericsson, england, . vulcanizing of rubber--charles goodyear, united states, . pneumatic tire--r. w. thompson, england, . time-lock for safes--savage, united states, . match-making machinery--a. l. denison, united states, . american machine-made watches--united states, . safety matches--lundstrom, sweden, . sleeping-car--woodruff, united states, . printing-machine for the blind, origin of the typewriter--alfred e. beach, united states, . cable-car--e. a. gardner, united states, . driven well, an iron tube with the end pointed and perforated driven into the ground--col. n. w. green, united states, . passenger elevator--e. g. otis, united states, . first practical typewriter--c. l. sholes, united states, . railway air-brake, use of air-pressure in applying brakes to the wheels of a car. a strong spring presses the brake against the wheels. air acts against the spring and holds the brake away from the wheels. to apply the brake, air is allowed to escape, reducing the pressure and allowing the spring to act--george westinghouse, united states, . store-cash carrier--dr. brown, united states, . roller flour-mills--f. wegman, united states, . kinetoscope, moving-picture machine--edison, . index aeroplane, . air-pressure, . air-pump, . air-ships, . air thermometer, . alternating current, wonders of, . amber, . ampère, , . arago, . archimedes, , ; inventions of, . archimedes' principle, , . arc light, . armature, , , . balloons, . barometer, mercury, , ; water, . battle of syracuse, . bell, alexander graham, . blake transmitter, . blériot, . boyle, . branly, . cannon experiment, rumford's, . cog-wheels, first used, . coherer, . colors in sunlight, . condenser in steam-engine, . conductors, electrical, . controller, . daniell cell, , . davy, , , . de forest, . diamonds, manufacturing, . drum armature, . dry battery, . dufay, . dumont, . duplex telegraphy, . dynamo, , , , , , , , ; series wound, ; shunt wound, ; compound wound, . edison, , , , . electrical machine, , , , . electric battery, , , , . electric charge, two kinds, . electric current, , , , , , ; magnetic action of, , ; produced by a magnet, . electric furnace, . electricity, , ; theories of, ; speed of, . electric lighting, , . electric motor, , , . electric power, . electric railway, . electric waves, . electromagnet, , , . electromagnetism, . faraday, , , , ; electrical discoveries, . force-pump, . franklin, , , , . galileo, , ; experiment with falling shot, . galvani, . galvanometer, , . gas-engines, . glider, . governor, fly-ball, . gramme-ring armature, . gravitation, . gravity cell, . gray, stephen, . guericke, , . gyroscope, . heat, . henry, joseph, , . hero, , ; engine, . hiero, king of syracuse, , . horse-power, . hydraulic press, . incandescent light, . indicator, . induction-coil, , , . induction, electrical, . insulators, . inventions of the ancient greeks ; of the nineteenth century, . kite experiment, franklin's, . kites, . leyden jar, . lightning-rod, . lines of force, . liquid air, . locomotive, electric, ; steam, . magdeburg, . magnetic field, , . magnets, , . marconi, . mayer, robert, , . mercury vapor light, . microscope, . miner's safety lamp, . monorail car, . morse, . napoleon, . newcomen, , . newcomen's engine, . newton, . niagara, . oersted, , , , . papin, . papin's engine, . pascal, . pendulum clock, , . perpetual motion impossible, . phonograph, . principle of work, . prism, . pump, , . radium, . reis, philip, . relay, . roentgen, . royal institution, , . rumford, , . rumford's cannon experiment, . safety-lamp, . screw propeller, . siemens, . spinning tops, . steam-engine, , , . steam locomotive, . steam pressure, . stephenson, . storage battery, . sturgeon, , . submarines, . suction-pump, . symmer, robert, . telegraph, , ; wireless, . telephone, ; wireless, . telescope, invention of, ; newton's, . tesla, . thermometer, air, . torpedo, . torricelli, , . transformer, , , , . turbine, . university of padua, . university of pisa, , . valve-gear, , . volta, , , . voltaic battery, , . water-clock, , . water-wheel, . watt, james, . watt's engine, . wireless telegraph, . wright aeroplane, . x-rays, . zeppelin, . the end high man by jay clarke illustrated by kossin [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from galaxy science fiction june . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] [sidenote: _roger got his chance to rise in the world ... and wound up with his head in the clouds!_] london, w. april roger brisby hotel massilon new york, n. y. roger dearest, i haven't heard from you since you arrived in new york. are you well? all my love, anne * * * * * london, w. april roger dear, really, roger, you might have some consideration. after all, i _am_ your fiancée. the very least you could do is drop me a postal card, even if you _are_ on a business trip. i worry about you, roger. it's been three weeks since i've heard from you. love, anne * * * * * london, w. april my dear roger, i won't stand for it. i simply _won't_! i know you too well! you're probably running around with those awful american women, and using _my_ money to do it! business trip, indeed! don't think an ocean between us is going to stop me from finding out what you're doing! you write me this instant! anne * * * * * via wu cables london apr roger brisby hotel massilon ny five weeks since word from you stop if dont hear from you twenty four repeat twenty four hours comma engagement broken stop also will sue for breach of promise comma desertion comma and extortion and fraud for money you have borrowed from me stop cable collect stop i stopped your draw on my account at bank stop anne * * * * * hotel massilon, n. y. april my dearest anne, please forgive the delay in replying to your letters and cable. the truth is that i was quite unable to write, anxious as i was to do so. it's a rather long story, but i would like to explain just how this came to be and so prove how unfounded your suspicions were. you see, shortly after i arrived here, i ran into a professor phelps-smythe burdinghaugh, lately of england. professor burdinghaugh has been forced to resign from several universities in england because of the rather free manner in which he conducted his experiments. he admitted that no less than physics laboratories have been demolished through his own miscalculations. at any rate, finding the atmosphere in our country somewhat cool toward his continued researches, he came to new york, which, as you know, is inhabited wholly by wealthy eccentrics, tourists and boors. such an environment was eminently suited to the professor's needs and he settled here to work on an anti-gravity belt, his lifelong project. you may wonder, reasonably enough, what professor burdinghaugh has to do with the delay in writing to you, but i assure you that, were it not for him, you would have heard from me much sooner. much sooner indeed. it all began with a scotch-and-water. the professor and i were each having one and inevitably we struck up a conversation. we chatted on a great number of topics and i remember that he was quite impressed when i told him you were indeed the _chemicals_ anne harrodsbury. not long after this, the old boy (he is fiftyish and rather heavy) invited me in the flush of good comradeship (and good scotch) to take part in his latest experiment with his anti-gravity unit. feeling rather light-headed, i heartily acclaimed his suggestion and we repaired to his laboratory. "my boy," he said to me later, as he strapped a bulky belt around my waist. "my boy, you are about to witness a milestone in history. most assuredly, a milestone." i nodded, basking in the old boy's magnificent confidence. "we are about to enter a new era," he continued. "the era of space!" his voice dropped to a low, comradely whisper. "and i have chosen you, my boy, to assist me in forging this trail to new suns, new worlds, new civilizations! the whole galaxy lies before us!" i could see only professor burdinghaugh's massive girth before me, but i assumed he could see things much more clearly than i. the professor filled our glasses from the bottle i had bought, then put his face close to mine. "do you know why no one has ever invented an anti-gravity belt?" he confided. "_i'll_ tell you--it takes research, and research takes money. and money is very hard to get. especially," he added, gazing somberly at his highball, "in _my_ field of research." he shrugged, then busied himself with some adjustments on the belt he had wrapped around me. "there," he said finally, stepping back, "it's ready." we went outside to the garden behind his laboratory. "all my life," he mused, "i've wanted to be the first to defy gravity, but--" here a suspicious wetness glistened in his eyes--"my fondness for good food and good drink has paid its price. i am far too heavy for the belt. that's why i am giving _you_ this chance to roar to fame. you--_you_ will have the glory, while i...." he choked, then quickly drained his glass. "enough! the stars are waiting! the experiment must begin!" he paused to refill his glass from the bottle he had brought out with him. "when i say, '_go!_' push this button on the belt," he explained. "ready?" i nodded. "a toast first!" he cried. soberly, he gazed at his glass. "to man," he pronounced momentously, "and the stars." he took a sizable swallow, then fixed me with a feverish glare. "_go!_" i confess that never, before or since, have i felt such a strange sensation as when i pushed the button on the belt. suddenly, i felt like a leaf, or a feather, floating on a soft warm curl of cloud. it was as if all the troubles, all the cares of the world had been miraculously lifted from my shoulders. a glow of well-being seemed to pulse through my whole body. the sound of professor burdinghaugh's voice brought an abrupt end to this strange lightness of mind. the professor was pointing at me with an intensity i rarely before have seen, muttering, "it works--_it works!_" he seemed rather amazed. i looked down and, with a feeling i can only describe as giddiness, saw that indeed it _was_ working. i was rising slowly from the ground and was then about a foot in the air. at this historical juncture, we looked at each other for a moment, then began to laugh as success rushed to our heads. the professor even did a mad little jig while, for my part, i gyrated in the air unrestrained. it was not until i was about ten feet off the ground that i began to feel uneasy. i was never one to stomach high altitudes, you might recall, and the sight of ten feet of emptiness beneath me was disquieting. "professor," i asked hesitantly, "how do i turn off the belt?" burdinghaugh's glass stopped an inch from his lips. "turn it off?" he countered thickly. "_yes!_" i shouted, now fifteen feet in the air. "how do i turn it off? how do i get down?" the professor gazed up at me thoughtfully. "my boy," he said at last, "i never thought about getting down--been much too concerned with getting jolly well _up_." [illustration] "_burdinghaugh!_" i screamed. "get me _down_!" i was now twenty feet above the ground. "i'm sorry, old boy, dreadfully sorry," he called to me. "i can't. but don't think your life will have been spent in vain. indeed not! i'll see to it that you get proper credit as my assistant when the anti-gravity belt is perfected. you've been invaluable, dear boy, invaluable!" his voice faded. "_professor!_" i screamed futilely, but by then we were too far apart to make ourselves heard and, even as i wasted my breath, a gust of wind caught me and sent me soaring into the air, spinning like a top. but, just before i entered a cloud, i saw the professor standing far below, his feet planted wide apart, his head thrown back while he watched my progress. i fancied that, as i disappeared into the mist, he waved a solemn good-by and drank my health. you can't imagine the torture i went through as i sailed through the air. during those first few moments, i had felt light, carefree, buoyant. but, in these higher altitudes, i was buffeted by strong winds, pelted by rain in enormous quantities and subjected to sudden drops that had me gasping. how i managed to survive, i can't understand. surely, i would have died if i had floated completely out of the atmosphere but, luckily, the belt's power to lift me leveled off at about , feet. for days, i drifted at that altitude, blown willy-nilly by the contrary winds, starved and bitterly cold. several times, i tried to steer myself--but to no avail. i was powerless to control my flight. my sense of direction left me and i had no idea where i was. sometimes, i would look down through a rift in the clouds and see farmland, or perhaps cities. once i glimpsed the sea--and shut my eyes. it was not until the sixth day of my flight that i noticed a change. i was sinking. slowly but steadily, i was losing altitude. i was at a loss to explain this phenomenon at first, but then i remembered that the professor had said the belt was powered by batteries. obviously, the batteries were weakening. a few hours later, i landed gently, only a few blocks from where i had started my unwilling flight. during those six frightful days, i must have been blown around in circles. weak, starved, shaken, sick, i was taken to a hospital, from which i have just been released. needless to say, i immediately tried to locate professor burdinghaugh, but have been unable to find a trace of him. you might say he has disappeared into thin air. you must be wondering, of course, what this singular adventure has to do with my not writing you earlier. however, i feel certain you understand now that writing was impossible under the circumstances. all the ink in my fountain pen leaked out when i reached the altitude of , feet--i have the kind of pen that writes under water--and i had to put my pencil between my teeth to keep them from chattering and knocking out my inlays. during my stay at the hospital, of course, i couldn't write, as i was too weak even to flirt with the nurses--which, as you know, is very weak indeed. so, please forgive my unfortunate lapse in correspondence. truly, i would have written, had it been possible. devotedly, roger p.s. i resent your implication that i am engaged to you only because of your money. the fact that you are extremely wealthy and that i have virtually nothing, as i have told you many times before, never has and never will have anything to do with my love for you. i'm particularly hurt by your suspicion that i'd spend your money on other women. really, i'm shocked that such a thing could even occur to you. and, now that you know why i haven't written before, i trust you'll restore my draw on your account at the bank. my funds are rather low. roger * * * * * london, w. may dear roger, i always sensed you were a despicable, smooth-talking gold-digger--but i didn't really convince myself of it until i read your letter. do you really expect me to believe that story? an anti-gravity belt! what do you take me for--one of your silly impressionable american women? besides, i happen to have met your professor phelps-smythe burdinghaugh in london, only a few days ago, and he assured me that, while he _had_ met you in new york, it was under very different circumstances from those you described. he said you were with two women and that all three of you were quite drunk. he also said he had never invented an anti-gravity belt and seemed rather amused at the idea. needless to say, he was surprised to learn that i was your fiancée. he was under the impression that you were engaged to some american girl, he said, but he couldn't tell _which_ one. that was the last straw. this is the end, roger. our engagement is broken. i bear you no ill will--indeed, i'm glad it's all over. the one thing i'm furious about is the way you maligned the professor, trying to make me think _he_ was responsible for your not writing. how perfectly ridiculous! really, roger, you would do well to model yourself after the professor. he is so charming, so cultured, so thoughtful! i'll never forgive you for trying to blame him for your own shortcomings. anne p.s. for obvious reasons, i shan't restore your draw on my account at the bank. and that's another thing. i thought you were awfully vague about what "business" you had in new york, and now i know. the professor said you told him you were on vacation. business trip indeed! _cad!_ anne * * * * * london, w. may my dear boy, ever since i watched you disappear into that cloud, i have been trying to think of some way to make up to you the beastly suffering you must have experienced at my behest. at long last, i have discovered a way. immediately after the experiment, i found it necessary to return to london. while there, seeking funds to continue my researches, i happened to meet your fiancée. it was at this moment that i conceived the plan for which i know you will be eternally thankful. i had been troubled by the fact that the world was being deprived of your obvious natural brilliance in applied science--who else would have thought of needing a button to _turn off_ the anti-gravity belt?--because of your ties to more material things. namely, your fiancée. i therefore resolved to free you from your bonds--and hers--and give the world the benefit of your genius. carrying out this plan was no easy task, however, and i am sure you will appreciate the problems involved. i first had to convince anne that your story was pure rot, or else she would have hung on to you like a leech for the rest of your life. this i did by denying all particulars of your story--or, rather, by telling the truth about your activities in new york--and adding a few embellishments of my own. of course, this was only temporary relief. i knew something more permanent had to be done to keep her from ruining your bright future. it was clear there was only one solution--i had to woo her myself. i may add that she has found me not unattractive and so i have every reason to believe we shall be married within the fortnight. thus, i have rid you of all entanglements and freed you to use your vast talents to advance the cause of science. at the same time, if i may return to a more materialistic plane, i have provided myself with sufficient funds to carry on my researches, since anne will gladly supply same. but please--do not feel in debt to me. i consider it a privilege to sacrifice myself to anne for such a glorious cause. then too, ladies of such obvious refinement--and means--always have appealed to me. i hope that in this small way i have in part repaid you for your invaluable contribution to my work. sincerely, phelps-smythe burdinghaugh p.s. since, by marrying anne, i shall become your creditor, i suggest you make arrangements with utmost despatch to repay the monies you borrowed from her. shall we say thirty days, dear boy? my researches are quite expensive. i do, you know, still have a quite genuine fondness for good food and drink. psb * * * * * brisby enterprises, inc., n. y. june my dear burdinghaugh, you win. anne is yours, for which i am glad. i may have forgotten to tell you that nearly all of her funds are in untouchable trusts--not in bonds. in regard to the monies due you, my cheque will be in the mails this week. such trifling amounts now mean nothing to me. as for your methods in usurping my relationship with anne, i have only admiration--speaking as one professional to another, of course. unfortunately, however, in your eagerness to get your hands on anne's fortune, you quite overlooked one very important item--the key item, in fact--the anti-gravity belt. it may be of interest to you that i have taken out a patent on the belt and am manufacturing small units for toy spaceships. the "gimmick," as these american subjects put it, is "hot" and the turnover is fantastic. the toy ships rise and rise into the sky and never come down and, as soon as they disappear, the junior rocketmen immediately start bawling for another one. it isn't quite the era of space, but it's considerably more profitable. pity you hadn't thought about patenting the belt--these americans are so free with their dollars. but then, you have anne. what could be fairer? gratefully yours, roger invention, the master-key to progress invention the master-key to progress by rear-admiral bradley a. fiske, ll.d. united states navy former aid for operations of the fleet, president u. s. naval institute, gold medallist of u. s. naval institute, the franklin institute and the aero club of america. author of "electricity in theory and practice," "war time in manila," "the navy as a fighting machine," "from midshipman to rear-admiral," "the art of fighting," etc. inventor of the gun director system, the naval telescope sight, the stadimeter, the turret range finder, the horizometer, the torpedoplane, etc., etc., etc. new york e. p. dutton & company fifth avenue copyright, , by e. p. dutton & company _all rights reserved_ printed in the united states of america preface to show that inventors have accomplished more than most persons realize, not only in bringing forth new mechanisms, but in doing creative work in many walks of life, is, in part, the object of this book. to suggest what they may do, if properly encouraged, is its main intention. for, since it is to inventors mainly that we owe all that civilization is, it is to inventors mainly that we must look for all that civilization can be made to be. the mind of man cannot even conceive what wonders of beneficence inventors may accomplish: for _the resources of invention are infinite_. the author is indebted to ginn & company, boston, for the use of illustrations from "general history for colleges and high schools," by philip van ness myers, and "ancient times, a history of the early world," by james henry breasted, and to george h. doran company, new york, for the use of a map from "a history of sea power," by william oliver stevens and allan westcott. contents chapter page i. invention in primeval times ii. invention in the orient iii. invention in greece iv. invention in rome: its rise and fall v. invention of the gun and of printing vi. columbus, copernicus, galileo and others vii. the rise of electricity, steam and chemistry viii. the age of steam, napoleon and nelson ix. inventions in steam, electricity, and chemistry create a dangerous era x. certain important creations of invention, and their beneficent influence xi. invention and growth of liberal government and american civil war xii. invention of the modern military machine, telephone, phonograph and preventive medicine xiii. the conquest of the ether--moving pictures--rise of japan and the united states xiv. the fruition of invention xv. the machine of civilization, and the dangerous ignorance concerning it, shown by statesmen xvi. the future list of illustrations page carvings in ivory and in stone of cavern walls made by the hunters of the middle stone age early babylonian signs, showing their pictorial origin villa of an egyptian noble the pyramids of gizeh assyrians flaying prisoners alive two cretan vases insurgent captives brought before darius the lighthouse of the harbor of alexandria in the hellenistic age triumphal procession from the arch of titus the printing of books portuguese voyages and possessions hero's engines hero's altar engine leupold's engine invention, the master-key to progress invention, the master-key to progress chapter i invention in primeval times our original ancestors dwelt in caves and wildernesses; had no sewed or fabricated clothing of any kind; subsisted on roots and nuts and berries; possessed no arts of any sort; were ignorant to a degree that we cannot imagine, and were little above the brutes in their mode of living. today, a considerable fraction of the people who dwell upon the earth enjoy a civilization so fine that it seems to have no connection with the brutish conditions of primeval life. yet, as these pages show, a perfectly plain series of inventions can be seen, starting from the old conditions and building up the new. the progress of man during the countless ages of prehistoric times is hidden from our knowledge, except in so far as it has been revealed to us by ruins of ancient cities, by prehistoric utensils of many kinds, and by inscriptions carved on monuments and tablets. the sharp dividing line between prehistoric times and historic times, seems to be that made by the art of writing; for this epochal invention rendered possible the recording of events, and the consequent beginning of history. of prehistoric times we have, of course, no written record; and we have but the most general means of estimating how many millenniums ago man first had his being. geological considerations indicate a beginning so indefinitely and exceedingly remote that the imagination may lose itself in speculations as to his mode of living during those forever-hidden centuries that dragged along, before man had advanced so far in his progress toward civilization as to make and use the rude utensils which the researches of antiquarians have revealed. inasmuch as the most important employment of man from his first breath until his last has always been the struggle to preserve his life; inasmuch as the endeavor of primeval man to defend himself against wild beasts must have been extremely bitter (for many were larger and stronger than he), and inasmuch as man eventually achieved the mastery over them, one seems forced to conclude that man overcame wild beasts by employing some means to assist his bodily strength, and that probably his first invention was a weapon. the first evidences of man's achievements that we have are rude implements of stone and flint, evidently shaped by some force guided by some intelligence;--doubtless the force of human hands, guided by the intelligence of human minds. many such have been found in caves and gravel-beds over all the world. they were rough and crude, and indicate a rough and crude but nevertheless actual stage of civilization. some call this the old stone age and others call it the early stone age. besides stone and flint, bones, horns and tusks were used. among the implements made were daggers, fish-hooks, needles, awls and heads of arrows and harpoons. one of the most interesting revelations of those rude and immeasurably ancient implements is the fact that man, even in those times, possessed the artistic sense; for on some of them can be seen rough but clear engravings of natural objects, and even of wild animals. [illustration: carvings in ivory ( and - ) and in stone of cavern walls ( ), made by the hunters of the middle stone age] men naturally supported themselves mainly by hunting and fishing, as savages do now; and it was because they had invented suitable implements and weapons for practicing those necessary arts, that their efforts were successful. the first weapon was probably the fist-hatchet, a piece of sharpened flint about nine inches long, that he grasped in his hand. at some time during the centuries of the old stone age, someone invented a much finer weapon, that continued to be one of the most important that was known, until the invention of the gun, and is used even now in savage lands--the bow and arrow. what a tremendous advantage this weapon was in fighting wild beasts (and also men not possessing it) it is not hard for us to see; for the arrow tipped with flint or bone, could be shot over distances far greater than the spear or javelin could be thrown, and with sufficient force to kill. the club and spear had probably been devised before, for they were simpler and more easily imagined and constructed. how the bow and arrow came to be invented we have no intimation. the invention of the club and spear did not probably involve much creative effort, so simple were those instruments, and so like the branches that could be broken from the trees. yet, to the untrained mind of the primeval savage, the idea of sharpening a straight branch of wood into a fine point at the end, in order that penetration through the skin might be facilitated, must have come as an inspiration. no such thing as a spear exists as a spear in nature, and therefore the making of a spear was a creative act. to us, the use of the spear as a projectile may not seem to have required the inventive faculty--unless the hurling of stones may also be supposed to have required it. it may be, however, that with the dull mind of primeval men, even the idea of using stones or javelins as projectiles was the result of a distinct, and perhaps startling inspiration. the invention of the bow and arrow was one of the first order of brilliancy, and would be so even now. it is not easy to think of any simple accident as accounting for the invention; because the bow and arrow consists of three entirely independent parts--the straight bar of wood, the string, and the arrow; for the bow was not a bow until the string had been fastened to each end, and drawn so tight that the bar of wood was forced into a bent shape, and held there at great tension. when one realizes this, and realizes in addition the countless centuries during which the bow and arrow held its sway, the millions of men who have used it, and the important effect it has had in the overcoming of wild beasts, and the deciding of many of the critical battles of the world, he can hardly escape the conclusion that the invention of the bow and arrow was one of the most important occurrences in the history of mankind. a still more important occurrence was the invention of making fire. probably less inventive effort was needed for this than for the bow and arrow; for fire could be seen in the lightning and in trees struck by lightning, and in the sparks that came forth when two hard stones were struck together. the discovery of fire may have been made by accident; but this does not mean that no invention was needed for devising and producing the means whereby fire could be produced at will. to note the fact of a phenomenon, say the production of fire when stones are accidentally struck together, or the falling of an apple from a tree, requires no special effort, and of itself brings forth no benefit; but to reason from the appearance of the sparks to the production of an apparatus for making fire at will; or to reason from the falling of an apple to the enunciation of newton's law of gravitation, is the kind of successful mental effort that has produced the effects which it is the endeavor of this humble book to indicate. these effects have combined as progress has advanced, to put civilized man in a position relatively to his natural surroundings very different from that held by primeval man, and very different from that held by the brutes, both in primeval days and now. evidently, the effects have been made possible by some faculty possessed by man and not by brutes. this faculty is usually called reason, and is held to be a faculty by means of which man can infer cause from effect, and effect from cause, and can remember events and facts to a degree sufficient to enable him to hold them in his mind, while reasoning about them. but it seems impossible to explain the advent of even the oldest and simplest inventions by the possession of reason only, using the word reason in its ordinary sense; for it is obvious that no matter how clearly a man could reason as between cause and effect, no matter how great a student of all phenomena he might be, no matter how good a memory he might have, he might nevertheless live for many years and never invent anything. in fact, we see men at the present day who possess great knowledge, splendid energy, keen powers of analysis, high courage, and even great administrative talent, and yet who are obviously deficient in originality, who seem to possess the constructive faculty in only a small degree, and who seem incapable of taking any step forward except on paths that have been plainly trod before. countless instances can be cited of the persistence of men, even in civilized lands, in following a certain practice for long periods, until someone possessing the inventive faculty has devised a better one. for the sake of brevity, only two cases, and those well known, will be mentioned as illustrative. one was the invention of movable type, and the other that of pointing the wood screw. man had continued for centuries to make blocks of wood or other material on which words and phrases were engraved or cut, and then to print from them. suddenly a man in germany (usually said to be john guttenberg) made the change, so slight in appearance and yet so tremendous in results, of cutting only one letter on a block, and arranging and securing the blocks in such a way as to enable him to print any word or words desired. this did not occur until about the year a. d. why had not someone done this in all the long centuries? surely it was not because men of great reasoning faculties had not lived; for in the long interval the civilization of egypt, assyria, babylon, persia, greece and rome had flourished; and plato, aristotle, cæsar and the great inventor archimedes had lived! similarly, men continued to use in wood the same flat pointed screw that they used in metals, boring the hole first in the wood with a gimlet, and then entering the flat point of the screw into the hole. suddenly (but not until the nineteenth century a. d.) an inventor made and patented a screw which came to a sharp point like a gimlet, which could be forced into wood just as the gimlet was, and then screwed into the wood without further ado. how can we explain the curious fact that countless men of reason, intelligence and mechanical skill had continued century after century to bore into wood with gimlets, and then follow the gimlet with flat-pointed screws? the explanation seems to be expressed in the phrase, "the idea had not occurred to them." why had it not occurred to them? this question cannot, of course, be answered convincingly; but it may be pointed out that there is a small class of men to whom original ideas seem to come of their own accord. the inventor of mechanical appliances is in this class, and is perhaps its most conspicuous exemplar. * * * * * it may be pointed out, however, that the inventors of mechanical appliances are not the only men to whom original conceptions come; for original conceptions evidently come to the poets, the novelists, the musical composers, the artists, the strategists, the explorers, the statesmen, the philosophers, the founders of religions and the initiators of all enterprises great and small. it may be pointed out also that their mental processes are similar, and that they are best described by the greatest of all poets in the lines-- "the poet's eye in a fine frenzy rolling, glances from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven; and as imagination bodies forth the forms of things unknown, the poet's pen turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing a local habitation and a name." these lines suggest that the first step in invention is made almost without effort; that a picture, confused and dim but actual, is made by the imagination on the mental retina; and that, after that, the constructive faculties arrange the elements of the picture in such wise as to produce a clear and definite entity. regarded in this way, the inventor of mechanical appliances suddenly sees a confused and dim picture of an instrument or a mechanism (or a part of it) that he has never seen with his bodily eyes; the musical composer hears imperfectly and vaguely a new musical composition; the sculptor sees a statue, the painter sees a new combination of objects and colors producing a new effect, and the poet feels the stirring in him of vague, but beautiful, or powerful or inspiring thoughts. if now the picture is allowed to fade, or if the constructive faculty is not able to make it into an actuality, or if the picture has not in itself the elements which the state of civilization then prevailing make it possible to embody in an entity, no invention of a mechanical appliance is made, no plan of campaign, no musical composition, no statue, no painting, no poem is produced. if, however, the constructive effort develops successfully the conception that the imagination made, and if the circumstances of time and place are all propitious, then the art of making fire at will is born, or bonaparte's suggestion at toulon is made, or the strains of beethoven's music inspire the world, or the statue of moses is carved, or the immaculate conception is pointed, or hamlet is written, or the electric telegraph binds the peoples of the earth together. the inventor in mechanics, the sculptor, the painter, the novelist and the poet embody their creations in material forms that are enduring and definite, and constitute evidences of their work, which sometimes endure throughout long periods. the architect and the constructing engineer are able similarly to produce lasting and useful monuments to their skill; but it can hardly be declared that their work is characterized by quite so much of originality and invention, because of the restrictions by which the practice of their arts is bound. it is, in fact, hard to conceive of a bridge very different in principle or design from bridges that had been built before; and while it is not difficult to conceive of an engine different in principle and design from previous ones, yet we realize that the points of novelty in such an engine would be attributable more to invention than to engineering. this is because the arts of engineering and architecture rest on principles that have long since been proved to be correct, and on practices that are the results of long experience; whereas one of the main characteristics of invention is novelty. it is true that many of the most important inventions have been made by engineers; but this has been because some engineers, like ericsson, have been inventors also. but it is also true that only a small proportion of the engineers have made original inventions; and it is equally true that many inventions have failed--or have been slow in achieving success--because of lack of engineering skill in construction or design. these facts show that the work of the inventor is very different from that of the engineer, and that the inventor and the engineer are very different people, though an engineer and an inventor sometimes live together inside of the same skin. in fact, it is by a combination of inventive genius and engineering talent in one man that the greatest results in invention have been achieved; though great results have often followed the intimate cooperation of an inventor and an engineer, the two being separate men. it is in the latter way that important advances have usually been made; and it is somewhat analogous to the way in which authors and publishers, actors and managers, promoters and capitalists cooperate. but while the individuals whose inventions have taken the form of new creations, such as novel machines and books and paintings, have received the clearest recognition as men of genius, may not the inventive faculty be needed in other fields and be required in other kinds of work? if an instrument is produced by the joint exercise of imagination and constructive talent, is not every puzzle worked out, and every problem solved, and every constructive work accomplished by the similar exercise of those same faculties? it may seem obvious that this question should be answered in the negative, and so it unquestionably should be. but there always has been much cloudiness as to what constitutes invention in our own minds; and it must be admitted that the dividing line is not immediately obvious between invention and the art of meeting difficulties with resourcefulness, or between invention and the act of solving any of the perplexing riddles of our daily lives. it may be declared with confidence, however, that the difference between invention and any one of these other acts is that, while invention ends in performing such acts, it begins with an exercise of the imagination. a man who designs an engine to fulfil a stated purpose, who solves any problem whatever that is presented to him from outside, simply accomplishes a task that is given to him to accomplish; whereas, while the inventor accomplishes a similar task, he does it as a second step in a task that was not given him to accomplish, but that he himself had pictured to himself. the act of inventing consists of three separate acts--the act of conceiving, the act of developing, and the act of producing. of these three acts, that of conceiving is obviously not only the first, but also the most important, distinctive and unusual. for every real invention, there have been countless constructive acts. in the invention of the bow and arrow, the conception was probably instantaneous and unbidden. the subsequent work of developing the conception into material and practical shape was probably one of long duration, consisting of many acts, accompanied with many difficulties and disappointments, and accomplished finally in the face of much active and passive opposition. * * * * * the old stone age gradually developed into the new stone age at different times in different localities, as successive improvements in implements were made. the new stone age was distinguished from its predecessor mainly by the fact that the principal weapons and utensils were formed into regular shapes, polished into smoothness, and in many cases ground to sharp points and keen cutting edges. these improvements made the implements more effective both as weapons and as utensils, by facilitating not only cutting but penetration. how much invention was needed to make these improvements, it is not easy to decide; but probably only a little was required, and that of an order not very original or high; for the improvements were rather in detail than principle. perhaps their character can be best indicated by saying that they were improvements, rather than inventions of a basic kind. it may here be pointed out that the act of improving upon an invention already existing may be almost wholly a constructive act, performed on a visible and tangible material object, and not on a picture made by the imagination on the mind. in such a case, the act of improving belongs rather in the category of engineering than of invention, for the reason that it involves only a slight use of the imagination. it may also be pointed out, however, that a mere improvement may be, and sometimes has been an invention of the highest order. as a rule, of course, basic inventions have been the most brilliant and also the most important. but it was not only by polished instruments of stone and bone that the new stone age was characterized; for we find in the records which our ancestors unintentionally left us, many evidences that they had invented the arts of making pottery, of spinning and weaving, and of constructing houses of a simple kind. this age was characterized by many improvements besides those relating to articles of stone, and was a period far in advance of its predecessor on the march to civilization. it was marked by the domestication of animals and plants, the tilling of the soil, and a gradual change from a purely savage and nomadic mode of life. this change was first to a pastoral life, in which men lived in fixed habitations and tended their flocks; thence to an agricultural life, in which men cultivated the ground over large areas and grew crops of cereals and vegetables; and then to a still more settled existence, in which men congregated in villages and towns. certainly, the race had taken the first steps, and had started on the path which it has since pursued. in order to make the start and to proceed afterwards in the line begun, many physical, mental and spiritual attributes were needed and employed, that mere brutes did not possess, and because of which the civilization of the old stone age had been begun and gradually developed. of these faculties, those principally characteristic seem to have been mental; and among those faculties, invention, reason, construction and memory seem to have been the most important. it would be unreasonable to declare any one of those faculties to have been more important than the others; but it can hardly be denied that the first steps in the march of progress should be credited to invention. clearly, it was the weapons and utensils of the old stone age that made possible the subduing and subsequent domestication of certain animals, such as the horse, the cow, the dog, the sheep and the goat. it may be pointed out, in passing, that many animals have not been domesticated even at this late day--such as the tiger, the eagle and the bear. but, equally, certain tribes of men have not been domesticated. it may be that in both the undomesticated men and the undomesticated brutes, the mind is of such a character that it cannot assimilate even the first grains of knowledge, or make any effort whatever of an inventive character. there was one invention that was probably made in the old stone age, which must have needed considerable inventiveness to be developed as highly as it was developed during the old and new stone ages, and that was language. the origin of language is, of course, hidden in the impenetrable mystery of the childhood of the race; and it may be that language was an original attribute of man. if we reason, however, that the development of language must have been a continuing act from the first, inferring it from the fact that it has been a continuing act from the dawn of recorded history until now, and if we suppose that it had a rise and a growth like those of other arts, we may reasonably conclude that some man invented the plan of making his wants known by the use of vocal sounds, uttered in accordance with a preconcerted code; that the invention was only partially successful at first, and that it was afterwards improved. that language was not a natural gift, but rather the result of an invention and subsequent development, is suggested by the fact that a child has to be taught to speak, but does not have to be taught to exercise his natural functions, such as breathing, eating, drinking, walking, etc. which was the first invention ever made by man, there is, of course, no means of ascertaining; but it seems obvious that that of language must have been among the first. the invention of weapons we may easily imagine to have been actually the first, called for by the necessity of defense against wild beasts and other men. following the defense by individual men of their individual lives, it seems logical to suppose that a man and his wife, a man and his brother, and then groups of men, banded together in their common defense against common foes. to further their joint action, what would be more valuable than a language consisting of vocal sounds, arranged in accordance with a simple code, as a means of conveying information, issuing warnings, and giving signals in emergencies, to insure concerted action? that language should later be used for manifold other purposes would be most natural; for many other arts have been invented primarily to further man's first aim, the preservation of his life, and have afterwards been employed for other purposes. the uses of clothing, houses, knives, guns and of nearly all weapons are cases in point. the new stone age seems to have passed gradually into the age of copper, because doubtless of a more or less accidental discovery when native copper was seen upon the ground, or when some copper ore was subjected to fire. the metal, by reason of its great durability, ductility, elasticity and strength, came to be used for many purposes--the first use being probably in weapons; for weapons were the main dependence of the people in their struggle against beasts. a great advance was made when bronze was discovered, with which weapons and tools of many kinds could be made that were harder than those of copper. then the age of bronze succeeded the age of copper. one can hardly imagine that bronze was really invented; for it is difficult to see how, knowing the softness of copper and tin, any primeval man could have imagined a metal made from them much harder than either, and then proceeded to make it by mixing about seven parts of copper with one part of tin. the gradual improvement made in bronze implements, and the different kinds of bronze that later appeared (made by altering the proportions of tin and copper) were doubtless due more to constructive and engineering methods than to pure invention; but nevertheless a considerable amount of inventing must have been required; for one can rarely effect any important improvement in any weapon, instrument or tool, without first imagining the improvement, and then endeavoring to effect it. in fact, an overwhelming majority of the "inventions" for which patents are issued by our patent office, are for mere improvements over existing apparatus; and the bald fact that the thing accomplished is only such an improvement, instead of the creation of something different from everything else whatever, like the telephone or phonograph, does not debar the achievement from being classed as an invention. the pointed screw was merely an improvement over previous forms of screw, and yet it was an invention of high originality, novelty and importance. obviously, improvements occupy various positions not only in importance and scope, but also in the relative degrees in which invention and construction were employed to bring them into being. it is held by some that no purely human act can possibly create anything really new, that "there is nothing new under the sun," and that therefore every so-called invention made by a man must be merely a novel arrangement of already existing objects. of course, no man "creates" anything, in the sense that he makes anything whatever out of nothing; but it is a well-known fact that he has created many things in the sense that he has made many entities to exist that had not existed before as such entities; for instance, man made the speaking telephone to exist. the speaking telephone did not exist before bell invented it, and it did exist after he invented it. to say that bell did or did not create the telephone conveys a meaning dependent wholly on the meaning in which the word "create" is used. men ordinarily use the word with such a meaning that it is correct to say that bell created the speaking telephone; it being understood as a matter of common sense that bell did not create the metals and other material parts which he put together to make the telephone. used in this sense, primeval man (or more correctly some primeval men, and probably a very few) created certain weapons, implements and utensils, that gave the men who used them such mastery over wild beasts and over men who did not use them, that the steps since taken toward civilization were made possible. our whole civilization can be traced back to those inventions, and can be shown to proceed from them and be based upon them. _no other basis that civilization could have proceeded from can even be imagined; for the actual progress of events was the outcome of the actual nature of man, and the actual nature of his environment._ we seem forced to conclude, therefore, that we owe our civilization primarily to the invention of certain primeval implements and weapons, the art of making fire, etc., and therefore to the inventors who made the inventions. this does not mean that we do not owe it to other things besides inventions, and to other men besides inventors; for it is obvious that we owe it to all the facts of our history, and to such of our ancestors as did anything to advance it. we owe it in part, for instance, to the men who framed the laws that made living in villages and cities possible, to the men who executed the laws, and to all the men and women who observed the laws and gave examples of righteous living. for it is obvious that, no matter what inventions were made, the march of civilization could not have even started, unless there had been a sufficient number of good and intelligent men and women to keep the human procession in good order from the first. it may be pointed out here that, although every human being has much of evil in his nature, yet even the most depraved person desires other people to be good. even thieves see the advantage to themselves resulting from the fact that most men do not steal; murderers have no inclination toward being themselves murdered, and human beings as a class see the benefits of morality and good living throughout society as a whole. for this reason, and for the still more important reason that most individuals are not very different in their characteristics and abilities from the average of all individuals, the tendency of society is to reduce men to a common level; so that we see only a small fraction who are extremely good or extremely bad, extremely brilliant or extremely stupid, extremely large or extremely small, etc. similarly, there is only a small fraction of the people who have done much good individually or much harm, or who have exercised individually any noticeable influence of any kind. we may reasonably conclude, therefore, that there were only a few men in primeval days who performed any acts that entitle them to individual recognition; and as the only records that have come down to us indicate that the most important acts were the inventing of certain implements, we seem forced to conclude that most of the recognition accorded to individuals of primeval days may be limited to a very small number, and they inventors. who they were, and where and when they lived, is not known and probably never will be. for countless centuries their names and personalities have been forgotten as wholly as those of many beasts. but maybe other achievements like those that have exposed the history of certain oriental kings and wise men to our knowledge, will some day tell us who were the inventors who started the march of human progress, and pointed out the road that it should follow. yet, if we infer the probable conditions of the remote past from the conditions of the present and recent past, we shall have to conclude that, while the names and deeds of prehistoric rulers may some day become known to us, and even the names of authors, poets and song singers, the names of the original inventors will be forever hid. for inventors have ever been depreciated in their day; even at the present time, despite the known facts as to what inventions and inventors have done for every one of us, the inventor as an inventor is lightly regarded, and so are his inventions. so are his inventions until they have ceased to be regarded as inventions, and have been accepted as constituent parts of the machine of civilization. by that time the inventor has often been forgotten. the age of iron succeeded the age of bronze in the countries from which we have inherited our civilization; but in africa bronze does not seem to have been discovered until after iron was. iron being an element like copper, and not an alloy of two metals like bronze, it seems probable that its discovery, like that of copper, followed the act of heating stones with fire. the coming of iron seems due therefore to discovery rather than to invention; but yet the mere discovery that a very hard substance had been accidentally produced would of itself have brought forth no fruit. one is almost forced to infer from probability that the fact must have become known to many men, but only as a plain and uninteresting fact. finally, some man realized that that hard substance was superior to bronze for making weapons, and then set to work to ascertain exactly what kinds of stone it could be gotten from, and exactly what process gave the best results. to us who have been carefully taught the facts known at the present day, and whose minds have been trained by logic and mathematics to reason from effect to cause, and to construct frameworks of cause wherefrom to gain effects, it seems that anyone who noted that the hard substance which we call iron came from heating certain stones, would immediately invent a process for making iron in quantities. but prehistoric man had no knowledge whatever save that coming from his own observation and the oral teachings of the wise men; mathematics and logic did not exist; and the only training given him was in those simple arts of hunting, fishing, field tilling, etc., by which he earned his livelihood. for a mind so untrained and ignorant to leap from the simple noting of the accidental production of the metal to a realization of its value, then to a correct inference as to the possibility of producing it at will, then to a correct inference as to the method of producing it, and then to devising the method and actually producing iron at will, suggests a reasoning intelligence of an order exceedingly high. nevertheless, the art of making iron may have originated not so much from effort as from inspiration; the process may have been less one of reasoning than one of imagination, less one of construction than one of invention. in fact, when we realize that imagination is almost wholly a pure gift (like beauty, or artistic genius or a singing voice) while the reasoning and constructive faculties require long education, we may reasonably conclude that the production of iron and of all the metals and processes in prehistoric times, was probably attributable mainly to invention. the crowning invention of prehistoric man was that of writing; for it lifted him out of his dependence on oral teachings, with their liability to error and forgetfulness, into a condition in which the facts and experiences of life, and the reasons for failure or success, could be put into permanent form, and supply sure bases from which to start on any line of progress in the future. the production of the art of writing seems to have been a pure invention, and it has always been so regarded. nothing resembling writing is to be found in nature; _nowhere do we see in nature any effort to preserve any records of any kind_. how man, or a man, was led to invent writing we can only imagine, for we cannot ascertain. when we realize, however, how entirely novel an undertaking the production of writing was, and that there is no process of mere reasoning by which a man could arrive at a decision to produce it, we seem forced to conclude that it must have been caused by one of those inexplicable conceptions that imagination puts into the mind, and that constitute an inspiration, coming from the great outside and its ruler, the almighty. in fact, if one ponders the history and teachings of the christian religion (in truth of all religions), and notes that the revelations on which they are believed to have been founded seem to have come unbidden to certain men as inspirations from on high, he must realize how similar are the conceptions that come to inventors in a field less spiritual, but yet actual. for in the case of each basic invention, an idea seems to have come unbidden to the mind, and grown and developed there. the first writing was what we call picture writing, in which representations in outline of well-known objects were scratched with a hard point on some softer substance. this form of writing probably began in the old stone age. it continued for different lengths of time among different peoples, as have all other characteristics of any stage of civilization; and it is practiced in some degree by some peoples even now. in fact, one might with reasonableness declare that many of the illustrations used in books and magazines and papers, many of the paintings and drawings that adorn our walls, and many of the moving pictures in our places of amusement convey messages by means of pictures, and are therefore forms of picture writing. as the intelligence of man increased, and his consequent need for better means of expressing himself in writing increased, the idea occurred to someone to use conventional drawings to represent vocal sounds, instead of pictures of visible objects. the first writing of this kind, called phonetic writing, used characters that represented spoken words, and therefore required many characters and necessitated long and tedious study to master it. it was gradually replaced among most peoples by an improved phonetic system, in which each character represented a syllable instead of a word; though the chinese have never wholly abandoned it. the syllabic system needed, of course, fewer characters, and was much more easily learned, much more flexible and generally satisfactory. the syllabic system was finally replaced among the more progressive peoples by the alphabetical system, in which each character represents a separate vocal sound. as the number of separate vocal sounds is few, only a few characters are needed. in most alphabets, the number of characters varies between twenty-two and thirty-six. we of the present day plume ourselves greatly on our achievements in invention, and point to the tens of thousands of scientific appliances, books and works of art with which we have enriched our civilization. to most of us, prehistoric man was an uncouth creature, living in caves and uncleanly huts, and so far removed from us that in our hearts we class him as little higher than the beasts. yet to prehistoric man we owe all that we are and all that we have. the gift of life itself came to us through him; and so did not only our physical faculties, but our mental, moral and spiritual faculties as well. it was prehistoric man who invented the appliances without which the wild beasts would not have been overcome, and the man, wilder than himself, been kept at bay; by means of which the soil was tilled, and boats were made to move upon the water, and villages and towns were built. it was prehistoric man who invented spoken language and the arts of drawing, painting, architecture, weaving and writing. it was prehistoric man who started the race on its forward march, and pointed it in the direction in which it has ever since advanced. it was prehistoric man who made the inventions on which all succeeding inventions have been based. the prehistoric inventor exercised an influence on progress greater than that of any other man. chapter ii invention in the orient the first countries to pass into the stage of recorded history were egypt and babylonia. excavations made near the sites of their ancient cities have brought to light many inscriptions which, being deciphered and translated, give us clear knowledge of the conditions under which they lived, and therefore of the degree of the civilization that they had attained. as we note the progress that the inscriptions show us to have been made beyond the stage reached by prehistoric man, it becomes clear to us that much--if not most--of that progress could not have been made without the aid of writing. one cannot conceive of the invention and development of astronomy, for instance, without some means of recording observations that had been made. in developing the art of writing itself, much progress was effected in both countries, and many improvements were made in the art itself that must have been due to that lower order of invention which consists in improving on things already existing. in addition, invention was employed in devising and arranging means for preserving the writings in an enduring form. in babylonia, this was done by making the writing on soft tablets of clay about an inch in thickness, that were afterwards baked to hardness. in the case of records of unusual importance, the precaution was sometimes taken of covering the baked inscription with a thin layer of clay, making a duplicate inscription on this layer, and then baking it also. if afterwards, from any cause, the outside inscription was defaced, it could be removed and the inside inscription exposed to view. in egypt, the writing was done on sheets of papyrus, made from a reed that grew in the marshes. to devise and make both the baked clay tablets and the papyrus, it is clear that invention had to be employed; for nothing exactly like them existed in nature. thus the invention of the art of writing was supplemented by the invention of the art of preserving the records that writing made. the act of writing would have been useful, even if no means had been invented for preserving the things written; even if the things written had perished in a day. but the importance of the invention of writing was increased ten thousand fold by the invention of the means for preserving the things written; because without that means it would have been impossible by any process of continual copying of tablets to keep at hand for reference that library of records of the past on which all progress has been based, and from which every act of progress has started, since some inventor of babylonia invented baked clay tablets and some inventor of egypt invented papyrus. it may be objected that there is no reason for assuming that any one man invented either; that each invention may have been the joint work of two men, or of several men. this of course, is true; but it does not minimize the importance of either invention, or the credit due to the inventors. it simply divides the credit of each invention among several men, instead of giving it all to one. it is a notable fact, however, that, although some inventions have been made by the joint work of two men, and although some books have been written, and some music has been composed by two men working in cooperation, yet such instances have been rare. many men combine to do constructive work of many kinds, and millions combine to work and fight together in armies; and it is an interesting fact that the working together of many men has been made possible by inventions, such as writing and printing. yet there is hardly any other kind of work that is so wholly a "one man job" as inventing. the fact that only one man, as a rule, makes a certain invention, or writes a certain book, or composes a certain musical piece, or does any other inventional work, seems to spring naturally from the original fact that an invention begins with a picture made by imagination on a mind. now a picture so made is an individual picture in an individual mind. if the picture is allowed to fade, or if from any cause the mind that received it does not form it into a definite entity, no invention is made. if, on the contrary, the mind develops the dim picture into a definite entity of some kind, that mind alone has made that invention; even if other minds improve it later by super-posing other inventions on it. it is true that sometimes a man who receives from his imagination a mental picture of some possible invention will communicate it to another man, and that other man will contribute some constructive work, and make the dim picture into a reality; so that the complete invention resulting will be the joint product of two men. it seems to be a fact, however, that these dim pictures have rarely been disclosed while in the formless period, and that almost every invention of which we know the history, was made by one man only. it need hardly be interjected here that we are discussing inventions only, and not the acts of making inventions practicable in the sense of making them useful or commercially successful. at the present day, there are few inventions indeed, which even after having been completed as inventions, need no modification at the hands of the engineer and the manufacturer, before they are suitable to be put to practical use. * * * * * that the babylonians realized the importance of their invention is proved by the fact that their baked tablets were carefully preserved, and that in some cities large libraries were built in which they were kept, as books are kept in our libraries at the present day. when the expedition of the university of pennsylvania made its excavations near the site of the ancient city of nippur, in the southern part of babylonia near the city of babylon, a library was discovered that contained more than thirty thousand tablets. [illustration: early babylonian signs, showing their pictorial origin] the writing of the babylonians, while phonetic, was a development of picture writing, each character expressing a syllable, and was made of wedge-shaped characters. from the shape of the characters the adjective _cuneiform_ has been applied to the writing, the word coming from the latin word, _cuneus_, a wedge. syllabic writing was in use for probably three thousand years among the peoples of western asia. the babylonians utilized their ingenuity and inventiveness in divers ways, and accomplished many things that help to form the basis of our civilization, without which we cannot imagine it to exist. their creations were of a highly practical and useful kind, and illustrate the proverb that "necessity is the mother of invention." from the fact that their ships sailed the waters of the persian gulf, and had need of means to locate their positions and determine their courses from port to port, and from the fact easily noted by their navigators that the heavenly bodies held positions in the firmament depending on their direction from an observer, and on the month and season and the time of day, the study of the heavens was undertaken; with the result that the science of astronomy was conceived and brought into existence. it may here be asked if this achievement can properly be called an invention. one must hesitate a little before answering this question either negatively or positively; because such an achievement is not usually called an invention, and yet it cannot truthfully be denied that there is nothing in nature like the science of astronomy, and that therefore it must have been created by man. it cannot reasonably be denied, also, that after the science had at last been formulated, it was as clearly a distinct entity as a bow and arrow or a telephone. furthermore, it does not seem unreasonable to suppose that, before any of the principles of astronomy were laid down, before anyone even attempted to lay them down, before anyone even attempted to ascertain the laws that seemed to govern the movements of the heavenly bodies, the idea must have occurred to someone that those heavenly bodies were all moving in obedience to some law; and a more or less confused and yet real image must have been made upon his mind of a great celestial machine. he must actually have imagined such a machine. this first act would be quite like that of the inventor of a mechanical device. the next act would be to observe and record all the phenomena observable in connection with the movements of the celestial bodies, then to analyze and classify them. this series of acts would not, of course, be inventive or even constructive. they would rather be like those studies of any art, without which no man could be an inventor in that art. the analysis having been completed, the positions of the heavenly bodies at various times having been ascertained and tabulated, the next step would seem to be to construct a supposititious machine of which each part would represent a heavenly body, and in which those various parts would move according to laws induced tentatively from the actual motions of certain heavenly bodies. if it were afterwards found that all positions of each part, predicted in advance by applying the laws tentatively induced, corresponded to the actual positions of the heavenly body that it represented, then the supposititious machine could be truthfully declared to be a correct imitation of the great celestial machine. that is, the machine could be declared to be successful. the science of astronomy is, in effect, such a machine. its parts are representations of the sun, moon and other heavenly bodies, that move according to laws that are illustrated in the diagrams, and expressed precisely in the formulas. the first act of the originator of the science of astronomy being one of the imagination in conceiving a picture of a celestial machine, and being like that of the inventor in conceiving a picture of an earthly machine; and his second act being also like that of the inventor in developing the picture, a justification for speaking of the "invention" of the science of astronomy may perhaps be reasonably claimed. (we must bear in mind, of course, that no invention is complete until the third act has been performed, and the thing invented has been actually produced.) to speak of invention in connection with bringing forth novel creations is far from new, for the phrases "construct a theory," "invent a science," "invent a religion," etc., are in almost daily use; and it may seem unnecessary to some persons, therefore, to discuss it at such length. but most people seem to regard such phrases as merely figurative; while the author wishes to make it plain that they are not figurative but exact. as this modest treatise does not pretend to be a learned one, and as the author is not a professional scholar, no further attempt will be made to claim the production of the science of astronomy as an invention. to pursue the subject further would be merely to enter a discussion as to the meaning, both original and derived, of the word invention. the author, however, cannot escape the conclusion that, no matter what may be the literally correct meaning of the word, the mental acts performed by the originators of the science of astronomy were like the mental acts performed by the inventors of mechanical appliances, and exerted a similar influence on history. that is, he believes that the men who brought into being the science of astronomy and the men who brought into being the bow and arrow, first saw pictures on the mental retina of some things actual yet vague and formless, and then constructed entities from them. he believes also that the creation of the bow and arrow, and the creation of the science of astronomy constituted actual and similar stepping-stones on which the race rose toward a higher civilization. in default of any definition of the word invention, which precludes its application to the origination of a science, theory, religion or formulated school of thought, the author begs permission so to use it, in indicating the influence on history of the novel creations which, according to this meaning of the word, have been inventions. the influence on history of the invention of the science of astronomy has been so great that we cannot estimate its greatness. on it the whole science of navigation rests. without it, the science and the art of navigation could not exist, no ships could cross the ocean from one port to another, except by accident, and the lands that are separated by the ocean would still rest in complete ignorance of each other. this world would not be a world, but only a widely separated number of barbarian countries; most of them as ignorant of even the existence of the others as in the days before columbus. following the invention of astronomy, or as it was first called, astrology, the imaginative and practically constructive intellects of the babylonians naturally led them to invent the sun-dial for indicating the time during the day, and the water-clock for indicating it during the night. another invention, doubtless brought into being by the study of the movements of the heavenly bodies, was the duodecimal system of notation, of which the base was twelve. in accordance with this system, the babylonians divided the zodiac into twelve equal parts or "signs"; divided the year into nearly equal months, that corresponded approximately to the length of a lunar month; divided a day and a night into twelve equal parts or hours; divided an hour in sixty ( x ) equal parts or minutes, and divided a minute into sixty ( x ) equal parts or seconds. the duodecimal system of notation has been supplanted for many purposes by the more convenient decimal system, the invention of which is attributed by some to the arabs; but the duodecimal divisions of time are still with us, and the duodecimal divisions of the circle are still used in most countries. the duodecimal system of notation seems to have been the earliest system of notation invented; and it was an invention so important that we cannot imagine civilization without it and the decimal system, possibly its offspring. the influence of these two inventions on history has been so great that the mind is incapable of realizing its greatness, even approximately. who were the inventors, we do not know. it is almost certain that none of our generation ever will know, and it is far from probable that any one of any generation will ever know. if any knowledge on this subject is ever given to the world, it will be knowledge of names only--only names. yet some human beings, forgotten now and probably obscure even in their lifetimes, invented those systems, and contributed more to the real progress of the race than many of the great statesmen and warriors of history. the babylonians invented measures of length, capacity and weight, also; and it is from those measures that all the later measures have been directly or indirectly derived. to have invented systems by which time, angle, distance, space, weight and volume were lifted out of the realm of the vague and formless into the realm of the definite and actual, was an achievement that almost suggests that noted in the first chapter of genesis, in the words, "and god said 'let there be light,' and there was light"; for what a clearing up of mental darkness followed, when the science of measurement turned its rays on the mysteries that beset the path of early man! the egyptians seem to have been inventors, though hardly to the same degree as were the babylonians. the egyptians studied the heavens and employed a science of astronomy; and it is possible that they, rather than the babylonians, should be credited with its invention. but it is not the intention of this book to decide points in dispute in history, or even to discuss them. its intention is merely to study the influence that inventions and inventors had. whether the name of an inventor was john smith or archimedes, whether he lived in the year or , or which one of two rival claimants should be credited with the honor of any invention, is often an interesting question; but it is not one that is especially important to us, unless it casts light on the main suggestion of our inquiry. the only reason for mentioning names and dates and countries in this book is to show the sequence of inventions as correctly as practicable. in order to show the influence of invention on history it seems best to give the treatment of the subject an historical character. possibly the most important invention of the egyptians was papyrus, which was the precursor of the paper of today. the clay tablets of the babylonians were clearly much less adapted to the making of many records than was papyrus. one cannot readily imagine an edition of , newspapers like the _new york times_, made out of clay tablets an inch in thickness, and sold on the streets by newsboys. clearly the invention of papyrus was one so important that we cannot declare any invention as more important, except on the basis that (other factors being equal) the earlier an invention was the more important it was. to assume such a basis would, of course, be eminently reasonable; because the earlier invention must have supplied the basis in part for the making of the later. the invention of writing, for instance, was more important than the invention of papyrus. [illustration: villa of an egyptian noble] a curious invention of the egyptians was the art of embalming the bodies of the dead, an art still practiced in civilized countries. it was prompted by their belief that the preservation of the body was necessary, in order to secure the welfare of the soul in the future life. this belief resulted further in building sepulchres of elaborate design, filling them with multitudes of objects of many kinds, decorating the walls with paintings, sculptures and inscriptions, and placing important manuscripts in the coffins with the mummies or embalmed bodies. the sepulchres of the kings were, of course, the largest and most elaborate of all; and of these sepulchres the grandest were the pyramids. by reason of the great care and labor lavished on tombs and sepulchres and pyramids, and by reason also of the dryness of the air in egypt, and the consequent durability of works of stone, it has been from the tombs that many of the clearest items of information have come to us about old egyptian times. the egyptians excelled in architecture, and the greatest of their buildings were the pyramids. as to whether or not there was much invention devoted to those works, it is virtually impossible now to know. the probability seems to be that they could not have been produced without the promptings of the inventor, but that the progress was a slow and gradual march. it seems that there was a long series of many small inventions that made short steps, and not a few basic inventions that proceeded by great leaps. the egyptians seem to have been the inventors of arithmetic and geometry. what men in particular should most be credited with inventing them, we do not know; but that some men were the original inventors the probabilities seem to intimate. for these sciences were creations just as actual as the steam engine, and could hardly have been produced save by similar procedures. [illustration: the pyramids of gizeh] the suggestion may here be made that whatever we do is the result (or ought to be) of a decision to do it, that follows a mental process not very different from that invented by the german general staff for solving military problems. by this process one writes down-- . the mission--the thing which it is desired to accomplish. . the difficulties in the way of accomplishing it. . the facilities available for accomplishing it. . the decision--that is, how to employ the facilities to overcome the difficulties and accomplish the mission. in solving a military problem (or in solving many of the problems of daily life) it is often a matter of great difficulty to arrive at a clear understanding of what the mission actually is, what one really wishes to accomplish. in the majority of ordinary cases, however, the mission stands out as a clear picture in the mind. such a case would be one in which an enemy were making a direct attack; for the mission would be simply to repel it. another case would be one in which the mission was stated by the terms of a problem itself; for instance, to build a steam engine to develop horse power. in the case of the inventor, the mission seems to be sent to him as a mental picture; he suddenly sees a dim picture in his mind of something that he must make. perhaps, many centuries ago, some man who had been laying out plots of ground in egypt, of different shapes and sizes, and making computations for each one, suddenly saw a phantom picture in which all the lines and figures appeared grouped in a few classes, and arranged in conformity to a few fixed rules. the mission was given to him free, but it devolved on him to formulate the rules. as soon as he had formulated and proved the rules, the science of geometry existed. it is interesting to note that the conception of the idea required no labor on the part of the conceiver. he was virtually a passive receiver. his labor came afterwards, when he had to do the constructive work of "giving to airy nothing a local habitation and a name." the egyptians seem to have learned the use of many drugs, though they can hardly be said to have invented a system or a science of medicine. they did, however, invent a system of characters for indicating the weights of drugs. those characters are used by apothecaries still. the first means of cure were incantations that evidently influenced the mind. it is interesting to note that modern systems tend to decrease the use of drugs and increase that of mental suggestion. both the babylonians and the egyptians held religious beliefs; but it is doubtful if the religious beliefs of either were so definite and formulated that they could be correctly called religions, according to our ideas of what constitutes a religion. an interesting fact is the wide difference between the beliefs of the two peoples, in view of the similarity of many of the other features of their civilizations. the beliefs of neither can be called highly spiritual; but of the two, the egyptian seems to have been the more so. the egyptians believed that the souls of those who had lived good lives would be rewarded; while the babylonian belief did not include even a judgment of the dead. one of the most important inventions made in babylonia was that of a code of laws. it is usually ascribed to a king named hammurabi; but whether he was the real inventor or not, we have no means of knowing. we do know, however, that the first code of laws of which there is any record was invented in his reign, and that it was the prototype of all that have followed since. the influence on history of the invention and carrying into effect of a formulated code of laws, we cannot exactly gauge; but we may assert with confidence that modern civilization would not have been possible without codes of laws, and that the first code must have been more important than any code that followed, because it led the way. both the babylonians and the egyptians seem to have made most of their inventions in the period of their youth, and to have become conservative as they grew older. the babylonians were a great people until about the year b. c., when a subject city, assur, in the north, threw off its allegiance and formed an independent state, assyria. the decline of babylonia continued until the fall of assyria and the destruction of nineveh, its capital, about the year b. c., when the new babylonian, or chaldean empire, came into existence. it enjoyed a period of splendid but brief prosperity until it was captured by cyrus, king of persia, in the year b. c. egypt's career continued until a later day; but it was never glorious in statesmanship, war or invention, after her youth had passed. a nation possibly as old as the babylonian or egyptian was the chinese; but of their history, less is known. it is well established, however, that they possessed a system of picture writing in which each word was represented by a symbol. the system was much more cumbrous, of course, than the syllabic or alphabetical; but its invention was a performance, nevertheless, of the utmost brilliancy and importance, viewed from the light of what the world was then. there is little doubt also that the chinese were the original inventors of the magnetic compass and of printing from blocks, two of those essential inventions, without which civilization could not have been brought about. another of china's inventions was gunpowder; though it is not clear that the chinese ever used it to propel projectiles out of guns. achievements equally great, and maybe greater, were the creations of religions--confucianism and taoism, invented in china, and buddhism, invented in india. these religions may seem to us very crude and commonplace and earthy; but we should not shut our eyes to the fact that they have probably influenced a greater number of human beings toward right living than any other three religions that we know of. like babylonia and egypt, china became conservative as she grew older. at the present day, her name stands almost as the symbol of everything non-progressive and non-inventive. assyria was able to capture babylon about the year b. c., and to maintain the position of the dominant power in western asia for about years. a progressive and ambitious people, they accomplished an original and important step in the art of government by organizing conquered peoples into provinces under governors appointed by the king. it does not seem to be a great straining of the word to declare that this achievement was so novel, so concrete and so useful as to possess the essential features of an invention. for if we realize that during all the times that had gone by, conquered peoples had remained simply conquered peoples, paying tribute but not forming parts of the conquering state, we can see that the idea of actually incorporating them into the state, thereby increasing the population of the state by the number of people incorporated, and making the state stronger in that proportion, we can hardly fail to realize that the conception of doing this was of the highest order of brilliancy. to work out afterwards the details of developing the conception in such a way as to render possible the production of an actual and workable machine of government was a constructive act. when the machine was actually produced a new thing had been created. in other words, the institution of this new scheme in government seems to have followed the same three stages as the invention of a mechanical device; that is, conception, development and production. _the likeness between this process and that of conception, gestation and birth is obvious._ the assyrians were evidently a very practical and constructive people, somewhat such people as the romans later were. they devoted themselves to the practical side of life, and to this end they developed the governmental and the military arts. they were great warriors. the period of their greatest greatness was in the seventh and eighth centuries b. c., when the conquerors sargon ii and sennacherib were kings. the splendor of the empire afterwards was conspicuous but not long lived; for after unifying the great nations of the orient under assyrian rule, and carrying on wars marked with the utmost of cruelty and oppression, they finally entered on a rapid decline in morals, and consequently in national prosperity and strength. the end came in b. c., when a combined force of medes and babylonians captured and sacked the hated nineveh, the capital. the intensity of the hatred against the assyrians may be gauged by the completion of the destruction visited on nineveh. when xenophon saw its ruins only two centuries afterwards, he could not even ascertain what city those ruins marked. the assyrians have left us clearer records of their achievements in the invention of weapons than has any other ancient nation. it is impossible to declare with certainty that all the seemingly novel weapons and armor which the ancient assyrians possessed and used were invented by themselves, and not by the egyptians or the babylonians; but the mere facts that the assyrians were the most military nation of the three, and that the specimens of those weapons which have come down to us have been mostly assyrian, give probability to that supposition. the assyrian soldier was finely equipped and armed as far back as the thirteenth century b. c.; and assyrian bas-reliefs show that they actually used war-chariots then, drawn by horses and operated by armed warriors. the infantry soldiers wore defensive armor consisting of helmets, corslets made of skin or some woven stuff on which plates of metal were sewn, and sometimes coats of steel mail; with leggings to protect the legs. they carried shields, and were armed with lances, swords, slings and bows and arrows. the assyrians employed cavalry, the horsemen wearing mail armor, and carrying shields and swords and lances. they employed archers also; the archers being sometimes mounted. the use of war-chariots, with all the mechanical equipment that was necessary, in order to make them operate effectively, shows a state of civilization much higher than many people realize. it shows also that a great deal of inventiveness and constructiveness must have been employed, and must have been skilfully directed;--for it is a very long road--a very long road indeed--from the bow and arrow to the war-chariot. in order to produce the war-chariot, several inventions must have previously been made. the most important of these was one of the most important inventions ever made,--the wheel. who invented the wheel, and when and where did he invent it? this is one of the unanswered questions of history. the war-chariot suddenly appears on the stage, without any preliminary announcement, and without any knowledge on our part that even the wheel on which it moved had been invented. it is true that the records of prehistoric man show us that in fashioning pottery he used a disc that he revolved on a spindle and applied to the surface of the urn or vase; and it is also true that a revolving disc is a kind of wheel. but a disc revolving on a stationary spindle is in its intent and use a very different implement from a wheel placed on a chariot, and turned by the forward movement of the chariot itself, for the important purpose of reducing its resistance to being drawn along the ground. it is true also that invention was needed to produce the revolving disc, the forerunner of all the polishing and turning machines on the earth today. but the wheel was a different invention, probably a later one, and certainly a more important one. there are things sometimes seen in nature that look a little like revolving discs; for instance, swirls of dust or water. in fact, almost anything put in rotation looks like one, if the rotation is rapid enough; for instance, the sling that a primeval slinger revolved around his head. but what do we know of in nature that looks like a wheel, or that is used for a similar purpose? nothing. this being the case, the mind may lose itself in speculation as to what could have led to the conception of such an appliance in the mind of the original inventor of the wheel. the suggestion may be hazarded that the invention was preceded by an accidental recognition of the fact that it was easier to drag something along the ground, if it rested on round logs, than if it did not so rest; and by noting also that the logs were passed over and left behind continually. from this point to the mental conception of a roller that would not be left behind, but would be secured to the thing dragged by a round shaft on which it revolved, there was probably a single mental jump. someone saw such a contrivance with his mental eye. it looked dim and unreal--but he saw it. to make the picture clear, and then to develop the thing pictured, constructiveness was used. in other words, conception and development accomplished their successive but cooperating tasks. the invention was complete when a wheel was actually produced. to realize the importance of the wheel, we have but to ask ourselves (or our neighbors) how history could possibly have been even approximately what it has been if the wheel had not been invented. another important invention probably made by the assyrians was the catapult; another one, somewhat similar, was the balista. the catapult was used for hurling stones, balls, etc.; the balista for shooting arrows with greater force than an archer could exert. another was the battering ram for making breaches in the walls of fortresses. [illustration: assyrians flaying prisoners alive. (from a bas-relief.)] the assyrians used these inventions in their wars against the contiguous nations of the east, and with their aid achieved the mastery, and unified the orient. that the assyrian rule was harsh and cruel should not be denied; but, on the principle that any kind of government is better than no government, it cannot reasonably be supposed that the central and efficient administration of assyria was not better than the condition of continual petty wars and quarrels that had existed among the numerous tribes and nations, with their enormous possibilities for suffering of all kinds. it may be pointed out here that the cruelties and injustices committed by any powerful government against great numbers of persons attract immeasurably more notice and condemnation by historians and others than do the numberless atrocities of all kinds that lie hidden in the darkness of anarchy, or the confusion of petty wars. in the endeavor to preserve order over widely separated and barbarous peoples, when means of transportation and communication were inadequate, stern measures seem always to have been required. that they have often been too stern, and that great cruelty has often been exercised, the wail of the ages testifies. but human nature is very imperfect; and no really good government, no government free from the faults of man, has ever been established. yet every government has been better than anarchy. the assyrians, despite their cruel treatment of their conquered peoples, did a direct service to mankind and gave a powerful stimulus to the march of progress. for the great empire which they established, and the great cities which grew up, and the system of provinces which they instituted, formed a pattern for similar work by later nations; while the civilization which they spread throughout the more backward countries under their rule, especially in greece, started the later culture which greece developed, and which is the basis of all that is most beautiful in the civilization of today. the influence of the weapons which the assyrians invented was toward this end. between egypt on the west and babylonia and assyria on the east lay syria; a territory not very large, of which the part that played the most prominent part in history bordered the eastern coast of the mediterranean sea. two important peoples dwelt in syria, the hebrews and the phoenicians. both belonged to the semitic race, and neither was distinctly warlike; though the hebrews during a brief period achieved considerable military strength and skill, under their great king david. the main gift of the hebrews to the world was the jewish religion, a more spiritual religion than any that had preceded it, and based on a conception of one god, a holy god. the ideas held of immortality and of judgment after death for the deeds done in this life were not entirely new, but the conception of a holy and beneficent deity was new; and it was so inspiring and stimulating a conception that it lifted the jews at once to a moral and spiritual plane higher than any people had ever lived on before. it constituted a step also directly toward the christian religion--which also was born in syria; in palestine. that the conception and establishment of the jewish religion was an invention may not be admitted by some; but the author respectfully asks attention to the sense in which he uses the word invention in this book, and points out that they constituted an invention in that sense. that it was a beneficent invention, and that it helped the human race spiritually in a way analogous to that in which the invention of many mechanical devices helped it materially, does not seem hard to realize. for in both cases the race was transported away from savagery and toward high civilization; and in both cases there was first a conception of something desirable, then a constructive effort to develop it, and finally its production. the phoenicians lived just north of the jews, and possessed a territory smaller than that of any other people who ever exercised an equal influence on history; for it embraced merely a little strip of land hardly longer than a hundred and twenty miles from north to south, or wider on the average than twelve miles from east to west. it bordered on the eastern edge of the mediterranean sea, and was shut off by the mountains of lebanon from syria, that lay due east. the phoenicians were a people of extraordinary enterprise and initiative. inventors are men of extraordinary enterprise and initiative. how much the phoenicians are to be credited with the invention of sailing vessels, we have no means of knowing; but we do know that (with the possible exception of the egyptians) the phoenicians were more identified with early navigation by sailing vessels and by vessels pulled by oars than any other people. it is even known that phoenician vessels were navigating the eastern mediterranean, both under sails and under oars, as long ago as b. c. so, while we should not be justified in asserting positively that the phoenicians were the inventors and developers of sailing vessels and of vessels pulled by banks of oars and steered by rudders, we may declare with ample reason that probably they were. for the purposes of this book, however, the identity of the inventors is not important. what is important is the fact that the invention of those vessels had immediate fruit in a commerce by which the products of eastern civilization were taken westward to greece and other countries, while tin and other raw material were brought east from spain and even britain; and that it had later fruit in gradually building up a western civilization. it had other fruit as well, in demonstrating the possibilities and the value of ocean commerce, and forming the basis of the world-wide navigation of today. few inventions have had a greater influence on history than that of the sailing ship. to some of us it may seem that no invention was involved; that to use sails was an obvious thing to think of and accomplish. but if any one of us will close his eyes a moment and imagine an absence of most of the great scientific and mechanical knowledge of today, and imagine also the absence of nearly all the present acquaintance with the laws of weather, flotation, resistance to propulsion, metacentric height, etc., he may realize what a feat was the invention of the sailing ship and even of the ship pulled with oars and steered with a rudder. it is true that we have no reason to assume that either vessel was conceived by one leap of the imagination and developed by one act, while we have many reasons to think that each was the result of a series of short steps; but this does not invalidate the invention of the ships, or depreciate its influence. by two other achievements, also, the phoenicians showed the kinship between the inventor and the man of enterprise and initiative; the invention of the tyrian dyes and of an alphabetical system of writing that forms the basis of the systems of today. here again it is necessary to remind ourselves that possibly the phoenicians were not the sole and original inventors of the alphabet, and that they may have merely improved upon a system invented by, say, the cretans; and again it may be helpful to point out that the important fact is not the personality of the inventors but the birth of the invention, and the influence of the invention on history. certain it is, however, that it was the phoenicians who brought alphabetical writing to the practical stage and who not only used it themselves, but carried it in their ships all over the mediterranean, where it bore abundant fruit. it bore fruit especially in greece. phoenicia is an instructive illustration of the fact that a country (like a man) may make inventions of lasting usefulness to mankind, and yet not hold a position of power or splendor in the world. phoenicia was nearly always a vassal, paying tribute to one great monarchy or another. in striking contrast with phoenicia was the empire of persia, which, though it gave to the world of that day the best government it had ever known, contributed nothing in the nature of an actual new stepping-stone to civilization. persia conquered lydia, which is credited with the important invention of coinage. the coins first issued by the lydians were of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver. king croesus later issued coins of pure gold and pure silver. directly east of syria was phrygia. it was in phrygia that the flute, the first real musical instrument, is supposed to have been invented, in about the sixteenth century b. c. * * * * * the brief résumé just given of the inventions made in prehistoric times, and also in historic times in china, egypt and western asia, shows that before greece had attained any civilization whatever the most important inventions for the betterment of mankind had been already made. these inventions were not only mechanical appliances and such arts as spinning, weaving, pottery making, etc., that were intended for safety and material benefit generally; for they included systems of government and codes of laws and even religions that aimed to elevate man, and that did elevate him mentally, morally and spiritually. at the present day, when inventions follow each other with such rapidity that even students and experts cannot keep themselves informed about them, except in certain specialties, it is natural for us to feel that no inventing of any consequence was ever done before. in fact, the present age is called "the age of invention." yet all the inventions of the last century added together have not had so great influence on mankind as the invention of writing, or of the bow and arrow, or the wheel--or almost any of the inventions we have noted. not only are they not so important,--they were not so novel, they did not constitute steps so long, they did not mark such epochs, and probably resulted from less brilliant pictures on the mind. can anyone think that the telephone was as novel or as important as the wheel? can anyone suppose that the steam engine, or the electric telegraph, or the powder-gun took us as long a step upward to civilization as did papyrus? will anyone declare that the railroad ushered in as great an epoch as the sailing ship? is it probable that the first conception of the phonograph made quite so startling a picture on the accustomed brain of the habitual inventor as that of the art of making fire did on the virgin mentality of the savage? the last contribution of western asia to the betterment of the world was christianity. it was not made until after greece had reached the prime of her civilization and passed beyond it; and some may consider it a sacrilege to call it an invention. it was an inspiration from on high. but dare anyone assert that the wonderful conceptions that have come unbidden to the minds of the great inventors were not, in their degree, also inspirations from on high? whence did they come? that they came there can be no doubt. whence did they come? our religion teaches us that god directs our paths, that he puts good thoughts into our minds. it also teaches us that he inspired the men who wrote the bible. in the ordinary meaning of the word "inspired," some one inspired every noble and novel and beneficent achievement that was ever made. who? * * * * * without insisting tediously on the meaning of the word invention, one may point out that the word is used continually to mean a mental act by which something heretofore non-existent is created. the expertest of all word users, in any language, cried: "oh, for a muse that would ascend the highest heaven of invention"; expressing almost exactly what the present author is trying to express, and indicating invention as the highest effort of the mind. in this sense, may i reverently claim the christian religion as an invention, one of the greatest inventions ever made? chapter iii invention in greece our brief survey has thus far carried us over the lands of egypt, china and western asia; lands so far removed from us in distance, and inhabited by people so far removed from us in time and character, that they seem to belong almost to another world. but we now are coming to a country which, though its history goes back many centuries before the christian era, was a country of europe and inhabited by a people who seem near. the greeks who overran what we now call greece, probably about b. c., took possession of a civilization exceedingly high, which the inhabitants of the mainland and the Ægean islands had received from the east, through the phoenicians, who brought it in their ships. this civilization the Ægean islanders, especially the cretans, had developed and improved, particularly in creations of beauty and works of art. the greeks created a still higher civilization, and transmitted it to us. the influence of greek civilization we see on every hand:--in our language, in our daily life, and especially in our ideas of art, literature and philosophy. that a civilization so high and beautiful should have been attained, could hardly have been brought about without the presence of great imagination among the greeks, and the exercise of considerable invention. the presence of both imagination and invention are evidenced in every page of the early history of greece, in the stirring stories of her heroes, and in the conception and development of her government. compared with the stories of ancient greece, the stories of the childhood of every other country seem unimaginative and tame. the stories of early greece still live and still have the power to charm. the iliad and odyssey are in the first rank of the great poems even now; and the story of helen and the siege of troy is as full of life and color as any that we know. [illustration: two cretan vases] an interesting legend characteristic of the inventiveness of the ancient greeks was that of the large wooden horse in which a hundred brave warriors concealed themselves, and were drawn within the walls of troy by the trojans themselves, who had been induced to do this by an ingenious story, invented to deceive them. whether the legend is true or not does not affect the fact that invention was needed and employed to create the legend in the one case, or to cause the incident in the other case. the prehistoric age of greece was filled with myths of so much beauty, interest and originality, that the greek mythology is more read, even now, than any other. it formed also the basis of the later mythology of the romans. it may be noted here that mere imagination is not a quality of very high importance, unless it be associated with constructiveness. in fact, imagination is evidenced more by savage and barbarous peoples than by the civilized; as it is also by children and women than by men. imagination by itself, untrained and undirected, while it is unquestionably an attribute of the mind, is not one of reason, in the sense that it does not necessarily employ the reasoning faculties. in fact, the imagination, unless trained and well-directed, may lead us to the absurdest performances, in defiance of the suggestions of reason. using the word imagination in this sense, shakespeare said-- "the lunatic, the lover and the poet are of imagination all compact." it is only when imagination has been assisted by reason, it is only when conception has been followed by construction, that practical inventions have resulted. the myths invented by the greeks in their prehistoric period were the products of not only imagination but construction. each myth was a perfectly connected story, complete in all necessary detail, admirably put together, and told in charming language. the story of jason's argonautic expedition in search of the golden fleece cannot be surpassed in any of the elements that make a story good; penelope is still the model of conjugal devotion, and achilles the ideal warrior; poseidon, or his roman successor, neptune, still rules the waves; aphrodite, or venus, calls up more vividly before our minds than any other name the vision of feminine beauty even to this day. hercules exemplifies muscular strength, and apollo still typifies that which is most beautiful in manliness. the influence of the grecian myths, "pure inventions" as they were, in the sense that they were fictitious and not true, has been explained and demonstrated at great length and with abundant enthusiasm by poets and scholars for many centuries. they have been generally regarded as inventions, but nevertheless as quite different from such inventions as the steam-engine or the printing press. the present author wishes to point out that the mental processes by which both myths and engines were created were alike, and that the inventions differed mainly in the uses to which they were put. even the uses to which they were put were similar in the end; for the use of the myths and of the steam engine was to improve the conditions of man's existence. there is only one way in which to do this, and that is by improving the impressions made on his mind. the myths did this by making beautiful pictures for his mind to gaze at, and by using them to induce him to follow a certain (good) line of conduct, rather than the contrary. the steam engine did it by making the conditions of living more comfortable, by rendering transportation more safe and rapid, and by rendering possible the procuring of many of the pleasant things of life from distant places. the invention of a myth may be said to be the invention of an immaterial thing; the invention of a steam engine to be of a material thing. these two lines of effort, invention has followed since long before the dawn of history. of the two, the invention of myths and stories probably succeeded the other. probably also it has been the more important in affecting our actual degree of happiness; affecting it beneficently in the main. for, while some myths and stories have filled men with dread and horror, a very large majority have had the opposite effect; and while many mechanical inventions have contributed to our material ease and comfort, it is not clear that they have much increased our actual happiness. men accommodate themselves easily to changes in their material surroundings; what is a luxury today will be a necessity tomorrow; and very many of the material inventions have tended to artificial and unhealthful modes of living, with consequent physical deterioration and its accompanying loss of happiness. as to influence on history, however, the influence of the material inventions has probably been the greater. immaterial inventions might have been made in enormous numbers without of themselves affecting history greatly; but the material inventions have brought about most of the events that history describes; and without one material invention, that of writing, history could not exist at all. history is rather a narrative of men's deeds than of their thoughts; and their deeds have been directed largely by the implements which they had to do deeds with. we must realize, of course, that the greeks were much indebted to the Ægeans; for discoveries about the shores and islands of the Ægean sea show that long before the advent of the greeks they used tools and weapons of rough and then of polished stone, and later of copper and tin and bronze; that they lived on farms and in villages and cities, and were governed by monarchs who dwelt in palaces adorned with paintings and fine carvings, and filled with court gentlemen and ladies who wore jewelry and fine clothing. exquisite pottery was used, decorated with taste and skill; ivory was carved and gems were engraved, and articles were made of silver and bronze and gold. as early as the sixth century b. c., the greeks made things more beautiful than had ever been made before. one almost feels like saying that the greeks invented beauty. such a declaration would be absurd of course: but it seems to be a fact that the greeks had a conception of beauty that was wholly original with them, and that was not only finer than that which any other people had ever had before, but finer than any other people have had since. and not only did they have the conception, they had the ability to embody the conception in material forms that possessed a beauty higher than had ever been produced before, and higher (at least on the average) than have ever been produced in any other country since. looked at in this way, the production of a new and beautiful statue, painting or temple, seems to be an act of invention much like the formulation of a myth or the writing of a poem. in this sense, the greeks were inventors, inventors of works of beauty that have existed as concrete material creations for centuries, and have exercised an enduring influence on the minds of men. the influence of paintings, statues and temples is not so clear as that of material inventions, but more clear than that of myths and poems. they may be said to form a class midway between inventions of material appliances and inventions of immaterial thoughts and fancies. a beautiful painting or statue is a material object in the same sense as that in which a steam engine is; but its office is to stimulate the mind, as a poem does. the first inventor of mechanical appliances, mentioned by name as such, was dædalus of athens. he was probably a mythical person. he was reputed to be the son or the grandson of erectheus, a probably mythical king. he is credited with the invention of the saw, the gimlet, the plumb-line, the axe, the wedge, the lever, masts and sails and even of flying;--for he is said to have escaped from crete to sicily with artificial wings. the story of dædalus, like that of many other mythological personages, is both interesting and irritating from the mixture of the very probable, the highly improbable, and the entirely impossible, in a jumble. but the story of dædalus seems to make it probable that all the things which he is reported to have invented (except flying) were in use in greece in prehistoric times. as no records show to us that the inventions just enumerated (except masts and sails) had been invented elsewhere, we may feel justified in inferring that they were invented in greece by dædalus, or by some other man bearing a different name,--or by some other men. the name borne by the man is not important to us now; but it is important to realize that such brilliant and original inventions were made so long ago by a primeval people; especially since they were of a character somewhat different from those invented in egypt and asia which we have already noted. the invention of the gimlet seems the most brilliant and original of those just spoken of; and one marvels that it should have been invented at such a time; for the action of the gimlet was a little more complicated than that of even the balista or the catapult. it is true that the number of parts was less, that in fact there was only one part. but that part turned around in one plane, and advanced in another; it was less like anything that existed before than the catapult was like the sling, or the balista was like the cross-bow. there was no immediate forerunner of the gimlet. in other words, the mental jump needed to invent the gimlet was from a base of nothing that we can exactly specify. [illustration: insurgent captives brought before darius] a possible suggestion for the gimlet was the succession of inclined planes by which one mounted to the top of an assyrian or chaldean palace; these planes rising gradually on each of the four sides, so as to form together what might be called a square spiral. it is possible that a circular spiral may have been traced later around some cylindrical shaft or column, and given the first suggestion for the screw or gimlet. of course, a gimlet is a kind of screw. the greeks do not seem to have applied their inventiveness after the time of dædalus to mechanical appliances, but to works of art and systems of religion and philosophy. one of their most important inventions may be said to be mid-way between: it consisted in adding vowels to the phoenician alphabet and producing the basis of the latin and succeeding alphabets. the greeks were not naturally of a warlike disposition, and their peculiarly jealous temperament prevented the various states and cities from combining and forming a great nation. their energetic character and great intellectuality saved them, however, when darius, king of persia, invaded greece in b. c. by that time the greeks had raised and trained an army of great excellence. no especial inventiveness seems to have been exercised, but the equipments of the men, their organization, their armor, their weapons and their discipline had been brought to a standard exceedingly high. all these advantages were needed; for the persians were a warlike people, their king darius was an ambitious and successful conqueror, and the number of persians that invaded greece was far greater than the number that greece could raise to fight them. had the greeks been destitute of invention they would have followed the most obvious course, that of shutting themselves up inside the protection of the walls of athens. had they done this, the persians would have surrounded the city, shut them off from supplies from outside, and slowly but surely forced them to surrender. but, on the insistent advice of miltiades, the greeks advanced to meet the persians, leaving the shelter of their walls behind them. it may not seem to some that miltiades made any invention in planning the campaign which he urged against much resistance, and which the athenians finally carried out. yet his mental action was one allied to that of making an invention; for his mind conceived a plan as a purely mental picture, then developed into a workable project, and then presented it as a concrete proposition. later, when the hostile forces met on the low plain of marathon, miltiades rejected the obvious plan that an uninventive mind would have adopted. instead of it, he invented the plan of weakening his center, strengthening his flanks, and departing from the usual custom of advancing slowly against the enemy, in favor of advancing on the run. the plan (invention) worked perfectly. the unsuspecting persians broke through the center and pursued the fleeing athenians to a rough ground;--only to be caught between the two flanks, like a nut in a nut-cracker, and crushed to pieces. it can hardly be seriously questioned that in this plan miltiades showed the abilities of the inventor, and in a highly brilliant and highly important way. had he fought the battle in the obvious way, the great numerical superiority of the persians could hardly have failed to gain the victory, despite a really considerable superiority of the athenians in training and equipment. but the persians were the victims of a new and unexpected kind of attack. a new weapon suddenly brought to bear on them would have had a similar effect. this is the first illustration in recorded history of the influence of invention on the deciding of a war. its influence was enormous in this case; for the battle of marathon was one of the most decisive and one of the most important battles ever fought. if it had been decided contrariwise, grecian civilization would have been stamped out, or so completely stifled that it would never have risen to the heights it afterwards attained; freedom of thought and government would have been smothered, and the world would be immeasurably different now from what it really is. the defeat of the persians was so decisive that they withdrew to their own country, but with the determination of returning, and in overwhelming force. by reason of a variety of circumstances, including the death of the king, the invasion did not take place until ten years later. then, in the year b. c., king xerxes set out on a punitive expedition against greece with an enormous military and naval force. again greece was saved from persia by pure brain power, that of themistocles. like miltiades, he rejected the obvious. discerning, as no one else discerned, that the weakest point in the persian forces was the line of communication across the Ægean sea, because the ships of those days were fragile, and an invading army needed to get supplies continually from persia, he pointed out that although it was the persian army that would do the actual damage in greece, yet nevertheless, the major effort of the athenians should not be spent on their army but on their navy. the difficulties he met in making the athenians see the truth may easily be imagined, from experiences in our own day. he succeeded at last, however; so that by the time the persians reached greece, greece had a fleet that was very good, though not nearly so large as the persian. the fleets came near to each other in the vicinity of athens. the majority of the athenian leaders advised that the athenian fleet should retreat toward the south and west, to the isthmus of corinth, and await the persians there; because, if defeated, a safe retreat could be effected. but themistocles opposed this plan with all the force and eloquence he could bring to bear; pointing out that the aim of the athenians should not be to find a safe line of retreat, but to win a battle; and that the bay of salamis was the best place, for two reasons. one reason was that the persians would have to enter the bay in column, because the entrance was narrow, and the persian ships, as they successively passed into the bay, would therefore be at a great disadvantage against the combined attack of the athenian ships, waiting for them there; the other reason was that the bay was so small that the great numbers and size of the persian ships would be a disadvantage, instead of an advantage. themistocles (not without the use of considerable diplomacy and even subterfuge) finally secured the assent of the other athenian leaders. the result was exactly what he predicted that it would be. the persian fleet was wholly defeated, and greece again was saved. the great victory of the greeks over the persians wrought a powerful stimulation among all the people, especially in athens, and was followed by the most extraordinary intellectual movement in the history of the world. it lasted about a century and a half; and in no other country, and at no other period, has so much intellectual achievement been accomplished by so few people in so short a time. before the persian wars, the greeks had already shown an extraordinary originality in art and literature; especially in architecture, sculpture and poetry. naturally these peaceful arts languished during the wars; but after the persian invaders had been finally ejected, they rose with renewed vigor, stimulated by the patriotic enthusiasm of the nation as a whole. it was in athens, and among the athenians that most of the movement was carried on. the principal state in greece besides athens then was sparta. the spartans devoted themselves mainly to warlike and allied arts, while the athenians devoted themselves mainly to the beautification of athens; though they were careful to guard it adequately by maintaining an excellent navy, surrounding the city with high walls, and building two long parallel walls from athens to piræus, its seaport. it would be out of place in a book like this to attempt any description or discussion of the various phases of the intellectual activities that rose with such startling quickness, and developed into such important movements, during the century and a half that followed the persian wars; especially as this has already been done by many scholars, in many languages, and at many times. a very brief and elementary statement may, however, be made, for the purpose of illustrating the influence of invention on history. the main characteristic of the movement as a whole and of every one of the various channels which it followed, was originality. no such perception of beauty had ever been evidenced before; no such conceptions of logic, philosophy or science. accompanying these was a conception of free government equally original. whether the government of athens was the cause of the intellectual rise, or the intellectual rise was the cause of the government, may safely be left to scholars to debate; for the purposes of the present discussion, it seems sufficient that they co-existed and had together a powerful influence on history. the greatest genius that guided the intellectual forces of the athenians in the matter of government was that of pericles, who ruled their minds by pure force of argument and persuasion, from about to b. c. athens and her subject cities formed a virtual empire, small in extent, but powerful in influence; though in form it was a democracy. in some ways it was the most perfect democracy that ever has existed even to this day; for not only was every citizen available for office, but he was expected to take active part in deciding public measures, and to be really qualified to hold office. this idea was put into practical operation by a careful system of payment for every public service; to the end that even the poorest citizen should be enabled to hold office, and a wealthy office-holding caste prevented from existing. to so great an extent was this carried out that, by the time that the age of pericles ceased and the peloponnesian war began, almost every citizen was in the pay of the state. the perfect equality of all the citizens, and their community of interests and privileges, was recognized by supplying them at times with free tickets to places of amusement, and by banqueting the people on great occasions at the expense of the state. to distribute widely the powers and duties of citizenship, exceedingly large juries were established for the trials of all cases. there was no king or president or prime minister. the source of authority was the assembly which included every citizen over eighteen years of age, and held forty meetings a year. cooperating, as a sort of committee, was a council of five hundred, whose members were chosen by lot each year from citizens over thirty years of age. the success of the athenian democracy has had a powerful influence ever since on history; because it has supplied not only a precedent but an encouragement to every people to try to escape from the individual restrictions that monarchies and all "strong governments" tend to impose. but it had another though less powerful influence also, which continued for a long while, but now has ceased, in supplying a precedent for slavery. for while the citizens of athens were free, only the sons of athenian fathers and athenian mothers could be citizens; many thousand workers and merchants of all kinds could take no part in the government, and there were besides an enormous number of slaves. it was to a great degree the fact of slavery that made possible the success of the so-called athenian democracy; for it liberated the citizens in very great measure from the drudgery of life, and gave them leisure to devote themselves to the study of government and the arts. in addition, athens acquired great wealth from the spoils of its wars and the tribute of its subject states. this wealth was expended largely in the beautifying of athens, and in the consequent encouragement and opportunity to artists of all kinds. naturally, the art most immediately encouraged was that of architecture; and that the encouragement met with ready and great success the most beautiful ruins in the world superbly testify. the directing genius in this work and in all the others was pericles, who stimulated the athenians with his conception and description of a city worthy to symbolize the power and glory of the empire. the twin arts of architecture and sculpture worked together and in harmony; and a city more beautiful than ever known before, or ever known since, testified to the soundness and brilliancy of the conception and to the constructive ability of the athenians to embody it in material form. the poets and scholars kept pace with the statesmen and the architects and the sculptors; but the philosophers surpassed them all. for, while the successful democracy of athens is a model still, and while the parthenon and the statue of apollo are models still, yet an integral part of the system of government (slavery) has been abjured by the civilized world, and the temples and the statues have been for the pleasure of but a few; while the teachings of the philosophers have been the basis on which has rested ever since much of the intellectual progress of mankind. it may be noted here that, as men have progressed up the steep road to civilization, the only guides they have had have been men who have not themselves passed over the road before, and whose only qualification as guides has lain in some attribute of the mind that enabled them to survey the road a little farther ahead than the others could, and to point out the paths to take, and the obstructions to avoid. man's physical instincts guide him considerably as to the methods to preserve his physical existence; but they help him not at all to lift himself above his physical self, and in many ways they hinder him. it seems to be the office of the mind both to discern the upward paths and to stimulate the will to overcome the difficulties and dangers in the way. of the great pointers of the way, socrates, plato, aristotle and others, it might be deemed presumptuous of the present author to do more than speak; and of the great stimulators, Æschuylus, sophocles, euripedes, herodotus, thucydides, xenophon, and, above all, demosthenes as well. but because it is pertinent to our subject it is instructive for us to note that the main distinctive feature of the work of each was originality. it is true that it is the completed work in the case of each that meets our gaze; it is true that the superficial impression would be the same, even if each work had been a copy of some work that had gone before; in the same way that, superficially, many a copy of an oil painting is as good as the original. but from the standpoint of influence on the future, it is the originator rather than the copyist who wields the influence; just as it is the basic inventor of a mechanical appliance rather than the man who improves upon it. the athenians and spartans became involved in the peloponnesian war, that lasted from to b. c., and ended with the capture of athens. the spartans thereupon became dominant in greece, but only to be mastered by the thebans in b. c. the little jealous states of greece were never able to agree together long, and no one state was ever able to unite them. but the half-barbarian people of macedonia, under philip their king, after developing their army, according to a novel system invented by him, overcame and then united under their sway the highly cultured but now military weak states that had despised them. possibly, it would somewhat strain the meaning of the word invention, to declare that philip made a radically new invention, when he improved on the theban phalanx, and devised his system of military training; for kings and other leaders had trained armies long before philip lived, and philip departed only in what some might call detail from the methods that had been used before. but, at the same time, it was an act, or a series of acts, betokening great initiative and originality, for a man ruling a weak collection of tribes such as dwelt in macedon, to create out of such crude material as he began with, such an extraordinary army as he ultimately was able to lead to battle. to accomplish this it was necessary for him to conceive the idea of doing it, then to embody his conception in a formulated plan, and then bring forth the finished product. the thought of doing it must have come to him:--how else could he get it? an idea comes from outside through the mental eye to the mind; as a ray of light comes from outside through the physical eye to the retina. the picture made on philip's mind must have impressed him profoundly, for he spent the rest of his life in giving it "a local habitation and a name." to accomplish it cost him years of continual effort of many kinds, but he did accomplish it. he did, as a result, produce a machine, as truly a machine as stephenson ever produced, but made up of many more parts; each part independent of any other, and yet dependent on every other, and all working together, for a common purpose. let us remind ourselves again that a machine composed of inanimate parts only is only one kind of machine; for a machine may be composed of animate parts, or inanimate parts, or of parts of which some are animate and some inanimate. clearly, it makes no difference, so far as the act of invention goes, whether a man uses animate or inanimate parts; the essential of invention is the creation of a new thing. if a man merely puts two pieces of wood and a piece of string into a pile, or if he merely collects a number of men together, no invention is made and nothing is created. but if he so combines the two pieces of wood and the string as to make a bow and arrow; or if he combines a modified theban phalanx with masses of cavalry and catapults in a novel and effective way as philip did, invention is exercised and something is created. before philip's time a phalanx was used to bear the brunt of the battle, and to overwhelm the enemy by mere strength and force; as the thebans did at leuctra and mantinea. but philip conceived the idea of merely holding the enemy with his phalanx assisted by the catapults, and hurling his cavalry against their flanks. philip's army, as philip used it, was a machine and a very powerful one:--each part independent of every other, yet dependent on every other--all the parts working together for a common purpose. philip conceived the idea of making this machine, and afterwards made it; just as ericsson more than two thousand years later conceived the idea of making a "_monitor_" and afterwards made it. by means of his machine philip defeated the greeks at cheronea in the year b. c., just as ericsson by means of his machine defeated the _merrimac_ at newport news in the year a. d., exactly twenty-two centuries later. the two machines differed, it is true. yet they did not differ so much as one might unthinkingly suppose; for each machine was made up of parts, of which some were animate and some were not; and in each machine every part, animate or inanimate, cooperated with all the others; and all cooperated together, to carry out the inventor's purpose, the destruction of the enemy. the influence of philip's invention began before philip died, and it continues to this day. for after philip's death, his son alexander put it to work at once on the task of subduing thoroughly all of greece, and then subduing asia. the influence of the machine in subduing even greece alone must not be regarded lightly; not so much because greece was subdued, as because the various little states were by that means brought together; and because it illustrates the fact that without a machine, no great number of people can work together. it _was because of the absence of any machine_ that the grecian states acted separately and antagonistically, instead of in cooperation. after subduing greece, alexander took his machine across the hellespont, in the year b. c., to try it on the persian troops in asia minor. the machine worked so successfully at a battle on the granicus that alexander took it south, and with its aid was able to conquer all of asia minor in about a year. it may be objected that it is not correct to attribute all of alexander's success to the excellence of his machine; and this objection would have great force and receive the approval of most people, for the reason that, in most histories, the main credit is given to the energy of alexander and the courage of his troops;--though the excellence of the training and organization bequeathed by philip is admitted. to this hypothetical objection the answer may be made that the ultimate result was due to both the machine and the excellence with which it was operated; that is, to the product of what the machine could do if it were used with perfect skill and the percentage of skill with which it was actually used. this statement is, of course, true of all machines and instruments, as the author has often pointed out, in articles and addresses. in the case of alexander and his army, the percentage of skill, of course, was high; but alexander and each one of his soldiers was only a part of the machine; and even their skill was part of the machine in the sense that it was a characteristic included in the original design of philip. in other words, we should not fall into the error of dissociating the skill of alexander and his soldiers from the machine itself; because it was part of philip's invention that the training should produce that skill. the system of training was part of the invention. it is true, however, and exceedingly important, that the degree of skill which alexander brought to bear personally was far in excess of what any system of training could possibly produce. when we read of the amazing victories that alexander made over superior forces of highly trained warriors, we see that philip of macedon should not be given all the credit; that the genius of philip of macedon was not the only genius contributing to the result. we see that genius of some kind directed the decisions of alexander. what were the characteristics of that genius? courage? yes; history tells of no one possessing higher courage, both physical and moral, than alexander. not only was he physically brave, not only did he dare physical danger of many kinds, and on many occasions, but he was morally brave; he did not shirk responsibility; he did not fear to take enormous risks; he did not hesitate to reject advice, even the advice of his most experienced and able generals; he was willing to stake everything, sometimes, on the success of some wholly untried expedient of his own devising. but does mere courage, even of so many kinds--and even if it be added to trained skill and the possession of an admirable machine--do they all together explain the amazing successes of alexander? no. what does explain them? genius? yes, but the word genius is only a word, and explains nothing; for the reason that no one knows what the word genius means. it is merely a label that we attach to a man who is able to do things that other men cannot do. but granting that the possession of "genius" is an explanation of alexander's being able to accomplish what he did, in what way did that genius operate? in what way did it help him to win so many victories and extricate himself from so many perilous situations? by inventing methods and devising schemes and improvising plans that an uninventive man would not have thought of. the story of the gordian knot may or may not be true; but it seems credible, because it was exactly the kind of a thing that alexander might have been expected to do in such an emergency. posing as a great conqueror, he was (according to the legend) suddenly confronted with the untying of a knot, the successful accomplishment of which would make him master of asia. he realized that he could not untie it. any man but a man like alexander would have tried it and acknowledged failure, or have declined to try it: placing himself in a defensive position in either case. but alexander draws his sword and cuts the knot in two, thereby accomplishing whatever the untying of the knot would have accomplished, but in an unexpected way. alexander's victories and escapes from perilous positions were largely accomplished by unexpected measures. but alexander showed his inventive ability before he invaded persia; in his very first campaign undertaken to subdue a revolt in thessaly immediately after he ascended to the throne. the thessalians opposed him in a narrow defile. an ordinary man would have thought, as the thessalians did, that he was checkmated. but alexander conceived and executed the ingenious scheme of cutting a new road up the steep side of the mountain, leading his army along that road, and suddenly threatening the thessalians in their helpless rear. shortly afterward in thrace he reached a defile in the mountains which it was necessary for him to pass, but which he found defended by a force that had stationed a number of war-chariots at the top, to be rolled down on the macedonians. alexander immediately ordered his infantry to advance up the path and to open their ranks whenever possible to let the chariots rush through; but when that could not be done to fall on their knees and hold their shields together as a sort of roof on which the chariots would slide, and from which they would roll off. this amazing story is supposed to be true; and it is said to have succeeded perfectly. not long afterward alexander had to cross the danube with his army and all their equipments and attack a force of barbarians on the farther bank. this he saw he could not do by the use of any means available of an ordinary kind. nothing daunted, he conceived and executed the scheme of floating his equipments across at night in floats made of tent skins, filled with hay. the next clear example that we find of alexander's inventiveness was when he undertook the siege of tyre. tyre stood on an island of phoenicia in the extreme eastern end of the mediterranean sea. it was surrounded with a wall, very thick and very high, and was separated from the shore by half a mile of deep water. to capture such a place was no small undertaking for a man who had no ships. but alexander conceived and executed a scheme that worked successfully. in accordance with that scheme, he built a causeway that extended from the shore out toward the island on which tyre stood. naturally, the tyrians obstructed his efforts by sending fireships against him and firing projectiles; and these tactics became more and more effective as the causeway approached the city. then alexander visited some of the jealous neighbors of tyre that had submitted to him, and secured a fleet of some eighty ships; and these he led, as the admiral commanding, against the tyrian harbor. by this time, the causeway was well protected with catapults and war-engines of various kinds, and had been carried close up to the island. yet little actual damage could be done to tyre, because of the height and thickness of the walls, and because alexander's galleys that he had equipped with war-engines could not get close enough, by reason of large boulders under water. alexander then equipped certain galleys with windlasses to root up the boulders, the galleys being fitted with chain cables to prevent divers from cutting them. tyre was soon afterwards reduced to a purely passive defense and consequent surrender. the story of the siege of tyre, if read in the light of the conditions of the comparative barbarism of the world in those days, is a record of inventiveness, on the part of alexander, so convincing and complete, as to entitle alexander to a place in the first rank among the inventors of our race. shortly afterward alexander reached the town of gaza, the great stronghold of the philistines. it stood on high ground, and was more than two miles from the sea. alexander's engineers reported to him that, as the fleet could not assist them, and as the walls were themselves very high and stood on a high hill, the walls could never be stormed. things looked serious. they were serious; and failure would then have come to any man, except a man like alexander. he cut the gordian knot by ordering that ramparts be thrown up as high as the top of the walls, and war engines placed on the ramparts. this was done, and the city was taken. alexander's campaigns in egypt, and afterward in western asia, were characterized by the same quickness and daring, both in conception and in execution, that had marked his opening campaigns in greece. later, when advancing toward persia, he encountered a tribe of hillsmen in the uxian pass, who, like the thessalians and the thracians, thought they had blocked his passage by opposing him in so narrow a defile. alexander literally "circumvented" them by making a night march over a difficult mountain pass, and astonishing them by an attack on their rear the following morning. shortly afterward a like situation presented itself, when an army opposed him in a narrow defile called the persian gates, that was fortified with a wall. alexander soon realized that the position of his enemy was impregnable. he learned, however, that there was a path that led around the pass, though it was exceedingly dangerous, particularly to men in armor and to horses, and especially at that time, when snow and ice were on the ground. he again utilized his former invention (circumvention) and with his former success; though the conditions under which it was accomplished were much more difficult. the four examples just given of literally circumventing an uninventive enemy illustrate in the simplest form the influence of invention on military history. after it became clear to alexander that his invasion of asia would be successful from a military point of view, his active imagination presented to his mind a picture of a grand and noble empire, embracing the whole world, but dominated and inspired by the spirit of the civilization of greece. to develop this conception into an actual reality, became at once the object of his efforts. to develop it, he decided to adopt in some measure the characteristics and dress of the people in whatever province he might be, and to take such steps in organizing provinces, founding cities and establishing systems, as to weld all into one empire, under himself, as ruler. one can hardly credit the authoritative account he reads of alexander's bewildering success. he seems not only to have won battles, and built cities, and organized provinces, but actually to have super-posed greek civilization on persian civilization! in one of his most important later battles, alexander again utilized his inventiveness. if he had not done so, he would assuredly have lost the battle. it was against king porus in northwestern india. alexander found the forces of porus encamped on the opposite side of the hydaspes river, with the evident intention of preventing him from crossing. as the army of porus in men alone was evidently equal to his own, and as it was reinforced with a multitude of elephants, alexander was apparently confronted with a problem impossible of solution. it would have been impossible to anyone but a man like alexander. he, however, by means of various feints and ingenious stratagems, managed to get across at night about sixteen miles up the river, using boats that he had constructed, and floats of skin stuffed with straw. porus took up a position on the opposite shore and made ready to receive attack, his front preceded by war chariots and elephants. alexander had neither; but he did have brains and originality. so he simply held the enemy with his infantry, and then made a determined attack with cavalry and archers on the enemy's left flank, and especially on the elephants. the elephants soon got beyond control; and the rest of the battle was a fight between a highly trained macedonian phalanx, assisted by cavalry, and an oriental mob. alexander died in babylon when not quite thirty-three years old. in actual and immediate achievement he surpassed perhaps every other man who has ever lived. he founded an empire which he himself had conceived and developed, which covered nearly all the then known world, and which, though it was composed mainly of barbarous and semi-barbarous people, was dominated by greek thought. it is true that the empire fell apart almost immediately after alexander died. but it did not fall into anarchy, or revert to its previous state: it was divided into four parts, each of which was distinct, self-governing and well organized. the two larger parts, the kingdom of the seleucidæ, which occupied approximately the territory of persia, and the kingdom of the ptolomies, or egypt, continued as torch-bearers to civilization for many centuries thereafter. of the two, the former was the larger and was probably the better, from an administrative point of view; but egypt represented the finer civilization; for alexandria, with its library and its wonderful museum, became the seat of learning and the resort of the scholars of the world, and the centre of the hellenistic civilization that followed that of greece. this hellenistic civilization, it may here be pointed out, was in some respects as fine as that of greece, and in some respects was finer, because it was more mature. but (perhaps for the reason that it was more mature) it lacked much of the element that was the highest in the greek, the element that gave greek civilization greater influence on history than any other civilization ever had--the creative element. the creative period of greece ceased when her political liberty was lost. furthermore, the immense amount of wealth that poured into the grecian cities and the græco-oriental world, by reason of the putting into circulation of gold that had been stored away in oriental palaces, as well as by the commercial exploitation of the riches of the east, brought about a general effeminizing of all classes of society, and the consequent dulling of their minds. [illustration: the lighthouse of the harbor of alexandria in the hellenistic age] nevertheless, there was great intellectual activity in the græco-oriental world, and a certain measure of invention, though little was of a basic kind. euclid improved the science of geometry, and put it in virtually the same shape as that in which it has been taught since, even to this day. aristarchus, the astronomer, announced the doctrine that the earth revolves around the sun and rotates on its own axis; and hipparchus invented the plan of fixing the positions of places on the earth by their latitudes north and south of the equator and their longitude east or west of a designated meridian. hippocrates and galen conceived and developed the foundations of the science of medicine of the present day. eratosthenes estimated with extraordinary accuracy the circumference of the earth, and founded the science of geography. but the greatest of all of the original workers of that time was archimedes, who lived at syracuse in sicily, and was killed by mistake when syracuse was captured in the year b. c., while engaged in drawing a geometrical figure on the sand. his principal fame is as a mathematician; but as a great inventor of mechanical appliances, he is the first man recognized as such in history. the invention with which his name is most frequently linked is that of the archimedean screw. this consisted of a tube, wound spirally around an inclined axle, and so disposed that when the lower end of the tube was dipped into water and the axle was rotated water would rise in the tube--as shavings do when a screw is screwed down into wood. it constituted a very convenient pump and was so used. this was, of course, a mechanical invention of the utmost originality and value, and forms one of the clearly defined stepping-stones to civilization. there seems to be a belief in the minds of some that archimedes was the inventor of the lever. the lever was, of course, invented long before he lived; but the laws of its operation and the principle that the weight on each side of the fulcrum, multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum, is equal to the weight on the other side, multiplied by its distance (when the lever is in equilibrium), seems to have been established by him. many stories are told of his exploits when syracuse was besieged by the romans, but they are rather vague. the best known story is that he arranged a great many mirrors in such a way that he concentrated so many rays of sunlight on some roman ships that they took fire. whether this is true or not is not definitely known; but many centuries later buffon, the french scientist, made an arrangement of plane mirrors with which he set fire to wood feet away. the greatest single exploit of archimedes was his discovery and demonstration of the hydrostatic principle that the weight of liquid displaced by a body floating in it is equal to that of the body. the story is that the king gave him the apparently impossible task of determining the quantity of gold and the quantity of silver in a certain gold coin, in making which the king suspected the workmen of stealing part of the gold and substituting silver. pondering this subject later while lying in his bath, archimedes suddenly realized that his body displaced a bulk of water equal to that part of his body that was immersed, and conceived the consequent law; and the conception was so startling and so vivid that he rushed unclad out into the street crying, "i have found it, i have found it." the story as a story may not be exactly true; but if archimedes had realized the full purport and the never-ending result of his conception, he would probably have done something even more eccentric than he did. * * * * * archimedes esteemed mechanical inventions as greatly inferior in value to those speculations and demonstrations that convince the mind, and considered that his chief single work was discovering the mathematical relation between a sphere and a cylinder just containing it. whether this discovery and the discovery of the hydrostatic principle just mentioned were inventions or not, depends, of course, on the meaning of the word invention. within the meaning of the word as employed heretofore in this book, both seem to have been inventions. each made a definite creation and each caused something to exist, the like of which had never existed before. furthermore, the mental processes followed resemble very closely the conception and formulation of a religion or a theory, the conception and composing of a new piece of music, story or poem, the conception and developing of any new plan or scheme; the conception and embodying in material form of any mechanical device. it is not asserted, of course, that all inventions are on a dead level of equality, simply because they are inventions. evidently there are degrees of excellence among inventions as among all other things. chapter iv invention in rome: its rise and fall we have noted, up to a time approximately that of archimedes, a continual succession of inventions of many kinds, that formed stepping-stones to civilization so large and plain, that we can see them even from this distance. we now come to a period lasting more than a thousand years, in the first half of which there was a gradually decreasing lack of inventiveness shown, and in the latter half a cessation almost complete. the nation that followed greece as the dominant nation of the world was rome. she became more truly a dominant nation than greece ever was; but her civilization was built on that of greece, and her success even in war and government was due largely to following where greece had led. that rome in her early days should have followed the methods of greece was natural of course; for the two countries were close together, and the methods of greece had brought success. the early religion of rome was so like that of greece that even to this day the conceptions of most of us regarding zeus and jupiter, poseidon and neptune, aphrodite and venus are apt to become confused. like the greeks, the romans first were gathered in city-states that were governed by kings; and as with the greeks, more republican forms were adopted later. in one important particular, the roman practice diverged from the greek, and that was in incorporating conquered states into the parent state, and granting their inhabitants the privileges of citizenship; instead of keeping them in the condition of mere subject states. the roman system was somewhat like the system of provinces established by the assyrians. it forms the basis of the "municipal system" of the free states of the present day, in which local self-government is carried on, under the paramount authority of the state. it may be pointed out here that the conception of such an idea and its successful development into an effective machine of government by the romans constituted an invention; though in view of what had been done before by assyria and greece, it cannot be called a basic invention. the early romans were very different in their mental characteristics from the greeks; for they were stern, warlike, intensely practical, and possessed of an extraordinary talent for what we now call "team work." as a nation they were not so inventive as the greeks; but the roman, cæsar, was the greatest military inventor who ever lived. as might be expected, their early endeavors pertained to war, and their first improvements were in warlike things. one improvement that was marked by considerable inventiveness was in changing the phalanx into the legion. the phalanx, the historian botsford tells us, was "invented by the spartans, probably in the eighth century b. c.," and consisted of an unbroken line of warriors, several ranks deep. the thebans improved on this; and from the theban, philip developed the macedonian phalanx with which alexander fought his way through asia. the romans under servius tullius developed this into the roman phalanx, which was different only in detail. the essential characteristic of the phalanx was strength. this was gained by the close support given by each man to his neighbor, the personal strength of each man and the trained co-operation of all. a tremendous blow was given to an enemy's line when a phalanx struck it. in the early wars among the hills of italy, the romans found the phalanx too rigid for such uneven country; and it was in endeavoring to invent a substitute that they finally developed the legion. this machine was much more flexible, the individual soldiers had more room for their movements, and yet the machine seemed to possess the necessary rigidity when the shock of impact came. the heavy infantry was in three lines, and each line was divided into ten companies, or "maniples." the burden of the first attack was borne by the first line. if unsuccessful, the first line withdrew through gaps in the second line, and the second line took up the task;--and then the third, composed of the most seasoned troops. the attack usually began with the hurling of javelins, and was followed at once by an assault with the roman strong short swords. now the legion was just as truly an invented machine as a steam engine is; and it had a greater influence on history than the steam engine has ever had thus far. it was by means of their legions that the romans passed outside of the walls of rome, and conquered all of italy. it was by means of their legions that the romans conquered all the coast peoples that bordered the mediterranean sea, subdued gaul, europe and egypt and asia, and became the greatest masters of the world that the world has ever seen. the first war of the romans that history calls great was their war against the splendid and wealthy city of carthage, situated on the opposite side of the mediterranean, inhabited by descendants of the phoenicians. they were an aggressive and energetic people, but only commercially. they were not of the warlike cast, and delegated the work of national defense to hired soldiers and sailors. they had one great advantage over the romans in the possession of an excellent navy. the romans resolved to create a navy. with characteristic energy and practical ability, they devoted themselves at once to both the acquisition of the personnel and the material, and the adequate training of the crews. it is stated that within two months from the time of starting, rome possessed a hundred quinqueremes, the largest galleys of those days, having five tiers of rowers; though they had had none when the war broke out. the first naval battle took place near the promontory of mylæ. naturally, the romans were at a great disadvantage as compared with the experienced officers and sailors in the carthaginian fleet; for though the roman soldier was far better than the carthaginian, the roman sailor was inexperienced and unskilful. to remedy the difficulty, the romans made a simple but brilliant invention. they provided each quinquereme with a "corvus," that consisted essentially of a drawbridge that could be lowered quickly, and that carried a sharp spike at its outer end; and then arranged a plan whereby each quinquereme should get alongside of a carthaginian, drop the drawbridge at such a time that the spike would hold the outer end of the drawbridge in place on the carthaginian deck, and roman soldiers should then rush across the drawbridge and attack the inferior carthaginian soldiers. few more brilliant inventions have ever been made; few have been more successful and effective. the battle ended in a perfect victory for the romans, and constituted the initial step in the subjugation of carthage by rome. there were three wars in all, called punic wars. the great carthaginian general, hannibal, invaded italy by land in the second war, and after a campaign marked with a high order of daring and ability, threatened rome herself after a brilliant victory near lake trasimene. another victory followed at cannæ, but a decisive disaster later on the metaurus river. so the second war was won by rome. but carthage still existed, and menaced the commercial, naval and military dominance of rome. therefore war was brought about at last by rome, and carthage destroyed completely. the conduct of rome toward carthage cannot be justified on any grounds of any system of morality accepted at the present day; and yet it cannot reasonably be denied that it was better for human progress that rome should prevail than carthage. the romans, harsh and ruthless as they were, were less so than the carthaginians; and they had an element of strong manliness and a comprehensive grasp of things beyond mere commerce and money-getting and ease and comfort that the semitic carthaginians wholly lacked. the effect of the conquest of carthage by rome was a little like that of the conquest of persia by alexander. during the same year ( b. c.) when rome destroyed carthage, she also destroyed corinth in greece, and brought greece and macedonia under her sway. she had previously ( b. c.) defeated antiochus the great, and taken from him nearly all his territory in asia minor. by the year b. c., rome had become the most powerful nation in the world and still preserved a republican form of government. in that year, b. c., the man who probably is the most generally regarded as the greatest man who has ever lived, appeared upon the stage of history. his name was julius cæsar. he appeared in that year, because he went then from rome to gaul, and started on those brilliant and in many respects unprecedented campaigns which have had so profound an effect on history, and which for originality in conception and execution have had no rivals since. at this time, italy and the lands of africa and asia on which alexander had impressed the civilization of greece, were prosperous and well-governed; but beyond those countries only barbarous customs prevailed, and only a primitive civilization reigned. the lands that lay north and northwest of italy, throughout all gaul, were inhabited by savage tribes that were in a state of continual war with each other. in the southern and middle parts the effects of roman civilization might be dimly seen; but in the southwestern part, and in the north, especially among the german tribes on the rhine, and the belgæ near the north sea, a condition of virtually pure savagery prevailed. into such a country cæsar marched, at the head of a body of men wholly inferior in numbers to those they were to meet, not superior to them in courage or physical strength, but considerably superior to them in discipline, and vastly superior in the weapons and methods that had gradually been invented, with the progress of civilization. thus, while the roman machine was superior as a machine to any that the gauls could bring to bear, it was smaller; so that the question to be decided was whether the superior excellence of the roman machine was great enough to balance its inferiority in size. looking back from our vantage ground on the history of the campaigns that followed, we feel inclined to answer the question in the negative, unless we consider cæsar himself a part of the machine. it is true that the campaigns were decided in favor of the roman machine; but there seems little ground for doubting that they would not have been so decided, if the genius of cæsar had not managed the roman machine and made improvements from time to time. cæsar had had little experience as a soldier, but his habits of life and traits of character were of the military kind. as the campaigns progressed, his courage, equanimity and rapidity of thought and action were continually displayed;--yet not to such a degree as to put him in a higher class than many other generals of history, or to account wholly for his marvellous successes. one peculiar ability, however, he possessed and exercised in a degree greater than any other general of history: and it was by the exercise of that ability that his most extraordinary victories were achieved, and his generalship especially distinguished from the generalship of others. that ability was inventiveness. his first contact was with the swiss (helvetii), who were about to leave the barrenness of their mountain lands, and march west to the fertile lands beyond. as this would take them through roman territory and tend to drive the gauls into italy, open switzerland to occupation by the germans, and point a road thence for them also into italy, cæsar hastened to the rhône river, destroyed the bridge which they would naturally go over, and forbade the swiss to attempt to cross the river. the swiss pleaded with cæsar to permit them to cross. as cæsar realized that the swiss were too greatly superior in force to be kept back, unless he could strengthen himself in some way, he asked time for reflection, and told them to return in two weeks. when the swiss returned at the end of that time, their astonished eyes disclosed to them the fact that cæsar had constructed walls and trenches and forts at every point where a passage could reasonably be attempted. it may be objected that walls and trenches and forts were not new, and that therefore cæsar invented nothing. this may be admitted as an academic proposition; but nevertheless, it was clearly the ingenious and wholly unexpected construction of certain appliances by cæsar that opposed the barbarous swiss with barriers which they could not pass. it may even be argued with much reason that the conception and successful execution of cæsar's plan as a whole constituted an invention, even though the material used was old. certain it is that a situation was created which did not exist before, and that it was the creation of this situation, and not the exercise of strength or courage, that was _the determining factor_ in stopping the swiss. froude says of cæsar, "he was never greater than in unlooked-for difficulties. he never rested. he was always inventing some new contrivance." cæsar realized fully the value in war of mechanical appliances, and took careful measures before he left italy to supply his army adequately with them, and also with men trained to use them. besides the fighting men strictly considered, cæsar took a considerable number of engineers with him, and expert men for building bridges, and doing mechanical work of many kinds. the ingenious and frequent use that cæsar made of these men and of mechanical appliances was the most powerful single factor that contributed to his success. the swiss departing from switzerland by another route, cæsar pursued them, and defeated a fourth of them in a battle on the banks of a river which the other three-fourths had crossed. he then built a bridge over the river and sent his army across. this feat alarmed the swiss more than their defeat; because cæsar had built the bridge and sent his army across in one day, whereas they had consumed twenty days in merely crossing. the swiss pleaded to be allowed to proceed; but cæsar was obdurate. a battle followed, in which the swiss, though greatly superior in numbers and reinforced by , allies, were decisively beaten; not because of inferior courage or warlike skill, but by reason of inferior equipments, mechanical appliances and weapons. cæsar's next battle was with the germans. it was won, if not precisely with inventiveness, at least with "brains." he learned that the german matrons had declared, after certain occult proceedings, that heaven forbade them to fight before the new moon. apprehending his opportunity, he advanced his forces right up to the german camp, thereby forcing them as valiant soldiers to come out and fight. fight they did, but under an obvious psychological disadvantage, and with the natural result. in this battle, as in others between the romans and the barbarians, it was noticeable that although their first onslaught was fine, the barbarians seemed to be at a loss afterwards,--if anything unexpected occurred, or if any reverse was sustained; whereas the romans--and especially cæsar himself--never behaved so well as when threatened with disaster. this may be expressed by saying that the barbarians, as compared with the romans, were wholly inferior in the inventiveness needed to devise a new plan quickly. not long afterward, cæsar advanced against the town of noviodunum. he soon saw that he could not take it by storm; and so he brought forward his mechanical siege appliances. the psychological effect of these on the barbarians was so tremendous that they at once pleaded for terms of surrender. after a battle with the nervii, in which cæsar defeated them disastrously, largely because of his resourcefulness in emergency and their lack of it, he advanced against a great barbarian stronghold that looked down on steep rocks on three sides, and was protected by a thick, high double wall on the fourth side. cæsar made a fortified rampart around the town, pushed his mantlets (large shields on wheels protected on the sides and top) close up to the wall, and built a tower. the barbarians laughed at this tower; seeing it so far away that, they thought, no darts thrown from it could reach them. but when they saw the tower actually moving toward them they were struck with terror and began at once to sue for peace. during the following winter the veneti, a large tribe on the northwestern coast, the most skilful seamen and navigators of gaul, stirred up a revolt that quickly and widely spread. the situation at once became serious for cæsar, for the reason that the veneti could not be subdued, except on the sea; and neither the roman sailors nor the roman vessels were as good as were those of the veneti. nevertheless, cæsar ordered war-vessels to be built on the loire river, and seamen and rowers to be drafted from the roman province. when the improvised fleet of the romans and the thoroughly prepared fleet of the veneti came together, the latter was superior even in numbers. furthermore, the romans were at a great disadvantage in the matter of throwing projectiles, from the fact that the veneti's decks were higher than theirs. but cæsar had prepared a scheme that gave him victory. in accordance with it, the roman galleys rowed smartly against the veneti ships, and roman sailors raised long poles on which were sharp hooks which they put over the halliards that held up the sails. then each roman galley rowed rapidly away, the halliards were cut, and down came the sails. the veneti ships became helpless at once and were immediately boarded; with the result that, of all the number, only a few made their escape. somewhat later, cæsar decided to cross the rhine into the country of the sueves, and to impress them with the power of rome by building a bridge and marching his army across. this bridge and the quickness and thoroughness with which it was built are still models for engineers; for in ten days after he had decided to build it, at which time the material was still standing in the forest, a bridge feet wide had been constructed. across this cæsar at once marched his legions. the effect on the barbarous germans can be imagined. it made them realize that the romans were a race superior to themselves in ways that they could not measure or even understand; and it impressed them with that fear which is the most depressing of all fears, the fear of the unknown. did cæsar make an invention? this depends on the meaning of the word invention. cæsar did not invent the bridge; but he did conceive and carry into execution a highly original, concrete and successful scheme. by it he accomplished as much as a victorious campaign would have accomplished, and without shedding any blood. _he devised means which created a state of thought in the minds of his enemies that destroyed their will to fight._ therein lay his invention. cæsar then conceived the idea of going across the water to the island of britain, about which little was known. after having a survey made of the coast, he took his legions across in about eighty vessels. he had to fight to make a landing, of course; but he succeeded, and then formed his camp. a roman camp, we may now remind ourselves, was so distinctly a roman conception, and so distinctly a part of the roman system of conducting war, that it almost constituted an invention. whenever a roman army halted, even for one night, they intrenched themselves within a square enclosure, surrounded with a ditch and a palisade of stakes, and made a temporary little city, laid with streets. in such a camp they were reasonably safe against any attack that barbarians could make. but a storm arose that drove some of cæsar's ships ashore and some out to sea. in this emergency, cæsar's resourcefulness and energy directed the work of recovery and repair, and enabled the romans to collect and put into good condition nearly all their ships. cæsar returned shortly afterward to gaul; arrived there, he gave directions for building and equipping another and larger fleet. in the following july ( b. c.), he started again for britain. this time he took five legions and some cavalry and had about vessels. he landed and formed his camp, and then advanced inland;--but another storm arose that scattered his ships. he returned at once to the coast, and instituted such prompt and resourceful measures that in ten days he was able to resume his march. on this march, which took him far inland, he was able to overcome all opposition; largely because, after the first onset, the barbarians seemed to be without any plan of action, while cæsar was at his best. _cæsar had the ability to invent under circumstances of the utmost danger and excitement._ cæsar's remaining campaigns in gaul were marked with the same resourcefulness and originality on his part, and the same lack of resourcefulness and originality on the part of the barbarians. cæsar would continually do something that the barbarians had not expected him to do. true, they gradually learned some of his schemes and methods from him; but only to find that he had then some newer schemes and methods. cæsar at one time remarked that wise men anticipate possible difficulties, and decide beforehand what they will do, if certain possible occasions arise. does not this process involve invention, in cases where the possible occasions are not of the ordinary and expectable kind? in such cases, does it not require imagination to foresee the possible occasions, and form a correct picture on the mind of the resulting situations? this being done, does it not require the exercise of the constructive faculty afterwards, to make a concrete and effective plan to meet them? if it be so, then we may reasonably declare that, of all the factors that contributed to the successes in gaul of cæsar, the most powerful single factor was his inventiveness. the final crisis came when cæsar besieged alesia, and vercingetorix, who had taken refuge in it, sent out a call for succor, that was eagerly and promptly responded to; for it was plain to the barbarians that cæsar, being held in position fronting a fortress that he could not successfully storm, would be in a precarious condition if attacked vigorously in his rear. attacked vigorously he was; for the barbarians came in his rear with about , men; cæsar having only , , and the enemy in front having , . but it required somewhat more than a month for the barbarians to unite and reach alesia. with his wonted energy and resourcefulness, cæsar had by this time cast up siege works all around the fortress, placed camps at strategic points, and constructed twenty-three block-houses. he dug a trench twenty feet deep around the place, and back of this began his other siege works. these included two parallel trenches fifteen feet broad and fifteen feet deep. behind these he built a palisade twelve feet high, and to this he added a breastwork of pointed stakes; while at intervals of eighty feet he constructed turrets. in addition, he had branches cut from trees and sharpened on the ends; and these he fastened at the bottom of the trenches, so that the points projected just above the ground. in front of these he dug shallow pits, into which tapering stakes hardened in the fire were driven, projecting four inches above the ground. these pits were hidden with twigs and brushwood. eight rows of these pits were dug, three feet apart; and in front of all stakes with iron hooks were buried in the ground at irregular intervals. when all this had been done on the side toward the fortress, cæsar constructed parallel entrenchments of the same kind, to protect his rear; the two sets being so arranged with respect to each other that the same men could man both. having constructed all these material appliances, he instituted a comprehensive system of drills, so that his men would know exactly how to utilize them under all probable contingencies. in the battle that followed the barbarians showed their wonted courage and dash; but an unexpected situation arose when cæsar attacked a separated part in their rear. then they were seized with panic, and the natural rout and disaster followed. this battle decided the fate of gaul; though its actual subduing, especially in the southwestern part was not accomplished immediately. the last major act was taking a strong fortress. this was accomplished by cutting a tunnel, by which the spring was tapped that supplied the garrison with water. as vercingetorix said, the romans won their victories, not by superior courage, but by superior science. cæsar's later passage across the rubicon, the flight of the senate, and his later operations by land and sea against marseilles (massilia) and hostile forces in northern spain, are well known, and were characterized by the same high order of inventiveness. his later operations against pompey, and later still against pharnaces and scipio, were conducted under conditions that gave him less opportunity to utilize the quality of inventiveness in such clear ways; but they were marked with the kindred qualities of foresight, skilful adaptation of means to ends, and presence of mind in emergencies. in the minds of some, cæsar's greatest influence on history has been due to his improvement of the calendar, and especially his reforms of the public morals and the laws of rome, after his campaign against pharnaces. this subject has been the theme of jurists and scholars to such a degree that it might seem presumptuous in a navy officer to do more than mention it. at the same time it may be pointed out that cæsar's work was not in any matters of detail, or in contributing any legal or juridical skill or knowledge, but in conceiving the idea of creating the _leges juliæ_, and then creating them. julius cæsar was murdered in the year b. c. he was followed in power by his grandnephew octavius, one of the most fortunate occurrences in history; for octavius possessed the ability and the character to carry on the constructive work that julius cæsar had begun. under octavius and his successors, the roman empire became increasingly large and strong, until the reign of trajan in the second century, a. d., when it acquired its greatest territorial extent. during the time when rome was increasing in extent and power, the wealth of cities and of individuals increased also, and enormous public works of all kinds were constructed, many of which are still the admiration of the world. material prosperity reached its highest point. but the creative period had passed. youth, with its dreams and vigor of doing had gone, and maturity, with the luxury of prosperity and the consequent dulling of the imagination, had assumed its place. senescence followed in due course. then the empire was divided into two parts, the empire of the west and the empire of the east. finally, in a. d., rome died and with it the empire of the west. [illustration: triumphal procession from the arch of titus] but the eastern empire stood, and constantinople was its capital. and it stood, alone and unassisted, as the sole bulwark of christianity and civilization for nearly years, until it finally fell before the ottoman turks in . it could not have done this, if in the latter part of the seventh century when it was beleaguered by a turkish fleet, much greater than its own, it had not suddenly received unexpected aid in the shape of a new invention. this was "greek fire," which seems to have been a pasty mixture of sulphur, nitre, pitch, and other substances, which when squirted against wood set it on fire with a flame that water could not quench. in the very first attack, the turks were so demoralized by the greek fire that they fled in panic. they never learned the secret and were never able to stand up against it. on one occasion, fifteen christian ships, using greek fire, actually put to rout a turkish fleet numbering several hundred. * * * * * during all the countless centuries before the dawn of recorded history, and during the approximately forty centuries that elapsed from the beginning of recorded history until the fall of rome, we have observed the coming of many inventions of both material and immaterial kinds, and noted the influence of those inventions in causing civilization, and therefore in directing the line that history has followed. it may be objected that a perfectly natural inference from what has been written would be that the only thing which had influenced the direction of movement of history was invention. to this, the answer may very reasonably be made that this book does not pretend to be a history, or to point out what have been the greatest factors that have influenced its line of movement; it attempts merely to emphasize the influence of one factor, invention, and to suggest that maybe its influence has not hitherto been estimated at its proper value. another objection like that just indicated might be made to the effect that all the progress of the world up to the fall of rome is attributed in this book to inventors only; that all the work of statesmen, scientists, generals, admirals, explorers, jurists, men of business, etc., etc., is ignored. such an objection would be natural and reasonable; but to it an answer like the previous one may be made, to the effect that the purpose of this book is not to compare the benefits conferred by any one class of men with those conferred by any other, but merely to point out, in a very general way, what inventors have done. nevertheless, it does seem clear that inventors did more to map out the direction of the progress just traced than any other single class of men. if we will fix our attention on any one invention about which we know enough--say, the water-clock--we can see that the original inventor of the water-clock (no matter who he was) had more influence on the history of the clock than any other man has had; and that the inventors of clocks who followed him had more influence on the clock than any other equal number of men had. this does not mean that the men who risked their money in making novel clocks did not influence the history of the clock materially; and it does not mean that the men who made good materials for them did not influence the history of the clock greatly; and it does not mean that the engineers and mechanics who operated them successfully did not influence its history. it would be absurd to pretend that each one of these men did not influence the history of the clock; for without them there would have been no successful clock. nevertheless, in the nature of things, the original inventors must be credited with influencing the history of the clock more than any other equal number of men did, just as a father must be credited with influencing the history of his children more than any other man can, from the mere fact of his having caused them to be born. the inventors of clocks were the fathers of the clocks that they invented, and also the forefathers of all the inventions that proceed directly or indirectly from them. what has been said about the clock applies with equal force to every other invented thing. therefore, it can hardly be gainsaid that, so far as invented things are concerned, their inventors have had more influence on the history that has resulted from them than any other men have had. if anyone will glance through any book of ancient history, he will realize that it is mainly a record of wars; the political changes caused by wars, or rendered possible by their means; the growth of nations and other organizations; the invention of certain mechanisms, arts and sciences; and the construction of certain structures such as temples, palaces and ships. all these agencies influenced ancient history, of course; but it is clear that the agency that influenced it the most obviously and immediately was the wars. yet let us remind ourselves that the real effect on history of any war was not exerted by the war itself, so much as by the result of the war. let us also remind ourselves that the result of any war was because of the material forces engaged and the skill with which they were handled. now the material forces put onto the field of battle on each side in any of the wars were the product of the material resources of the country, of its wealth, its ability to manufacture weapons and transport troops; that is, of its utilization of invented mechanisms, processes and methods. the skill with which they were handled--(especially when supreme skill was exerted, as in the cases of alexander and cæsar)--was the outcome not of mere laborious training, not of mere knowledge, or courage, or carefully detailed arrangement, but of plans so conceived, developed and produced (invented) as to confront the enemy with unexpected situations that they were not prepared to meet. so the influence of even the wars seems to have been due fundamentally to invention. as to the other agencies that influenced the course of ancient history, they seem to owe their influence even more obviously to invention than war does. every department of ancient civilization seems traceable back to some invention or inventions. the whole of ancient civilization seems to rest primarily on inventions. as inventions were made by inventors, we seem forced to the conclusion that inventors influenced ancient history more than any other one class did. this does not mean that the inventor of a child's toy influenced history more than did any one of the millions of wise and good men in each generation who helped to keep the machine of civilization working smoothly; for it refers to inventors as a class, and not to inventors as individuals. chapter v the invention of the gun and of printing the period from the fall of rome to the beginning of the fourteenth century was almost destitute in the matter of inventions that can be distinctly named: though the conception and carrying into effect of mohammedanism in the seventh century, the campaigns and governmental systems of charlemagne in the ninth century, the invasion of england by william of normandy in the eleventh century, and the crusades in the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as well as all the numerous wars and campaigns that succeeded each other so rapidly, indicate a mental and nervous restlessness which sought relief in action, and which received guidance in seeking that relief from the suggestions of invention. during the interval, paper is supposed by some to have been invented, or at least the art of making it from rags. paper itself, however, had been invented long before in china. the early part of the twelfth century opened a new era in europe with the introduction of one of the most important inventions ever made, the gun. it is often said that gunpowder was invented then. gunpowder, of course, had been invented or discovered many centuries before. there is much obscurity about the invention of gunpowder. it is usually supposed to have been invented in china, and to have crept its way first to the western asian nations, and afterwards to europe by way of the mediterranean. there can be little doubt that gunpowder was known to the romans in the days of the empire; and some accounts of alexander's campaigns declare that he used mines to destroy the walls of gaza. it is supposed by many that the chinese had cannon, from certain embrasures in some of their ancient walls; but there seems to be no absolute proof of this. it seems fairly well established that the moors used artillery in spain in the twelfth century; though some writers hold that what were called firearms in europe before the fourteenth century were only engines which threw fire into besieged places. it seems probable that the gun was invented as the result of an accident that occurred while some man was pounding the (gunpowder) mixture of charcoal, saltpetre and sulphur in a receptacle of some kind. according to one story, the mixture exploded and threw the pestle violently out of the mortar. from this incident, the man who was handling the pestle, or a bystander, is supposed to have conceived the idea that the powder could be used intentionally to throw projectiles, and he is supposed also to have actually proved that it could be done at will, and to have produced a concrete appliance for doing it. from the history of the case, it would seem that the first gun was what we still call a "mortar." it may occur to some that (conceding the story to be true, which it possibly is, in essentials) the gun was not an invention so much as a discovery. it may be pointed out, however, that while the fact that gunpowder would blow a pestle out of a mortar might be truly called a discovery, yet the conception of utilizing the discovery by making a weapon, and the subsequent making of the weapon constituted an invention of the most clean-cut kind. let us realize the extreme improbability that the phenomenon of the expulsive force of gunpowder was then noted for the first time. it seems probable that accidental ignition of the mixture had often occurred before, and missiles hurled in all directions in consequence. but, as happens in the vast majority of all incidents, no one imagined any possible utilization of the facts disclosed by the incident; and if the man who invented the gun, after witnessing the expulsion of the pestle from the mortar, had not been endowed with both imagination and constructiveness, he would have treated it as most of us treat an incident--merely as an incident. but the imagination of this man must at once have conceived a picture of what we now call a mortar, which should be designed and constructed so that projectiles could be expelled from it at will, in whatever direction the mortar were pointing; and then his constructive faculty must have taken up the task that imagination had suggested, and developed the conception into a concrete thing. into the long, elaborate and exciting history of the development of the gun, that has been carried on with enormous energy ever since, it is not necessary at this point to enter. since the sixteenth century, its history is accurately known, and many large books are filled with descriptions and diagrams and mathematical tables and formulæ that recount its progress in detail; while the histories of all the nations blaze with stories of the battles in which guns have been employed. of all the inventions ever made, it is doubtful if the development and improvement of any other has enlisted the services of a greater number of men and of more important men, than the gun. it is more than doubtful if a greater amount of money has been expended on any other invention, if a greater number of experiments have been made, or if more mental and physical energy has been expended. certain it is that no other invention has had so direct and powerful an effect on human beings; for the number of men it has killed and wounded must be expressed in terms of millions. this phase of the influence of the gun on history is clearly marked. not so clearly marked, but really more important, has been its influence in deciding wars; for the ways in which wars have been decided have been the turning points in the march of history. the issue of alexander's wars, for instance, had decided that greek civilization should not perish, but survive; the issue of cæsar's wars in gaul had decided that roman civilization should extend north over europe, and that the western incursion of the savage germans should be stopped; the issue of the wars between the vigorous goths and degenerate rome had decided that rome must die; and so forth, and so forth. so, after the invention of the gun, the issue of every succeeding war supplied a new turning point for history to follow. naturally, those nations that took the most skilful, prompt and thorough advantage of the power, range and accuracy of the new invention gained in almost every case the victory over their opponents. so long as no weapons existed, struggles between men had to be decided by physical strength and cunning and quickness only. when the first flint fist-hammer was invented, a man who was sagacious enough and industrious enough and skilful enough to make one, could gain the victory over many another man of greater physical strength and quickness, but who had not the sagacity, industry and skill to provide himself with a flint fist-hammer. supposing the flint fist-hammer to be the first invention ever made, as many think it was, we see here the first instance of the influence of invention on history; because this first invention influenced the course of history in favor of men possessing sagacity, industry and skill, as against men not possessing those qualities. by doing this, it not only decided that such men (and tribes composed of such men) should prevail, but did even more to influence history; _it induced men and tribes to make and develop and utilize inventions_. this resulted in what we call civilization. as each improved weapon followed its predecessor, a new demand was made;--not only for a new kind of skill on the part of the man making the weapon and on the part of the soldiers using it, but also for foresight on the part of the tribe or nation that would supply the weapon to its troops. it is easily realized that, if there were two contiguous tribes about to go to war against each other, one of which was ruled by a sagacious, energetic and far-seeing chief, while the other was ruled by a dull, slothful and short-sighted chief, the former chief would probably provide his warriors with the newest weapon (say, the bow and arrow) and train them in its use; whereas the other would ignore it and go to battle with clubs and javelins only. as between two tribes otherwise equally matched, the result would be obvious; and doubtless it was exceedingly obvious in hundreds of tribal battles, before the dawn of history. it is a characteristic of evolution, as has been pointed out by wise men, that complexity eventually evolves from simplicity. in no one department of man's endeavor does this truth stand out more clearly than in the evolution of weapons. for the oldest weapon that we know of was probably a stone, or a stick used as a club; and each succeeding weapon has been more complicated than its predecessor,--needing additional parts with which to secure the additional results achieved. this increased complexity has entailed increased liability to derangement, because the failure of any one part has entailed the failure or the decreased effectiveness of the weapon as a whole. this increased liability to derangement has entailed a demand for not only increased care and skill in fabricating the weapon, but for increased knowledge, diligence and skill in caring for it, and using it. the superiority of the gun over all previously existing weapons was quickly recognized, and every civilized nation soon adopted it as its major implement of war. as the gun was a piece of mechanism, it possessed the attribute which seems to give to pieces of mechanism an element of superiority over every other thing in the universe, the attribute of continual improvability. human beings do not possess this attribute, nor does any other thing in nature, so far as we know. every human being begins where his father did--and so does everything else on the earth; though human invention has recently made it possible for certain plants to be improved. no new invention ever dies as a man does, even if the material parts or immaterial parts that compose it are destroyed. on the contrary, it lives, in the sense that it exists as a definite usable entity, and also in the sense that it continues to propagate. and the things that it propagates do not begin as helpless and useless babies, but as mature creations. the first completed gun is still the model for the guns that men make now, and will continue to be the model for all guns in the future. the man who made the first gun has been succeeded by other men, as the first gun has been succeeded by other guns; but the human successors have been no improvement on the inventor of the first gun, while the guns that have succeeded the first gun have been improvements on it to a degree that it is difficult--in fact, impossible, to realize. the relations of the gun to civilization are reciprocal, and are therefore in accord with most of the other phenomena of our lives; for just as the gun furthered the improvement of civilization, civilization furthered the improvement of the gun. nearly every step taken in the physical sciences, and afterward in engineering and general mechanics, has had a direct effect in improving the gun. the gun began as an exceedingly rough, awkward and crude appliance; the gun today is one of the most highly specialized and perfect appliances that the world possesses. but it is not only the gun itself that has been improved; the powder has also been improved, and to a degree almost equal, if not quite. when we realize that modern gunnery is so exact that if a gun is fired in any direction and at any angle of elevation, the projectiles will fall so close to a designated spot that all considerable variations in the points of fall from that spot are usually attributed to other causes than imperfection in the powder; and if we realize also that a variation of one per cent. in the initial velocity imparted to a projectile by its powder would result in a variation (practically speaking) of one per cent. in the range attained, we then may realize how perfectly understood the laws of the combustion of powder and the development of powder gas have become, and how perfect are the methods of manufacturing, storing and using it. books upon books have been written on the subject of making and using gunpowder; and as high a grade of experimental ability has been employed as on the development of any other art. it is not quite clear whether stationary cannon or small guns carried by soldiers were the first to be used; but the probability seems to be that cannon were the first. it soon became desirable to devise and to make appliances for holding the cannon in position, elevating them to predetermined angles, and transporting them from place to place. to accomplish these things, gun-carriages were invented. these appliances have kept pace with guns and gunpowder in the march of improvement; countless minor inventions have been made; countless experiments have been conducted; countless books and articles have been written; countless millions of money have been expended. that the field has been large can readily be realized, when we remind ourselves of the numberless situations that gun-carriages have had to be adapted to, on the level plains of central europe, in the mountains, on the sands of the desert,--in cold and heat and wet; and on the ocean also, in small vessels and great battleships, to handle cannon great and small, on the uneasy surface of the sea. but it will not be enough for us to realize that it has been necessary to construct gun-carriages so ingeniously that guns can be handled on them under all these circumstances; for we will fall short of a realization of what must be attained, unless we realize that the guns must be handled with safety, and (which is more difficult of attainment) with precision and yet with quickness. now to bring the gun and its accessories to the high standard they have now reached, the resources of virtually all the physical sciences have been required and utilized; so that, while modern civilization was made possible by the gun, and could not have been made possible without it, the modern gun has been made possible by civilization, and could not have been made possible without it. this mutuality between civilization and the gun is evident in the relations between civilization and every other great invention. it is very clearly evident in the case of material mechanism; for it has been plainly impossible for any material invention to exist without directly and indirectly contributing to the improvement, and even to the birth, of others. any improvement in the process of making any metal or any compound has always been of assistance to every mechanism using that metal or that compound; and it seems impossible to name any mechanism or process whose invention has not helped some other mechanism or process. in the matter of the invention of immaterial things, the effect may not be quite so obvious; and yet it is plain that most of those inventions have contributed to the safety, intelligence and stabilization of peoples, and therefore to a condition of mentality and of tranquillity that permitted and often encouraged the improvement of existing appliances, and the invention of new ones. of one class of immaterial invention, such as new books on the physical and engineering sciences, the influence on material inventions is, of course, as obvious as it is profound. the boom of the gun may be said, by a not forced figure of speech, to have ushered in the new civilization that rose from the mental lethargy of the middle ages; for it was the first great invention of all in the long line that have followed since. as it was the first, and because without it the others would have been impossible, we can hardly avoid the conclusion that it was the most important. the mutual reactions between the gun and civilization have resulted, and are still resulting, in widening the distance between the civilized and the uncivilized, placing more and more power in the hands of the civilized, and putting the uncivilized more and more into subjection by the civilized. the process that began with the invention of the fist-hammer, and was continued through the centuries by all the improvements in weapons that followed, was brought to a halt when rome fell, and not revived until the gun came into general use in the fourteenth century. during the interval of nearly nine hundred years, civilization indeed went backward with the advance of the barbarians into europe, checked but not wholly stopped by charles martel at the battle of tours in , and later by charlemagne, his grandson, in numerous campaigns. but the gun, being adopted and improved by peoples having the mentality needed to discern its usefulness, stabilized the conditions of living afterward by keeping in check the barbarians, especially east of europe. its greatest single usefulness followed from this by making possible the development and utilization of the next great invention. this invention was next to the gun in point of time. it was next to the gun in influence on history also; and some people think it has had even more influence than the gun. this invention is usually called the invention of printing. of course, printing had been invented centuries before, probably in china, and had been practiced during all the intervening centuries, in china, egypt, babylonia, assyria, greece, rome, the hellenistic countries and italy. but the printing had been done from blocks on which were cut or carved many characters, that expressed whole words or sentences. naturally, printing done from them was not adaptable to the recording of discussions, the making of connected narratives, or the publishing of books. suddenly, about the year , john gutenberg, who lives at mayence, conceives the idea of cutting only one letter on each block, putting the blocks in forms so arranged that the blocks can be put in such sequence as may be desired for spelling words, and all the blocks secured firmly in position. in other words, he invented movable type. objection may be made to this statement, and the declaration urged that movable type were used in china before the christian era. possibly they were; some declarations have been made to that effect. but even if they were, we cannot see that their invention there had any considerable influence on history. china was separated from western asia and from africa and europe by the long stretch of the dry lands of central asia, across which little communication passed. it is more nearly certain than most things are in ancient history, that the civilized peoples of western asia, africa and europe, including gutenberg himself, did not know of movable type until gutenberg invented them. it is absolutely certain that virtually the whole of the influence that printing by movable type has exercised on history sprang from the invention of gutenberg. it started almost immediately; and it increased with a rapidity and a certainty that are amazing. no invention made before, not even the gun, was seized upon with such avidity. the world wanted it. the world seemed to have been waiting for it, though unconsciously. it may be well at this point to impress upon our minds the fact that no invention has ever been recognized as an invention, unless it has been put into a concrete form. the u. s. patent office, for instance, will not award a patent for any invention unless it is described and illustrated so clearly that "any one skilled in the art can make and use it." it is an axiom that a man "cannot patent an idea." in many countries a patentee is required to "work" his invention, to make apparatus embodying it, and to put the apparatus to use. the underlying idea of the patent laws of all countries is that the good of the public is the end in view, and not the good of the inventor; that rewards are held out to the inventor, merely to induce him to put devices of practical value into the hands of the people. from this point of view, which seems to be the correct one, the mere fact that a man conceives of a device, even if he afterward develops his device to the degree that he illustrates it and describes it to someone in such a way that a person skilled in the art can make and use it, does not entitle him to any reward. he must use "due diligence" in communicating full knowledge of his invention to the public, through the patent office, ask for a patent, and pay to the government the prescribed fee. now, gutenberg "worked" his invention so energetically that, with the assistance of faust, schaeffer and others, an exceedingly efficient system of printing books was in practical operation as early as . the types were of metal, and were cast from a matrix that had been stamped out by a steel punch, and could therefore be so accurately fashioned that the type had a beautiful sharpness and finish. in addition, certain mechanical apparatus of a simple kind (printing presses) were invented, whereby the type could be satisfactorily handled, and impressions could be taken from them with accuracy and quickness. news of the invention spread so rapidly that before the year printing presses were at work in every country of europe. the first books printed were, of course, the works of the ancient authors, beginning with three editions of donatus. these were multiplied in great numbers, and gave the first effective impulse to the spread of civilization from the græco-oriental countries, where it had been sleeping, to the hungry intellects of europe. the new birth of civilization (usually called the renaissance) began in italy, where civilization had never quite died out, at some time during the fourteenth century, and took the form at first of the study of classical literature. this led naturally to a search for old manuscripts; and so ardent did this search become that the libraries of cathedrals and monasteries in all the civilized countries were ransacked. many new libraries were founded, especially in italy, to hold the old manuscripts that were discovered. a great impetus was given to the movement by the exodus of scholars from constantinople, and their migration west to italy, during the half century between the year and the fall of constantinople before the ottoman turks in . [illustration: the printing of books] therefore, when the news of the invention of gutenberg reached the scholars of italy and other lands, they seized upon it as an undreamed-of blessing for bringing about that widespread study of the classical authors which they had been struggling under so many difficulties to accomplish. to narrate and describe the progress made since then in the art of printing would be to rewrite what has been written from time to time in books and magazines and papers. to describe and point out the other arts that have sprung directly from the art of printing, such as the manufacture of printing presses and allied machinery, would require an enormous book of a wholly technical nature; to describe and point out the arts that have been made necessary, and the arts that have been made possible, by the invention of printing would entail a history of most of the industrial arts of the present day; while to mention and adequately describe the measures that have resulted from the invention of printing, and those made necessary and possible by it, would entail a history of all the civilization that has come into being since printing was invented. the effects of the invention of printing are most of them so obvious that it would be unnecessary to call attention to them. no other one art seems to be so directly and clearly to be credited with the progress of civilization. in the minds of many people, perhaps of most people, printing is considered the most important invention ever made. maybe it is; but let us remind ourselves that the gun came before the printing-press, and that the civilization contributed to by the printing press would not have been possible without the gun. it may be answered that, nevertheless, the printing press contributed more than the gun; in the same way that a bank contributes more to the welfare of a city than does the policeman who guards the bank. such an argument would have much to commend it, and it may be based on the correct view of the situation. but to the author, the gun seems to constitute the foundation of modern civilization, and the printing press to be part of the structure built upon it; for the fundamental enemy to civilization has always been the barbarian, be he a savage under attila or a bolshevik in new york. it is true that civilization may be considered as more important than the means that makes it possible, but even this seems to be discussible; but that the gun constitutes more distinctly the preservative influence of modern civilization than any other one thing constitutes civilization itself seems hardly to be discussible. the whole system of defense of all the nations against foes outside and anarchy inside has rested on the gun ever since it was invented; whereas, not even the printing press can be said to be the only element, or even the main element, in modern civilization. this brief discussion is perhaps not very important; but it does not wholly lack importance, for the reason that it brings into clear relief the fact that we cannot reasonably discuss civilization without realizing the dangers that confront it, and have always confronted it, and will continue to confront it. _civilization is an artificial product_, that some people think has more evil in it than good for the majority of mankind, and that certainly has been forced on mankind by a very small minority. the foundation on which the force has rested for four hundred years has been the gun. but whatever the comparative amount of influence of the gun and the printing press, there can be no doubt that they have worked together hand in hand: that one guarded, and the other assisted, the first tottering steps of the renaissance movement, and that both have continued to guard and assist the grand march that soon began, and that is still advancing. as the circumstances surrounding the invention of both the gun and the art of printing are sufficiently well known to warrant the belief that each was made, not by a king or any other man of high position, but by a man relatively obscure, and that the surroundings and early life of both were not those of courts or palaces, but those of a humble kind, it may be well to note how enormous are the results that have flowed from causes that seem to be very small. we have been told that "great oaks from little acorns grow"; but the consequences that have grown from the conception of the idea of printing are larger than any oak; and an acorn is probably much larger than the part of the brain in which an idea is conceived. as a matter of interest, let us realize the strong resemblance between the impression we receive from a material object actually seen by the eye and the memory of that impression afterwards. let us then realize the strong resemblance between it and another impression of that same object seen mentally but not physically; for instance, let us realize the strong resemblance between the impression made on us by actually seeing some friend and the impression received by _imagining_ him receiving a letter which we are now writing to him. the first picture was an image of the external object that was physically made on the retina, as a picture or image is made by a camera on a screen; but that picture on the retina must have been seen by the brain, or we would not have known of it. the other pictures were not made physically on the retina, so far as we know. yet we all realize that we can make pictures on our minds the more readily if we close our eyes. the fact of our eyes being open seems to operate adversely to our receiving a clear mental picture. now it is a matter of fact that an object (for instance, a pole) can be seen by a person with normal eyesight, if it subtends an angle as great as one minute; that a pole a foot thick can be seen clearly from a distance of feet, at which distance it subtends that angle. the rays of light pass through the crystalline lens of the eye and are focussed on the retina, as they pass through the lens of the camera, and are focussed on the sensitized paper. assuming the distance from the crystalline lens to the retina to be about three-quarters of an inch, the pole would be represented on the retina by an image /( x ) or less than / of an inch wide. during daylight our retinas are continually receiving images of which all lines as wide as / of an inch (and much narrower) are very clearly apprehended by the mind. but very few of those images are noticed by us. it is only when some incident calls them to our attention, or when the mind voluntarily seizes on them, that any conscious impression is made upon the brain. similarly, images of physical objects unseen by the physical eye are continually made on the mind: we are continually thinking of our friends and of past incidents and possible future incidents; and our thoughts of these things take the form of pictures. we see the man with whom we had a conversation yesterday, and we see him with a clearness that is proportional to the interest taken by the mind in the conversation and the circumstances surrounding it. if our conversation was uninteresting and the circumstances tame, we see him dimly. but if our conversation was angry and the circumstances were exciting, we see him and the surroundings very vividly--so vividly that our anger is again aroused; perhaps to as high degree as on the day before, or even higher. this image-making is, of course, voluntary sometimes; but most images come without volition on our part, and require no effort that we are conscious of. to call up an image voluntarily requires conscious effort; and to keep it in position while we gaze upon it requires effort that is great in proportion to the time during which it is exerted. psychologists speak of this act of keeping an image in position as one of giving attention, or paying attention. to perform this act requires the exercise of will, unless the act gives pleasure, or the image suggests danger; in each of these cases, of course, the act is almost involuntary. a man who is observant notes consciously the incidents that are passing around him: he seizes on certain of the millions of pictures passing before him, concentrates their images on his retina, and gazes on each one for a while. similarly, a man who is contemplative, seizes on certain of the vague mental pictures passing through his mind, concentrates his attention on them, and gazes at each one for a while. we call the former an observant man and the other a thoughtful man. sometimes an observant man learns a great deal from what he sees, in the same way that sometimes a studious man learns a great deal from what he studies; but the learning of course cannot be accomplished without the assistance of the memory. one is often surprised to see how little some observant and studious men have remembered. many impressions have been received, but few retained. the thoughtful man, of course, cannot in the nature of things receive so many conscious impressions as the merely observant or studious man; for the reason that he continually seizes on one and then another, and holds each for a time, while he fixes his attention on it. usually, however, the thoughtful man memorizes his observations or his studies for some specific purpose; he moves the various images about in his mind; and arranges them in classes: for otherwise, the various images would form merely an aggregation of apparently unrelated facts. the value of such aggregations is, of course, enormous; they compose what we call data, and include such things as tables of dates, etc. but data, even tables of dates, have no value in themselves; it is only from their relations to other things that they have value. there would be no value, for instance, in knowing that william of normandy invaded england in , unless we knew who william was, and what england was, and what the effect of his invading it was. now the thoughtful man, like the man who arranges a card-catalogue in such a way that it will be useful, not only notes isolated facts, but puts them into juxtaposition with each other, and sees what their relations are. the mental pictures that he finally fixes in his mind are of related things, seen in their correct perspective. they are like the pictures which are made on the mind of anyone by--say, a landscape: whereas the mental pictures made by an unthoughtful man are such as little children probably receive from nature; pictures in which the trees and hills and valleys of a landscape do not appear as such, but merely as a great aggregation of numberless separate images, confused and meaningless like the colored pieces of a kaleidoscope. to the thoughtful man, therefore, life seems not quite so meaningless as to his neighbor; though even the most thoughtful can fix very few complete and extensive pictures in his mind. if his thoughtfulness takes him no further than simply forming pictures that enable him to see things as they are, and in their correct relations to each other, he becomes "a man of good judgment," a man valuable in any community, especially for filling positions in which the ability to make correct deductions is required. such a man, however, no matter how correctly he may estimate any situation, no matter how clearly he may see all the factors in it, no matter how accurately he may gauge their relative values and positions, may be unable to suggest any way for utilizing its possible benefits, or warding off its possible dangers. that is, he may lack constructiveness. he is like a man who possesses any desirable thing or dangerous thing, and who understands all there is to understand about it, but _does not know what to do with it_. the various factors are in his (mental) hands, but he can make nothing of them. the constructive man can construct concrete entities out of what are apparently wholly individual factors having no relation to each other; he can, for instance, take two pieces of wood and a piece of string, and make a weapon with which he can kill living animals at a considerable distance. with neither the pieces of wood nor the string could he do that; and he could not do it with all three, unless he were able to construct them into a bow and arrow. that is, he could make the weapon if he had ever seen it made before. if he were only constructive and not inventive, he could not make it unless he had seen it done before, or knew it had been done. men of purely constructive ability have not of themselves taken very conspicuous parts on the stage of history; and yet the things that they have constructed comprise nearly all that we can see and hear and touch in the world of civilization. thus history, while it is a narrative of things that have been done, is not a narrative of all the things that have been done, but only of the new and striking things. it is a narrative of wars, of the rise and fall of nations, of the founding of cities, of the establishment of religions and theories, of the writing of books, of the invention of mechanisms, of the painting of pictures, of the carving of statues; in general, of the creative work that man has done. the merely constructive man, unless he has been inventive also, has never constructed anything of a really novel kind. it is a matter of everyday experience that nearly all the things that are constructed are according to former patterns and the lessons of experience. all the constructive and engineering arts and sciences are studied and practiced for the purpose of enabling men to build bridges and houses and locomotives, etc., in such ways, as experience has shown to be good. nearly all our acts, nearly all our utterances, nearly all our thoughts, are of stereotyped and conventional forms. this condition of affairs possesses so many advantages that we cannot even imagine any other to exist. it enables a man to act nearly automatically in most of the situations of life. the main reason for drilling a soldier is that when confronted with the conditions of battle, he shall fire his musket and do his other acts automatically, undisturbed by the danger and excitement. similarly, all our experience in life tends to automaticity. it is a very comfortable condition, for it demands the minimum amount of mental and nervous energy. the conductor demands your fare, and you pay it almost automatically. that a condition of automaticity prevails in nature, as we see it, one is tempted to suppose: for the seasons succeed each other with a regularity suggestive of it. but even if the machine of nature and the machine of civilization are automatic now, we have no reason for believing that they always were so. even the most perfect automatic engine had to be started at some time, and it had to be invented before it could be started; and it had also to go through a long process of development. similarly, a man reads a paper almost automatically; but it required years of time to develop his ability to do so. now it has happened from time to time in history that some invention has broken in on the smoothly running machine of civilization and introduced a change. the gun did this, and so did the printing press. in every such case, a few men have welcomed the invention, but the majority have resented the change: some of them because their interests were threatened by it; others because of the instinctive but powerful influence of dislike of change. the purely constructive man does not cause any such jolt. his work proceeds smoothly, uniformly, and usually with approval. but the inventive man, "his eye in a fine frenzy rolling," is visited with some vision which he cannot or will not dismiss, and which compels him to try to embody it in some form, and to continue to try until he succeeds in doing so, or gives up, confessing failure. the inventive man, having seen the vision, becomes a constructive man, and (in case he succeeds) _puts the vision which he sees into such form that other people can see it also_. it is obvious therefore that two kinds of ability are needed to produce a really good invention of any kind, inventive ability and constructive ability; and it is also obvious that they are separate, though they cooperate. many an invention of a quality that was mediocre or even inferior in originality, novelty and scope, has been quite acceptable by reason of the excellent constructive work that was done upon it: many a book and many an essay has succeeded almost wholly because of the skilful construction of the sentences; many a picture because of the accuracy of the perspective and the mixing of the colors; many a new mechanical device because of the excellent workmanship bestowed upon it. conversely, many a grand and beautiful conception has failed of recognition because of the poor constructive work that was done on it. but occasionally a shakespeare has given to the world an enduring masterpiece, the joint work of the highest order of invention and the highest order of constructive skill; occasionally a raphael has painted a picture similarly conceived and executed; and occasionally an edison has given the world a mechanical invention, comparably wonderful and perfect. in all such cases, the start of the work was a picture on the mental retina; an image of something that was not, but might be made to be. a physical picture is actually made on the physical retina, but it cannot be recognized by the owner of the retina, unless a healthy optic nerve transmits it to his brain. every mental picture must also be transmitted to the brain; and some mental pictures are very bright and clear. in some forms of insanity, the mental pictures are so clear that the patient cannot be persuaded that they are not physical; the patient sees a man approaching him, when there is no man approaching him; but the impression made on the patient's mind is the same as if there were. the thought of the enormousness of the consequences that have followed the appearing of some visions to men (the vision of the gun, for instance) is almost stunning, if we try to realize the small area of the brain that the vision must have covered. if a line / of an inch wide made on the physical retina and afterwards transmitted to the brain is seen with perfect clearness by the mind, what a small area of the brain must have been covered by the original vision of the gun! yet how vast have been its consequences! the fact that the inventor sees a vision, and then mentally arranges and rearranges the various material elements available in order to embody his vision in a painting, a project, a machine, a poem or a sonata, indicates that the essential processes of invention are wholly mental. this truth is illustrated by the work of every inventor, great or small. possibly, the most convincing illustration is that given by the deaf beethoven, who conceived and composed some of his grandest works when he could not physically hear a note. reference to the work of roger bacon has not been made, because of the doubts surrounding it. chapter vi columbus, copernicus, galileo and others long before the christian era the chinese used pivoted magnetic needles to indicate absolute direction to them; but that they possessed or had invented the mariner's compass, there is considerable doubt. the history of the invention of the mariner's compass has not yet been written. it is not known when, or where, or by whom it was invented. it is well-known, however, that the mariner's compass was in use in the mediterranean sea in the early part of the fifteenth century a. d. guided by it, the navigators of that day pushed far out from land. the first great navigational feat that followed the invention of the compass was that performed by the portuguese, bartholomew dias, who conceived the idea of reaching india by going around africa, and sailed down the west coast of africa as far as its southern end, later called the cape of good hope. it was a tremendous undertaking, and it had tremendous results; for it demonstrated the possibilities of great ocean voyages, proved that the road to india was very long, and led to the expedition of columbus, six years later. it was also a great invention, both in brilliancy of conception and excellence of execution, although dias did not reach india. the second great navigational feat was performed by christopher columbus in . before that time it was conceded by most men of learning and reflection that the earth was spherical; and it was realized that, if it was spherical, it might be possible by sailing to the westward to reach india, the goal of all commercial expeditions in that day. columbus is not to be credited with the first conception of that possibility. [illustration: portuguese voyages and possessions] but that conception rested undeveloped in the minds of only a few men. had it not been for columbus, or some man like him, it would have remained undeveloped and borne no fruit. the savior in his parable tells us of the sower who went forth to sow, and tells us also that most of the grain fell on stony ground. so it is with most of the opportunities that are offered to us every day; and so it is even with most of the visions that are placed before our minds. but the savior tells us also of other grains that fell on good ground and bore abundant fruit. such are the conceptions that the great inventors have embodied; such was the conception that fell on the good ground of the mind of christopher columbus. the conception that came to him was not of the possibility that someone could sail west and eventually reach india, but of preparing a suitable expedition himself and actually sailing west and reaching india. the conception must have been wonderfully powerful and clear, for it dominated all his life thereafter. but he could not make others see the vision that he saw. for many years he went from place to place, trying to get the means wherewith to prepare his expedition. he made only a few converts, but he did make a few. some of these exerted their influence on queen isabella of spain. she, together with her husband ferdinand, then supplied the money and other necessaries for the expedition. the invention of the gun was followed by the invention of printing in , and this by the discovery of america in . these three epochal occurrences started the new civilization with a tremendous impetus. this impetus was immediately reinforced by the voyage of the portuguese admiral, vasco da gama, around the cape of good hope to india in - , and the circumnavigation of the globe by ferdinand magellan in - . the immediate practical influence of da gama's feat was almost to kill the commerce of the cities of italy and alexandria with india by way of the red sea and the indian ocean, and to transfer the center of the sea-commerce of the world to the west coast of europe, especially portugal. near the west coast it has rested ever since; though but little of it stayed long with portugal. while magellan's voyage was not quite so important as the discovery of america, it was not immeasurably less so; for it set at rest forever the most important question in geography,--was the earth round or not? the voyage of columbus had not answered it, because he returned by the same route as that by which he went. but magellan started in a southwesterly course, and one of his ships again reached home, coming from the east. the victoria had circumnavigated the globe! only eighteen men and one ship returned. the other ships and the other men had perished. magellan himself had been buried in the philippines. the news of magellan's great exploit and the stories that came to europe of the riches beyond the sea, resulted soon in an idea coming to the mind of hernando cortez, the development of that idea into a concrete plan, and the making of a complete invention. this was a plan by which he should head an expedition to a certain part of the new world, and "convert" the heathen dwelling there; doing whatever killing and impoverishing and general maltreatment might be found to be convenient or desirable. the invention worked perfectly; some half-savage indians of what we now call mexico were "converted," many were killed, and untold treasure was forcibly obtained. the success of this invention was so great that francisco pizarro was inspired to copy it, and to try it on some indians in a country that now we call peru. whether pizarro improved on cortez's scheme, or whether the conditions of success were better need not concern us now: the main fact seems to be that pizarro was able to convert and kill and impoverish and generally ruin more effectively than cortez. following cortez and pizarro, many expeditions sailed from spain to the west indies, central america and south america, and carried out similar programs. the two principal results were that those parts of the world were soon dominated by spain, and that the people of spain received large amounts of gold and treasure. the main result to them was that they succumbed under the enervating influence of the artificial prosperity produced, and rapidly deteriorated. by the end of the hundred years' period after columbus discovered america, spain was clearly following the downward path, and at high speed. one of the early results of the invention of printing was an increased ability of people separated by considerable distances to interchange their views; and a still greater though allied result was an increased ability of men of thought and courage to impress their thoughts upon great numbers of people. at the time when printing was invented, the church of rome had ceased to dominate european nations as wholly as it had done before; but it exercised a vast power in each country. this was because of its prestige, its hold on the clergy and the church property, and its authority in many questions connected with marriage, wills, appointments, etc. this was resented, but impotently, by the various sovereigns. it was realized also (and it came to be realized with increasing clearness toward the end of the fifteenth century) that there were many grave evils and scandals in the church, even in the highest quarters. the printing-press lent itself admirably to the dissemination of views on this matter: so that there gradually grew up a strong and widespread feeling of discontent. but despite considerable friction as to the limits of their respective functions, the church and the state were so intimately allied in every country, and each realized so clearly its dependence on the other, that no movement of any magnitude against even the acknowledged evils had been able to gain ground. no man appeared who was able to conceive and execute a plan that could successfully effect reform. but such a man appeared in the year , whose name was martin luther. he was a poor monk; but a knowledge of virtually all there was to know lived in his mind, coupled with imagination to conceive, constructiveness to plan, and courage to perform. in that fateful year, , the pope sent agents through the world to sell "indulgences," which remitted certain temporal punishments for sin, in return for gifts of money. the agent who was commissioned for germany carried out his work with so little tact and moderation, that he made the granting of indulgences seem even a more scandalous procedure than it really was. luther had been preaching the doctrine of a simple following of the teachings of the savior, and deprecating a too close adherence to mere forms and ritual. he now seems to have conceived a clean-cut plan of effective action; for on the evening before the indulgences were to be offered on all saints day, in the church of wittemberg, luther nails on the door his celebrated ninety-five theses against the sale. the printing-press reproduced copies of these in great numbers throughout germany. a definite sentiment antagonistic to the indulgences developed rapidly, and a general movement toward the reform of the abuses in the church took shape. luther was threatened with excommunication by the pope in , but he burned a copy of the "papal bull" in a public place on december of that year. the emperor of germany convened a meeting of the diet at worms in , at which he exerted all his powers to make luther retract: but in vain. so great a following did luther now have that, though the emperor put him under ban, and all persons were forbidden to feed or give him shelter, he was cared for secretly by men in high position, until he voluntarily came out of hiding, and appeared in wittemberg. the emperor called a meeting of the diet at spires in , and another meeting in . both meetings had for their object the suppression of the movement begun by luther. it was against a decree made by the second diet that certain high officials and others made the famous protest, that caused the name to be affixed to them of protestants. this name has been perpetuated to this day. as is well known, the movement resulted, after nearly a hundred years of disturbed conditions, in a series of wars, called "the thirty years' war" that began in , and ended with the peace of westphalia in . this peace marked the end of the reformation period, and resulted in establishing protestantism in north germany, denmark, norway, sweden, england and scotland. the influence of luther's conception with its subsequent development was thus definite, widespread and profound, even if regarded from a merely religious point of view: but the influence it had on religion was only a part of its total influence. in words, the protest was against certain abuses in the roman church; but in fact it was against a domination exercised over the minds and souls of men. luther's influence was in reforming not only the roman catholic church and the practice of the christian religion throughout europe, but also the conditions under which men were allowed to use their minds. while the inventions in mechanism, religion, etc., which we have just noted were going on during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, others were going on in the realm of science. the movement was begun about by a young man named nicolas copernicus, who was executing the dissimilar functions of canon, physician and mathematician in the little town of frauenberg in poland. copernicus at this time was thirty-four years old, but he had even then devoted the major activities of his mind to astronomy for several years. naturally, his efforts had been devoted to mastering whatever of the science then existed. the efforts of most people in dealing with any subject end when they have gone thus far--and very few go even thus far. but copernicus noted that, while the ptolemaic system (suggested, though probably not invented by the egyptian king) was the one generally accepted, it did not account for many of the phenomena observed; that none of the other systems that had been suggested afterward explained matters more satisfactorily, and that no one of the systems was in harmony with any other. thereupon this daring young man conceives the idea of inventing a system of astronomy himself, in which all the movements of the heavenly bodies should be shown to be in accordance with a simple and harmonious law. seizing on this idea, he proceeds at once to develop it; and he works on it until death takes him from his labors in at the age of seventy. the whole civilized world had virtually accepted the ptolemaic theory,--at least, the part of it which assumed that the earth was the center of the universe, the sun and stars and planets revolving around it. copernicus invented the theory that the sun was the center, that the earth and the other planets revolved around it, and that the earth revolved on its own axis once in twenty-four hours. so great was the insistence of the religious bodies in adhering to the ptolemaic theory, so set were the minds of all men of high position on it, that though copernicus wrote a book expounding his own theory, he did not think it wise to publish it. he seems to have completed the book in about . he did not publish it till . just before its printing was finished, copernicus was taken ill. the first volume was held before him. he touched it and seemed to realize dimly what it was. then he relapsed into torpor almost immediately, and soon died. it is interesting to note that copernicus was not the first to conceive the idea that the earth turns on its own axis, or that the earth revolves around the sun, any more than bell was the first to conceive the idea that speech could be transmitted by a suitable arrangement of magnet, diaphragm and electric circuit. but copernicus was the first to invent a system of astronomy that was like a machine. it was a usable thing. it could be made to explain astronomical phenomena and predict astronomical events correctly. it may be well to remind ourselves again that no application for patent will be granted by our patent office unless the invention is described and illustrated so clearly and correctly that "a person skilled in the art can make and use it;" and to realize that this admirable phraseology may be utilized to distinguish any other novel endeavor of man entitled to be called an invention from any other not so entitled; for no system, no theory, no religion, no scheme of government, regardless of how attractive it may be, is entitled to be called an invention, unless, like the copernican system, "a person skilled in the art can make and use it." shortly after copernicus, came johann kepler, who was born in württemburg in , and died in . he had been a pupil of tycho brahe, who did not succeed in making any great invention or discovery, but who did collect a great amount of data. utilizing these, kepler devoted many years to the study of copernicus, and tried to invent a system which would explain some facts of astronomy that the system of copernicus did not explain, notably the non-uniform speed of the planets. the main result of his labors was the famous kepler's laws, which were " . the orbits of the planets are ellipses having the sun at one focus. " . the area swept over per hour by the radius joining sun and planet is the same in all parts of the planet's orbit. " . the squares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun." these three discoveries, enunciated in three interdependent, concrete laws, constituted an invention which, while it was merely an improvement on copernicus's, was so great an improvement as almost to make the difference between impracticability and practicability. without this improvement, astronomy would not be what it is, navigation would not be what it is, the regulation of time throughout the world would not be what it is, and the present highly intricate but smoothly running machine of civilization could not exist at all, except in a vastly inferior form. the machine of civilization is dependent for its successful operation on the good quality and correct design of every other part. so is every other machine; for instance, a steam-engine. the copernican system was not recognized for more than a century. it was, in fact, definitely rejected, and people were subjected to punishment and even torture for declaring their belief in it. one of the amazing facts surrounding copernicus's invention was that he carried on his observations with exceedingly crude appliances. _the telescope had not yet been invented._ who invented the telescope is not definitely known; but it is probable that both the telescope and the microscope (compound microscope) were invented by jansen, a humble spectacle-maker in holland. both inventions were made about the year , and were of the highest order of merit from the three main points of view,--originality, completeness and usefulness. few inventions more perfectly possessing the attributes of a great invention can be specified. the originality of the conception of each seems unquestionable; the beautiful completeness of the embodied form of each was such that only improvements in detail were needed afterward; and, as to their usefulness, can we even imagine modern civilization without them both? the interesting fact may now be called to mind that, although many men who lived in jansen's time were loaded with honors and fame and wealth and glory, the inventor of the telescope and the microscope received no reward of any kind that we know of; and his fame has come to us so imperfectly that we are not even sure that jansen was his name. the man usually credited with the invention of the telescope is galileo, though galileo himself never pretended that he invented it, and though historical statements are clear that he heard that such an instrument had been invented, and then designed and constructed one himself in a day. it would be interesting to know just how much information galileo received. it seems that his information was very vague. if so, a considerable amount of inventiveness may have been required, besides a high order of constructiveness. but the mere fact that galileo knew that such an instrument had been invented caused his mental processes to start from an image put into his mind by an outside agency and not from his own imagination. galileo's work did not begin with conception, and therefore it was not an invention. galileo was one of the foremost and most ardent supporters of the copernican theory; and it was on his skilful and industrious use of the telescope in making observations confirming the theory that his fame mainly rests. as late as , nearly a century after copernicus's doctrine had become known, galileo was compelled by threat of torture to recant, and was condemned to imprisonment for life. the influence of inventions on history has been greater and more beneficial than that of any other single endeavor of man. yet most inventions have been resisted. _the invention of copernicus was resisted for more than a century by the organization commanding the greatest talent and character and learning that the world contained._ the extraordinary access of mental energy in europe about the beginning of the seventeenth century is illustrated by another invention virtually contemporaneous with those of copernicus and jansen, and also in the line of mathematical research. this was the invention by baron john napier of logarithms. it was a curious invention--an invention the like of which one cannot easily specify; for the thing invented was not a material mechanism, or a theory, or anything exactly like anything else. it is difficult to classify a logarithm except as a logarithm:--yet napier did create something; he did make something exist that had not existed before; he did conceive an idea and embody that idea in a concrete machine. that machine, in the hands of a man who understood it, could supply extraordinary assistance in making mathematical calculations, especially calculations involving many operations and many figures, as in astronomy. it has been in continual use since napier invented it, and is used still. in order to indicate the simplicity and the value of napier's invention, it may assist those who have forgotten what a logarithm is, or who have been so fortunate as never to have been compelled to study about them, to state that logarithms are numbers so adapted to numbers to be multiplied, divided, or raised to any power, that one simply adds their logarithm, subtracts one logarithm from the other or multiplies or divides a logarithm by the number representing the power, and then notes in a table the number resulting, instead of going through the long process of multiplying, dividing, squaring, etc. of course, in the case of small numbers, the use of logarithms is not only unnecessary but undesirable; but in the case of the long numbers used in astronomy, and even in navigation, logarithms are inexpressibly helpful and time-saving. the mental feat of napier consisted in conceiving the idea of accomplishing what he subsequently did accomplish, and then constructing and producing the "logarithmic tables" that made it possible. another indication of the new intellectual movement in europe was the experiments, deductions and inventions of william gilbert, an english physician, who lived from till . according to the use of the word invention followed in this book, only two actual inventions can be credited to gilbert, that of the electroscope and that of magnetization. gilbert's work was valuable in the highest degree, more valuable than that of most inventors; and yet it was more inductive and deductive than inventional. it is not the purpose of this book to suggest that invention has been the only kind of work that men have done which has had an influence on history; and the work of gilbert gives the author an opportunity to emphasize the value of certain work which is not inventional. at the same time, the author cannot resist the temptation of pointing out that gilbert's work was original and constructive, that it hovered around the borders of invention, and that it did more to assist the inventors of the electric and electro-magnetic appliances that were soon to follow, than the work of almost any other one man. the full influence of gilbert's work was not apparent for many years; not, in fact, until the discoveries and inventions of volta, galvani and faraday showed the possibilities of utilizing electricity for practical purposes. then the facts which gilbert had established, and the discoveries built upon them afterward, were the basis of much of the work of those great men, and of the vast science of electrical engineering that resulted. the inventions made before the opening of the seventeenth century a. d., wonderful as they were, were quite widely separated in time, and seem to have been wholly the outcome of individual genius, and not the result or the indication of any widespread intellectual movement. but soon after it opened, the influence of printing in spreading knowledge became increasingly felt, and inventions began to succeed each other with rapidity, and to appear in places far apart. in the beginning of the seventeenth century, certain writings appeared in england that took great hold on the minds of thinking men, not only in england, but throughout europe. the name of the author was francis bacon. it would not be within the scope of this book even to attempt to analyze the philosophy of bacon, to differentiate between it and the philosophy of aristotle or any other of the great thinkers of the world, or to try to trace directly the influence of bacon's philosophy on his own time and on future times. it is obvious, however, that bacon invented a system of inductive reasoning that assisted enormously to give precision to the thoughts of men in his own day, by convincing them of the necessity of first ascertaining exact facts, and then inferring correct conclusions from those facts. this seems to us an easy thing to do, looking at the matter in the light of our civilization. but it was not easy, though bacon's high position gave him a prestige exceptional for a philosopher to possess; and this smoothed his way considerably. men had not yet learned to think exactly. the efforts of even the great minds were of a groping character; and fanciful pictures made by the imagination seem to have intertwined themselves with facts, in such a way that correct inferences (except in mathematical operations) were hardly to be expected. bacon insisted that every start on an intellectual expedition should be made from absolutely indisputable facts. the first effect of such teaching was to make men seek for facts. not long afterward, we find that many men were making it the main business of their lives to seek for facts from nature herself. this does not mean that men had not sought for facts before from nature, or that bacon alone is to be credited with the wonderful increase in the work of research and investigation that soon began. bacon's principal book was published in , and called the "novum organum," or "the new instrument." it was obviously an invention, for it was a definite creation of a wholly new thing, that originated in a definite conception, and was developed into a concrete instrument. that bacon so regarded it is evident from the title that he gave it. furthermore, he described it as "the science of a better and more perfect use of reason in the investigation of things and of the true aids of the understanding." bacon was a patient of dr. harvey, who discovered the circulation of the blood; and it would be strange indeed if bacon's philosophy did not give to harvey a great deal of guidance and suggestion that furthered his experiments. william harvey discovered the fact that the blood circulates in the bodies of living animals. this declaration stated by itself would convey to the minds of some the idea that harvey discovered it, somewhat as a boy might discover a penny lying on the ground. the first definition of the word discover in the _standard dictionary_ is "to get first sight or knowledge of"; so that the mere announcement that an investigator has "discovered" something gives to many people an incorrect idea of his achievement. harvey discovered the fact of the circulation of the blood after years of experimentation and research on living animals, and by work of a most laborious kind. his conclusions were not accepted by many for a very considerable period; but he was fortunate, like bacon, in holding a position of such influence and prestige, that he escaped most of the violent opposition that inventors usually meet. harvey's discovery did not of itself constitute an invention; but the embodiment of that discovery in a concrete theory, so explained "that persons skilled in the art could make and use it," did constitute an invention of the most definite kind. the whole influence of that invention on history, only a highly equipped physician could describe; but, nevertheless, one may feel amply justified in stating that its influence on the science and practice of surgery and medicine, and on the resulting health of all the civilized nations of the world, has been so great as to be incalculable. a contemporary and acquaintance of harvey was robert boyle, one of the most important of the early scientific investigators, who was an avowed disciple of bacon, and followed his methods with conscientious care. his work covered a large field, but it was concerned mostly with the action of gases. he is best known by "boyle's law," which is usually expressed as follows: "when the volume of a mass of gas is changed, keeping the temperature constant, the pressure varies inversely as the volume; or the product of the pressure by the volume remains constant." while it has been found that this law is not absolutely true with all gases at all temperatures and pressures, its departure from accuracy are very small, and these are now definitely known. with certain tabulated corrections, this law is the basis on which most of the calculations for steam engines, air engines and gas engines are made. it is usually expressed by the formula p v = p´ v´ = constant. boyle is said to have "discovered" this law, and harvey is said to have "discovered" the circulation of the blood. doubtless they did: but if they had done no more than "discover" these things, no one else would have been the wiser, and the world would have been no richer. what these two men did that made us wiser and the world richer, was to make inventions of definite character, and give them to the world in such manageable forms, that "persons skilled in the art can make and use them." in , the spirit thermometer, as we know it now, was invented by drebel. it is by some ascribed to galileo. an interesting controversy has been waged as to which was actually the inventor. the facts seem to be that galileo did invent a thermometer in which the height of water in a glass tube indicated approximately the temperature. the tube was long and ended in a bulb at the top. the bulb being warmed with the hand of galileo, and the open lower end of the tube being immersed in water, and then the warmth of the hand removed, water rose in the tube to a height depending on the warmth of the air in the bulb. the height of the water therefore varied _inversely_ as the temperature. the defect of the instrument was that it was a barometer as much as it was a thermometer; because the varying pressure of the atmosphere caused the water to rise and fall accordingly, and thus falsify the thermal indications. drebel realized this, and closed both ends of the tube. thus galileo came very near to inventing both the thermometer and the barometer, but yet invented neither! it seems incredible that he should have failed to invent the barometer, having come so near it; for he had been engaged for a long period in investigating the weight of air, and finally had succeeded in ascertaining it. the barometer was invented or rather discovered by galileo's successor, torricelli, in . torricelli, in investigating the action of suction pumps, constructed what now we call a barometer; but it was not until _after_ he had constructed it that he realized that the height of mercury in his tube indicated the pressure of the air outside. seventy-five years later, fahrenheit made a great improvement in the thermometer by substituting mercury for spirits. meanwhile, otto von guericke, following in the footsteps of galileo and torricelli, had invented the air-pump, by means of which he succeeded in getting a fairly perfect vacuum in a glass receiver. this seems to have been an invention of the most clear-cut kind, resulting from an idea that occurred to guericke that he seized upon promptly and put to work to serve mankind. its influence in giving impetus to the science and art of pneumatics, and the influence of pneumatics on the progress of civilization, are too obvious to need more than to be pointed out. the invention of guericke is a simple and clear illustration of the "power of an idea"; an illustration of seed falling on good ground and bringing forth fruit an hundred fold. one of the greatest inventors that ever lived was isaac newton, who lived from till . even as a child he busied himself with contriving and constructing mechanical appliances, mostly toys. as a young man he occupied himself mostly with studies in mathematics and experiments in physics, especially optics. in he invented a special form of the reflecting telescope, called after him the newtonian telescope. he made many experiments in optics, in consequence of which he discovered and announced that white light consists of seven colors, having different degrees of refrangibility. the influence of this discovery on the advancement of learning since that time, it is unnecessary to point out; but we cannot realize too clearly that without it much of the most important progress in optics since that time would have been impossible. the invention by reason of which newton is most generally known is his theory or law of gravitation, which he announced in his _principia_, published in . in , kepler had announced his famous laws, that reads: " . the orbits of planets are ellipses having the sun at one focus. " . the area swept over per hour by the radius joining sun and planet is the same in all parts of the planet's orbit. " . the squares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun." newton showed from the laws of mechanics which he had discovered that, assuming the first two laws of kepler to be true, each planet must always be subject to a force directing it toward the sun, that varies inversely as the square of its distance from the sun: otherwise, it would fly away from the sun or toward it. from this, newton inferred that all masses, great and small, attract each other with a force proportional to their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and invented what is now called the law of universal gravitation. another invention of possibly equal value, also published in his _principia_, but not so generally known, is his three laws of motion. these are " . every body continues in its state of rest, or of moving with constant velocity in a straight line, unless acted upon by some external force. " . change of momentum is proportional to the force and to the time during which it acts, and is in the same direction as the force. " . to every action there is an equal and contrary re-action." it is probably impossible for any human mind to conceive any invention of a higher order of originality than either of these two, or to construct any invention more concrete and useful. certainly no more brilliant inventions have ever yet been made. these two wonderful products of newton's genius underlie the whole structure of modern astronomy and modern mechanics. the sciences of modern astronomy and modern mechanics could not exist without them, and would not now exist unless newton (or someone else) had invented them. it may be pointed out that newton's conception of our solar system is that of a machine in rapid motion, of which the sun and the planets are the principal parts. another important invention ascribed to newton is that of the sextant, a small and easily handled instrument, used ever since in ships for purposes of navigation; but whether he should receive the entire credit for this invention seems quite doubtful; for another astronomer, robert hooke, is credited by some with the original suggestion, and john hadley, still another astronomer, with having adapted it to practical sea use. numerous other scientific inventions, however, that have formed the basis of much of the scientific work of later experimenters and inventors are clearly to be credited to newton. among these, his formula for the velocity of a wave of compression, his color-wheel, and his simple apparatus known as "newton's rings," by which can be measured the wave lengths of light of different colors, are possibly the most important. in approximate coincidence with the renaissance movement and the accompanying awakening of the intellect of europe, there began a conflict between the sovereigns and the pope. the popes had gradually acquired great power, because of their prestige as the successors of st. peter, to whom it was declared our savior had given the keys of heaven. coincidentally, the multitudinous barons had gradually built up the feudal system. this was a loose-jointed contrivance, under which europe was virtually divided into little geographical sections, ruled over by hereditary feudal lords, who in each country owed allegiance to a sovereign. by reason of the slowness and uncertainty of transportation and communication, the various feudal lords were extremely independent, and each one did substantially as he willed in his little domain. the situation was a miserable one for every person, except the pope, the sovereigns, the feudal lords and their hangers-on; not only because of the various petty tyrannies, but because of the continual little wars and the general absence of good government. gradually, the sovereigns got more and more power (except in england) and the conditions improved so much that the people realized that it was better to be ruled by one king, or emperor, than by a multitude of barons. the sovereigns finally acquired so much power that they dared to oppose the pope in many of his aggressions; but no very important situations were developed until the reformation caused the existence of protestant or heretic sovereigns, and the occasional excommunication of one of them by the pope, with its attendant exhortation to his subjects to take up arms against him. to meet this situation, the theory of the divine right of kings was invented. this was a very important invention; for it offset the divine authority of the pope as pope, and gave a theme for the bishops and priests in their discourses to the people, and a slogan for the soldiers. it was extremely successful for three centuries, and its influence was in the main beneficent. it worked for the establishment of stable governments and great nations, tended to prevent the excessive domination of a religious organization, and, by recognizing the fact that every sovereign's power comes from the almighty, it suggested the sovereign's responsibility to him. at first this suggestion evidently bore little fruit; for the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were characterized by general oppression of the people, and filled with dynastic wars, waged merely in behalf of monarchical ambitions. but gradually the kings and the peoples came to realize the duties of sovereigns, as well as their privileges and powers. gradually then, the view came to be held that kings were bound to exercise their power for the benefit of their people. even the doctrine of the divine right of kings, now condemned and obsolete, had a great influence and a good influence during the time it was in vogue; and it supplies a clear illustration of the power of a good idea, skillfully developed, to fulfill a given purpose, so long as its existence is necessary. most men have a considerable amount of energy, but do not know what to do with it. children are in the same category, except that toys have been invented for them, and parents give these toys to their children. without toys, children find the days very long, and parents find their children very trying. the usefulness of toys seems to be mainly, not so much in giving children pleasure directly, as in supplying an outlet for their energies, both physical and mental. for what greater pleasure is there than in expending one's natural energies under pleasant conditions? possibly, all the work that men have done in building up civilization is like the work that children have done with building blocks. certainly there are many points of similarity. the mental efforts are similar; and, so far as we can see, the results are similar also. toy temples have been built of building blocks, and then have been destroyed. civilizations also have been built and then destroyed. and in the case of both the building blocks and the civilizations, the pleasure seems to come, not from the result achieved, but from an enjoyable expenditure of energy in achieving it. in both cases it has been the inventors who have pointed out the ways in which to expend the energy, and achieve the results. chapter vii the rise of electricity, steam and chemistry the invention of the first electrical machine was made by otto von guericke, of magdeburg, about . it consisted of a sulphur ball, a stick with a point, and a linen thread "an ell or more long," hanging from the stick. the lower end of the thread being made to hang "a thumb breadth distance" from some other body, and the sulphur ball rubbed and brought near the point of the stick, the lower end of the thread moved up to the body. the ball being removed, the lower end of the thread would drop away from the body; so that by moving the ball back and forth, the lower end of the thread would be made to move back and forth simultaneously. it may be objected that guericke made no invention, because he did not conceive the idea of making a machine or instrument and did not, in fact, produce one: that he merely made a discovery. the author admits that such an objection would have great reasonableness, and that guericke's feat is a little hard to class. it is classed by many as an invention, however, and the present author is inclined to class it so; because there seems no reason to doubt that guericke first conceived the idea of doing what he did do, and that he did produce a device whereby an actual motion of a rubbed ball at one place caused actual motion at another place, through the medium of a current of electricity that traversed a conductor joining the two places. the device is sometimes spoken of as the first telegraph instrument. guericke (like gilbert) was more distinctly an experimenter than an inventor,--and (like gilbert) his work was not only in electricity, but in most of the other branches of science. of the two, guericke seems to have covered a wider field, and to have been more distinctly an inventor. his celebrated experiment of holding two hollow hemispheres together, then exhausting the air from the hollow sphere thus formed, and then demonstrating the force of the atmosphere by showing that sixteen horses could not pull the hemispheres apart, indicates just the kind of clear apprehension of the laws of nature that characterizes the inventor. by some, guericke is esteemed the inventor of the first electric light, because by rubbing a sulphur ball in a dark room he produced a feeble electric illumination. of guericke's discoveries and inventions, the only one that has survived as a concrete apparatus is the air pump; but it is doubtful if the direct influence on history of the air pump, great as it has been, has actually been any greater than the indirect influence of his less widely known discoveries and experiments. [illustration: hero's engines] one of the early influences of the art of printing was to bring to the notice of some restless minds the writings of hero and archimedes. in hero's _pneumatics_, published more than years before christ, he gives such a clear account of an invention of his own, in which the expansive force of steam was used to give and maintain motion, as to establish thoroughly his right to the basic invention of the steam engine. he described three apparatus that he devised. in one, the currents of air and aqueous vapor rising through a tube from a hollow sphere, containing water, under which a fire is burning, support a ball placed immediately above the tube, and make it seem to dance. in another apparatus, a hollow sphere into which steam has arisen from what we now call a boiler, is supported on a horizontal or vertical axis, and provided with tubes that protrude from the sphere, and are bent at right angles to the radius and also to the pivot. the inner ends of these tubes lie within the sphere, so that the steam passes from the sphere through the tubes. as soon as this happens, the sphere takes up a rapid rotation, that continue so long as the steam continues to escape from the nozzles of the tubes, which point rearwardly. a third apparatus was merely an elaboration of the second, in that the sphere was connected with an altar which supported a large drum on which were figures representing human beings. the fire being lighted, the sphere would soon begin to revolve, and with it the drum; and the figures on it would seem to dance around, above the altar. the invention was probably to impress the people with the idea that the priests were exerting supernatural power. [illustration: hero's altar engine] hero's wonderful invention remained unused and unappreciated for nearly , years. about , an italian named della porta, published a book that seems to show acquaintance with it, also with the fact that if water be heated it is converted into a gas that can raise water to a height. in , a frenchman named de caus published a book in which he showed a hollow sphere into which water could be introduced through an orifice that could then be closed; the sphere carrying a vertical tube that dipped into the water at its lower end, and ending in a small nozzle at its upper end. when a fire was started under the sphere, the air in the upper part expanded, and forced down the water that occupied the lower part, so that a jet of water would soon issue from the upper end of the tube. of course, this was really less than hero had done, because the appliance described did not constitute a machine, in any real sense of the word. in , an italian named branca carried hero's invention a step further, by inventing a simple apparatus whereby the revolution of hero's hollow sphere was communicated to a series of pestles in mortars, and put to the useful work of compounding drugs. branca seems entitled to the basic invention of the steam engine as an industrial machine. about , the marquis of worcester invented a steam engine that exerted about two horse-power, and was employed to raise water from the thames river, and supply it to the town of vauxhall. six years later ( ) captain thomas savery erected a steam engine about twenty-five feet above the water in a mine, and successfully drew water out. this was a very important feat, because the difficulties surrounding the problem of freeing the mines from water were extremely great, and the desirability of overcoming them was equally so. in savery's engine, there were two boilers in which steam was raised, and two receivers communicating with them. steam being admitted to one receiver, the connection with the boiler was shut off by a valve, and a cold jet was then suddenly thrown on the receiver, condensing the steam and forming a partial vacuum. this vacuum the water below immediately rushed up to overcome. connection with the pipe leading down was then shut off, and steam introduced to the receiver. this steam forced out the water from the receiver into a pipe, which discharged it above. this operation was then performed by the other boiler and receiver; so that, by their continued and alternate action, a fairly continuous stream of discharged water was maintained. this invention was quickly followed by captain savery with another, by means of which the discharge stream was made to fall on a mill-wheel, as though from a natural waterfall. several of these machines were erected for actuating the machinery of mills and factories in the district. in , dr. papin invented a steam engine, in which he used a cylinder containing water, with a piston so arranged that, when the water was heated, the steam would raise the piston. the fire being then removed the pressure of the atmosphere would force down the piston. this was followed shortly by an invention of newcomer and cawley, which was a very considerable advance on previous engines. it comprised a separate boiler and furnace, a separate cylinder and piston, means for condensing the steam in the cylinder by injecting water into it, and a system of self-acting valves that were opened and closed by a long beam that was moved by the piston. furthermore, this beam communicated motion to a pump that pumped the water up directly. this engine was so efficient and so practically useful, that it was very generally introduced into service for draining mines throughout england. about , smeaton built an engine carefully designed on these lines, of which the cylinder was inches in diameter, and the length of stroke was feet and inches. in , jacob leupold invented an engine, in which the work was done by steam alone, instead of by the atmosphere, as in the engines that immediately preceded it. leupold used two cylinders. they were open at the top to the atmosphere as in the others, but he used higher pressures of steam, and arranged a four-way cock between the bottoms of the two cylinders in such a way that the bottom of each cylinder, in its turn, was connected to the boiler or to the open air. each cylinder actuated directly a separate vibrating beam, which in turn actuated the piston of a pump; the two pistons acting reciprocally, each drawing up water in its turn. [illustration: leupold's engine] in , james watt made the very great improvement of providing a condenser separate from the cylinder of the engine, so that the great loss of heat caused by cooling the cylinder and then heating it at each stroke was wholly avoided. he covered the cylinder entirely, and surrounded it with an external cylinder kept always full of steam, that maintained the cylinder at a high temperature. the steam, instead of being condensed within the cylinder, after it had done its work, was allowed to escape into the condenser. to facilitate this action, the condenser was fitted with an air-pump that maintained a good vacuum in it. in , watt invented an improvement that consisted mainly of means whereby the supply of steam to the cylinder could be shut off at any desired part of the stroke, and the steam allowed to complete the rest of the stroke by virtue of its expansive force. this invention increased tremendously the efficiency of the engine: that is, the amount of work done with a given amount of steam. during all this time, watt had realized that virtually all the work was done on the down stroke, and none on the up stroke, and also realized that it would be highly desirable to devise an apparatus whereby the reciprocating motion of the piston could be converted into a rotary motion. watt was able to accomplish both feats, and to connect the bottom and top of the cylinder alternately with the condenser and boiler by a simple mechanism driven by a wheel rotated by the engine. the result was the reciprocating steam engine in its main features, as it exists today. the influence of hero's invention on history is not direct, because his engine has never been employed for any industrial purpose. but hero's engine has had an enormous influence on history, nevertheless, because it supplied the basis on which the steam engine of the last two centuries has rested. the influence of hero's invention was not realized until two thousand years after he had died, and until after all those men had died whose names have just been mentioned. it is inconceivable that any of those men could really have expected that their work was to have even a small fraction of the influence on mankind that it actually has had. the influence of watt's work became visible to some degree before he died, and became clearly visible not very long after he had died; so clearly visible that by many men watt is credited with the invention of the steam engine. but his good work was built on the good work of his predecessors, whose main work was in making watt's work possible. the successive feats of all, like the successive layers in the foundations of any building, were to support, in time, the whole superstructure of the great and beneficent science of steam engineering. but the work done by these men was not all the work that had to be done, to make watt's steam engine the efficient machine it was. these men were the men who are directly to be credited, but they were not the only men engaged. neither did they belong to the only class of men engaged. there was another class of men whose labors were equally arduous, and equally important, though not so clearly in evidence--the physicists, as we now call them. it was by the knowledge which they gleaned regarding the properties of steam and air and water and iron, regarding the laws of motion and heat and work and force and weight and mass, that the inventors' experiments were guided. it is true that the science of physics was then in its infancy, as we realize with the knowledge of the science today; but aristotle in the days of greece, and archimedes and hero later, and galileo and many others in italy--as well as guericke in germany, newton and gilbert in england, and others of less note, had evolved a good deal of order out of what had been chaos, and had given inventors a great deal of firm ground on which to stand themselves and raise their structures. and reciprocally, the inventors found themselves confronted with problems of a kind that gave opportunities for the physicists to show their skill and knowledge. thus were opened up promising avenues of investigation, and not only of investigation, but of invention also. for it is obvious that, while investigation and experimentation can hardly fail to secure data, they may secure nothing else, and usually do. but mere data are mere facts; and, valuable as they are if suitably classified, they are not valuable unless they are classified; and even after data are classified, they are not useful until some use is found for them. the data in card-indexes are mere unrelated facts, and are almost useless, until they have been classified and arranged in boxes alphabetically labeled. then they are useful whenever any use is found; when, for instance, some one is seeking information on a certain subject. in this condition, data are like material substances, in that they are available for use,--in fact, data are often spoken of by writers as "material"; a certain series of incidents, for instance, supply "material" for a story. now, just as pieces of iron and brass supply material with which an inventor can create a new machine, so classified facts, or data, supply material with which an inventive investigator can create a new theory, or formulate a new law. our books on physics are full of accounts of experiments and investigations conducted by such men as hero, archimedes, gilbert, galileo and many others, the consequent discoveries that they made, and the consequent laws that they enunciated; but those books could not possibly describe all the investigations that have ever been made. those which they describe are those that ended in some definite creations, such as the hydrostatic law enunciated by archimedes. most investigations, experiments and researches have ended in nothing definite:--most of them, in all probability, have not even established facts. the investigations that we studied about when boys were such as those of archimedes, that presented us with inventions, in the form of useful and usable laws. no appreciable difference is apparent between the mental operations of archimedes in inventing these laws and his mental operations in inventing his screw: for in both cases the mental operations consisted mainly in conceiving an idea and then embodying it. the archimedean screw was a machine of an entirely new kind that, in the hands of a man understanding its use, would enable the man to do something he could not do before--or enable him to do a thing he could do before, but do it better. so were his laws. the laws have been utilized ever since, as definite and concrete devices; and to a much greater extent than the special form of screw that he invented. in a like way, all the laws that investigators have put into concrete and usable form, have been used by other investigators as bases for further investigations, and by inventors as bases for future inventions. even the inventor of the fist-hammer had to know something about the material which he employed; he had to know that it was hard and heavy, for instance, and that it could be hammered so as to have a point and a sharp edge. he had to know also something about the flesh of a man: he had to know that if his flesh was struck with a sharp hard instrument, it would be bruised, and the man injured, and maybe killed. similarly, the inventor of the gun, and the inventor of printing, and the inventors of steam engines, had to know a good deal about the materials which they employed, and about the uses to which their appliances could be put. naturally, they had to know much more than did the inventor of the fist-hammer. but the inventor of today has to know still more, because there is still more to know. an inventor of the present day who knew no more about physical science than galileo did would not be able to go far. a like remark may be made about any man in any vocation, as compared with his predecessor in galileo's time. the machine of civilization is so vast and so complex, that the amount of knowledge which anyone of us needs in mere daily life is almost incredible. let anyone try to enumerate all the facts he knows! the attempt will convince him quickly. it may be pointed out here that, while modern civilization differs from ancient civilization in many ways, it differs more in complexity than in any other one way. some of the factors of ancient civilization were as good as those of today; such things, for instance as temples and pyramids and stationary objects in general. but the ancients did not understand motion clearly, especially irregular motion; and they had no fast vehicles of any kind. their knowledge of statics must have been fairly complete, or they could not have built their temples and pyramids; but their records show little understanding of dynamics. now the basis of dynamics is mathematics. dynamics is the result of the application of mathematics to the observed effects of force on bodies, in producing motion. dynamics is a branch of the science of mechanics, and a most difficult branch. it is built on the observations, calculations and conclusions of newton and a host of experimenters and mathematicians of lesser mentality, and it could not have come into being without them. but dynamics has not been the only physical science involved in making the machine of civilization. all the physical sciences have taken part; and each one has taken a part which was essential to the final result, and without which the final result could not have been attained. the science of light made possible the solution of our problems of illumination and the development of inventions for producing it; the science of acoustics made possible the solution of our problems of sound, including music, and the invention of acoustic and musical instruments; the science of heat made possible the invention of all the complex and powerful steam and gas engines that have revolutionized society; the science of electricity (including magnetism) has made possible the invention of those electric and electro-magnetic machines that have supplemented the work of the steam engine; and the science of pneumatics has made possible the invention of those "flying machines" of many kinds, that promise to complicate civilization further still. but let us realize clearly that no one of these sciences by itself has been able to perform any of the feats just mentioned. each one was virtually dependent on every other one; and all were dependent on mathematics. in order to make the steam engine work efficiently, it was not enough that heat should expand water into steam: the mathematical laws which showed how much water was needed to secure a certain amount of steam, for instance, and how a certain desired pressure of steam could be secured, had first to be comprehended and then to be followed. in order to have boilers and engines so designed as to prevent disastrous explosions, the laws governing the strength of materials had to be known and followed. in order that a projectile could be so fired from a gun as to reach a certain predetermined spot, the laws of heat, pneumatics, chemistry and dynamics had all to be understood and followed with exactness. but it was not only the machines and instruments that needed the assistance of those sciences, it was the sciences themselves; because it was only after eliminating phenomena caused by one agency from those caused by another, that accuracy in any conclusions whatever could be secured; and in order that the phenomena caused by one agency could be kept separate from the phenomena caused by another agency, the laws underlying both had to be understood. the science of light could not be developed until the action of heat was fairly well understood; dynamics had to wait on statics; newton could not have contributed what he did to astronomy, unless the science of light (including optics) was sufficiently understood; and the laws of pneumatics could not have been developed, unless the laws of heat had been developed, etc. and not one of the physical sciences could have gone beyond the state of infancy, if the science of mathematics had not been invented and made into a workable machine. the paragraph above may be put into a different form, and made to state that all the physical sciences have been brought up to their present stage, by subjecting the phenomena studied by each science to quantitative investigation. it was by making these quantitative investigations that newton and the others were able to ascertain the exact facts from which to start in their endeavor to discover the laws of nature; and it was from the laws of nature thus induced that later investigators were able to start on still further expeditions of discovery into the unknown. as the common basis of all quantitative work is mathematics, the common basis of all the physical sciences is mathematics. this makes all the physical sciences interdependent, despite the fact that each is independent of the others. each one of the physical sciences has contributed its part to building the machine of civilization; the part that each has specially contributed can be clearly specified; and yet, since the machine is the result of the combination of what all have contributed, their contributions are interdependent. this remark applies to the various parts of all machines. the piston of a steam engine, for instance, and the valve that admits steam to the cylinder are entirely separate from each other; but from the mere fact that they both work together, each one must be designed and operated with reference to the other; so that both in their construction and their operation, they are interdependent. francis bacon, in the sixteenth century, may be said to have inaugurated the system on which the whole of modern progress has been based, and newton in the seventeenth century to have taken up bacon's work and carried it further on. following newton, only a few great investigators can be seen in the seventeenth century; but in the eighteenth, began that intense and brilliant movement of investigation, discovery and invention, that has been adding more and more to the machine of civilization--and still is adding more. one of the earliest and most important contributions was an apparatus for measuring time accurately. who was the inventor is not precisely known. it seems fairly well established, however, that galileo was the first to call attention to the fact that the vibrations of a pendulum were nearly isochronous, and could be used to measure the lapse of time; and that galileo's son (as well as dr. hooke, huygens and a london mechanic named harris, in the early part of the seventeenth century) made clocks based on that principle. it is fairly well established also that huygens was the first one to make a mathematical investigation of the properties of the pendulum, and to enumerate the laws since utilized for making accurate clocks and watches. most of the investigators of the eighteenth century occupied themselves with studies indirectly or directly caused by the invention of the steam engine, that is with studies relating to heat and light; but, by reason of the interdependence of all the physical sciences, their investigations led them automatically into the allied fields of acoustics and electricity. their investigations led even further; they led to the establishment, on the ruins of the illusions of alchemy, of a wholly new and supremely important science, chemistry. one of the most important inventions of a purely scientific character made during the period was one that has never been known by any other name than "atwood's machine." it is an interesting illustration of the addition of invention to investigation, in that its end was--merely investigation; and it reminds us of a fact that many people are prone to forget, that invention may be applied to almost any purpose whatever, and that even a "machine" may be devoted to a purpose not utilitarian. atwood's machine was the outcome of studies into the relations between force and a body to which force may be applied. galileo had shown that a body subjected to a constant force, like that of gravity, will gradually acquire a velocity and at a constant rate; and also that this rate, or acceleration, is proportional to the force (leaving out the effect of air resistance). atwood's machine consisted merely of an upright with a pulley at its upper end over which passed a cord, to both ends of which weights could be attached. in any given experiment, a weight was attached to one end and allowed to fall free; but another weight could automatically be attached to the other end by a simple device, when the first weight had fallen through any predetermined distance. if the added weight were equal to the first weight, the velocity of movement became uniform at once; while if it were less, the velocity approached uniformity to a degree depending on the approach to equality of the two weights. while this machine did not establish any new law, or prove anything that newton had not proved before, it supplied a very valuable device for conducting quantitative experiments with actual weights, and for instructing students. the first important improvement in the art of printing was made by a scotch goldsmith named william ged, about the year . it is now called stereotyping, and it seems to have been successful from the first, from a technical point of view. it was far from successful from a financial point of view, however, mainly because of the opposition from the type-founders; so that ged died without realizing that he had accomplished anything. ged's invention was not put to practical use for nearly fifty years after his death; but after that, its employment extended rapidly over the civilized world. ged's experience was bitter, but no more so than that of many other discoverers, inventors and benefactors. he did not profit in the least by his invention; in fact, it must have brought him little but exasperation and discouragement. but can we even imagine civilization to exist as it exists today, if stereotyping had not been invented? an invention of a highly original kind was made some time in the middle of this century which is attributed by some to daniel bernoulli, one of the eight extraordinary investigators and scholars of that family. according to this theory, the pressure of any gas is due to the impact of its molecules against the walls of the vessel containing it. naturally, the greater the density of the gas, and the greater the velocity of the molecules, the greater is the pressure. this theory has greatly assisted the study of gases, and contributed to the investigation of electric discharges in gases and partial vacua, and therefore to the modern science of radio-activity. in the year there came to the little throne of the margravate of brandenburg a coarse and violent man, who conceived a principle of government that seems to have been wholly novel at that time, the principle of efficiency. having conceived this idea clearly in his mind, he proceeded to develop it into a system of administration, in spite of opposition of all kinds, especially inertia. he ruled till . he found brandenburg unimportant, disordered and poor; he left brandenburg comparatively rich, with a good army, an excellent corps of administrators, a very efficient government, and a recognized standing before the world. for his contribution to the cause of good government, he is known in history as the great elector. he might be called, with much reasonableness, the inventor of governmental efficiency, if julius cæsar had not in some degree forestalled him. he was followed by his son, who contributed nothing to this cause or to any other, but who was able to take advantage of his father's work and be crowned as king of prussia. he was followed by his son, king frederick william i, who was a man like the great elector, his grandfather, in the essential points of character, both good and bad. he was somewhat like philip of macedon also; for he conceived the idea of making his army according to a certain pattern, novel at that time, though considerably like the pattern that philip had employed. the likeness was in so organizing and training the soldiers that a regiment or division could be handled like a coherent and even rigid thing, directed accurately and quickly at a pre-determined point, and made to hit an enemy at that point with a force somewhat like the blow of an enormous club. he succeeded during his reign of twenty-seven years in developing his conception into such a perfect and concrete reality, that he was able on his death in to bequeath to his son a veritable military machine--the first since the days of rome. these two frederick williams were inventors in the broad sense of the word, and made inventions that have had an influence on history since they died, as great as that of almost any other contemporary inventions that can be specified. their immediate influence was to make it possible for the son of king frederick william, frederick the great, to put prussia in the first rank among the nations, and to lay the foundations of the german empire. it may be objected that the ultimate result was not extremely great, after all, because the german empire fell in . to this possible objection, it may be answered that, nevertheless, the doings of prussia and the german empire have had an enormous influence up to the present time; and that, though the empire itself has ceased, the influence of its policies and doctrines, of its military system, and, above all, of its doctrine of efficiency in government has not ceased, and shows no signs of ceasing. besides, _history still is young_. frederick the great made no inventions in improving the military machine bequeathed him; but he did operate it with inventiveness, daring and success. he showed these qualities in his actual operations in the field; but he showed inventiveness in an equal degree before those operations took place, in the plans which he prepared. as a tactician, frederick could hardly help being good, in view of the training he had received and the military atmosphere in which he had been born and bred. but no amount of training could have given frederick the brilliant and yet correct imagination that enabled him to see entire situations clearly and accurately with his mental eye; that enabled him to form a correct picture of the mission in each case, the difficulties in the way of accomplishing it, and the facilities available for his use. and, equally, no amount of training or knowledge or experience could of themselves have given him the constructive ability necessary to build up such plans as he built up, for accomplishing the mission with the facilities available and in spite of the difficulties. frederick's first invention was his successful invasion of silesia. this may be called by some "an invention of the devil," and perhaps it was inspired by him. but even if frederick's conception came straight from the devil, it was a brilliant conception, nevertheless, as the conceptions of the devil himself are popularly supposed to be. so original in conception and so perfect in development was frederick's invented plan, that he had seized the capital of silesia before austria had taken any real defensive measures of any kind. during the first half of frederick's reign, or twenty-three years (from to ), he was engaged continually in war or preparation for war; and in both activities he had to plan to fight against odds that often seemed overwhelming. they would have overwhelmed any man, except a man like frederick. it is true that frederick had two advantages, the best trained army, and the fact that all his forces, military and political, were united under one head--his own. but it is the verdict of history that even these advantages were far from sufficient to explain his victories; that his victories cannot be explained except on the ground that frederick showed a generalship superior to that of his foes. in what did its superiority consist? a careful study of his campaigns, even if it be not in detail, shows that frederick was able to invent better plans than his adversaries, to invent them more quickly, and to carry them into effect more promptly. if he had been born under other stars, he might have exercised his inventiveness in such ways as men like guericke, for instance, did; as is shown by his gathering around him, in the peaceful period of the latter half of his reign, a company selected from the most eminent philosophers and scientists of the age; and as is shown with equal clearness by his admirably conceived and executed measures for the better government of his country. the middle of the eighteenth century is especially distinguished by the success of some extraordinary and brilliant experiments with electrical apparatus. one of the most important in results occurred about , in the town of leyden, where muschenbroek invented a device that made possible the accumulating and preserving of charges of electricity. this appliance consisted of merely a glass jar, coated on the outside and the inside with tin foil. it was a most important invention, and it is still in general use, and called the leyden jar. the leyden jar was soon put to practical work in electrical investigations, notably by the royal society in london; and many valuable demonstrations were made with it. among these were the firing of gunpowder by the electric spark that passed when both surfaces of tin foil were connected by an external conductor; and the transfer of the spark over a distance of two miles, by using one discharging conductor or wire two miles long, the earth acting as the return conductor. but the greatest results came from the investigations of benjamin franklin, who proved that there was only one kind of electricity, that the two coatings of tin foil were both charged with it, that one had more than its ordinary quantity, while the other had less, and that the spark was caused by the transfer of electricity from one coating to the other. these discoveries were as much as any one discoverer might reasonably be expected to contribute; but franklin soon followed them by his discovery of the power of points to collect and discharge electricity. he then pointed out with extraordinary clearness the fact that all the phenomena which had been produced by electricity were like those produced by lightning; and made the suggestion that lightning and electricity were identical. this was an interesting suggestion, but a suggestion only. to make it into a theory, or prove it as a law, an invention was required. franklin made the invention. he conceived the idea of bringing down the electricity, with which he imagined that a storm-cloud was charged, by means of a long conductor, and of drawing off a spark from the lower end of the conductor as from an electrical machine. the long conductor he had in mind was a high spire that was about to be erected in philadelphia. the erection of the spire being delayed, his imagination presented to his mind the picture of a kite flying near the cloud, and the charge flowing down the cord, made into a conductor by the accompanying rain. forthwith, he embodied his conception in definite form by preparing a kite to which was connected a long cord, that ended with a piece of non-conducting silk, that was to be held in the hand, and kept dry if possible, and a key that was secured to the junction of the conducting cord and the non-conducting silk. the expectation was that the key would receive the charge from the cloud and give it out as a spark, if franklin applied to it the knuckle of his disengaged hand. the invention was a perfect success in every way; sparks were given off, a leyden jar was charged, and subsequent discharges of the leyden jar were made to perform the same electrical feats as jars charged from ordinary electrical machines. (june, .) the courage shown by franklin in performing this experiment may here be pointed out. to the eye of a casual observer, he must have been trying to get struck by lightning. this brilliant invention caused franklin to conceive another brilliant invention, the utilization of the discovery he had just made in combination with his previous discovery of the power of points to collect electricity. he embodied his conception in what we now call "lightning rods," by erecting on the highest points of houses thin metal rods or conductors, the lower ends of which were buried in the earth, while their upper ends were sharpened to points, and made to project upward, above the houses. franklin's theory was that the points would collect the electricity from the clouds and allow it to pass harmlessly through the conductors into the ground. the invention worked perfectly, and has been utilized everywhere ever since. naturally, franklin's epochal discoveries stirred the scientific world in europe, and gave a great impetus to the study of electricity and the other physical sciences. one of the earliest important discoveries that followed (made by mr. cavendish) was that the electrical spark could decompose water and atmospheric air, and make water by exploding mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen. an epochal discovery was made by mr. cavendish about , when he exploded a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen and obtained nitric acid. in galvani discovered that, if two dissimilar metals were placed in contact at one end of each, and if the free ends are put into contact with the main nerve of a frog's hind leg and the thigh muscle respectively, spasmodic muscular movements would ensue. in investigating the cause of this phenomenon, volta discovered that if the lower ends of two dissimilar metals were immersed in a liquid they would assume opposite electrical states; so that if their outer ends were joined by a conducting wire, electricity would pass along it. this led him at once to the invention of the voltaic cell. the enormous value of the voltaic cell in building up the science of electricity need hardly be pointed out. it is still used in electric telegraphy as a source of current. during the eighteenth century, the relations between chemistry and heat were very ill defined; but they were cleared up gradually by the researches of such men as black in scotland, priestley and cavendish in england, and lavoisier in france. black's work was mainly in making investigations of the phenomena of heat. in the course of them he discovered the important fact that different substances require different amounts of heat to be applied to a given mass to raise its temperature °. from this discovery arose the science of calorimetry, which deals with the specific heats of all substances, solid, liquid and gaseous, and which is necessary to the present science of heat and the arts that depend upon it. about dr. priestley discovered oxygen. lavoisier prosecuted rigorous researches in heat and chemistry, and finally made a discovery that cleared up a great fog of doubt as to the nature of oxidation, by proving that it consisted in an actual attack on a metal by oxygen, and that the increased weight resulting from oxidation was that of the oxygen that became associated with the metal in the form of rust. he therefore disproved the theory formerly loosely held that the increase in weight was due to the escape of a spirituous substance which the chemists of that day imagined to depart from the metal, and called by the name phlogiston. an analogous and equally valuable contribution by lavoisier was that of introducing the use of exact measurements into the study of chemistry. the result of his labors was to put the science of chemistry on a new basis and to separate it from physics entirely. it might be supposed that lavoisier would live and die in great honor. he lived in comparative obscurity, and was publicly guillotined on a false accusation. he requested a brief respite, in order to complete an important experiment, and was told in answer that "the republic has no need of philosophers." this was france's reward for one of the most useful lives that has ever been lived. one of the most important industrial inventions ever produced and one of the first of the long list of inventions for making things by machinery that had formerly been made by hand, was the spinning machine, that was invented by dr. paul in england about . spinning is an exceedingly ancient art, and consists in forming continuous lengths of thread by drawing out and twisting together filaments of such material as wool, cotton, flax, etc. this art was practiced in many of the ancient countries; and it seems to have been practiced in essentially the same way in england in the eighteenth century a. d., as in egypt and assyria long before the eighteenth century b. c. about dr. lewis paul invented and patented a simple mechanism that anyone with imagination could have invented at any time during the two or three thousand years before, in which the filaments were drawn between rollers. the invention seems to have been moderately successful from the start; for it is stated that in a spinning mill was in operation in birmingham in which ten girls were employed, and in which the motive power was supplied by two asses. paul's invention was improved by a weaver named hargreaves, who invented the "spinning jenny"; and it was later brought to a high state of efficiency and value by an invention of a poor and wholly uneducated barber, named richard arkwright. the spinning machines of the present day are of the highest order of intricacy, efficiency and usefulness; but they are all based directly on the invention of arkwright, and his was based on the previous inventions of paul and hargreaves. few persons have contributed so much as these three men of humble station to the comfort and well-being of the race. on july , , george washington arrived at cambridge, near boston, and took command of an army of about , men that faced a british army occupying boston. washington devoted his energies to organizing and training his motley force during the ensuing fall and winter, the enemy making no decided move to drive him off. finally, on march , , having conceived a plan that promised success to him, he suddenly seized and fortified dorchester heights, about two miles south of boston, from which he could command the whole of boston and the channel south of it, by means of guns which he had ordered, to be dragged through the snow from ticonderoga. his plan worked perfectly; for the british general howe, after a vain attempt to drive washington away, evacuated boston himself, and took his army to halifax. this was washington's opening move in our war of the revolution. it was the execution of a plan admirably conceived. there may seem little of originality or brilliancy in it to us now, looking at a map of boston in the quiet and safety of a library, but there must have been a great deal of merit and originality in it; for it took a british major-general completely by surprise, and compelled him to evacuate an important stronghold with a precipitancy that must have been distinctly galling to british pride. few neater feats of strategy can be found in military history. washington's next feat was in extricating his force from a distinctly perilous position in brooklyn in front of a superior british force, retreating across the east river to new york, and landing near what is now called fulton street. this was on august , . the next three months were spent in maneuvers that showed great clearness in conception and great energy in execution on washington's part, and ended with his occupying trenton, and howe occupying new york with the bulk of his forces. washington had only a little more than , men, while howe had , . washington's troops were discouraged, half-ragged, underfed and untrained; howe's were elated, well clad, well fed and thoroughly trained. washington was in as dangerous a plight as can easily be imagined. he extricated himself by conceiving and carrying into execution the brilliant plan of crossing the delaware river on christmas night, forcing his way through floating ice, and falling on the amazed camp of the hessians on the other side. his invention worked perfectly, and effected almost a complete reversal in the relative conditions of the opposing forces; for it put the british on the defensive, and made them withdraw all their forces from new jersey. thenceforward, washington, by the exercise of imagination, constructiveness and sheet force of will, fought a continual fight against forces that were superior in material and training, but inferior in mentality. finally, in august, , the crisis came. the british were occupying new york, and washington was in front of it, threatening to attack it, but knowing that he could not do so with success. about august he received a letter written in july by admiral comte de grasse, then in the west indies, saying that he would start with his fleet and a force of troops for chesapeake bay on august . washington knew that the british general cornwallis was entrenched at yorktown, near the mouth of the chesapeake, with a force considerably inferior to his own. he instantly proceeded to embody in action an idea that he had already conceived--that of leaving the vicinity of new york secretly, and marching with the utmost possible despatch to yorktown, and calling on de grasse to assist him to capture yorktown, and if possible cornwallis. no invention ever succeeded better. its influence on history was to precipitate the collapse of the entire british program of hostilities, and cause the establishment of the united states. the balloon was invented about . mr. cavendish had found that hydrogen was about seven times lighter than air, and dr. black had forthwith delivered a lecture in which he pointed out that a thin light vessel inflated with hydrogen should be able to rise and float in the air. he conceived the idea of the balloon, but made no invention. the italian philosopher, cavallo, about , inflated soap-bubbles with hydrogen gas, but went no further. the subject of making balloons filled with hydrogen was widely discussed; but the first balloon really to rise was the hot-air balloon invented by joseph and stephen montgolfier. this balloon made a successful ascent on june , , carrying the two brothers, flew about ten minutes, and alighted safe, after a trip of about a mile and a half. this was followed on august by a flight of a balloon filled with hydrogen gas, the design of which was made by the physicist charles, and the cost of which was met by a popular subscription. the flight was followed shortly by many others. the first employment of balloons in practical work was in making observations of the enemy by the french army in . an important invention for utilizing mechanical power in place of hand-power was the power-loom invented in by edmund cartwright. this was an invention of the most clean-cut kind, originating in the conception by the rev. dr. cartwright of the possibility of doing much more weaving by mechanical power than by hand, then constructing the machine to accomplish it, and then accomplishing it. an interesting fact in the early development of looms for weaving was the determined and angry opposition of weavers to each improvement in succession. another invention also utilizing external power, made near the end of the eighteenth century, was the hydrostatic press. it consisted of a vertical cylinder, fitted with a piston prevented by suitable means from rising, except against great pressures; the piston resting on a liquid in the bottom of the cylinder, which was connected by a small pipe with a small pump, by which more liquid could be forced in. when the pump was operated the pressure per square inch on the piston of the pump was communicated to each square inch of the large piston in the press, and a force exerted equal to that pressure multiplied by the difference in area of the two pistons. this is the model on which hydraulic jacks and many other hydraulic mechanisms are constructed; and it has taken a prominent part in the development of the science of hydraulics ever since it was invented. because of the gradual recognition of the value of sea-commerce in the british isles, and the fact that the stormy seas adjacent necessitated the construction of ships at once sturdy and yet capable of speed, much study and experimentation were carried on during the eighteenth century, especially in england. in these experiments, the invention by archimedes of the hydrostatic principle of buoyancy supplied the starting-point, and gave an excellent illustration of the influence of invention on history: for from experiments and investigations on floating bodies carried on in england, based on the invention of archimedes, and followed by others of english origin, sprang england's merchant marine and england's navy and england's domination over a quarter of the land on the surface of the earth. the eighteenth century closed with the invention of two very important mechanisms that reinforced the power of the human hand with power drawn from external sources: these were the threshing machine and the cotton gin; the former invented by andrew meikle in , and the latter by eli whitney in . it would be hard to decide with knowledge as to which has had the greater influence in constructing the machine of civilization; but it is not at all hard to realize that the machine of civilization could not have attained its present stage without the assistance of both. one of the last important inventions of the century was that of an art entirely new, as distinguished from inventions like the cotton gin, that merely increased the value of an art already in existence. this was the invention of lithography, or printing from stone, made by alois senefelder in . the first thing printed by him was a piece of music. while this invention was more brilliant than those of meikle and whitney, it was hardly so important. nevertheless, it was important in a high degree and made a valuable addition to civilization. an invention of a kind different from either whitney's or senefelder's was made on october , , by napoleon bonaparte. he was at that time a young and ill-clad captain of artillery, attending a council of war in toulon. an idea for driving out the english had been conceived and embodied in a complete plan by a celebrated engineer, and it had been approved by the committee on fortifications. the youthful and prestigeless captain opposed this plan with a vehemence and convincingness that came to be familiarly known a few years later, and proposed in place of it a plan that he had himself conceived and embodied in a concrete form. his plan consisted in the main merely in mounting some guns on a point of land that he designated, from which they could command the british war-ships in the harbor; and it was so much simpler and in every way better, that, despite his obscurity and youth, it was adopted, and he himself was charged with carrying it into operation. this he did; and with such constructive skill and energy, that the british ships were driven from the harbor and the entire vicinity, and without doing any damage to the town. the british soldiers, then unsupported, immediately withdrew. what was the determining difference between napoleon's plan and that of the great engineer? _the idea conceived._ chapter viii the age of steam, napoleon and nelson in the early part of the nineteenth century began what has been called the age of steam; but before it ended, it was supplanted by the age of electricity. when the century opened, the steam engine of watt existed in a practical and useful form, and the numberless experiments of the physicists in the preceding century had laid bare the main laws governing the force and the expansion of steam and air, and of gases and vapors in general. the laws of the expansion of solids and liquids were also understood in their main features, and the various inventions mentioned in the last chapter were in operation. seizing on the facilities thus supplied, and noting the worldly success that certain discoverers and inventors had achieved, the inventors of the nineteenth century got speedily to work. the result was that the civilized world at the end of the nineteenth century was vastly different from the civilized world at the end of the eighteenth century. in general terms, it may be declared that during the first half of the nineteenth century, the principal inventions were in the utilization of heat, especially in the form of steam engines; while during the latter half, the principal inventions were electrical:--though some very important electrical inventions were made before . in this brief résumé, no attempt will be made to describe or even mention all the inventions made, or even all the important ones; for such an attempt would be impossible to carry out. only a few super-important ones will be mentioned. the first important successful application of the steam engine was embodied in the steamboat _charlotte dundas_ that was produced in scotland in . other steamboats had appeared before, but they had not been successful. the first was tried on the soane river in france in . later, fitch and ramsay made some unsuccessful attempts in the united states. then, in , patrick miller, with the assistance of an engineer named william symington, had constructed a steam vessel that attained a speed of five knots on a lake in scotland. in the next year, mr. miller and mr. symington had put another steamboat on the water that developed a speed of nearly seven knots. none of these experiments could be called successful of itself; but the experience gained by them induced lord dundas to build the _charlotte dundas_ and name it after his daughter. the _charlotte dundas_ was a practical success from the start; for, in march, , it towed two vessels of tons each a distance of - / miles in six hours, while such a strong wind was blowing from ahead that no other vessel on the canal tried to move to windward. whether or not this constituted an actual invention the present author will not attempt to determine, even in his own mind. it is clear, however, that it was the direct issue of several inventions, and that it was the first embodiment in a concrete form of the successful and practical application of steam power to transportation on the water. the next successful application was made by robert fulton, who built the _clermont_ in . this vessel went into regular service in , plying between new york and albany, on the hudson river. the first steamboat to venture on the ocean was the _phoenix_, that made the trip from new york to delaware bay by sea in . it was built by mr. r. l. stevens, an engineer of hoboken. if it accomplished nothing else, it supplied a precedent and gave encouragement to inventors everywhere. it made "le premier pas qui coute." meanwhile, in june, , mr. thomas wedgwood had published "an account of a method of copying paintings upon glass, and of making profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of silver," with observations by sir humphry davy. in the course of his paper, he declared that he had secured profiles of paintings made on glass by throwing the shadows of those paintings on paper covered with a solution of the nitrate; the paper showing the objects delineated in tones that were dark or light inversely as they were in the painting. he also took profiles of natural objects by throwing their shadows on the prepared paper: the parts of the paper covered by the shadows being white, while the parts outside the shadows became dark. this seems to have been an actual invention, in that it followed a discovery made by wedgwood that sunlight acted on nitrate of silver, and was the embodiment of an idea, then conceived by him, to utilize his discovery in making profile pictures. his invention was far from perfect, however; the greatest imperfection being the fact that the pictures could not be fixed; because, unless the paper was ever afterward kept away from the light, its whole surface would become dark, and the picture therefore cease to exist. in consequence, it aroused almost no interest whatever at the time. in , m. niepce invented a process that he called "heliography," by which he made pictures on silvered copper covered with a thin solution of asphaltum. in , daguerre and niepce entered into a copartnership for developing heliography, and instituted experiments that led daguerre to inventing the daguerreotype, made by a process quite new in detail, but based on the earlier inventions of both wedgwood and niepce. the daguerreotype was followed in by the present "photograph." the invention of electroplating was made by brugnatelli in italy in . the fact that electric currents could decompose certain liquids had been known since , and also the further fact that oxygen and hydrogen, acids and alkalies, appeared at the positive and negative poles respectively of the wires in contact with the liquid. but brugnatelli seems to have been the first to conceive the idea of utilizing these facts in a device whereby he could deposit metals at will at the negative end of a solution. in the embodiment of his conception, pieces (say of silver) were hung on rods in connection with the positive pole of the battery supplying the electric current, while the articles to be plated with silver were hung on rods connected with the negative pole. the value of this invention and its extensive use in the electrodeposition of metals at the present day are well known. in the following year, sir humphry davy, working along the general line of electrical decomposition of liquids, made a number of super-brilliant investigations. possibly the most important result was his discovery of a new metal, to which he gave the name potassium, formed at the negative pole by the electrical decomposition of moistened caustic potash. he followed this by decomposing caustic soda and discovering another new metal, that he named sodium. during the course of his experiments, davy noted that when the two terminal wires from a large voltaic battery were touched together and then drawn apart, not only did a spark pass, but a continuous discharge of great brilliancy, that did not cease until the wires were separated by a considerable distance. the extent of this distance was found later to be dependent on the number of cells in the battery. he noted also that the discharge did not follow a straight line, but was bent into an arc; and for this reason he gave it the name, "voltaic arc." this light is still known by the name "arc light." its importance does not seem to have been realized until after the dynamo-machine had been invented, and means thereby supplied for providing a greater amount of electric current, and at less expense than voltaic cells were capable of delivering. davy's last great invention was his miner's safety lamp, made in . there had been frequent explosions in the collieries, attended with great loss of life, and davy was requested to try to ascertain how they could be prevented. after visiting the mines, he had samples of the gas that was found in them sent to him for investigation. he went about the work with scientific thoroughness and system, and ascertained that the gas would not explode if it were mixed with less than six times or more than fourteen times its volume of air; that air rendered impure by the combustion of a candle would not explode the gas; that, if a candle were burnt in a closed vessel, with small openings near the flame, no explosion would take place, even if the vessel were introduced into an explosive mixture; and that the gas from the mines would not explode inside a tube less than / inch in diameter. these data being secured, davy conceived the idea of making a lamp in which a small oil light should be fixed and surrounded with a cylinder of wire gauze. he then embodied his conception in a concrete form, and the "miners' safety lamp" resulted. this was an invention of the first order; original, concrete and highly useful. after meeting the customary chorus of prejudice and opposition, it justified its existence by a quickly established record of effectiveness, and took its place among the useful adjuncts of the machine of civilization. meanwhile, several other adjuncts had appeared. among these was the steel pen, a process of making malleable iron castings, the planing machine, a fireproof safe, the knitting machine and the band wood-saw. in dr. hales had announced that a gas capable of burning, and giving light while burning, could be distilled from coal. this announcement created great interest, and led to a long series of scientific investigations as to the possibility of utilizing it for house and street illumination, especially by a mr. murdock in the latter decade of the century. in mr. murdock made a public display of the result of his labors, by illuminating a factory with gas. in the year - the lyceum theatre in london was so lighted, and a year later some extensive cotton mills in manchester. public interest was so roused that investigations on a larger scale ensued, which resulted in lighting westminster bridge with gas in , and the town of westminster the following year. in street lighting by gas was common in london. the lighting of houses by gas followed later, but very slowly. it is a little difficult to see that there was much invention of an original or brilliant kind involved in the gradual development of the art of illuminating by gas; but it cannot reasonably be denied that a considerable amount of invention must have been done in the aggregate, for the reason that a wholly novel art was created. if it was not invented, how was it brought into being? the best answer probably is that the art was not the result of one brilliant invention followed by others that improved upon it, but was rather the aggregate work of a number of minor inventions, each one of which carried the art forward, but by only one short step. other minor inventions produced the locomotive and the railroad. the first steam engines were stationary; but portable engines, now called locomotives, gradually came into being. they were engines mounted on platforms resting on wheels that, in turn, rested on the ground; the revolutions of the engines turning the wheels, and causing the advancement of the whole. in a wagon-way was laid down on which cars were run to and from a colliery, and this wagon-way passed close in front of a house in which lived a poor family named stephenson, a member of which was a boy whose christian name was george. in the following year, the wooden parts were taken up and replaced by a single line of iron rails with sidings. in a portable engine was constructed for running on these rails, and this was followed by another in the following year. george stephenson made a locomotive for running on rails in , and followed it by another in , both for hauling coal. it was now so obvious that locomotives could haul other things than coal, that a railroad was laid down between manchester and liverpool, and a prize of £ was offered for the best engine. on october , , the competition was held, though only three engines appeared. the prize was won by stephenson's locomotive, the _rocket_, which attained a speed of miles per hour. with the locomotive, as with illuminating gas, it is impossible to see any one original or brilliant invention. we do see, however, the result of the superposition on one brilliant invention (that of hero's steam engine) of a number of minor inventions, and much constructive ingenuity and initiative. an invention of a higher order had signalized the latter part of the eighteenth century, in the form of a printing press in which the speed of printing was greatly increased by the use of revolving cylinders; one holding the type on its outer surface, and the other covered with leather, the paper passing between, and receiving the printed impression by the pressure exerted between the two cylinders. in order that the type should fit on the curved surface of the cylinder, they were made narrower toward the bottom. the machine was invented by an englishman named nicholson. it was never put into practical use; but a machine embodying the revolving cylinder for receiving the force of the impression communicated to the paper, was invented and put into successful use later by a german named könig. the type, however, was not put on a cylinder in this machine, but on a flat plate that passed back and forth under the revolving impression cylinder. two of könig's presses were bought for the _london times_; and on november , , one made , impressions per hour, a marvelous advance over speeds previously attained. from the standpoint of pure invention, it was not so admirable as nicholson's; but being a later product, and being based on nicholson's principle, it was naturally an improvement in construction and mode of operation. in sir david brewster, while experimenting on the polarization of light, made an invention of the most original and concrete type, which required a high grade of scientific knowledge for its conception and development, but which was not intended for any utilitarian purpose, and yet was of too serious a character to be called a scientific toy. this was his famous kaleidoscope; an instrument described accurately by its name, for it enabled one to see beautiful things. it was very simple in construction and principle, and seems to have fallen short of greatness in only one element, that of usefulness. by a careful adjustment of two prisms at a definite angle to each other, sir david showed that geometrical images of the utmost beauty and variety could be made of objects placed between the mirrors, especially if those objects were small objects, and if they were of different colors, like bits of colored glass. knowledge of this escaping, thousands of kaleidoscopes were soon put on the market, and sold in all the principal cities, before sir david had had time to get a patent. though the instruments were unscientifically made, they gave beautiful pictures nevertheless; but the result was that the kaleidoscope was not appreciated at its full value. the inventor improved the instrument greatly, and developed it into one of the most beauty-producing appliances known, and one of the most extraordinary and unique. the most remarkable fact connected with it is that no real usefulness for it has ever yet been found. the present author ventures to predict that a clear field of usefulness will some day be found by some fortunate inventor. meanwhile, the ill-clad captain of artillery who had invented the plan by which the british were pushed out of toulon with so much neatness and despatch, had nearly turned the civilized world upside down. no man save alexander ever accomplished so much of that kind of work in so short a time. his work consisted of a number of acts performed by him, each of which was like his act at toulon, in that it began with the conception of a brilliant idea, proceeded with the embodiment of the idea in a concrete plan, and ended with the carrying into operation of that plan. napoleon was great in each of these lines of work. he had a brilliant and yet correct imagination, that enabled him to conceive ideas of extraordinary brilliancy, and also to select from them the ideas that were the most susceptible of being made into concrete plans of the kind that could be carried out successfully. he possessed great constructiveness, that enabled him to construct mentally a plan in which all the means available for his use were seized upon and put to their special tasks. he possessed finally great ardor, industry and courage, that enabled him to start his plan to going very quickly, and keep it going very rapidly, until it had performed its task. it would be idle to discuss at which of these three stages of the work he was the greatest, or to try to decide which stage of the three was the most important; because the three were links in a continual chain, and the chain depended on each equally for its strength:--as any chain does on its links. it may be interesting, however, to realize that mere imagination is possibly the most elementary activity of the mind; mere imagination is evidenced by savages, for instance, and by children, more than by highly educated men. constructiveness, on the other hand, is little to be found in savages or children, and is a product of education, and a result of the training of the reasoning faculties. courage and impulsive energy again are elemental faculties, and are observable more in savages than in the civilized. it seems to be the effect of civilization, therefore, to develop the reasoning faculties, at the expense of both imagination and courage. in fact, it is clearly the effect of civilization to develop a cold and calculating materialism. men are rare therefore, and have been rare in every age, who combine the three qualities of imagination, constructiveness and courage. napoleon combined all three in harmonious proportions; and he possessed each one in its most perfect form. his performance at toulon was so spectacular that it attracted attention at once, and caused his promotion to the command of the artillery in italy. here he was able to suggest projects that received approval and brought successes. one plan conceived and developed by him, however, was disapproved. it consisted essentially of dividing the piedmontese and austrians, crushing the piedmontese, and then driving the austrians out of italy into austria and following them thither. later, this plan was approved, and he himself was put in command in italy. it was this plan, executed by the bonaparte of those days, that began the career of the napoleon of history. so original and brilliant had been the conception, so mathematically correct and practically feasible had been the plan which bonaparte developed from it, and so furiously energetic were his operations in carrying out the plan, that the sluggish piedmontese were defeated before they quite realized that war had been begun. a like catastrophe happened to the equally mentally and physically sluggish austrians; then another catastrophe, and then another, and then still others; and in such rapid and bewildering succession, that in a year and a month after his arrival in italy he had driven the austrians out completely, formed the cisalpine and ligurian republics in the north of italy, and signed the armistice of leoben with the austrians, within fifty miles of vienna. napoleon's next invention was a project for ruining england by attacking her east indian possessions by a campaign beginning with an invasion of egypt. everything proceeded in substantial accordance with the plan developed, until august , . in the evening of that day the whole project was destroyed by horatio nelson. it was destroyed in a battle near the mouth of the river nile, that was decided in fifteen minutes, though it was not wholly concluded until it had been raging for nearly four hours. in fifteen minutes, the french fleet on which depended bonaparte's communications with europe, had been so severely damaged that the failure of bonaparte's project was decided. nelson was a man like bonaparte in certain qualities; in the qualities that are essential to great leadership, imagination, constructiveness and executiveness. the first clear evidence of these qualities he had displayed startlingly at the battle of cape st. vincent on february , ;--when, swiftly realizing that two separated parts of the hostile spanish fleet were about to join, he suddenly conceived the idea of preventing the junction by committing an act that--unless it brought success--would probably cost him his commission and perhaps his life. now, the mere conception of an idea so revolting to professional ethics would not occur to an unimaginative man: and still less would it be retained. but it did occur to nelson; and nelson retained it and looked it squarely in the face. to embody his idea in a practicable plan was a simple matter to his active and trained intelligence, while to execute the plan was an act so natural as to be almost automatic. much to the amazement of the commander of the fleet and all the officers and men in both the fleets, the little division commanded by commodore nelson was seen actually to leave the line of battle! nelson had taken his life, his fortune and his sacred honor in his hand, and staked all on an endeavor to get between the two separated parts of the spanish fleet. the british commander quickly realized what his daring subordinate had in mind, and speedily came to his relief. a brilliant, though not materially decisive, victory was won. the already distinguished commander-in-chief was then made earl st. vincent, and the hitherto obscure horatio nelson brought into the forefront of naval heroes, with the rank of rear-admiral, a gold medal and a knighthood. now, nelson had not appeared at the mouth of the nile because of any accident, or any chain of fortuitous circumstances; he did not fight the epochal battle there because of any accidental occurrences or conditions, and he did not gain the victory because of any similar causes. nelson appeared at the mouth of the nile in accordance with a plan that he had conceived as soon as he heard of bonaparte's departure from toulon on a destination carefully kept secret, but which nelson divined as egypt. he so divined it, by imagining himself in bonaparte's place, and imagining for what purpose he, nelson, would have left toulon under the conditions prevailing then in france. he engaged the french fleet when he did, and he fought the french fleet in the way he did, in accordance with a plan that he had conceived long before. no men were ever more cautious, more solicitous about the future, more painstaking, more prudent, more insistent against taking undue risks, than those reputedly reckless devil-may-cares, napoleon bonaparte and horatio nelson. napoleon realized at once that his brilliant scheme had been shattered; but he could not now even take his army home, because the british fleet was in the way. finally, he succeeded in making the trip himself, with only a few of his staff. events ran rapidly then; and on the sixth of may, , we see napoleon leaving paris to undertake a campaign in northern italy, in accordance with a plan embodied to carry out an idea conceived in his fertile mind, of taking his army through the great st. bernard pass, dragging his cannon with him through the snow. this plan (like most of his plans) was so brilliantly conceived, so skillfully planned, and so energetically executed, that when napoleon suddenly appeared with his army in the north of italy, the austrian general was bewildered with amazement. the natural result developed quickly, and the austrians retired beyond the mincio river. by this time affairs in europe were vastly complicated, because of the fact that the maritime enemies of france (which meant virtually all the other maritime countries of europe) became exasperated at one of their number, great britain, in consequence of what they considered her unreasonable insistence on certain doctrines concerning maritime affairs. a league of armed neutrality against her was finally formed, that soon assumed menacing proportions. this league was completely broken by the same horatio nelson in a naval battle off copenhagen on april , . this battle was the direct result of a plan conceived by nelson, that was so original and so daring that for a long time he could not secure the consent of his commander-in-chief to its execution. the battle resulted in a victory that was brilliant in the highest degree; but it was brilliant only because the original idea was brilliant, and because it was developed into a plan that was constructively correct and skillfully carried out. meanwhile, a brief campaign had been going on between the french and the austrians in austria. it was carried on with great brilliancy of conception and skill of execution by moreau, and ended with the battle of hohenlinden and the disastrous defeat of the austrians. the treaty of lunéville followed in february, , and left great britain as france's only antagonist. the victory of copenhagen having broken the strength of the confederacy of neutrals, and napoleon seeing the folly of attempting further to ruin british commerce then, the treaty of amiens between great britain and france followed in march, . as part of this treaty, great britain agreed to give up malta. for various reasons that do not concern this discussion, great britain did not do so, and war followed in may, . before that time, napoleon had realized that his principal enemy was england. he now conceived the project of sending an invading army across the english channel, knowing that if he could accomplish that, he could march to london, and dictate his own terms of peace. but how could he get across the channel, in the face of the british fleet? from the numberless pictures conjured up in his brilliant imagination, napoleon selected the one which showed a french fleet threatening british possessions in the west indies, a british fleet rushing to the west indies to save them, the french fleet returning and joining with another french fleet waiting for it, then the combined fleets securing the mastery of the english channel from the depleted british fleet remaining, then a french flotilla of transports with an invading army forthwith starting across the channel, then a landing against an opposition easily overcome, then a march to london, then a capture of london: and finally, he, napoleon, riding in triumph through london streets and sleeping in the palace at london--as he had slept in other palaces on the continent. it was a beautiful vision;--a beautiful series of moving pictures presented to his imagination. to embody all these pictures in realities became the pre-occupation of his waking and his sleeping hours. by dint of herculean exertions, he finally collected near boulogne about , troops and , transports. at the proper time, villeneuve, with a powerful fleet, was sent to the west indies to threaten the british possessions there. but the same man who had spoiled his india project by the battle of the nile, and who had spoiled his project of ruining british commerce by the battle of copenhagen, spoiled his present project: the same man, horatio nelson. nelson had some imagination himself; and he imagined (correctly as usual) that villeneuve had sailed for the west indies--and away he went in pursuit. arriving there, and finding that villeneuve had been in the west indies but had left, nelson left also. he imagined that villeneuve had sailed for europe; and so nelson sailed for europe also, sending a fast frigate to inform the admiralty of all that he had learned, and of all that he inferred. the frigate made such speed, and the first lord of the admiralty, admiral lord barham, acted with such sailor-like energy and skill, that a large british fleet intercepted villeneuve on his return, brought him to action near the coast of spain, and handled him so roughly that he went for repairs to cadiz. he arrived there on august . the news of this, reaching napoleon, wiped all the beautiful pictures out of his mind. but he had other pictures in the background. these he put promptly into the foreground, and started off with incredible swiftness toward austria. on october , he brought the austrians to battle near ulm, and achieved one of the most decisive victories of his career. the victory was mainly due to the clearness and correctness of napoleon's conceived idea, and the amazing speed and certainty of his movements in carrying it into execution. the austrian general mack was so wholly taken by surprise that he found his army was completely surrounded before he had had time to take any preventive measures. napoleon had correctly judged the import of villeneuve's interception by the british fleet, and realized that it would be mere folly afterward to attempt to cross the channel then. still, the situation was not wholly bad for him, and the victory at ulm made it beautiful. for, though england was still greater on the sea than france, france was also great, and was still a powerful weapon which he could wield against england, with all the power of genius. but, two days after the victory of ulm, came the disaster near cape trafalgar, when nelson defeated the combined french and spanish fleets, and thereby secured for england a superiority at sea, vastly more pronounced than it had been before. this victory, by making napoleon helpless at sea against great britain, ruined all napoleon's chances of dominion, except upon the continent. napoleon made two brilliant campaigns after this, that brought him to the summit of his career. had he been content to stop there, had he not tried to climb still higher, his descendants might now sit on the throne of france. but the intoxicating fumes of success seem to have clouded that brilliant mind, and to have prevented those clear and correct pictures from forming there that had formed before. the result was that he embarked on a new project for ruining england that began with an invasion of portugal and spain, which brought on a war with austria. it is true that, by a brilliant campaign, napoleon worsted austria and made an advantageous treaty with her, and then married the daughter of the emperor: but the continuance of the policy that underlay the war with austria, brought on later a war with russia that sent napoleon to elba, an exile. we see the key to napoleon's successes in the quality of his mind at the time of those successes, and we see the key to his failures in a lowering of the quality of that mind. military writers tell us that his mind was not of the same quality when he planned his russian campaign as it had been when he planned his early campaigns. now the reasoning faculties do not grow dull when one approaches middle age; but the imaginative faculties do--(in most people). it is an old saying that "one cannot teach an old dog new tricks." clearly, this cannot be because of any failing of memory, though memory fails with age; because the memory is not involved, save slightly. it must be therefore because of failing impressionability and receptivity. we all speak of the "receptive years," meaning the years of childhood and then of youth; and it is a common saying that young people are more receptive than old people. of what are they receptive? clearly, of mental impressions. parents and teachers are warned not to forget that the minds of young people are very impressionable, and to be careful that their minds receive good impressions only, so far as they can compass it. napoleon, when he made his russian campaign, was only years old in years; but he had lived a life that was far from normal or hygienic physically, and extremely abnormal and unhygienic mentally. the intention of the last sentence is to point out that mental health cannot be long preserved amid surroundings mentally unhealthful, any more than physical health can be long preserved amid surroundings physically unhealthful; and that the highest qualities of our nature are the most difficult to maintain and therefore are the first to fail, under unhealthful surroundings. the spiritual faculties fail first, then the moral, then the mental and lastly the physical. now the imagination, while a mental quality, rather than a moral one, partakes in a measure of the spiritual, and is one of the highest of the mental attributes. for this reason imagination is one of the first to be impaired. the especial picture of the imagination that becomes faulty under certain conditions, is the picture of one's self. under conditions such as napoleon had lived under for several years, the picture of himself in his mind had become unduly magnified in relation to the pictures of other men. now is there any one thing more dangerous to a man than to carry in his mind an incorrect picture of himself? in napoleon's case, it led him to the unforgivable military crime; that of underestimating the enemy. his imagination, by presenting a magnified image of himself, presented relatively dwarfed images of his antagonists. the very faculty (imagination) which started napoleon on his great successes, started him now on his great reverses. the actual beginning of these was in his carelessly planned campaign in russia. his invention seems to have failed him both in planning the campaign and in meeting situations afterwards; because his imagination failed to picture each situation to him exactly as it was. but the russian campaign did not wholly ruin him. even after that, even after elba, situations were sometimes presented to him, such that (although trafalgar had prevented him from achieving european domination), yet, if he had been able to see them as clearly as he had seen situations in his unspoiled days, he might, at least have saved himself from ruin. but his imagination had become impaired and therefore his powers of invention also. napoleon as general, and nelson as admiral were what we may term "opportunistic inventors," who made inventions for meeting transient situations with success, as distinguished from inventors like newton and watt, who made permanent contributions to the welfare of mankind. napoleon as statesman, however, made contributions of a permanent character. a supremely valuable contribution of this kind was the stethoscope, which was invented about by dr. laennec in paris, and by means of which the science and art of diagnosis were given an amazing impetus almost instantly. possibly one cannot find in the whole history of modern invention any instrument so small and so inexpensive that has been so widely and definitely useful. a painful interest hangs to it in the fact that by means of his own invention, laennec discovered that he himself was dying of tuberculosis of the lungs. in july, , a discovery of a vastly different character was made by oersted in copenhagen; the discovery that if a current of electricity be passed over or under a magnetic needle, the needle will be deflected in a direction and to a degree depending on the strength and direction of the current and the position of the conducting wire relatively to the needle. now laennec invented a simple and little instrument that began virtually perfect, and that exists today substantially as it started. oersted did something equally important, that ultimately initiated intricate inventions of many kinds, and yet he did not really invent anything whatever. the importance of his discovery was recognized at once; so quickly, in fact, and by so many experimenters and inventors, that oersted soon found himself in the extraordinary position of being left behind, in an art to which himself had almost unknowingly given birth! that some relation existed between magnetism and electricity had long been evident to physicists; but what that relation was they did not know until oersted told them. they seized on his information with avidity, with results that the whole world knows now. the first man heard from was ampère, who communicated the results of his experiments in the new art to the institute of france as early as september th. almost immediately afterward, arago discovered that, if a conducting wire were wrapped around iron wires, those iron wires became magnets and remained magnets as long as the electric current continued to pass. thereupon, arago made and announced his epoch-making invention, the electro-magnet. the influence of this invention on the subsequent history of the machine of civilization, it is hardly needful to point out. the experiments of oersted gave rise at once to much speculation as to the nature of the action between electric currents and magnets, and also to considerable experimental and mathematical research. as had been the case for many thousand years in other endeavors, speculation accomplished little, but experimental research accomplished much. by this time mathematics had been highly developed, not only as an abstract science but also as an aid to physical and chemical research. the man who attacked the problem in the most scientific manner was ampère, who in consequence solved it in the following year, after a series of mathematically conducted experiments of the utmost originality and inductiveness. as a result in , he showed that all the actions and reactions of magnets could be performed by coils of wire through which electric currents were passing, even if there was no iron within the coils:--but that they were more powerful, if iron were within. from this and kindred facts, which he developed by experiment--(especially the fact that electric currents act and react on each other as magnets do), he established a new science to which he gave the name electro-dynamics. in recognition of his contributions to electricity, the name given many years later to the unit of electric current was ampère. in the following years, while pursuing a series of investigations into the new science, faraday invented the first electro-magnetic machines. in the first machine, a magnet floating in mercury was made to revolve continuously around a central conducting wire through which an electric current was passing; in the second a conductor was made to revolve continuously around a fixed magnet; in a third machine, a magnet so mounted on a longitudinal axis that an electric current could be made to pass from one pole half way to the other pole, and then out, would revolve continuously as long as the electric current was made to pass. faraday invented the first machines that converted the energy of the electric current into mechanical motion; though oersted was the first who merely effected the conversion. it can hardly be said that oersted invented a machine; but faraday certainly did. the first utilization of oersted's discovery in a concrete and practically usable device was the galvanometer, invented by schweigger in . it was a brilliant invention, and solved perfectly the important problem of measuring accurately the strength of an electric current. the apparatus consisted merely of a means of multiplying the effect of the deflecting current by winding the conductor into a coil, the magnetic needle being within the coil. the galvanometer (named after galvani) was an invention of the utmost value, and it is in use to this day, though in many modified forms. when one realizes how obvious a utilization of oersted's discovery the galvanometer was, and that schweigger did not invent it until two years later, he wonders why oersted himself did not invent it. but the history of invention is full of such cases and of cases still more amazing. why did the world wait several thousand years before wise invented the metal pen? why are we not now inventing a great many more things than we are? nature is holding out suggestions for inventions to us by the million, but we do not see them. in the year before schweigger's invention, in , the important discovery had been made by seebeck in berlin, that if two different metals are joined at their ends, and one junction be raised to a higher temperature than the other, a current of electricity will be generated, the strength of which will vary with the metals employed and the difference in temperature of the junctions. the discovery was soon utilized in nobili's invention of the thermopile in which the current was increased by employing several layers of dissimilar metals (say antimony and bismuth) in series with each other. the main use of the thermopile has been in scientific investigations, especially in the science of heat. one of the results of the increased use of mathematics, especially arithmetic, was the invention of babbage's calculating machine in . the usefulness of this invention was so apparent that it was not long in coming into use, or long in causing the invention of improvements on it of many kinds. the calculating machine was a distinct contribution to civilization. another contribution, but of quite a different kind, was made by faraday in the following year ( ) when, after a series of experiments, he announced that he had succeeded in liquefying many of the gases then known by the combined action of cold and pressure. the possibility of doing this had long been suspected by physicists reasoning from known phenomena; but the actual accomplishment of the liquefaction of gas was none the less a feat of a high order of brilliancy and usefulness. in experiments subsequently made, dewar received the gases in a vessel of his invention which had double walls, the space between which he had exhausted of air, and thus made a vacuum--which is a non-conductor of heat. the "thermos bottle" of today was invented by the great chemist dewar, and is not therefore a new invention. meanwhile, the steam engine had been undergoing rapid development, though the use of locomotives for drawing passenger trains does not seem to have come into regular use until the liverpool and manchester railroad was opened in . in , the delaware and hudson canal company constructed a short railroad, and sent an agent to england to buy the necessary locomotives and rails. in the four years following twelve railroad companies were incorporated. the baltimore and susquehanna began actual operations in . the inventions of hero, branca, worcester, savery, papin and leupold, brought to practicality by watt, had now come to full fruition, and entered upon that career of world-wide usefulness that has advanced civilization so tremendously and still continues to advance it. but the most decisive triumph of the steam engine had come more than a decade before, when in the american steamship _savannah_ crossed the atlantic ocean in days, going from the united states to liverpool. chapter ix inventions in steam, electricity and chemistry create a new era when the nineteenth century opened, george iii was king of england, napoleon was first consul of france, francis ii was emperor of germany, frederick william iii was king of prussia, alexander was czar of russia (beginning ), and john adams was president of the united states. by this time the influence of the inventions of the few centuries immediately preceding, especially the invention of the gun and that of printing, was clearly in evidence. the feudal system had entirely vanished, the sway of great and powerful sovereigns had taken the place in europe of the arbitrary rule of petty dukes and barons, the value of the natural sciences was appreciated, and a fine literature had developed in all the countries. a terrible war was raging, however, that was not to end for fifteen years and that involved, directly or indirectly, nearly every european nation. the war had started in france, where the tremendous intellectual movement had aroused the excitable people of that land to a realization of the oppression of the nobility and a determination to make it cease. the wars that ensued were not so different from the wars of the egyptians and other ancient nations as one might carelessly suppose, because the weapons were not very different. the only weapon that was very novel was the gun; and the gun of the year was a contrivance so vastly inferior to the gun that exists today as not to be immeasurably superior to the bow and arrow. it had to be loaded slowly at the muzzle; and the powder was so non-uniform and in other ways inferior, that the gun's range was short and its accuracy slight. even the artillery that bonaparte used so skillfully was crude and ineffective, according to the standards of today. the cavalry was not very different from the cavalry of the assyrians, and the military engineers performed few feats greater than that of cæsar's, in building the bridge across the rhine. there were no railroads, no steamships, no telegraphs, no telephones. there was less difference between the armies of a. d. and those of b. c., than between the armies of a. d. and those of a. d. the same remark applies to virtually all the material conditions of living. there was less difference, for instance, between the fine buildings of b. c. and a. d. than between the fine buildings of and a. d. the influence of the new inventions on the material conditions of living was only beginning to be felt; for the twin agencies of steam and electricity, that were later to make the difference, had not yet got to work. it was the power of steam that was to transport men and materials across vast oceans and across great continents at high speed, and place in the hands of every people the natural fruits and the foods and the raw materials and the manufactured appliances of other lands; it was the subtle influence of electricity that was to give every people instant communication with every other. it was the co-working of steam and electricity that was to make possible the british navy and the british merchant marine, and the relatively smaller merchant marines and navies of other countries, and to bring all the world under the dominance of great britain and of the other countries that were civilized. the opening of the nineteenth century, therefore, marks the opening of a new era. in the steam engine was already an effective appliance, but it was not yet in general use. electricity was a little behind steam; and though franklin and the others had proved that it possessed vast possibilities of many kinds, and also that it could be harnessed and put to work by man for the benefit of man, electricity had as yet accomplished little of real value. under the stimulating influence of the quick communication given by the art of printing, literature had blossomed especially in great britain, france, germany and italy; but in one has to notice the same fact as in previous years--literature had not improved. the literature of a. d. was no better than the literature of greece or elizabethan england--to state the truth politely; and no such poet lived as homer, shakespeare or john milton. it seems to be a characteristic of literature, and of all the fine arts as well, that each great product is solely a product of one human mind, and not the product of the combined work of many minds. to the invention of watt's steam engine, numberless obscure investigators and inventors had contributed, besides those whose great names everybody knows: but how can two men write a poem or any work of fiction, or paint a picture or carve a statue? it is true that each of these feats has been performed; but rarely and not with great success. for this reason, it is not clear that mere literature as literature, or that any of the fine arts as such can exert much influence on history, and it is not clear that any of them have done so. that they have had great influence in conducing to the pleasure of individuals there can be no question; but the influence seems to have been transient. history is a record of such of the doings of men as have had influence at the time, or in the future. of these doings, the agency that has had the most obvious influence is war, and next to war is invention. war, next after disease, has caused the most suffering the world knows of; but out of the suffering have emerged the great nations without which modern civilization could not exist. the influence of invention is not so obvious, but it is perhaps as great, or nearly so; the main reason being that invention has been the agency which has enabled those nations to emerge that have emerged. without the appliances that invention has supplied, the civilized man could not have triumphed over the savage. now literature and painting and sculpture and music, while they have made life easier and pleasanter, have contributed little to this work, and in many ways have rather prevented it from going further by softening people, physically and mentally. this statement must not be accepted without reservations of course; for the reason that some poems, some works of fiction, and some paintings and (especially) some musical compositions have tended to strengthen character, and even to stimulate the martial spirit. but a careful inspection of most works of pure literature and fine art must lead a candid person to admit that the major part of their effect has been to please,--to gratify the appetite of the mind rather than to inspire it to action. the author here requests any possible reader of these pages, not to infer that he has any objection to being pleased himself, or to having others pleased; or that he regards the influence of literature and the fine arts as being detrimental to the race. on the contrary, he regards them as being valuable in the highest degree. he is merely trying to point out the difference between the influence of inventions in the useful arts and those in the fine arts. a like remark may be made concerning inventors and other men; the word inventors being here supposed to mean the men who make inventions of all kinds. these men seem to have been those who have brought into existence those machines and books and projects of all kinds that have determined the kind of machine of civilization that has now been produced. these men are very few, compared with the great bulk of humanity; but it seems to be they who have given direction to the line along which the machine has been developed. this does not mean, of course, that these men have been more estimable themselves than the men who kept the machine in smooth and regular motion, and made the repairs, and supplied the oil and fuel; but it does mean that they had more influence in making its improvements. naturally, their work in making improvements would have been of no avail, if other men had not exerted industry and carefulness and intelligence and courage, in the countless tasks entailed in maintaining the machine in good repair, in keeping it running smoothly, and in receiving with open minds and helping hands each new improvement as it came along. and it was not only in welcoming real improvements, but in keeping out novelties which seemed to be improvements but were not improvements that the work of what may be called the operators, as distinguished from the inventors, was beneficent. nothing could be more injurious to the machine than to permit the incorporation in it of parts that would not improve it. there has been little danger to fear from this source, however; for the inertia of men is such that it is only rarely that one sees any new device accepted, until it has proved its value definitely and unmistakably in practical work. possibly the greatest single impetus given to progress about the year was that given by lavoisier shortly before, which started the science of chemistry on the glorious career it has since pursued. as a separate branch of science, chemistry then began, though it had been the subject of investigation for many centuries, beginning in egypt and the other ancient countries of the east. in the middle ages, it was known in europe by the name alchemy. originally, and in all the long ages of its infancy, the investigations of the experimenters were carried on mainly to discover new remedies in medicine, or to learn methods to transmute base metals into precious metals; though there was a considerable degree also of pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. as a result of the investigations, many startling facts were developed, and many discoveries were made; but, for the reason that the investigations were not conducted on the mathematical or quantitative lines that had led to so much success in developing physics, alchemy or chemistry did not rest on any sure basis, and therefore had no fixed place to start from. it was in the same vague status that some subjects of thoughtful speculation are in today, such as telepathy, which may (or may not) be put on a basis of fact some day, and started forward thence, as chemistry was started. what gave chemistry its basis was the methods introduced by lavoisier who was a practiced physicist. he introduced the balance into the study of chemistry, and raised it instantly from a collection of speculations to an exact science, capable of progressing confidently and assuredly thereafter, instead of wandering in a maze. lavoisier gave chemistry a mathematical basis to start from, and sure beacon lights to guide it; and though many changes in its theory have been made from time to time, they have been due only to increase of knowledge and not to departure from fundamental principles. finding that a substance was not an element, but was a compound of two elements, or more than two, did not require any rejection of accepted principles, but merely a readjustment. we now see that it was impossible because of the exact nature of the way in which the various elements combine, that chemistry could have become a science until the balance had been used to weigh the substances investigated; and we also see that it was impossible that the balance could have been so used until physics had been developed to the point permitting it, and men skilled in exact measurements had been brought up by practice in physical researches. lavoisier himself had served a long apprenticeship, and his earliest claim to fame was his mathematical researches on heat, embodied in an essay, written in connection with laplace, and published in . even after an enormous mass of facts had been collected and announced, chemistry could not take her place by the side of physics, and bacon's teachings could not be followed, until those facts had been mathematically investigated, and their mathematical relations to each other had been established. this lavoisier and his followers did. no better illustration of the influence of invention on history can be found than the fact that chemistry hovered in the dim twilight of speculation, guess-work and even superstition, until lavoisier brought to bear the various inventions made in physics. then, presto, the science of chemistry was born. we must not let the fact escape us, however, that lavoisier would have left mankind none the wiser, if he had merely brought mathematical research to bear and discovered what he did, and then stopped. if he had stopped then, his knowledge would have remained locked inside of his own mind, useless. the good work that lavoisier actually did was in actually producing an invention; in conceiving a certain definite method of chemical research, then embodying it in such a concrete form that "persons skilled in the art could make and use it," and then giving it to the world. the first important effect of lavoisier's work was the announcement by dalton about of his atomic theory, which has been the basis of most of the work of chemistry ever since. dalton's earlier work had been in physics, and its principal result had been "dalton's laws" in regard to the evaporation and expansion of gases, announced by him about . these investigations led his mind to the consideration of the various speculations that had been entertained concerning the nature of matter itself, as distinguished from the actions and reactions between material objects that physics studies; and they brought him to the conclusion that there are certain substances or elements which combine together to form compounds that are wholly different from each of the elements (oxygen and hydrogen, for instance, combining to form water); and that those elements are made up of units absolutely indivisible, which combine with each other in absolutely exact proportions. the units he called atoms. he built up a theory wonderfully convincing and coherent, that explained virtually all the chemical phenomena then known, and supplied a stepping-stone following lavoisier's, from which chemists could advance still further. dalton classified certain substances as elements which we now know are not elements, because they have been found since to be compounds of two or more elements; but this in itself does not disprove his theory, because he himself pointed out that means might be found later to decompose certain materials that seemed then to be elements, because no means had then been found to decompose them. it may be instructive to note here that dalton was not the first to imagine that certain forms of matter were elemental, or that matter was indivisible beyond a certain point, or that substances entered into combination with each other in definite proportions. speculation on all these points had been rife for many years, but it had not produced the invention of any workable law or even theory. similarly, many men later speculated on the possibility of devising an electrical instrument that would transform the mechanical energy of sound waves into electrical energy, transfer the electrical energy over a wire, and re-convert it into sound; but no one succeeded in producing such an instrument, until bell invented the telephone in . history is a record of acts, and not of dreams. and yet the greatest acts were dreamed of before they were performed. every process, no matter how small or how great, seems to proceed by three stages--conception, development and production. most of our acts are almost automatic, and the three stages succeed each other so quickly that only the final stage itself is noted. but the greatest acts, from which great results have followed, have begun with the conception of a picture not of an ordinary kind, such as a great campaign, a new machine, a novel theory, a book, painting, statue or edifice:--then a long process of development, during which the conception is gradually embodied in some concrete form, as, for instance, a statue, a painting or an instrument;--and then production. _finis opus coronat, the end crowns the work_; but the work is not crowned until it is finished, and a concrete entity has been brought forth. lavoisier finished his work. not only did he dream a dream, but he embodied his dream in a definite form, and gave it to mankind to use. dalton did similarly. this does not mean that their work was not improved upon thereafter, or that they invented the chemistry of today. they merely laid the foundation of chemistry, and placed the first two stones. a remarkable exemplar of the meaning of this declaration was benjamin thomson, who was an american by birth, but who entered the austrian army after the war of the revolution, and made an unprecedented record in the application of physical and chemical science to the relief of the distressed and ignorant and poor, especially the mendicant classes. for his services he was made count rumford. his researches were mostly in the line of saving heat and light, and therefore saving food and fuel. he ascertained by experiments of the utmost ingenuity and thoroughness that the warmth of clothing was because of the air entangled in its fibers; he investigated the radiation, conduction and convection of heat, analyzed the ways in which heat could be economized, and invented a calorimeter for testing the heat-giving value of different fuels. in he had noted the fact that heat was developed when cannon were being bored. he immediately conceived the idea that the heat developed was related to the amount of work expended driving the boring tool, and invented a means of measuring it. this consisted simply of a blunt boring tool that pressed into a socket in a metal block that was immersed in water, of which the temperature could be taken. to get a basis for his investigations into the problem of lighting economically the dwellings of the poor, rumford invented a photometer for measuring illumination. no man in history shows more clearly the co-working of a high order of imagination, and a careful and accurate constructiveness; and no man ever secured more intensely practical and beneficent results. in the hospital at verona he reduced the consumption of fuel to one-eighth. in a valuable improvement was made to the machine of civilization by ohm, who announced the now famous ohm's law, that the strength of an electric current in any circuit is equal to the difference in potential of the ends of the circuit, divided by its resistance. this is usually expressed by writing c = e/r. can anything be less inspiring than c = e/r? yes:--few things have been more inspiring. few things have inspired more zeal for work than that simple formula. that simple formula evolved order out of chaos in the little but super-important world, in which physicists and chemists were trying to solve the riddles that the utilization of electric currents presented. it gave them a basis from which to start, and a definite rule to work by. no oration of demosthenes, cicero or webster has imparted more inspiration, or supplied a greater stimulus to high effort, or done more for human kind than c = e/r. in walker in the united states invented friction matches. it seems strange that someone had not invented matches before. the usual way of getting light was with the flint and steel and tinder-box,--a most inconvenient contrivance. it was quite well known that certain substances would ignite when rubbed, and yet men waited until to utilize the fact in matches! in the following year wöhler succeeded in reducing aluminum, thus contributing a valuable new factor to human knowledge and a valuable new metal to human needs. in the same year neilson took out a patent in england for "an improved application of air to produce heat in fires, forges and furnaces," in which he proposed to pass a current of heated air through the burning fuel. his invention met with opposition of all kinds, but eventually proved its usefulness. another invention produced in the same year was woodworth's machine for planing wood. still another, was the tubular boiler for locomotives. in the first steam locomotive was put into use in the united states. no especial invention seems to have been expended on this device; but there was considerable invention of the kind that i have ventured to call "opportunistic" involved in conceiving the idea of getting the locomotive, and then in actually getting it, and then putting it to work. in the following year braithwaite and ericsson in london brought out the first portable fire-engine. there was a great deal of invention of the practical kind involved in the design, construction, production and successful employment of this novel device; and an important step was taken in the means of protecting life and the material products of civilization from destruction by fire. in faraday in london made one of the most important discoveries in physical science ever made, the discovery that if a current of electricity is changed in strength, or if a conductor carrying a current be moved, an instantaneous magnetic effect is felt in the vicinity; and that this magnetic effect will cause an instantaneous current in any closed conducting circuit that may be near. faraday also discovered that a similar instantaneous current will be set up in a closed circuit if a magnet be moved in its vicinity. this discovery is usually spoken of as the discovery of electro-magnetic induction; and the instantaneous currents are said to be "induced." about the same time professor henry in princeton discovered that an electric circuit will act not only on other circuits in its vicinity, but on itself; that the fact of being increased or decreased will set up instantaneous currents that tend to oppose the increase or decrease. thus, while faraday is credited with the discovery of electro-magnetic induction, henry is credited with the discovery of self-induction. it has been claimed by some that henry discovered electro-magnetic induction before faraday did. this question is of great interest but it is outside the scope of this modest volume. while both discoveries were of prime importance, and were also analogous, that of electro-magnetic induction has played the more conspicuous part. with it began the endeavor to develop electric currents by the relative motion of coils of wire and magnets, that resulted in the invention of the dynamo, and the later invention of electric lights and motors. in the same year the discovery (or was it the invention?) of chloroform was made by guthrie in america, soubeiran in france and liebig in germany. a curious fact connected with the early history of chloroform is that, although its anæsthetic properties were known in general, and although the idea of using gases and vapors and medicines to deaden pain was many centuries old yet nevertheless, chloroform was not put to practical use until about when dr. morton, a dentist, of boston, adopted it as an anæsthetic. of all the single inventions ever made, chloroform has unquestionably done more than any other, invented till that time, to give relief from agony. in the electric telegraph was invented by morse, though he did not patent it until . the influence of the electric telegraph on subsequent history has been so great that the influence of no contemporary invention can reasonably be declared to be greater. as with many other inventions, one is tempted to wonder why it had not been invented before; for the fact that electricity could be sent along a conductor and made to cause motion at the other end had been known since guericke had demonstrated the fact in the closing years of the seventeenth century. the original invention of the electric telegraph is claimed by some for henry, who had a wire run between his house and his laboratory at princeton, over which he sent messages, by opening and closing the circuit and thereby actuating an electro-magnet at the receiving end. the first machine to put faraday's discovery of magneto-electric induction to practical use was invented by pixii in france in , and exhibited before the academy of sciences. it consisted of a powerful magnet that was made to revolve with great rapidity before a bar of soft iron that had wrapped around it a coil of insulated wire about , feet long. the north and south poles taking position in succession in front of the coil, currents were induced that alternated in direction, twice in each revolution. if a man grasped two wires in the circuit he received a series of sharp electric shocks; but such effects as decomposing water that were produced by the continuous currents of voltaic batteries could not be produced by these alternating currents. to secure such effects, siemens and others made machines in which the magnet in the form of a u was stationary, two coils of wire revolved in front of the poles, and a two-part "commutator" was used. when this was placed on the axle, and the axle was revolved, the change in direction of the current was obviated, though a smooth and uniform current was not produced. the reason was that the current fell to zero twice in each revolution. the magneto-electric machine, as it was called, remained virtually in this form for many years. it was not sufficiently effective or efficient to be of much practical usefulness in any art, and was considered more of a scientific toy than a machine of serious importance. still, the probability was realized by many investigators that a new discovery or invention might be made at any moment, that would put it in the forefront of the useful inventions of the age. (the invention was not made till ; it was made by pacinnotti in italy and will be mentioned later.) the influence of the magneto-electric machine, therefore was not direct, but indirect. it was a basic invention; and like many basic inventions, it formed the hidden foundation on which a conspicuous superstructure was later to be reared. one of the lessons of history is that it is the men and the methods and the other things which are in evidence when some important occurrence happens, that are identified with it in the minds of people not only at the time, but afterward. an invention that may have cost its creator the toil and struggle of a lifetime may not gain success simply because of some existing unfavorable conditions of some kind. suddenly the conditions become favorable. john doe takes advantage of all the work that other men have done, adds some slight improvement, achieves "success" and dons the laurel wreath. we see at this time ( ) very clear signs of an increasing number of inventions per year, an increasing speed of invention. we see an acceleration in invention which we cannot help associating in our minds with the acceleration which any material object gets, when continuously subjected to a uniform force, like that of gravity. one almost feels that there must be a continuous force impelling men to invent; so clear is the increase of the speed of inventing. following the magneto-machine in came the invention of a rotary electric motor by sturgeon, the discovery of chloral-hydrate by liebig, the production of the first large american locomotive by baldwin and the invention of link motion by sir henry james. the last was an exceedingly important and ingenious contribution to the steam engine, especially in locomotives and ships; for it gave a very quick and sure means of reversing its direction of motion, and of regulating the travel of the valve and the degree of expansion of the steam. in the following year came stephenson's steam whistle; and in the year following ( ) came the mccormick reaper. few inventions have had a greater or a more immediate effect on the trend of modern progress, which is to influence men to live in large communities. for the mccormick reaper could do so much more work, and so much better work, than men could do without it, that the cultivation of extensive areas of land could be undertaken with the assurance that large crops of grain could be secured. this not only secured more grain for the country, but liberated many men from toil on farms, and permitted them to migrate to the cities. the author does not wish to be understood as meaning that migration to cities is wholly desirable; for he is familiar with its disadvantages and dangers. but whether it be desirable or not is beyond the scope of this book. this book is merely a modest attempt to point out the influence of invention in making the world what it is today. perhaps it would have been better if men had had no invention and had remained in a state of savagery. some men say so sometimes; but even those men (or most of them) like to sit by a warm fire in a cozy room when it is cold outdoors. the consensus of opinion seems to be that civilization in the main has been a blessing to men, though not an unmixed blessing, and though men must keep on their guard against certain manifest dangers which civilization entails. in the same year, , jacobi invented an electric motor and runge made the important discovery of carbolic acid. in burden invented a horse-shoe machine. in four important inventions added four important parts to our rapidly growing machine. the first was the "constant battery" invented by daniell. before this time a voltaic cell, or battery, soon lost its strength, because of various chemical actions inside the cell which need not be detailed here. daniell overcame this difficulty almost wholly by inventing a battery, in which there were two liquids instead of one, and the two liquids were in two separate compartments but separated only by porous material. this invention was successful from the start, and immediately increased the usefulness of voltaic batteries and the means of utilizing electric currents. the second great invention in was that of acetylene gas made by edmund davy. it is still the most brilliant illuminating gas we have, and is rivaled by the electric arc-light only. the third invention was that of the revolver, made by samuel colt. it may be objected by some that the revolver did not contribute anything valuable to the machine of civilization because it was merely an improvement on the pistol, and enabled one to kill more men in a given time than he could before. such an objection would have much to justify it; but it may be pointed out that the machine must be made self-protective as far as possible; and that anything which increases the power of civilized man as against the savage, or barbarous, or semi-barbarous increases its power of self-protection. it is true that a savage can use a revolver, if he be instructed; but the more complicated a weapon is the more difficult it is for a savage, as compared with a civilized man, to use it effectively. this is not an argument in favor of complication for its own sake; but it is an argument in favor of accepting complication in a weapon, if the complication renders greater effectiveness possible. the last invention was the most important of the four, the application of the screw propeller to navigation made by john ericsson. the author is aware of the fact that this invention was claimed by others, and is claimed for others now. the weight of testimony, however seems to be on the side of ericsson; and as has been pointed out before, the question of the identity of the inventor is not important to our discussion. the first ocean steamship to be propelled by a screw was the _stockton_, which was built in england under ericsson and fitted with his screw. the first war-ship to be fitted with a screw was the u. s. s. _princeton_ in . its screw was designed by ericsson. in crawford invented a process for "galvanizing" iron; for electro-plating it with a non-oxidizable metal. the value of this invention in preserving iron wire and iron articles in general needs not to be pointed out; it was a contribution to the permanency of the machine. in the same year, cooke and wheatstone in england invented their famous "needle telegraph," in which a magnetic needle was made to deflect quickly to the right or left when one of two keys was pressed by an operator and letters thereby signaled. this invention was a valuable contribution; but it was eventually superseded by morse's telegraph, after that system had established itself in the united states and on the continent. in babbitt invented his celebrated babbitt metal, which has been successfully used ever since in the bearings of engines and in moving machinery generally, for reducing friction; and in the same year goodyear made an invention even more important, the art of hardening, or "vulcanizing," rubber by means of sulphur. this invention was a great boon to mankind, but not to goodyear; for the jackals who lie in wait for great inventions eager to wrest unearned profit for themselves from the men who have truly earned it, made goodyear's life miserable for many years. before he died, however, his wrongs were righted at least in part. in the same year jacobi, in germany, propelled a boat by electricity using an electric motor of his own invention. but the great contributions made in were to the art of what we now call photography. about talbot had succeeded in taking pictures in a camera by the agency of light on paper washed with nitrate of silver and also in fixing them. later, he was able to obtain many copies, or "proofs," from one picture or negative. it seems that he did not publicly announce his invention till . to it was given the name "calotype." in may of that year mr. mungo ponton announced that he had been able to copy pictures of engravings and of dried plants on paper that he had soaked in bichromate of potash. a number of other investigators forthwith announced similar feats, using various chemical solutions. in draper published the result of certain important experiments made by him in photographing celestial bodies. in pneumatic caissons were invented by triger in france. in long discovered the usefulness of ether as an anæsthetic, and seytre invented the automatically played piano. in the same year, selligne discovered a method of utilizing water-gas, made by decomposing water and producing a new illuminating agent that could be used by itself or in combination with coal gas. in the same year james nasmyth in scotland invented the steam hammer--a simple appliance by means of which steam was able to make a hammer give blows much heavier than the human arm could give. this invention belongs to the class in which the human muscles are assisted in doing work which the brain directs them to do, but which they are not strong enough to do effectively. the self-playing piano belongs in a class closely allied, in which the machine invented merely assists the muscles: the assistance in this class being not in supplying power in order to do more work, however, but in supplying what may be called auxiliary physical agencies. in the player piano, the fingers are replaced by little mechanical hammers; in the steam hammer the arm is replaced by a piston actuated by steam. one secures quickness, the other secures force. but the self-playing piano and the steam hammer are in very different classes, when viewed from the standpoint of their influence on history. the influence of the piano is scarcely discernible, while the influence of the steam hammer stands out in enormous letters of steel. the piano seems to be in the same category as are literature and poetry and music in general: it serves to please. the steam-hammer, on the other hand, has had so great an influence on history subsequent to its invention, that we know that subsequent history could not have been as it has been, if the steam hammer had not been invented. it has been the steam hammer and the ensuing modifications of it that have made possible the making of large forgings of iron and steel. it has been the large forgings of iron and steel that have made possible the use of large solid masses of those metals in the construction of engines, guns, shells, houses, bridges and ships. it is the ability to use large and solid masses of iron and steel, free from holes and seams, that has enabled constructors and engineers to produce the tremendous engineering structures that characterize today. _the main element in the progress of the race has been its triumph over the forces of material nature._ this triumph has been gained by inventors, who conceived of certain methods and devices (clothing, for instance) by means of which materials provided by nature could be utilized by man to protect himself against her attacks upon him--attacks by cold, for instance. inventions of the useful kind have had a history of their own, as definite as the history of any other thing or things, in which it is shown that every useful instrument or method has been succeeded by another and better; so that the history of useful inventions may be compared to a picture of men mounting a flight of stairs toward civilization, the steps of the stairs being the successive useful inventions of different kinds. the paragraph just written is not intended to mean that inventions which please have no value, but merely to point out the difference between what are aptly called the fine arts and the useful arts. there would be little happiness given to man by toilsomely climbing the stairway to civilization, unless he were occasionally cheered on the way by a strain of music, or a beautiful painting, or a poem, or a brisk walk in northwest weather, or a gladdening glass of wine. it may be argued that these are the things that really give happiness; it may be claimed that these things go direct to the seat of happiness in the brain, but that steam hammers merely provide a material civilization, which continuously promises to make men happier some day, but never makes them happier. verily, verily, the way to happiness is not so clearly marked, that anyone can walk in it all the time, or even for five minutes, except on rare occasions. the consensus of opinion seems to be, however, that the civilized man is, on the whole, happier than the savage; that civilization is preferable to savagery. it is the purpose of this book, moreover, merely to point out that that structure of civilization has become so complicated and is moving so fast that it is now a veritable machine and to indicate the part that invention has taken in building it. not only is it a veritable machine, it is the largest, the most powerful, the most intricate machine we know of--except the solar system and the greater systems beyond it. and not only is it powerful and intricate--it is, like all powerful and intricate machines, extremely delicate. extreme delicacy is a characteristic of all machines; it is inherent in every machine, simply because the good working of every part is dependent on the good working of every other part. an organism is a machine of the highest order, and therefore possesses this characteristic of inter-dependability in its highest form. a club is not an organism, or even a machine, and does not possess it. if a man injures one end of a club the other end is just as good as before; but if a club injures one end of a man, the other end is injured also. a severe blow on the head will prevent the effective use of the foot, and a severe blow on the foot will prevent the effective use of the head. similarly, in this great machine of civilization, a war between any two nations affects every other nation in the realm of civilization, though it may not affect appreciably the savages of australia. a strike in the coal mines affects every person in the united states;--and even a threat to strike by the railway employees affects not only the whole united states, but, to some degree, all europe. this brings us to realize that, while the machine of civilization itself has improved tremendously, it is only as a machine, and only because it is a machine. it should make us realize also that the mere fact that a machine is good or useful is no bar to its being destroyed. it should make us realize besides that the finer a machine is the greater danger there is of its being injured and even destroyed, by careless or ignorant handling. these facts are clearly realized by all engineering companies of all kinds; and the result has been that highly competent engineers have been trained to care for and handle their engines. there are no more highly competent men in any callings than are the engineers in every civilized country. one might declare without much exaggeration that, of all the men in business or professions, the engineers are the most competent for their especial tasks; and the reasonableness of the declaration might be pointed out on the ground that the very nature of the engineering profession (unlike that of most other professions) makes it impossible for an engineer to be incompetent, and yet maintain his standing. but the machine of civilization is composed not only of material parts, such as come within the province of the engineer, but also of immaterial parts; in fact, the principal parts are men, and especially the minds of men. it is the office of the machine of government to handle the men. it is also its office to direct their minds; because unless those minds view things correctly, the machine of government cannot work with smoothness. now, men are inferior to machines in one important way:--men, as men, cannot be improved. it therefore devolves on government continuously to instruct and train men to handle the machine of civilization skillfully, because the machine is being made more and more complicated, and more and more in need of intelligent care, with every passing day. is this fact realized? i fear not. no sign is visible to the author of these pages that the people in any country realize or even suspect that there is any need for looking out for the integrity of the machine as a whole. the closest approximation to it is a belated realization that the bolsheviki are a danger to "society." the people do not seem even to realize the necessity of having competent experts at the head of governmental affairs. the machine of civilization had been developed to a very high stage when trajan ruled the world about the year a. d. for three-quarters of a century afterward, it continued to run with smoothness, under intelligent care; but in the year a. d. commodus came to the throne, and soon after began to abuse it. for two hundred years thereafter, the machine suffered from such abuse and neglect, that by the year , it had become so unwieldy, that it was divided into two parts, one administered from rome and the other from constantinople. the two parts soon became two separate machines, the roman machine being at first the better, but gradually becoming more and more ineffective under the unfavorable conditions of abuse and neglect. in , the roman machine broke down completely, and the barbarian chief, odoacer, sat himself on the throne of octavius cæsar. a ruin more complete, it would be hard to realize. the vast structure of roman civilization, built on the civilization of greece and assyria and babylonia and egypt, was hurled to the ground; and its fine and beautiful parts were scattered to the winds by barbarians who hated civilization because they were barbarians. the progress of science and literature and art stopped. the marvelous inventions of the past were forgotten and disused. a condition of semi-barbarism passed into europe, and continued for a period of five hundred years, to which the name dark ages has been aptly given. a feeble light began to glow about a. d. as a result of the activities of charlemagne, but it almost expired when he did. it began again when the crusaders came back from the orient with knowledge of the civilization that still persisted there; and shortly after came the first effort of the renaissance. then followed the invention of the gun, and then the invention of printing:--and presto--the making of another machine of civilization is begun. now let us realize three facts: one fact is that the machine of modern civilization, though bigger and more complicated than the one of trajan's time is not nearly so strong; another fact is that the roman machine was destroyed because it had become ineffective through carelessness and abuse; the third fact is that because in a measure, "history repeats itself," the modern machine may be destroyed, as the roman was. the machine of today is vastly weaker than trajan's. trajan's machine was operated by a powerful empire that controlled the whole world absolutely. no rival of rome existed. the structure of society was simple, homogeneous and strong. it was almost wholly military. it rested on force; but that force rested on reason, moderation, skill and patriotism. rome had many foes; but they were so weak compared with rome, that she had naught to fear from them--so long as she kept her machine in order. the machine of today is not only more complicated than that of trajan, and therefore more liable to derangement from that cause alone--but it is supported by no government that dominates the world. on the contrary, the control is divided among a number of different nations that have diverse interests. the influence of this condition can be clearly seen in the fact that every great war has set back the progress of civilization for a while in all civilized countries, even though in some ways it has advanced it. the world war just finished, for instance, shook the very foundations of society; and we do not yet know that it did not impair them seriously. certainly the machine has not yet begun to run smoothly again. certainly, the bolsheviki are threatening it as seriously as the barbarians began to threaten rome not long after trajan's time. the romans did not regard the barbarians then any more seriously than we regard the bolsheviki now. the barbarians finally succeeded in destroying the roman machine, but not for the reason that they had become any stronger. they had not become any stronger, but the roman machine had become weaker. it had become weaker for the reason that the men in charge of it had not taken the proper care of it. they failed to take proper care of it, for the reason that they were not the proper kind of men to have charge of that kind of machine. the reason for this was that the roman people did not see to it that they put the proper kind of men in charge of their machine. someone may say that rome was an autocracy, and that there are no autocracies now. true, but republics have been inefficient, just as often, and in as great a degree as autocracies have. the united states under president buchanan, for instance, was excessively inefficient; while the roman autocracy under octavius was exceedingly efficient. but whether a government is autocratic or democratic, the degree of civilization must depend in the main on the people themselves. even the power and genius of charlemagne could not at once make europe civilized; and even the power and bestiality of commodus could not at once make rome uncivilized. in every nation, the rulers and the people re-act upon each other, and each makes the other in a measure what they are. a people that are strong and worthy will not long be governed by men who are weak and unworthy. if a nation continues to have weak and unworthy rulers, it is because the people themselves are weak and unworthy. therefore, it is an insufficient explanation of the breaking down of the roman machine to declare that the roman emperors were what they were. the roman emperors reflected the roman people, or they would not have remained roman emperors. if the roman people had been as strong individually and collectively as they were in the days of octavius and trajan, no such emperors as later sat on the throne would have been possible. but the roman people gradually deteriorated, morally, mentally, and even physically; and inefficient government was one of the results. what caused the deterioration of the roman people? the same thing that has caused the deterioration of every other great people that have deteriorated--the softening influence of wealth and ease. thus, rome did not fall because of the barbarians, but because of herself. she fell because her people allowed the machine which she had built up, in spite of the barbarians outside, at so much cost of labor and blood, to become so weak that it could no longer protect itself. can this happen to our machine? yes, and it will happen as surely as effect follows after cause, unless means be taken to see that men are trained to care for the machine more carefully than they are trained now. _in no country is there any serious effort made to train men to operate the machine of government_, except those parts of the machine that are called the army and the navy:--though some tremendous efforts are made in private life to train men to handle corporations and business enterprises, and to learn all that can be learned in medicine, engineering, the law and all the "learned professions." and even the efforts made to train officers to handle armies and navies are in great part neutralized by placing men at the head of those armies and navies who are not trained in the slightest. the roman machine fell with a crash that was proportional to the magnitude of the machine. the machine of today is much larger and heavier than the roman. if it falls, as it may, the crash will be proportionally greater. what will follow, the mind recoils from contemplating. chapter x certain important creations of invention, and their beneficent influence in charles thurber invented the typewriter. few inventions are more typical. in , the conditions of life were such that the first stage in inventing the typewriter must have been the conception of an extremely brilliant and original idea. after that, the difficulties of embodying the idea in a concrete form must have been very great; for it was not until about that instruments of practical usefulness were in general use. since then, typewriters have penetrated into virtually every office in the civilized world. though the typewriter is a very simple apparatus in both principle and construction, yet few machines stand out more clearly as great inventions. few inventions also have exerted a greater influence--though the influence of the typewriter has been auxiliary, rather than dominant; it has merely enabled a greater amount of business to be transacted than could be transacted before. if anyone will go into any business office whatever, and note the amount of work performed in that office by means of one typewriter that could not be performed without it, and will then multiply that amount by the number of typewriters in the world, he will come to a confused but startling realization of the amount of executive work that is being done in a single day through the agency of the typewriter, that otherwise would not be done. if he will then go a step further, and multiply the number of days that have gone by since the typewriter was first employed, by one-half, or even one-tenth, of the amount accomplished by means of all the typewriters in a single day, he may then be able to appreciate in a measure the enormous influence on progress which the invention of the typewriter has already had. one would not make an exaggerated statement if he should declare that if the typewriter had not been invented, every great business organization in the world today would be much smaller than it is; the great industries would not exist in their present vastness; and all the arts of manufacture, transportation and navigation would be far behind the stage they now have reached. the electric telegraph was patented by morse in , but the first telegram was not sent till , along a wire stretched from washington to baltimore. it is said that the first official message was "what hath god wrought!" this message shows a realization of a fact which some people fail to realize: the people who say, "god made the country, but man made the city." the message showed a realization that god inspires the thoughts of men, as truly as he provides them with things to eat. it is inconceivable that it was intended to call attention to the fact that god wrought the wire along which the message ran, or the wooden poles that carried the wire, or the material zinc and copper of the battery. the only new thing evidenced in the telegraph so far as anyone could know, was the invention itself. god had wrought that through the agency of morse. it is a known fact that no human mind, no matter how fine it may be, or how brilliant and correct its imagination, can have any images or ideas that are not based in some way on the evidence of the senses. we can imagine things, and even create things, that have never existed before; but those things must be composed of parts whose existence we know of through the evidence of our senses. so morse, although he invented a thing that was wholly new, although he created something--did not create any of the parts that composed it. he used such well-known things as wire, iron, zinc and copper. even in the creation of man, the almighty himself used common materials: "and the lord god formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life: and man became a living soul." (genesis, chapter ii.) if the lord god breathed the breath of life into adam, he inspired him according to the original meaning of the word inspire. if he inspired morse with the conception of the electric telegraph, he inspired him according to the modern meaning of the word, which is not very different from the original meaning, and which is not at all different from the meaning according to which he is said to have inspired the prophets of old. to bring before us clearly the whole influence of the telegraph on history would require a book devoted to no other subject; yet the telegraph belongs in the same class with the typewriter, in the sense that its main office is to assist the transaction of business. the telegraph does not of itself produce results. it is not in the class with the fist-hammer, or the weaving machine, or the gun, or the steam engine, or the electric light, or chloroform, or the telescope, or the discovery of america. it owes its reputation largely to the spectacular way in which it first appeared, and to the seeming wonderfulness of its success. yet the telegraph seems no more wonderful than the typewriter, to a person who knows even a little of electricity; and the task of making it practicable was much easier. a very simple and crude apparatus sufficed for the telegraph: but a highly perfect mechanism was needed for the typewriter. it is probably true, however, that the telegraph has had a greater influence on history than the typewriter, though modern civilization would not be even approximately what it is, if either had not been invented. and if by any combination of circumstances, either one should now be taken from us, the whole machine would be thrown into inextricable confusion. it may be objected that if morse had not invented the telegraph, or if any inventor whoever had not invented whatever thing he did invent, some other man would have done so; and that therefore those inventors do not deserve to be placed in any especial niche of honor. there would be considerable reasonableness in such an objection, as is evidenced by the fact that in many cases two or more men have invented the same thing at about the same time. it may be pointed out, however, that while this has often happened in regard to improvements on basic inventions, it has not happened very often in regard to the basic inventions themselves; and also that, even if we include all the inventors the world has ever heard of, we find that there have been surprisingly few. therefore, it really makes little difference to the race as a whole whether smith or jones made a certain invention, or whether smith would have made it, if jones had not made it. "the man who delivers the goods," receives, and as a rule deservedly, the recognition of mankind. furthermore, this book, as has been stated, is not concerned mainly with inventors, but with inventions. in , the use of nitrous oxide gas (laughing gas) as an anæsthetic was introduced by dr. wells. it cannot be said that this invention has had any direct influence on history itself, though it has had a great deal of influence on the history of some individuals. it contributed a new and distinct part to the machine, however, and certainly helped to ameliorate the conditions of living. besides, it seems to be one of the lessons of history that most new and distinct creations, even if no use has been found for them for a long while, have ultimately found a field of usefulness. furthermore, every new and useful thing, like nitrous oxide gas, attracts the attention of men to the advantages that the study of physical sciences and the prosecution of invention offer, and gives inspiration for further study and endeavor. in the same year, léon foucault invented the first practical electric arc-light. davy had made the basic invention of the voltaic arc in ; but his invention was in the class just spoken of, in that it was not utilized for many years. even the arc-light that foucault produced in was not utilized then. in both cases, the cause of slowness of utilization did not rest so much in the invention as in the stage of civilization at the time. the world was not yet ready for the arc-light. in fact, it did not become ready, and it could not become ready, to use the arc-light in real service, until a cheaper means of producing electric current had been invented. this did not happen until the dynamo-electric machine had been invented and had been brought to such a point of practical development that it could supply electric current, not only adequately and economically, but reliably. a necessary step toward the utilization of the arc-light was made in , however, by thomas wright, who invented a means whereby the carbons could be kept automatically at the correct distance apart for maintaining a continuous and uniform light. in , robert hoe made an important contribution in his double-cylinder printing press. in the same year, r. w. thompson invented the pneumatic tire. this invention belongs distinctly in the class just spoken of, for the pneumatic tire did not come into general use until the bicycle did, about . it may be asked if there is any use in inventing appliances long before they are needed. so far as the inventor is then concerned--no: so far as the public is eventually concerned, yes. all inventions made and patented are described and illustrated in the patent office gazette; and many of them are described and illustrated in magazines and newspapers, even if they are not used in actual practice. these records form part of the general knowledge of mankind, just as much as do the facts of geography and history and arithmetic; and they can be drawn upon by investigators and inventors, and made to assist them in their work. in , an invention was made by elias howe, that does not belong at all in the same category as that of the pneumatic tire, because it was utilized almost immediately. this is usually spoken of as the sewing-machine; but the essence of the invention was not a machine, but merely an instrument; for it consisted of a needle in which the eye was near the point, instead of at the other end, as in existing needles. the machine afterwards produced was merely an obvious means for using the new kind of needle. the invention of the sewing-machine was one rich in influence on subsequent progress; and all the story connected with it is interesting in many ways. but the most wonderful fact connected with the invention is that it was not made before! many inventions have not been made because the conditions at the time did not demand them, or make their successful utilization possible: and yet some inventions, like the voltaic arc, were made despite the unfavorable conditions. but what conditions were unfavorable to the utilization of howe's sewing-machine, even as far back in history as the days when the pyramids were built? the howe sewing-machine was not so complicated an apparatus as the ballista, or the chariot, used by the assyrians and the other nations in the "fertile crescent," that curved from alexandria to babylon; and it was much easier and cheaper to make. its construction required immeasurably less scientific knowledge and carefulness than the printing press, the gun, the telescope and the microscope, and a score of appliances that had preceded it by several centuries. why was the sewing-machine not invented before? why, why? this question continually presents itself to the mind, when certain simple inventions appear, that (so far as we can see) could have been invented and ought to have been invented, long before. in , the printing-telegraph was invented by house. no such question as that just discussed is presented to our minds by this invention, because we realize that it could not have been invented before some means of generating continuous electric currents had been invented. the printing-telegraph was not an invention of the same order of influence as the sewing-machine; but it has assisted the work of the telegraph in supplying news, especially in reports of stock fluctuations. in the same year, de lesseps started his project of building the suez canal, and joining the mediterranean to the red sea; so that ships could proceed to india from europe by a direct route. many centuries before, a canal had been cut and generally used that ran from the nile river to the red sea. the canal that de lesseps proposed was to be larger, and the engineering difficulties greater. the vast enterprise was finally carried out, at a cost of about $ , , . it seems to have passed through the three successive stages of conception, development and production. the idea of building a canal did not originate in , or in the brain of de lesseps; for the idea was very old, probably older than recorded history. but the only man who formed the mental picture in his mind and afterwards developed it into a concrete plan was de lesseps. he did this; and his plan was so complete and coherent, and so evidently practical, that he finally succeeded in convincing engineers and capitalists of the fact, and forming a large company. the execution of the concrete plan was not begun until , and it was de lesseps who began it. thus de lesseps, though he did not conceive the basic idea, conceived and combined the various ideas necessary to embody the basic idea in a concrete plan, then constructed the concrete plan, and then produced the actual instrument. this instrument (the canal) was a very useful instrument. an instrument, according to the _standard dictionary_, is "a means by which work is done." by means of the suez canal, the work of direct water transportation between the far east and europe was done; and it could not have been done, except by means of that instrument. it has been done by that instrument ever since, and at an increasing rate. the canal was completed in , and widened and deepened in . it has shortened the water distance between england and india by about miles, and has had a tremendous influence on history, especially on great britain's history. one of the largest stockholders is the british government; three-fourths of the ships passing through it have been british; and though the whole world has benefited, the greatest single beneficiary has been great britain. yet de lesseps was a frenchman! this calls to our minds the fact that although some of the greatest names in history are french, yet the french nation, as a nation, has never shown the same concerted national purpose as the british. in this respect, the french seem to have borne somewhat the same relation to the british, as the greeks did to the romans: and yet the french are more nearly allied by blood and language to the romans than are the british. the greeks and the french aimed to make life pleasant, by the aid of the fine arts and a general utilization of all that is delightful; while the romans and the british, early in their careers, conceived the idea of dominion, embodied the idea in a concrete plan, and proceeded to carry the plan into execution. the plan was continually accommodated to the changing conditions of the times, and the means of execution were continually accommodated also. the result has been that greece and france never, as nations, acquired dominion even approximately; while rome did completely, and great britain did, approximately. the author does not wish to be understood as approving of the idea of acquiring dominion, or as failing to realize the sordidness of such an ambition, and the evil that men and nations have done, in order to achieve it. he begs leave to point out, however, that the machine could not have been built, except under the stable conditions that large nations permit better than small nations do; and that it has been the endeavor to achieve dominion by aspiring tribes and nations, and the consequent endeavor to gain strength in order to prevent it, by other aspiring tribes and nations, which have caused the gradual building up of the great nations of today, with the comfort, security and culture that their existence permits. in the same year, , artificial limbs were invented, and so was the electric cautery. neither of these inventions had a profound influence; but each was a new creation, and each formed a useful and distinct addition to the machine. but another invention was made in , that has had great influence. this was the invention of gun-cotton, made by schonbein in germany by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids on cotton, or some other form of cellulose. it was the first practical explosive that depended for its usefulness on the decomposition of a chemical compound, and not on the combustion of a mechanical mixture, like gunpowder. the explosive power of gun-cotton was declared by the chemist abel to be fifty times that of an equal weight of the gunpowder of that day; but this does not mean that it possessed fifty times the energy. the action of gun-cotton is very much more sudden than that of gunpowder; and for that reason, it exerts a much greater force for an instant, and has much greater efficacy for such purposes as breaking into structures, bursting shells, etc. on the other hand, the very fact that its energy is developed with such suddenness, causes its force to fall to zero very soon, and makes it useless for such purposes as gunpowder fulfils in firing projectiles from guns. in a gun, especially in a long gun, the endeavor is made to keep down the pressure of the gas and prolong its continuance; so that the projectile will receive a comparatively gentle but prolonged push, that will start it gradually from its seat, and will continue to push it, and therefore to increase its velocity, all the way to the muzzle. gun-cotton does not belong in the class with the typewriter and the telegraph, that merely assist men to transact business: gun-cotton transacts business "on its own account." gun-cotton belongs in the class with the gun; and its main influence has been to increase the self-protectivity of the machine. it has done this mainly by increasing the power of the submarine torpedo against the hulls of warships. it may be objected that both sides in a war between civilized nations would use torpedoes, that no persons except organizations controlled by civilized nations (such as those in warships) would use torpedoes, and that therefore, whatever effect the torpedo might have on the machine is neutralized by the fact that two civilized bodies use it against each other. true; but the fact that the torpedo and the gun-cotton in it require a high degree of civilization in the people who use it, gives civilized people an immediate and tremendous advantage over uncivilized people; and furthermore, the fact that the torpedo and the gun-cotton in it depend for their ultimate effect not only on their being used, but on the degree of knowledge and skill with which they are used, gives an advantage to which every nation in any war is willing and able to utilize the most knowledge and exert the most skill. that is, the torpedo and the gun-cotton in it combine to give the advantage to the nations possessing the highest degree of civilization and willpower. they enable the machine of the most highly civilized nation to protect itself if it will against the machines of less highly civilized nations. in the year following the invention of gun-cotton, came sobrero's invention of nitro-glycerin, made by the action of nitric acid on glycerin ( ). the new explosive was more powerful than gun-cotton, but much more dangerous to handle. by reason of its extreme sensitiveness and the consequent danger of handling it, the use of pure nitro-glycerin has never been great. in the same year, , the time-lock was invented by savage. this invention was in the class with the gun and gun-cotton, in the sense that it enhanced the self-protectiveness of the machine. it did not enhance its self-protectiveness against a few great, open, external foes, however, but against a myriad of small, secret, internal foes. the machine is very expensive to maintain in operation, and so is every one of the little mechanisms of which it is composed. and each one of these little mechanisms, each bank, its business corporation, each company, each department store, each little shop, requires that its money be kept safe from the burglar and the pilferer. inasmuch as the time-lock assists in doing this, the time-lock has been a valuable contribution to the machine, and has exerted a good influence on history since it was invented. in the same year, , r. m. hoe invented his great printing press, that could make , impressions per hour. as it was a long step forward in the improvement of printing, this invention deserved the applause which it received; and the inventor deserved the financial reward which he received. in , dennison invented a machine for making matches. this was a most useful contribution; but one is inclined to wonder why twenty years elapsed between the invention of matches and the invention of a machine for making them. inventing was not going ahead so fast then as it is now. surely, no such interval is allowed to pass unutilized, in the present inventing days. in , the "interrupted thread" screw, for use in closing the breeches of guns was invented. many men have claimed the honor of this invention. regardless of who the particular inventor was, the invention itself must be regarded as one of a very high order, from the standpoints of originality, constructiveness and usefulness. though the screw itself was a very old contrivance, the idea of cutting a long slot lengthwise, so that the screw could be pushed forward quickly without the slow process of continuously turning it around, yet so arranged that the screw could be turned when near the end of its travel, and the force-gaining power of the screw-thread thus secured, seems to have been entirely new. certainly the idea was original and brilliant and useful. to develop the idea into a concrete plan was not difficult, and neither was it difficult to carry the concrete plan into execution. this invention falls into the happy class of which the stethoscope is typical, in which the idea originally conceived was so perfect, that little else was needed. the main use of this invention has been that for which it was first intended, to close the breeches of guns. it is used in most of the navies and armies. its principal rival is the famous sliding breech-block of krupp. in , came an invention in the gun class, the magazine gun, made by walter hunt. this invention also seems to fulfil all the requirements of a real invention, in originality of conception, constructiveness of development and ultimate usefulness. but in this case, the original idea can hardly be declared as brilliant and spectacular as that of the "interrupted thread"; and certainly the labor of developing it was incomparably greater. the author feels the temptation of declaring that the more brilliant and valuable a conception is, the less will be the difficulty of developing it. he refuses to declare it, however, realizing that it would not be wholly true; and yet he wishes to point out that if a conception be wholly erroneous, it cannot be developed into any concrete plan whatever; and that many of the most brilliant conceptions, such as the fist-hammer, the flute, the telescope, the telegraph and the telephone were very easily developed into forms sufficiently concrete to make them practically usable. an idea itself is an extremely simple thing, even if it be developed ultimately into a highly complex machine. the idea of the steam engine, for instance, the idea which hero conceived was, of itself, extremely simple; but see into what complex forms it has been developed! the original idea of hero was easily developed into "hero's engine." the improvements that have been made upon it have been the developments of separate ideas that were conceived later. not one of these ideas has been nearly so brilliant as hero's, and few of them have been so easily developed. in , bourdon invented the steam pressure gauge that still bears his name, and made a contribution of distinct and permanent value, by which ability to keep track of the steam pressure in boilers was increased, and safety from explosion increased proportionately. in the same year, sir david brewster invented his lenticular stereoscope. in this beautiful instrument two separate pictures of the same object are put on one card, one picture showing the object as it would look to the left eye from a given distance, and the other picture showing the object as it would look to the right eye. the two eyes of an observer look at the two pictures through the two halves of two convex lenses, that are so shaped that the two pictures are seen as one picture, but so superposed as to represent the object in relief, as the actual object appears to the two eyes. like the kaleidoscope, this later product of sir david brewster's brilliant imagination has had little influence thus far, except possibly to lead the way toward stereo-photography and the stereopticon: but it seems hardly probable that an important field will not be found some day for an invention so suggestive. in the same year, hibbert made an important improvement on the knitting machine, and corliss invented his famous engine cut-off, which vastly economized fuel. neither invention was especially novel or brilliant, but both were highly practical and useful contributions to the improvement of the machine. in the same year also came worm's improvement on the printing press, that concerned the making of "turtles" which held type in a curved shape, so that they could be secured to the cylinder of the press. in , scott archer succeeded in using collodion to fix silver salts on the surface of glass plates in photography. he cannot be credited with the basic invention, because the idea of doing this had been suggested long before. the invention made an important contribution to the growing art of photography, mainly by supplying a stepping stone for further advances. in the same year, an important improvement was made in watch-making by inventing a watch-making machine. this was one of the first of those distinctly american inventions, by which machine-work replaced hand-work, with great increase in speed of production and lessening of cost, but without decrease in accuracy of workmanship. the influence of this invention has escaped the notice of many of us, for the reason that it has spread so gradually, and has been of such a character as to fail to strike the imagination from its lack of spectacularity. but the idea of what we now call "quantity production" has spread to all the fields of the manufacturing world, and is the basis of much of the enormous industrial progress of the last half century. it is rendered possible mainly by making the machinery automatic, or nearly so. without such exaggeration, america may justly claim the contribution of automaticity to the machine of civilization. in , dr. charles g. page produced the first electric locomotive. like many pioneers, it did not achieve practical success itself, but it supplied a stepping stone to further progress. in the same year, seymour produced his self-rakers for harvesters, and gorrie invented the ice-making machine. two more important inventions were the ophthalmoscope, invented by helmholtz, and the "ruhmkorff coil," invented by the man whose name still clings to it. the ophthalmoscope reminds one of the stethoscope; so simple it is, so perfect and so useful. it consists merely of a small concave mirror with a hole in it, a lamp and a small convex lens: the mirror being held so that one eye of a physician can look through it, and the lens being placed conveniently by the physician near the eye of a patient. the mirror reflects light from the lamp towards the patient's eye, and the convex lens concentrates them on whatever is to be examined--usually the interior of an eye. this instrument belongs in the small class of inventions already spoken of, in which the original conception was so perfect, that the acts of developing it into a concrete instrument and then producing the instrument were easily performed. the ruhmkorff coil is in the same class; for it consists merely of two coils of wire; one "primary" coil being of coarse wire and connected with a source of electric current, and the other "secondary" coil of fine wire placed around the coil of coarse wire. if the current in the primary coil be made or broken or changed in force or direction, currents are "induced" in the secondary coil; the strength of the two currents varying relatively according to the sizes and lengths of the wires in the two coils. this invention has an interest apart from its usefulness, in the fact that ruhmkorff invented it for purposes of scientific study, and that no utilization of it for everyday life occurred until nearly half a century later. then ruhmkorff coils were made into "transformers" for use in "stepping down" the small high voltage currents needed for transmitting electric currents over long distances, into the larger but lower voltage currents needed for actuating electric lights and motors. in the following year, , channing and farmer invented the fire-alarm telegraph, an important contribution to the safety of the machine, though it did not come into general use for several years. in the same year, fox talbot made another of his epochal contributions to photography, by inventing a process by which photographic half-tones could be produced. in the following year, a process was invented for making from wood a pulp that was very valuable as the basis of making paper,--and faraday made three important discoveries. these were the laws of electro-magnetic induction, the relations of the dielectric to the conducting bodies in electro-static induction, and the laws of electrolysis. these discoveries of faraday were all inventions, in the sense in which the word invention is used in this book. each one was the outcome of a series of careful and mathematically guided experiments, and the outgrowth of an idea. in the following year, melhuish invented photographic roll films, and herman invented the rock drill. the latter invention has been of the utmost practical value in blasting operations of all kinds, and must be regarded as a very distinct addition to the machine. in the same year, appeared the smith & wesson revolver; not a great invention, but an improvement in many ways over colt's; mr. a. b. wilson brought out his four-motion feed for sewing-machines, and r. a. tilghman invented his process for decomposing fats by hot steam. in the following year ( ), lundstrom made the highly important invention of safety matches. when one reflects (as every one must at times) how great and absolutely irretrievable are the losses caused by fire each year, how the amount of possible destruction grows each year exactly as fast as the machine grows, and realizes how large a fire many a small match has caused, he feels inclined to give a mental salute to mr. lundstrom of sweden. in the same year, iron-clad floating batteries were used in the crimean war. this was not the first time that iron-clad vessels had been employed, for vessels protected on the sides with sheets of iron and copper had been used by the coreans in their victorious war against the japanese about three hundred years before; but it was the first time that such vessels had appeared in europe. cocaine was invented the same year, and one of the most valuable anæsthetics yet known was then produced. but the most valuable contribution to the machine in was henry bessemer's epochal invention of making steel by blowing air through molten cast iron, until enough of the carbon had been burnt off to leave a steel of whatever quality was desired. this invention reduced the cost of making steel, and the time required, in so great a degree as to place the manufacture of steel on a basis entirely new, and to extend its field of employment greatly. and, as with many previous great inventions, this one paved the way for still other inventions, by indicating the possibility of still wider fields. the bessemer process is not in the class with the typewriter or the telegraph, but in the class with the gun; for it does things itself. it would be difficult to specify any invention (except one produced at a much earlier time) that has had more influence, and more good influence, on history than bessemer's. no one can look out of his window in any town or city, without seeing some of the innumerable products of bessemer's idea. * * * * * our record has now brought us to the middle of the nineteenth century. the conditions of living in were greatly different from those of . in fifty years, the physical conditions of living and of carrying on business of all kinds, had improved more than in the century between and , more than in the two centuries preceding , and more than in the ten centuries from and . rapid transportation over the land in railroad trains for both passengers and freight had largely replaced the slow transportation methods of ; and, in an almost equal degree, steam transportation at sea had replaced transportation by sails. the printing press had been developed from a crude and slow contrivance, worked by a hand, to a magnificent mechanism worked by steam: the electric battery had been improved into an appliance of the utmost reliability and usefulness; telegraph lines stretched over the continents, and messages were sent surely and instantaneously over hundreds of miles of land; and the science of chemistry had arisen from the ashes of alchemy. as a result of this, the science of photography had been born, and had already begun its work, so varied and so useful. physics had grown so surely and so greatly, that it had been divided into the separate but allied sciences of heat, light and electricity--including magnetism: the science of engineering had expanded so widely, that it also had been divided into other sciences--civil engineering, mechanical engineering, hydraulic engineering and electrical engineering: the science of medicine, because of the advances in chemistry and physics, had advanced at an equal rate: the gun had been so greatly improved, and gunpowder also, that such a degree of precision and range had been attained as to make the gun of seem crude indeed; and the improvement had been inevitably caused by the greater knowledge placed at the disposal of ordnance officers, by the advances in chemistry, heat, light, electricity, magnetism and the various engineering arts. the introduction of illuminating gas, the improvements in forging, casting and turning metals, had made possible the building of edifices, and the fabrication of better and cheaper utensils of every kind: improvements in the means and methods of spinning, knitting and weaving had bettered the materials that people wore upon their persons: improvements in rubber manufacture had made possible the use of waterproof garments; crops could be gathered more quickly and surely: safety from fire had been increased: methods of heating houses had been vastly improved: and the discovery of anæsthetics had relieved civilized man in great degree from his most distressing single enemy. as a result, the people of every civilized country lived under conditions of comfort far greater than had ever been known before in similar climates. the facts and conditions detailed above relate almost wholly to the material conditions of living, and show that, for most people, they had been enormously improved: though it is noteworthy that for the very poor, they had not improved in many cases, and had been altered for the worse in other cases. the unfavorable changes were mainly those produced by "factory life" which in must have been worse than country life for the same class of people. these cases were so greatly in the minority, however, as not to affect the main proposition that the advance in civilization from to , caused by new inventions, had improved the material conditions of living for the great majority of the people affected by them. that it was desirable that these conditions should be improved, some people may be disposed to deny; pointing out that the improvement tended to develop "luxury, thou cursed of heaven's decree." one of the effects of increasing material prosperity is undoubtedly a tendency toward luxury. but the number of people thus affected was so very small in the period from to , and the degree of luxury attained then was so slight, that this question need hardly be discussed, at this point. but the mental condition of the people had changed as greatly as the physical conditions of their environment. the immediate cause of this change was, of course, the printing press, which disseminated the thoughts of thinking men broadcast, and told of events that were occurring not only in places near, but also in places distant. this gave an enormous stimulation to the minds of the people by exciting their interest: and it also gave to their minds both "food for thought" and almost unlimited opportunity for exercise. before this period, only a small part of the population had a wide range of knowledge, or a large number of subjects to think about. their lives were exceedingly monotonous, and would have been exceedingly dull, had it not been for the continuous necessity of combating the inconveniences of every-day life by continual toil of one kind or another. there were very few subjects of conversation. but the printing-press told the people of other things besides the events that were taking place; it told them also of new discoveries and inventions that were being made, and of the effects they would produce. the news of a great discovery or invention must have created more excitement in when the discovery of chloroform was announced, than almost any discovery would now, because we are so accustomed to new discoveries as almost to be sated. we know what excitement the first successful railway trips created. the coming of these new discoveries and inventions gave mental exercise in four ways:--first by stimulating the imagination with a picture it had never seen before, and whose possibilities reached no one could guess how far; second by stimulating the logical powers to reason out and understand the principles underlying each discovery or invention; third by stimulating the memory to engrave upon its tablets certain new and important facts; and fourth, by stimulating the inventive faculties, to carry inventions further. thus, the influence of new inventions was to change a man's environment, both physical and mental. now every man is said to be the product of his environment and his heredity; so that the influence of these new inventions was to change men to a degree proportional to the degree by which they changed their environment. this does not mean that inventions have changed man biologically, or even changed him so much that he will act very differently from a savage, under abnormal conditions. it does mean, however, that they have caused men so to adapt themselves to the new environment which inventions have created, that, while in that environment, they will for all practical purposes, be very different from savages. it means that under nearly all the conditions of living, a gentleman in civilized society will be a gentleman--courteous, refined, law-abiding and moral. it does not mean that he will be perfect, but that he will be very much more courteous, refined, law-abiding and moral than a savage; and it means, in consequence that the society of civilized people in general will possess these characteristics much more than any society of savages does. not only, however, have these inventions changed the environment of civilized man, they have changed his heredity also; because they had previously changed the environment of his parents, grandparents and other ancestors. the graduate of oxford of , the son of an oxford graduate who was also the son of an oxford graduate, though he was biologically the same as his barbarian ancestors of ten thousand years before, was nevertheless a much more refined, intelligent and courteous gentleman. under certain abnormal conditions, such as intense thirst, hunger, jealousy, passion or unlooked-for temptation he might act as badly as a savage:--in fact such men sometimes do. but nevertheless, the fact that in % of the conditions under which he lives he acts as a gentleman and not as a savage makes him % a gentleman, and only % a savage, during his mortal life. thus inventions, while originating (or seeming to originate) in the minds of men, change the environment of men, and this changes the men. of the two changes, it would be easy to say that the change made in the men is the more important; but would it be truthful to say so? we have already noted the curious fact that inventions have the faculty of self-improvement to a degree far greater than men have it; for the reason that each new man must begin where his last ancestor began, whereas each new invention begins where his last ancestor finished. this suggests that the changes produced in environment are more profound than the changes produced in men; that in fact the changes in environment are very profound, and the changes in men quite superficial. that this is really the case is indicated by the very long time needed to build up the environments of civilization, and the very short time needed for men to adapt themselves to those environments, or to any changed conditions. the fact has often been noted (sometimes with chagrin) that highly refined gentlemen adapt themselves with extreme facility to the often primitive environments of hunting or campaigning, and history shows in many instances how quickly barbarians have adapted themselves to civilization. this leads us to suspect that the machine which inventions have built up may not be of so much permanence as we are prone to think, and makes us realize that it is not a natural production but one wholly artificial. now nothing that is wholly artificial can reasonably be expected to be permanent, unless adequate and timely measures are taken to insure it. chapter xi invention and growth of liberal government, american civil war while the period from to was alive with inventions of many sorts, it was alive also with the economic changes which the inventions caused and with political changes also. it was in the united states of america that the greatest changes of all kinds came. this was to be expected from the fact that before the united states were considerably behind the countries of europe from which their own civilization had been derived; whereas in , they had been able to get abreast of them, by reason of the quickness of transportation and communication that ocean steamers gave, and the energy and enterprise of the new american nation. during the period from till , the united states went through three successful wars; one with great britain, one with algiers and one with mexico. they expanded also over a considerably greater territory, acquired a much greater population, added new states, and showed such aptitude in scientific discovery and invention as to achieve a place in the first rank of nations in this particular. the constitution of the united states may be characterized as a great invention, in the meaning of the word which is used in this book; and until , it had worked with a success that surprised many of the statesmen and scholars of europe. the problems placed before the nation had been many, various and difficult; but all had been solved with a sufficient degree of success for practical purposes; and the resulting situations had, on the whole, been met with courage, energy and intelligence. the monroe doctrine had been treated with respect, if not with entire acquiescence; the conduct of the navy in the war of had demonstrated to europe the fighting ability of our people; our scientific men, such as franklin and henry, ranked as high as any who had ever lived in any country; certain of our statesmen such as franklin, held equal rank with statesmen anywhere; and the invention and first use of the electric telegraph had put america ahead of every other country in inventions of a basic kind. when we realize the rapid growth of the united states in the half century - , and realize also that it was a growth almost _ab initio_, and note that the engineering materials of all kinds and all the knowledge of science in the country had come from europe, we must admit that it is to the influence of invention, more than to any other one thing, that we owe the rapid progress of our country. as is the case with individuals, nations are prone to extol their own successes, and to take the entire credit for them. americans are apt to thank themselves only for their amazing progress; but, in fairness, they should admit that without the inventions made in europe and by europeans, they would have had no means for even starting. the first locomotive used in the united states was brought from england. in great britain, the wars with france were under full headway in , and her statesmen knew that she was faced with a danger so great that only the most strenuous exertions, and the utmost naval and military skill could overcome it. this danger was not overcome till the battle of waterloo in . thereafter, the progress of the nation was fairly quiet and assured, the main difficulties centering in the deplorable condition of the working classes, serious disturbances in ireland and the mutiny in india. in few matters has the influence of invention been greater than in the relations between great britain and india. in a company called the merchant adventurers had been formed for competing with the merchants of spain, venice, holland and other countries. a company coming into existence shortly afterward was the east india company, formed for trading with india, persia, arabia and the islands in the indian ocean. the company was chartered by the crown and had a monopoly of a certain territory. the object was that the company should not only make money for itself, but promote the welfare of great britain and her subjects, by taking out manufactured goods, and bringing back raw materials and coin. during the seventeenth century, naval wars took place with holland, and in the eighteenth century with france; both originating in commercial and colonial rivalry--especially in regard to india. both wars were won by great britain. the seven years' war in particular ended to the advantage of great britain, as regards india; for france was left with only a few trading stations. by , the east india company was in virtual control of india; but in william pitt secured political control of it by the government. napoleon realized the importance of india and sent an army there to recover control, but without success. the crimean war that began in between russia and turkey was joined by great britain in because she feared that russia would flank the british route to india through the projected suez canal. this war ended to the advantage of great britain, and the danger to india was removed. now the whole area of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland is only about , square miles, while that of india is about , , , nearly fifteen times as great. the population of the united kingdom in was about , , , while that of india was about , , , or nearly seven times as great. yet great britain has secured the complete mastery of india! how has she been able to do it? the easiest answer would be that the british are a "superior" people. even if they are, such an answer would explain nothing, unless the means be indicated by which the superiority was made effective in conquering india. the superiority evidently did not consist in courage or physical strength, which were obvious factors in achieving the victories in the field that were necessary, for those qualities were shown equally by the indians. but if we should answer that the british succeeded for the reason that they could bring to bear superior weapons, equipments, means of transportation, means of communication, methods of organization and methods of operation, we evidently would explain what happened adequately and convincingly. now all these facilities the british had available; they had been invented and were ready. one of the important influences of invention on history therefore, has been to give great britain control of india. in france, the changes in economic and political conditions rivaled the changes that one sees take place in sir david brewster's kaleidoscope. in napoleon had been first consul, in emperor, in an emperor and then an exile, in an emperor and then an exile. france was a kingdom from then until , and then a republic till , when she again became an empire, under napoleon iii. the virtual anarchy following the revolution had been crushed out and replaced with order; and the menace to republican institutions had been removed by the genius of napoleon i, who then established an autocracy of a kind that, though arbitrary, was so wise and broad-viewed as to be beneficent on the whole. the result of all was that in , france was in a condition of civilization and prosperity that was amazing to one who remembered the conditions of . when we analyze the causes of the evolution of order and prosperity out of the conditions of , and the later conditions of , we can hardly fail to realize the greatest single cause was the same cause as that of napoleon's victories. it was the mind that conceived and developed and brought forth; the mind that invented so amazingly. that many other causes may be named need hardly be pointed out. in the complex affairs of human life, every result is the resultant of many causes; but in most of those affairs, most of those causes are always present; so that we have to find an unusual cause to explain an unusual condition or event. it would be easy to say that the cause of france's return to a condition of law and order was that the condition of anarchy was abnormal; and that france simply returned to her normal state, as a wave does after it has risen above or fallen below the level of the sea. but would this be true? is the condition of anarchy more abnormal than the condition of law and order? which was the condition of primitive man? which is an artificial product of man's invention? is it not logical to conclude from the record of invention's influence that it was man's inventions that brought into existence the artificial condition of law and order which existed in france prior to , and that it was also man's inventions that restored it afterward? three ideas were conceived in france and developed into the revolution: these ideas were the principles of equality, of the sovereignty of the people and of nationality. after the overthrow of napoleon, the congress of vienna met to readjust the affairs of europe. the congress seems to have conceived the idea of preventing the carrying out of those principles as their first starting point, and to have developed that idea with fixed determination. the commissioners endeavored to restore everything to its condition before the revolution, and to discredit the principles conceived and developed in france. they succeeded in accomplishing their intent, so far as remaking political boundaries, etc., was concerned; but they did not succeed in discrediting the principles. a great picture had been made in the minds of men, and the commissioners could not wipe it out. as a result, three revolutions took place in , and , of which the second was more important than the first, and the third was more important than the second. shortly after the fall of napoleon, the czar alexander, with the emperor of austria and the king of prussia, invented the holy alliance. it was in pretense an alliance to advance the cause of religion, and to reduce to practice in political affairs the teachings of christ; but it was in intention a league against the spread of the ideas embodied in the french revolution. the league was not successful in the end, for the picture of liberty made in the minds of men was too brilliant and too deeply printed to be wiped out. one of the results of the holy alliance was the invention by the united states of the monroe doctrine which was made to prevent that intervention in affairs on the american continent which the proceedings of the alliance foreshadowed. italy was very harshly treated by the congress of vienna, two of her largest provinces in the north being given to austria, who forthwith proceeded then to try to control the entire peninsula. in , a revolution broke out in italy, but it was soon suppressed. another broke out in , simultaneous with that in france; and this was also suppressed. the third, in , met a similar fate. but the revolutions in france were successful; the one of resulting in the formation of a republic. at the same time, a sympathetic revolution in germany was in a measure successful also. in germany, the formation of the german confederation in by the congress of vienna was the formation of a kind of political body that has never lasted long; for no political body has ever lasted long, except an actual and definite nation. the various components of the german confederation were too loosely bound together. this invention, like others of mechanical machines, was not a practical invention because the machine invented was too easily thrown out of adjustment. the customs union was invented in to supply the necessary element of coherency. it was hardly adequate for its task, at the time; but it made the people think of national union; an idea that was finally developed in . in russia, considerable progress was made from to , though not so much as in the countries farther west. an adequate reason would seem to be that there were too few minds, in proportion to the entire population, that were able to conceive and develop the ideas that are needed to make progress. during this half-century, while the names of many men stand out as having done constructive work in invention and discovery, and while many great statesmen existed, the names of three statesmen stand out more brightly than the rest: pitt, talleyrand and metternich. each had the mind to conceive, develop and produce; and each did conceive, develop and produce. of the three, william pitt was, according to almost any accepted standard by far the greatest, and talleyrand was second. without the force and guidance of such a mind as pitt possessed and utilized, it is hard to estimate what would have been the rôle of england in the napoleonic wars, and what would have been her fate. in the actual course of events, it was england that announced the "mate in four moves" to napoleon at trafalgar, and that finally checkmated him at waterloo. true, pitt died long before waterloo; but the policy which he conceived and developed was the policy which was followed; and the influence of his mind lived in almost unabated strength after his poor, frail body had ceased to live. talleyrand seems to have been what i have asked permission to call an "opportunistic inventor"; quick to conceive, develop and produce plans for meeting difficult situations as they arose, but without any ultimate objective, or any moral or other principles of any kind. metternich, on the other hand, though lacking the brilliancy of talleyrand, exerted his talents devotedly to the interests of his country, as he saw them. but he failed to realize how deep the ideas of the french revolution had been engraved in the minds of men, and finally saw the machine of the austrian government almost destroyed in . he himself was forced to flee; and the emperor was forced to abdicate in favor of his nephew, who granted the people a constitution, in order to save the machine. in prussia, affairs went almost as far as in austria, though not nearly so far as in france. the machine in prussia was saved by the promise of the granting of a constitution. the main ultimate political result of the agitations of all kinds during the half century to , was the granting to greater numbers of people of a part in directing the affairs of state. in france, the whole machine of civilization had been menaced with destruction in the years just previous to ; but destruction had not resulted, and actual improvement had been begun by , though in an experimental and tentative way. during the fifty years now under consideration, the idea conceived and developed in france spread to all other civilized countries; and in all those countries it exercised its benignant influence, especially in the new nation across the atlantic, the united states of america. reciprocally, the news of the formation of that republic, and the adoption of its constitution in , had exercised considerable influence in giving support to the idea of the people of france, although the united states of america was very far away indeed, and her experiment in government was as yet untried. then, as the years went by, between and , and as the american experiment became increasingly successful, and as the ocean steamships brought prompt and adequate information about all of its developments, the american idea joined with the french idea, to advance the cause of government by the people. it may be pointed out here that the discoveries in the physical sciences and the utilization of those discoveries in the invention of material instruments and mechanisms were more fruitful in creations of a permanent and definite character than were the achievements of statesmen, generals, admirals and "opportunistic inventors" in general. the same remark is true of discoveries and inventions in systems of government, ethics and religion. these also have developed monuments of extraordinary permanency; witness, for instance, the inventions of the kingdom, of democracy and of the buddhist, shinto, taoist, jewish, christian and mohammedan religions. the distinctive feature in securing permanency seems to have been the intent to secure it. the sudden conception, development and production of a campaign, political maneuvre or business enterprise, seems to have produced a creature that was merely a temporary expedient, adapted only to meet emergencies that themselves were temporary. this does not mean that the influence of these temporary expedients has not sometimes been great: it does not mean, for instance, that the influence of the victory at salamis was not great. it does not mean to deny the plain fact that it has been the succession of the results of temporary expedients that has brought affairs to the condition in which they are today. it does mean, however, that the actual pieces of the existing machine of civilization are the permanent inventions which have been made; while the opportunistic inventions have in some cases prevented, and in other cases have furthered, the making of those inventions, and the incorporation of them in the machine. the invention of printing, for instance, produced an actual part of the machine; while the successful wars waged by civilized nations with the gun against savages, barbarians and peoples of a lower order of civilization, made possible the further development of printing, and its continual use in upbuilding the machine. the use of the opportunistic inventions seems to have been in assisting the inventors of permanent creations and in directing the efforts of the operators of the machine. an analogue can be found in the case of the invention, development and operation of the smaller machines of every-day life: the inventor of each machine merely invents that machine; when he has done this his work is virtually finished. when his machine is put to work (say, an electric railroad) the operators carry on the various routine tasks; just as the president of a bank operates his bank, or the president of a nation administers the affairs of the nation. but there arise occasions when something goes wrong, when something besides supplying coal and oil and electricity is necessary for the successful running of the railroad, when something more than routine administration is required of the president of the bank, or the president of the nation. then the ingenious and bright mechanic or electrician invents a practical scheme for circumventing the difficulty with the railroad; or napoleon invents a campaign to save the french republic. in taupenot made the important invention of dry-plate photography, by which dry plates can be prepared and kept ready for use when needed, and michaux invented the bicycle. both of these were fairly important contributions of a practical kind; so was woodruff's invention of the sleeping-car, and so was perkins's discovery of aniline dyes, both of which came in . none of these was a brilliant invention, though each was a useful one. but they were immediately followed by one of a high order of brilliancy and usefulness, siemens's regenerative furnace, in which the waste heat of the combustion gases was utilized to heat the air or gas just entering. in the same year, kingsland invented a refining engine for use in making paper pulp. in the following year the first ocean-going iron-clad ship of war, _la gloire_, appeared, and in the first cable car, invented by e. a. gardner. in the same year giffard invented his famous injector, which performs the feat (seemingly impossible at first thought) of using steam at a certain pressure in a boiler to force water into that same boiler against its own pressure! the explanation of course is that the area of the stream of water that enters the boiler is less than the area of the stream of steam that leaves the boiler. this invention was one of a very high order of brilliancy of conception, excellence of construction and usefulness of final product. it was a valuable contribution to the machine. in the same year cyrus field of new york succeeded in laying the first atlantic cable between ireland and newfoundland. it is difficult to declare whether this achievement constituted an invention or not, and it may not be so classed by many people. nevertheless, it created something that had not existed before, and it progressed by the same three stages of conception, development and production by which all inventions progress. it was a contribution of enormous value to the machine, moreover; for though the first cable was not a practical success, and though the second cable broke while being laid in , it was recovered and re-laid and afterward operated successfully. since that time, submarine cables have been multiplied to such an extent that there were more than in operation in , and they formed a network under all the seas. such important parts of the machine of civilization have these submarine cables become that the machine as it is could not exist without them. that is, it could not have existed before the wireless telegraph came. the wireless telegraph has made the machine less dependent on submarine cables than it was before, and yet not wholly independent. in the _great eastern_ was launched, the largest steamship built up to that time. the case of the _great eastern_ is interesting from the fact that she was too large to fit in the machine as it then existed, and that by the time that the machine had grown large enough the _great eastern_ was obsolete! about , kirchhoff and bunsen invented the spectroscope, an optical instrument for forming and analyzing the spectra of the rays emitted by bodies and substances. in gaston planté invented his famous "secondary battery," formed by passing an electric current through a cell composed of two sheets of lead immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, the two sheets separated by non-conducting strips of felt. the acid being decomposed, hydrogen formed on one plate, while oxygen attacked the other plate and formed peroxide of lead. there being now two dissimilar metals in an acid solution, a voltaic battery had been created, that gave a current which passed through the liquid in a direction the reverse of the current ("charging current") that had caused the change. planté's secondary battery was an important and practical contribution to the machine; but the credit for the basic invention does not belong to planté, but to sir william grove, who had invented the "grove's gas battery." in this battery, two plates of platinum were immersed in dilute acid, and submitted to a charging current that decomposed the liquid and formed an actual though practically ineffective "secondary battery"; the two elements being oxygen and hydrogen. in the next year philip reis invented the singing telephone, by which he could transmit _musical tones_ over considerable distances. whether or not philip reis invented the speaking telephone has been a much controverted question, for the reason that speech was occasionally transmitted over reis's telephone,--though not by intention. the invention that reis conceived, developed and produced was a singing telephone only; the apparatus by which he sometimes transmitted speech was his singing telephone, slightly disadjusted. that reis should have failed to invent the telephone is amazing, in the same sense that it is amazing that galileo did not invent the thermometer and the barometer; and the fact is extremely instructive in enabling us to see distinctly what constitutes invention. to make an invention, a man must himself create a thing that is new, and produce it in a concrete form, such that "persons skilled in the art can make and use it." reis did not do this: and yet philip reis's telephone could be made to speak in a few seconds, by simply turning a little thumb-screw! reis did not know this, and consequently could not give the information to "persons skilled in the art." reis did not invent the speaking telephone, for the fundamental reason that his original conception, although correct for his singing telephone, was wholly incorrect for a speaking telephone; because the speaking telephone requires a continuous current, while reis's conception included an intermittent current. apologies are tendered for going into what may seem a technicality at such great length; but the author wishes to utilize this example to emphasize the importance of the original conception, the image pictured on the mind by the imagination. this original conception is of paramount importance in making inventions, not only of material mechanisms, but of all other things that can be invented, such as religions, laws, systems of government, campaigns, books, paintings, etc., etc. the final product cannot be better than the original conception, except by chance; for even if the development be absolutely perfect, the invention finally brought forth can be only equal to the original conception. it is obvious that the simpler the invention is the more easily it can be made equal to the original conception, and vice versâ. for this reason the stethoscope is a more efficient embodiment of the original conception than is that very inefficient product--the steam engine. the fact that the final product cannot be better than the original conception (except by chance) is the bottom reason for placing men of fine minds at the head of important organizations. it is the ideas conceived by the man at the head in any walk of life, that are developed by his assistants: at least, this is the intention, in all organizations, and the only efficient procedure. we see an analogue in the actual life of every individual. now the conception is the work of the imagination, and not of the reasoning faculties: the reasoning faculties develop and construct what the imagination conceives. it is because of this that men of fine mentality sometimes devote their talents to evil ends: their imaginations have conceived evil pictures. sometimes this is the result of a bad environment in childhood. the environment of talleyrand's childhood, for instance, caused the conception in his imagination of evil aims. in carré made the important invention of the manufacture of ice with the use of ammonia. in craske improved stereotyping by making it possible to reproduce curved printing plates from flat forms of type. green invented the driven-well in the same year, and mckay invented the shoe-sewing machine. the most important event of was the outbreak of the civil war in america, when the invention of the american constitution was put to its severest test. it had been known ever since the adoption of the constitution that the instrument was faulty in not defining clearly the relative rights of the federal government and the separate states; but it had been found impossible to secure the assent of a sufficiently large body of citizens to any proposition that defined them clearly; and so the machine of government had operated for nearly three-quarters of a century, with the disquieting knowledge in the minds of its operators that conditions might put it to a test that would break it down, and perhaps destroy it totally. the most dangerous condition was seen to be the one associated with the question of slavery in the southern states. this question, and the consequent condition of antagonism between the north and the south, became rapidly worse during the period from to , when war between them finally broke out. the war was ultimately decided in favor of the north, despite the fact that the south was much the better prepared; in fact, that the north was wholly unprepared. the main weakness in the confederate situation was the fact that cotton was virtually the only product with which she could raise money for feeding and equipping her army, that she had to get the equipments from europe, and that the line of communication to europe was across the atlantic ocean, miles wide. the weakness seemed, during a period of about twenty-four hours, to be removed by the invention of the iron-clad _merrimac_; for the _merrimac_ destroyed the _cumberland_ and _congress_, two of the finest warships on the union side, without the slightest difficulty in one forenoon, and threatened the destruction of all the other union ships. the union ships having been destroyed or made to flee to port, complete freedom from blockade of the confederate coast would follow immediately. the _monitor_ had been invented years before; but no steps had been taken to build her, despite the insistence of the great inventing engineer, john ericsson. news of the work of constructing the _merrimac_ had reached the north, however, and stimulated the northern imagination to the extent that it was able to see in the _monitor_ a savior (and the only savior) from the _merrimac_. by the exercise of amazing engineering skill, ericsson constructed his invention with such speed and precision that the _monitor_ was able to meet and defeat the _merrimac_ the very day after she had destroyed the union ships. the result was an immediate and absolute reversal of conditions. it was the north now that controlled the sea and the south that was to be blockaded. and not only this; for the fact that the north possessed a warship that was not only the most formidable in the world, but was of such simple construction that many of them could be launched in a very short time, showed to those european powers who were deliberating as to whether or not they should recognize the confederacy, the futility of their attempting to carry into effect on the american coast any naval policy of a character unfriendly to the united states. the victory of the _monitor_ was the announcement of the "mate in four moves." victory for the south became immediately impossible, no matter how long the final checkmate might be delayed. we know, of course, that checkmate was delayed until april , , when lee surrendered to grant at appomattox. in few cases has the influence of invention on history shone more clearly than in the case of the _monitor_. the _monitor_ was the deciding factor in the civil war. this does not mean that the _monitor_ alone won the civil war. no one event or person or maneuver won the civil war: for the civil war was won by the resultant effect of many events, persons and maneuvers. it does mean, however, that the victory of the _monitor_ made it virtually impossible for the issue to be otherwise than it eventually was; provided, of course, that a course of conduct not wholly unreasonable was pursued by the north. all the other factors in the war were what might be called usual: the _monitor_ alone was unusual. the _monitor's battle was the only battle in which the light of genius shone, on either side_. the _monitor's_ victory emphasizes a truth previously pointed out in this book: the truth that the influence of invention has been to advance the cause of civilization, by giving victory in wars, as a rule, to the side possessing the higher civilization. this was clearly the case in our civil war; for the south was far more an agricultural and primitive community than the north. it was for this reason that ericsson lived in the north. we can hardly imagine ericsson coming from england and going to live in the south; for the simple reason that ericsson, the dynamic, inventive ericsson, could not possibly have lived a life even approximately satisfying to him in the south. there was no opportunity in the south for him to exercise his powers. it has been said sometimes that the _monitor_ might have been produced by the south, and the _merrimac_ by the north. of course, anything is possible that is not wholly impossible; but history shows that inventions have, as a rule, been produced by people like those of the north, and not by people like those of the south. the influence of invention on history has been to bring about such victories as that of the _monitor_ over the _merrimac_; and the influence of those victories has been to enhance the advantages possessed by the more highly civilized. furthermore, the victory of the more civilized has given civilization greater assurance in its struggle to go still higher, just as defeat has made it pause and sometimes retreat. the issue of the civil war, for instance, was more than a victory over slavery and the tendency to dissipation of energy by a division into two parts of the forces of the country; for it removed permanently a highly injurious obstruction and started the rejuvenated republic along that career of progress which it has followed since so valiantly. in e. g. otis invented the passenger elevator. possibly this was not an invention of the first order of brilliancy, but certainly it was an invention of the first order of utility. can anyone imagine the new york of today without passenger elevators? the otis elevator has not made it possible to grow two blades of grass where one blade grew before; but it has made it possible to operate hotels and office buildings of more than twice as many stories as could be operated before. few inventions have had more immediate influence on contemporary history than the passenger elevator. in the same year was invented the barbed-wire fence. the production of carbide of calcium followed in , and also the invention of the gatling gun. this was the first successful machine gun, and an invention of a high order of brilliancy of conception, excellence of construction and practical usefulness. few inventions have been more wholly unique than this machine: so beautiful and harmonious and simple in principle--though devoted superficially merely to the killing and wounding of men. like all inventions in the gun class, it contributed to the self-protectiveness of the machine. an invention in a similar class, smokeless gunpowder was invented by schultze in , for use as a sporting powder. being based on the action of nitric acid on cellulose, it was somewhat like gun-cotton, and therefore a chemical compound; rather than a mechanical mixture like the old gunpowder. it gave out but little smoke when fired. smokelessness would be such an obvious advantage in military operations, that the study of this powder was prosecuted carefully, with a view to obtaining a smokeless powder suitable for military purposes. this was accomplished in by vieille in france. the invention of smokeless powder was not one of a high order of brilliancy for the reason that it was the result of a long series of painstaking investigations and not of any luminous idea. it was nevertheless a contribution of the highest usefulness to the self-protectiveness of the machine, and therefore to civilization. in behel invented the automatic grain binder, an invention of the same class of practical and concrete usefulness as mccormick's reaper, and a distinct contribution to the machine. it expedited the binding of grain, tended to insure accuracy and efficiency, and stimulated the agricultural classes to a study of mechanism, and therefore of physics and the arts depending on it. in other words, this invention performed the double service that many other inventions have performed, of contributing to the material necessities of men, and inspiring their intellects as well. in the following year, martin invented his process for improving the manufacture of fine steel. in the same year ( ) lister brought out his method of antiseptic surgery. it would be difficult to specify any invention which has contributed more in half a century to the direct welfare of mankind. it has effected such a change in surgery as to make the surgery before lister's time seem almost barbarous. it made a greater change in surgery than any change ever made before: one is tempted to declare that it has brought about a greater change in surgery than all the previous changes put together. now, it is interesting to realize that all these changes, extending over all the civilized world, and affecting countless human beings, were caused by "a mere idea." they were caused by a picture made by the imagination of lister on his mental retina, that must have covered a very small area of his brain. it is interesting also to realize that if that part of his brain had become impaired from any cause, the picture could not have been imprinted there. and was his brain always in condition to receive such a picture, or only seldom? knowing as we do that even the most brilliant minds are brilliant only rarely, may we not infer that conditions of the brain permitting such pictures as this of lister occur but rarely? it was also in that bullock invented his web-feeding printing press, and dodge invented the automatic shell-ejector for firearms. in siemens and martin invented the open-hearth process for steel making, burleigh the compressed air rock-drill, and whitehead the automobile torpedo. the whitehead torpedo was an invention of the highest order of brilliancy of conception; but, unlike many other inventions of this class, it has been a matter of the utmost difficulty to develop it. the possible usefulness suggested was so great that the principal european nations, especially the germans and english, went about its development at once; but the practical difficulties encountered were so many and so great, and the opportunities of testing out its usefulness in actual warfare were so few, that it was not until after its successful and important use in the war between russia and japan in - , that the torpedo was accepted as a major weapon. this invention is one of the most important contributions ever made to the self-protectivity of the machine of civilization; not only because of its immediate usefulness in war, but because its complexity necessitates such skill and knowledge in the operators, and its cost is so great, that only the most wealthy and highly civilized nations are able to use it successfully. as has been pointed out repeatedly in this book, one of the influences of invention on history has been to urge nations to a high degree of civilization, under pain of greater or less subjection to nations more highly civilized. in wilde in england and siemens in germany invented dynamo electric machines, in which the magnetic field was made, not by permanent steel magnets, but by electro-magnets of soft iron that were energized by the current which the machine itself produced. this was an invention of the utmost practical value; but who was the actual inventor does not seem to be exactly known. its main value is in its ability to produce a much more powerful current than could be produced when using permanent magnets; caused by the fact that electro-magnets can create a "magnetic field" much stronger than steel magnets can. in tilghman invented his sulphite process for pulp making, and in , moncrief invented his famous disappearing gun-carriage. this was an invention requiring a high order of conception and constructiveness; it resulted in a considerable improvement in the art of sea-coast defense, and therefore in the self-protectiveness of the machine, by keeping the guns safe behind fortifications except when actually being fired. moncrief's carriage, although originally very good, has been improved upon from time to time; whenever the progress of the mechanic arts has made it possible, and some inventor has realized the fact. attention is here requested to the last clause in the last sentence. as civilization has progressed and various inventions have been made, the whole field of possible future invention has been narrowed, but a field of clear though limited opportunity has been mapped out. each invention narrows the field by removing the opportunities for making that especial invention: after the printing press had been invented, for instance, the number of possible inventions was reduced by one; but see what a field for future invention was mapped out, and what immeasurable opportunities were suggested! nevertheless, opportunity does not produce inventions, it merely invites them; and we have occasionally noted in this book that the opportunity to make a certain invention had existed for ages before it was realized: for instance, the sewing-machine and the little stethoscope. in sholes invented what is usually considered the first practical typewriting machine. the machine that thurber had invented in had never been developed to a practical stage, and, consequently, it was not itself a direct contribution to the machine. whether it paved the way for sholes's is a debatable point; if it did, it was an indirect contribution, like hero's engine. not for several years after did the typewriter take its place in the machine: but now it plays an exceedingly useful, if not conspicuous, part in making it operate day after day. in the same year nobel contributed another of his notable inventions, and called it dynamite. it was the development of an exceedingly brilliant and original idea; and, as often happens with conceptions of that kind, it was easily developed into a concrete, usable and useful thing. it consisted merely in mixing nitro-glycerin with about an equal quantity of very finely divided earth. the resulting mixture was much less sensitive to shock and therefore much safer to handle than nitro-glycerin. it supplied the factor needed to render the utilization of nitro-glycerin possible, and therefore it was a valuable contribution to the machine. in the same year, mege invented oleomargarine, a comparatively inexpensive substitute for butter, and therefore an important factor in furthering the health and comfort of the poorer classes and a considerable forward step. shortly after , mrs. eddy declared to many people that she had made a discovery which enabled her to cure the sick with divine aid, and without the use of drugs. she healed many people and gradually gathered followers. in a few years, she developed a religion that is now called christian science; and in she published a book called "science and health, with key to the scriptures." since then, the number of her followers has increased enormously, and christian science churches have been erected in all the civilized countries of the world. though the doctrines of christian science have not been accepted by many christians, the great opposition directed toward them at first has now been largely overcome; and it is admitted by most fair-minded people that christian science seems to have made an important contribution to the spiritual, mental and physical welfare of mankind. in , westinghouse made his epochal invention, the railway air-brake. it was the result of a brilliant mental conception that was put into practical form without very serious difficulty. at first sight, this invention might not be considered of very great importance, because one might assume that its only office was to prevent collisions and consequent loss of life and property. doubtless that was its only direct effect; but its indirect effect was to increase the confidence of the people in the safety of railway travel, consequently the number of people who traveled, consequently the prosperity of the railway companies, consequently the faith of people in railway investments, consequently the number and magnitude of railway projects, consequently the number and length of railways, consequently the speed and general excellence of transportation and communication over the land in every civilized country, and consequently the coherency and operativeness of the entire machine. chapter xii invention of the modern military machine, telephone, phonograph, and preventive medicine in , one of the most important inventions of history was put to test, in a war between austria and prussia. the invention was the prussian military machine, of which the inventor was von moltke, the chief of staff of the prussian army. moltke was not the original inventor of the military machine, any more than watt was the original inventor of the steam engine; but he was the inventor of the modern military machine, just as watt was the inventor of the modern reciprocating steam-engine. moltke had been made chief of staff in , and had proceeded at once to embody an idea that his mind had conceived some years before. this idea was to utilize all the new inventions of every kind that had been made, especially in weapons, transportation and communication; and to continue to utilize all new inventions as each reached the useful stage, in such a way that the prussian army would be an actual weapon, which could be handled with all the quickness and precision that the products of modern civilization could impart to it. philip of macedon, julius cæsar, and frederick william of prussia evidently had had similar ideas; but no one after them, save moltke, seems to have realized fully that armies and navies must utilize all the new methods and appliances that can be made to assist their operations, if those armies and navies are to attain their maximum effectiveness. it is true that no very great changes in arms or in methods of transportation and communication had recently taken place, at the time when napoleon went to war; but this only emphasizes the new conditions with which moltke was confronted, and the courage and resourcefulness with which he met them. moltke's machine was, of course, much more comprehensive and detailed than the paragraph above would indicate; but almost every machine, after it has been perfected, is comprehensive and detailed, even if the original idea was simple. it is true also that the direct means which moltke employed to perfect his machine was to train officers to solve independently certain problems in strategy and tactics, just as children at school were taught to solve problems in arithmetic. it is true also that more attention has usually been fixed on moltke's system of training than on his utilization of inventions, and it may be true that moltke himself fixed more attention on it. but the idea of training officers as he did, seems also to have been original with moltke; and it is certain that moltke was the first to develop such a system, and therefore, that he was the inventor of that system. we see, therefore, that moltke made two separate inventions, and combined both in his machine. both inventions were condemned and ridiculed, but both succeeded. the result was that, when war was declared in between prussia and austria, a reputedly greater nation, the prussian machine started smoothly but quickly when the button was pressed, advanced into austria without the slightest delay or jar, collided at once with the austrian machine, and smashed it in one encounter. this encounter was near sadowa and königgrätz, and took place only seventeen days after war began. the most important single invention that moltke had utilized was the breech-loading "needle gun," a weapon far better than the austrians had, not only in speed of loading, but in accuracy. the two armies were not very different in point of numbers: so that, even if von moltke's other measures had not been taken, the superiority of the prussian musket over the austrian must of itself have caused the winning of the war, though not so quickly as actually was the case. but in the war with france, moltke's machine demonstrated its effectiveness even more completely, because its task was harder. for france was esteemed the greatest military nation in the world; it was the france of napoleon the great, then ruled by his nephew napoleon iii. in the usual sense of the word, the french were a more "military" people than the prussians. the empire of napoleon iii was much more splendid than the poor little kingdom of prussia, the army was more in evidence, there were more military pageants, the people were more ardent. but the military leaders of the french included no such inventor as von moltke, there was no one who conceived any such ideas as were pictured in moltke's imaginative brain; and consequently it never occurred to anyone to utilize strenuously all the new inventions, or to train officers like school boys, in the practical problems of war. the result was that moltke's machine got into france before the french machine had been even put together. the pieces of the french machine had not been got together even when the war ended. when war was declared by france, her military machine was in three parts. two of them got together fairly quickly, so that the french machine was soon divided into only two parts; one under marshal bazaine, and the other under marshal mcmahon. but moltke's machine was together at the start, and it stayed together throughout the war. this does not mean that all its parts stood in the same spot; but it does mean that the parts were always in supporting distance of each other. the two parts of the french machine were not in supporting distance of each other, and the german machine prevented them from uniting. when mcmahon and bazaine tried to unite, mcmahon was defeated at wörth, and bazaine at gravelotte. mcmahon was forced to surrender his entire force, including the emperor at sedan; and bazaine was shut up in metz. paris was then besieged. bazaine was soon forced to surrender and paris to capitulate. the main immediate result was the establishment of the german empire. a later result was the establishment of what is sometimes called militarism. of the two, the latter was probably the more important in future consequences; for the influence of moltke's conception of military preparedness has been to make all civilized nations keep up enormous and highly organized military and naval establishments, under pain of being caught unprepared for war and beaten to subjection. the german empire has vanished, but militarism has not vanished. there seem to be no signs that it will soon vanish, for it is simply part of a general preparedness movement that embraces many fields of life, that is necessitated by the existence of this cumbrous machine of civilization, and that is advanced by the realization that everyone must cultivate foresight. the physicians tell us, the financiers tell us, the lawyers tell us, the clergymen tell us, even the business men of every day and the housewives tell us that we must continually look ahead and continually prepare to meet what may be coming. now this is what militarism urges as applied to the coming of war. militarism is the doctrine of preparedness for war; it holds the same relation to national health that preventive medicine does to individual health. it would make us do many unpleasant things, and refrain from doing many pleasant things. but to do many unpleasant things and to refrain from doing many pleasant things is necessary, in order to lead even a moderately virtuous and prudent life. militarism may be pushed to an undue extreme; but so may any course of conduct. it may be interesting to note that moltke was not an "opportunistic inventor," like most men of action typified by napoleon, but that bismarck was. moltke made inventions of a permanent nature, but bismarck did not. yet moltke was a soldier and bismarck was a statesman. bismarck's german empire has already passed away, but moltke's method of preparedness is with us still, and is gathering more and more prestige as the years go by. judged by the standard of permanent achievement, moltke was a greater man than bismarck; though a belief to the contrary was held during their lifetimes, and is generally held by most men now. in , gramme invented the famous gramme dynamo-electric machine, which was so excellent a machine for producing a smooth and unidirectional electric current, that it gave the start to that wonderful succession of electrical inventions which established the age of electricity. the main part of gramme's machine was a modification of the pacinnoti ring, invented by pacinnoti in , which seems never to have been put to practical use, and never to have been heard of by gramme. the pacinnoti ring consisted of a ring around which a continuous coil of wire was wound. this ring being rotated in a magnetic field, the various parts of the wire at any instant lay at different angles to the lines of force, instead of at the same angle to them, as was the case with the flat coil of previous dynamo machines. the result was that some coil was always cutting the magnetic lines-of-force at the maximum speed, while others were cutting them at varying speeds, down to zero; so that the aggregate of all was approximately the same at all instants. the result was that the current was nearly uniform in strength. the influence of this invention on subsequent history need hardly be pointed out; for it is impressed on us every day and every night, in every part of the civilized world. in the same epochal year that ushered in the franco-prussian war and the gramme machine, the hyatts invented celluloid. the invention was of the simplest character, involving mainly the compression of camphorated gun-cotton by hydraulic or other force. this was not a great invention, but a useful one; making it possible to fabricate many useful articles at low cost. in the following year of , goodyear invented his welt shoe-sewing machine and maddox made his epochal discovery. this was that when nitrate of silver was added to a solution of gelatine in water containing a soluble bromide, silver bromide was formed, which did not subside even after long standing; that the emulsion could be made quickly and in large quantities, and that by thus substituting gelatine for collodion on the surface of glass plates used in photography, greater sensitiveness, and therefore, greater speed could be obtained. this led to an important improvement, and paved the way to others, and thus became the basis of rapid photography. by the work of several inventors had produced a press that printed an endless sheet of paper on both sides and folded it automatically. in the same year ingersoll invented his compressed air rock drill. in , lyall invented his positive-motion weaving loom, and clerk maxwell propounded his electro-magnetic theory of light. according to this theory, luminous and electric disturbances are the same in kind, the same medium transmits both, and light is an electro-magnetic phenomenon. this was a most important invention in the field of physical science, and is now accepted by the majority of scientists. it is not so applicable to the needs of men at the present moment as the weaving loom; but in the future, it may be more so. in the same year, westinghouse invented an improvement on his original air-brake that made it automatic under some conditions, and in the following year janney invented the automatic car-coupler. both of these were brilliant inventions, though not nearly so brilliant as clerk maxwell's. they were immeasurably more important, however, from the standpoint of material contributions to the machine. one result was that the inventors were immeasurably more rewarded in a material way than was that great mathematical physicist, clerk maxwell. in the same year of our lord, , willis invented his platinotype photographic process, in which finely divided platinum forms an image virtually permanent, and edison invented his duplex telegraph. this was the first of those wonderful inventions that made edison famous; and it embodied possibly as brilliant an idea as he ever conceived. the principle was exceedingly simple, and consisted merely in using currents that increased in strength as the key was pressed to actuate an ordinary electro-magnet for one message, and using currents whose direction was reversed when the key was pressed, to actuate a polarized relay for another message. by combining this scheme with one long before proposed, of putting the receiving instruments across the arms of a wheatstone bridge, the entire system could be duplicated, and two messages sent at the same time in each direction. this, of course, constituted quadruplex telegraphy. in the same year, gorham invented the twine-binder for harvesters, bennett improved the gelatine-bromide process of maddox; and locke and wood invented the self-binding reaper. in , glidden and vaughan invented a machine for making barbed wire, and sir william thomson invented his super-excellent siphon-recorder for receiving messages over the atlantic cable. this invention combined the three elements that constitute a great invention; brilliancy of conception, excellence of construction and concrete product. it was of immediate usefulness also, which a great invention may not necessarily be. but sir william thomson was a "canny scot," a good mechanic, and a man of the world, as well as a mathematical physicist of the highest order; with the result that even on his loftiest flights, he held tight to a string that connected him to the earth, and that kept his flights within the regions of the practical and immediate. his siphon-recorder was very much more sensitive to electric currents than any recorder ever invented before; a quality which made feebler currents utilizable, decreased induction and therefore increased speed. coming when it did, and coming because sir william thomson saw a need for it, it was a great and important contribution to submarine telegraphy, and therefore to the machine; for the machine has now become very large and complicated, and needed the best possible communication among its various parts. some of these parts were far distant from each other. in the following year, , brown invented his cash-carrier. this was not so brilliant or important an invention as sir william thomson's; but it can hardly be doubted that a hundred thousand times as many cash-carriers and their children, cash-registers, have been made as siphon-recorders. in the same year, lowe invented his illuminating water-gas; wegmann his roller flour mills; smith his middlings purifier for flour; and pictet his ice-machine. the last four inventions were of that distinctly practical kind that contribute directly to the operativeness of the machine, by facilitating the conditions of living in large communities, and make great cities possible. of the four, the invention of pictet was the most brilliant and scientific, and the least directly useful. in , bell made an invention that is usually conceded to be the most important of modern times, and that was also of the highest order of brilliancy of conception, excellence of construction and concreteness of result. the invention was that of the speaking telephone. the telephone is not in the class with the actual doers of things, like the weaving machine and the gun, but rather in the class with the telegraph and the typewriter, in being an assistant to the doers of things: that is, it is an instrument rather than a machine. this does not mean that a machine is more important than an instrument, though possibly machines have done more work directly in furthering civilization than instruments have. a machine does something itself; an instrument is a means or agency or implement with which men do something. as a class, machines have probably been more directly useful than instruments; but this does not mean, of course, that any machine that one may name has been more useful than any instrument. a machine (generally speaking) does only one class of work; the sewing-machine, for instance, does no work save sewing; while such an instrument as the telephone is an aid to men in directing the work of thousands of machines. it may be pointed out here that, in the broad meaning of the word instrument, every machine that does actual work is an instrument in the hands of men for doing that work; but that every instrument is not necessarily a machine. a machine, by definition, is composed of various parts that work together to a common end, and it carries with it the ideas of movement and of power. an instrument, on the other hand, need not be composed of more than one part; it may of itself be incapable of moving or exerting power; and yet, in the hands of men and women, it may be the means of doing the most useful work. a familiar illustration among many is the needle. now the telephone can hardly be called a machine: it can of itself do nothing. it is not like an engine that can do work hour after hour, without external interposition, supervision or assistance. yet, for the reason that the only value of a machine lies in the fact that it is an instrument whereby men can get results, an instrument is not necessarily in a lower class than a machine. the essential value of the telephone seems to lie in the fact that the machine has become so complicated, and composed of so many separate parts, that, without the telephone, those parts would not be adequately linked together. the telephone, like the telegraph, acts in the machine of civilization as do the nerves in the human organism. the human organism could not be an organism without the nervous system; and the present machine could not exist in its present form without the telegraph and the telephone. these two instruments have so greatly improved the machine as to raise it toward the dignity of an organism. they have not made it an organism, because they have not endowed it with life. they have, however, raised it to the dignity of an automatic machine, by supplying such a ready and sure means of conveying information and instructions, that a blow to the machine anywhere is felt everywhere, and assistance to the part attacked can be summoned from everywhere. illustrations of this can be seen the most clearly in our large cities, in which information concerning a fire, or a riot, or an accident is transmitted instantly to all parts of the city; and fire engines, police or ambulances are sent in response thereto. illustrations covering wider fields come to mind at once; but they are of the same character, whether the fields comprise single states or continents or seas, or the whole surface of the earth. possibly the best single illustration is that supplied by the events of the recent world war, in which the nerves of civilization in every land were kept on the tingle by the news continually received from the fighting fronts, and measures were continually taken to meet each situation as it occurred. australia and new zealand and america and canada and south africa assisted france to repel the invader from her soil. the influence of the telephone on history has been so great that history would not be at all as it has been, if the telephone had not been born. has this influence been beneficent? probably, because it has tied the parts of the machine together, and made it more coherent. but it may be well to realize that this very fact has had the effect of permitting other additions to the machine; with the result that the machine is perhaps no more coherent now than it was when the telephone was added to it. furthermore, we must not forget that, although the influence of each new invention is usually to assist civilization rather than to assist its enemies, yet we cannot assume that % is exerted on that side, for a considerable percentage is always exerted on the other side. for instance, the printing press is used to disseminate harmful teachings, as well as beneficent teachings, the telephone is used for bad purposes as well as good ones, etc. we must not restrict our appreciation of the influence of the telephone by ignoring the stimulation which it has given to study and experiment, especially in the physical sciences. people of the present day do not realize the amazement and excitement caused throughout the world by the sudden realization of the fact that human speech could be transmitted. coming as it did so soon after the invention of the gramme dynamo, it waked the minds of men with a sudden start, and opened a dazzling avenue of anticipation of discoveries and inventions yet to come. young men, and especially young men of fine ambition, saw ahead a clear line of useful and brilliant work; and the colleges and technical schools were soon thronged with eager youth. a new epoch--the electric epoch--was at hand. the most generally noticed herald of the new epoch was not the telephone, however, but the "electric candle" invented by jablochkoff in , which soon afterward came into use in paris. this candle consisted of two parallel sticks of carbon separated by an insulating substance, made of some refractory material, that fuzed as the carbons gradually burned away. the two carbons were connected to an electric circuit that passed from the tip of one carbon to the tip of the other, causing a brilliant electric arc. to prevent one carbon wasting away more rapidly than the other, an alternating current was employed. this great invention is now almost forgotten, because it was soon supplanted by the present arc-light that is better in many ways. nevertheless, to jablochkoff must be accorded the distinction of being the first to make electric lighting on a large scale practicable, and to demonstrate the fact. in the same year, an invention of more than doubtful beneficence was made, a machine for continuously making cigarettes; but this was balanced in the same year by the inventions of the steam saw-mill and of portland cement. in the following year came an invention fully as brilliant as the telephone, though not so useful, the phonograph. it is usually considered as more brilliant; certainly it was more unexpected. the idea of transmitting speech was very old, many men had worked on it, and many were working on it at the time when bell accomplished it; but the idea of recording speech was almost undreamed of. up to the present moment, it can hardly be said that the phonograph has had great influence on history; for its main work has been in giving pleasure by the music it has rendered. we can easily imagine the present machine, without the phonograph, but not without the telephone. and we cannot imagine the present machine to exist without the gas engine, invented the same year by dr. otto, that made possible the use of large units of mechanical power, without the need of boilers or condensers or other external appliances; for the combustion of the fuel was carried on inside the engine itself. this invention has been followed by many others during the forty-five years that have since gone by, in which oil has taken the place of gas. petrol or gasolene has been the oil (or spirit) most used; but engines of the deisel type, employing heavy oils, have now come into being in large numbers. it is easy to underestimate the influence of the gas-engine, or oil-engine (usually called the internal combustion engine), as is proved by the fact that most people do so; despite the evidence of its importance on all sides, in the shape of submarine vessels, automobiles and similar vehicles. its most important single effect has been to make possible the aeroplane, and all the science and art of aviation, and the consequent conquest of the air. in the same year of , edison made his great invention, the carbon telephone transmitter, which increased enormously the effect of the voice in varying the resistance of a telephone circuit, and thereby increased the loudness of telephone speech. in the same year, berliner invented the induction transmitter, which consisted of a primary coil of small resistance in circuit with the transmitter and the secondary coil connected to the outside circuit. these two inventions, added to bell's original invention, made the telephone of today--in its essential features. in , edison produced his incandescent lamp, in which a carbon filament, enclosed in a bulb exhausted of air, was heated to incandescence by an electric current. the importance of this invention need hardly be even mentioned. as to the originality of the conception, there are many opinions; for several experimenters had been working in this field, and many brilliant results had been achieved. important as this invention was, we can imagine the machine to exist without it, though not in quite so perfect and complete a form. its main use is its obvious use; though there can be no doubt that the improvement it wrought in the conditions of comfortable living, and the attractions it offered to ambitious youths enlisted a large army in the study of the physical sciences, gave impetus to all the mechanic arts, and assisted in many important ways the upbuilding of the machine. in , appleby invented the automatic grain-binder, and sir william crookes made his epochal discovery of cathode rays. this discovery, like many others of a highly scientific character, was not of immediate practical value; consisting as it did in the fact that if the poles of the secondary circuit of a rhumkorff coil were connected to the two ends of a glass tube from which nearly all the air (or other gas) had been exhausted, a stream of electrified particles was projected from the cathode, or negative pole. these particles were evidently projected with great violence; for if they struck the side of the tube, they produced a brilliant illumination there; while if they struck a piece of metal they developed heat. if the metal were sufficiently thin, it was melted. later study of these cathode rays developed the fact that the stream of charged particles could be deflected by magnetic and electric fields, thus showing that they had actual physical mass; and still later studies resulted in that mass being determined, and also the amount of the electric charges on them. to an individual particle the name electron was given; and the interesting fact developed that the mass of an electron is only about one-thousandth that of an atom of hydrogen. this is not very exciting news to men whose time is consumed in the engrossing occupation of earning a living; but scientific facts have a curious habit of lurking in the background, sometimes a long while, and then suddenly stepping up to the footlights in the form of facts or inventions of a kind that are exceedingly important,--even from the standpoint of making a living, or at least of enduring the conditions of living. the study of electrons, for instance led the way to the discovery of the beneficent x-rays, made in by röntgen. the first electric railways, like the first railways of any kind, were laid in mines; for the superiority of electricity over steam for use in the unventilated spaces of mines was obviously greater than in the open spaces on the surface. the first one was in the mines at zankerode in germany and was constructed by the famous siemens brothers. the first electric surface railway was built at berlin in . it was about three hundred and fifty yards in length, and laid upon wooden sleepers; an auxiliary rail being fixed midway between the two main rails. the auxiliary rail carried the electric current, which was taken off by a brush connected to the electric motor on the car, from which it went to the rails that acted as the "return." the similarity between this system and that now used in all our cities is striking, and shows how practically and scientifically good the first electric railway was. to estimate correctly the influence of the invention of the electric railway would be, of course, impossible, especially on partially developed countries; for the electric railway assisted greatly in developing them. it seems possible, however, that the electric railway may be of not very long life, for the reason that the internal-combustion-engine possesses the same great advantage of smokelessness that the electric motor does and makes possible the use of a much simpler system than electric railways necessitate. the fact that any invention is displaced by a later one does not, of course, detract from the merit of the invention displaced, in having supplied the needed stepping-stone for the other one to rise from. in the same year, foy invented the steam plow, and lee invented his magazine rifle. in the following year ( ) blake invented his telephone transmitter, an improvement of a practical character over preceding ones, greener invented his hammerless gun, and faure invented his electric storage battery. the faure storage battery was a very important invention, but not nearly so important a one as was at first supposed. it was an improvement on planté's battery, and consisted mainly in applying red lead and litharge directly to the positive and negative lead plates, before sending any charging current through the liquid; thus expediting the making of the battery very greatly. the invention was hailed with extravagant rejoicings, even sir william thomson being carried away from his habitual equanimity; but serious practical difficulties soon developed that are familiar to most of us, and that have never yet been overcome. in , koch and eberth isolated the typhoid bacillus, and sternberg the pneumonia bacillus. the importance of these two discoveries is not usually appreciated by any but physicians and those who have suffered from these diseases and been cured. even those who have been saved from having them, especially those in armies who have been saved from having typhoid fever, fail to realize their debt. but the almost perfect immunity from typhoid fever enjoyed by all the enormous armies of the vast world war, compared with the frightful distress and mortality caused by typhoid fever in previous wars, bears eloquent witness to the influence of the great discoveries of those tireless investigators. it may be pointed out here that of all the inventions and discoveries ever made, those made in medical and surgical science, especially in preventive measures, have had more direct and immediate influence on history than contemporary inventions in any other field, save possibly religion. for what is history but the life-story of the human race; and what greater influence can be had than influence upon the health of its component members? the discoveries and inventions made in the field of bacteriology especially, by gaining knowledge concerning the unseen and unheard foes that attack us from within, have lifted civilized man up to a condition of cleanliness and purity, in comparison with which the conditions under which our forefathers lived seem almost repulsive. it is true that many of these conditions were outcomes of civilization itself, and that for some of them medicine has merely found the antidotes. yet the fact that medicine has found antidotes shows that medicine has been keeping pace with progress and has invented measures for preventing the machine from poisoning itself by a sort of auto-intoxication. that the machine is in danger of disruption by outside and inside forces has been suggested frequently in this book; so that what seems to be indicated as desirable is a series of discoveries and inventions that will prevent it. but, in attempting this, we must not forget that each new discovery or invention adds another part, that safety devices are sometimes so intricate as to increase the danger element rather than lessen or prevent it, and that safety appliances themselves are apt to get out of order, and thus lead to a false sense of security. these reflections force on our attention the fallibility of the human, the necessity for continuous study of all situations as they successively develop, and the solemn fact that progress is not beneficial of itself; for it may be in the wrong direction. one obvious fact that we have always realized, startles each one of us occasionally; the fact that "people do not know what is good for them." the appetites and instincts of undomesticated brutes are said to be much more trustworthy as guides than those of domesticated brutes and human beings. we, by cultivating our imaginations and reasoning powers, and the brutes by being given food and shelter that they themselves do not have to get, seem to have lost a considerable part of the instinctive abilities with which we were originally blessed. with human beings, many objects that most of us aim for are extremely artificial, and some of them are extremely harmful. an illustration is the craving for much food and little physical labor,--a craving that is gratified almost at once by most people suddenly achieving wealth, with consequences that are always deplorable and are frequently distressing. of course this comes from excessive yielding to our appetites; but the brutes seem to feel no temptation to excessive yielding; an undomesticated brute seems to know when he has had enough. we not only yield, we go further and force our appetites. possibly this is only an illustration of the fact that our minds have a sort of inertia, comparable to the inertia of physical objects; so that when we move in any direction, we are apt to go too far. that it is a tendency of human nature to go too far in any line of conduct, when once it is entered on, the facts of daily life continually testify. what reformer in public or private life ever knew when to stop; what money maker ever realized that he had enough money and ceased his efforts to get more? a small percentage have, but only a small percentage. for this reason and others, the human machine and the machine of civilization do not get along together as harmoniously as might be wished. though many inventions, especially the basic ones, have been actually uncontrollable acts of self-expression, many others have been inspired by motives largely selfish, such as the wish to gain fame, or power or money (or fame _and_ power _and_ money); and the result is a machine that contributes more to man's material well-being than to his moral, mental or spiritual well-being, and a consequent civilization that is necessarily artificial. the net effect, however (unless all our standards are wrong), has been beneficial; for it cannot truthfully be denied that physically, mentally, morally and spiritually, the civilized man is better than the savage, and to a degree commensurate with the degree to which he is civilized. probably most civilized men would agree to this proposition. probably most of them would also agree that civilization brings its evil influences as well as its good influences, that the machine has been found vulnerable to destructive influences in the past, that the ultimate effect must be judged from its influences on human beings, and that the most beneficent inventions and discoveries have been those that tend to the safety of the machine itself and the spiritual, moral, mental and physical health of the individual humans who comprise its principal parts. they will therefore applaud such discoveries as those of eberth, koch and sternberg of , and also another one of koch and one of pasteur two years later. both of these benefactors then isolated deadly microbes of disease: koch the bacillus of tuberculosis, and pasteur that of hydrophobia. in , reece invented a button-hole machine and schmid a hand photographic camera. both of these were useful inventions if not brilliant. it would be interesting to know the amounts of money realized by their inventors, compared with the amounts received by koch, pasteur and sternberg. in , by the way, koch made another epoch-making and beneficent discovery, and isolated the bacillus of cholera. loeffler did the same thing, in the same year for diphtheria, and nicolaier for lockjaw; while kuno produced antipyrene. in reflecting on what these great men accomplished, it is interesting to point out to ourselves that the consensus of opinion seems to be that, for most people, "the pursuit of happiness" is the main business of life. whether this ought to be or not, should not distract our attention from the fact that it really is. to most of us--at least to those of us who are young--happiness seems to lie in the thing pursued, provided the pursuit succeeds. we all seek the crock of gold at the end of the rainbow, and imagine that if we get it, we shall get the _summum bonum_ of everything--happiness. yet all one has to do is to remember how happy he was one day when he was feeling well physically, morally, mentally and spiritually (as we all have at rare intervals), to realize that happiness is merely a condition,--and that it is a condition that depends more on _the condition of his own machine than on all other things put together_. when one observes the action of a fine trotting horse, the smooth and noiseless motion of a large steam-engine, or the majestic setting of the sun; or when he hears the harmonies of some great musical composer, or the grander harmonies of the ocean-breakers on the beach; or when he ponders on the inconceivably swift but god-like regularity of the stars and planets, he may get a faint and brief conception of what it means for a machine to be in order. our human machines are rarely in this condition: but sometimes, without any assignable cause whatever, one takes a deep, full breath, and says, "it is good to live." the men just spoken of, and the great teachers of truth in all ages, in even a higher degree, admonish us to keep our machines in order, and tell us how to do it. how not to do it, the world and the flesh and the devil tell us unceasingly; beguiling us, as the serpent beguiled eve, to eat; to gratify one and all the appetites of the senses, regardless of the effect on the machine inside. for we know those senses ought to guard our intake valves, but do not. why cannot some one invent a device that will automatically regulate our intake valves? such an invention would prevent us from eating too much, drinking too much, and smoking too much, and also from eating, drinking and smoking things detrimental to the machine, and injurious to our happiness; and even from taking in sights and sounds and thoughts of an unhealthful kind. this might be followed by another invention that would regulate our outgo valves, and put a brake on our speech, our ambition, our acquisitiveness, etc. but would not these take from us our god-granted free will? yes, in great measure. but such is the effect of the machine of civilization. the primeval savage lived--(and the primeval savage still lives) in a condition of almost perfect liberty, as do the beasts that perish: but in the vast machine of civilization, we are only tiny parts. each of us, it is true, has a little freedom of motion; but it is like the "lost motion" of a loose part in a crude or ill-constructed engine; and it seems to be growing smaller and smaller, as the machine grows larger and improves. chapter xiii the conquest of the ether--moving pictures--rise of japan and the united states in , mergenthaler invented the linotype machine, in which matrixes for casting different type were moved successively into line, by pressing the corresponding alphabetically marked keys on a keyboard, and the whole line then moved to the casting mechanism and cast. this was an invention of the most clean-cut and perfect character; following clearly the processes of conception, development and production, and resulting in an improvement in the art of printing of a most important kind. few inventions embody such a brilliant and original conception, such excellent constructiveness and such a useful product. so perfect was the result, and so clear was the conception that preceded it, that one marvels that some one had not invented it before. why make matrixes for type, then cast the type, then space the type individually one after the other in line, and then stereotype them as they stand in line, when it is so much easier simply to place the matrixes in line and then stereotype the matrixes? the influence of this invention is of the same kind as the influence of the invention of the art of printing from movable type, because it is an improvement in that art. all over the world this invention, or inventions suggested by it, are used by the newspaper and book publishers, with the result that the quickness and accuracy of printing are much enhanced, and the work of co-operating the parts of the machine thereby facilitated. in the same year marble increased the safety of the bicycle by his invention of the rear-driven chain, and schultz invented his chrome process of tanning leather. both of these were important in their way; but in cowles made a more important invention, that of reducing (and thereby producing) the metal aluminum from its oxide, called alumina, the chief constituent of clay. the usefulness of aluminum lies largely in its extreme lightness, and in the fact that when combined with certain metals, notably copper, it forms important alloys. during the same year, welsbach invented his gas mantle, a valuable contribution to gas-lighting, and bowers invented his hydraulic dredge, in which the act of dredging a channel or harbor was accomplished by hydraulic power. in the same year, van depoele invented a practical contact appliance for use in taking off the current from the overhead wires of electric railways. in , bell and tainter invented the graphophone, an important improvement on the phonograph, and elihu thompson invented electric welding. this was an epochal invention, inaugurating as it did an entirely new art, and contributing enormously not only to the quickness of welding, but to its accuracy and strength. many improvements have been made on this invention during the past few years, that have increased its scope and value. many articles are now made in one piece that is really solid, though composed of several parts: for those parts are so firmly welded together that the joints cannot be seen and are as strong as any other parts. in the same year, matteson invented his combined harvester and thresher. in the following year, prescott invented his band wood saw, and mcarthur and forrest invented their process of extracting metals (especially gold and silver) from ores by the use of a solution of potassium cyanide, and greatly cheapened the work. in the same year, tesla invented his system of multi-phase electric currents, which rendered possible the economical transmission of power over long distances, of which the first use was made in transmitting power derived from niagara falls. this was another invention of the first order of merit in brilliancy and originality of conception, excellence of constructiveness and usefulness of result. its value has been only dimly appreciated by most men, because the invention does not stand continually before our eyes, like the telephone and electric light; for it cannot be seen at all. it is not a machine or instrument (in the common use of those words) but a system, actually invisible of itself, that governs the method of design, construction and operation of the visible dynamos, motors and conductors. like the germ of life, we see not it, but only its manifestations. in the same year, welsbach brought out an improvement on his incandescent gas-mantle that was valuable for cases in which a brilliant illumination was desired, that leaped almost immediately into public favor. in the following year of , sprague made the first installation of street electric railways in the united states, and the first in the world in which the conditions of operating were difficult. the success of sprague's system was largely due to the excellence of sprague's electric motor, which had the curious property of being designed on principles which the scientific men of those days declared to be wholly wrong. sprague's reputation rests mainly on his electric railway; but, from the standpoint of the inventor, sprague's invention of his electric motor was of a higher order than that of his electric railway. in , harvey invented his process of making armor-plate. in the same year, eastman and walker invented the kodak camera, in which the novelty consisted mainly of a continuous roll of sensitized film, on which photographs could be successively made; and de chardonnet invented his process of manufacturing artificial silk from threads that were made by forcing collodion through very small holes. these were important in fact; but in comparison with the discoveries in the realm of the actual ether made in the same year by hertz, they were quite trifling. these discoveries resulted from experiments with electric apparatus of the simplest and most inexpensive character, in a space near which sparks were passing between the two terminals of a rhumkorff coil. it had been known before that each spark accompanied and therefore represented an establishment of equilibrium between the two oppositely charged terminals, and that each discharge was of an oscillatory character--as any readjustment of equilibrium always is. by means of a mere single wire, curved into a circle, except that the two ends were not quite joined, hertz discovered that the space was filled with electric waves that were propagated in straight lines from the source (as light is) and accompanied with vibrations at right angles to the direction of propagation (also as light is); and also that the electric rays were refracted, reflected and polarized, as light rays are. subsequent experiments with modified apparatus measured the velocity of the propagation of electric waves, and found that it was virtually the same as that of light. to some, this may not seem a very important discovery, "from a practical standpoint"; and doubtless it is not, from the "practical standpoint" of some people, because it does not affect the amount of their worldly possessions, or their ease, comfort and pleasure. it was hailed with delight by scientific men, however; because not only did it support the electro-magnetic theory of light, but the course of hertz's work had demonstrated the suspected fact that the "receiver" of electric waves must harmonize in its electric dimensions with the transmitter, in order that the greatest amount of electric energy may be developed in the receiver; and it had thus given assistance to investigations then in progress on what we now call "wireless telegraphy." many investigators were now in the field, among whom was the humble author of these pages. little real progress was made until, in , when branly announced his amazing discovery and utilized it in his amazing invention, called the "coherer." his discovery was that, if a tube containing metal filings be placed in the "field" of the spark of an electric machine, leyden jar, or rhumkorff coil, it (the filings) will become a conductor of electricity when hit by the electric waves; and that it will revert to its normal state as a non-conductor, if smartly tapped: the effect of the waves being to cause the separate particles to co-here and form a continuous metal conductor; while the effect of the tapping was to jar the particles apart. the first use of this coherer was in place of the ring that hertz had used; but its value as an instrument of practical usefulness in achieving electric communication without wires was almost immediately perceived--and demonstrated. the career of the wireless telegraph since branly's great discovery has been as rapid, widespread and important as any other new agency has ever enjoyed, and possibly more so. that wireless telegraphy was a distinct invention may perhaps be questioned. if it was, who was the inventor? it is true that an invention does not have to be associated with any one inventor in order to have the right to be characterized as an invention; but in the case of the wireless telegraph, it seems safe to say that, although some of the separate steps toward its achievement were inventions, the final step was merely the adding together of these separate steps in a way that was perfectly obvious, and that several men accomplished almost simultaneously. as soon as branly produced his coherer, the problem was thereby automatically solved. every experimenter realized that it was merely necessary to use branly's coherer, in place of any receiver previously used, and to "tune" the transmitting and receiving circuits into harmony. the first man to make a practical wireless installation seems to have been marconi, in . as is well known, the distances over which messages can be sent has been increasing rapidly ever since, and so has been the number and the importance of the organizations using it, of which the largest are the various national governments themselves. the vast influence of wireless (or radio) telegraphy on the history of the great world war is too recent to need detailing, but possibly it may be well to call to mind the fact that the ocean cables were virtually all under the control of the allies, and that "the wireless" was almost the only means that germany had for receiving information quickly and sending instructions quickly beyond her own coast line. it was used by the allies, however, almost continually in the controlling of their multitudinous naval units on the sea, and among those units themselves; and it made possible that prompt and harmonious action among numerous widely separated groups, that distinguished this war from all preceding wars. it would be difficult to determine whether the wireless lengthened the war by the assistance it gave to germany, or shortened it by the assistance it rendered the allies. in the early part of the war, when germany was directing ships that were far away, it helped germany more than it helped the allies; but in the last years, when the allies were fighting the submarines in the mediterranean and north seas, it helped the allies more. in the main, it probably shortened the war considerably, by accelerating the operations. this reminds us of the fact that the general effect of invention has been to make wars more terrible but more brief; and that the abbreviating effect is especially noticeable in inventions that increase the speed and safety of transportation and communication. another effect of invention has been to make wars more widespread; for the reason that it links some nations together and creates antagonism between other nations, even if they are far apart. larger and larger organizations are thus brought into being, not only as nations but as allies and confederates. in this way, japan fought in asia, in co-operation with her allies in france. on the supposition that the machine is going to continue to increase in size and strength and excellence, on the further supposition that the more highly civilized nations will continue to control the less civilized nations increasingly, the time may not be many generations distant when all the nations of the world will be divided into a very few groups, each dominated by one great nation; as the middle europe nations were dominated by germany in the last war. as all the known world was once divided into two groups headed by assyria and babylon; at another time by assyria and persia; at another time by greece and persia; at another by rome and carthage, etc., and as at various times europe also has been divided into two opposing groups of nations, so the whole known world may again be divided into two opposing groups of nations:--possibly the white and the yellow nations. the clash of the fighting machines of two such vast organizations, perfected in power and speed as they doubtless will be as the years go by and inventions succeed each other, will surpass in grandeur anything yet dreamed of. it may never occur. _never?_ it may never occur; but something approximating it will occur, if history is to be as much like past history as history usually has been. in , schneider invented his process of making nickel steel, and thereby effected an improvement in steel that was first utilized in making armor, and afterward in making other articles of many kinds. hall invented a process of making aluminum during the same year. in the following year, stephens invented his electric plough, and mergenthaler made an improvement on his linotype machine. about the same time, pneumatic tires were attached to bicycles; and an invention of a most important kind, that had lain dormant for many years, was put to work at last. the inventor had long since died. does he know that his invention is now used all over the civilized world? if so, does the knowledge give him pleasure? one of the most unsatisfactory parts of an inventor's experience is the difficulty he has in making other men see the value of his inventions, combined with the fact that when the invention is finally adopted, his part in it is often forgotten, and sometimes intentionally ignored. this applies especially to inventions of a high order of originality, that are a little in advance of the requirements and knowledge of most men at the time, and that are looked upon as visionary and do not come into use for a considerable while. many an inventor has endured a purgatory while trying to get a hearing for his invention, and yet been wholly forgotten when it was finally adopted. to make the matter worse, he has often been branded for life as a visionary, and remained so branded, even after the invention had been adopted because of which he had been branded. in other cases, manufacturers have stolen his invention and denied his claims, knowing that he was too poor to fight against them with all of their resources. in other cases, business men and lawyers have combined to induce him to sign papers of a highly advantageous character to the business men, but contrariwise to the inventor. in all of these cases, the matter has usually been the worse for the inventor in proportion to the high order of the invention: for the real inventor, like the real artist, is usually so absorbed in his thoughts that he cares but little (too little) for material gain. the case of the inventor who makes a business of inventing is somewhat different. he usually confines his efforts to making inventions that will bring in money, becomes an expert on nice points in patent law, discerns chances for circumventing existing patents while utilizing their basic principles, perceives opportunities for making the little improvements in detail that promote practicability, and becomes the kind of inventor who owns a limousine. in , krag-jorgensen invented the famous rifle of that name. in the following year, branly invented the coherer mentioned on page , and parsons invented his rotary steam turbine. the steam turbine was an improvement over the reciprocating steam engine for many classes of work, great and small. the first steam engine invented by hero was a rotary engine, but it was of course, most uneconomical of steam. the first steam engine that was really efficient was the reciprocating engine produced by watt. the greatest single defect of rotary engines has always been the loss of steam in going by the rotating parts without doing any work, a defect existing in only a small degree with the closely fitting pistons of reciprocating engines. in the turbines invented by parsons and others about the same time, wastage of steam was prevented by various means that need not be detailed here, and smooth motion of the rotary engine at the same time secured. the greatest benefit accrued probably to ocean steamships, in which the absence of vibration, and the saving in weight, space and number of attendants required were features of great practical importance. about , edison invented the kinetograph and kinetoscope, after a long series of investigations and experiments. these followed the experiments made by dr. muybridge some years before, in which he had taken many successive pictures of horses at very short intervals, by means of as many separate cameras, (twelve pictures in one stride for instance), and afterwards reproduced them in such a way as to show horses in rapid motion. they came also after eastman's kodak, in which pictures could be taken successively, on a traveling film. in the kinetograph, only one object glass was used; and the film was drawn along behind it in such a way that, at predetermined intervals, the film was stopped and a shutter behind the object glass or lens was moved away, and a picture taken. the moving mechanism (at first the human hand) continuing in motion, the shutter was closed and the film was moved along a short distance, so as to bring another part behind the object glass. then the same operation was repeated--and so on. in the kinetoscope, the operation was reversed, in the sense that the pictures taken were presented successively to the eye of the observer. in the first form, the observer looked at them through a peep-hole: but in the latter forms, the pictures have been thrown upon a screen--somewhat as from a magic lantern, and become the "movie" of today. here, again, we see an invention of the highest order in each of the three essentials--conception, development and production. no invention exists of a higher order. as to their use and usefulness, we are most familiar with them in moving pictures. whether it is for the public good to produce so many shows for idly disposed men and women to spend their time in looking at, is perhaps a possible subject for enlightening discussion. but the moving picture is used for many purposes, especially for purposes of education and research, besides that of mere amusement, and will unquestionably be so used, more and more as time goes on. one of its most obvious spheres of usefulness is in making photographs of movements that are very rapid, and then analyzing and inspecting those photographs when presented very slowly, and when stopped. another is in taking photographs of successive situations that have occurred at considerable intervals of time, and then presenting the pictures quickly, and thus showing a connected story. by dealing in this way with historical incidents, we can get a realization of the interdependence of those incidents that we cannot get in any other way, and see how cause has produced effects, and effects have come from causes. similarly, the work of building any large structure can be shown by presenting rapidly a series of photographs taken at different stages; and so can the growth of a plant or animal, and almost any kind of progress. let us impress on our minds the fact that if we read any book, or witness any occurrence, or listen to any argument, or receive any instruction of any kind, the only value comes to us from the pictures made on our mental retinas and the permanence and clearness of the records impressed. thus, any means that can impress us quickly with the most important pictures must be of the highest practical value, both in prosecuting studies of events, and in gathering conclusions from them. in fact, the kinetograph and the kinetoscope are simply edison's imitation of the operations carried on inside the skull of each of us; for we are continually taking moving pictures of what we see and hear and read and feel; recording them on our own moving sensitized films, and bringing them before our mental gaze at our own volition and sometimes in spite of it. in , the author of this book patented "a method of pointing guns at sea" that has been adopted in all the great navies, under the name "gun director system." in he patented a modification under the name "telescopic sight for ships guns." these two inventions are used in every navy in the world, have increased the effectiveness of naval gunnery immeasurably, and have, therefore, been important contributions to the self-protectiveness of the machine. in , acheson invented his process for making carborundum, a compound of carbon and silicon, made in the electric furnace, and used for abrasive purposes; and in the same year willson made carbide of calcium from carbon and quick-lime, also in the electric furnace. in , linde invented his process of liquefying air, and the first installation of great electric locomotives was effected: this was in the baltimore and ohio tunnel. in the same year, röntgen made the epochal discovery of what he called by the significant name "x-rays," a name that still clings to them. they were discovered by röntgen in the course of his researches with cathode rays. his discovery was in effect that electric rays emanated from the part of the tube struck by the cathode rays. they were not cathode rays, though produced by them, and had the amazing property of penetrating certain insulating substances, such as ebonite, paper, etc., while not penetrating metals, except through short distances. unlike the cathode rays, they were not deflected by magnets; and neither did they seem to be reflected or refracted similarly. their most important property was that of acting photographically on sensitized plates, even when in closed slides, and wrapped carefully in black paper. the greatest usefulness of the x-rays thus far made has been in photographing internal parts of the human body; for the rays pass through certain parts less readily than through other parts; through bones for instance, less readily than through soft parts. fractures or displacements of bones can therefore be readily detected. so also can the formation of pus in cavities, and the appearance of abnormal products of many kinds. to this discovery we must give a rank as high as almost any other that we have noted in this book, though we cannot tell, of course, how long it will hold it. with mechanical and scientific inventions, as with books and poems and inventions of other kinds, the question of permanence of value or of usefulness cannot be decided until after many years. one of the curious properties of x-rays is that of rendering the air through which they pass a conductor of electricity. so far as the author is aware, no invention of practical usefulness has yet been made, based upon this property. in , marconi brought out the first practically successful system of wireless telegraphy, finsen demonstrated the usefulness of certain rays of the spectrum for treating certain skin diseases, and becquerel discovered what have since been called the becquerel rays. in experimenting with x-ray photography, he found that a sensitized plate, though covered with black paper, was acted on not only by x-rays, but also by the metal uranium and certain of its salts; and he also found that the mere presence of uranium made the contiguous air a conductor, as did the x-or röntgen rays. the amazement caused by the discovery of such undreamed-of properties, especially in so commonplace a substance as uranium had been supposed to be, can easily be imagined; and it is plain why strenuous efforts were made at once by scientific people, to see if other substances did not possess those properties also. as a result, it was soon found that other bodies did possess them. to those bodies that seem to possess the quality of radiating activities of certain kinds, the adjective _radio-active_ has been applied. the most important radio-active elements are uranium, thorium and radium, of which the last is immeasurably the most active and important. radium was discovered in by m. and madame curie and m. bémont, while experimenting with the uranium mineral pitchblende. it seemed to some people at the time to challenge the theory of the conservation of energy, and to threaten the destruction of the whole science of physics, by emanating energy without loss to itself. it has since been found, of course, that radium does give up part of its substance; that it disintegrates in fact, as a result of its emanations. how great an influence the discovery of radium is going to exert, it is now impossible to predict with confidence; but it is manifest that the three successive and allied discoveries of cathode rays, x-rays and radium have introduced a new and growing science into the machine; and it is seemingly possible that that science may, soon or tardily, ascertain the nature of the atom, and even teach us to divide it. it seems that an atom of radium does actually disintegrate, and by disintegrating give out energy. the energy it gives out is so enormous in proportion to the mass which gives it out, as to suggest to us an almost infinite source of available power, if other substances can be made to disintegrate. it is said that one gramme of radium can emit a quantity of heat of about calories per hour; that is enough heat to raise grammes of water a ° centigrade in temperature, _by simply existing_. it is true that radium is the most expensive article in the world; but that is only because of the difficulties of obtaining it at present. now if radium is so potentially powerful and disintegrates so easily, it seems possible that other substances less easily disintegrable could emit greater energy, if (or when) a means is discovered for disintegrating them. the interesting question now suggests itself of what would happen if some man should some day discover accidentally a means of disintegrating--say carbon--and should unintentionally disintegrate a few tons of coal in wall street. we know what has happened at times when piles of explosives have been accidentally detonated. but explosives are merely chemical compounds, and, compared to atoms of radium are relatively microscopic in the energy developed when broken up. we remember the story of the commotion caused by the monk's experiment in making powder, when the mixture exploded and hurled the pestle out of the mortar and across the room. imagine a few tons of carbon atoms exploding. in a war, long presaged, broke out between china and japan. in , when commodore perry went to japan, and gave a virtual ultimatum that resulted in japan's opening her seaports to the commerce of the world, china and japan were on the same plane of civilization, though china was many times greater in area and population. but the people of japan were different from those of china in the essential mental characteristic of imagination,--at least their rulers were. for those rulers, noting the superior power of the foreign war-ships as compared with theirs, and reasoning from this to the conditions of the countries that produced those war-ships, and that produced also the implements of war on board that were so much superior to the japanese, made a mental picture of what would happen to japan some day, when those war-ships should come to japan and demand submission. to make such a picture did not require much imagination, maybe; but the fact seems to be that no other asiatic nation, and no african nation, made it. then the japanese made another picture, that required imagination of a brilliant kind; and that was a picture of japan learning the arts of the foreign devil, and then utilizing those arts to keep the foreign devil himself at bay. to us, looking back on the perfectly clear record of performance that japan has made since then, that performance may seem not very difficult either to attempt or to achieve. but no other nation in the history of the world has ever paralleled it, or even approximated it. to appreciate it, one must exert all the imagination of which he is capable, and see himself in japan as japan was in , amid all the influences of the history and environment then prevailing, with all their accompaniments of ignorance, prejudice, inertia and racial pride. it is the consensus of opinion throughout the world that the performance of japan since has been amazing. it is part of the humble effort of this book to show that, in all great achievements, the result should be attributed mainly to the estimate originally formed of the situation, and the decision (invention) made to meet it. "c'est le _premier_ pas qui coute": the rest follow as results. the war between china and japan, and in greater degree the result of that war, give clear and impressive demonstrations of the influence of invention on history; because the victors were victors simply because they had taken advantage of the inventions made in europe and america. there was no marked difference physically in favor of the japanese. whether there was morally, we have no means of judging. was there a difference mentally? we have an excellent means of judging this,--the fact that the japanese had made a correct estimate of the situation and come to a correct decision, while the chinese had not. in the war that occurred ten years later, between japan and russia, the influence of invention was even more clear and striking, for the reason that japan was a virtually semi-barbarous country in , while russia was one of the five great powers of civilization and christendom; and yet in exactly fifty years, japan demonstrated her equality with russia in the decisive court of war on land, and beat her ignominiously in the equally decisive court of war on sea. why? because during that fifty years japan had availed herself of the aid of invention more than russia had done; with the result that when they went before the supreme tribunal, japan had better methods, better equipment, better plans, better soldiers, better ships, better _tout ensemble_. the most important single item was the naval telescope sight invented by the author. that was the cause of the immeasurably superior gunnery of the japanese at the decisive naval battle of tsushima. concerning japan's war with china in , the same truths may be uttered, though not with quite so much emphasis; for the results had not been so startling. both wars demonstrate the same principles, though in unequal degrees of convincingness. both wars show that the influence of invention has been to build up a machine which is powerful not only for peace but for war; to assist those nations the most that avail themselves of it with the greatest skill and energy, and therefore to spur ambitious and far-seeing people to the study of whatever knowledge the world affords. the study most clearly indicated is that of the resources of physics and chemistry, and the experiences recorded in history. in , henry a. wise wood invented the autoplate, a machine for making printing plates previously made by hand, which multiplied fourfold the reproduction of the type page in printing plates. this invention facilitated and cheapened the cost of printing, and was therefore a valuable addition to the machine. in a war, giving us lessons similar to those of the japanese wars, broke out between the united states and spain. the disproportion of material resources was great, and was in favor of the united states. yet in the early part of the sixteenth century, spain had been esteemed by many to be the greatest of all the powers, while the territory later held by the united states was the wild domain of savages. why had spain fallen so far below a country so new, living three thousand miles away from the civilization of europe? because she had lost her vision; because she had become infected with the disease of sordidness which quickly-gotten wealth, especially ill-gotten wealth, has often brought to nations; because she had ceased to encourage such bright visions as she had encouraged in the days of columbus and magellan, and settled down in the torpor of unimaginativeness. the united states, on the other hand, had been seeing such visions and following them to learn what lay beyond; and had been embodying all that could be embodied in practical projects and machines and methods and instrumentalities of all kinds. the united states had been taking all possible advantage of the potentialities of invention, but spain had not. an important result of this war was the proof, and its utilization on a large scale in cuba and other spanish-american countries, that the mosquito is a carrier of the infections of yellow fever and many other diseases. hardly had this war finished, when a war broke out in between great britain and the boer republic in south africa. it is an evidence of the important influence of invention that it was possible for great britain to wage effective war so far away, and finally to triumph. she triumphed mainly because of the superior power of her military machine; but she had been able to construct and to improve it continually by her persistent utilization of the possibilities of invention. the possibilities that she had utilized became especially conspicuous when the necessity came for transporting the necessary troops and guns and munitions and supplies over the vast ocean spaces intervening, and for handling them on a foreign soil; under conditions very novel, and against a wary and yet skilfull and aggressive foe. this war had not closed when the boxer rebellion broke out in china, and a lesson even more clearly marked was given to the world. for the chinese government was perhaps the oldest in the world and the chinese nation the most numerous. the revolt grew out of a series of aggressions by certain european powers, especially great britain, germany, france and russia, that consisted in virtually appropriating under various pretexts, certain important positions and valuable pieces of territory in china. because of the fact that china had lost her vision, and had not even been stimulated to realizing facts by the example of japan, china was at this time an incoherent aggregation of separate states and organizations; though she was supposed to be a coherent nation, under the emperor in pekin. because of a lack of such a nervous system as was given to each civilized nation by its railways, mails, newspapers, telegraphs and telephones, china was a soft and almost amorphous mass; with no definite purpose and no strength, either external or internal. china was not a machine in any proper sense of the word, and was therefore incapable of any action of an effective kind. the result was that, although the cause of the boxers was not only just but laudable, the whole movement resulted in a series of pitiful atrocities committed by the boxers in pekin, followed by a forced entry into that ancient capital by a few thousand troops from the principal civilized nations, and a quick and complete suppression of the entire revolt. there, in pekin, in the closing days of the year , could be seen, in two contrasting groups, peoples representing the highly organized and effective machine of civilization on one side and its crude and ineffective predecessor on the other side. what was the cause of the enormous difference between the groups? in physical strength and size and courage, little difference if any was observable;--yet one went down before the other, like tenpins before a bowling ball. some may say that the difference was due to the difference in race. yet the japanese were of the same race as the chinese, and the japanese troops were as markedly superior to the chinese as were the troops of any other nation: in fact, it was the consensus of opinion that the japanese troops were superior to all the others, except the german. some may say it was because of the difference in religions. yet the japanese were of virtually the same religion as the chinese. of course, the paramount difference was in the degree of civilization. what was this difference in civilization due to? clearly, it was due to numberless causes; but there seem to be two causes more important than the others: a difference in attitude toward the possibilities of invention, and a difference in what has been called "the fighting spirit." but the fighting spirit and a receptive attitude toward invention are usually found together, though the fighting spirit may sometimes lie dormant in inventive and enterprising people; may lie dormant, even for considerable periods, when conditions are peaceful, and prosperity prevails. but achilles--(so the legend runs)--dwelt at one time in hiding, dressed in woman's garb, quiet and unsuspected. yet when suddenly the bugle rang, he grasped the sword and shield. so, in , and for some years before, great britain, the united states and france slumbered under the narcotic spell of pacifism; yet when suddenly the german war machine advanced upon them, each nation and all three nations together rose in quick and yet majestic armed reply, and proved their fighting spirit was not dead, although it had been sleeping. chapter xiv the fruition of invention the twentieth century was the fruition of all that invention had achieved during the ages of the past. when it opened, the world was a world far different from what it had been, even in times not long gone by. it was far different from the world of , or even ; for many inventions had been made and utilized during the passing years. the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the interval between and , has been called the "industrial age," because of the great advances made in all industrial appliances, and the consequent advance made in the size and wealth and power of industrial organizations of all kinds. in especial, the organizations dealing with systems of transportation and communication, and with manufacturing the many appliances needed by them had expanded greatly. other organizations had expanded also; for the improvement and extension of the means of transportation and communication rendered possible the existence and successful operation of organization in many branches of effort, to a degree impossible before. cities grew in area and population; the buildings in size and especially in height; railroads increased in number, length of route and speed of travel; locomotives and cars grew commensurately; colleges, hospitals, churches, clubs, scientific bodies, benevolent societies--all seemed to take a start about and to grow at increasing speed, as year succeeded year. but the greatest single advance was made in ocean transportation; for the sea, by the year , had become a plane across which steamers moved with a speed and a certainty and a safety, rivaling that of railway trains on land. the factors most immediately and importantly to be credited with all these advances were the improvements in the steam engine, the electric telegraph, and the manufacture of steel; also the invention of the dynamo-electric machine, the electric light and the telephone. these factors had given such power and certainty and speed to the machine of civilization that the nations which joined it and became contributory parts of it, advanced rapidly in prosperity and wealth, both actually and also relatively, as compared with nations that did not. in the year , the great nations of the world were great britain, france, germany, the united states and japan. of these japan had advanced the most in civilization during the preceding half century, then the united states, then germany, then great britain, and then france. the nation that had increased the most in territorial extent was great britain. in , the british empire, including india, covered about one-fourth of the whole surface of the earth. it comprised, besides great britain and ireland, five self-governing colonies, the dominion of canada, the commonwealth of australia, the union of south africa, new foundland and new zealand, in addition to the , , square miles of british india and her three hundred million people. france had "expanded" in both africa and asia; that is, she had conquered territory in those partially civilized continents. germany had done similarly; and russia had subjugated the nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes of central asia. the united states had taken only a little territory, that included in the philippines and porto rico; for she had expanded her constructive energy and skill in developing the vast and fertile area within her own boundaries. japan had expanded only slightly in actual territory; the exercise of her constructive talents being urgently required at home. it may be declared that invention should not be credited with any of this expansion, for the reasons that to increase one's possessions is an instinct of human nature, and that the colonization of savage and barbarous lands has been a favorite activity with great nations always. true: but the inventions enumerated in this book, and the agencies which they supplied for going quickly, surely and safely to places far away; of taking to those places certain tools of conquest, such as guns and powder; and of supplying afterward to the conquered people finer conveniences of living, juster laws and better government of every kind, have been the effective means to an end that could not have been attained without them. it may be objected that the principal factors in all of these achievements have been omitted, the commercial enterprise of the merchants, the farseeing wisdom of the statesmen, the valor and skill of the strategists, and (back of all) the courage and enterprise of the original explorers. that these have been omitted, is true; for the reason that this discussion is intended to point out only what invention has done. it is obvious that the main incentive of colonization has been commercial gain, and that the initiators of colonization schemes have usually been merchants. it is equally obvious that the statesmen are to be credited with the framing and execution of the measures needed to make any colonization scheme effective; and it is equally obvious that strategists and explorers did work without which no expansion whatever would have been possible. nevertheless, it must be clear that the essential difference between the conquerors and the conquered, by reason of which the uncivilized were conquered by the civilized, lay in the aids which civilization had supplied to the civilized. colonization and conquest have been going on ever since the beginning of recorded history and before; but from the days of thutmose iii in ancient egypt until now, the conqueror and the colonizer have in almost every case been more civilized than were their victims. it is true also that savages have sometimes overrun civilized countries, and even conquered them, for alaric captured even rome: but up to the present time, the fruits of such conquests have not been permanent, whereas the fruits of colonization have been. in , then, the machine of civilization was in operation in all parts of the world; in the dark continent of africa, the deserts of asia, the wild regions of australia, and even on the ocean. in fact, it was on the ocean that the machine was operating with the most efficiency and effectiveness; for nowhere else are the power and the harmony of machinery of all kinds, inert and human, seen in such perfection as in great steamships on the sea. we seem safe in concluding, therefore, that while invention was only one of many factors in bringing about the world-wide conditions that prevailed in , invention was the initiating factor. it was invention that suggested to the explorer that he explore; to the merchant that he launch his enterprise; to the statesman that he encourage the merchant and assist him with wise laws; to the strategist that he make such and such plans, to meet the emergencies that arose. finally, it was invention that made possible the actual transportation of explorers and merchants and troops to designated spots, and made successful the operations which ensued there. but the machine still continued growing. in hewitt invented his beautiful mercury-vapor electric light, and in santos-dumont invented his air-ship and demonstrated its practicability by going around the eiffel tower in paris in it and returning to the spot from which he started. this feat began that great succession of feats with dirigible balloons with which we are so familiar now, and which promise to be succeeded by a condition of world-wide transportation through the air. in , the author of this book patented the method of controlling the movements of vessels, which consists in using radio telegraphy. this invention has recently been brought to the stage of practicality by the united states navy. it was utilized in july, , for steering the iowa when bombed by airplanes. in came the first successful flight by aeroplane, which was made by the brothers orville and wilbur wright at kitty hawk, north carolina. this was an epochal adventure; it inaugurated an age which is already called the aerial age, and which will bring about changes so vast that our imagination cannot picture them. an interesting and instructive fact connected with this flight, and with the aeroplane in general, is that the aeroplane was not practicable and could not be made practicable before the internal-combustion engine had been invented and developed; because all preceding engines had been too heavy. this illustrates the fact occasionally adverted to in this book, that one of the most important factors in the influence of invention is that each new invention facilitates later inventions. _the influence of invention is cumulative._ in , elmer sperry invented his gyroscopic compass which is unaffected by terrestrial magnetism and points to the true north. in , he invented his gyroscopic stabilizer which reduces greatly the rolling of ships, aeroplanes, etc. meanwhile, the endeavor to accomplish photography in color had been receiving persistent attention from many scientific experimenters, but without much practical success. the achievements of becquerel, lippman, joly, lumière, finlay and others have doubtless laid the initial stepping stones; for color-photography by their efforts has been made an accomplished fact. as yet, however, the art is still in its infancy, and has not, therefore, reached the stage of maturity that enables us to estimate what importance it will eventually assume. in goldschmidt invented the thermit process of welding; thermit being a mixture of aluminum with some metallic oxide such as oxide of iron. when this mixture is ignited, the oxygen leaves the iron and unites with the aluminum, causing an enormous rise of temperature, and the consequent formation of molten iron. this molten mass being poured around the ends of two pieces of iron, welds them together at once. in the following year, hiram maxim invented his silencer for fire arms, by means of which the noise resulting from firing a gun is greatly lessened. how valuable a contribution this will be to the machine, it is impossible at the moment to predict with confidence. in , henry a. wise wood invented his printing press that more than doubled the speed of printing, produced a thousand newspapers of the largest size per minute, and directly enhanced the solidarity of the machine. in glenn curtiss produced his epochal flying-boat, just and hanaman invented the tungsten electric light, and drager his pulmotor, for reviving persons who have been asphyxiated or partially drowned, by forcing oxygen into their lungs. the pulmotor has come into use to a surprising degree, and has already been established as a part of the machine with a recognized value. it belongs in the class of remedial agents, about which nobody questions the beneficence, and for which everyone recognizes the debt of gratitude owed by mankind to the inventors. in , the author of this book invented the torpedoplane, a simple combination of the automobile-torpedo with the aeroplane, so designed that an aeroplane can carry a torpedo to a predetermined point near an enemy's ship and then drop it, while simultaneously operating the torpedo's starting mechanism: so that the torpedo will fall into the water, and then continue under its own power toward its victim. as the torpedoplane combines the most powerful weapon with the swiftest means of transportation, many navy officers think it an invention of the first rank of importance, that threatens to wipe all surface fighting vessels off the seas. during the world war, it played only a subordinate part, though it was used effectively by the british and the germans. our navy did not use it at all, as secretary daniels rejected it. the british navy has already adopted it as a major instrument of war, and constructed two especially designed fast vessels, each of which carries twenty torpedoplanes. it seems obvious that such a ship, if sufficiently fast to keep out of the range of a battleship's guns, could sink her without much trouble. in the same year flexner discovered his antitoxin for cerebro-spinal meningitis, and edison invented the kinetophone, a combination of the phonograph and the kinetoscope. as yet, this has not been made to work with such complete success as to warrant its introduction into use. the probabilities seem to be that someone will eventually supply the link that is evidently necessary, and make the voice and the picture on the screen cooperate in unison as they should. two years later, flexner isolated the bacillus of infantile paralysis and plotz that of typhus fever. the world war that broke out in august, , was marked with far greater utilization of new inventions than had marked any war before, and foreshadowed even greater utilization of new inventions in the next war. the first evidence of any new appliance was a rain of heavy projectiles on the tops of the belgian forts; the forts having been designed to resist projectiles on their sides. the projectiles, it was discovered later, came from mortars of a kind the existence of which had not been suspected. soon after, the german submarines showed qualities of endurance and radius of action that bespoke new appliances; and then came attacks on the allied troops with poison-gas that almost were successful. the allies replied with new inventions, especially in wireless telegraphy and telephony, mines, "depth-bombs" and "listening devices;" the latter being employed under water to detect the movements of submarines. many other inventions were almost on the point of practicality when the armistice was signed, but were not quite ready; showing what had often been shown before, that inventions for use in war, like all other preparations for war, should be complete ready for use, before the war begins. as soon as the war broke out in europe, the present author began to urge that the united states develop naval and military aeronautics to the utmost; in order that, when we should finally enter into the war, we should have available a large force of bombing aeroplanes and torpedoplanes. when we finally entered into the war, in april, , he urged continually that we develop a great aeronautical force and send it to europe to prevent the exit of german submarines from their bases, to destroy those bases and to sink the ships of the german fleet. these suggestions were rejected by secretary daniels as impracticable; but subsequent developments have proved that they were thoroughly practicable; in fact, an expedition was organized in england to carry them out, when the armistice was signed. it is interesting to consider what would have been the effect on the war (and, therefore, on all subsequent history) if the united states had sent a large force of bombing aeroplanes and torpedoplanes to europe shortly after we entered the war in the spring of . this we easily could have done, if we had started to get them ready, when the suggestion was first made; or even at a considerable time thereafter. certainly, the war would have been greatly shortened, and much suffering averted. the inventions and discoveries made since the great war began, though some are evidently important, are so recent that we cannot state with any confidence what their effect will be; and for this reason the author craves permission to close his brief story at this point. * * * * * a noteworthy fact observable in the history of invention is that it has been confined almost wholly to egypt, assyria, babylon, china, persia, greece, italy, germany, france, great britain, and the united states, and to a few men in those countries. now it is in those countries that the highest degree of civilization has been developed, and _it is from them that other nations have drawn theirs_. the almost total absence of invention in women is more noteworthy still; for mrs. eddy and madame curie seem to be the only women who have contributed really original and important work. another noteworthy fact is that the idea-germs from which all inventions have been developed have been very few and very tiny. but what a numerous and important progeny has been brought forth; and how wholly impossible civilization would be now, had it not been for a few basic inventions and certain improvements made upon them! we can realize this, if we try to imagine the effect of removing a single one of the basic inventions (and even of certain derived inventions) from the machine of civilization. try to imagine what would happen if the invented art of--say writing--for instance were suddenly lost. would not the whole civilized world be thrown into chaos as soon as the fact were realized? a like disorder would be occasioned, though possibly not so quickly, if men should suddenly forget how to print, or even how to use the telegraph, telephone or the comparatively unimportant typewriter. try to imagine what would happen in even one city,--say new york--if the typewriter were suddenly to be withdrawn! would not all the business of new york be paralyzed in a single day? or fancy that all the machines for making and utilizing electricity for supplying light and power should suddenly become inoperative. would there not be a panic within twenty-four hours or less? fancy that all the elevators should have to stop. imagine what would happen if the steam engine should suddenly cease to operate, and all the steamships and railroad trains should stop, and the countless wheels of industry that are turned directly or indirectly by steam should cease to turn. imagine that gunpowder should cease to function, and that savages could meet modern armies on equal terms. some one may declare that this line of argument does not prove as much as it seems to prove regarding the influence of invention, for the reason that it includes a sudden change, and that every sudden change produces results which are caused merely by the suddenness of the change. so let us grant this, and then imagine that the changes suggested would not take place suddenly, but very slowly. imagine, for instance, that we should discover that the various inventions noted in this book were gradually to cease to operate, but that they would not cease altogether for twenty years, or even forty. _is it not certain that the human race would revert to savagery, after those inventions had ceased to operate?_ chapter xv the machine of civilization, and the dangerous ignorance concerning it, shown by statesmen the originating work of inventors of all kinds, and the assistance rendered by countless wise and good men and women, have built up a machine of civilization that is surpassingly wonderful and fine. to keep the great machine in order and to handle it, large numbers of men have been educated in specialties pertaining to its various parts. the first men were probably the warriors, who defended whatever little machines the various tribes had built up, in their little villages and towns. next, probably, came the kings or rulers who commanded the warriors; and then, the priests who inculcated in the people the various virtues, such as loyalty, courage, honesty, etc., that tended toward the discipline of the individual and the consequent solidarity of the tribe. probably agriculturists came next, who tilled the soil; and then came the inventors, who assisted the warriors and the agriculturalists by devising implements to help them do their work. it seems probable that the artisans came next; and that it was by the co-operative working of them with the inventors, that the conceptions of the inventors were embodied in implements of practical usefulness and value. as time went on, and implements were produced that consisted of two or more parts, the activities of the artisans were enlarged, so as to take care of those implements and keep them in adjustment. the bow and arrow, for instance, would not work well, unless the cord were maintained at the correct degree of tension, the feathers on the arrows were kept straight, the ends of the cords properly secured to the bow, etc. similarly, the mechanisms made for spinning and weaving and fabricating pottery had to be kept in proper condition and adjustment; and if we could realize the small amount of mechanical knowledge extant in primeval days, we would probably also realize that the difficulties of keeping these crude appliances in good working order were as great as are the like difficulties now, with the most complicated printing-press. furthermore, it was not only for keeping mechanisms in good condition that artisans were needed: a higher degree of skill was needed for operating them. we are forced to the conclusion that, as soon as mechanisms were produced, the need of artisans trained to operate them was felt. not only this: the fact that the mechanisms were operated, the facts that flax was spun and textures were woven, and pottery was fashioned and baked, and that bows and arrows were used in battle, prove that operators were actually trained to skill in the various arts. this means that, as soon as the machine of civilization was begun, operators skilled in the kinds of work which that machine required were trained in their various parts, and did their appointed work. it was not only machines of brass and iron and wood, moreover, that required skilled operators: the individual human machines were continually getting out of order, and men were trained in whatever knowledge the world contained, to keep them in good order. hence the physician came into being. the merchant must have been developed shortly after the agriculturist and the artisan, to act as the agent for placing the products of the soil and the products of the mechanisms in the possession of the consumers. as a tribe or nation increased in size, laws had to be formed to regulate the mode of living of its members, decide disputes, punish offences, and regulate conduct in general. hence the lawyer was gradually developed. it seems probable, therefore, that even in prehistoric times, warriors, rulers, priests, physicians, agriculturists, inventors, artisans, merchants, and lawyers were at work, and that the activities of men were divided mainly among those classes. the activities of men are similarly divided now. in fact, it is by these separate activities that the _separate parts_ of the machine are handled. that these separate parts are handled well, the progress made in those parts convincingly testifies. despite this fact, however, no book on invention would be complete which did not point out that the machine, _as a whole_, is not being handled well. the machine in each country is, of course, handled by the ruler and his assistants. originally the ruler handled it alone; but, as it increased in complexity and size, the task became too great for one man, and advisers and ministers were appointed to assist him. men fulfilling such tasks and allied tasks we now call statesmen. now it is to the hands of the statesmen of each country that the actual management of the machine of civilization is committed. yet it is a well-known fact that although there are but few men in the world so wise and learned that they know much about the machine or any of its parts, yet it is not from the wise and learned class that the great officials of governments are selected! the truth of this statement cannot reasonably be denied. that the whole safety of the machine of civilization is in the hands of men untrained in statesmanship is incontrovertible. in fact, the whole status of statesmanship is disconcertingly vague; for in all the grand progress of mankind, no science of statesmanship seems to have developed, or any system of training to practice it. there seem to be no fixed principles of statesmanship, no literature except of an historical kind, and little activity save of an opportunistic sort. no special education seems to be thought necessary in a statesman, or any record of achievement; for in all countries, irrespective of their form of government, men are placed in positions carrying the utmost of human power for good and for evil, with little previous experience or training, and without having to pass any examinations of any kind! this fact demands attention. of what avail is it to train men to handle the separate parts of the machine, if the machine as a whole is to be handled by untrained men? of what avail is it to train engineers, warriors, priests, physicians, lawyers and merchants to handle their several parts, if the machine as a whole is to be handled by statesmen who have not been trained to handle it? it must be obvious that no men can handle the machine as a whole, unless they comprehend the machine as a whole, and also understand all its parts enough to realize their relation to the whole. _no man can well handle any machine, be it large, or be it small, without such knowledge._ no man can be a good captain of a battleship, for instance, until he has spent many years mastering the necessary knowledge. ignorance of the parts and the whole of a battleship is not permitted in a captain of a battleship. why is ignorance of the parts and the whole of their respective responsibilities permitted in officials occupying higher places in the governments? that there are few men in the world who understand enough of all the various parts of the machine to understand the machine as a whole is certainly unfortunate; that almost none of these few men are selected to fill the positions of statesmen is dangerous to the last degree. for the machine has grown to be extremely complicated; and it has the quality, which all machines have in common, that an injury to any part affects the whole. this quality is highly valuable, in fact it is essential; but it carries with it a menace to the entire machine, if it is operated by unskilled men. the machine of civilization came very near to being smashed in the world war; because the statesmen of france and great britain were so inefficient in the most important part of their work (that of guarding the machine as a whole) that they permitted germany to catch them unprepared. the longer this condition continues to prevail, the greater the danger to the machine of civilization will become. the resources of invention are infinite. the resources of invention are almost untouched. every new discovery or invention prepares the road for a multitude of others. these inventions and discoveries improve and enlarge the machine; but they complicate it more and more, and demand greater knowledge in statesmen; just as increase in complexity of ships demands greater knowledge in captains. it can be mathematically proved by the theory of probabilities that, if there be any chance that a certain accident may occur, it will surely occur some day if the predisposing causes are suffered to continue; and that therefore, any machine committed to unskilful handling will be wrecked some day, if the unskilful handling is suffered to continue. this establishes the probability that our machine of civilization will be wrecked some day, unless statesmen be trained to handle it. an invention seems to be needed that will insure adequate knowledge in high officials in governments. but such an invention is not really needed, because it is merely necessary to utilize an invention made and used in greece many centuries ago. this invention consisted in conceiving, developing and producing a system whereby every candidate for any office was required to show adequate knowledge of matters coming within the jurisdiction of that office, by passing a rigid examination. such a system may be deemed impracticable in modern representative governments. _why?_ it is followed in all civilized armies and navies. if it be really impracticable, then it is impracticable to assure that wise and able men shall manage the complex machine of civilization. this means, if history has any lessons for us, that sooner or later, it will again go down in ruin;--as it has gone down at different periods of the past, in egypt and assyria and babylon and rome. that influences are already at work which impair the functioning of the machine in the present and threaten its continuance in the future, cannot reasonably be denied. of these, the two most powerful may be classed under the general heading "bolshevistic" and "pacifistic." at the bottom of the bolshevistic movement is, of course, the thirst for wealth and power; the thirst for opportunities for handling and using the machine and its various parts, by men who have done no work in designing, or building, or caring for it. at the bottom of the pacifistic movement is effeminacy: a desire for mere ease and luxury and softness, a shirking of responsibility and discipline and sacrifice. these two influences, unlike though they are, combine to threaten the machine; the bolshevistic by assault, the pacifistic by insuring weakness of resistance to assault. of these, the pacifistic is the more dangerous, because the more insidious; for the same reason that a disease hidden inside is more dangerous than an attack made openly outside. the most potent cause of pacifism is the effeminacy caused by the combination of prosperity and long-continued peace, with its resulting division of a population into a vulgarly ostentatious rich minority and a more or less envious poor majority. when a division like this has come to pass, hostile conflict has usually ensued. such a conflict produced the french revolution, and almost wrecked the machine in france. such a conflict is now in progress in russia, and threatens some parts of europe. unfortunately, the progress of invention, by enlarging the scope and speed of communication and facilitating the acquiring of superficial knowledge, has put into the hands of men possessing merely the natural gift of eloquence the power to influence large numbers of people, without possessing knowledge or skill in statesmanship. it has facilitated demagoguery:--and herein lies the root of the danger to the machine; for without the demagogue, the bolshevist and the pacifist would be unable to get their civilization-destroying doctrines presented attractively to the people. fortunately, the great war, though it caused tremendous suffering, broke up many visionary notions that were crystallizing into beliefs, and brought the world face to face again with realities. and although the violent disturbance of society's always unstable equilibrium is still evident in the world-wide unrest among the poorer classes, yet the unrest seems gradually to be dying down, with the realization that better conditions of living will be theirs in future. and as every nation that is not wholly degenerate, possesses the power within itself to save itself, and as the great nations of the earth are very far indeed from being degenerate, we are warranted in assuming that each nation will take the necessary steps, not only to guard the machine of civilization, but to increase its power and excellence. chapter xvi the future the fact that invention has not only been increasing during the past one hundred years, but that its speed of increase has been increasing and is still increasing, is well recognized. there seems to be a constant force behind invention that imparts to it an acceleration, comparable to that of gravity in accelerating the descent of a falling stone. such a phenomenon would be thoroughly conformable to modern theories; and that there is a force, impelling people to invent, must be a fact; for otherwise, they would not invent. if that force be constant, the acceleration imparted to invention will be constant. if the force be variable, the acceleration imparted to invention will be variable. in other words, the future speed of invention, like that of every moving body, must be governed by the force behind it and the resistances opposed. at the present moment, the resistance to invention is being gradually lessened because the benefits coming from invention are being realized. simultaneously, the facilities for inventing are being increased. these facilities are mainly in instruments of measurements and research. so many of these are there now, that it would only complicate matters to enumerate them and describe their spheres. two of the most important are the spectroscope and the photographic camera. by means of the spectroscope, the astronomer can ascertain the chemical elements of far distant stars, the temperature and pressure under which they exist, the stage of progress of the star, and its speed and direction of movement, whether toward us or away. by means of the photographic camera, not only can records be made of stars so far away and faint that light-waves from them cannot be noted by the eye, even with the assistance of the most powerful telescope,--but a virtually unlimited number of permanent records can be made. all fields of research now feel the assistance imparted by new instruments and methods. even the chemist realizes the aid of instruments invented by the physicist; while every physicist welcomes the aid that comes to him from chemists. the chemists and the physicist are now working together in harmony and with enthusiasm, engaged in a friendly rivalry as to which shall help the other most. and, as discovery succeeds discovery, and invention succeeds invention, they find themselves--although the domain of each is widening--not drifting farther apart, but drawing closer together. for it seems to be coming more and more assured that the laws of nature are simpler than we thought, that chemistry and physics are more alike than we supposed. many startling generalizations have been suggested, with much reason; such as, that matter and energy are one, that space and time are one, and that even the mind of man may be subjected to physical methods and analysis. in fact, some of the greatest advances made during the past twenty-five years have been in psychology, and achieved largely by the use of physical apparatus. many subjects, formerly included with alchemy and astrology in the class of occult if not deceitful arts, are now being developed apparently toward more or less exact sciences; as alchemy was developed into chemistry, and astrology into astronomy. efforts are even being made to communicate with distant planets and with the spirits of the dead. that much is being attempted that may not be realized is true. but if we realize that the universe is now supposed to be many millions of years old, it seems only yesterday that the phenomena of electrical and magnetic attraction and repulsion were confusing the minds of even the wisest: and now electricity and magnetism are harnessed together, and working together in perfect harmony and marvelous effectiveness, for the good of man. that the future of invention is to be as brilliant as its past, every omen indicates. in what direction will it proceed? probably in all directions. but the line of direction that will occur the first to many, is probably in aerial flight. doubtless it is in aerial flight that the greatest advance has been made since flight was first successfully accomplished in ; and doubtless it is in that line that the greatest progress is being made now. the enormous speeds already achieved; the growing size of both aeroplanes and dirigibles; their increasing speed, safety and convenience; the fact that roads are not needed for aerial transportation as they are for carriages and railway trains, or deep water channels as for water craft; and the comparative cheapness with which people and light packages can be carried swiftly and far, all point to a vast increase in aerial transportation, and a great modification in all our modes of living in consequence. akin to transportation is communication:--but in communication, one may reasonably feel that we have arrived almost at the boundary line, not only of the possible but even the desirable. for we have almost instantaneous communication all over the surface of the earth and under almost all the ocean, by the telegraph and telephone, using wires and cables; and nearly equally good communication by radio telegraph, using no material connection whatever. the wireless telephone is following fast on the heels of the wireless telegraph; and by it we can already telephone hundreds of miles between stations on land and sea, and carry on conversation for several miles between fast moving aeroplanes. but progress is going on rapidly also in the older fields of invention. the ocean steamship, especially the battleship, is growing in size, speed and safety; so is the locomotive, so is the automobile. because of the progress in all the useful arts and sciences, buildings of all kinds are being constructed higher and larger, and more commodious and safe; civil engineering works of all description--roads, canals, bridges and tunnels are setting their durable marks of progress all over the earth; the uses of electricity are growing, and showing every indication that they will continue so to do; and so are the uses of chemistry and light and heat. and through all the industrial world, in manufactures of every kind, we see the same unmistakable signs of progress, increasing progress and increasing rate of progress. in the field of pure science, we note the same signs of progress, increasing progress, and increasing speed of progress. naturally, however, it is far more difficult to predict with confidence the direction which future progress will take in this field than in the field of the practical application of pure science, in which invention usually bestirs itself. the fact, however, that any actual advance has begun in any new science gives the best possible reason for expecting that the advance is going to continue. therefore, we may expect continuing progress in all branches of pure science: for the near future, for instance, in biology, psychology and what is loosely called "psychics," which seems to be a virtual excursion of psychology into the hazy realms of telepathy, clairvoyance, spiritualism, and so forth. that invention and research are concerning themselves more and more with immaterial subjects is a fact that is not only noticeable but of vital importance to us, for signs are not lacking that man's material comfort is already sufficiently well-assured; in fact, that perhaps he is already too comfortable for his physical well-being. already we see that labor saving and comfort-producing appliances are impairing the physical strength of men and women, and to such a degree that artificial exercises are prescribed by doctors. inasmuch as "the mind is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven," it seems probable that the direction of effort in which the greatest real benefit can be attained is in research and consequent invention concerning the mind itself. but, for the reason that this is probably the most difficult road, it seems probable that success in it may come the latest. it seems probable also that even in that road, progress will be achieved by means analogous to those by which it has been achieved in other roads; that is by the use of physical and chemical instruments and methods. much has been done already by their aid in psychology, and much more is promised in the not distant future. the idea of influencing the mind directly to states of happiness, and guarding it from unhappiness, is far from new; for what were the epicureans, stoics, and others trying to do but that? such attempts, many systems of philosophy and many mystic sects distinctly made. of these sects, one of the most interesting was that of the omphalopsychites, who were able to raise themselves to high states of happiness by the simple and inexpensive process of gazing at their navels. some advantages of their system are obvious. certainly it was less costly than other means of gaining happiness, such as wearing narrow-toed shoes, chewing tobacco, smoking cigarettes and drinking whiskey; and there is no evidence that it ever caused ingrowing toe-nails, delirium tremens, or bright's disease. that invention and progress have produced and may be relied upon to continue to produce prosperity, may reasonably be predicted. but will they together produce happiness? the author respectfully begs to be excused from answering this question. he requests attention, however, to the manifest facts that invention is a natural gift, that the impetus to invention has always been the desire to achieve prosperity of some kind, and that to employ our natural gifts to satisfy our natural instincts can reasonably be expected to further our happiness; unless, indeed, we suspect nature of playing tricks upon us. that nature sometimes seems to do this, and that it is dangerous to follow our instincts blindly is of course a fact. but it seems to be a fact also that the danger in following our instincts seems to come only when we follow them blindly; and that, though there may be danger sometimes in following them even under the guidance of our reason, yet the only way in which we have ever progressed at all has been by following our instincts under reason's guidance, and invention's inspiration. and since the civilized world is in virtual agreement that civilization is a happier state than savagery, and since we have been impelled toward civilization by invention mainly, there seems no escape from the conclusion that it is to invention mainly that we must look for increase of happiness in the future. it may be, of course, that happiness does not come so much from a condition or state attained as from the act of striving to attain it. it may be suggested also by some one that life is merely a game, and that happiness comes from playing the game and not from winning it, just as children delight more in constructing a toy building with their blocks than in the building when completed: for they no sooner complete the building than they knock it down, and begin to build it up again. but, even from this point of view, the desirability of fostering invention would be apparent; because it would continually supply us with new games to play, and new toys with which to play them. but that any thoughtful person could really think life a game is an impossibility. no man with a mind to reason and a soul to feel can contemplate the awful suffering that has always existed in the world, and think life a mere game. no man can think life a mere game, who with an eye to see and an imagination to conceive, gazes upon the infinite sea of stars visible to his unaided vision, realizes how many thousands upon thousands of stars there are besides, that the photographic camera records, and realizes also that, though light travels even through air at a rate exceeding , miles per second, yet that some stars are so distant that the light now reaching us from them started ages before the dawn of history. and no man who is able to follow the teachings of science, even superficially, can note the enormous development of civilization during the last few thousand years, and realize that a development similar though infinitely grander, must have been going on in all the universe for countless centuries, without realizing also that "through the ages an increasing purpose runs." he may even note a likeness between it and the development on an infinitely smaller scale, of the conception of a merely human inventor. possibly, his fancy may even soar still higher: possibly he may even wonder if all this great creation may not be in effect a great invention, and god its great creator, because its great inventor. so, whether we fix our thought on what the scientists tell us of the probable course of development of the universe during the countless ages of the past, or consider merely the development of man since the dawn of recorded history, we seem to find as the initiating cause of both--invention. let us therefore utilize all means possible to develop this godgiven faculty, the chiefest of the talents committed to our keeping. that way lie progress, prosperity and happiness. how far and how high it may lead us, god only knows; for the resources of invention are infinite. the end. index a abel, acetylene gas, acheson, Ægeans, , aerial age, age of bronze, age of copper, age of iron, age of steam, _et seq_ air-brake, air-pump, , airships, alchemy, alexander, to alexandria, alphabet, aluminum, , ampère, , analine dyes, antipyrene, antiseptic surgery, antitoxin, appleby, application of hot air to furnaces, arago, arc-light, , archimedes, , , , aristotle, arithmetic, arkwright, artificial limbs, artificial silk, assur, assyria, , astrology, astronomy, , atlantic cable, atomic theory, atwood's machine, automatic arc-light, automatic car-coupler, automatic grain-binder, , automatic piano, autoplate, b babbage, babbitt metal, babylonian measures, babylonian religion, bacillus of cholera, bacillus of diphtheria, bacillus of hydrophobia, bacillus of infantile paralysis, bacillus of lockjaw, bacillus of tuberculosis, bacillus of typhus fever, bacon, francis, , , bacon, roger, baldwin, balista, band wood-saw, , barbed-wire fence, barometer, battle of the nile, , bazaine, bémont, becquerel rays, , behel, bell, , berliner, bernoulli, bessemer's process, bicycle, bismarck, black, , blake telephone-transmitter, bonaparte, , bourdon, bow and arrow, , bowers, boyle, braithwaite, branca, brandenburg, branly's coherer, brewster, , britain, , brugnatelli, buddhism, , bullock, bunsen, burden, burleigh, c cable-car, cæsar, , to , calculating machine, carbide of calcium, carbolic acid, carbon telephone-transmitter, carborundum, carré, carthage, , , cartwright, cash-carrier, cash-register, catapult, cathode rays, caus, cavallo, cavendish, , , cawley, celluloid, cerebro-spinal meningitis antitoxin, channing, charlotte dundas, chemistry, chloral hydrate, chloroform, christian science, christianity, , chrome process of tanning, cigarette machine, circulation of blood, civil war in america, _et seq_ clay tablets, clerk maxwell, , clermont, clock, coal-gas, cocaine, coins, color photography, colt, columbus, _et seq_ compressed-air rock drill, , confucianism, congress of vienna, congress, u. s. s., , , constant battery, constantinople, , , constitution of the united states, cooke, copenhagen, copernicus, , , corliss cut-off, cornwallis, , cortez, , corvus, , cowles, craske, crawford, cretans, croesus, crookes, cumberland, u. s. s., , , cuneiform writing, curie, curtiss, glenn, curved stereoplates, customs union, cyanide process, cyrus, d dædalus, daguerre, , dalton, , daniell, daniels, , darius, davy, , , davy, edmund, de chardonnet, de grasse, , de lesseps, decimal system, deisel engine, della porta, dennison, depth bomb, dewar, dias, bartholomew, diet at spires, diet at worms, disc for polishing, divine right of kings, , dodge, domestication of brutes, drager, draper, drebel, dry-plate photography, duodecimal system, , duplex telegraph, dynamics, dynamite, dynamo electric machine, e east india company, eastman, eberth, eddy, edison, , , , , egyptian religion, electric light, telegraph, cautery, locomotive, candle, railway, first, welding, furnace, motor, , electrically propelled boat, electricity, _et seq_ electromagnetic theory of light, electron, electroplating, electrostatic induction, elevator, embalming, ericsson, , , , , , , ether as an anæsthetic, f fahrenheit, faraday, , , , farmer, faure storage battery, feudal system, , field, cyrus, finlay, finsen, fire alarm telegraph, fire, first american locomotive, first electric telegraph, first successful aeroplane flight, fiske, , , fitch, flexner, , flute, flying boat, foucault, fox, talbot, foy, franklin, , , , frederick the great, _et seq_ frederick william, , , french revolution, friction matches, fulton, g galileo, , galvani, , galvanization, galvanometer, gardner, gas engine, gas mantle, gatling gun, gaul, to gaza, ged, geometry, german confederation, giffard, gilbert, , gimlet, goldschmidt, goodyear, , gorham, gorrie, gramme, graphophone, gravitation, law of, great eastern, greece, greek fire, , green, greener's hammerless gun, groves gas battery, guericke, , , , , gun carriage, gun-cotton, gun director system, gun, to gunpowder, guthrie, guttenberg, , gyroscopic compass, gyroscopic stabilizer, h hadley, hales, hall, hammurabi, hanaman, hand photographic camera, hannibal, , hargreaves, harvey, , harveyized armor, heat, a measure of work, hebrews, hellenistic civilization, , helmholtz, henry, , , herman, hero, , , hertz, , hewitt, hibbert, high speed printing press, hoe, , holy alliance, homer, hooke, , horseshoe machine, howe, huygens, hyatt, hydraulic dredge, hydraulic jack, i ice machine, , illuminating water-gas, image making, , incandescent lamp, induced currents, induction transmitter, ingersoll, internal combustion engine, interrupted thread screw, invasion of england, , ironclads, j jablochkoff, jacobi, , james, janney, jansen, jewish religion, , joly, judaism, k kaleidoscope, , kepler, kinetograph and kinetoscope, , kingsland, kirchoff, knitting machine, koch, , kodak camera, könig, königgratz, krag-jorgensen rifle, krupp, kuno, l la gloire, laennec, laplace, laughing gas, lavoisier, , , , laws of electrolysis, laws of electromagnetic induction, laws of electrostatic induction, league of armed neutrality, lee magazine rifle, leges juliæ, legion, leibig, , leupold, leyden jar, , liberal government, _et seq_ light, linde, link motion, linotype machine, lippman, liquefaction of air, liquefaction of gases, lister, lithography, locomotive, loeffler, long, loom, positive motion weaving, lowe, lumière, lundstrom, luther, _et seq_ lyall, m machine for making barbed-wire, mack, maddox, magazine gun, magellan, magneto electric machine, , malleable iron castings, marathon, , marble, marconi, , martel, charles, martin's steel process, match-making machine, matteson, maxim, mccormick reaper, mcmahon, melhuish, merchant adventurers, mercury-vapor light, mergenthaler, , merkle, merrimac, c. s. s., , , , metternich, , michoux, middlings purifier, militarism, military machine, _et seq_ miller, miltiades, , milton, miners' safety lamp, , mohammedanism, moltke, moncrief's disappearing gun-carriage, monitor, , , , monroe doctrine, montgolfier, morse, , , , morton, motion, laws of, multiphase currents, mungo ponton, murdock, muschenbroek, musical telephone, muybridge, mythology, n napier, , napoleon, _et seq_, nasmyth, needle telegraph, nege, neilson, nelson, , , , newcomer, newton, isaac, , , nicholson, nickel steel, nicolaier, niepce, nineveh, nitroglycerin, nobel, o oersted, , , ohm, oleomargarine, omphalopsychites, open-hearth process for steel-making, ophthalmoscope, otis, otto, p pacinnotti, , page, painting, paper, papin, papyrus, , parson's steam turbine, pasteur, patent office, paul, peloponnesian war, , pericles, perkins, perry, persian gates, phalanx, , philip of macedon, , phoenicians, phoenix, phonetic writing, phonograph, photographic roll films, photography, , photometer, pictet, picture-writing, pitt, , pixii, pizarro, planté, platinotype process, plotz, pneumatic caissons, pneumatic tire, pneumonia bacillus, poetry, portable fire engine, portland cement, porus, potassium, power-loom, prehistoric inventor, prescott, priestley, primeval weapons, to princeton, u. s. s., principia, printing press, printing telegraph, printing, to pulmotor, pump, punic wars, , pyramids, , q quadruplex telegraphy, r radio activity, radio control of moving vessels, radium, ramsay, rear driven chain for bicycles, reece, regenerative furnace, reis, renaissance, revolver, rock drill, rocket, röntgen, , rubicon, ruhmkorff coil, , ruin of the machine of civilization, - rumford, runge, russian campaign, , s sadowa, safety matches, sailing vessels, salamis, santos dumont, sargon, savage, savannah, first ocean steamship, savery, , schmid, schneider, schonbein, schultz, schultze, schweigg, scott archer, screw propeller, sculpture, secondary battery, seebeck, self-binding reaper, self-induction, selligne, senefelder, sennacherib, sewing-machine, sextant, seymour, seytre, shakespeare, shell ejector, shintoism, shoemaking machine, sholes, siemens, , , , silencer for fire arms, sleeping-car, smeaton, smith and wesson revolver, smokeless gunpowder, sobrero, sodium, soubeiran, sparta, spectroscope, sperry, spinning machine, sprague electric railway and motor, st. vincent, statuary, steam engine, _et seq_ steam hammer, steam plough, steam presser gauge, steam saw-mill, steam whistle, steel pen, stephenson, , stereoscope, stereotyping, sternberg, stethoscope, , stevens, sturgeon, suez canal, sulphite process, syphon, syria, t tainter, talbot, talleyrand, , taoism, , taupenot, telephone, telescope sight for ships' guns, telescope, , tesla, themistocles, thermit welding, thermometer, thermopile, , thermos bottle, thompson, elihu, thomson, benjamin, thomson, sir william, thorium, threshing-machine, thurber, tilghman, time-lock, torpedoplane, torricelli, toulon, trafalgar, triger, tubular boiler, tungsten electric light, turtle for printing presses, twine-binder, typewriter, , typhoid bacillus, tyre, , tyrian dyes, u ulm, uranium, use of collodion in photography, uxian pass, v van depoele, vasco da gama, veneti, vercingetorix, , vieille, villeneuve, , visibility of objects, , volta, , , voltaic arc, , vulcanizing rubber, w walker, walkers, war-chariot, washington, _et seq_ watch, watch-making machine, water-gas, watt, _et seq_ webb-feeding printing press, wedgwood, wegmann, wells, welsbach, westinghouse, , wheatstone bridge, wheatstone, wheel, , whitehead torpedo, whitney, wilde, willis, wireless telegraph, , wöhler, wood pulp, wood, henry a. wise, , woodruff, worm, wright, orville and wilbur, x x-rays, , , xerxes, z zankerode, transcriber's notes: punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained. inconsistent hyphenation, e.g., "co-operation" and "cooperation", has been retained unless one form predominated. ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. page : "and sheet force of will" is misprint for "sheer". page : several colons would be semi-colons in modern practice. index was not well-alphabetized; corrected here. diacriticals and ligatures have been alphabetized as plain letters. stories of useful inventions [illustration: guglielmo marconi benjamin franklin thomas edison sir henry bessemer robert fulton alexander graham bell hudson maxim a group of inventors] stories of useful inventions by s. e. forman author of "a history of the united states," "advanced civics," etc. [illustration] new york the century co. copyright, , by the century co. _published september, _ preface in this little book i have given the history of those inventions which are most useful to man in his daily life. i have told the story of the match, the stove, the lamp, the forge, the steam-engine, the plow, the reaper, the mill, the loom, the house, the carriage, the boat, the clock, the book, and the message. from the history of these inventions we learn how man became the master of the world of nature around him, how he brought fire and air and earth and water under his control and compelled them to do his will and his work. when we trace the growth of these inventions we at the same time trace the course of human progress. these stories, therefore, are stories of human progress; they are chapters in the history of civilization. and they are chapters which have not hitherto been brought together in one book. monographs on most of the subjects included in this book have appeared, and excellent books about modern inventions have been written, but as far as i know, this is the first time the evolution of these useful inventions has been fully traced in a single volume. while preparing the stories i have received many courtesies from officers in the library of congress and from those of the national museum. s. e. f. may, . washington, d. c. contents page the foreword ix i the match ii the stove iii the lamp iv the forge v the steam-engine vi the plow vii the reaper viii the mill ix the loom x the house xi the carriage xii the carriage (_continued_) xiii the boat xiv the clock xv the book xvi the message a foreword[ ] these stories of useful inventions are chapters in the history of civilization and this little book is a book of history. now we are told by herodotus, one of the oldest and greatest of historians, that when the writer of history records an event he should state the _time_ and the _place_ of its happening. in some kinds of history--in the history of the world's wars, for example, or in the history of its politics--this is strictly true. when we are reading of the battle of bunker hill we should be told precisely when and where the battle was fought, and in an account of the declaration of independence the time and place of the declaration should be given. but in the history of inventions we cannot always be precise as to dates and places. of course it cannot be told when the first plow or the first loom or the first clock was made. inventions like these had their origin far back in the earliest ages when there was no such person as a historian. and when we come to the history of inventions in more recent times the historian is still sometimes unable to discover the precise time and place of an invention. it is in the nature of things that the origin of an invention should be surrounded by uncertainty and doubt. an invention, as we shall see presently, is nearly always a response to a certain want. the world wants something and it promises a rich reward to one who will furnish the desired thing. the inventor, recognizing the want, sets to work to make the thing, but he conducts his experiments in secret, for the reason that he does not want another to steal his ideas and get ahead of him. we can see that this is true in respect to the flying machine. the first experiments with the flying machine were conducted in secret in out of the way places and pains were taken that the public should know as little as possible about the new machine and about the results of the experiments. the history of the flying machine will of course have to be written, but because of the secrecy and mystery which surrounded the beginnings of the invention it will be extremely difficult for the future historian to tell precisely when the first flying machine was invented or to name the inventor. if it is so difficult to get the facts as to the origin of an invention in our own time, how much more difficult it is to clear away the mystery and doubt which surround the beginnings of an invention in an age long past! in a history of inventions, then, the historian cannot be precise in respect to dates and places. fortunately this is not a cause for deep regret. it is not a great loss to truth that we cannot know precisely when the first book was printed, nor does it make much difference whether that book was printed in holland or in germany. in giving an account of an invention we may be content to treat the matter of time and place broadly, for the story is apt to carry us through a stretch of years that defies computation, a stretch that is immensely longer than the life of any nation. for our purpose these millenniums, these long stretches of time, may be thought of as being divided into three great periods, namely: the _primitive_, the _ancient_, and the _modern_ period. even a division so broad as this is not satisfactory, for in the progress of their inventions all countries have not kept equal step with the march of time. in some things ancient greece was modern, while in most things modern alaska is primitive and modern china is ancient. nevertheless it will be convenient at times in this book to speak of the _primitive_, the _ancient_ and the _modern_ periods, and it will be useful to regard the _primitive_ period as beginning with the coming of man on earth and extending to the year b. c.; the _ancient_ period may be thought of as beginning with the year b. c. and ending with the year a. d., leaving for the _modern_ period the years that have passed since a. d. in tracing the growth of an invention the periods indicated above can serve as a time-guide only for those parts of the world where the course of civilization has taken its way, for invention and civilization have traveled the same road. the region of the world's most advanced civilization includes the lands bordering on the mediterranean sea, central and northern europe, the british isles, north america, south america and australia. it is within this region that we shall follow the development of whatever invention is under consideration. when speaking of the first forms of an invention, however, it will sometimes be necessary, when an illustration is desired, to draw upon the experience of people who are outside of the wall of civilization. the reason for going outside is plain. the first and simplest forms of the useful inventions have utterly perished in civilized countries, but they still exist among savage and barbarous peoples and it is among such peoples that the first forms must be studied. thus in the story of the clock, we must go to a far-off peninsula of southern asia (p. ) for an illustration of the beginning of our modern timepiece. such a departure from the beaten track of civilization does not spoil the story, for as a rule, the rude forms of inventions found among the lowest races of to-day are precisely the same forms that were in use among the egyptians and greeks when they were in their lowest state. when studying the history of an invention there are two facts or principles which should ever be borne in mind. the first principle is this: _necessity is the mother of invention._ this principle was touched upon when it was said that an invention appears as a response to a want. when the world wants an invention it usually gets it and makes the most of it, but it will have nothing to do with an invention it does not want. the steam-engine was invented two thousand years ago (p. ) but the world then had no work for steam to do, so the invention attracted little attention and came to naught. about two hundred years ago, however, man did want the services of steam and inventors were not long in supplying the engine that was needed. about a hundred years ago the broad prairie lands of the united states began to be tilled but it was soon found that the vast areas could not be plowed and that the immense crops could not be harvested by the old methods. so improvements upon the plow and the reaper began to be made and in time the steam gang-plow and the complete harvester were invented. when the locomotive first came into use a simple handbrake was used to stop the slow-going trains, but as the size and the speed of trains increased the handbrake became more and more unsatisfactory. sometimes a train would run as much as a half mile beyond a station before it could be stopped and then when "backed" it would again pass beyond the station. the problem of stopping the train promptly became fully as important as starting it. the problem was solved by the invention of the air-brake. and thus it has been with all the inventions which surround us: necessity has been the mother of them all. the other principle is that a mechanical invention is a _growth_, or, to state the truth in another way, an invention nearly always is simply an improvement upon a previous invention. the loom, for example, was not invented by a particular person at a particular time; it did not spring into existence in a day with all its parts perfected; it _grew_, century by century, piece by piece. in the stories which will follow the steps in the growth of an invention are shown in the illustrations. these pictures are not for amusement but for study. as you read, examine them carefully and they will teach you quite as much about the growth of the invention as you can be taught by words. footnote: [ ] where readers are quite young the foreword had better be postponed until the stories themselves are read. stories of useful inventions the match did you ever think how great and how many are the blessings of fire? try to think of a world without fire. suppose we should wake up some bitter cold morning and find that all the fires in the world were out, and that there was no way of rekindling them; that the art of kindling a fire had been lost. in such a plight we should all soon be shivering with the cold, for our stoves and furnaces could give us no warmth; we should all soon be hungry, for we could not cook our food; we should all soon be idle, for engines could not draw trains, wheels of factories could not turn, and trade and commerce would come to a standstill; at night we would grope in darkness, for we could use neither lamp nor gas nor electric light. it is easy to see that without fire, whether for light or heat, the life of man would be most wretched. there never was a time when the world was without fire, but there was a time when men did not know how to kindle fire; and after they learned how to kindle one, it was a long, long time before they learned how to kindle one easily. in these days we can kindle a fire without any trouble, because we can easily get a match; but we must remember that the match is one of the most wonderful things in the world, and that it took men thousands of years to learn how to make one. let us learn the history of this familiar little object, the match. fire was first given to man by nature itself. when a forest is set on fire by cinders from a neighboring volcano, or when a tree is set ablaze by a thunderbolt, we may say that nature strikes a match. in the early history of the world, nature had to kindle all the fires, for man by his own effort was unable to produce a spark. the first method, then, of getting fire for use was to light sticks of wood at a flame kindled by nature--by a volcano, perhaps, or by a stroke of lightning. these firebrands (fig. ) were carried to the home and used in kindling the fires there. the fire secured in this way was carefully guarded and was kept burning as long as possible. but the flame, however faithfully watched, would sometimes be extinguished. a sudden gust of wind or a sudden shower would put it out. then a new firebrand would have to be secured, and this often meant a long journey and a deal of trouble. [illustration: fig. .--getting a match from nature.] [illustration: fig. .--primitive fire-making. the stick-and-groove method.] in the course of time a man somewhere in the world hit upon a plan of kindling a fire without having any fire to begin with; that is to say, he hit upon a plan of producing a fire by _artificial_ means. he knew that by rubbing his hands together very hard and very fast he could make them very warm. by trial he learned that by rubbing two pieces of dry wood together he could make _them_ very warm. then he asked himself the question: can a fire be kindled by rubbing two pieces of wood together, if they are rubbed hard enough? he placed upon the ground a piece of perfectly dry wood (fig. ) and rubbed this with the end of a stick until a groove was made. in the groove a fine dust of wood--a kind of sawdust--was made by the rubbing. he went on rubbing hard and fast, and, behold, the dust in the groove began to glow! he placed some dry grass upon the embers and blew upon them with his breath, and the grass burst into a flame.[ ] here for the first time a man kindled a fire for himself. he had invented the match, the greatest invention, perhaps, in the history of the world. [illustration: fig. .--the fire drill. (simple form.)] the stick-and-groove method--as we may call it--of getting a flame was much better than guarding fire and carrying it from place to place; yet it was, nevertheless, a very clumsy method. the wood used had to be perfectly dry, and the rubbing required a vast amount of work and patience. sometimes it would take hours to produce the spark. after a while--and doubtless it was a very long while--it was found that it was better to keep the end of the stick in one spot and twirl it (fig. ) than it was to plow to and fro with it. the twirling motion made a hole in which the heat produced by the friction was confined in a small space. at first the drilling was done by twirling the stick between the palms of the hands, but this made the hands too hot for comfort, and the fire-makers learned to do the twirling with a cord or thong[ ] wrapped around the stick (fig. ). you see, the upper end of the stick which serves as a drill turns in a cavity in a mouthpiece which the operator holds between his teeth. if you should undertake to use a fire-drill of this kind, it is likely that your jaws would be painfully jarred. [illustration: fig. .--fire drill. (improved form.)] by both the methods described above, the fire was obtained by rubbing or _friction_. the friction method seems to have been used by all primitive peoples, and it is still in use among savages in various parts of the world. [illustration: fig. .--striking fire.] [illustration: fig. .--tinder box, flint, steel, and sulphur-tipped splinters.] the second step in fire-making was taken when it was discovered that a spark can be made by striking together a stone and a piece of iron ore. strike a piece of flint against a piece of iron ore known as pyrites, or fire-stone, and you will make sparks fly. (fig. .) let these sparks fall into small pieces of dried moss or powdered charcoal, and the _tinder_, as the moss or the charcoal is called, will catch fire. it will glow, but it will not blaze. now hold a dry splinter in the glowing tinder, and fan or blow with the breath and the splinter will burst into a flame. if you will tip your splinter with sulphur before you place it in the burning tinder, you will get a flame at once. this was the strike-a-light, or _percussion_, method of making a fire. it followed the friction method, and was a great improvement upon it because it took less work and a shorter time to get a blaze. the regular outfit for fire-making with the strike-a-light consisted of a tinder-box, a piece of steel, a piece of flint, and some splinters tipped with sulphur (fig. ). the flint and steel were struck together, and the sparks thus made fell into the tinder and made it glow. a splinter was applied as quickly as possible to the tinder, and when a flame was produced the candle which rested in the socket on the tinder-box was lighted. as soon as the splinter was lighted the cover was replaced on the tinder-box, so as to smother the glowing tinder and save it for another time. the strike-a-light method was discovered many thousands of years ago, and it has been used by nearly all the civilized nations of the world.[ ] and it has not been so very long since this method was laid aside. there are many people now living who remember when the flint and steel and tinder-box were in use in almost every household. about three hundred years ago a third method of producing fire was discovered. if you should drop a small quantity of sulphuric acid into a mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar, you would produce a bright flame. here was a hint for a new way of making a fire; and a thoughtful man in vienna, in the seventeenth century, profited by the hint. he took one of the sulphur-tipped splinters which he was accustomed to use with his tinder-box, and dipped it into sulphuric acid, and then applied it to a mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar. the splinter caught fire and burned with a blaze. here was neither friction nor percussion. the chemical substances were simply brought together, and they caught fire of themselves; that is to say, they caught fire by _chemical_ action. the discovery made by the vienna man led to a new kind of match--the chemical match. a practical outfit for fire-making now consisted of a bottle of sulphuric acid (vitriol) and a bundle of splints tipped with sulphur, chlorate of potash, and sugar. matches of this kind were very expensive, costing as much as five dollars a hundred; besides, they were very unsatisfactory. often when the match was dipped into the acid it would not catch fire, but would smolder and sputter and throw the acid about and spoil both the clothes and the temper. these dip-splint matches were used in the eighteenth century by those who liked them and could afford to buy them. they did not, however, drive out the old strike-a-light and tinder-box. in the nineteenth century--the century in which so many wonderful things were done--the fourth step in the development of the match was taken. in , john walker, a druggist in a small english town, tipped a splint with sulphur, chlorate of potash, and sulphid of antimony, and rubbed it on sandpaper, and it burst into flame. the druggist had discovered the first _friction-chemical_ match, the kind we use to-day. it is called friction-chemical because it is made by mixing certain chemicals together and rubbing them. although walker's match did not require the bottle of acid, nevertheless it was not a good one. it could be lighted only by hard rubbing, and it sputtered and threw fire in all directions. in a few years, however, phosphorus was substituted on the tip for antimony, and the change worked wonders. the match could now be lighted with very little rubbing, and it was no longer necessary to have sandpaper upon which to rub it. it would ignite when rubbed on any dry surface, and there was no longer any sputtering. this was the _phosphorus_ match, the match with which we are so familiar. after the invention of the easily-lighted phosphorus match there was no longer use for the dip-splint or the strike-a-light. the old methods of getting a blaze were gradually laid aside and forgotten. the first phosphorus matches were sold at twenty-five cents a block--a block (fig. ) containing a hundred and forty-four matches. they were used by few. now a hundred matches can be bought for a cent. it is said that in the united states we use about , , , matches a year. this, on an average, is about five matches a day for each person. [illustration: fig. .--a "block" of matches.] there is one thing against the phosphorus match: it ignites too easily. if one is left on the floor, it may be ignited by stepping upon it, or by something falling upon it. we may step on a phosphorus match unawares, light it, leave it burning, and thus set the house on fire. mice often have caused fires by gnawing the phosphorus matches and igniting them. in one city thirty destructive fires were caused in one year by mice lighting matches. [illustration: fig. .--a box of modern safety matches.] to avoid accident by matches, the _safety match_ (fig. ) has recently been invented. the safety match does not contain phosphorus. the phosphorus is mixed with fine sand and glued to the side of the box in which the matches are sold. the safety match, therefore, cannot be lighted unless it is rubbed on the phosphorus on the outside of the box. it is so much better than the old kind of phosphorus match that it is driving the latter out of the market. indeed, in some places it is forbidden by law to sell any kind of match but the safety match. the invention of the safety match is the last step in the long history of fire-making. the first match was lighted by rubbing, and the match of our own time is lighted by rubbing; yet what a difference there is between the two! with the plowing-stick or fire-drill it took strength and time and skill to get a blaze; with the safety match an awkward little child can kindle a fire in a second. and how long it has taken to make the match as good as it is! the steam-engine, the telegraph, the telephone, and the electric light were all in use before the simple little safety match. footnotes: [ ] mr. walter hough of the national museum, himself a wizard in the art of fire-making, tells me that a blaze cannot be produced simply by rubbing sticks together. all that can be done by rubbing is to make them glow. [ ] a narrow strip of leather. [ ] the ancient greeks used a burning-glass or -lens for kindling fire. the lens focused the sun's rays upon a substance that would burn easily and set it afire. the burning-glass was not connected in any way with the development of the match. the stove from the story of the match you have learned how man through long ages of experience gradually mastered the art of making a fire easily and quickly. in this chapter, and in several which are to follow, we shall have the history of those inventions which have enabled man to make the best use of fire. since the first and greatest use of fire is to cook food and keep the body warm, our account of the inventions connected with the use of fire may best begin with the story of the stove. the most important uses of fire were taught by fire itself. as the primitive man stood near the flames of the burning tree and felt their pleasant glow, he learned that fire may add to bodily comfort; and when the flames swept through a forest and overtook a deer and baked it, he learned that fire might be used to improve the quality of his food. the hint was not lost. he took a burning torch to his cave or hut and kindled a fire on his floor of earth. his dwelling filled with smoke, but he could endure the discomfort for the sake of the fire's warmth, and for the sake of the toothsomeness of the cooked meats. after a time a hole was made in the roof of the hut, and through this hole the smoke passed out. here was the first stove. the primitive stove was the entire house; the floor was the fireplace and the hole in the roof was the chimney (fig. ). the word "stove" originally meant "a heated room." so that if we should say that at first people lived in their stoves, we should say that which is literally true. [illustration: fig. .--the primitive stove.] early inventions in cooking consisted in simple devices for applying flame directly to the thing which was to be cooked. the first roasting was doubtless done by fastening the flesh to a pole placed in a horizontal position above the fire and supported as is shown in figure .[ ] the horizontal bar called a spit was originally of wood, but after man had learned to work in metals an iron bar was used. when one side of the flesh was roasted the spit was turned and the other side was exposed to the flames. the spit of the primitive age was the parent of the modern grill and broiler. [illustration: fig. .--primitive cooking.] food was first boiled in a hole in the ground. a hole was filled with water into which heated stones were thrown. the stones, by giving off their heat, caused the water to boil in a very short time. after the art of making vessels of clay was learned, food was boiled in earthen pots suspended above the fire. the methods of warming the house and cooking the food which have just been described were certainly crude and inconvenient, but it was thousands of years before better methods were invented. the long periods of savagery and barbarism passed and the period of civilization was ushered in, but civilization did not at once bring better stoves. neither the ancient egyptians nor the ancient greeks knew how to heat a house comfortably and conveniently. all of them used the primitive stove--a fire on the floor and a hole in the roof. in the house of an ancient greek there was usually one room which could be heated when there was need, and this was called the "black-room" (_atrium_)--black from the soot and smoke which escaped from the fire on the floor. but we must not speak harshly of the ancients because they were slow in improving their methods of heating for in truth the modern world has not done as well in this direction as might have been expected. in a book of travels written only sixty years ago may be found the following passage: "in normandy, where the cold is severe and fire expensive, the lace-makers, to keep themselves warm and to save fuel, agree with some farmer who has cows in winter quarters to be allowed to carry on their work in the society of the cattle. the cows would be tethered in a long row on one side of the apartment, and the lace-makers sit on the ground on the other side with their feet buried in the straw." thus the lace-makers kept themselves warm by the heat which came from the bodies of the cattle; the cows, in other words, served as stoves. this barbarous method of heating, was practised in some parts of france less than sixty years ago. [illustration: fig. .--a roman brazier.] the ancient peoples around the mediterranean may be excused for not making great progress in the art of heating, for their climate was so mild that they seldom had use for fire in the house. nevertheless there was in use among these people an invention which has in the course of centuries developed into the stove of to-day. this was the _brazier_, or warming-pan (fig. ). the brazier was filled with burning charcoal and was carried from room to room as it was needed. the unpleasant gases which escaped from the charcoal were made less offensive, but not less unhealthy, by burning perfumes with the fuel. the brazier has never been entirely laid aside. it is still used in spain and in other warm countries where the necessity for fire is rarely felt. the brazier satisfied the wants of greece, but the colder climate of rome required something better; and in their efforts to invent something better, the ancient romans made real progress in the art of warming their houses. they built a fire-room--called a _hypocaust_--in the cellar, and, by means of pipes made of baked clay, they connected the hypocaust with different parts of the house (fig. ). heat and smoke passed up together through these pipes. the poor ancients, it seems, were forever persecuted by smoke. however, after the wood in the hypocaust was once well charred, the smoke was not so troublesome. the celebrated baths (club-rooms) of ancient rome were heated by means of hypocausts with excellent results. indeed, the hypocaust had many of the features and many of the merits of our modern furnace. its weak feature was that it had no separate pipe to carry away the smoke. but as there were no chimneys yet in the world, it is no wonder there was no such pipe. [illustration: fig. .--a roman hypocaust.] the romans made quite as much progress in the art of cooking as they did in the art of heating. perhaps the world has never seen more skilful cooks than those who served in the mansions of the rich during the period of the roman empire ( b.c.- a.d.). in this period the great men at rome abandoned their plain way of living and became gourmands. one of them wished for the neck of a crane, that he might enjoy for a longer time his food as it descended. this demand for tempting viands developed a race of cooks who were artists in their way. upon one occasion a king called for a certain kind of fish. the fish could not be had, but the cook was equal to the emergency. "he cut a large turnip to the perfect imitation of the fish desired, and this he fried and seasoned so skilfully that his majesty's taste was exquisitely deceived, and he praised the root to his guests as an excellent fish." such excellent cooking could not be done on a primitive stove, and along with the improvements in the art of cooking, there was a corresponding improvement at rome in the art of stove-making. when rome fell ( a.d.), many of the best features of her civilization perished with her. among the things that were lost to the world were the roman methods of cooking and heating. when the barbarians came in at the front door, the cooks fled from the kitchen. the hardy northerners had no taste for dainty cooking. hypocausts ceased to be used, and were no longer built. for several hundred years, in all the countries of europe, the fireplace was located, as of old, on the floor in the center of the room, while the smoke was allowed to pass out through a hole in the roof. [illustration: fig. .--a chimney and fireplace in an old english castle.] the eleventh century brought a great improvement in the art of heating, and the improvement came from england. about the time of the conquest ( ) a great deal of fighting was done on the roofs of english fortresses, and the smoke coming up through the hole in the center of the roof proved to be troublesome to the soldiers. so the fire was moved from the center of the floor to a spot near an outside wall, and an opening was made in the wall just above the fire, so that the smoke could pass out. here was the origin of the _chimney_. projecting from the wall above the fire was a hood, which served to direct the smoke to the opening. at first the opening for the smoke extended but a few feet from the fire, but it was soon found that the further up the wall the opening extended the better was the draft. so the chimney was made to run diagonally up the wall as far as possible. the next and last step in the development of the chimney was to make a recess in the wall as a fireplace, and to build a separate structure of masonry--the chimney--for the smoke. by the middle of the fourteenth century chimneys were usually built in this way (fig. ). as the fireplace and chimney cleared the house of soot and smoke, they grew in favor rapidly. by the end of the fifteenth century they were found in the homes of nearly all civilized people. the open fireplace was always cheerful, and it was comfortable when you were close to it; but it did not heat all parts of the room equally. that part next to the fireplace might be too warm for comfort, while in another part of the room it might be freezing. about the end of the fifteenth century efforts were made to distribute heat throughout the room more evenly. these efforts led to the invention of the modern stove. we have learned that the origin of the stove is to be sought in the ancient brazier. in the middle ages the brazier in france took on a new form. here was a fire-box (fig. ) with openings at the bottom for drafts of air and arrangements at the top for cooking things. this french warming-pan (_réchaud_) was the connecting-link between the ancient brazier and the modern stove. all it lacked of being a stove was a pipe to carry off the smoke, and this was added by a frenchman named savot, about two hundred years ago. we owe the invention of the chimney to england, but for the stove we are indebted to france. the frenchman built an iron fire-box, with openings for drafts, and connected the box with the chimney by means of an iron flue or pipe. here was a _stove_ which could be placed in the middle of the room, or in any part of the room where it was desirable, and which would send out its heat evenly in all directions. [illustration: fig. .--a stove of the middle ages.] the first stoves were, of course, clumsy and unsatisfactory; but inventors kept working at them, making them better both for cooking and for heating. by the middle of the nineteenth century the stove was practically what it is to-day (fig. ). stoves proved to be so much better than fireplaces, that the latter were gradually replaced in large part by the former. our affection, however, for a blazing fire is strong, and it is not likely that the old-fashioned fireplace (fig. ) will ever entirely disappear. [illustration: fig. .--the modern stove.] [illustration: fig. .--an old-fashioned fireplace and oven.] the french stove just described is intended to heat only one room. if a house with a dozen rooms is to be heated, a dozen stoves are necessary. about one hundred years ago there began to appear an invention by which a house of many rooms could be heated by means of one stove. this invention was the _furnace_. place in the cellar a large stove, and run pipes from the stove to the different rooms of the house, and you have a furnace (fig. ). doubtless we got our idea of the furnace from the roman hypocaust, although the roman invention had no special pipe for the smoke. the first furnaces sent out only hot air, but in recent years steam or hot water is sent out through the pipes to _radiators_, which are simply secondary stoves set up in convenient places and at a distance from the source of the heat, the furnace in the cellar. furnaces were invented for the purpose of heating large buildings, but they are now used in ordinary dwellings. [illustration: fig. .--a modern furnace.] in its last and most highly developed form, the stove appears not only without dust and smoke, but also without even a fire in the cellar. the modern _electric_ stove, of course, is meant. pass a slight current of electricity through a piece of platinum wire, and the platinum becomes hot. you have made a diminutive electric stove. increase the strength of your current and pass it through something which offers greater resistance than the platinum, and you get more heat. the electric stove is a new invention, and at present it is too expensive for general use, although the number of houses in which it is used is rapidly increasing, and in time it may drive out all other kinds of stoves. it will certainly drive all of them out if the cost of electricity shall be sufficiently reduced; for it is the cleanest, the healthiest, the most convenient, and the most easily controlled of stoves. footnote: [ ] several of the illustrations in this chapter are reproduced through the courtesy of the boston stove co. the lamp next to its usefulness for heating and cooking, the greatest use of fire is to furnish light to drive away darkness. man is not content, like birds and brutes, to go to sleep at the setting of the sun. he takes a part of the night-time and uses it for work or for travel or for social pleasures, or for the improvement of his mind, and in this way adds several years to life. he could not do this if he were compelled to grope in darkness. when the great source of daylight disappears he must make light for himself, for the sources of night-light--the moon and stars and aurora borealis and lightning--are not sufficient to satisfy his wants. in this chapter we shall follow man in his efforts to conquer darkness, and we shall have the story of the lamp. we may begin the story with an odd but interesting kind of lamp. the firefly or lightning-bug which we see so often in the summer nights was in the earliest time brought into service and made to shed its light for man. fireflies were imprisoned in a rude box--in the shell of a cocoanut, perhaps, or in a gourd--and the light of their bodies was allowed to shoot out through the numerous holes made in the box. we must not despise the light given out by these tiny creatures. "in the mountains of tijuca," says a traveler, "i have read the finest print by the light of one of these natural lamps (fireflies) placed under a common glass tumbler (fig. ), and with distinctness i could tell the hour of the night and discern the very small figures which marked the seconds of a little swiss watch." [illustration: fig. .--a firefly lamp.] [illustration: fig. .--a burning stick was the first lamp.] although fireflies have been used here and there by primitive folk, they could hardly have been the first lamp. man's battle with darkness really began with the _torch_, which was lighted at the fire in the cave or in the wigwam and kept burning for purposes of illumination. a burning stick was the first lamp (fig. ). the first improvement in the torch was made when slivers or splinters of resinous or oily wood were tied together and burned. we may regard this as a lamp which is all wick. this invention resulted in a fuller and clearer light, and one that would burn longer than the single stick. a further improvement came when a long piece of wax or fatty substance was wrapped about with leaves. this was something like a candle, only the wick (the leaves) was outside, and the oily substance which fed the wick was in the center. in the course of time it was discovered that it was better to smear the grease on the _outside_ of the stick, or on the outside of whatever was to be burned; that is, that it was better to have the wick _inside_. torches were then made of rope coated with resin or fat, or of sticks or splinters smeared with grease; here the stick resembled the wick of the candle as we know it to-day, and the coating of fat corresponded to the tallow or paraffin. rude candles made of oiled rope or of sticks smeared with fat were invented in primitive times, and they continued to be used for thousands of years after men were civilized. in the dark ages--and they were dark in more senses than one--torch-makers began to wrap the central stick first with flax or hemp and then place around this a thick layer of fat. this torch gave a very good light, but about the time of alfred the great ( a.d.) another step was taken: the central stick was left out altogether, and the thick layer of fat or wax was placed directly around the wick of twisted cotton. all that was left of the original torch--the stick of wood--was gone. the torch had developed into the _candle_ (fig. ). the candles of to-day are made of better material than those of the olden time, and they are much cheaper; yet in principle they do not differ from the candles of a thousand years ago. [illustration: fig. .--the candle.] [illustration: fig. .--a shell filled with oil and used as a lamp.] i have given the development of the candle first because its forerunner, the torch, was first used for lighting. but it must not be forgotten that along with the torch there was used, almost from the beginning, another kind of lamp. almost as soon as men discovered that the melted fat of animals would burn easily--and that was certainly very long ago--they invented in a rude form the _lamp_ from which the lamp of to-day has been evolved. the cavity of a shell (fig. ) or of a stone, or of the skull of an animal, was filled with melted fat or oil, and a wick of flax or other fibrous material was laid upon the edge of the vessel. the oil or grease passed up the wick by capillary action,[ ] and when the end of the wick was lighted it continued to burn as long as there were both oil and wick. this was the earliest lamp. as man became more civilized, instead of a hollow stone or a skull, an earthen saucer or bowl was used. around the edge of the bowl a gutter or spout was made for holding the wick. in the lamp of the ancient greeks and romans the reservoir which held the oil was closed, although in the center there was a hole through which the oil might be poured. sometimes one of these lamps would have several spouts or nozzles. the more wicks a lamp had, of course, the more light it would give. there is in the museum at cortona, in italy, an ancient lamp which has sixteen nozzles. this interesting relic (fig. ) was used in a pagan temple in etruria more than twenty-five hundred years ago. [illustration: fig. .--an etruscan lamp years old.] [illustration: fig. .--an ancient lamp.] lamps such as have just been described were used among the civilized peoples of the ancient world, and continued to be used through the middle ages far into modern times. they were sometimes very costly and beautiful (fig. ), but they never gave a good light. they sent out an unpleasant odor, and they were so smoky that they covered the walls and furniture with soot. the candle was in every way better than the ancient lamp, and after the invention of wax tapers--candles made of wax--in the thirteenth century, lamps were no longer used by those who could afford to buy tapers. for ordinary purposes and ordinary people, however, the lamp continued to do service, but it was not improved. the eighteenth century had nearly passed, and the lamp was still the unsatisfactory, disagreeable thing it had always been. [illustration: fig. .--an argand lamp.] late in the eighteenth century the improvement came. in a man named argand, a swiss physician residing in london, invented a lamp that was far better than any that had ever been made before. what did argand do for the lamp? examine an ordinary lamp in which coal-oil is burned. the _chimney_ protects the flame from sudden gusts of wind and also creates a draft of air,[ ] just as the fire-chimney creates a draft. argand's lamp (fig. ) was the first to have a chimney. look below the chimney and you will see open passages through which air may pass upward and find its way to the wick. notice further that as this draft of air passes upward it is so directed that, when the lamp is burning, an extra quantity of air plays directly upon the wick. before argand, the wick received no supply of air. now notice--and this is very important--that the wick of our modern lamp is flat or circular, but _thin_. the air in abundance plays upon both sides of the thin wick, and burns it without making smoke. smoke is simply half-burned particles (soot) of a burning substance. the particles pass off half-burned because enough air has not been supplied. now argand, by making the wick thin and by causing plenty of air to rush into the flame, caused all the wick to be burned and thereby caused it to burn with a white flame. after the invention of argand, the art of lamp-making improved by leaps and by bounds. more progress was made in twenty years after than had been made in twenty centuries before. new burners were invented, new and better oils were used, and better wicks made. but all the new kinds of lamps were patterned after the argand. the lamp you use at home may not be a real argand, but it is doubtless made according to the principles of the lamp invented by the swiss physician in . soon after argand invented his lamp, william murdock, a scottish inventor, showed the world a new way of lighting a house. it had long been known that fat or coal, when heated, gives off a vapor or gas which burns with a bright light. indeed, it is _always_ a gas that burns, and not a hard substance. in the candle or in the lamp the flame heats the oil which comes up to it through the wick and thus causes the oil to give off a gas. it is this gas that burns and gives the light. now murdock, in , put this principle to a good use. he heated coal in a large vessel, and allowed the gas which was driven off to pass through mains and tubes to different parts of his house. wherever he wanted a light he let the gas escape at the end of the tube (fig. ) in a small jet and lighted it. here was a lamp without a wick. murdock soon extended his gas-pipes to his factories, and lighted them with gas. as soon as it was learned how to make gas cheaply, and conduct it safely from house to house, whole cities were rescued from darkness by the new illuminant. a considerable part of london was lighted by gas in . baltimore was the first city in the united states to be lighted by gas. this was in . [illustration: fig. .--the gas jet.] [illustration: fig. .--an early arc lamp.] the gas-light proved to be so much better than even the best of lamps, that in towns and cities almost everybody who could afford to do so laid aside the old wick-lamp and burned gas. about , however, a new kind of light began to appear. this was the _electric_ light. the powerful _arc light_ (fig. ), made by the passage of a current of electricity between two carbon points, was the first to be invented. this gave as much light as a hundred gas-jets or several hundred lamps. such a light was excellent for lighting streets, but its painful glare and its sputtering rendered it unfit for use within doors. it was not long, however, before an electric light was invented which could be used anywhere. this was the famous edison's _incandescent_ or glow lamp (fig. ), which we see on every hand. edison's invention is only a few years old, yet there are already more than thirty million incandescent lamps in use in the united states alone. [illustration: fig. .--an incandescent electric light.] the torch, the candle, the lamp, the gas-light, the electric light,--these are the steps of the development of the lamp. and how marvelous a growth it is! how great the triumph over darkness! in the beginning a piece of wood burns with a dull flame, and fills the dingy wigwam or cave with soot and smoke; now, at the pressure of a button, the house is filled with a light that rivals the light of day, with not a particle of smoke or soot or harmful gas. are there to be further triumphs in the art of lighting? are we to have a light that shall drive out the electric light? only time can tell. footnotes: [ ] hold the end of a dry towel in a basin of water and watch the water rise in the towel. it rises by capillary action. [ ] light a short piece of candle and place it in a tumbler, and cover the top of the tumbler. the experiment teaches that a flame must have a constant supply of fresh air and will go out if the air is shut off. the forge after men had learned how to use fire for cooking and heating and lighting they slowly learned how to use it when working with metals. in the earliest times metals were not used. for long ages stone was the only material that man could fashion and shape to his use. during this period, sometimes called the "stone age," weapons were made of stone; dishes and cooking utensils were made of stone; and even the poor, rude tools of the age were made of stone (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--implements of the stone age.] [illustration: fig. .--implements of the bronze age.] in the course of time man learned how to make his implements and weapons of metals as well as of stone. it is generally thought that bronze was the first metal to be used and that the "stone age" was followed directly by the "bronze age," a period when all utensils, weapons, and tools were made of bronze (fig. ). it is easy to believe that bronze was used before iron, for bronze is made of a mixture of tin and copper and these two metals are often found in their pure or natural state. whenever primitive man, therefore, found pieces of pure copper and tin, he could take the two metals and by melting them could easily mix them and make bronze of them. this bronze he could fashion to his use. there is no doubt that he did this at a very early age. in nearly all parts of the world there are proofs that in primitive times, many articles were made of bronze. if primitive man were slow to learn the use of iron it was not because this metal was scarce, for iron is everywhere. "wherever, as we go up and down, we see a red-colored surface, or a reddish tint upon the solid substances of the earth, we see iron--the bank of red clay, the red brick, the red paint upon the house wall, the complexion of rosy youth, or my lady's ribbon. even the rosy apple derives its tint from iron which it contains."[ ] but although iron is so abundant it is seldom found in its pure or natural state. it is nearly always mixed with other substances, the mixture being known as iron ore. primitive man could find copper and tin in their pure state but the only pure iron he could find was the little which fell from heaven in the form of meteors, and even this was not perfectly pure for meteoric iron is also mixed slightly with other metals. the iron which lay about primitive man in such abundance was buried and locked tightly in an _ore_. to separate the iron from the other substances of the ore was by no means an easy thing to do. iron can best be extracted from the ore by putting the ore in a fire and melting out the iron. place some iron ore in a fire and if the fire is hot enough--and it must be very hot indeed--the iron will leave the ore and will gather into a lump at the bottom of the fire. to separate the iron from its ore in this way is to make iron. when and where man first learned the secret of making iron is of course unknown. a camp-fire in some part of the world may have shown to man the first lump of iron, or a forest fire sweeping along and melting ores in its path may have given the first hint for the manufacture of iron. [illustration: fig. .--the primitive forge.] iron making at first doubtless consisted in simply melting the ore in an open heap of burning wood or charcoal, for charcoal is an excellent fuel for smelting (melting) ores. but this open-fire method was wasteful and tedious and at a very early date the smelting of the ore was done in a rude sort of a furnace. a hole ten or twelve feet deep was dug in the side of a hill. in the hole were placed charcoal and iron ore, first a layer of charcoal, then a layer of the ore. at the top of the mass there was an opening and at the bottom there were several openings. when the mass was set on fire the openings produced a good strong draft, the charcoal was consumed, and the ore was smelted. the product was a lump of _wrought iron_, known as the _bloom_. [illustration: fig. .--bellows worked by the feet.] the hillside furnace worked well enough when the wind was favorable, but when the wind was unfavorable there was no draft and no iron could be made. so ironmakers found a way by which the air could be driven into the furnace by artificial means. they invented the _bellows_, a blowing apparatus (fig. ) which was usually made of goat skins sewed together and which was operated either by the hands or by the feet (fig. ). sometimes the bellows consisted of a hollow log in which a piston was worked up and down (fig. ). after the invention of the bellows, ironmakers could make their iron whenever and wherever they pleased, for they could force air into their furnaces at any time and at any place. this rude bellows forcing a draft of air into a half-closed furnace filled with a burning mass of charcoal and iron ore was the first form of the forge, one of the greatest of all inventions. [illustration: fig. .--the wooden bellows.] with the invention of the forge the stone age gradually passed away and the iron age was ushered in. tools and weapons could now be made of iron. and great was the difference between iron tools and stone tools. to cut down a tree with a flint hatchet required the labor of a man for a month, while to clear a forest with such an implement was an impossible task. but the forge gave to man iron for the sharp cutting tools, for the ax and knife and chisel and saw. with these he became the master of wood and he could now easily cut down trees and build houses and make furniture and wagons and boats. as time went on and man advanced in civilization, iron was found to be the most useful of metals. iron can be shaped into many forms. it can be drawn into wire of any desired length or fineness, it may be bent in any direction, it may be sharpened, or hardened, or softened, at pleasure. "iron accommodates itself to all our wants and desires and even to our caprices. it is equally serviceable to the arts, the sciences, to agriculture and war; the same ore furnishes the sword, the plowshare, the scythe, the pruning-hook, the needle, the spring of a watch or of a carriage, the chisel, the chain, the anchor, the compass and the bomb. it is a medicine of much virtue and the only metal friendly to the human frame."[ ] a metal that was so useful was needed in large quantities, yet the primitive forge could turn out only small quantities of iron. a day's labor at the bellows would produce a lump weighing only fifteen or twenty pounds. as a result of this slowness in manufacture there was always in primitive and ancient times a scarcity of iron. indeed in some countries iron was a precious metal, almost as precious as silver or gold. in many countries, it is true, there were thousands of forges at work, but in no country was the supply of iron equal to the demand. the old forge could not supply the demand, yet centuries passed before any great improvement was made in the progress of iron making. [illustration: fig. .--a blast furnace of the middle ages.] near the close of the middle ages improvements upon the primitive forge began to be made. in the sixteenth century ironmakers in germany began to smelt ore in closed furnaces and to build their furnaces higher and to make them larger (fig. ). sometimes they built their furnaces to a height of twenty or thirty feet. about this time also a better and a stronger blast was invented. water-power instead of hand-power began to be used for operating the bellows. in some cases wooden bellows--great wooden pistons working in tubs--were substituted for the old bellows of leather. by the end of the sixteenth century so many improvements had been made upon the primitive forge that it no longer resembled the forge of ancient times. so the new forge received a new name and was called a _blast furnace_.[ ] you should observe, however, that the blast furnace was simply the old forge built with a large closed furnace and provided with a more powerful blast. the invention of the blast furnace marked the beginning of a new era in the history of iron making. in the first place there was produced in the blast furnace a kind of iron that was entirely different from that which was produced in the primitive forge. in the primitive forge there was made a lump of practically pure unmelted iron, known as wrought iron. in the blast furnace there was produced a somewhat impure grade of melted iron, known as _cast_ iron, or _pig_[ ] iron. in the second place, the blast furnace produced iron in quantities vastly greater than it was ever produced by the old forge. in the blast furnace more iron could be made in a day than could be made by the forge in a month. in some of the early blast furnaces a thousand pounds of iron could be made at one melting and we read of one early furnace that produced tons of iron in a year. [illustration: fig. .--making charcoal.] but even with the blast furnace it was still difficult to make enough iron to supply the ever-increasing demands of the industrial world. in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries machinery was brought into use more than ever before and of course more iron was needed for the construction of the machines. there was ore enough for all the iron that was needed but it was difficult to get fuel enough to smelt the ore. charcoal was still used as the fuel for smelting (fig. ), and in order to get wood for the charcoal great inroads were made upon the forests. in england in the early part of the eighteenth century parliament had to put a check upon the manufacture of iron in certain counties in order to save the forests of those counties from utter destruction. it then became plain that if iron making were to be continued on a large scale a new kind of fuel would have to be used in the furnaces. so men set their wits to work to find a new kind of fuel. as far back as dud dudley in the county of warwick, england, undertook to use ordinary soft coal in his furnaces but his experiment was not very successful or very profitable. more than a century after this an english ironmaker named abraham darby began (in ) to use _charred coal_ in his blast furnaces, and his experiments were successful. here was the new fuel which was so badly needed. charred coal is simply _coke_ and coke could be had in abundance. so the new fuel was soon used in all parts of england and by the end of the eighteenth century coke was driving charcoal out of blast furnaces (fig. ). about the time the use of coke for smelting became general, an englishman named neilson brought about another great change in the process of iron making. before neilson's time the blast driven into the furnace had always been one of cold air. neilson learned that if the air before entering the furnace were heated to a temperature of degrees it would melt twice the amount of ore and thus produce twice the amount of iron without any increase in the amount of fuel. so he invented (in ) a _hot blast_ for the blast furnace (fig. ). with the use of coke and with the hot blast the production of iron increased enormously. but there was need for all the iron that could be made. indeed it seems that the world can never get too much iron. about the time the hot blast was invented iron chains instead of ropes began to be used for holding anchors, iron plows began to be made in great numbers (p. ), iron pipes instead of hollow wooden logs began to be used as water-mains in cities, and iron rails began to be used on railroads. to supply iron for all these purposes kept ironmakers busy enough, even though they burned coke in their furnaces and made use of the hot air blast. [illustration: fig. .--a pittsburgh coke oven.] [illustration: fig. .--a modern blast furnace.] but ironmakers were soon to become busier than ever before. about the middle of the nineteenth century sir henry bessemer invented a new process of making steel. steel is only iron mixed with a small amount of carbon. ironmakers have known how to make steel--and good steel, too--for thousands of years, but before the days of bessemer the process had always been slow and tedious, and the cost of steel had always been very great. bessemer undertook to make steel in large quantities and at low prices. in his experiments amid showers of molten metal he often risked his life, but his perseverance and courage were rewarded. by he had invented a process by which tons of molten iron could be run into a furnace and in a few minutes be converted into a fine quality of steel. this invention of bessemer was the last great step in the history of the forge. [illustration: from copyright stereograph by underwood & underwood, n. y. fig. .--great steel rail passing through roller steel mill.] now that steel could be made in great quantities and at a low cost it was put to uses never dreamed of in former times. soon the railroad rail was made of steel (fig. ), bridges were made of steel, ships of war were plated with steel. then ocean grayhounds and battleships were made of steel, still later steel freight cars and steel passenger coaches were introduced, while in our own time we see vast quantities of steel used in the building of houses. so while the invention of bessemer marked the last step in the history of the forge it also marked the ending of the age of iron and the beginning of the wonderful age in which we live--the age of steel. footnotes: [ ] j. r. smith, "the story of iron and steel," p. . [ ] from "five black arts," p. . [ ] the old forge continued to be used by the side of the blast furnace for centuries, and of course where it was used it was still called a forge. thus we are told that in maryland in , there were eight furnaces and ten forges. it is said that as late as twenty-five years ago in certain parts of the appalachian regions the american mountaineer still worked the little primitive forge to make his iron. [ ] it was given the name of _pig_ iron because when the molten metal ran into the impressions made for it upon the sanded floor and cooled, it assumed a shape resembling a family of little pigs. the steam-engine we have now traced the steps by which man mastered the art of kindling a fire quickly and easily and have followed the progress that has been made in the most common uses of fire. but the story of a most important use of fire remains to be told, the story of its use in doing man's _work_. how important this use is, how much of the world's work is done through the agency of fire, a little reflection will make plain. fire makes steam and what does steam do? its services are so many you could hardly name all of them. the great and many services of steam are made possible by the fire-engine, or _steam-engine_, and the story of this wonderful invention will now be told. that steam has the power to move things must have been learned almost as soon as fire was used to boil water. heat water until it boils and the steam that is formed is bound to move something unless it is allowed to escape freely. it will burst the vessel if an outlet is not provided. that is why a spout has been placed on the tea-kettle. where there is cooking, steam is abundant and the first experiments in steam were doubtless made in the kitchen (fig. ). it has been said that the idea of the steam-engine first occurred to adam as he watched his wife's kettle boil. [illustration: fig. .--first experiments with steam.] whatever may have happened in ancient kitchens, we are certain that there were no steam-engines until many centuries after adam. the beginnings of this invention are not shrouded in so much mystery as are those of the match and the lamp and the forge. in giving an account of the steam-engine we can mention names and give dates from the very beginning of the story. we know what the first steam-engine was like and we know who made it and when and where it was made. it was made b. c. by hero, a philosopher of alexandria in egypt. it was like the one shown in figure . the boy applies the fire to the steam-tight vessel _p_ and when steam is formed it passes up through the tube _o_ and enters the globe which turns easily on the pivots. the steam, when it has filled the globe, rushes out of the short tubes _w_ and _z_ projecting from opposite sides of the globe and bent at the end in opposite directions. as it rushes out of the tubes the steam strikes against the air and the reaction causes the globe to revolve, just as in yards we sometimes see jets of water causing bent tubes to revolve. this was hero's engine, the first steam-engine ever made. [illustration: fig. .--hero's engine, b. c.] hero's engine was used only as a toy and it seems to represent all the ancients knew about the power of steam and all they did with it. it is not strange that they did not know more for there is no general rule by which discoveries are made. sometimes even enlightened peoples have for centuries remained blind to the simplest principles of nature. the greeks and romans with all their culture and wisdom were ignorant of some of the plainest facts of science. it is a little strange, however, that after hero's discovery was made known, men did not profit by it. it would seem that eager and persistent attempts would have been made at once to have steam do useful work, as well as furnish amusement. but such was not the case. hero's countrymen paid but little attention to his invention and the steam-engine passed almost completely out of men's minds and did not again attract attention for nearly seventeen hundred years. about the end of the fifteenth century europe began to awaken from a long slumber and by the end of the sixteenth century its eyes were wide open. everywhere men were now trying to learn all they could. the study of steam was taken up in earnest about the middle of the sixteenth century and by the middle of the next century quite a little had been learned of its nature and power. in an italian, branca by name, described in a book a steam-engine which would furnish power for pounding drugs in a mortar. there was no more need for such a machine then than there is now and of course the inventor aroused no interest in his engine. you can easily understand how branca's engine (fig. ) works. the steam causes the wheels and the cylinder to revolve. as the cylinder revolves, a cleat on it catches a cleat on the pestle and lifts the pestle a short distance and then lets it fall. here the pestle instead of being raised by a human hand is raised by the force of steam. this engine would be more interesting if an engine had actually been made, but there is no reason to believe that branca ever made the engine he described. we owe much to him, nevertheless, for suggesting how steam might be put to doing useful work. [illustration: fig. .--branca's engine, .] it was not very long before an englishman put into practice what the italian had only suggested. edward somerset, the second marquis of worcester, in built a steam-engine that raised to the height of forty feet four large buckets of water in four minutes of time. this was the first useful work ever done by steam. figure shows the construction of worcester's engine. [illustration: fig. .--worcester's engine, .] in this engine there was one improvement over former engines which was of the greatest importance: there was one vessel in which the steam was generated and another in which the steam did its work. the steam-engine now consisted of two great divisions, the boiler and the engine proper. worcester spent a large part of his fortune in trying to improve the steam-engine, yet he received neither profit nor honor as a reward. he died poor and his name was soon forgotten. his service to the world was nevertheless very great. in his time the mines of england had been sunk very deep into the earth; and the deeper they were sunk the greater was the difficulty of lifting the water out of them and keeping them dry. the water was lifted up from the mines by means of buckets drawn by horses or oxen (fig. ). sometimes it took several hundred horses to keep the water out of a single mine. it was worcester's object to construct an engine that would do the work of the horses. the engine he built could not do this, yet it furnished the idea--and the idea is often the most important thing. it was not long before engines built upon worcester's plan were doing useful work at the mines. at the opening of the eighteenth century the steam-engine had been put to work and was serving man in england and throughout the continent of europe. [illustration: fig. .--an ancient method of drawing water.] [illustration: fig. .--papin's engine, .] the first engines were not safe. often the steam pressed too heavily upon the sides of the vessel in which it was compressed and there were explosions. about denis papin, a frenchman, invented the _safety valve_, that is a valve that opens of its own accord and lets out steam when there is more in the vessel than ought to be there. about ten years later papin gave the world another most valuable idea. in worcester's engine the steam in the steam chest pressed directly on the water that was to be forced up. papin showed a better way. he invented the engine shown in figure . in this engine a small quantity of water was placed in the bottom of the cylinder _a_. fitting closely in the cylinder was a _piston_ _b_ such as papin had seen used in ordinary pumps. we will suppose that the piston is near the bottom of the cylinder and that a fire is built underneath. the bottom being made of very thin metal the water is rapidly converted into steam and thus drives the piston up to the top as shown in the figure. here a latch _e_ catches the piston-rod _h_ and holds the piston up until it is time for it to descend. now the fire is removed and the steam, becoming cold, is condensed and a vacuum is formed below the piston. the latch _e_ now releases the rod _h_ and the piston is driven down by the air above it, pulling with it the rope _l_ which passes over the pulleys _tt_. as the rope descends it lifts a weight _w_ or does other useful work. as the inventor of the piston papin ranks among the greatest of those whose names are connected with the development of the steam-engine. our story has now brought us to the early part of the eighteenth century. everywhere men were now trying to make the most of the ideas of worcester and papin. the mines were growing very deep. as the water in them was getting beyond control something extraordinary had to be done. now it seems that whenever the world is in need of an extraordinary service someone is found to render that service. the man who built the engine that was needed was a humble blacksmith of dartmouth, england, thomas newcomen. this master mechanic in constructed the best steam-engine the world had yet seen. we must study newcomen's engine (fig. ) very carefully. the large beam _ii_ moved freely up and down on the pivot _v_. one end of the beam was connected with the heavy pump-rod _k_ by means of a rope or chain working in a groove and the other end was connected with the rod _r_ in the same way. when steam from the boiler _b_ passed through the valve _d_ into the cylinder (steam-chest) _a_ it raised the piston _s_ and with it the piston-rod _r_ thus slackening the rope and allowing the opposite end of the beam to be pulled down by the weight of the pump-rod _k_. as soon as the piston _s_ reached the top of the cylinder the steam was shut off by means of the valve _d_ and the valve _f_ was turned and a jet of cold water from the tank _g_ was injected into the cylinder _a_ with the steam. the jet of cold water condensed the steam rapidly--steam is always condensed rapidly when anything cold comes in contact with it--and the water formed by the condensation escaped through the pipe _p_ into the tank _o_. as soon as the steam in _a_ is condensed, a vacuum was formed in the cylinder and the atmosphere above forced the piston down and at the same time pulled the pump-rod _k_ up and lifted water from the well or mine. when the piston reached the bottom of the cylinder the valve _d_ was opened and the piston again ascended. thus the beam is made to go up and down and the pumping goes on. notice that steam pushes the piston one way and the atmosphere pushes it back. [illustration: fig. .--newcomen's engine, .] in newcomen's engine the valves (_f_ and _d_) at first were opened and shut (at each stroke of the piston) by an attendant, usually a boy. in a boy named humphrey potter, in order to get some time for play, by means of strings and latches, caused the beam in its motion to open and shut the valves without human aid. we must not despise humphrey because his purpose was to gain time for play. the purpose of almost all inventions is to save human labor so that men may have more time for amusement and rest. humphrey potter ought to be remembered not as a lazy boy but as a great inventor. his strings and latches improved the engine wonderfully (fig. ). before his invention the piston made only six or eight strokes a minute; after the valves were made to open and shut by the motion of the beam, it made fifteen or sixteen strokes a minute and the engine did more than twice as much work. [illustration: fig. .--humphrey potter's latches and strings.] newcomen's engine as improved by potter and others grew rapidly into favor. it was used most commonly to pump water out of the mines but it was put to other uses. in and about london it was used to supply water to large houses and in a flour mill near bristol was driven by a steam-engine. in holland newcomen's engines were used to assist the wind-mills in draining lakes. [illustration: fig. .--james watt striving to improve newcomen's engine.] for nearly seventy-five years engines were everywhere built after the newcomen pattern. improvements in a small way were added now and then but no very important change was made until the latter part of the eighteenth century, when the steam-engine was made by james watt practically what it is to-day. this great inventor spent years in making improvements upon newcomen's engine (fig. ) and when his labors were finished he had done more for the steam-engine than any man who ever lived. we must try to learn _what_ he did. we can learn what watt did by studying figure . here p is a piston working in a cylinder a _closed at both ends_. by the side of the cylinder is a _valve-chest_ c into which steam passes from the pipe t. connecting c with the cylinder there are _two_ openings, one at the top of the cylinder and the other at the bottom. the valve-chest is provided with valves which are worked by means of the rod f, which moves up and down with the beam b, thanks to humphrey potter for the hint. the valves are so arranged that when steam enters the opening at the top of the cylinder it is shut off from the opening at the bottom, and when it enters the opening at the bottom it is shut off from the opening at the top. when the opening at the bottom is closed the steam will rush in at the upper opening and push the piston downward; when the piston has nearly reached the bottom of the cylinder the upper opening will be closed and steam will rush in at the bottom of the steam chest and push the piston upwards. here was _one_ of the things done by watt for the engine: he contrived to make the steam push the piston down as well as up. you have observed that in newcomen's engine steam was used only to push the piston _up_, the atmosphere being relied upon to push it down. thus we may say that watt's engine was the first _real steam-engine_, for it was the first that was worked entirely by steam. all engines before it had been worked partly by steam and partly by air. [illustration: fig. .--watt's engine.] watt's greatest improvement upon the steam-engine is yet to be mentioned. in newcomen's engine when the cold water was injected into the cylinder it cooled the piston and when steam was let into the cylinder again a part of it, striking the cold piston, was condensed before it had time to do any work and the power of this part of the steam was lost. watt did not allow the piston to get cold, for he did not inject any cold water into the cylinder. in his engine as soon as the steam did its work it was carried off through the pipe _m_ to the vessel _n_ and there condensed by means of a jet of water which was injected into _n_ (called the _condenser_) by means of a pump _e_ worked by the motion of the beam, thanks again to humphrey potter for the idea. this condensation of the steam outside of the cylinder and at a distance from it prevented the piston (and cylinder) from getting cold. in other words, in the watt engine when steam entered the cylinder it went straight to work pushing the piston. no steam was lost and no power was lost and the cost of running the engine was greatly reduced. it cannot be said that watt invented the steam-engine--no one can claim that honor--yet he did so much to make it better that he well deserves the epitaph which is inscribed on his monument in westminster abbey. this inscription is as follows: not to perpetuate a name which must endure while the peaceful arts flourish but to shew that mankind have learnt to honor those who best deserve their gratitude the king his ministers and many of the nobles and commoners of the realm raised this monument to james watt who directing the force of an original genius early exercised in philosophic research to the improvement of the steam engine enlarged the resources of his country increased the power of man and rose to an eminent place among the most illustrious followers of science and the real benefactors of the world born at greenoch mdccxxxvi died at heathfield in staffordshire mdcccxix but the story of the steam-engine does not end with watt. it will be remembered that in the engines of nero and of branca the steam did its work by reaction or by impulse. now soon after the time of watt, inventors turned their thoughts to the old engines of nero and branca and began to experiment with engines that would do their work by a direct impact of steam. after nearly a century of experimenting and after many failures there was at last developed an engine known as the _steam-turbine_. in this engine the steam does its work by impinging or pushing directly upon blades (fig. ) which are connected with the shaft which is to be turned, and it does this in much the same manner that we saw the steam do its work in branca's engine. one of the greatest names connected with the steam turbine is that of charles algernon parsons of england. in this great inventor patented a steam-turbine which proved to be a commercial success and since that date the steam-turbine has been constantly growing in favor. so great has been its success on land and on sea that there are those who believe that the engine invented by watt will in time be cast aside and that its place will be taken by an engine which is the most ancient as well as the most modern of steam motors. [illustration: fig. .--shaft of a large marine turbine. within the cylinder are thousands of blades upon which the steam acts directly in the turning of the shaft. in the largest turbines there are as many as , blades.] the plow you have now learned the history of those inventions which enabled man to gain a mastery over fire and to use it for his comfort and convenience. we shall next learn the history of an invention which gave man the mastery of the soil and enabled him to take from the earth priceless treasures of fruit and grain. this invention was the plow. in his earliest state man had no use for the plow because he did not look to the soil as a place from which he was to get his food. the first men were hunters and they relied upon the chase for their food. they roamed from place to place in pursuit of their prey--the birds and beasts of the forest and the fishes of the stream. they did not remain long enough in one spot to sow seed and to reap the harvest. still in their wanderings they found wheat and barley growing wild and they ate of the seeds of these plants and learned that the little grains were good for food. they learned, too, that if the seeds were planted in a soil that was well stirred the plants would grow better than they would if the seeds were planted in hard ground. so by the time men had grown tired of wandering about and were ready to settle down and live in one spot they had learned two important facts: they knew they could add to their food supply by tilling the soil, and they knew that they could grow better crops if they would stir the soil before planting the seed. [illustration: fig. .--the katta or digging stick.] for the stirring of the soil the primitive farmer doubtless first used a sharpened stick such as wandering tribes carry for the purpose of digging up eatable roots, knocking fruits down from trees, and breaking the heads of enemies. such a stick known as the _katta_ (fig. ) is carried by certain tribes in australia, and we are told by travelers that the kurubars of southern india use a sharp stick when digging up the ground. the digging stick is used by savages in many parts of the world and we may regard it as the oldest of implements used for tilling the soil. [illustration: fig. .--the first plow.] the first plow was a forked stick or a limb of a tree with a projecting point (fig. ). with this implement the ground was broken not by digging but by dragging the fork or projecting point of the stick through the ground and forming a continuous furrow. in this forked stick we see two of the principal parts of the modern plow. the fork of the stick is the _share_, or cutting part of the plow, while the main part of the stick is the _beam_. [illustration: fig. .--the syrian plow known as job's plow.] an improvement upon the simple forked stick is seen in figure , which is copied from an ancient monument in syria (in asia minor). the old syrian plow consists almost wholly of the natural crooks of a branch of a tree, the only artificial piece being the brace e which connects the share and the beam and holds them firm. in this crooked stick we have three of the main parts of the modern plow, the beam (a), the share (c-b) and the handle (d). the plow in this form requires the services of two persons--one to draw the plow and one to guide it and keep it in the ground. it is said that it was with a plow of this kind that the servants of job were plowing when they were driven from their fields by the sabeans. the first plows were drawn by the strength of the human body (fig. ). upon a very old monument of ancient egypt, the country which seems to have been the first home of the plow, we have a plowing scene which shows a number of men dragging a plow by means of a rope. but primitive man was not at all fond of labor and in the course of time he tamed wild bulls and horses and made them draw the plows. so upon another egyptian monument of a later date we have a picture of a plowing scene in which animals are drawing the plow (fig. ). in this egyptian plow we see improvements upon the crooked stick of the syrians. the egyptian plow, you observe, has a broader share. it will, therefore, make a wider furrow and will plow more ground. moreover, it has two handles instead of one. taking it altogether, the egyptian plow was a fairly good implement. [illustration: fig. .--plow drawn by human labor.] [illustration: fig. .--the egyptian plow.] many centuries passed before any real improvement was made upon the old egyptian plow. if there were any improvement anywhere it was among the romans. we read in pliny--a roman writer of the first century--of a plow that had wheels to regulate the depth of the plow and also a _coulter_, that is, a knife fixed in front of the share to make the first cut of the sod (fig. ). but such a plow was not in general use in pliny's time. a thousand years later, however, the plow with wheels and coulter was doubtless in common use. in a picture taken from an old saxon print we see (fig. ) a plow which was used in the time of william the conqueror ( ). here the plow has a coulter inserted in the beam and there are two wheels to regulate the depth to which the plow may go. this saxon plow is drawn by four fine oxen and it is plainly a great improvement upon the old egyptian plow. [illustration: fig. .--pliny's plow, a. d.] [illustration: fig. .--an old saxon plow, a. d.] [illustration: fig. .--a double plow of the seventeenth century. (this plow was proposed but was never made.)] but improvements in the plow during the dark ages came very slowly. at the time of the discovery of america the plow was still the clumsy wooden thing it was five hundred years before. in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, however, when improvements were being made in so many things, it was natural that men should begin to think of trying to improve the plow. in an old book published in we read of a double plow--one which would plow two furrows at one time. a picture (fig. ) of the double plow is given in the book but there is no proof that such a plow was ever made or ever used. the world did not as yet need a double plow, although the time was to come when it would need one. in the early part of the eighteenth century we begin to see real improvements in plow making. about this time dutch plowmakers began to put _mold-boards_ on their plows. the purpose of the mold-board is to lift up and turn over the slice of sod cut by the share. without the mold-board the plow simply runs through the ground and stirs it up. with the mold-board of the dutch plow (fig. ) the sod was turned completely over and the weeds and grass were covered up. this was the kind of plow that was needed, for if the weeds and grass are not covered up the best effects of plowing are lost. so the mold-board was a great improvement and its invention marks a great event in the history of the plow. [illustration: fig. .--the dutch plow showing the mold-board.] the dutch plow was taken as a model for english plows and, in fact, for the plows of all nations. the mold-board grew rapidly into favor and by the end of the eighteenth century it was found on plows in all civilized nations. but the plow was still made mostly of wood (fig. ) and it was still an awkward and a poorly constructed affair. the method of making plows about the year has been described as follows: "a mold-board was hewed from a tree with the grain of the timber running as nearly along its shape as it could well be obtained. on to this mold-board, to prevent its wearing out too rapidly, were nailed the blade of an old hoe, thin strips of iron, or worn out horseshoes (fig. ). the land side was of wood, its base and sides shod with thin plates of iron. the share was of iron with a hardened steel point. the coulter was tolerably well made of iron. the beam was usually a straight stick. the handles, like the mold-board, were split from the crooked trunk of a tree or as often cut from its branches. the beam was set at any pitch that fancy might dictate, with the handles fastened on almost at right angles with it, thus leaving the plowman little control over his implement, which did its work in a very slow and most imperfect manner." [illustration: fig. .--a colonial plow.] but about the end of the eighteenth century the world was beginning to need a plow that would do its work rapidly and well. population was everywhere increasing and it was necessary to till more ground than had ever been tilled in former times. especially was a good plow needed in the united states where there were vast areas of new ground to be broken. and it was in the united states that the first great improvements in the plow were made. foremost among those who helped to make the plow a better implement was the statesman, thomas jefferson. this great man while traveling in france in was struck by the clumsiness of the plows used in that country. in his diary he wrote: "the awkward figure of their mold-board leads one to consider what should be its form." so jefferson turned his attention to mold-boards. he saw that the mold-board ought to be so shaped that it would move through the ground and turn the sod with the least possible resistance and he planned for a mold-board of this kind. by he had determined what the proper form of a mold-board should be and had in actual use on his estate in virginia several plows which had mold-boards of least resistance. mr. jefferson's patterns of the mold-board have, of course, been improved upon, but he has the honor of having invented the first mold-board that was constructed according to scientific and mathematical principles.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--daniel webster's plow.] [illustration: fig. .--jethro wood's plow, .] about the time jefferson was working upon the mold-board, charles newbold, a farmer of burlington, new jersey, was also doing great things for the improvement of the plow. we have seen that the plow of this time was a patch work of wood and iron. newbold thought the plow ought to be made wholly of iron and about he made one of cast iron, the point, share, and mold-board all being cast in one piece. but the new jersey farmers did not take kindly to the iron plow. they said that iron poisoned the crops and caused weeds to grow faster than ever. so newbold could not sell his plows and he was compelled to give up the business in despair. but soon the iron plow was to have its day. in jethro wood of scipio, new york, took out a patent for a plow which was made of cast iron and which combined the best features of the plow as planned by jefferson and by newbold. in wood's plow (fig. ) the several parts--the point, share and mold-board--were so fastened together that when one piece wore out it could easily be replaced by a new piece. in newbold's plow when one part wore out the whole plow was rendered useless. wood's plow became very popular and by it was rapidly driving out the half-wooden, half-iron plows of the olden time. great improvements of course have been made upon the plow since , but in the main features the best plows of to-day closely resemble the implement invented by jethro wood. since our greatness as a nation is due largely to the plow all honor should be given to the memory of this inventor. "no citizen of the united states," said william h. seward, "has conferred greater benefits on his country than jethro wood." [illustration: fig. .--the gang plow drawn by horses.] [illustration: fig. .--plowing by steam. the plow is drawn across the field by means of cables. sometimes a traction engine moves along with the plow.] but the plow of jethro wood, as excellent as it was, did not fully meet the needs of the western farmer. the sod of the vast prairies could not be broken fast enough with a plow of a single share. so about the middle of the nineteenth century the _gang plow_, a hint for which had been given long before (p. ) was invented, and as this new plow moved along three or four or five furrows were turned at once. at first the gang plow was drawn by horses (fig. ) but later it was drawn by steam (fig. ). the great gang plow drawn by steam marked the last step in the development of the plow. the forked stick drawn by human hands and making its feeble scratch on the ground had grown until it had become a mighty machine drawn across the field by an unseen force and leaving in its wake a broad belt of deeply-plowed and well-broken soil. footnote: [ ] daniel webster was another great statesman who turned his attention to the making of plows. he planned a plow (fig. ) and had it made in his workshop on his farm at marshfield. when the plow was ready for use, webster himself was the first man to take hold of the handles and try it. the plow worked well and the great man is said to have been as much delighted with his achievement as he was with any of his triumphs in public life at washington. the reaper after man had invented his rude plow and had learned how to till the soil and raise the grain, it became necessary for him to learn how to harvest his crop, how to gather the growing grain from the fields. the invention of the plow, therefore, must have soon been followed by the invention of the _reaper_. [illustration: fig. .--primitive sickles.] the first grain was doubtless cut with the rude straight knives used by primitive man. in time it was found that if the knife were bent it would cut the grain better. so the first form of the reaper was a curved or bent knife known as the sickle or reaping hook (fig. ). the knife was fastened at one end to a stick which served as a handle. when using the sickle the harvester held the grain in one hand and cut it with the other. (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--reaping with the sickle.] _when_ the sickle first began to be used is of course unknown. among the remains of the "stone age" (p. ) are implements of flint which resemble the sickle, while among the remains of the so-called "bronze age" many primitive sickles made of bronze have been found. nor do we know _where_ the sickle was first used, although egypt seems to have been the first home of the sickle just as it was the first home of the plow. upon the wall of a building of ancient thebes is a picture of an egyptian harvest scene. two men with sickles are cutting the wheat. a man following the reapers seems to be gleaning, that is, picking up the wheat that the reapers have cut. other harvesters are carrying the grain to the threshing place where it is tramped out by the slow feet of oxen. a primitive sickle such as was used by the egyptians was used by all civilized nations in ancient times, by the hebrews, by the greeks, and by the romans. the first improvement upon the primitive sickle was made by the romans. about the year a. d. the roman farmers, who were at the time the best farmers in the world, began to use a kind of scythe for cutting grass. the roman scythe was simply an improved form of the sickle; it was a broad, heavy blade fastened on a long straight handle, resembling the pruning hook of to-day (fig. ). the scythe was swung with both hands and it was used chiefly for cutting grass. for more than a thousand years after the appearance of the roman scythe agriculture in europe was everywhere neglected and little or no improvement was made in farming implements. about the end of the middle ages, however, improvements in the form of the scythe began to appear. in flanders farmers began to use an implement known as the hainault scythe (fig. ). this scythe had a fine broad blade and a curved handle. when reaping with this scythe the reaper with his left hand brought the stalks of grain together with a hook and with his right hand he swung the scythe and cut the grain. this scythe was an improvement upon the sickle but it was still a very awkward implement. [illustration: fig. .--an early scythe.] [illustration: fig. .--the hainault or flemish scythe, with hook.] the hainault or flemish scythe was followed by the _cradle scythe_. on this scythe (fig. ) there were wooden fingers running parallel to the blade. these fingers, called the cradle, caught the grain as it was cut and helped to leave it in a bunch. in the early cradle-scythe the fingers were few in number and they ran along the blade for only a part of its length, but in america during the colonial period the cradle was improved by lengthening the fingers and increasing their number. at the time of the revolution the improved american cradle was coming into use and by the end of the eighteenth century it was driving out the sickle. [illustration: fig. .--early form of the cradle scythe.] [illustration: fig. .--the improved cradle scythe.] but even the excellent american cradle-scythe could not meet the needs of the american farmer. the cast iron plow which was brought into use in the early part of the nineteenth century (p. ) made it possible to raise fields of wheat vastly larger than had ever been raised before. but it was of no use to raise great fields of grain unless the crop could be properly harvested. wheat must be cut just when it is ripe and the harvest season lasts only a few days. if the broad american fields were to be plowed and planted there would have to be a reaping machine that would cut the grain faster than human hands could cut it with the scythe (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--the first reaping machine, a. d.] so about the year inventors in europe and in america took up the task of inventing a new kind of reaper. the first attempts were made in england where population was increasing very fast and where large quantities of grain were needed to feed the people. the first hints for a reaper were from a machine which was used in gaul nearly , years ago. pliny, who described for us a wonderful plow used in his time (p. ), also describes this ancient reaper of the gauls. it consisted of a large hollow frame mounted on two wheels (fig. ). at the front of the frame there was a set of teeth which caught the heads of grain and tore them off. the heads were raked into the box by an attendant. the machine was pushed along by an ox. this kind of machine was doubtless used in europe for a while but it was not a success. it passed out of use and for many centuries it was entirely forgotten. still, the first english reaping machines were made after the plan of this interesting old reaper of ancient gaul. [illustration: fig. .--ogle's reaper, .] the most remarkable of the early reapers was one invented by henry ogle, a schoolmaster of remington, england. in ogle constructed a model for a reaper which was quite different from any that had appeared before and which bore a close resemblance to the improved reapers of a later date. in ogle's reaper (fig. ) the horse walked ahead beside the standing grain, just as it does now, and the cutting apparatus was at the right, just as it is now. the cutter consisted of a frame at the front of which was a bar of iron armed with a row of teeth projecting forward. directly under the teeth lay a long straight edged knife which was moved to and fro by means of a crank and which cut the grain as it came between the teeth. a reel pushed the grain toward the knife and there was a platform upon which the grain when cut might fall. ogle's machine did not meet with much success yet it holds a very high place in the history of reaping machines, for it had nearly all the parts of a modern reaper. [illustration: fig. .--the first mccormick reaper.] english inventors did much to prepare the way for a good reaping machine but the first really successful reaper, the first reaper that actually reaped, was made in the united states. in the summer of , cyrus mccormick, a young blacksmith living in the shenandoah valley in virginia, made a trial of a reaper which he and his father had invented--how much they had learned from ogle we do not know--and the trial was successful (fig. ). with two horses he cut six acres of oats in an afternoon. "such a thing," says mr. casson in his life of mccormick, "at the time was incredible. it was equal to the work of six laborers with scythes or twenty-four peasants with sickles. it was as marvelous as though a man had walked down the street carrying a dray horse on his back." although mccormick had his reaper in successful operation by he did not take out a patent for the machine until . one year before this (in ) obed hussey, a sailor living in baltimore, took out a patent for a reaper that was successful and that was in many respects as famous a machine as mccormick's. so while mccormick was the first in the field with his invention, hussey was the first to secure a patent. the machines of mccormick and hussey were very much alike: both had the platform, the iron bar armed with guards and the long knife moving to and fro. the most remarkable feature of hussey's machine was the knife which consisted of thin triangular plates of steel sharpened on two edges and riveted side by side upon a flat bar (fig. ). the saw-like teeth of hussey's knife caught the wheat between the guards and cut it better than any knife that had as yet appeared. both the mccormick reapers and the hussey reapers were practical and successful and each of these inventors performed a noble part in giving the world the reaper it needed. [illustration: fig. .--the knife blade of hussey's reaper.] the mccormick and the hussey reapers gave new life to farming in the united states. especially was the reaper a blessing to the western farmers. in mccormick took a trip through the west, passing through ohio, michigan, illinois, and iowa. as he passed through illinois he saw how badly the reaper was needed. he saw great fields of ripe wheat thrown open to be devoured by hogs and cattle because there were not enough laborers to harvest the crops. the farmers had worked day and night and their wives and children had worked but they could not harvest the grain; they had raised more than the scythe and sickle could cut. mccormick saw that the west was the natural home for the reaper and in he moved to chicago, built a factory, and began to make reapers. in less than a year he had orders for machines and before ten years had passed he had sold nearly , reapers. it was these reapers that caused the frontier line to move westward at the rate of thirty miles a year. [illustration: fig. .--reaper provided with seat for the raker.] improvements upon the machines of hussey and mccormick came thick and fast. one of the first improvements was to remove the grain from the platform in a better way. with the first machines a man followed the reaper (fig. ) and removed the grain with a rake. then a seat was provided and the man sat (fig. ) on the reaper and raked off the grain. finally the _self-raking_ reaper was invented. in this machine, as it appeared in its completed form about , the reel and rake were combined. the reel consisted of a number of revolving arms each of which carried a rake (fig. ). as the arms revolved they not only moved the standing grain toward the knife, but they also swept the platform and raked off the wheat in neat bunches ready to be bound into sheaves. so the self-raking reaper saved the labor of the man who raked the wheat from the platform. [illustration: fig. .--self-raking reaper.] because it saved the labor of one man the self-raking reaper was for a time the king of reaping machines. but it did not remain king long, for soon there came into the harvest fields a reaper that saved the labor of several men. this was the _self-binder_. with the older machines, as the grain was raked off the platform it was gathered and bound into sheaves by men who followed the reaper, one reaper requiring the services of three or four or five human binders. with the self-binder (fig. ) the grain was gathered into sheaves and neatly tied without the aid of human hands. at first, wire was used in binding the sheaves but by most self-binders were using twine. so the self-binder saved the labor not only of the man who raked the grain from the platform but it saved the labor of all the binders as well. [illustration: fig. .--a self-binding reaper.] [illustration: fig. .--a combined harvester and thresher.] the last step in the development of the reaper was taken when the _complete harvester_ was invented. this machine cuts the standing grain, threshes it, winnows[ ] it, and places it in sacks (fig. ). as this giant reaper travels over the field one sees on one side the cutting bar to feet in length slicing its way through the wheat, while on the other side of the machine streams of grain run into sacks which, as fast as they are filled, are hauled to the barn or to the nearest railway station. the complete harvester is either drawn by horses-- or in number--or by a powerful engine. it cuts and threshes acres of wheat in a day and the cost is less than cents an acre. it does as much work in a day as could have been done by a hundred men before the days of mccormick. of all the wonderful machines used by farmers the most wonderful is the complete harvester, the latest and the greatest of reapers. footnote: [ ] to winnow grain is to separate it from the chaff by a fanning process. the mill [illustration: fig. .--the first mill.] the first mill was a hole made in a stationary rock (fig. ). the grain was placed in the hole and crushed with a stone held in the hand. on centre street in trenton, new jersey, not many years ago one of these primitive mills could still be seen and there are evidences that such mills once existed in all parts of the world. in those places where the earth did not supply the stationary rock, stones were brought from afar and hollowed out into cup-like form and in these the grinding was done. [illustration: fig. .--the knocking-stane.] the mill which consisted of a hole in a rock and a stone in the hands was followed by the "knocking-stane" and mallet (fig. ). the "knocking-stane" was a mortar, or cup-shaped vessel made of stone; the mallet was usually made of wood. the grain was placed in the mortar and struck repeatedly with the mallet, the beating being kept up until a coarse flour was produced. this is an exceedingly rude method of crushing grain, yet this is the way the people in some parts of scotland grind their barley at the present time. [illustration: fig. .--mortar and pestle mill.] at a very early date the "knocking-stane" was laid aside for the mortar and pestle (fig. ) almost everywhere. in this mill the grain instead of being struck with a hammer was pounded with a pestle. the bottom of the pestle was frequently covered with iron in which grooves were cut. as the man pounded he found that when he gave the pestle a twirling or rotary motion as it fell it ground the grain much faster. we may be sure that after this was learned the twirling motion was always given. the mortar and pestle were followed by the slab-mill (fig. ). here the grain was ground by being rubbed between two stones. dr. livingstone, the great african explorer, gives the following description of a slab-mill which he saw in operation in south africa. "the operator kneeling grasps the upper millstone with both hands and works it backwards and forwards in the hollow of the lower millstone, in the same way that a baker works his dough. the weight of the person is brought to bear on the movable stone and while it is pressed and pushed forward and backward one hand supplies every now and then a little grain to be bruised and ground." [illustration: fig. .--the slab-mill.] [illustration: fig. .--the upper and nether millstone.] as we have seen, the primitive miller gradually learned that the pestle did better work when it fell with a twirling motion. this little bit of experience led to important results in the development of the mill. if the grinding were done better with a twirling motion, why not have as much of the twirling motion as possible? why not make the upper stone go round and round? this was what was done. the upper stone was caused to turn round and round. the wheel-mill, the mill of the upper and nether millstone (fig. ), was invented. when and where it was invented we cannot tell for it was in use among all civilized peoples before history began to be written. there were many kinds of wheel-mills among the nations of antiquity and in principle they were all alike in construction. how they worked may be learned by studying figure which represents a mill used in ancient india. the upper stone is placed upon the pivot projecting from the center of the lower (nether) stone, and caused to revolve by means of the handle. the grain when placed in the hollow at the center of the upper stone (fig. ) works its way down between the stones and comes out at the circumference ground, bran and flour together. the mill was fed with grain by the operator. the first hopper was a human hand. [illustration: fig. .--an ancient jewish mill.] [illustration: fig. .--an old roman mill.] [illustration: fig. .--a scottish quern.] [illustration: fig. .--pompeian flour mill, a. d.] we have here several pictures of ancient mills. figure is an ancient jewish mill. as we look at it we may recall the words, "two women shall be grinding at a mill, the one shall be taken, and the other left."[ ] figure is an old roman mill bearing a strong resemblance to the coffee mill that is used in our kitchens. figure is a scottish quern, a mill that may still be found in use, it is said, in some parts of scotland. figure is an old flour mill dug from the ruins of the city of pompeii which was destroyed by an eruption in the year a. d. figure shows the construction of this interesting mill. the upper (outer) stone is shaped like an hour-glass, the upper half of which serves as a hopper; the lower half turns upon the cone-shaped lower stone and does the grinding. the mill was operated by the projecting handles, the operators walking round and round the mill. sometimes it was turned by human power, sometimes by horses or oxen. [illustration: fig. .--showing the interior of pompeian mill.] [illustration: fig. .--the first water-mill, b. c.] [illustration: fig. .--showing the interior of the first water-mill.] the pompeian mill shows that as early as the first century the romans ground their grain by animal power. indeed about this time a still greater change was made in the method of grinding grain. when julius cæsar flourished ( b. c.) men began to harness the power of running water and make it turn their mills (fig. ). from figure we may easily learn how this was done. the running water turns the wheel and in doing so turns the upper millstone. a hopper is suspended from the roof by ropes. through this the grain passes into the mill. here was a great saving in human labor and a great advancement in mill making. a roman writer of cæsar's time appreciating how great a blessing was the invention of the water-mill exclaimed: ye maids who toiled so faithful at the mill now cease from work and from these toils be still; sleep now till dawn and let the birds with glee sing to the ruddy morn, on bush and tree; for what your hands performed so long, so true, ceres[ ] has charged the water-nymphs to do; they come, the limpid sisters, to her call, and on the wheel with dashing fury fall; impel the axle with a whirling sound and make the massive millstone reel around and bring the floury heap luxuriant to the ground. nothing can be simpler than the water-mill described above; it was the old mill of the upper and nether millstones, the old hand mill turned by water. that was all. yet, as simple as it was, many centuries passed after its invention before a new principle in flour making was discovered. there were inventions for lowering and raising the stone so as to grind finer or coarser as might be desired, and there were improvements in the kind of water wheels employed, and better methods of sifting the flour from the bran were discovered from time to time, but the water-mill invented in the time of julius cæsar remained practically unchanged until the early part of the nineteenth century, when the last step in the development of the mill was taken.[ ] [illustration: fig. .--an early flour roller-mill.] about millers in austria, more particularly those in vienna, began to grind their grain by passing it between two horizontal rollers (fig. ). the rollers were spirally grooved and turned toward each other. there was a wide difference between this process and the one to which the world was accustomed, yet the new method was found to be better than the old one. austrian flour and austrian bread became famous. the delicious vienna bread on our tables of course has never seen vienna. it is called "vienna bread" because it is made out of a kind of flour which was first ground in the austrian capital. the austrian way of grinding grew rapidly into favor among millers everywhere. in the united states where there was so much wheat to be ground the roller process was taken up eagerly and improved upon as only americans know how to improve upon an idea. in the flour mills of the west the grain was soon passing through a series of rollers. by the first pair of rollers the grain was simply cracked into pieces somewhat coarse. then after being bolted (sifted) it was passed between a second pair of rollers and reduced to a greater fineness. then it was bolted again and passed between a third pair of rollers. the rolling and sifting continued until a practically pure flour was obtained. a pure flour is the modern miller's ideal. he wants a branless flour and a flourless bran. the old stone mill could not grind this kind of flour. before the roller mill appeared there was always bran in the flour and flour in the bran. [illustration: fig. .--a modern flour roller-mill.] the invention of the flour roller-mill (fig. ) is the last step in the development of the mill. the roller process has almost entirely driven out all other processes. now and then we see by the roadside an old fashioned mill with the upper and nether stone, but we seldom see one that is prosperous and thriving. millers, like everybody else in these days, do business on a large scale and to make flour on a large scale they must use the roller-mill. thus the hole in the rock in which a handful of grain was laboriously crushed has, through long ages of growth, become the great factory in which thousands of barrels of flour are made in a day. [illustration] footnotes: [ ] matthew xxiv, . in ancient times nearly all the grinding was done by women. [ ] ceres was the goddess of grain. [ ] in the thirteenth century wind-power began to be used for turning mills, and in some countries windmills were as common as water-mills. the loom have you ever seen a loom? it would not be a wonder if you have not. in these days the average person seldom sees one. everyone knows in a vague sort of way that clothes and carpets are made of wool or silk or cotton, as the case may be, and that they are woven upon an instrument called a loom. this is about as much as we usually know about the clothes we wear or the carpets we walk upon. we buy these things from the store and that is all there is to it. in the olden times, and not so very long ago either, everybody knew something about weaving, at least every girl and woman knew something of the art, and a loom was as familiar an object in the household then as a sewing machine is now. matrons and maidens sat in snow-white caps and in kirtles scarlet and blue and green, with distaff spinning the golden flax for the gossiping loom, whose noisy shuttle within doors mingled their sounds with the whir of the wheels and the songs of the maidens. this picture of home life in acadia two hundred years ago would have served as a picture of home life almost everywhere in the civilized world. from the beginning of history until modern times most of the weaving was done by the women in the home. the earliest practical weaver on record is the spider and it may be that man learned his first lesson in weaving from this skilled little workman (fig. ); or the beautiful nest of the weaver-bird may have given to human beings the first hints in the weaving art. whoever may have been his teacher, it is certain that man learned how to weave in the earliest stages of existence. it is thought that his first effort in this direction consisted in making cages for animals and wiers (traps) for catching fish (fig. ) by interlacing vines or canes or slender boughs. the next step was taken when women began to make baskets and cradles and mats by interlacing long slender strips of wood (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--the first lesson in weaving.] [illustration: fig. .--a wier trap of the virginia indians.] [illustration: fig. .--primitive basket making.] [illustration: fig. .--the primitive loom.] basket weaving led to cloth weaving, and this led to the loom. in figure we see the simplest and oldest form of the loom. it consisted of a single stick (yarn beam) of wood about four feet long. this was the first form of the loom--just a straight stick of wood and nothing more. from the stick the threads which run lengthwise in the cloth were suspended. these threads are known as the _warp_. the threads which run breadthwise in the cloth are known as the _weft_, or _woof_. as the woman's deft fingers pass along with the weft she carries the thread over the first warp thread, under the second, over the third, under the fourth, and so on. here we have not only the simplest form of the loom but the simplest kind of cloth. [illustration: fig. .--the pueblo loom.] [illustration: fig. .--the heddle.] in the loom worked by the pueblo woman (fig. ) a new piece appears. this is the frame through which the threads of the warp pass and which the woman is holding in her right hand. the frame is called a heald, or _heddle_ (fig. ). the heddle is of the greatest importance in the construction of the loom and it is well worth while to understand what it does. in the loom operated by the chilcoot woman (fig. ) you noticed that the weaver passed the weft thread above and below the alternate threads of the warp. this required a separate movement for every thread of the warp; if there were a hundred threads a hundred movements were required to pass the weft across once. now the heddle used by the pueblo woman separated the fifty warp threads that were to pass above the weft thread from the fifty that were to pass below it, making an opening called, a _shed_. when the shed was made the weft thread could be passed across at one movement. one movement instead of a hundred! how was this accomplished? fifty alternate warp threads were passed through the holes in the bars of the heddle frame, one thread through each hole; the other fifty alternate threads passed between the bars of the heddle frame. now suppose the entire warp of a hundred threads is stretched tight and firm between the woman's body and the yarn beam. with her right hand she _raises_ the heddle and thus lifts the fifty threads which pass through the holes in the bars, while the other fifty threads remain unmoved. this movement makes the passage or shed through which she passes the weft with the left hand. after beating the weft thread close to the cloth either with the fingers or with a sword-like stick, she lowers the heddle with its fifty threads, the other fifty still remain fixed and unmoved. another shed is formed and the weft is passed through again. thus with the raising and lowering of the heddle the weft is passed backward and forward and the weaving goes on quite rapidly. if you care to do so you can make a pueblo loom and can weave a belt on it. [illustration: fig. .--an old african loom.] in the old african loom represented in fig. we find several improvements upon the loom of the pueblo woman. in the first place, it has two heddles instead of one. these are operated by the feet, leaving the hands free to do other work. in the second place, the wooden frame which the weaver holds in his right hand is not to be seen in the pueblo loom. this frame called the _batten_, or _lathe_, contains the _reed_, which is a series of slats or bars between which the threads of the warp pass after they leave the heddle. when the weaver has thrown the weft through the shed he brings the batten down hard and the reed drives the last weft thread close to the woven part of the cloth. the reed takes the place of the sword-like stick used by the pueblo woman. last and most important: in the african's left hand is the _shuttle_, or little car--weaver's ship, the germans call it--which carries the weft across (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a primitive shuttle.] the loom described above seems to be clumsy and rude when compared with a loom of the present day, yet it is really the kind of loom which was used by nearly all civilized people from the dawn of their civilization to the middle of the eighteenth century. it is the loom of history and poetry and song. upon a loom of this kind was woven joseph's coat with its many colors and the garment which the fair penelope made when she deceived her suitors. of course as the centuries passed the parts of the loom were better made and weavers became more skilful. in figure we have the loom as it appeared in the sixteenth century. if we inspect it closely we shall find it to be merely the old african loom mounted on stout upright timbers instead of being mounted on a tripod made of poles. with her feet the weaver works the heddle, with her right hand she throws the shuttle, with her left she draws toward her the swinging batten and drives the weft home with the reed. [illustration: fig. .--a loom of the sixteenth century.] [illustration: fig. .--kay's flying shuttle.] the year is a most important date in the development of the loom for in that year john kay, a practical loommaker of lancashire, england, invented the flying shuttle and thus did more for the loom than any man whom we can distinguish by name. to appreciate the great service of kay we must recall how the shuttle was operated before his time. you remember it was thrown through the shed by one of the weaver's hands and caught and returned by the other hand. sometimes it was caught and returned by a boy. this was at best a slow process and unless the weaver had an assistant to return the shuttle only narrow pieces could be woven. the common width of cloth, three-fourths of a yard, had its origin in necessity. the weaver's arms were not long enough to weave a wider piece. "the essence of kay's invention was that the shuttle was thrown from side to side by a mechanical device instead of being passed from hand to hand. one hand only was required for the shuttle while the other was left free to beat up the cloth (with the batten) after each throw, and the shuttle would fly across wide cloth as well as narrow." you will be able to understand kay's invention by studying figure which shows how the flying shuttle worked. _g_ is a groove (shuttle-race) on which the shuttle runs as it crosses through the shed leaving its thread behind it. _i_ and _i_ are boxes which the shuttle (fig. ) enters at the end of the journey. in each box is a driver _k_ sliding freely on the polished rod _f_. the weaver with his right hand pulls the handle _h_ and _k_ drives the shuttle to the opposite side. with his left hand he works the reed, with his feet he works the heddle. [illustration: fig. .--a modern shuttle.] the profits of kay's invention were stolen, his house was destroyed by a mob and he himself was driven to a foreign country where he died in poverty. yet he deserves high rank among the benefactors of mankind, for the flying shuttle doubled the power of the loom and improved the quality of the cloth woven. kay's invention was the first step in a great industrial revolution. the increased power of the loom called for more yarn than the old spinning wheel could supply. hargreaves and arkwright set their wits to work and made their wonderful spinning machine, and the demands of the loom were supplied. so great was the supply of yarn that the hand loom was behind with its work. then in order to keep up with the spinning machine the _power-loom_ was invented. heddle and batten and shuttle were now driven by a force of nature and all the weaver had to do was to keep the shuttle filled with thread and see that his loom worked properly. at first the water-wheel was used to drive the power-loom but later the steam-engine was made to do this work. all this was changing the face of the civilized world. hitherto weavers and spinners had worked for themselves in their homes or in their own shops; now they were gathered in large factories where they worked as wage earners for an employer. hitherto industry had been carried on in small villages; the great factories drew the people to large industrial centers and the era of crowded cities began. [illustration: fig. .--the jacquard loom.] following the invention of the power-loom in the latter half of the eighteenth century came the invention of joseph jacquard of lyons, france. this very ingenious man in invented a substitute for the heddle. we cannot readily understand the workings of jacquard's wonderful "attachment," as his substitute for the heddle is called, but we ought to know what the great frenchman did for the loom. in figure you see that the cloth which is exposed shows that beautiful designs have been woven into it. this is what jacquard did for the loom. he made it weave into the cloth whatever design, color or tint one might desire. he made the loom a mechanical artist rivaling in excellence the work of a human artist. the jacquard loom has brought about a revolution in man's, and especially in woman's dress. with the old loom, colors and designs could be woven into cloth but only very slowly, and goods with fancy patterns were made at a cost that was so great that only the rich could afford to buy. in the olden times, therefore, almost everybody wore plain clothes. with jacquard's attachment the most beautiful figures can be cheaply woven into the commonest fabrics. as far as weaving is concerned, it costs no more to have beautiful figures in cotton goods than it does to have them in silk. as a result the poor as well as the rich can dress as their taste and fancy may suggest. the last century brought improvements in the weaving art as every century before it brought improvements, but the changes made since jacquard's time need not concern us. the story of the loom ends with the jacquard "attachment." perhaps no other of man's inventions has a more interesting development than the loom. we can see it grow, piece by piece. first a simple stick from which dangle the threads of the warp; then the heddle, then the shuttle, then the reed, then the shuttle-race and the swiftly flying shuttle, and last the frenchman's wonderful device for weaving in colors and fancy figures. the house man has always been a builder. like squirrels and beavers and birds he provides himself a home as by instinct. the kind of house erected by a people in the beginning depended upon the surroundings, upon the enemies that prowled about, upon the climate, upon the building materials close at hand. in a hilly, rocky region primitive folk built one kind of house, in a forest they built another kind, in a low marshy district they built still another kind. in all cases they took the materials that were the easiest to get and erected the kind of dwelling place that would afford the greatest safety and comfort. if one could have traveled over the earth during the first days of man's history one would doubtless have found that dwellings were made of wood, for in those days the greater part of the earth was covered with forests. to build a home in the forest was the simplest of tasks. all that was necessary was to fasten together the tops of several saplings, interlace the saplings with boughs (fig. ) and cover the frame with skins of animals or thatch it with leaves and grass. a cone-shaped structure of this pattern, a tent, or hut, or wigwam, was the first house of all primitive people who lived where there was plenty of wood. [illustration: fig. .--building a house with wood.] [illustration: fig. .--a cave-dwelling.] in many regions, especially in parts of northwestern europe, the wigwam or hut was not always the most suitable dwelling place for early man. in hilly and mountainous districts and along streams where shores were overhung by rocks or pierced by caverns the first inhabitants found that a hollow in the earth was the best kind of house. sometimes the house of the cave-dwellers was made by nature (fig. ); sometimes it was an artificial living-place dug in the side of a hill or mountain. the cave was truly a rude and gloomy home, yet there was a time when large numbers of the human race lived in caves. the zuni indians of arizona in seeking a refuge from their enemies built their homes far up in steep cliffs where it was almost impossible for a stranger to go. coming down from the highlands to the lowlands where there were swamps and marshes or where inland lakes were numerous, we find that the first houses were built upon piles driven in the water or in the mud (fig. ). these lake-dwellings, as houses of this kind were called, were generally connected with the mainland by gangways of wooden piers, although sometimes they could be approached only by boat. in the floors of some of these curious dwellings were trapdoors through which baskets could be lowered for catching fish in the lake below. the children of the lake-dwellers were tethered by the feet to keep them from falling into the water. the beautiful city of venice in its infancy was a community of lake-dwellers. the rough canoe of the lake-dwelling time has developed into the graceful gondola, and the rude wooden pier has grown to be the magnificent rialto. [illustration: fig. .--lake-dwellings, restored. (from troyon.)] in many regions the most convenient building material is stone and all over the earth there are proofs to show that building with stone began at a very early date. the stones in the earliest stone structures were rough and unhewn and were laid without mortar or cement (fig. ) yet they were sometimes fitted together with such nicety that a thin knife blade could not be passed between them. remains of stone houses built many thousands of years ago may be seen in peru, mexico, italy, and greece. these primitive dwellings were humble and simple, but they were made of good material and they were well built. they have weathered the storms of ages and they have remained standing while later and more pretentious buildings have crumbled and disappeared. [illustration: fig. .--a primitive stone house.] the illustrations of early building which have been given will make plain the truth that the people of a particular country have taken the materials nearest at hand and have constructed their homes according to their particular needs. now since the beginnings of house building have been different in different parts of the earth, the story of the house will not be the same in all countries. in china and japan, where the light bamboo has always flourished and has always been used in building, the house has had one development; in countries where granite and marble and heavy timber abound it has had another and an entirely different development. what then is the story of the house as we see it in our country? can this story be told? as one passes through an american city looking at the public buildings and churches and stores and dwellings can one go back to the beginning and trace step by step the growth of the house and tell how these came to be what they are? let us see if this cannot be done. [illustration: fig. .--an egyptian house.] [illustration: fig. .--an ancient hebrew dwelling.] [illustration: fig. .--interior of an ancient egyptian palace.] our story takes us back many thousands of years to egypt, the cradle of civilization. from egypt it will take us to greece, thence to rome, thence to the countries of northern europe, thence to america. what kind of houses did the egyptians first build? they built as simple a structure as can be imagined; they erected four walls and over these they placed a flat roof (fig. ). the roof was made flat because in egypt there is scarcely any rain and there was no need for a roof with a slant. in all those countries where rain seldom falls, or never falls, the flat roof is the natural roof (fig. ). although their buildings were simple in construction the egyptians left behind them most remarkable specimens of the builder's art. their pyramids and monuments and sphinxes and palaces have always been foremost among the great wonders of the world. figure shows the interior of an ancient egyptian palace. this palace had only an awning for a roof. that was all that was necessary to keep out the rays of the sun. notice the lofty pillars or columns of this building. you see they are adorned above or below with the figure of the lotus, the national flower of the egyptians. the column, as we shall see, plays an important part in the history of the house and it was ancient egypt that gave the world its first lessons in the art of making columns. from egypt we pass over "the sea" to greece. the greeks borrowed ideas wherever they could and in the matter of architecture they borrowed heavily from egypt. but they did not borrow the flat roof of the egyptians. in greece there was some rainfall and this fact had to be taken into account when building a house; the roof had to slant so that the rain could run off. now the greeks taught the world the best way to make a slanting roof. they made the roof to slant in two directions from a central ridge (fig. ) instead of having the entire roof to slant in one direction like an ugly shed. the slant was gentle because there was no snow to be carried off. the roof of two slants formed a gable. the greeks, then, were the inventors of the _gable_. the column they borrowed from egypt. but whenever the greeks borrowed an invention or an idea they nearly always improved upon it. instead of slavishly imitating the egyptian columns they tried to make better ones and they were so successful that they soon became the teachers of the world in column making. [illustration: fig. .--a greek dwelling.] [illustration: fig. .--the three orders of columns.] the oldest and strongest of the greek columns belong to what is known as the doric order (fig. ), a name given to them because they were first made by the dorians, the original greek dwellers in europe. aside from the flutes or channels which ran throughout its length the doric column was perfectly plain. in the older doric columns even the flutes are absent. its _capital_ or top, was without ornament. later the graceful and elegant ionic pillar (fig. ) came into fashion. we can always distinguish an ionic column by the volute or scroll at its capital. the latest of the greek columns was the corinthian (fig. ), the lightest, the most slender and the most richly decorated of all. a cluster of acanthus leaves at its capital is the most prominent ornament of the corinthian column. the greeks carried the art of column making to such perfection that even to this day we imitate their patterns. a column in a modern building is almost certain to be a greek column. it is worth one's while, therefore, to be able to tell one greek column from another. one can do this by remembering ( ) that the doric column is perfectly plain and has no capital; ( ) that the ionic column has a scroll at the capital; ( ) that the capital of the corinthian column is adorned with a cluster of acanthus leaves. [illustration: fig. .--an old roman arch.] our story now takes us to italy. greece fell before the power of rome b.c., but before she fell she had taught her conquerors a great deal about architecture. indeed the romans took up the art of building where the greeks left it. they needed the greek gable for they had rains, and the greek column recommended itself to them on account of its beauty. they used the best features of grecian architecture and added a feature that was largely their own. this was the _arch_. the greeks, like the egyptians before them, bridged over the openings of doors and windows and the spaces between columns by means of straight wooden beams or long blocks of stone. the romans bridged over these spaces with the arch (fig. ). if you will study the arch you will see that it is a curved structure which is supported by its own curve. you will also see that it is a structure of great strength. the greater the weight placed upon it, providing its bases are supported, the stronger it gets. in teaching the world how to make arches rome added to the house an element of great strength and beauty. with the arch came the tall building. in greece a house was never more than two stories high. in rome arch rose upon arch (fig. ); the dome which is itself a kind of arch appeared and palaces were piled story upon story until they seemed to reach the skies. from italy we pass to northern europe. the power of rome fell a.d., but before that date the greater part of europe had been romanized, and the roman way of building with column and arch and dome had been learned in france and germany and england. but the climate of those countries was different from that of italy and a slight change in the roman way of building was necessary. in the northern countries there were heavy rains and snows and a roof with a gentle slope was not suitable for carrying off large quantities of water and snow. a gable (fig. ) with a sharp slant was necessary. hence throughout northern europe the roofs were built much steeper than they were in italy and greece, although in other respects the northern houses resembled more or less closely those of the older southern countries. [illustration: fig. .--interior of a roman club house.] [illustration: fig. .--a dwelling in northern europe.] the pointed roof which was made necessary by the climate of the north prepared the way for a new style of building, the _pointed_ or _gothic_ style. this style began to appear in the twelfth century and by the end of the thirteenth century--that remarkable century again--the buildings of all northern europe were gothic. the new style began with a change in the arch. the roman arch was a semi-circle and was therefore described from one center. the gothic arch was formed by describing it from two centers instead of one and was therefore a pointed arch. as the pointed arch grew in favor it became the fashion to shape other parts of the building into points wherever it was possible to do this. the rounding dome became a spire "pointing heavenward"; the windows and doors were pointed and so were the ornaments and decorations. for several centuries buildings fairly bristled with points (fig. ). the finest example of gothic architecture is the glorious cathedral at cologne. [illustration: fig. .--pointed style. typical scheme of a fully developed french cathedral of the th century. (from viollet-le-duc's "dict. de l'architecture.")] during the thousand years of the dark ages ( - ) the glories of the civilization of ancient greece and rome faded almost completely from human vision. events of the sixteenth century brought those glories again into view and europe was dazzled by them. men everywhere became dissatisfied with the things around them. they longed for ancient things. they read ancient authors, they imitated ancient artists, they imbibed the wisdom of ancient teachers. this was the period of the renaissance, the time when the world was born anew--as it pleased men to think and say. the world of the present died and the old world of greece and rome was brought to life. of course in the new order of things architecture underwent a change. _it_ was born again; _it_ experienced a renaissance. the pointed style grew less pleasing to the builder's eye, and wherever he could he placed in his building something that was greek or roman, here an arched doorway, there a greek column. there resulted from these changes a style that was neither gothic, grecian nor roman, but a mixture of all these. this mixed style was named after the period in which it arose. when you see a building that strongly resembles the buildings of ancient greece and rome and at the same time has features which belong to other styles you may safely say that the building belongs to the renaissance style. (fig. .) the most noble and beautiful examples of renaissance architecture are the church of st. peter's at rome and the church of st. paul at london. [illustration: fig. .--a renaissance dwelling.] we now pass over to america. about the time the old world was born anew the new world was found. the houses of the first settlers in america were of course rude and ugly but as the colonies grew in population and wealth more expensive and beautiful houses were built. as we should expect, the colonists built their best houses in the style that was then in fashion in the old world and that was the renaissance style. they did not, however, copy the old world architecture outright. they had different materials, a different climate and a different class of workmen and they had to build according to these changed conditions. the result was a style of building that has been called colonial (fig. ). colonial architecture was simply american renaissance. and that is what it is to-day. to say that a house is in the colonial style is to say that it represents a certain architect's ideas as to what is best and most beautiful in all styles. [illustration: fig. .--a colonial mansion. the cliveden chew mansion, where the battle of germantown was fought.] the story of the house really ends with the period of the renaissance. since the sixteenth century nothing really new in architecture has been discovered and men have been wedded to no particular style. when we want to build a house we choose from all the styles and build according to our tastes. our story of the house, however, will not be complete without a brief account of what has been called _elevator_ architecture. the high price of land in large cities makes it necessary to run buildings up to a considerable height if they are to be profitable. now if a building is more than five stories high it must have an elevator, or lift, and if an elevator is to be put in, the building might as well be run up nine or ten stories. american business men learned this thirty or forty years ago and began to build high, and they have been building higher and higher ever since. there are tall buildings in other countries but the "sky-scraper" of twenty-five and thirty stories is found only in the united states (fig. ). [illustration: (copyright by underwood & underwood, n. y.) fig. .--elevator architecture. the tower-like structure in the distance is a building more than forty stories in height.] thus we may see in the house of to-day a long and unbroken story. where the roof is flat it is egyptian; where it slants gently in two directions it is greek; where it is steep or sharply pointed it is gothic. the columns are greek, the rounded arches are roman. the whole is the result of the thousands of years of effort which man has given to the task of providing for himself a safe, convenient and beautiful home. the carriage we are very proud in our day of our means of transportation. if one wishes to send a present to a friend a thousand miles away a few cents spent in postage will take the article to its destination. if for the sake of higher prices a fruit grower wishes to sell his crops in a distant city, the railroad people will haul it for him at a very small cost. if you wish to visit a friend in town several blocks away, there is the electric car ready to take you for a nickel. if your friend is several hundred miles away, the steam car will take you in a few hours at a cost of not more than two or three cents a mile. i am living in the country sixteen miles from the city in which my work lies, and for nine cents i am carried to the place of my business in less than half-an-hour. what has been the history of the inventions which make transportation so comfortable, rapid and cheap? our subject divides itself into two parts, transportation on land and transportation on water or the story of the carriage and the story of the boat. we will have the story of the carriage first. man's only carriage at first was of course his own feet. when he wanted to go to any place he had to take "walker's hack," if a playful expression may be pardoned. as a traveler on foot, man soon surpassed all other animals. he could walk down the deer and wear out the horse. when it came to carrying things from place to place, in the beginning he had to rely upon his own limbs and muscles. it was not long, however, before he learned that there were good ways and bad ways of carrying things, and he soon set about finding the best way. we may believe that he began by making a snug bundle and carrying it on his shoulder. then he found that he could carry a heavier burden upon his back, and he invented a pack or frame on which he could carry things on his back (fig. ) after the manner of one of our modern pack peddlers. [illustration: fig. .--a human burden bearer. (from a model in national museum.)] in the course of time man tamed one or more of the wild beasts which roamed near him. then the burden was shifted from the back of a man to the back of a beast. the first beast of burden in south america was the llama; in india it was the elephant; in arabia it was the camel (fig. ). in europe and in parts of asia and in egypt the horse first became man's burden bearer and the nations which had the services of this swift and strong animal outstripped the other nations of the world. "which is the most useful of animals?" asked one egyptian god of another. "the horse," was the reply, "because the horse enables a man to overtake and slay his enemy." [illustration: fig. .--a ship of the desert.] [illustration: fig. .--a cart without wheels. (from a model in the national museum.)] it is often easier to drag a thing along than it is to carry it. this fact led to the invention of what we may call the first and simplest form of carriage. this was the drag or travail (tra-vay´), a cart without wheels (fig. ). two long saplings were fastened at the large end to the strap across the horse's breast and the small end upon which the burden was placed dragged upon the ground. mr. arthur mitchell in his delightful book, "the past in the present," tells us that he saw carts of this kind in actual use in the highlands of scotland as late as ! an improvement upon the travail was the sledge made of the forked limb of a tree (fig. ). this primitive sledge was really a travail consisting of one piece. [illustration: fig. .--a primitive sledge. (from a model in national museum.)] in many cases it is easier to roll a thing than it is to drag it. this fact led to another step in the development of the carriage; it led from the cart without wheels to a cart with a wheel--a most important step in the history of inventions. the first wheeled cart was simply a log from each end of which projected an axle (fig. ). the axle fitted in the holes of a frame upon which the body of the cart was placed and to which the horse or the ox was attached. as the cart moved along, wheel (log and axle) turned together. the very ancient method of moving a load by rolling it along was in use in the united states not so very long ago. as late as in some of the southern states hogsheads of tobacco (fig. ) were rolled over country roads in the manner just described and as late as the fishermen of nantucket used as a fish cart a vehicle that had only a barrel for its wheel. (fig. .) the common wheel-barrow and the one-wheeled carts which are still used in china and japan had their origin in the rolling log. [illustration: fig. .--the first cart. fig. .--hauling tobacco. (from a model in national museum.)] [illustration: fig. .--a nantucket fish cart. (from a model in the national museum.)] we are told by some writers that the rolling log (the one-wheeled cart) was followed by the two-wheeled cart, on which the wheels were the ends of a log and the axle was the middle portion of the log hewn down to a proper size (fig. ). here wheels and axle turned together precisely like a modern car wheel. this makes a very pretty story but i am afraid the solid two-wheeled affair represented in figure is only imaginary, and that in a true account of the development of the cart it has no place. the true beginning of the two-wheeled cart may be learned from figure . here the wheels are two _very short_ logs through the center of which are holes in which the round ends (axles) of a piece of timber (the axle-tree) fit. when the cart moves, the wheels turn upon the axle. the one-wheeled cart had at first _one log_ turning _with_ the axle; the two-wheeled cart at first had as its wheels two very short logs turning _on_ the axles. [illustration: fig. .--a cart with wheels and axle in one piece.] [illustration: fig. .--cart with a solid wheel.] [illustration: fig. .--cart with wheel partly solid. (from a model in the national museum.)] the first two-wheeled carts were a great improvement upon the single rolling log, yet they were exceedingly heavy and clumsy. the trouble was with the wheel. this was very thick and with the exception of the hole in which the axle went it was entirely solid. wheelwrights at a very early date saw that the problem was to make the wheel light and at the same time to keep it strong. little by little this problem was solved. at first crescent-shaped holes were made in the wheel (fig. ). this made the wheel lighter, but did not weaken it. in its next form the wheel was even less solid than before. it now consisted of four curved pieces of wood (fig. ) held together by four spokes. in this wheel there was a hub, but the spokes were not inserted in it; they were fastened about it. in the egyptian chariot (fig. ) we find the wheel in the last stage of its interesting and remarkable development. here the spokes, six in number, are inserted in the hub from which they radiate to the six pieces of the felly or inner rim. around the felly is the outer rim or tire made of wood and fastened to the felly with thongs. the wheel of to-day has more iron in it, and has more spokes and is lighter and stronger than the old egyptian wheel, yet in its main features it is made like it. [illustration: fig. .--wheels with spokes. (from national museum.)] [illustration: fig. .--an ancient egyptian chariot showing hub, spokes, felly and rib. (from national museum.)] [illustration: fig. .--wonderful one hoss shay. (from national museum.)] a light running two-wheeled carriage was used by all the civilized nations of the ancient world. three thousand years ago in the great and wicked city of nineveh chariots raced up and down the paved streets "jostling against one another in the broad ways, with the crack of the whip, the rattle of the wheel and the prancing of horses." the chariot played an important part in the life of the greeks and romans, in their racing contests and in their wars, and throughout the middle ages it was the only vehicle in general use in europe. as time passed it was of course made lighter and stronger and better. the doctor's gig so charmingly described by holmes in his "wonderful one hoss shay" may be taken as an illustration of the full development of the two-wheeled carriage (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--an ancient roman chariot.] bring the hind part of one egyptian chariot opposite to the hind part of another, lash the two chariots together, remove the tongue of one of the chariots and you have made a chariot of four wheels or a _coach_. the form of the most ancient of four-wheeled carriages leads to the belief that the coach was first made by joining together two two-wheeled chariots in the way just described. the ancient egyptians had their four-wheeled chariots but only their gods and their kings had the privilege of riding in them. for centuries none but the great and the powerful rode in coaches. the roman chariot (fig. ), bad imitations of which we see nowadays in circus processions, was used only in the splendid triumphal processions which entered rome after a great victory. in the middle ages we get a glimpse of a four-wheeled carriage now and then, but usually the king or a queen is lounging in it (fig. ). the coach could not be generally used in europe in medieval times because the roads were so bad. the excellent roads made by the romans had not been kept in good condition. traveling had to be done either on horseback or in the two-wheeled carriage. in there were but three coaches in paris and in london there was but one. in , however, we find queen elizabeth riding in a coach (fig. ) on her way to see her lover, lord leicester. insert more spokes and lighter ones in the wheels of this coach of the queen's, put on rubber tires and mount the body on elliptical springs[ ] and we will have the coach of to-day. [illustration: fig. .--a coach of the middle ages.] [illustration: fig. .--queen elizabeth's coach.] footnote: [ ] about the year elliptical springs were invented, but they did not find their way into general use until more than a hundred years later. the carriage _continued_ [illustration: fig. .--newton's steam carriage, .] in the last chapter the story of the carriage was brought up to the reign of queen elizabeth of england. in the century following elizabeth's reign a new and most remarkable step in the development of the carriage was taken. you remember that in the seventeenth century there was a great deal of experimenting with steam (p. ). among other experiments was one made by sir isaac newton. this great philosopher tried in to make a steam-carriage, or _locomotive_, as we call it. figure shows the principle upon which he tried to make his carriage work. the steam was to react against the air, as in the case of hero's engine (p. ) and thus push the carriage along. newton's experiment was not satisfactory but the idea of a steam-carriage was now in men's heads and the hope of making one continued to be cherished. in cugnot, a french army officer, invented a steam-carriage of three wheels (fig. ) but it was a very poor one. it traveled only three or four miles an hour, it could carry but three persons, and it had to stop every ten minutes to get up steam. cugnot, however, deserves to be ranked among the great inventors for he showed that a steam-engine could be attached to a carriage and could push it along. in other words he showed that steam could be used for transportation as well as for working pumps and turning the wheels of factories. and that was just what was needed most in the latter part of the eighteenth century. man needed assistance in traveling; he especially needed help in carrying things from place to place. the steam-engine was keeping the mines dry and making it possible to mine great quantities of coal and was turning the wheels of great factories where the spinning-jenny and the new power loom (p. ) were consuming enormous quantities of cotton and wool. now if the steam-engine could also be made to carry the coal and cotton and wool to the factory, and the manufactured products from the factory to the market, the industrial revolution would be complete indeed. [illustration: fig. .--cugnot's steam carriage, .] inventors everywhere put their wits together to construct an engine that would draw a load. the great watt tried to make one, but having failed, he came to the conclusion that the steam-engine could do good work only when standing still. among those who entered the contest was richard trevithick, a cornish miner, born in . trevithick when a lad at school was able to work six examples in arithmetic while his teacher worked one. he proved to be as quick in mechanics as he was in mathematics. he began his experiments with steam when a mere boy, and as early as he had built a steam-locomotive which would run on a table. by he had constructed a steam-carriage (fig. ). three years later ( ) trevithick exhibited a locomotive which carried ten tons of iron, seventy men, and five wagons a distance of nine and one-half miles at the rate of five miles an hour. this was the first steam carriage that actually performed useful work. the honor of inventing the first successful locomotive, therefore, belongs to richard trevithick, although he never received the honor that was due him. the honor went to george stephenson, of wylam, near newcastle, england. stephenson's parents were so poor that they could not afford to send him to school long enough for him to learn to read and write. in his eighteenth year, however, he attended a night school and learned something of the common branches. in his childhood stephenson lived among steam-engines. he began as an engine boy in a colliery and was soon promoted to the position of fireman. at an early age he was trying to build the locomotive that the world needed so badly, one that would do good work at a small cost. trevithick's locomotive was too expensive. stephenson wanted a locomotive that would pay its owner a profit. at the age of thirty-three he had solved his problem. in he exhibited a locomotive that would run ten or twelve miles an hour and carry passengers and freight cheaper than horses could carry them. eleven years later he was operating a railroad between stockton and darlington, england. the steam carriage was now a success (fig. ). the iron horse was soon transporting passengers and freight in all the civilized countries of the world (fig. ). observe that the first passenger car was simply the old coach joined to a locomotive. [illustration: fig. .--stevenson's locomotive, .] [illustration: fig. .--the "best friend." the first locomotive built for actual service in the united states.] the locomotive worked wonders in travel and in carrying loads, yet men were not satisfied with it. we never are satisfied with our means of transportation. no matter how comfortably or cheaply or fast we may travel we always want something better. in the latter part of the nineteenth century the great cities of the world were becoming over-crowded. the people could not be carried from one part of a city to another without great discomfort. the street cars drawn by horses could not carry the crowds and the elevated steam cars were not satisfactory. wits were set to work to relieve the situation and about thirty years ago the _electric car_ (fig. ) was invented. without horse or locomotive this quick-moving car not only successfully handles the crowds which move about the city but it also relieves over-crowding by enabling thousands to reach conveniently and cheaply their suburban homes. it also does the work of the steam car and carries passengers long distances from city to city. [illustration: fig. .--a trolley car.] [illustration: fig. .--a horseless carriage of the sixteenth century.] a late development in carriage making is seen in the automobile. as far back as the sixteenth century a horseless carriage was invented (fig. ) and was operated on the streets of a german city. but here the power was furnished by human muscle. the first real automobile (fig. ) was invented in , by the man who invented the first successful locomotive. trevithick's road locomotive--for that is what an automobile really is--did not work well because the roads upon which he tried it were in very bad condition. inventors after trevithick for a long time paid but little attention to the road locomotive; they bestowed their best thought upon the locomotive that was to be run upon rails--the railroad locomotive. in recent years, however, they have been working on the so-called automobile and they have already given us a horseless carriage that can run on a railless road at a rate as great as that of the fastest railroad locomotives. to what extent is this newest of carriages likely to be used? it is already driving out the horse. will it also drive out the electric car and the railroad locomotive? are we coming to the time when the railroad will be no more and when all travel and all hauling of freight will be done by carriages and wagons without horses on roads without rails? the answers to these questions can of course only be guessed. [illustration: fig. .--the first automobile.] [illustration: fig. .--good-by to the horse.] the last and latest form of the carriage is seen in the _flying-machine_, the automobile of the air. in all ages men have watched with envy the movements of birds and have dreamed of flying-machines, but only in modern times has man dared to take wings and glide in bird-like fashion through the air. the first actual flying by a human being was done by a frenchman named bresnier, who, in , constructed a machine similar to that shown in the right hand picture at the top of figure . bresnier worked his wings with his feet and hands. once he jumped from a second story window and flew over the roof of a cottage. from the days of bresnier on to the present time man has taxed his wits to the utmost to conquer the air, and in his efforts to do this he has invented almost every conceivable kind of machine. about the middle of the nineteenth century inventors began to apply steam to the flying-machine, and it is said that in a man named philips was able, by the aid of revolving fans driven by steam, to elevate a machine to a considerable distance and fly across two fields. in professor langley, with a flying-machine driven by a small steam-engine, made three flights of about three-fourths of a mile each over the potomac river, near washington. this was the first time a flying-machine was propelled a long distance by its own power; it was the first aerial automobile. but the aerial steam carriage was never a success; the steam engine was too heavy. in the early years of the twentieth century inventors began to use the light gasoline engine to drive their flying-machines and then real progress in the art of flying began, and so great has been that progress that the automobiles of the air are becoming rivals of those on the land. [illustration: fig. .--some unsuccessful flying machines of a hundred years ago.] [illustration: fig. .--a successful flying machine of to-day.] the boat [illustration: fig. .--the first boat.] at first, when a man wanted to cross a deep stream, he was compelled to swim across. but man at his best is a poor swimmer, and it was not long before he invented a better method of traveling on water. a log drifting in a stream furnished the hint. by resting his body upon the log and plashing with his hands and feet he found he could move along faster and easier. thus the log was the first boat and the human arm was the first oar. experience soon taught our primitive boatman to get on top of the log and paddle along, using the limb of a tree for an oar (fig. ). but the round log would turn with the least provocation and its passenger suffered many unceremonious duckings. so the boatman made his log flat on top. it now floated better and did not turn over so easily. then the log was made hollow, either by burning (fig. ), or by means of a cutting instrument. thus the canoe was invented. very often if the nature of the tree permitted it, the log was stripped of its bark, and this bark was used as a canoe. [illustration: fig. .--the invention of the canoe.] [illustration: fig. .--the raft--showing also early use of the sail.] [illustration: fig. .--a primitive oarlock.] the canoe was one of the earliest of boats, but it is not in line with the later growth. the ancestry of the modern boat begins with the log and is traced through the raft rather than through the canoe. by lashing together several logs it was found that larger burdens could be carried. therefore the boat of a single log grew into one of several logs--a raft (fig. ). by the time man had learned to make a raft he had learned something else: he had learned to row his boat along by pulling at an oar instead of pushing it along with a paddle. but in order to row there must be something against which the oar may rest; so the oarlock (fig. ) was invented. rafts were used by nearly all the nations of antiquity. herodotus, the father of history, tells us that they were in use in ancient chaldea. in figure we have a kind of raft that may still be seen on some of the rivers of south america. here a most important step in boat-building has been taken. a _sail_ has been hoisted and one of the forces of nature has been bidden to assist man in moving his boat along. the raft was bound to develop into the large boat. the central log was used as a keel and about this was built a boat of the desired shape and size. stout timbers, called ribs, slanted from the keel, and on the ribs were fastened planks running lengthwise with the vessel. to keep out the water the seams between the planks were filled with pitch or wax. thus the raft grew into a large spoon-shaped vessel (fig. ). the early boat was usually propelled by oars, although a single sail sometimes invoked the assistance of the wind. it had no rudder and no deck, and if there was an anchor it was only a heavy stone. [illustration: fig. .--"thus the raft grew into a large, spoon-shaped vessel."] in the early history of the boat there was no such thing as a rudder. the oarsman had to steer his craft as best he could. with the appearance of larger boats, however, a steersman comes into view. he steers by means of a paddle held over the stern of the boat. within historic times, probably about the time of homer ( b. c.), the rudder appears as an oar with a broad blade protruding through a hole in the side of the boat well to the stern (fig. ). throughout the whole period of ancient history boats were steered by rudders of this kind. [illustration: fig. .--the position of the rudder in ancient times.] [illustration: fig. .--ancient anchors.] the anchor came later than the rudder. of course even in primitive times there were methods of securing the vessel to the ground under water but they were very crude. sometimes a sack of sand was used as an anchor, sometimes a log of wood covered with lead was thrown overboard to hold the boat in its place. in homer's time the anchor was a bent rod with a single fluke. about b. c. anacharsis, one of the seven wise men of greece, gave a practical turn to his wisdom and invented an anchor with two flukes (fig. ). the invention received the name of "anchor" from the name of the inventor. [illustration: fig. .--a roman galley of one tier of oars, introducing the rudder.] it was in the mediterranean sea that the boat had its most rapid development. as early as we can get a glimpse of that wonderful body of water it was alive with boats (called galleys) that had well-laid keels and lofty sides, and rudders, and sails. the greatest of the earlier navigators were the phoenicians whose boats had traversed , years ago the whole course of the mediterranean and had even ventured beyond the straits of gibraltar. the ancient greeks also were a great sea-going people, and their merchantmen or trading boats visited every part of the known world. but it was the romans who at last became masters of the ancient seas. the roman galley, therefore, may be taken as the representative boat of ancient times. what kind of a boat was the roman galley? it was propelled chiefly by oars, just as nearly all the boats of antiquity were. occasionally a sail was hoisted when the wind was favorable but the main reliance was the rower's arm. men had not yet learned to use the sail to the best advantage. the older galleys had one row of oarsmen (fig. ), but as the struggle for the mastery of the sea became keener the boats were made larger and more rowers were necessary. galleys with two and three, and even four rows of oarsmen were built by the roman navy. when there was more than one row of oars the rowers sat on benches one above another. the oarsmen were slaves or prisoners captured in war, and their life was most wretched.[ ] they were chained to the benches on which they sat, and were compelled to row as long as a spark of life was left. sometimes they dipped their oars to the music of the flute, but more often it was to the crack of the lash. figure shows us how the roman galley looked when rome was at the height of her power ( a. d.). here is a vessel about feet long and about feet across its _deck_, a part of the boat, by the by, which was not to be seen in the earlier galleys. the boat is a trireme, that is, it has openings for three tiers of oars, and it is propelled by several hundred oarsmen. for steering purposes it has four stout paddles, two on each side near the stern. two masts instead of one carry the sail which, considering the size of the boat, would seem to be insufficient. this galley of the first century of our era represents the full development of the boat in ancient times. [illustration: fig. .--a roman galley with three banks of oars.] after the downfall of rome ( a. d.) it was a long time before there was any real progress in boat-making. the glimpses we get now and then of vessels in the middle ages almost make us feel that boat-building was going backward rather than forward. but such was not the case. the ship in which william of normandy sailed (fig. ) when he crossed over the channel to give battle to harold ( a. d.) was not so impressive as a roman galley, yet it was, nevertheless, a better boat. in the first place william's boat was a better sailer; it relied more upon the force of the wind and less upon the oar. in the second place, it could be steered better, for the rudder had found its way to its proper place and was worked by a tiller. finally, the shape of the norman boat fitted it for fiercer battles with the waves. [illustration: fig. .--the ship in which william the conqueror crossed the channel in .] [illustration: fig. .--a mediterranean galley of the th century.] if we should pass from the english channel to the adriatic we should find that boat-making had undergone the same changes. a mediterranean galley of the fourteenth century (fig. ) shows fewer oars and more sails. instead of three rows of oars and two sails as on the roman galley, there are three sails and one row of oars. this was the tendency of the boat-builder in the middle ages; he crowded on the sail and took off the rowers. a war-boat of the sixteenth century (fig. ) shows that the last row of oarsmen has disappeared. [illustration: fig. .--a war-boat of the th century, showing that the last row of oars had disappeared.] [illustration: fig. .--a chinese compass. as the cart moved the human figure in front always pointed north.] about the middle of the thirteenth century there began to appear on the decks of vessels almost everywhere in europe, a little instrument that is of the greatest importance in the history of the boat. this was the _mariner's compass_. the use of the magnetic needle was known in china (fig. ) a thousand years before it was known to the europeans, but in this, as in many other instances, the chinese did not profit by their knowledge. sailors have always sailed at night by the north star; but before the use of the compass was understood they could little more than guess their way when the night was dark and the stars could not be seen. with a mariner's needle on board they can tell the direction they are going no matter how dark the night. we can easily understand that sailors prized very highly the discovery of the compass. with the appearance of this faithful guide they became bolder and bolder and were soon venturing out upon the trackless expanse of the ocean. it was the compass that led to the discovery of the new world, for without it no sailor could have held his course due west long enough to reach the american coast. after men had learned to carry their burdens on the broad back of the ocean, boat-building took on new life. all the great nations of europe wanted a share in the new world that had just been found; but no nation could hope to profit greatly by the discovery of columbus if its vessels were not swift and strong. so there arose a grim contest for the mastery of the atlantic, just as in ancient times there had been a struggle for the mastery of the mediterranean. spain, france, portugal, holland and england all joined in the battle. when we see the kind of boats she sent out upon the oceans we are not surprised that england won. compare the heavy, angular galley of the first century with the graceful ship of the sixteenth century and we see at once the progress the boat made in the middle ages (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--the great harry.] the log, the raft, the galley, the sailing-ship, these were the steps in the development of the boat up to the end of the seventeenth century. in the eighteenth century another step was taken. you remember that in that century inventors were everywhere trying to make a steam carriage. they were at the same time trying to make a steam boat. their efforts to use steam to drive boats were rewarded with success earlier than were their efforts to use it to draw carriages. this was to be expected. boat-building has always moved along faster than carriage-building. men were gliding about in well-built canoes before they had even the clumsiest of carts. the londoners who gazed with admiration upon the _great harry_ as it sailed on the thames, had never seen as much as a lumbering coach. and so with the steamboat; it had crossed the atlantic before the locomotive could carry passengers from one town to the next. france, england, germany and america were all eager to have the first steamboat. in this race america won, although france and england came out with their colors flying. as far back as the marquis of worcester, of whom we have heard before (p. ), described a vessel that could be moved by steam: "it roweth," he said, "it draweth, it driveth (if needs be) to pass london bridge against the stream at low water." it was one thing, however, to describe a steamboat, and quite another thing to make one. worcester's steam-vessel existed only in the imagination of the inventor. denys papin, who did so much for the steam-engine, fitted out a boat with revolving paddles which were turned by horses. this was nothing new. the ancient roman galley was sometimes propelled by paddle-wheels turned by horses or oxen. it is sometimes claimed that papin turned the paddle-wheels of his boat by means of steam, but there are no grounds for the claim. if france wants the honor of having made the first steamboat she would do better to turn from papin and look to marquis of jouffroy of lyons, this nobleman, it is claimed, built a steamboat (fig. ) which made a successful trip on the river soane, in the year , before a multitude of witnesses. this claim may or may not be just. it may be as the french say: the boat after the trial trip may have been taken to pieces, the model may have been lost and the french revolution may have swallowed up those who witnessed the trip. [illustration: fig. .--the marquis of jouffroy's steamboat, .] about the time the frenchman is said to have been experimenting with his steamboat on the soane similar experiments were being tried in many other places. in the latter part of the eighteenth century the idea of a steam-propelled boat seemed to be in the air. an english poet of the time was bold enough to prophesy: soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam, afar drag the slow barge and draw the rapid car, or on wide, waving wings, expanded bear the flying chariot through the fields of air. for the most part the prophesy has been fulfilled, although the steam flying-machine is not yet an accomplished fact. among those who helped to make good the words of the poet was james rumsey, of sheppardtown, virginia. rumsey in propelled, by means of steam, a boat on the potomac river moving at the rate of five miles an hour. it is almost certain that this was the first boat ever drawn by steam. how did rumsey drive his boat? a piston in a cylinder was worked by a steam-engine. when the piston was raised it brought water in and when it was pushed down it forced the water out behind and the reaction of the jet pushed the boat along. a remarkable revival of a very ancient idea! just as hero turned his globe by reaction, just as newton pushed the first steam carriage along by reaction, so rumsey pushed the first steamboat along by reaction. if you will look on a map of the united states and observe the vast network of waterways which come to the different parts of the country you will understand how important a subject steam navigation must have been to the people of america in the latter part of the eighteenth century. here was a tract of land containing millions upon millions of fertile acres, but it lacked good roads, and without roads it could not be developed. it was, however, traversed by thousands of miles of excellent water-roads and it was plain that if steamboats could be put upon these rivers the gain would be incalculable. the most pressing need of the time, therefore, was a steamboat. no one saw this more clearly than john fitch. this talented but eccentric man served his country in the revolution, and after the war was over roamed hither and thither for several years as a soldier of fortune. about he went to philadelphia with a plan for a steamboat. he organized a company, and secured enough money to enable him to carry out his plans. his boat was ready by august, , and he made his trial trip in philadelphia when the constitutional convention was in session. many of the members of that distinguished body went down to the river to see how the new invention worked. it worked fairly well, but did not arouse much enthusiasm. its speed was only three or four miles an hour and its movement was exceedingly awkward. it was pushed along by two sets of oars, one set entering into the water as the other came out. the steam rowboat of proved at least to be a failure, and was abandoned as worthless. fitch afterward built another steamboat, but it also met with accident and came to naught. heartbroken by his many failures the poor fellow at last ended his life with his own hand. he deserved a better fate, for his experiments taught the world a great deal about the steamboat. [illustration: fig. .--the charlotte dundas, .] while rumsey and fitch were making their boats in america, european inventors were not idle. on the contrary they were so very active that they almost won the honor of making the first successful boat. one of these, william symington, an englishman, built a boat that may, with much justice, be called the first practical steamboat that was ever launched. this was the _charlotte dundas_ (fig. ) which made its trial trip on the clyde and firth canal in . on the _charlotte_ was a _paddle-wheel_ instead of fitch's two sets of paddles. the wheel was placed at the rear of the boat and was drawn by means of a crank which was turned by a rod attached to the piston-rod. watt and his co-workers, a few years before, had shown how the steam-engine could be made to turn a wheel and symington in the construction of his boat put this principle to good use. the _charlotte_ did so well that the duke of bridgewater ordered eight more boats like her to be built for use on the canal. symington was elated for he thought he had at last made a successful steamboat, that is, a steamboat that would give to its owner a profit; but he was doomed to disappointment for the owners of the canal refused to allow steamboats to be employed upon it, and worse than this the duke soon died and the inventor's financial support was gone. the _charlotte_ was taken off the canal and laid in a creek where she fell to pieces. the really successful steamboat had not yet been built. it was to be built first where it was needed most, and that was in america. it was built by a man who kept his eyes on rumsey and fitch and symington, and made the best of what he saw. as all the world knows, this was robert fulton. in august of fulton's steamboat the _clermont_ (fig. ) made a trip on the hudson river from new york to albany, a distance of miles, in thirty-two hours, and returned in thirty hours. fulton advertised for passengers, and his boat was soon crowded. "the _clermont_," says an english writer, "was the steamboat that commenced and continued to run for practical purposes, and for the remuneration of her owners." here was the boat that was wanted--one that was financially profitable. [illustration: fig. .--fulton's steamboat, clermont.] [illustration: fig. .--the boat of stevens.] the paddle-wheels of the _clermont_ were on the sides of the boat about midship. as the wheel turned, about half of it was in the water and about half was out. there were engineers, even in fulton's day who did not believe the wheels ought to be on the sides of the boat. look at waterfowl, they said, look at the graceful swan; its feet do not work at its sides, half under the water and half out. every animal that swims propels itself from behind, and its propellers are entirely under the water. so, thought these engineers, the paddle-wheel of a boat should be placed behind, and should be entirely covered by the water. john stevens, an engineer of hoboken, new jersey, in built a steamboat according to this notion (fig. ). a close inspection of the wheel of the boat would show that it is spiral- or screw-like in shape. stevens' boat made a trial trip on the hudson and worked well; but after fulton's great success the little steamer with its spiral-shaped wheel in the rear was soon forgotten. the idea of a screw-propeller, however, was not lost. it was taken up by john ericsson, a swedish engineer, who, in , built, in an english shipyard for an american captain, the first screw-propeller that crossed the atlantic--the _robert f. stockton_. this was the last step in the development of the boat. since there has been marvelous progress in ship-building, but the progress has consisted in improving upon the invention of ericsson rather than in making new discoveries. with the screw-propeller in its present form we may close our story of the boat. the homely log propelled by rude paddles has become the magnificent floating palace. footnote: [ ] a spirited account of life on a roman galley is found in wallace's "ben hur." [illustration: the adriatic at sea.] the clock "tic-tac! tic-tac! go the wheels of time. we cannot stop them; they will not stop themselves." time passing is life passing and the measurement of time is the measurement of life itself. how important then that our chronometers, or time measures, be accurate and faithful! it is said that a slight error in a general's watch caused the overthrow of napoleon at waterloo and thus changed the history of the world. because of its great importance the measurement of time has always been a subject of deep human interest and the story of the clock begins with the history of primeval man. the larger periods of time are measured by the motion of the heavenly bodies. the year and the four seasons are marked off by the motion of the earth in its long journey around the sun; the months and the weeks are told by the changing moon; sunrise and sunset announce the coming and the going of day. the year and the seasons and the day were measured for primeval man by the great clock in the heavens, but how were smaller periods of time to be measured? how was the passing of fractional parts of a day, an hour or a minute or a second to be noted? an egg was to be boiled; how could the cook tell when it had been in the water long enough? a man out hunting wished to get back to his family before dark: how was he to tell when it was time to start homeward? [illustration: fig. .--a primitive sun-dial.] plainly, the measurement of small portions of time was a very practical problem from the beginning. the first attempt to solve the problem consisted in observing shadows cast by the sun. the changing shadow of the human form was doubtless the first clock. as the shadow grew shorter the observer knew that noon was approaching; when he could reach out one foot and step on the shadow of his head he knew it was time for dinner; when his shadow began to lengthen he knew that evening was coming on. observations of this kind led to the _shadow clock_ or _sun-dial_ (fig. ). you can make one for yourself. on a perfectly level surface exposed all day to the sun, place in an upright position (fig. ) a stick about three feet long, and trace on the surface the shadows as they appear at different times of the day. a little study will enable you to use the shadows for telling the time. sun-dials have been used from the beginning of time and they have not yet passed out of use. they may still be seen in a few public places (fig. ), but they are retained rather as curiosities than as real timekeepers. for the sun-dial is not a good timekeeper for three reasons: ( ) it will not tell the time at night; ( ) it fails in the daytime when the sun is not shining; ( ) it can never be used inside of a house. [illustration: fig. .--a modern sun-dial.] the sun-dial can hardly be called an invention; it is rather an observation. there were, however, inventions for measuring time in the earliest period of man's history. among the oldest of these was the fire-clock, which measured time by the burning away of a stick or a candle. the pacific islanders still use a clock of this kind. "on the midrib of the long palm-leaf they skewer a number of the oily nuts of the candle-nut-tree and light the upper one." as the nuts burn off, one after another, they mark the passage of equal portions of time. here is a clock that can be used at night as well as in the daytime, in the house as well as out of doors. mr. walter hough tells us that chinese messengers who have but a short period to sleep place a lighted piece of joss-stick between their toes when they go to bed. the burning stick serves both as a timepiece and as an alarm-clock. fire-clocks of one kind or another have been used among primitive people in nearly all parts of the globe, and their use has continued far into civilized times. alfred the great ( a. d.) is said to have measured time in the following way: "he procured as much wax as weighed seventy-two pennyweights, which he commanded to be made into six candles, each twelve inches in length with the divisions of inches distinctly marked upon it. these being lighted one after another, regularly burnt four hours each, at the rate of an inch for every twenty minutes. thus the six candles lasted twenty-four hours."[ ] we all remember irving's account of time-measurement in early new york: "the first settlers did not regulate their time by hours, but pipes, in the same manner as they measure distance in holland at this very time; an admirably exact measurement, as the pipe in the mouth of a true-born dutchman is never liable to those accidents and irregularities that are continually putting our clocks out of order." this, of course, is not serious, yet it is an account of a kind of fire-clock that has been widely used. even to-day the koreans reckon time by the number of pipes smoked. if we could step on board a malay proa we should see floating in a bucket of water a cocoanut shell having a small perforation through which the water by slow degrees finds its way into the interior. this orifice is so perforated that the shell will fill and sink in an hour, when the man on watch calls the time and sets it to float again. this sinking cocoanut shell, the first form of the water-clock, is the clock from which has been developed the timepiece of to-day. with it, therefore, the story of the clock really begins. in northern india the cocoanut shell is replaced by a copper bowl (fig. ). at the moment the sinking occurs the attendant announces the hour by striking upon the bowl. [illustration: fig. .--an early form of the water-clock.] the second step in the development of the water-clock was made in china several thousand years ago. in the earlier chinese clock the water, instead of finding its way into the vessel from the outside, was placed inside and allowed to trickle out through a hole in the bottom and fall into a vessel below. in the lower vessel was a float which rose with the water. to the float was attached an indicator which pointed out the hours as the water rose. by this arrangement, when the upper vessel was full, the water, by reason of greater pressure, ran out faster at first than at any other time. the indicator, therefore, at first rose faster than it ought, and after a while did not rise as fast as it ought to. after centuries of experience with the two-vessel arrangement, a third vessel was brought upon the scene. this was placed above the upper vessel, which now became the middle vessel. as fast as water flowed from the middle vessel it was replaced by a stream flowing from the one above it. the depth of the water in the middle vessel did not change, and the water flowed into the lowest vessel at a uniform rate. finally a fourth vessel was brought into use. the chinese water-clock shown in (fig. ) has been running in the city of canton for nearly six hundred years. every afternoon at five, since , the lowest jar has been emptied into the uppermost one and the clock thus wound up for another day. [illustration: fig. .--chinese water-clock at canton.] [illustration: fig. .--an early greek clepsydra.] to follow the further development of the water-clock we must pass from china to greece. in their early history the greeks had nothing better than the sun-dial with which to measure time. about the middle of the fifth century b. c. there arose at athens a need for a better timepiece. in the public assembly the orators were consuming too much time, and in the courts of law the speeches of the lawyers were too long. it was a common thing for a lawyer to harangue his audience for seven or eight hours. to save the city from being talked to death a time-check of some kind became necessary. the sun-dial would not answer, for the sun did not always shine, even in sunny greece; so the idea of the water-clock was borrowed. a certain amount of water was placed in an amphora (urn), in the bottom of which was a small hole through which the water might slowly flow (fig. ). when the amphora was empty the speaker had to stop talking. the greeks called the water-clock a _clepsydra_, which means "the water steals away." the orator whose time was limited by a certain amount of water would keep his eye on the clepsydra, just as a speaker in our time keeps his eye on the clock, and if he were interrupted he would shout to the attendant, "you there, stop the water," or would say to the one who interrupted him, "remember, sir, you are in my water." the story goes that upon one occasion the speaker stopped every now and then to take a drink; the orator's speech, it seems, was as dry as his throat, and a bystander cried out: "drink out of the clepsydra, and then you will give pleasure both to yourself and to your audience." [illustration: fig. .--an improved greek clepsydra.] at first the greeks used a simple form of the clepsydra, but they gradually adopted the improvements made by the chinese, and finally added others. the great plato is said to have turned his attention to commonplace things long enough to invent a clepsydra that would announce the hour by playing the flute. however this may have been, there was in use in the greek world, about b. c., a clepsydra something like the one shown in fig. . this begins to look something like a clock. as the water drops into the cylinder _e_ the float _f_ rises and turns _g_, which carries the hour hand around. inside of the funnel _a_ is a cone _b_ which can be raised or lowered by the bar _d_. in this way the dropping of the water is regulated. water runs to the funnel through _h_, and when the funnel is full the superfluous water runs off through the pipe _i_, and thus the depth of the water in the funnel remains the same and the pressure does not change. notice that when the hand in this old clock has indicated twelve hours it begins to count over again, just as it does on our clocks to-day. how easily it would have been to have continued the numbers on to twenty-four, as they do in italy, and on the railroads in parts of canada, to-day. if we pass from greece to rome, our usual route when we are tracing a feature of our civilization, we find that the romans were slow to introduce new methods of timekeeping. the first public sun-dial in rome was constructed about b. c., an event which the poet plautus bewailed: confound the man who first found out how to distinguish hours! confound them, too who in this place set up a sun-dial to cut and hack my days so wretchedly into small portions! when i was a boy my stomach was my sun-dial, one more sure, truer, and more exact than any of them, this dial told me when 'twas the proper time to go to dinner. the water-clock was brought into rome a little later than the sun-dial, and was used as a time-check upon speakers in the law courts, just as it had been in athens. when the romans first began to use the clepsydra it was already a very good clock. whether it received any great improvements at their hands is not certain. improvements must have been made somewhere, for early in the middle ages we find clepsydras in forms more highly developed than they were in ancient times. in the ninth century the emperor charlemagne received as gift from the king of persia a most interesting timepiece which was worked by water. "the dial was composed of twelve small doors which represented the divisions of the hours; each door opened at the hour it was intended to represent, and out of it came the same number of little balls, which fell, one by one at equal distances of time, on a brass drum. it might be told by the eye what hour it was by the number of doors that were open; and by the ear by the number of balls that fell. when it was twelve o'clock, twelve horsemen in miniature issued forth at the same time, and, marching round the dial, shut all the doors." less wonderful than the clock of the emperor, but more useful as an object of study, is the medieval clepsydra shown in figure . this looks more than ever like the clock we are accustomed to see. it has weights as well as wheels. as the float _a_ rises with the water it allows the weight _c_ to descend and turns the spindle _b_ on the end of which is the hand which marks the hours. notice carefully that this is partly a water-clock and partly a _weight_-clock. the weight in its descent turns the spindle; the water regulates the rate at which the weight may descend. [illustration: fig. .--a medieval clepsydra.] [illustration: fig. .--de vick's clock. the first weight clock. ( .)] the water-clock just described led easily and directly to the weight-clock. clockmakers in the middle ages for centuries tried with more or less success to make clocks that would run by means of weights. in , henry de vick, a german, succeeded in solving the problem. de vick was brought to paris to make a clock for the tower of the king's palace, and he made one that has become famous. in a somewhat improved form it can still be seen in paris in the palais de justice. let us remove the face of this celebrated timepiece and take a look at its works (fig. ). it had a striking part, and a timekeeping part, each distinct from the other. the figure shows only the timekeeping part. the weight (a), of pounds, is wound up by a crank (the key) at _p_. _o_ is the hour-hand. if _a_ is allowed to descend, you can easily see how the whole system of wheels will be moved--and that very rapidly. but if something does not prevent, _a_ will descend faster and faster, the hour-hand will run faster and faster and the clock will run down at once. if the clock is to run at a uniform rate and for any length of time, the power of the weight must escape gradually. in the clepsydra (fig. ) the descent of the weight was controlled by the size of the stream of flowing water. de vick invented a substitute for the stream of flowing water. fasten your attention upon the workings of the saw-toothed wheel _ii_ and the upright post _k_, which moves on the pivots _l_ and _k_, and you may learn what he did. fixed to the upper part of the post _k_ is a beam or balance _ll_, at the ends of which are two small weights _m_ and _m_, and projecting from the post in different directions are two pallets or lips _i_ and _h_. now, as the top of the wheel _ii_ turns toward you, one of its teeth catches the pallet _i_ and turns the post _k_ a part of the way round _toward_ you. just as the tooth _escapes_ from _i_ a tooth at the bottom of _ii_ (moving from you) catches the pallet _h_ and checks the revolving post and turns it _from_ you. thus as _ii_ turns, it gives a to-and-fro motion to the post _k_ and, consequently, a to-and-fro motion to the balance _ll_. _ii_ is called the _escapement_ because the power of the descending weight gradually _escapes_ from its teeth. in the clepsydra the trickling of _water_ regulated the descent of the weight; in de vick's clock the trickling of _power_ or _force_ from the escapement regulated the descent of the weight. the invention of this escapement is the greatest event in the history of the clock. the king was much pleased with de vick's invention. he gave the clockmaker three shillings a day, and allowed him to sleep in the clock tower; a scanty reward indeed for one who had done so much for the world, for de vick's invention led rapidly to the excellent timepieces of to-day, to both our watches and our clocks. after the appearance of the weight-clock, the water-clock gradually fell into disuse, and all the ingenuity of the clockmaker was bestowed upon weights and wheels and escapements and balances. a century of experimenting resulted in a clock without a weight (fig. ). in this timekeeper you recognize the beginnings of the modern watch. the uncoiling of a spring drove the machinery. instead of the balancing beam with its weights as in de vick's clock, a _balance wheel_ is used. the escapement is the same as in the first weight-clock. the busy and delicately-hung little balance wheel in your watch is a growth from de vick's clumsy balance beam. the spring-clock would run in any position. because it could be carried about it led almost at once to the watch. many places claim the distinction of having made the first watch, but it seems that the honor belongs to the city of nürenburg. "nürenburg eggs," as the first portable clocks were called, were made as early as . the first watches were large, uncouth affairs, resembling small table clocks but by the end of the sixteenth century small watches with works of brass and cases of gold or silver were manufactured (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--a clock without weights.] [illustration: fig. .--a watch of the th century.] [illustration: fig. .--galileo's pendulum. ( .)] the last important step in the development of the clock was taken when the _pendulum_ was brought into use. the history of the pendulum will always include a story told by galileo. this great astronomer, the story runs, while worshiping in the cathedral at pisa one day, found the service dull, and began to observe the swinging of the lamps which were suspended from the ceiling. using his pulse as a timekeeper he learned that where the chains were of the same length the lamp swayed to and fro in equal length of time, whether they traveled through a short space or a long space. this observation set the philosopher to experimenting with pendulums of different lengths. among the many things he learned one of the most important was this: a pendulum thirty-nine inches in length will make one vibration in just one second of time. now, if the pendulum could only be kept swinging and its vibrations counted it would serve as a clock. galileo, of course, saw this, and he caused to be made a machine for keeping the pendulum in motion (fig. ), but he did not make a clock; he did not connect his pendulum with the works of a clock. this, however, was done about the middle of the seventeenth century, although it is somewhat difficult to tell who was the first to do it. the honor is claimed by an englishman, a frenchman, and a dutchman. the truth is, clockmakers throughout europe were trying at the same time to make the best of the discoveries of galileo, and several of them about the same time constructed clocks with pendulums. the one who seems to have succeeded first was christian huygens, a dutch astronomer, who, in , constructed a clock, the motions of which were regulated by the swinging of a pendulum (fig. ). the weight was attached to a cord passing over a pulley and gave motion to all the wheels, as in de vick's clock. like de vick's clock also huygens's clock had its escapement wheel acting upon two pallets. in the dutchman's clock, however, the escapement, instead of turning a balance beam to and fro, acted upon the pendulum, giving it enough motion to keep it from stopping. [illustration: fig. .--the first pendulum clock. ( .)] we need not carry our story further than the invention of huygens. timepieces are cheaper and better made and more accurate than they were two hundred years ago, but no really important discovery has been made since the pendulum was introduced. footnote: [ ] wood, "curiosities of clocks and watches." the book what is a book? it is an invention by means of which _thought_ is recorded, and carried about in the world, and handed down from one age to another. almost as soon as men began to think they began to make books and they will probably continue to make them as long as they continue to think. the story of the book, therefore, takes us back to the very beginning of human existence. at first thought was recorded and preserved by _tradition_. an account of a nation's deeds, its laws, the precepts of its religion were stamped, printed, on the memory of persons specially trained to memorize these things and hand them down by word of mouth from generation to generation (fig. ). these persons were usually priests, who underwent long years of daily and hourly training in memorizing what was to be handed down. the sanskrit vedas, the sacred scripture of the hindoos, were for many centuries transmitted by tradition, and it is said it took forty years to memorize them. it is a wonder it did not take longer, for the vedas make a volume as large as our bible. it is believed that primitive people everywhere first adopted the method of tradition to record and preserve the thought which they did not wish to perish. we may say, then, that the first book was written on the tablet of the human memory. [illustration: fig. .--tradition. a mural decoration in the library of congress.] the first step in the growth of the book was taken when _memory aids_ were invented. sometimes we tie a knot in a handkerchief to help us to remember something. now, it was just by tying knots that primitive man first lent assistance to the memory. the first material book was doubtless a series of _knots_ well represented by the _quipu_ (fig. ) of the ancient peruvians. this curious-looking book was written (tied) by one known as the officer of the knots. it contains an account of the strength of the peruvian army, although it is confessed that its exact meaning cannot be made out. it was not intended to be read by any one who was not a keeper of the knots. books made of knots were used by nearly all the ancient peoples of south america and by some of those of asia. akin to the knotted cord is the _notched stick_, which is still used in australia by the savages to assist the memory of one who has a message to carry. figure shows a variety of such message-sticks. the lowest one--a crooked branch of a tree--contains an invitation to a dancing party. the notches are read by the messenger. the notched stick as an aid to memory is not confined to savage races. many a highly civilized baker has kept his accounts by making notches in sticks and so has many a modern dairyman, as he has delivered milk from door to door. [illustration: fig. .--the quipu of the peruvians.] [illustration: fig. .--message-sticks.] memory aids were followed by _picture-writing_. to express thought by means of pictures is an instinct shared alike by the lowest savage and the most enlightened people. all over the earth we find examples of early picture-writing. a beloved chief had died, a fierce battle had been fought, an exciting chase had occurred: promptly the event was pictured on a stone or on the skin of some animal. pages might be filled with illustrations of these primitive picture-books, but we must be content with a single specimen (fig. ). this was found painted on a rock in california: "_we selected this as a camping place, but we have found nothing_," say the human figures _f_, _g_, _h_, _i_. the upturned palms say plainly, "nothing, nothing." "_one of our comrades_ (_d_) _has died of starvation_," say the three lank figures at _c_ pointing to their own lean bodies. "_we deeply mourn his loss_," says the sorrow-stricken _a_. "_we have gone northward_," says _j_, his distinguished arm extended to the north. [illustration: fig. .--picture writing.] practice in picture-making was bound to lead to shorter methods of expressing ideas. it was soon found that reduced pictures, or _picture-signs_, would suffice to express ideas. thus, if the idea of sorrow was to be expressed it was not necessary to draw an elaborate picture of a sorrowful looking man like _a_ in figure ; a weeping eye would express the idea just as well. instead of numerous figures (_e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _i_) weeping and saying, "nothing here," a single pair of empty palms would say the same thing just as clearly. in this way a pair of clasped hands came to mean "friendship"; two trees meant "a forest"; a calf running toward water meant "thirst." these picture-signs, of course, assumed the form in which they could be most easily and rapidly drawn. the weeping eye became [symbol: eye]; the pair of extended palms [symbol: palms]; the forest [symbol: trees]; thirst [symbol: dog walking on water]. a simple picture of this kind became a fixed conventional sign for certain ideas; it was always drawn in the same way and it always stood for the same idea. picture-signs (ideographs) followed picture-writing in almost every country where the people were progressive. china was writing its books with picture-signs many thousands of years ago, and it is writing them in the same clumsy way still. even in highly civilized countries picture-signs have not been entirely abandoned. examine the advertising page of a newspaper or observe the business signs on the street and you will find picture-signs--pictures that are always made in the same way and that always stand for the same thing. each of the great nations of antiquity had its own peculiar system of writing, but the system that should interest us most is that of ancient egypt, for it is to ancient egypt that you must look for the origin of the book that is in your hands. the book in egypt passed through the stages of tradition, memory aids, picture-writing and picture-signs (ideographs); then it passed into the _alphabetic_ stage. since the alphabet is certainly the most wonderful and perhaps the most useful of all inventions, and since it is an egyptian invention, it is well worth your while to learn how the egyptian picture-signs--hieroglyphics they are called--grew into letters, but if you wish to understand the change you will have to give the subject very close attention. well, here was the egyptian system of picture-signs consisting of several thousand pictures of birds, beasts, reptiles, insects, trees, flowers, and objects of almost every description. now suppose you were employed in writing _english_ by means of several thousand picture-signs and in the course of an hour would have to write the words _man_age, _man_sion, _man_tle, _man_date, might it not occur to you that it would be a good thing if that sound _man_ could be represented by the picture-sign for man ([symbol: man])? and if you had to write _trea_cle, _trea_son, _trea_ty, might you not feel like beginning these words with a tree ([symbol: tree])? at some time in the remote past egyptian scribes--priests they usually were--noticing that syllables identical in sound were constantly recurring in the different words, began to represent these _syllable-sounds_ that occurred most frequently by _picture-signs_.[ ] the picture-sign substituted for a syllable-sound was placed in the word not because it stood for an _idea_, but because it stood for a _sound_, just as in the case supposed above you would use the [symbol: man] or the [symbol: tree] not because it represented a thought, but because it had a certain sound. so certain egyptian picture-signs began to be used to represent the sound of certain syllables. the picture-signs thus chosen were called _phonograms_. the phonogram led to the alphabet. the scribes in seeking a way to shorten their work found that the syllable itself could be broken up into separate sounds. for example, when they came to the syllable whose sound is spelled by our three letters _pad_, they found that it had three distinct sounds, namely: ( ) one a lip sound which could be represented by the first sound of the picture-sign [symbol: door] (a door); ( ) one an open-throat or vowel sound which could be represented by the first sound of the picture-sign [symbol: eagle] (an eagle); ( ) one a dental sound which could be represented by the first sound in the picture-sign [symbol: hand] (a hand). so the scribes wrote the syllable (p-a-d) with the three characters [symbol: door] [symbol: eagle] [symbol: hand]. and so with all the other sounds in the egyptian language; each was represented by one of the picture-signs already used. since there were only about twenty-five distinct elementary sounds in the egyptian language, twenty-five picture-signs were sufficient to represent any sound or any word in the language. these twenty-five picture-sounds were the letters of the egyptian alphabet. twenty-five characters instead of thousands! now the egyptian youth could learn to read in three or four years, whereas under the old system it took fifteen or twenty years, just as it takes fifteen or twenty years for the chinese youth to learn to read well. now that its origin has been explained, the story of the alphabet may be rapidly told. indeed, its whole history can be learned from figure . in column (a) are the three egyptian picture-signs referred to above. column (b) shows how the rapid writing of the priests reduced the old hieroglyphics to script; [symbol: door] became [symbol: c's]; [symbol: eagle] became [symbol: odd a] and [symbol: hand] became [symbol: squiggle]. the phoenicians, who were great travelers, visited egypt at a very early date and borrowed not only the idea of the alphabet, but also the forms of the egyptian letters, as column _c_ shows. column _d_ confirms the words of herodotus, who tells us that the greeks borrowed their alphabet from the phoenicians. column _e_ shows that the greeks handed the alphabet on to the romans, who handed it on to us. thus the three letters p, a, d come straight from the egyptians and were originally a _door_, an _eagle_, and a _hand_, respectively. as it is with these three letters, so it is with nearly all the letters of our alphabet. if the letters on the page before you could be suddenly changed to their original form, you would behold a motley collection of birds, serpents, animals, tools, and articles of household use. [illustration: fig. .--showing the development of the three letters, p, a, and d.] [illustration: fig. .--an ancient volume.] we must look to egypt for the origin of the material form of our book as well as for the origin of our alphabetical characters. before history had dawned the egyptians had covered over with their writing nearly all the available surface on their pyramids and in their temples. at a time too far back for a date necessity seems to have compelled them to seek a substitute for stone. this they found in the _papyrus_ plant, which grew in great luxuriance in the valley of the nile. they placed side by side strips of the pith of the papyrus, and across these at right angles they placed another layer of strips. the two layers were then glued together and pressed until a smooth surface was formed. this made one sheet. to make a book a number of sheets were fastened together end to end. when in book form the papyrus was wound around a stick and kept in the form of a roll, a _volume_ (fig. ). the roll was usually eight or ten inches wide, but its length might be upward of a hundred feet. this papyrus roll was the parent of our modern paper book, as the word papyrus is the original of our word paper. the pen used in writing upon papyrus was a split reed (_calamus_), and the ink a mixture of soot and gum. [illustration: fig. .--the oldest book in the world. written nearly , years ago.] the most ancient volume in the world is an egyptian papyrus (fig. ) now in the national library of france. it was written nearly , years ago by an aged sage and contains precepts of right living. in this oldest of volumes we find this priceless gem: "if thou art become great, if after being in poverty thou hast amassed riches and art become the first in the city, if thou art known for thy wealth and art become a great lord, let not thy heart become proud, for it is god who is the author of them for thee." in assyria and in other ancient countries of central asia letters were engraved on cylinders and these were rolled upon slabs of soft clay, making an impression of the raised letters, just as we make an impression with the seal of a ring. in the ruins of the cities of assyria these old clay books may be found by the cart-load. the assyrian cylinder was really the first printing press. in ancient greece and rome wooden tablets within which was spread a thin layer of wax were used as a writing surface in schools and in the business world. the writing on the wax was done with a sharp-pointed instrument of bone or iron called the _stylus_. but next to papyrus the most important writing material of antiquity was _parchment_, or the prepared skin of young calves and kids. the invention of parchment is said to have been due to the literary ambitions of two kings, the king of persia and the king of egypt. the king of pergamus ( b.c.) wishing to have the finest and largest library in the world was consuming enormous quantities of papyrus. the king of egypt, who also wished to have the finest library in the world, in order to cripple the plans of his literary rival, issued a command forbidding the exportation of papyrus from egypt. the king of pergamus, being unable to get papyrus except from egypt, caused the skins of sheep to be prepared, and on these skins books for his library continued to be written. the prepared skins received the name of _pergamena_, because they were made in pergamus, and from pergamena we get the word parchment. this is the story that has come down to us to explain the origin of parchment, but it cannot be accepted as wholly true. we know very well that the old testament was written in gold on a roll of skins long before there was a king of pergamus. indeed, writing was done on skins as far back as the picture-writing period. after the invention of the alphabet and of paper (papyrus) books multiplied as never before. "of making many books there is no end," exclaimed solomon a thousand years before the christian era. greece in her early day was slow to make books, but after she learned from the phoenicians ( b.c.) how to use an alphabet she made up for lost time. in b.c. there was a public library at athens, and years later the greeks had written more good books than all the other countries in the world combined. but the most productive of ancient book-makers were the romans. in rome publishing houses were flourishing in the time of cicero ( b.c.). atticus, one of cicero's best friends, was a publisher. let us see how a book was made in his establishment. of course, there were no type-setters or printing-presses. every book was a manuscript; every word of every copy had to be written with a pen. the writing was sometimes done by slaves trained to write neatly and rapidly. we may imagine or slaves sitting at desks in a room writing to the dictation of the reader. now if atticus had ten readers each of whom dictated to slaves it took only two or three days for the publication of , copies of one of his friend cicero's books. of course every copy would not be perfect. the slave would sometimes make blunders and write what the reader did not dictate. but books in our own time are not free of errors. an english poet recently wrote: "like dew-drops upon fresh blown roses." in print the first letter of the last word in the line appeared as _n_ instead of _r_. this mistake disfigured thousands of copies. in the roman publishing house such a blunder marred only one copy. you can readily see that by methods just described books could be made in great numbers. and so they were. slaves were cheap and numerous and the cost of publication was small. it is estimated that a good sized volume in nero's time ( a.d.) would sell for a shilling. books were cheaper in those days than they had ever been before and almost as cheap as they are to-day, perhaps. the roman world became satiated with reading matter. the poet martial exclaimed, "every one has me in his pocket, every one has me in his hand." books became a drug on the market and could be sold only to grocers for "wrapping up pastry and spices." [illustration: fig. .--book-making in the middle ages.] but a time was to come when books would not be so plentiful and cheap. with the overthrow of rome ( a.d.) culture received a blow from which it did not recover for a thousand years. the barbarian invaders of southern europe destroyed all the books they could find and caused the writers of books to flee within the walls of the churches. throughout the middle ages nearly all the writing in europe was done in the religious houses of monks (fig. ), and nearly all the books written were of a religious nature. the monks worked with the greatest patience and care upon their manuscripts. they often wrote on vellum (calf-skin parchment) and illuminated the page with beautiful colors and adorned it with artistic figures. the manuscript volumes of the dark ages were beautiful and magnificent, but their cost was so great that only the most wealthy could buy. a bible would sometimes cost thousands of dollars. along in the th and th centuries europe began to thirst for knowledge and there arose a demand for cheap books. how could the demand be met? there were now no hordes of intelligent slaves who could be put to work with their pens, and without slave labor the cost of the written book could not be greatly reduced. invention, as always, came to the rescue and gave the world what it wanted. in the first place, writing material was made cheaper by the invention of paper-making. the wasp in making its nest had given a hint for paper-making, but man was extremely slow to take the hint. the chinese had done something in the way of making paper from the bark of trees as early as the first century, but it was not until the middle of the th century that paper began to be manufactured in europe from hemp, rags, linen, and cotton. [illustration: fig. .] in the second place, _printing_ was invented. on a strip of transparent paper write the word _post_. now turn the strip over from right to left and trace the letters on the smooth surface of a block of wood. remove the paper and you will have the result shown in figure . with a sharp knife cut out the wood from around the letters. ink the raised letters and press upon them a piece of paper. you have printed the word "post" in precisely the way the first books were printed. in the th century fancy designs were engraved on wood and by the aid of ink the figures were stamped on silk and linen. in the th century playing cards and books were printed on engraved blocks in the manner the word "post" was printed above. (fig. .) the block-book was the first step in the art of printing. [illustration: fig. .--a block print containing the alphabet used by children when learning to read.] the block-book decreased the cost of a book, for when a page was once engraved as many impressions could be taken as were wanted, yet it did not meet the necessities of the time. in the middle of the th century the desire for reading began to resemble a frenzy and the books that could be got hold of "were as insufficient to slake the thirsty craving for religious and material knowledge as a few rain drops to quench the burning thirst of the traveler in the desert who seeks for long, deep-draughts at copious springs of living water." to meet the demand of the time book-makers everywhere were trying to improve on the block-making process and by the end of the century the book as we have it to-day was being made throughout all europe. in what did the improvement consist? first let us call to mind what the book-maker in the early part of the th century had to begin with; he had paper, he had printing-ink, he had skill in engraving whole pages for block-books, and he had a rude kind of printing-press. the improvement consisted in this: instead of engraving a whole page on a block, single letters were engraved on little blocks called types, and when a word or a line or a page was to be printed these types were set in the position desired; in other words, the improvement consisted in the invention of _moveable types_. the types were first made of wood and afterward of metal. [illustration: fig. .--an early printing press.] the great advantage of the moveable types over the block-book is easily seen. a block containing, say, the word "post" is useless except for printing the word _post_; but divide it into four blocks, each containing a letter: now you can print _post_, _spot_, _tops_, _stop_, _top_, _sop_, _sot_, _pot_, _so_, _to_ and so forth. the exact date of the invention of moveable types cannot be determined. we can only say that they were first used between and . nor can we tell who invented them. the dutch claim that lawrence koster of harlem (holland) made some moveable types as early as , and that john faust, an employee, stole them and carried them to mayence (germany), where john gutenberg learned the secret of printing with them. the germans claim that gutenberg was the real inventor. much can be said in behalf of both claims. what we really know is that the earliest complete book printed on moveable types was a bible which came from the press of john gutenberg in . since there has been no discovery that has changed the character of the printed volume. there have been wonderful improvements in the processes of making and setting type, and printing-presses (fig. ) have become marvels of mechanical skill, but the book of to-day is essentially like the book of four hundred years ago. the tablet of the memory, the knotted cord and notched stick, the uncanny picture-writing, the clumsy picture-sign, the alphabet, the manuscript volume, the printed block-book and the volume before you bring to an end the story of the book. footnote: [ ] the illustration is taken from keary's "dawn of history." the message men had not been living together long in a state of society before they found it necessary to communicate with their fellow-men at a distance and in order to do this the _message_ was invented. we have seen (p. ) that among certain tribes of savages notched sticks bearing messages were sent from one tribe to another. among the ancient peruvians the message took the form of the curious looking quipu. after the alphabet had been invented and papyrus had come into use as a writing material, the message took the form of a written document and resembled somewhat the modern _letter_. [illustration: fig. .--a letter carrier of ancient egypt.] the ancient egyptians, as we would expect, were the first to make use of the letter in the sending of messages (fig. ). the ancient hebrews were also familiar with the letter as a means of communication. we read in the book of chronicles how the post went with the letters of the king and his princes throughout all israel. the word _post_, as used here and elsewhere in the bible, signifies a runner, that is, one specially trained to deliver letters or despatches speedily by running. thus jeremiah predicted that after the fall of babylon "one post shall run to meet another and one messenger to meet another to show the king that his city is taken." although we frequently read of the post in biblical times we are nowhere told that the ordinary people enjoyed the privileges of the post. in olden times it was only kings and princes and persons of high degree that sent and received letters. [illustration: fig. .--an egyptian mail cart.] in nearly all the countries of antiquity there was an organized postal system which was under the control of the government and which carried only government messages. in egypt there were postal chariots (fig. ) of wonderful lightness designed especially for carrying the letters of the king at the greatest possible speed. in ancient judea messengers must have traveled very fast, for job, in his old age, says: "now my days are swifter than the post, they flee away." in ancient persia the postal system awakened the admiration of herodotus. "nothing mortal," says this old greek historian, "travels so fast as these persian messengers. the entire plan is a persian invention and this is the method of it. along the whole line of road there are men stationed with horses, the number of stations being equal to the number of days which the journey takes, allowing a man and a horse to each day, and these men will not be hindered from accomplishing at their best speed the distance they will have to go either by snow, or rain, or heat, or by the darkness of night. the first rider delivers the message to the second and the second to the third, and so it is borne from hand to hand along the whole line." [illustration: fig. .--a letter carrier of ancient greece.] the postal system which herodotus found in persia was better than the system which existed in his own country for the reason that the greeks relied upon human messengers rather than upon horses to carry their messages. young greeks were specially trained (fig. ) as runners for the postal service and greek history contains accounts of the marvelous endurance and swiftness of those employed to carry messages. after the defeat of the persians by the greeks at marathon ( b. c.) a runner carried the news southward and did not pause for rest until he reached athens when he shouted the word "victory!" and expired, being overcome by fatigue. another greek, phillipides by name, was despatched from athens to sparta to ask the spartans for aid in the war which the athenians were carrying on against persia, and the distance between the two cities--about miles--was accomplished by the runner in less than two days. [illustration: fig. .--a letter carrier of ancient rome.] but the best postal system of ancient times was the one which was organized by the romans. as one country after another was brought under the dominion of rome it became more and more necessary for the roman government to keep in close touch with all the parts of the vast empire. accordingly, by the time of augustus ( a.d.), there was established throughout the roman world a fully organized and well-equipped system of posts. along the magnificent roads which led out from rome there were built at regular distances stations, or post-houses, where horses and riders were stationed for the purpose of receiving the messages of the government and hurrying them along to the place of their destination. the stations were only five or six miles apart and each station was provided with a large number of horses and riders. by the frequent changes of horses a letter could be hurried along with considerable speed (fig. ). "by the help of the relays," says gibbon, "it was easy to travel a hundred miles in a day." when rome fell ( a.d.) before the attacks of barbarous tribes her excellent postal system fell with her and many centuries passed before messages could again be regularly and quickly despatched between widely separated points. charles the great, the emperor of the franks, established ( a.d.) a postal system in his empire but the service did not long survive the great ruler. in the th century the merchants of the hanse towns of northern germany could communicate with each other somewhat regularly by letter, but the ordinary people of these towns did not enjoy the privileges of a postal service. in the middle ages, as in the ancient times, the public post was established solely for the benefit of the government. private messages had to be sent as best they could be by private messengers and at private expense. as late as the reign of henry viii ( - ) the only regular post route in england was one which was established for the exclusive use of the king. but the time was soon to come when ordinary citizens as well as officers of state were to share in the benefits of a postal system. in charles i of england gave orders that a post should run night and day between edinburgh and london and that postmen should take with them all such letters as might be directed to towns on or near the road which connected the two cities. the rate of postage[ ] was fixed at two pence for a single letter when the distance was under sixty miles; four pence when the distance was between and miles; six pence for any longer distance in england; and eight pence from london to any place in scotland. it was ordered that only messengers of the king should be allowed to carry letters for profit unless to places to which the king's post did not go. here was the beginning of the modern postal system and the modern post-office. henceforth the post was to carry not only the king's messages, but the messages of all people who would pay the required postage. the example set by england in throwing the post open to the public was followed by other nations, and before a hundred years had passed nearly all the civilized countries of the world were enjoying the privilege and blessings of a well-organized postal system. it is true that the post for a long time moved very slowly--a hundred miles a day was regarded as a flying rate--and postage for a long time was very high, but the service grew constantly better and by the close of the nineteenth century trains were dashing along with the mails at the rate of a thousand miles a day and postage within a country had been reduced to two cents,[ ] while for a nickel a letter could be sent to the most distant parts of the globe. thus far we have traced the history of only one kind of message, the kind that has the form of a written document and that is conveyed by a human carrier over land and water from one place to another. but there is a kind of message which is not borne along by human hands and which does not travel on land or water. this is the _telegraph_,[ ] the message which darts through space and is delivered at a distant point almost at the very instant at which it is sent. the first telegraph was an aerial message and consisted of a signal made by a flash of light. from the earliest times men have used fire signals as a means of sending messages to distant points. when the city of troy in asia minor was captured by the greeks (about b.c.) torches flashing their light from one mountain top to another quickly carried the news to the far-off cities of greece. the ancient greeks gave a great deal of attention to the art of signaling by fire and they invented several very ingenious systems of aerial telegraphy. the most interesting of these systems is one invented and described by the greek historian polybius, who flourished about b.c. when signaling with fire polybius arranged for using two groups of torches with five torches in each group, and for the purpose of understanding the signals he divided the letters of the alphabet into five groups of five letters each.[ ] the torches were raised according to a plan that made it possible to flash a signal that would indicate any letter of the alphabet that might be desired. thus if the desired letter was the third one of the first group--that is, the letter _k_--one torch would show which group was meant and three torches would show which letter was meant (fig. ). in theory this system was perfect, for it provided for sending any kind of message whatever. but in practice it had little value, for it required so many torches and signals that an entire night was consumed in spelling out a few words. [illustration: fig. .--telegraphing by means of fire, b. c.] although the elaborate system of aerial telegraph proposed by polybius was not generally adopted, nevertheless for centuries, both in ancient times and during the middle ages, the fire signal was everywhere used for the quick despatch of important news. in the seventeenth century inventors began to devise new systems of aerial telegraphy. in , the marquis of worcester, who was always busy with some great invention (p. ), announced to the world that he had discovered a plan by which one could talk with another as far as the eye could distinguish between black and white, and that this conversation could be carried on by night as well as by day, even though the night were as dark and as black as pitch. but the telegraph of the marquis was like many of his other inventions--it was chiefly on paper. in , dr. robert hooke of england invented a method by which aerial messages could be sent a distance of thirty or forty miles. his plan was to erect on hill tops a series of high poles connected above by cross-pieces and by means of pulleys suspend from the cross-pieces the letters of the alphabet which would spell out the message (fig. ). in order to read the letters at such great distances the eye was assisted by the telescope, an instrument which had recently been invented. [illustration: fig. .--hooke's aerial telegraph, .] [illustration: fig. .--chappe's aerial telegraph, .] but the greatest improvement in aerial telegraphy was made during the french revolution by claude chappe, a frenchman living in paris. in , chappe erected on the roof of the palace of the louvre a post at the top of which was a cross-beam which moved on a pivot about the center like a scale beam (fig. ). the cross-beam could be moved horizontally, vertically or at almost any angle by means of cords. chappe invented a number of positions for these arms and each position stood for a certain letter of the alphabet. machines of this kind were erected on towers at places from nine to twelve miles apart and soon chappe was sending messages from paris to the city of lille, miles away. the messages were sent with great rapidity, for they passed from one tower to another with the velocity of light--about , miles a second--and it was possible for the operator to spell out about words in an hour. and chappe's messages could be sent at any time, day or night, for the arms of the machine were furnished with argand lamps for night work. chappe's invention was the greatest which had thus far been made in the history of the message. the new system of telegraphy proved to be entirely successful and practical and it was not long before machines similar to those invented by chappe were in use in england and other countries. in , an english writer had the following words of praise for aerial telegraphy: "telegraphs have now been brought to so great a degree of perfection that they carry information so speedily and distinctly and are so much simplified that they can be constructed and maintained at little expense. the advantages, too, which result from their use are almost inconceivable. not to speak of the speed with which information is communicated and orders given in time of war, by means of these aerial signals the whole kingdom could be prepared in an instant to oppose an invading enemy." [illustration: fig. .--sturgeon electro-magnet, .] but the aerial telegraph was soon to have a most dangerous rival. this rival was _the electric telegraph_. many years before the invention of chappe men had been experimenting with electricity with a view of sending messages by means of an electric current. these experiments began in when an englishman named gray caused electricity to produce motion in light bodies located at a distance of more than feet. in , the great benjamin franklin, who conducted so many wonderful experiments in electricity, sent an electric current through a wire which was stretched across the schuylkill river and set fire to some alcohol which was at the opposite end of the wire. we may regard the flash of alcohol as a telegraph, for it could have been used as a signal. in , professor oersted of copenhagen brought a magnetic needle close to a body through which an electric current was passing and he observed that the needle had a tendency to place itself at right angles to the electrified body. in , william sturgeon of england coiled a copper wire around a bar of soft iron and found that when a current of electricity was sent through the wire the bar of iron became a temporary magnet; that is, the bar of iron attracted a needle when the current was passing through the wire and ceased to attract it when the current was broken (fig. ). these discoveries of oersted and sturgeon led to the invention known as the _electro-magnet_ and the electro-magnet led rapidly to the invention of the electric telegraph, for by means of the electro-magnet a signal can be sent to a distance as far as a current of electricity can be sent along a wire. in , professor joseph henry, one of america's most distinguished scientists, discovered a method by which an electric current could be sent along a wire for a very great distance. the next year henry constructed and operated an apparatus which was essentially an electric telegraph (fig. ). "i arranged," he said, "around one of the upper rooms of the albany academy a wire of more than a mile in length through which i was enabled to make signals by sounding a bell. the mechanical arrangement for effecting this object was simply a steel bar permanently magnetized, supported on a pivot and placed with its north end between the two arms of a horse-shoe magnet. when the latter was excited by the current the end of the bar thus placed was attracted by one arm of the horse-shoe and repelled by the other and was thus caused to move in a horizontal plane and its further extremity to strike a bell suitably adjusted." thus by the electric current had been used for sending signals at a distance and the electric telegraph had been invented. [illustration: fig. .--professor henry's electro-magnet, .] but the electric telegraph was still only a toy. how could it be made a practical machine? how could it be used for sending messages in a satisfactory manner? inventors everywhere worked diligently to discover a satisfactory method of signaling and many ingenious systems were invented. as early as a telegraph line was established between paddington, england and drayton--a distance of miles--and messages were sent over the wire. but the line failed to give satisfaction and its use was discontinued. the honor of inventing the first really practical and useful system of electrical telegraphy was at last won by an american, s. f. b. morse, a painter and professor of literature in the university of the city of new york. in morse began to think about a plan for recording signals sent by electricity and by he was about ready to take out a patent for making signals "by the mechanical force of electro-magnetic motion." morse was a poor man and he lacked the means of conducting his experiments. he was fortunate, however, in making the acquaintance and gaining the confidence of alfred vail, a student of the university. vail furnished the money for the experiments and assisted morse in perfecting his system. indeed some of the most original and valuable features of morse's system were invented by young vail and not by morse. in the face of much discouragement and bad luck morse and vail worked patiently on together and by their invention was completed. [illustration: fig. .--the key used by morse.] the main feature of morse's system was to use the electric current for sending an alphabetical code consisting of certain combinations of "dots and dashes." the "dots" were simply clicking sounds and the "dashes" were simply intervals between the clicking sounds. the sounds were made by closing and breaking the current by means of a key or button (fig. ). if the sender of the message pressed upon the key and immediately released it he made at the other end of the line a sharp click which was called a "dot," and a single dot according to the code was the letter e. if the sender of the message pressed upon the key and held it down for a moment he made what was called a "dash," and a single dash according to the code was the letter t. thus by means of "dots and dashes" any letter of the alphabet could be speedily sent. [illustration: fig. .--morse's telegraphic instrument.] morse applied to congress to aid him in his plans and in he secured an appropriation of $ , for establishing a telegraph line between baltimore and washington. morse and vail now hurried the great work on and by may, , the wires had been stretched between the two cities and the instruments were ready for trial. and such heavy, clumsy affairs the instruments (fig. ) were! "the receiving apparatus weighed pounds and it required the strength of two strong men to handle it. at the present day an equally effective magnet need not weigh more than four ounces and might be carried in the vest pocket." but, awkward and clumsy as it was, the new telegraph did its work well. on may , , morse sent from washington the historic message, "what hath god wrought?" (fig. ) and in the twinkling of an eye it was received by vail at baltimore, forty miles away. [illustration: fig. .--the first telegraphic message sent from washington to baltimore, may , .] the morse system proved to be profitable as well as successful and after the electric telegraph was soon in general use in all parts of the world. in the united states cities were rapidly connected by wire and by all the principal places in the country could communicate with each other by telegraph. in , a telegraph line extended across the continent and connected new york and san francisco. five years later, thanks to the perseverance and energy of cyrus w. field, of new york, the old world and the new were joined together by a telegraphic cable passing through the waters of the atlantic from a point on the coast of ireland to a point on the coast of newfoundland. with the laying of this cable, in , all parts of the world were brought into telegraphic communication and it seemed that the last step in the development of the message had been taken. but the story of the message did not end with the invention of the telegraph and the laying of the atlantic cable. almost as soon as inventors had learned how to send a current along a wire and make signals at a distance they began trying experiments to see if they could not also send sounds, especially the sound of the human voice, along a wire; as soon as they had made the _telegraph_ they began to try to make the _telephone_.[ ] in professor wheatstone of england invented an instrument by means of which musical sounds made in one part of a building were carried noiselessly along a wire through several intervening halls and reproduced at the other end of the wire in a distant part of the building. about the same time a frenchman named bourseul produced a device by which a disk vibrating under the influence of the human voice would, by means of an electric current, produce similar vibrations of a disk located at a distance. about professor alexander graham bell, of boston, seized upon an idea similar to that of bourseul's. bell saw in the vibrating disk a resemblance to the drum of the human ear. in imagination he beheld "two iron disks, or ear drums, far apart and connected by an electrified wire, catching vibrations of sound at one end and reproducing them at the other." with this conception in mind he went to work to construct an apparatus that would actually catch the sounds of the voice and reproduce them at a distance. bell, like morse, was without means to conduct his experiments, but friends came to his aid and furnished him with the necessary money and by his labors had resulted in making a machine that would carry the human voice; he had invented the telephone. at first the telephone was only a toy and would operate at only short distances, but as improvements were made the distances grew greater and greater until at last one could talk in boston and be heard in denver, or talk in new york and be heard in london. the telephone grew rapidly into favor as a means of communication and in a short time it was used more than the telegraph. it is estimated that in the entire world about ten billion conversations are held over the telephone in the course of a single year. [illustration: fig. .--professor alexander graham bell speaking over the first long distance telephone between new york and chicago.] as wonderful as the telephone was it was quickly followed by an invention even more wonderful. almost as soon as men had thoroughly mastered the art of sending messages by the aid of wires they set about trying to find a way by which messages could be sent long distances without any wires at all. in , heinrich hertz, a german scientist, showed that electric waves could be sent out in all directions just as light waves go out in all directions. he also showed how these waves might be produced and how they might be detected or caught as they passed through space. in , william marconi, an italian electrician, making use of the facts discovered by hertz, sent a message a distance of feet without the use of wires. this was the first _wireless telegraph_. marconi continued his experiments, sending wireless messages between places further and further apart, and by he was able to signal without cables across the atlantic ocean. [illustration: fig. .--a wireless telegraph station.] and now it seems that the wireless telegraph is to be followed by an invention still more wonderful. men are now working upon a _wireless telephone_. already it is possible to talk without the aid of wires between places so far apart as newark and philadelphia, and many inventors believe that it is only a matter of time when the wireless telephone will be used side by side with the wireless telegraph. footnotes: [ ] in the payment of the postage no stamps were as yet used. indeed the postage stamp is a late invention. postage stamps were not used in england until the year , while in the united states they were not regularly used until . [ ] in , the english government following the recommendations of sir rowland hill, adopted throughout the united kingdom a uniform rate of one penny for letters not exceeding half an ounce in weight, and after this cheap postage became the rule in all countries. [ ] the verb telegraph means to write at a distance afar off. [ ] as there are only letters in the greek alphabet, the last group was one letter short, but this did not interfere with the working of the system. [ ] just as the word telegraph means to "write afar off," so the word telephone means to "sound afar off." index a aerial messages, . aerial telegraphy, - . african loom, . alfred the great, . alphabet, - . alphabetical code, , . amphora, . anacharsis, . anchor, , . arch, , . arc-light, . argand, . arkwright, . atrium, . automobile, . axle, . b balance-wheel (of a watch), . bamboo dwelling, . basket weaving, . batten (of loom), . beam (of plow), , . bell, alexander graham, . bellows, , . bessemer, sir henry, . "black room," . blast-furnace, - . block-book, . boat, history of, - . boiling, . bolting (flour), . book, history of, - . bourseul's telephone, . branca's engine, , . brazier, . bresnier, , . bronze, - . bronze age, . burning glass, . c cable, atlantic, . calamus, . candles, - , . canoe, . capital (of column), . car, electric, . carriage, history of, - . cart, - . cast iron, . cave dwellings, . chappe, claude, . charcoal, , , . charlemagne's clock, . chariots, - . _charlotte dundas_, . chemical matches, . chilcoot loom, . chimneys, . china, , . clepsydra, - . _clermont, the_, . clock, history of, - . cliff dwellings, . coach, . coke, . cologne, cathedral, . colonial architecture, . columns, , . compass, mariner's, . complete harvester, . condenser, . cooking, , . corinthian column, . cradle (for scythe), . cradle scythe, . cugnot's steam-engine, . cutter (for reaper), , . d darby, abraham, . deck (of a boat), . de vick, henry, . digging-stick, . doric column, . drag, . dudley, dud, . dutch plow, . e edison, thomas, . egypt (ancient), , , , , , , , . electric car, . electric light, . electric stove, . electric telegraph, - . electro-magnet, . elevator architecture, . england, , , , , , , . ericsson, john, . escapement, . f faust, john, . felly, . field, cyrus w., . firebrands, . fire-clock, . fire drill, . fireflies, . fireplace, , . fire signals, . fitch, john, . flying-machine, . flying shuttle, . forge, history of, - . france, , . franklin, benjamin, . friction-chemical match, . fulton, robert, . furnaces, , . g gable, , . galley, . gang plow, , . gas, . germany, , . gothic architecture, . gray's electric telegraph, . greeks (ancient), , , , , , , , , , . gutenberg, john, . h haimault scythe, . hargreaves, . harvester, complete, . heating, . hebrews (ancient), , , . heddle, , . henry, joseph, . hero's engine, , . hertz, heinrich, . hieroglyphics, . hill, sir rowland, . hooke, robert, . hopper (for mill), . horse, . horseless carriage, . hot blast, . house, history of, - . hub, . hussey, obed, . huygens, christian, . hypocaust, . i ideographs, . incandescent light, . industrial revolution, , . ionic column, . iron age, - . iron, history of, - . iron plow, . j jacquard's attachment, . jacquard, joseph, . jefferson, thomas, . job's plow, . jouffroy, marquis, . k katta, . kay, john, . keel, . knocking-stone, . koster, laurence, . knots (for writing), . l lake dwellings, . lamp, history of, - . langley, professor, . lathe (of loom), . letter, . livingstone (quoted), . llama, . locomotive, - . loom, history of, - . m mccormick, cyrus, . magnetic needle, . manuscript volumes, . marconi, william, . mariner's compass, . match, history of, - . memory aids, . message, history of the, - . message sticks, . meteoric iron, . mill, history of, - . millstone, . mortar, . moldboards, , . morse, s. f. b., . moveable types, . murdock, william, . n newbold, charles, . newcomen, thomas, . neilson, . newton, sir isaac, . "nürenburg eggs," . o oarlock, . oersted, professor, . ogle, henry, . ore (iron), . p pack (for burdens), . paddle-wheel, , . paper-making, . papin, denis, , . papyrus, . parchment, . parsons, c. a., . pendulum, . penny postage, . percussion matches, . pergamus, king of, . pestle, . phillipides, . phoenicians, , . phonograms, . phosphorus matches, . picture signs, . pig iron, . piston, . plato, . pliny, , . pliny's plow, . plow, history of, - . pointed arch, . polybius, . post, . postage, . postage stamps, . postal systems, - . potter, humphrey, , . power-loom, . printing, . propellers, . pueblo loom, . q quipu, . r radiators, . raft, . reaper, history of, - . richaud, . reed (of loom), . reed (for writing), . reel (for reaper), . renaissance, . _robert f. stockton_, . roller-mill (for flour), . romans (ancient), , , , , , , , , . rudder, , , . rumsey, james, . s safety match, . safety valve, . sail, . st. paul's (cathedral), . st. peter's (cathedral), . screw-propeller, . scythe, . scythe cradle, . self-raking reaper, . self-binding reaper, . seward, w. h. (quoted), . share (of plow), . "shay, wonderful one hoss," . shed (of cloth), . shuttle, , . shuttle-race, . sickle, . sledge, . smelting, . smoke, . somerset, edward, . spinning jenny, . spit (for cooking), . spokes, . spring (of clock), . spring (of vehicle), . stamps (postage), . steam, . steamboat, development, - . steam-carriage, . steam-engine, history of, - . steam-plow, . steam-turbine, . steel, . stephenson, george, . stevens, john, . stone age, . stone dwelling, . stove, history of, - . strike-a-light, . sturgeon, william, . sun dial, . syllable-sounds, . symington, william, . syrian plow, . t tapers, . telegraph, - . telephone, - . tiller, . tinder, . torch, , . tradition, . travail, . trevethick, richard, , . trireme, . turbine (steam), . types, moveable, . u united states, , , , , . v vail, alfred, . vedas, . vienna bread, . volume, . w walker, john, . warming pan, , . warp, . watches, . water-clock, - . water-mill, . watt, james, , , . weaver-bird, . webster, daniel, . weft, . weight-clock, - . wheatstone, professor, . wheel, development of, - . wheel-barrow, . wicks, , . wigwams, . wireless telegraph, . wireless telephone, . wood, jethro, . worcester, marquis of, , , . wrought iron, . y yarn beam, . z zuni indians, . * * * * * transcriber's notes: illustrated symbols are denoted as: [symbol: description]. hyphenation, punctuation, and spelling standardized when a predominant choice was available; otherwise unchanged. page : illustration captioned "fig. .--daniel webster's plow." is referenced in footnote . page : text apparently omitted after "of one piece" page : reference to "fig. " is incorrect. index entry for "iron, history of, - " probably should read " - " internet archive (http://www.archive.org/) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see http://www.archive.org/details/greatinventionsd pier [illustration: the first sheet from the printing press] graded supplementary reading series great inventions and discoveries by willis duff piercy new york charles e. merrill company copyright, by charles e. merrill co. contents chapter page i. introduction ii. the printing press iii. the steam engine iv. electricity: the telegraph and the telephone v. electricity: lighting, transportation, and other uses vi. the discovery of america vii. weapons and gunpowder viii. astronomical discoveries and inventions ix. the cotton-gin x. anæsthetics xi. steel and rubber xii. stenography and the typewriter xiii. the friction match xiv. photography xv. clocks xvi. some machines the sewing machine the reaper spinning and weaving machines xvii. aeronautics great inventions and discoveries chapter i introduction tens of thousands of years ago, when the world was even then old, primitive man came into existence. the first men lived in the branches of trees or in their hollow trunks, and sometimes in caves. for food they chased horses or caught fish from the streams along whose shores they lived. if they had clothing, it was the skins of wild beasts. life was simple, slow, and crude. there were no cities, books, railroads, clocks, newspapers, schools, churches, judges, teachers, automobiles, or elections. man lived with other animals and was little superior to them. these primitive men are called cave-dwellers. a resident of modern new york sits down to a breakfast gathered from distant parts of the earth. he spreads out before him his daily newspaper, which tells him what has happened during the last twenty-four hours all over the world. telegraph wires and ocean cables have flashed these events across thousands of miles into the newspaper offices and there great printing presses have recorded them upon paper. after breakfast he gets into an electric street car or automobile and is carried through miles of space in a very short time to a great steel building hundreds of feet high. he steps into an electric elevator and is whirled rapidly up to his office on the twentieth floor. the postman brings a package of letters which fast-flying mail trains have brought him during the night from far-away places. he reads them and then speaks rapidly to a young woman who makes some crooked marks on paper. after running her fingers rapidly over the keyboard of a little machine, she hands him type-written replies to the letters he has received. a boy brings him a little yellow envelope. in it he finds a message from seattle or london or hong kong or buenos ayres sent only a few moments ago. he wishes to talk with a business associate in boston or st. louis. still sitting at his desk, he applies a small tube to his ear and speaks to the man as distinctly and as instantaneously as if he were in the next room. he finds it important to be in chicago. after luncheon, he boards a train equipped with the conveniences of his own home, sleeps there comfortably, and flies through the thousand miles of distance in time to have breakfast in chicago the next morning. what is the difference between the life of the cave-dweller and the life of the modern new yorker? we call it _civilization_. it is not at one bound or at one thousand that we pass from the primitive cave to new york city. civilization is the accumulation of centuries of achievement. it is builded, in the language of isaiah, "line upon line, line upon line; here a little, and there a little." different nations have accomplished different things and have scattered the seeds of these accomplishments among other nations. certain individuals have seen farther in certain directions than their fellows and have contributed to civilization the results of their vision. whoever has added to the safety, the happiness, the power, or the convenience of society; whoever discovers a star or a microbe; whoever paints a picture or plants a tree, builds a bridge or fights a righteous battle; whoever makes two ears of corn grow where there grew but one before; whoever lets the light shine in upon a darkened street or a darkened spirit is an agent of civilization. the history of civilization is largely a history of man's struggle against the forces of nature and of his victory over them. nature is always saying to man, "thou shalt not"; and man is always replying, "i will." if diseases lurk in air and water, cures are ready in the mind of man. nature shoves men apart with lofty mountains; but man drives his iron horse over the mountains or through them. vast oceans roll and mighty winds blow between continents; but steam laughs at stormy seas. the moon's light is not sufficient for man's purposes and he makes a brighter one. when winter blows his icy breath, man warms himself with coal and fire. the south pours down upon him her scorching summer; but he has learned how to freeze water into ice. time and space conspire together for human isolation; man conjures with electricity and with it destroys both. the stars seek to hide their secrets behind immeasurable distances; but an italian gives man a glass that brings the heavens closer before his vision. history tries to conceal itself in the rubbish of ages; but with ink man preserves the past. his asylums, hospitals, churches, schools, libraries, and universities are lights along the shore guiding the human race in its voyage down the ever widening stream of growth and possibility. the centuries do not yield to man equal advancement. some are very fertile; others are almost, if not quite, barren. the entire period of a thousand years stretching from the fall of rome to the discovery of america was as sterile as a heath. on the other hand, the nineteenth century was the greatest in history in point of human progress, especially in the field of inventions. it alone gave to man far more of civilization than the whole ten centuries before the discovery of america or indeed any other period of a thousand years. one hundred years ago there was not a mile of railroad, ocean cable, or telegraph wire in the world; not a telephone, automobile, electric light, or typewriter. the people were then deriding the new-born idea of the steamboat, and wireless telegraphy had not been dreamed of. even up to the beginning of the revolutionary war, less than one hundred fifty years ago, no man in america had ever seen an envelope, a match, a stove, a piece of coal, a daily newspaper, a sewing machine, a reaper, a drill, a mowing machine, ether, chloroform, galvanized iron, india-rubber, or steam-driven machinery. we who are alive to-day are fortunate more than any other generation thus far in the world's population. "we are living, we are dwelling in a grand and awful time; in an age on ages telling-- to be living is sublime." the horse and the dog of to-day are not very different from the horses and the dogs of a thousand years ago. from the beginning they have done about all they can ever do. not so with man. he is a progressive animal. he is always reaching outward and upward for broader and higher things. tennyson sings, "for i doubt not thro' the ages one increasing purpose runs, and the thoughts of men are widen'd with the process of the suns." the difference between the lives of the primitive cave-dweller and the modern american is unspeakably vast. but looking far down the vista of future ages, who shall say that the fortieth century may not as far surpass the twentieth as the twentieth does the sleepy dawn of man's existence on the earth? we are packing more of life into a day than our ancestors could put into a month. and the hours of the centuries to come hold a fuller experience than our days. thomas carlyle calls man a "tool-using animal." throughout all time man has made and used tools. these tools are the best measure of his civilization. according to the material out of which they have been made, man's progress has been divided into epochs or ages. primitive man made a few implements of bone, horn, and stone. they were few and crude. this period is called the stone age. during it men dwelt in caves or huts, dressed themselves in skins, and lived by catching fish, chasing wild animals, and gathering wild fruits. by and by man learned how to make tools out of bronze, an alloy composed of copper and tin. these bronze implements were more numerous and more efficient than the stone tools and gave man a higher degree of power and workmanship. with them he cut down trees or carved stone for his dwellings and acquired generally a higher order of life. this era is named the bronze age. finally the use of iron was discovered. this metal afforded many tools that could not be made of stone or bronze--tools that were much stronger and more efficient. man became correspondingly more powerful and his life more complex. the period during which iron was used is called the iron age. _invention_ is the making of some new thing not previously existing. _discovery_ is the finding of something already in existence but not known before. there was no electric telegraph until samuel morse made or invented it; america has always existed, but was not known until christopher columbus found or discovered it. among all the builders of civilization, not the least are the inventors and discoverers. high up on the page of those who have made the world great will always stand the names of gutenberg or coster, watt, stephenson, morse, edison, fulton, galileo, newton, columbus, morton, bell, marconi, and others who have invented new machines and discovered new processes for making life more happy, safe, and powerful. regarding the influence of inventions upon civilization, lord salisbury says: "the inventors and even the first users of the great discoveries in applied science had never realized what influence their work was to have upon industry, politics, society, and even religion. the discovery of gunpowder simply annihilated feudalism, thus effecting an entire change in the structure of government in europe. as to the discovery of printing, it not only made religious revolutions possible, but was the basis on which modern democratic forms of government rested. the steam engine not only changed all forms of industry and the conditions under which industries were prosecuted, but it made practically contiguous the most distant parts of the world, reducing its vastness to a relatively contracted area. and now the introduction of electricity as a form of force seems destined, as its development proceeds, to bring about results quite as important in their way, though but yet dimly seen by the most far-sighted." secretary seward pays this tribute to invention: "the exercise of the inventive faculty is the nearest akin to the creator of any faculty possessed by the human mind; for while it does not create in the sense that the creator did, yet it is the nearest approach to it of anything known to man." and lord bacon tells us: "the introduction of new inventions seemeth to be the very chief of all human actions. the benefits of new inventions may extend to all mankind universally; while the good of political achievements can respect but some particular cantons of men; these latter do not endure above a few ages, the former forever. inventions make all men happy, without injury to any one single person. furthermore, they are, as it were, new creations, and imitations of god's own works." chapter ii the printing press "blessings be on the head of cadmus, the phoenicians, or whoever it is, that first invented books." _thomas carlyle._ "except a living man," says charles kingsley, "there is nothing more wonderful than a book--a message to us from the dead--from human souls whom we never saw, who lived perhaps thousands of miles away; and yet these, on those little sheets of paper, speak to us, amuse us, vivify us, teach us, comfort us, open their hearts to us as brothers. we ought to reverence books, to look at them as useful and mighty things." milton calls a good book "the precious life blood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life." cicero likens a room without books to a body without a soul. ruskin says, "bread of flour is good; but there is bread, sweet as honey, if we would eat it, in a good book." and thomas carlyle exclaims: "wondrous, indeed, is the virtue of a true book! o thou who art able to write a book, which once in two centuries or oftener there is a man gifted to do, envy not him whom they name city-builder, and inexpressibly pity him whom they name conqueror or city-burner!" is it not wonderful that a record of all the world has thought and said and felt and done can be deposited in a corner of my room, and that there i may sit and commune with the master spirits of all the centuries? socrates, plato, homer, cicero, virgil, horace, paul, david, moses, buddha, confucius, goethe, dante, shakespeare, hugo, wordsworth, tennyson, carlyle, and emerson, all in one room at the same time! great as books are, however, the world has not long had them. for many generations after man's advent, he had no language. he communicated with his fellows by means of gestures or gave vent to his feelings in rude grunts or cries, much as the lower animals do now. but god gave to man something he did not bestow upon the other animals--the power of articulate speech. certain sounds came to represent certain ideas and a kind of oral language grew up. this became more and more highly developed as time went by. for centuries the traditions, stories, and songs of men were handed down orally from father to son and were preserved only in the memory. the poems of homer, the great greek bard, were recited by readers to large audiences, some of them numbering probably twenty thousand. by and by men felt the need of preserving their thoughts in some more permanent way than by memory, and there grew up a rude system of writing. at first pictures or rude imitations of objects were used; a circle or a disc might represent the sun, and a crescent the moon. the idea of a tree was denoted by the picture of a tree. the early indians of north america were among the peoples who used a system of picture writing. in process of time, as men grew in knowledge and culture, certain fixed signs began to denote certain sounds, and a phonetic system of writing was developed. for the first phonetic alphabet it is generally supposed that we are indebted to the phoenicians, an active, commercial people, who lived along the eastern shore of the mediterranean sea. they were a maritime nation and scattered their alphabet wherever they sailed, so that some kind of phonetic alphabet finally existed throughout the civilized world. books among the ancients were very different from the books of the present. paper has not been known long, nor, indeed, has the art of printing. when man began to preserve his thoughts and deeds in more permanent form than in the memory, various substances were used to write upon. josephus, an historian of the jews, mentions two columns, one of stone and the other of brick, upon which the children of seth wrote accounts of their inventions and astronomical discoveries. tablets of lead containing the works of hesiod, a greek writer, were deposited in the temple of the muses in boeotia. according to the bible, the ten commandments which the lord gave to moses on mount sinai for the children of israel were engraved on two tablets of stone; and the laws of solon, the great grecian law-giver, were carved on planks of wood. sixty centuries ago on the banks of the nile in northern africa flourished the civilization of the egyptians. there grew abundantly in egypt a marsh reed called the papyrus. from the name of this plant is derived our word _paper_. the egyptians made their books from the papyrus plant. with a sharp instrument they cut lengthwise strips through the stalk, put these strips together edge to edge, and on them at right angles, placed another layer of shorter strips. the two layers were then moistened with nile water, pressed together, and left to dry. a leaf of writing material was thus produced. any roughness on the surface of the sheet was polished away with some smooth instrument. a number of leaves were then glued together so as to form a long piece of the material. the egyptians took reeds, dipped them in gum water colored with charcoal or with a kind of resinous soot, and wrote on the long papyrus strip. sometimes ink was made of the cuttle fish or from lees of wine. after the papyrus had been written upon, it was rolled up and became an egyptian book. papyrus was used for writing material not only by the egyptians but by the greeks and the romans also, and for a long time it was the chief substance used for writing throughout the civilized world. it continued in use to a greater or less extent till about the seventh century after christ. on the plains of asia lived the chaldeans, whose civilization was about as old as that of the egyptians. but their books were very different. men use for their purposes the things that are close at hand. in egypt the papyrus plant was utilized for making books. in chaldea, instead of this marsh reed, there were great stores of clay and of this material the ancient chaldeans, and the babylonians and the assyrians who followed them, made their books. the chaldeans took bricks or masses of smooth clay and, while they were yet soft, made impressions on them with a metal stiletto shaped at the end like the side of a wedge. in latin the word for _wedge_ is _cuneus_. hence this old writing of the chaldeans is called cuneiform or wedge-shaped. some of these wedge-shaped impressions stood for whole words, others for syllables. after the clay tablets had been written upon, they were burned or dried hard in the sun. a chaldean book was thus made very durable and lasted for ages. during recent years many of them have been dug up in ancient babylonia and deciphered. they consist of grammars, dictionaries, religious books and hymns, laws, public documents, and records of private business transactions. the early greeks and romans used for their books tablets of ivory or metal or, more commonly, tablets of wood taken from the beech or fir tree. the inner sides of these tablets were coated with wax. on this wax coating the letters were traced with a pointed metallic pen or stiletto called the stylus. our english word _style_, as used in rhetoric, comes from the name of this instrument. the other end of the stylus was used for erasing. two of these waxed tablets, joined at the edges by wire hinges, were the earliest specimens of bookbinding. wax tablets of this kind continued in partial use in europe through the middle ages. later the leaves of the palm tree were used; then the inner bark of the lime, ash, maple, or elm. the next material that came into general use for writing purposes was parchment. this was made from the skins of animals, particularly sheep or lambs. next came vellum, the prepared skin of the calf. parchment and vellum were written upon with a metallic pen. as these substances were very costly, sometimes one book was written over another on the same piece of parchment or vellum. of course this made the reading of the manuscript very difficult. about the end of the ninth century or the beginning of the tenth, after christ, parchment and vellum as material for books gave way to paper. at first paper was made of cotton, but during the twelfth century it was produced from linen. it is not known who invented linen paper, but its introduction gave the first great impulse to book making. in the early greek books the lines ran in opposite directions alternately. that is, there would be a line from left to right across the page, and then the next lower line would begin at the right and run towards the left. among some of the orientals the lines ran from right to left. in the old chinese books the lines were vertical down the page, as they are still. among western and northern peoples the lines ran from left to right as in our modern books. the old civilizations of egypt and babylonia, in which the art of book-making originated, sprang up, flourished, and decayed, burying from the sight of men precious secrets in the arts and sciences. the beautiful flower of greek culture budded, bloomed, and withered. passing on from east to west, civilization knocked at the door of rome and awakened there such military and legal genius as the world had not yet seen. then a horde of wild barbarians poured over the mountains of northern italy and overthrew the mighty city on the tiber. the sun of civilization was setting, at least for a time. night was coming on, the night of the dark ages, a night without a star of human thought or achievement, a night full of the noxious vapors of ignorance and superstition. about the beginning of the fifteenth century after christ there came over the world a great intellectual awakening. the human intellect began to awake, to stretch itself, to go forth and conquer. one of the first signs and causes of this intellectual awakening was an event that happened at mainz in germany or at haarlem in holland, or possibly in both places at the same time. of all the events that have made for civilization and have influenced the progress of the human race, this event at haarlem or mainz is the most important. it is the invention of printing. before this time, ever since man began to record his thoughts, whether on plank, stone, or papyrus, on bark of tree, skin of animal, or tablet of wax or paper, every letter was made by hand. the process was necessarily slow, books were rare and costly, and only the few could have them. but with the advent of a process that would multiply books and make them cheap, learning was made accessible to the multitude. the clang of the first printing press was the death knell of ignorance and tyranny. [illustration: an advertisement of caxton, the first printer in england] before the invention of printing with movable, metal types, a kind of block printing was used. the words or letters were carved on a block of wood; the block was applied to paper, silk, cloth, or vellum, and thus impressions were made. it has always been a matter of dispute as to who invented printing. it is fairly clear that printing, both with blocks and with movable types, was practised in china and japan long before it was in europe. there is a tradition that as far back as a.d. chinese classics were cut upon tablets of stone, that these tablets were placed outside the university, and that impressions were made from them. however, we are not indebted to china or japan for the art of printing. the real invention of printing, so far as the civilized world is concerned, occurred in europe in the latter part of the fifteenth century. the inventor is often said to be johann gutenberg, of mainz, germany. another strong claimant for this honor is lourens janszoon coster, who lived at haarlem, in holland. concerning the lives of coster and gutenberg little is known. coster was born at haarlem, holland, about a.d. he was a member of the haarlem council, assessor and treasurer. he probably perished in the plague that visited haarlem in - . gutenberg was born of noble parents at mainz, germany, in . he had an active mind and gave attention to the manufacture of money, the polishing of stones, and the making of looking-glasses, besides his efforts in printing. he died in february, , poor, childless, and almost friendless. the first printed book, so far as can be determined, was made at mainz, germany, and bears the date of a.d. from certain legal records it is supposed that gutenberg was the maker of this book and the inventor of printing. on the other hand, there is a story that coster, while walking in the woods one autumn afternoon, chanced to make for his little grandchild some letters from the bark of a tree; that these letters suggested to him the idea of metallic types; and that he, and not gutenberg, was the inventor of printing. as the story goes, a slave stole coster's types and ran away with them from haarlem to mainz; and the books which, it is supposed, were made at the latter place came really from coster's types, not gutenberg's. the fact cannot be known. it has hopelessly gone with the years. this first book, which was printed in two different editions, consisted of certain letters written by pope nicholas v in behalf of the kingdom of cyprus. by about a.d. printing had extended from mainz to all the chief towns of germany, italy, switzerland, france, the netherlands, spain, and england. by the beginning of the sixteenth century it had spread to all the principal places of europe. in the type of the early books the various letter forms were not fixed as they are in modern books, but the type for each book was made as much as possible like the writing of the original manuscript. as printers moved from place to place introducing their art, it seems that not one carried away the types of his master but each made his own anew. type was originally made and set up by hand, piece by piece, so that even the production of printed books was very slow. various mechanical devices have been invented from time to time, quickening and cheapening the making of books and other printed matter, so that to-day printers turn out books and papers in large quantities in an amazingly short time. [illustration: the printing press in boston at which franklin worked] the first newspaper in the world is believed to have been the _frankfurter journal_, published about a.d. at frankfort-on-the-main, in germany. but of this there is no certainty. newspapers, however, had their beginnings in germany and italy some time in the latter part of the sixteenth or the first part of the seventeenth century. it is believed that the _weekly news_, started in london in , was the first newspaper published in england. in the united states there was a printing press attached to harvard college, at cambridge, massachusetts, as early as , two years after the college was founded, and only six years after the settlement of boston. with this one exception, for a long time there were no printing presses in the colonies. a newspaper called _publick occurrences_ was started in boston in , but it was soon afterward suppressed by the british government. the first permanent newspaper in america was the _boston news letter_, established at boston in . one of the greatest wonders and triumphs of civilization is the great modern daily newspaper. it occupies a giant "sky-scraper" as its home, employs a small army of workmen, spends vast sums of money in obtaining and printing the news, and is sold for a cent per copy. the head of a newspaper staff is the editor-in-chief. he is in a general way responsible to the publishers for the paper. next in command is the managing editor who has charge of the actual work of publication. subordinate to the managing editor are other editors who have control over various departments of the paper. the telegraph editor looks after news sent by telegraph; the city editor has charge of happenings in the city of publication; the exchange editor clips items from other papers; the religious editor attends to affairs of religion; the sporting editor collects and arranges news of sports and games; the commercial editor works with the markets and matters of commerce and business; the society editor gives attention to social functions; and the dramatic editor takes note of the theaters. the city editor commands a company of perhaps half a hundred reporters, who are sent scurrying daily throughout the city to bring in the news from its various sources. one goes to the ball game, another to a funeral, another to the courts, another to a hotel to interview some prominent person, and still another goes to a political convention. there are also photographers, illustrators, and editorial writers. at the close of the day, special correspondents and representatives of press associations in every nook and corner of the earth send the world's news for the day by telegraph and ocean cable direct into the newspaper office. a king has died; a battle has been fought; storm, earthquake, or fire has destroyed a city; or there has been some achievement in science or art. the local reporters have brought in the news of the city. after all has been quickly written, examined, and edited, the reports are sent to the composing room to be put into type. the foreman of the composing room distributes the manuscript, called copy, among skilled operators, who by means of type-setting machines put it into type. impressions are then made from this type on strips of paper. these impressions are called proofs. proof readers compare these proofs with the original copy for the purpose of correcting errors. after the correction of errors the columns of type, called galleys, are locked up in a form which is the size of a page. the form is next sent to the stereotyping room, where an exact reproduction is made in metal. the metal plates are put in place on the presses. the machinery is started. tons of white paper are fed into the presses at one end. out at another in an instant comes the finished newspaper, printed, cut, and folded. these papers are counted and delivered automatically to the mailing room, at the rate of about , copies in an hour, for the improved, modern press. after their arrival at the mailing room, papers that are for out-of-town subscribers are wrapped in packages, addressed, and carried in express wagons to fast mail trains, which carry this record of what man did the previous day to readers hundreds of miles away. this afternoon at five o'clock a prominent man dies suddenly in san francisco. to-night at midnight the newspapers of st. louis, chicago, and new york will come from the press with his picture and a long sketch of his life. how is this possible in so short a time? the papers have on file, arranged in alphabetical order, photographs of prominent persons and places and biographical sketches of great men, kept up to date. whenever any noted person, place, or thing is made conspicuous by any event, the picture and sketch are taken from the files and used. it is the electric telegraph that makes possible the modern daily newspaper. before its invention, papers resorted to various devices for transmitting news. for some years messengers riding ponies brought news from washington to the new york papers. these papers also utilized small, swift-sailing vessels to meet incoming ships bearing news from foreign countries. a recent bulletin on printing and publishing issued by the census bureau of the united states government showed that there were in the united states , newspapers and periodicals, printed in twenty-seven different languages. of these, , were daily; , weekly; , monthly; quarterly; tri-weekly; semi-weekly; and of all other kinds. , of these papers were english; german; scandinavian; italian; french; bohemian; spanish; hebrew; dutch; chinese; japanese; greek; polish; hungarian; arabic; and two each in the welsh, syrian and gaelic languages. the capital invested in printing and publishing in the united states was a little more than $ , , . it would take one person twelve hours a day every day for six thousand years, or from the beginnings of egyptian and babylonian civilization to the dawn of the twentieth century, to read at an average rate all the papers published in the united states during a single year. chapter iii the steam engine the song of steam by george washington cutter harness me down with your iron bands; be sure of your curb and rein; for i scorn the power of your puny hands, as the tempest scorns a chain. how i laughed as i lay concealed from sight for many a countless hour, at the childish boast of human might, and the pride of human power. when i saw an army upon the land, a navy upon the seas, creeping along, a snail-like band, or waiting the wayward breeze; when i marked the peasant faintly reel with the toil which he daily bore, as he feebly turned the tardy wheel, or tugged at the weary oar; when i measured the panting courser's speed, the flight of the courier dove, as they bore the law a king decreed, or the lines of impatient love,-- i could not but think how the world would feel, as these were outstripped afar, when i should be bound to the rushing keel, or chained to the flying car; ha, ha! they found me out at last; they invited me forth at length; and i rushed to my throne with a thunder-blast, and i laughed in my iron strength. oh, then ye saw a wondrous change on the earth and the ocean wide, where now my fiery armies range, nor wait for wind and tide. hurrah! hurrah! the waters o'er; the mountain's steep decline; time--space--have yielded to my power; the world--the world is mine! the rivers the sun hath earliest blest, or those where his beams decline; the giant streams of the queenly west, and the orient floods divine. the ocean pales where'er i sweep, i in my strength rejoice; and the monsters of the briny deep cower, trembling, at my voice. i carry the wealth and the lord of earth, the thoughts of his god-like mind; the wind lags after my going forth, the lightning is left behind. in the darksome depths of the fathomless mine my tireless arm doth play, where the rocks never saw the sun decline, or the dawn of the glorious day. i bring earth's glittering jewels up from the hidden caves below, and i make the fountain's granite cup with a crystal gush o'erflow. i blow the bellows, i forge the steel, in all the shops of trade; i hammer the ore, and turn the wheel, where my arms of strength are made; i manage the furnace, the mill, the mint; i carry, i spin, i weave; and all my doings i put into print on every saturday eve. i've no muscle to weary, no breast to decay, no bones to be "laid on the shelf," and soon i intend you may "go and play," while i manage this world myself. but harness me down with your iron bands, be sure of your curb and rein; for i scorn the power of your puny hands, as the tempest scorns a chain! the most powerful and important mass of matter on the earth is the steam engine. it is the throbbing heart of civilization, even as the printing press is its brain. it would be difficult for man to compute his debt to steam. upon it he relies for food, clothing, and shelter, the three necessities for which the race has always striven; and without it he could have scarcely any of life's comforts and luxuries. steam is the mistress of commerce, manufacturing, and mining, and the servant of agriculture. steam gives employment to millions of men. it plants cities and towns in waste places. it enables man to leave the little valley or hillside where his fathers lived, and makes of him a citizen of the world. it lessens the power of time and space, and makes neighbors of ocean-divided continents. it would not be easy for men living in the twentieth century to imagine a society uninfluenced by the use of steam; but nearly all of man's life on the earth has been passed without its help. fire and water, the two productive factors of steam, have always existed; but it was not until a few score of years ago that man learned to put them together successfully, and to produce the greatest force known to civilization. in the few years since its discovery it has spread to every nook and corner of civilization. suppose you could ascend to some great height whence you could see working at one time all the steam driven machinery in the world. what a sight it would be! what if the noise from all this machinery--the screech of the speeding locomotive, the hum and roar of factory and mill, the hoarse yell of ships, and the puffing of mine-engines--should reach your ear at once? what a sound it would be! the idea of using steam for driving stationary machinery originated in the early centuries. this was the first use to which steam was put. for a long time no one seems to have thought of using it for transportation purposes. as far back as b.c., we find mention of "heat engines," which employed steam as their motive power, and were used for organ blowing, the turning of spits, and like purposes. but from this early date till the seventeenth century practically no progress was made in the use of steam. though men had experimented with steam up to this time with more or less success, the world is chiefly indebted for the developed type of the steam engine to james watt and george stephenson. watt was born in greenock, scotland, january , . he was a poor boy and early in life he was thrown upon his own resources. during his youth he struggled against ill health; for days at a time he was prostrated with severe headaches. but he was bright, determined, and had a genial disposition that made him many friends. when he was twenty-one years old, he secured a position as maker of scientific instruments for the university in glasgow. he began discussing with some scientific friends at the university the possibility of improving the steam engine, which at that time was used only for pumping water, chiefly in the drainage of mines. he entered upon a scientific study of the properties of steam and tried to devise means for making the steam engine more useful. one sunday afternoon early in , while walking in glasgow, the idea he had studied so long to evolve suddenly flashed into his mind. without delay watt put his plan to the test and found that it worked. for a long time, owing to a lack of money, he had difficulty in establishing the merits of his improvements. finally he formed a partnership with matthew boulton, a wealthy and energetic man who lived at birmingham, england. they began the manufacture of steam engines at birmingham, under the firm name of boulton and watt. this partnership was very successful. watt supplied the inventions; boulton furnished the money and attended to the business. before the time of watt, the steam engine was exclusively a steam pump--slow, cumbrous, wasteful of fuel, and very little used. watt made it a quick, powerful, and efficient engine, requiring only a fourth as much fuel as before. under his first patent the engine was still used only as a steam pump; but his later improvements adapted it for driving stationary machinery of all kinds and, save in a few respects, left it essentially what it is to-day. prior to watt's inventions, the mines of great britain were far from thriving. many were even on the point of being abandoned, through the difficulty of removing the large quantities of water that collected in them. his improvements made it possible to remove this water at a moderate cost, and this gave many of the mines a new lease of life. the commercial success of his engine was soon fully established. watt paid practically no attention to the use of steam for purposes of transportation. in one of his patents he described a steam locomotive; but he offered little encouragement when his chief assistant, murdoch, who was the inventor of gas lighting, made experiments with steam for locomotion. the notion then was to use a steam carriage on ordinary roads. railroads had not been thought of. when the idea of using steam on railways began to take shape in the later days of watt, he refused to encourage the plan. it is said that he even put a clause in a lease of his house, providing that no steam carriage should ever approach it under any pretext whatever. besides developing the steam engine, watt made other inventions, including a press for copying letters. he also probably discovered the chemical composition of water. he died at heathfield, england, on the nineteenth of august, . it is denied many men to see the magnitude of their achievements. moses died on pisgah, in sight of the "promised land," toward which for forty years he had led the children of israel through the wilderness. wolfe gave up his life on the plains of quebec just as the first shouts of the routed french greeted his ears. columbus was sent home in chains from the america he had discovered, not dreaming he had given to civilization another world. lincoln's eyes were closed forever at the very dawn of peace, after he had watched in patience through the long and fearful night of the civil war. it never appeared to james watt that the idea which flashed into his mind that sunday afternoon while he was walking in the streets of glasgow, would transform human life; that like a mighty multiplier it would increase the product of man's power and give him dominion, not over the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air, but over tide and wind, space and time. victor hugo calls locomotives "these giant draft horses of civilization." but man never harnessed these wonderful iron animals until the time of george stephenson, less than a hundred years ago. stephenson was born at wylam, near newcastle, england, june , . his father was a fireman of a coal-mine engine at that place. in boyhood george was a cowherd, but he spent his spare time making clay models of engines and other objects of a mechanical nature. when he was fourteen years old, he became assistant to his father in firing the engine at the colliery, and three years later he was advanced to engine driving. at this time he could not even read; but, stimulated by a strong desire to know more of the engines made by boulton and watt, he began in his eighteenth year to attend a night school. he learned rapidly. during most of this time he studied various experiments with a view to making a successful steam locomotive. modern railways had their origin in roads called tramways, which were used for hauling coal from the mines of england to the sea. at first ordinary dirt roads were used for this purpose; but as the heavy traffic wore these roads away, it become the practice to place planks or timbers at the bottoms of the ruts. afterwards wooden rails were laid straight and parallel on the level surface. the rails were oak scantlings held together with cross timbers of the same material, fastened by means of large oak pins. later strips of iron were nailed on the tops of the wooden rails. over these rails, bulky, four-wheeled carts loaded with coal were pulled by horses. stephenson made what he called a traveling engine for the tramways leading from the mines where he worked to the sea, nine miles distant. he named his engine "my lord." on july , , he made a successful trial trip with it. the successful use of steam in hauling coal from the mines led thoughtful persons to consider its use for carrying merchandise and passengers. at this time freight was transported inland by means of canals. this method was slow; thirty-six hours were required for traveling fifty miles. passengers were conveyed by coaches drawn by horses. in a railroad for the transportation of merchandise and passengers was opened between stockton and darlington in england. the line, including three branches, was thirty-eight miles long. the plan was to use animal power on this road, but george stephenson secured permission to try on it his steam locomotive. in september, , the first train passed over the road. it consisted of thirty-four cars weighing, all told, ninety tons. the train was pulled by stephenson's engine, operated by stephenson himself, with a signalman riding on horseback in advance. the train moved off at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour, and on certain parts of the road it reached a speed of fifteen miles per hour. the trial was a complete success. the road had been built chiefly for the transportation of freight, but from the first passengers insisted on being carried, and in october, , the company began to run a daily passenger coach called the "experiment." this coach carried six persons inside and from fifteen to twenty outside. the round trip between stockton and darlington was made in two hours. a fare of one shilling was charged, and each passenger was allowed fourteen pounds of baggage free. the stockton and darlington was the first railway in the world over which passengers and freight were hauled by steam. stephenson was next employed to help construct a railway between liverpool and manchester. the most eminent engineers of the day predicted that the road could not be built. but it was built. on the fifteenth of september, , stephenson made a trial trip over the road with an improved locomotive named the "rocket." on the trial trip the "rocket" made twenty-nine miles an hour. this trip firmly proved the possibilities of steam as motive power on railways and started the modern era of railroad building. other railways were quickly built and soon they radiated from london to nearly every english seaport. [illustration: an early railroad train in englandan early railroad train in england] stephenson's son, robert, assisted him in the construction of the "rocket" and later attained considerable reputation as an engineer. it is claimed that george stephenson was the inventor of the safety lamp for use in mines, an invention usually accredited to sir humphry davy. he was often consulted in the building of subsequent railroads, but he spent the last years of his life in farming and gardening at his home at chesterfield, england, where he died august , . before the days of railroads in america, freight was hauled on canals and passengers rode in stage coaches or on horseback. a coach made the trip from boston to new york twice a week and the journey required six days. a trip from new york to philadelphia took two days. from philadelphia to baltimore the roads were good, but south of baltimore they were bad and even dangerous. south of the james river the traveler was compelled to make his journey on horseback. a coach from charleston to savannah was the only public conveyance south of the potomac river. in the days of the old colonial stagecoach, if a traveler wished to go from boston to new york, he would have to be ready to begin the journey at three o'clock in the morning. the stage had no glass windows, no door or step, and passengers were obliged to climb in at the front. one pair of horses pulled the stage eighteen miles, and then they were relieved by another pair. at about ten o'clock in the evening, after a day's journey of forty miles, the stage drew up at an inn for the night. at three o'clock the next morning, after dressing by the light of a horn lantern, the traveler must resume his journey. if the roads were bad, he might have to alight from the stage and help the driver pull the wheels out of the mud. rivers were crossed on clumsy flat-boats. when the streams were swollen with rains or filled with floating ice, the passage across was often dangerous. the trip from boston to philadelphia, which would have taken eight days of washington's time, can easily be made now by train in as many hours. in these days of the modern railroad, san francisco is nearer in time to new york than washington was scarcely a hundred years ago. the first railway in america was built in . it connected a granite quarry at quincy, massachusetts, with the town of milton in the same state. it was only two or three miles long, and was operated with horses. in may, , three english locomotives--the first ever seen in america--were unloaded at new york city. on august of the same year, one of these engines was tried at honesdale, pennsylvania. this was the first time that a locomotive ever turned a wheel on a railway in america. a canal which the business men of philadelphia proposed to construct from their city to pittsburg, in order to give them access to the trade centers of the west, threatened the commercial prosperity of baltimore. to offset the advantages which this canal would give philadelphia, at a great public meeting in baltimore it was decided to build a railway from baltimore to some point on the ohio river. the road was named the baltimore and ohio. in it was finished from baltimore as far as ellicott's mills, a distance of fifteen miles. the baltimore and ohio was the first railroad in the united states built for the express purpose of carrying passengers and freight. the original intention was to pull cars over this road with horses. but peter cooper persuaded the railroad officials to try his engine "tom thumb," which he had built in . the trial was successful, for "tom thumb" drew a car-load of passengers at the rate of fifteen to eighteen miles per hour. this engine was the first locomotive built in america, and its trial was the first trip ever made by an american locomotive. the first railroad in the united states constructed with the original purpose of using steam as motive power was the south carolina railroad, a line one hundred thirty-six miles long between charleston and hamburg. a locomotive built in new york city, called the "best friend," made its first trip over this road in november, . it was the first locomotive to run regularly on a railroad in the united states. railroad building spread rapidly in america, as it had in england. by there were twenty-two railroads in the united states, two of them being west of the alleghenies, though no road was more than one hundred forty miles in length. there was no railroad west of the mississippi river prior to , and in that year a line only thirty-eight miles long was built. during alone, miles of railroad were constructed in the united states. at the end of that year, there was a total in the united states of , miles, or nearly enough to reach nine times around the entire globe. the united states now has thirty per cent. more miles of railway main track than all of europe, and contains two fifths of the railroad mileage of the world. the railroads of the united states represent a value of about fifteen billion dollars, and give employment to a million and a half persons. the pennsylvania railroad was originally owned by the state. any one could use it by paying certain charges, and each person operating the road furnished his own cars, horses, and drivers. there were frequent blockades; when two cars going in opposite directions met, one had to turn back. if rival shippers came together and neither was willing to yield to the other, a fight probably settled the rights of precedence. after a time steam became the sole motive power, and the locomotives were owned by the state. the railroad journeys of our grandfathers were very different from our own. in their day the rails were wooden beams or stringers laid on horizontal blocks of stone. strips of iron were fastened with spikes to the tops of the wooden rails. the cars were small, each seating only a few passengers. the locomotive was crude. its greatest speed was about fifteen miles an hour. it could not climb a hill, and when a grade was reached, the cars had to be pulled up or let down with ropes managed by a stationary engine. no cab sheltered the engineer; no brake checked the speed. sometimes the spikes fastening the iron strips to the tops of the wooden rails worked loose, and these strips curled up and penetrated the bottoms of the cars, greatly to the annoyance and fright of the traveler. the bridges in those days were roofed. the smokestack of the locomotive, being too tall to pass under the roof, was made in two joints or sections fastened together with hinges. when the train approached a bridge, the top section of the stack was lowered. as wood only was used for fuel, the stack emitted a shower of sparks, smoke, and hot cinders. the passengers coughed and sputtered, and covered their eyes, mouths, and noses with handkerchiefs. the trip from chicago to new york is about a thousand miles, over prairie, river, and mountain. should you make the journey between these cities over the pennsylvania railroad of to-day, there would be little danger of conflict because two rival trains might want the track at the same time. nor would you have to wait while ropes pulled the train up a grade, for the locomotive can climb the hills. instead of the old wooden rails with their strips of iron, there is a double track of solid steel rails all the way. the landscape would fly past you at the rate of a mile a minute, instead of fifteen miles an hour. let us suppose that you leave chicago at . o'clock p.m., central time. before the train starts you could telephone to a friend without leaving the car. you might sit down, in an elegant dining-car, to a dinner of all the delicacies the market could afford. you might occupy your own exclusive compartment in a luxuriously equipped pullman car, lit by electric bulbs, or you could spend the evening reading the magazines, newspapers, and books provided in the train library. you might write at a comfortable desk with train stationery, or dictate letters and telegrams to the train stenographer. you are provided with hot and cold water, bathing facilities, and a barber shop. a maid could be summoned to the service of women and children; and a valet would be in attendance to sponge and press clothing over night. you would arrive in new york the next morning at . o'clock, having traveled the thousand miles in eighteen hours. simple as the idea of the sleeping-car is in reality, it was not introduced until , when the lake shore railroad ran the first crude and uncomfortable night-cars. george m. pullman in set for himself the task of producing a palace car which should be used for continuous and comfortable travel through long distances by day and night. he remodelled into sleeping-cars two passenger coaches belonging to the chicago and alton railroad. though these cars fell far below the inventor's ideal, they were far in advance of the first make-shifts and in consequence created a demand for more and better cars of the same kind. in , at his factory in chicago, pullman began the construction of the "pioneer," the first of the pullman palace cars. this car was built at a cost of $ , . it was first used in the funeral train which conveyed the body of president lincoln to his burial place in springfield, illinois. few inventions have been financially so remunerative to the inventors as the pullman palace car. it brought mr. pullman an immense fortune. the pullman palace car company, founded by pullman in , is one of the largest and most successful manufacturing concerns in america. it employs a capital of $ , , , gives work to fourteen thousand persons, furnishes sleeping-car service for , miles of railway, and operates over , cars. mr. pullman adopted plans for the vestibule car in . he died at his home in chicago, october , . the idea of the steamboat did not originate in the brain of robert fulton. it is claimed that, as early as , blasco de garay propelled a boat by steam, and that in , just a hundred years before the time of fulton's _clermont_, papin ran a boat with steam on a river in germany. in william henry experimented with a steamboat on the conistoga river in pennsylvania. james rumsey, a scotchman living in maryland, is said to have been the first american to discover a method for running a vessel with steam against wind and tide. he conceived the idea in august, . during he made his boat, and in he navigated it on the potomac river at shepherdstown, virginia, in the presence of hundreds of spectators. he wrote to general washington of his invention, and washington wrote concerning it to governor johnson of maryland. in congress voted a gold medal to james rumsey, jr., son and only surviving child of the inventor, in recognition of the elder rumsey's achievement. in john fitch exhibited on the delaware river a vessel to be propelled by steam, and in , from june to september, he ran a steamboat on that river between philadelphia and trenton. but he could not induce the public to patronize his boat, and for lack of business it had to be withdrawn. some british authorities claim that the first practical steamboat in the world was the tug "_charlotte dundas_," built by william symmington, and tried in on the clyde and forth canal in scotland. the trial was successful, but steam towing was abandoned for fear of injuring the banks of the canal. symmington had built a small steamboat that traveled five miles an hour in . [illustration: robert fulton] to robert fulton, an american, belongs the credit for placing the steamboat on a successful commercial basis. fulton was born at little britain, pennsylvania, in . at the age of seventeen he adopted the profession of portrait and landscape painter. at twenty-two he went to england to study art. there he met james watt, the inventor of the steam engine, and soon he began to give attention to mechanics. in he started to work on the idea of propelling boats by steam. he made an unsuccessful experiment with a steamboat on the seine river in france. the vessel sank because its construction was faulty. fulton returned to america and in new york harbor began to build another boat which he named the _katherine of clermont_, shortened to the _clermont_. her engine was procured from boulton and watt in england. the boat was one hundred feet long and twenty feet wide, weighed one hundred sixty tons, and was equipped with side paddle wheels and a sheet-iron boiler. as the inventor worked patiently at his task, the newspapers gave him but little notice and the public ridiculed him. the new york legislature had passed a bill granting to fulton and to chancellor livingston the exclusive right to navigate with steam boats the waters of new york state. this bill was a standing subject of ridicule among the legislators at albany. in august, , the _clermont_ was ready for her trial trip. a large crowd of spectators lined the banks of the hudson as the boat slowly steamed out into the river. the crowd jeered and hooted and shouted at the vessel their nick-name of "fulton's folly." as the _clermont_ moved up the river, making slow headway against the current, the crowd changed their jeers to expressions of wonder and finally to cheers. the dry pine wood used for fuel sent out a cloud of thick, black smoke, flames, and sparks, which spread terror among the watermen of the harbor. the _clermont_ made the voyage from new york up the hudson to chancellor livingston's country estate near albany, a distance of a hundred ten miles, in twenty-four hours. the trip was without mishap and it thoroughly established the practicability of steam for purposes of navigation. concerning this voyage fulton wrote to a friend in paris: "my steamboat voyage to albany and back has turned out rather more favorably than i had calculated. the voyage was performed wholly by power of the steam engine. i overtook many sloops and schooners beating to windward, and parted with them as if they had been at anchor. the power of propelling boats by steam is now fully proved. the morning i left new york there were not thirty persons in the city who believed that the boat would ever move a mile an hour, or be of the least utility. while we were putting off from the wharf, i heard a number of sarcastic remarks. this is the way in which ignorant men compliment what they call philosophers and projectors. i feel infinite pleasure in reflecting on the immense advantages my country will derive from the invention." the _clermont_ was soon running as a regular packet between new york and albany. the owners of sailing craft on the river hated her and tried to sink her. the new york legislature passed a bill declaring that any attempt to destroy or injure the _clermont_ should be a public offense punishable by fine and imprisonment. then the enemies of the boat applied to the courts for an injunction restraining fulton from navigating the hudson with his steamboat. daniel webster appeared as fulton's attorney. he won the case and secured for the _clermont_ the full rights of the river. fulton afterward built other steamboats, including a system of steam ferries for new york city. in he constructed the first united states war steamer. before constructing the _clermont_, fulton was interested in canals and in the invention of machinery for spinning flax and twisting rope. he also made experiments with sub-marine explosives in england, france, and the united states; but these were considered failures. he died february , . [illustration: the clermont on the hudson] the first steamboat in the west was built at pittsburg in , and within a few years after the first trip of the _clermont_, steamboats were being used on all the leading rivers of the country. from the earliest times men had sailed the seas, but their ships were small and slow and subject to wind, tide, and current. the success of the river steamboat led to the use of steam in ocean navigation. the first steamship to cross the atlantic was the _savannah_, in . the vessel relied almost as much upon wind as upon steam for motive power, but during the voyage of twenty-five days steam was used on eighteen days. the wood required for fuel left little room in the vessel for freight. with the advent of coal for fuel, and better machinery, steamships grew in importance, and in two ships, the _sirius_ and the _great western_, crossed the atlantic from liverpool to new york with the use of steam alone. by the average time for a trans-atlantic voyage had been reduced to eleven or twelve days. [illustration: the lusitania of the cunard line] if the old _savannah_ could be placed beside the _lusitania_, the giantess of the cunard line of ocean steamers, a comparison would demonstrate the triumphs of the century in ocean navigation. if you were to cross the ocean on the _lusitania_ or her sister-ship the _mauretania_, you would enter a vast floating mansion seven hundred ninety feet long, eighty-eight feet wide, eighty-one feet high from keel to boat deck, and weighing thirty-two thousand five hundred tons. her height to the mastheads is two hundred sixteen feet; each of her three anchors weighs ten tons; and her funnels are so large that a trolley car could easily run through them. the _lusitania_ has accommodation for three thousand passengers, officers, and crew, and is driven by mighty turbine engines of sixty-eight thousand horse power. the steamer was built at a cost of $ , , . she has traveled the three thousand miles across the atlantic in about four and a half days--the quickest trans-atlantic voyage ever made. she moves through the great waves of the ocean with such steadiness that passengers can scarcely tell whether they are on water or land. a telephone system connects all parts of the ship; there are electric elevators, a special nursery in which children may play; a gymnasium for exercise, shower baths, and an acre and a half of upper deck. there are five thousand electric lights, requiring two hundred miles of wire. wireless telegraphy flashes messages to the moving ship from distant parts of the world, and bears back greetings from her passengers. a daily illustrated newspaper of thirty-two pages is published on board ship. chapter iv electricity: the telegraph and the telephone the great miracle of the twentieth century is electricity. if the printing press is the brain of civilization and the steam engine is its heart, electric wires are its nervous system. steam is a giant; electricity is a witch. there is something uncanny about it. man writes volumes about electricity; calls it positive and negative and measures it in ohms and volts; gives courses to explain it in his schools and universities; kills criminals, cures the sick, and scatters darkness with it; makes it whirl him through space; compels it to bear his whisper through hundreds of miles, and can make it fly around the entire earth with his written word--and yet no man knows what electricity is. electricity exists, and has always existed, from the back of a cat to the infinite arch of the sky. a hundred years ago practically nothing was known of electricity. persons now living were born into a world that had never seen an electric telegraph, a telephone, an electric car, or an electric light. we are living in the morning of electrical knowledge, and what the day may bring no one can imagine. americans have given the world many of the greatest inventions, and in the field of electricity they have given it nearly everything of value. it is to american ingenuity that civilization is indebted for the electrical telegraph, the sub-marine cable, the telephone, the electric light, and the electric car. the names of morse, vail, field, bell, brush, gray, edison, and sprague--all american electrical inventors--will always be prominent in the list of the world's great benefactors. if you will rub a stick of sealing wax briskly with a woolen cloth, you will find that the stick of wax will attract to itself bits of bran, small shreds of paper, and the like. this is the simplest experiment in electricity. in the same way, by rubbing amber with silk, thales, a greek philosopher who lived in the sixth century before christ, is thought to have discovered electricity. the greek word for _amber_ is _elektron_. because of the supposed discovery of electricity in amber by thales, the english word _electricity_ was "coined" and used for the first time by william gilbert, a british physician and scientist, who lived during the reigns of elizabeth and james. for nearly twenty-five centuries, reaching from the time of thales to the opening of the nineteenth century, the world learned practically nothing about electricity. the start in modern electrical knowledge was made by galvani, an italian scientist, born in , who just before the last century dawned showed that electricity can be produced by the contact of metals with fluids. the term _galvanic_, used in connection with electricity, comes from the name of this investigator. galvani's experiments suggested the electric battery to volta, another italian scientist who was born in . the electrical word _voltaic_ is in honor of volta. in benjamin franklin flew his kite into the thunderstorm and proved that lightning is electricity. a little later hans christian oersted, a danish investigator, pointed out the relation between electricity and magnetism. in the early part of the nineteenth century, michael faraday, an eminent english physicist, discovered the possibility of producing electric currents through the motion of a magnet. faraday's discovery led to the electric dynamo machine, the source of modern power over electricity. the oldest and greatest of electrical inventions is the telegraph. _tele_ is a greek adverb meaning "afar." _graph_ comes from the greek verb "to write." _telegraph_ therefore means "to write afar." the idea of telegraphic communication is more than two and a half centuries old. in galileo referred to a secret art of communicating at great distances by means of magnetic needles. in there appeared in the _scots magazine_ an article signed "c. m." (since ascertained to have been charles morrison, of greenock in scotland) setting forth a fairly clear idea of the electric telegraph. joseph henry, of washington, d.c., in signaled through an electrical circuit a mile in length. the first commercially successful telegraph was devised in by samuel f. b. morse, an american. samuel finley breese morse was born in charlestown, massachusetts, april , . he was educated in the common schools of his native town and in yale university, where he was graduated in . after graduation, like fulton, the inventor of the steamboat, he went to europe to study art, and became successful as an artist. on his return to america in , one of his fellow passengers on the ship was charles t. jackson, who had been studying electricity in paris. jackson told morse of some experiments in electricity which the french had been making, and remarked that it would be a good thing if news could be transmitted through long distances by electricity. morse replied, "why can't it be done?" from that hour he gave his time and energy to the invention of the electric telegraph. during the remainder of the voyage he drew plans for apparatus and tried to devise an electric alphabet. in he put two instruments at the ends of a short line through which he sent and received messages. about this time he met a man who was destined to be of great service to him in promoting his invention, and one who deserves almost as much credit for it as morse himself. this was alfred vail. vail was born at morristown, new jersey, september , . he was a son of stephen vail, the wealthy owner of the speedwell iron works. one day in september, , after morse had completed his apparatus, he was invited to exhibit it at the university of the city of new york. alfred vail was a student in the university at the time and was one of the spectators to whom the apparatus was exhibited. he was much impressed with it. morse needed money, and alfred vail's father had it. morse was invited to the home of the vails in speedwell, where the matter of the invention was talked over. the sum of two thousand dollars was necessary to get the invention started. stephen vail agreed to furnish the money. alfred vail was to construct apparatus and exhibit it to congress. for this he was to have one-fourth of the proceeds arising from the patent. alfred vail set to work to construct the apparatus. a room in his father's factory was set apart for this purpose. william baxter, a bright mechanic employed in the iron shops, was chosen to assist him. as secrecy was required for the work, the room was kept locked. for several months vail and baxter occupied together the locked room, sharing each other's confidence and each other's elation or disappointment as the work went well or ill. on january , , baxter, without hat or coat, rushed to the elder vail's residence to announce that the apparatus was completed. mr. vail had become discouraged. however, he went to see the trial of the apparatus. he found his son at one end of the three miles of wire that was stretched around the room, and morse at the other. after a short explanation had been made to him, he wrote on a piece of paper, "a patient waiter is no loser." he then said to his son, "if you can send this, and mr. morse can read it at the other end, i shall be convinced." the message was sent and read at the other end of the wire. the apparatus was taken to washington, where it created not only wonder but excitement. [illustration: samuel f. b. morse] in september, , morse filed an application for a patent on his invention. in december of the same year he failed in his effort to secure from congress an appropriation for an experimental line which he proposed to build between washington and baltimore. in may, , he went to europe seeking aid. the governments there refused him funds or patents. in may, , he returned to the united states and began an heroic struggle for recognition. during this period he often suffered for the barest necessities of life. sometimes he could afford but a single meal in twenty-four hours. finally, after repeated disappointments, when morse himself had almost given up hope, the house of representatives of the twenty-seventh congress, on the last night of its session, march , , by a vote of ninety to eighty-two, appropriated thirty thousand dollars for building a trial line between washington and baltimore. after the bill had passed the house, the outlook for its passage in the senate was not bright. one senator who was favorable to the bill advised morse to "give it up, return home, and think no more of it." the bill had been made the object of opposition and ridicule; one prominent official, to show his contempt for the project, proposed that half the amount asked for should be used in mesmeric experiments. morse, believing that the senate would defeat the appropriation, went to his lodging place to retire for the night. he found that after paying the amount he owed at the hotel, he would have less than forty cents left. early the next morning information reached him that a little before midnight the senate had passed the bill. apparent failure had turned into victory; the fight was won. "work was begun at once.[ ] on april the line reached annapolis junction, twenty-two miles from washington, and was operated with satisfactory results. [ ] from an account by stephen vail used in _graded literature readers_, by permission of _truth_. "may , , was the date upon which the whig convention was to assemble in baltimore, to nominate the candidates of that party for president and vice-president. it was arranged between morse and vail that the latter should obtain from the passengers upon the afternoon train from baltimore to washington, when it stopped at annapolis junction, information of the proceedings of the convention and transmit it at once to morse at the capitol in washington. "the train arrived at half-past three o'clock, and from the passengers, among whom were many of the delegates to the convention, mr. vail ascertained that the convention had assembled, nominated the candidates, and adjourned. this information he at once dispatched to morse, with whom was gathered a number of prominent men who had been invited to be present. morse sat awaiting the prearranged signal from vail, when suddenly there came from the instrument the understood clicking, and as the mechanism started, unwinding the ribbon of paper upon which came the embossed dots and dashes, the complete success of the telegraph over twenty-two miles of wire was established. "slowly came the message. when it had ended, morse rose and said: 'gentlemen, the convention has adjourned. the train bearing that information has just left annapolis junction for washington, and mr. vail has telegraphed me the ticket nominated, and it is--' he hesitated, holding in his hand the final proof of victory over space, 'it is--it is clay and frelinghuysen.' "'you are quizzing us,' was the quiet remark. 'it's easy enough for you to guess that clay is at the head of the ticket, but frelinghuysen--who is frelinghuysen?' "'i only know,' was the dignified answer, 'that it is the name mr. vail has sent to me from annapolis junction, where he had the news five minutes ago from the train bound this way bearing the delegates.' "at that time the twenty-two miles from the junction to washington required an hour and a quarter for the fastest trains, and long before the train reached washington the newsboys--enterprising even in those days--had their 'extras' upon the streets, their headings 'by telegraph' telling the story, and being the first time that such a legend had ever appeared upon a printed sheet. "a great and enthusiastic crowd greeted the delegates as they alighted from the train at the station. they were struck dumb with astonishment when they heard the people hurrahing for 'clay and frelinghuysen,' and saw in cold type before their very eyes the information which they supposed was exclusively their own, but which had preceded them 'by telegraph.' they had asked mr. vail at the junction what he was doing when they saw him working the telegraph key, and when he told them, they joked about it most glibly, for no one had any belief in the success of the telegraph." [illustration: the first message by telegraph] by may the entire line was completed from washington to baltimore. on the next day, may , , morse from washington sent to vail at baltimore the first message ever sent over the completed wire, "what hath god wrought?" this famous message was dictated by miss ellsworth, daughter of the commissioner of patents at that time. she had taken a keen interest in the success of the bill appropriating the thirty thousand dollars for the experiment, and was the first to convey to morse the news that the bill had passed. morse thereupon gave miss ellsworth his promise that the first message to pass over the line should be dictated by her. a bit of the original wire and the receiver that vail used at baltimore are now preserved in the national museum in washington. the transmitter used by morse at the washington end of the line has been lost. morse lived to see his system of telegraphy adopted by the united states, france, germany, denmark, sweden, russia, and australia. ninety-five per cent of all telegraphy is by his system. he finally received a large fortune from his invention. unlike columbus, morse was honored in his lifetime for his achievement. foreign nations bestowed upon him honors and medals, and in august, , a convention of european powers called by napoleon iii at paris gave morse four hundred thousand francs (about $ , ) as a testimonial of his services to civilization. in october, , he laid the first sub-marine telegraph line. it was across the harbor of new york. later he assisted peter cooper and cyrus w. field in their efforts to lay the first atlantic cable. honored by all the civilized world, he died in new york city april , . thirteen years earlier vail had died at his home in morristown, new jersey. in the morse system the alphabet is represented by combinations of dots and dashes. the dots denote short currents of electricity flowing through the wire; the dashes, longer ones. credit for the alphabet really belongs to vail; morse had devised a somewhat complicated system, but vail invented the dots and dashes. he discovered that _e_ and _t_ are the most frequently used letters. he denoted _e_ by one dot, or one short current; _t_ he indicated by one dash, or one long current. the other letters are denoted by dots and dashes, as _a_, one dot and one dash; _b_, one dash and three dots, etc. in steinheil, a german investigator, contributed an important element to the practical operation of the electric telegraph by discovering that the earth could take the place of the return wire, which up to that time had been deemed necessary to complete the circuit. at first only one message could be sent over a wire at a time. now several messages may be transmitted in opposite directions over the same wire at the same time. wireless telegraphy is based on the principle discovered and announced by the english scientist michael faraday, that heat, light, and electricity are transmitted by ether waves, and that these ether waves permeate all space. the first to demonstrate the practical operation of wireless telegraphy was guglielmo marconi, an italian. in he undertook experiments to prove his theory that the electric current readily passes through any substance, and when once started in a given direction follows a direct course without the aid of a conductor. marconi made the first practical demonstration of wireless telegraphy in . in march, , he sent a wireless message across the english channel from france to england. in december, , be began his first experiments in wireless telegraphy across the atlantic. in december of the following year the first official trans-atlantic wireless message was sent. now wireless telegraphic messages are sent regularly to and from moving ships in mid-ocean, and across the three thousand miles of the atlantic between europe and america. one of the most striking illustrations of the power of perseverance is the successful struggle of cyrus west field in laying the atlantic cable. mr. field was born in stockbridge, massachusetts, november , . his schooling, which was slight, was secured in his native town. when he was fifteen years old, he secured a position in a business house in new york city at a salary of fifty dollars a year. he subsequently founded a prosperous business in the manufacture and sale of paper. in mr. field's attention was directed to an attempt to lay an electric cable at newfoundland, which had failed for want of funds. the idea of laying a cable across the atlantic occurred to him. he laid his plans before a number of prominent citizens of new york. on four successive evenings they met at his home to study the project, and they finally decided to undertake it. on may , , a company was organized to lay the cable, with peter cooper as president. the next twelve years field devoted exclusively to the cable. he went to england thirty times. the first cable was brought from england and was to be laid across the gulf of st. lawrence. forty miles had been successfully laid, when a storm arose and the cable was cut in order to save the ship. then came a year's delay. meantime the bottom of the sea was being explored and a vast tableland was discovered stretching from newfoundland to ireland. field went to england, where he had little difficulty in organizing a company, and work was then begun on the construction of a new cable. next he laid his enterprise before congress, and asked for money. an appropriation bill was finally passed in the senate by a majority of one, and was signed by president pierce on march , , the day before he retired from office. field returned to england to superintend the construction of the cable and to make preparations for laying it. at last it was ready, tested, and coiled on the ship. on august , , the sixth day out, after three hundred and thirty-five miles had been laid, the cable parted. lord clarendon, in an interview with field, had remarked: "but, suppose you don't succeed? suppose you make the attempt and fail--your cable is lost in the sea--then what will you do?" the reply came promptly, "charge it to profit and loss, and go to work to lay another." lord clarendon was so well pleased with the reply that he pledged his aid. the loss of three hundred and thirty-five miles of cable was the loss of half a million dollars. field came back to america and secured from the secretary of the navy the vessels needed for another trial. on june , , the united states steam frigate _niagara_, then the largest in the world, and the british ship _agamemnon_ set out from opposite shores, bound for mid-ocean. the vessels met, and the two sections of the cable were spliced; then they began laying it toward both shores at the same time. after a little more than a hundred miles had been laid, this cable parted in mid-ocean, and field hurried to london to meet the discouraged directors. on july , the ships set sail again for mid-ocean. the cable was spliced in fifteen hundred fathoms of water and again the ships started for opposite shores. field was on the _niagara_ headed toward newfoundland. scarcely any one looked for success. field was the only man who kept up courage through this trying period. on august , , he telegraphed the safe arrival of the ship at newfoundland. the shore ends of the cable were laid and on august a message from queen victoria of england to president buchanan flashed under the sea. there was great excitement everywhere. the two worlds had been tied together with a strange electric nerve. [illustration: cyrus w. field] on the evening of the first of september a great ovation was tendered field in new york. national salutes were fired; processions were formed; there was an address by the mayor, and late at night a great banquet. while the banquet was in progress, the cable parted. everyone except field was disheartened. he went to work again, and during the next five years, the long years of the civil war, he labored unceasingly. a larger cable with a greater resisting force was made. on the twenty-third of july, , the steamship _great eastern_ began another attempt to lay the cable. when it was within six hundred miles of newfoundland, the cable parted again. for nine days attempts were made, in two and a half miles of water, to grapple the cable, splice it, and continue the work of laying it. three times the cable was grappled, but the apparatus on the ship was not strong enough to hoist it aboard. still field never faltered. another british company was formed and another cable was constructed. the _great eastern_ was again loaded and on july , a friday, set sail westward laying the cable. after an uncertain voyage of two weeks the _great eastern_ arrived at newfoundland, and the undertaking had again been successfully accomplished. field telegraphed his arrival as follows: "_hearts content, july , _. we arrived here at nine o'clock this morning. all well. thank god, the cable is laid, and is in perfect working order. cyrus w. field." twelve years of unfaltering perseverance had won. honors were heaped upon field. congress voted him a gold medal and the thanks of the nation. the prime minister of great britain declared that only the fact of his being the citizen of another nation prevented his receiving the highest honors in the power of the british government to bestow. the paris "exposition universelle" of honored him with the grand medal, the highest prize it had to give. mr. field was afterward interested in the laying of cables connecting europe, india, china, australia, the west indies, and south america. in - he made a trip around the world, full of satisfaction in his own part in making a new era of the world's civilization. he died at his home in new york on july , . the effect of the electric telegraph on government, intelligence, and civilization in general can scarcely be overstated. sydney smith, writing to earl grey after the admission of california into the united states, said that this marked an end to the great american republic; for how could people with such diversified interests, with such natural barriers, hold together? he did not foresee how strongly a fine copper wire could bind together the two seaboards and the great plains of the interior. without the electric telegraph, neither the great daily newspaper nor the modern operation of railroads would be possible. it wipes away the natural boundaries of nations and makes neighbors of all men. in sir charles wheatsone, an english physicist, invented an instrument popularly known as the "magic lyre," but which he called the telephone. the first part of this word is the same greek adverb _tele_ that is found in _telegraph_. the _phone_ is from another greek word meaning "to sound." to _telephone_, therefore, means "to sound afar." the use of the english word _telephone_ by wheatsone is historically the first appearance of the word in our language. his device did nothing but reproduce music by means of sounding boards. the inventor of the modern telephone is alexander graham bell. mr. bell was born in edinburgh, scotland, march , . his father was alexander melville bell, a scotch educator, inventor of a system of visible speech, and author of some text-books on elocution. his grandfather was alexander bell, noted for his efforts to remove impediments of speech. alexander graham bell was therefore well fitted by heredity for the invention of an instrument to transmit speech. he was educated in the edinburgh high school and in the university of edinburgh, and in he entered the university of london. hard study broke down his health and he moved to canada. thence he moved to the united states, becoming first a teacher of deaf mutes, and afterward professor of vocal physiology in boston university. in , at the suggestion of the boston board of education, he began some experiments to show to the eye the vibrations of sound, for the use of the deaf and dumb. the results of these experiments convinced bell that articulate speech could be transmitted through space. early in he completed the first telephone. the same year he exhibited it at the centennial exposition at philadelphia, where it was pronounced the "wonder of wonders." he filed application for a patent on his invention at the patent office in washington, february , . it is a singular fact that another application for a patent on the telephone was received at the patent office a few hours later on the same day from elisha gray, an electrical inventor of chicago. the patent was issued to bell, not because his invention was superior in merit to gray's, but on the ground that his application was received first. this is a case where "the early bird catches the worm," for the profits arising from the patent have made mr. bell very wealthy, and high honors have come to him as the inventor of one of the world's greatest and most marvelous inventions. the bell telephone company was organized in , and in the first telephone exchanges were constructed. by the following year the telephone was firmly established as a social and commercial necessity. it has grown with great rapidity. it is now found in every city of the world; hotels, large buildings, and ships have their private exchanges, and it has found its way recently into thousands of farmhouses. bell had to fight hard in the courts to sustain his patent. suit after suit was brought by rival claimants, attacking his right to the patent. the litigation was bitter and protracted. one of the most noteworthy of these suits was brought by a pennsylvania mechanic named drawbaugh. he claimed that about he had made a working telephone out of a cigar box, a glass tumbler, a tin can, and some other crude materials; and that with the apparatus thus constructed he had talked over a wire several hundred feet long. many persons testified that they were acquainted with drawbaugh's apparatus, some of them having used it. some instruments, said to be the original ones which drawbaugh had constructed, were brought into court and exhibited. it was shown that speech could be transmitted with them in a crude way. drawbaugh claimed that he was too poor at the time of making the apparatus to take out the necessary patent. the court decided in favor of bell. elisha gray, whose application for a patent had been received the same day that bell's was, also brought suit against bell. before making his application, gray had filed some preliminary papers looking forward to a patent on the telephone. in his suit against bell he charged that the patent examiner had fraudulently and secretly conveyed to bell the contents of those papers. but bell won this suit, and he finally established over all rivals his legal title as the inventor of the telephone. recently a wireless system of telephoning has been in process of development, and it will not be strange if, within a few years, we shall be talking through space without wires, so boundless seem the possibilities of the age. chapter v electricity: lighting, transportation, and other uses man must have discovered artificial light as soon as he discovered fire, for the two exist together. the first light was probably produced by burning sticks or pieces of wood. in his search for more light, man learned how to make the tallow candle. lights made in one form or other from the fats of animals persisted almost to the threshold of the present. the next step forward was to the use of oil; and the next, to the use of gas. the first practical use of gas for purposes of illumination was in . in that year william murdoch, an english engineer, produced gas artificially from coal, and with it lighted his house in cornwall, a county of england. nine years afterward a frenchman named lebon illuminated his house and garden in paris with gas produced from wood. street lighting by gas was introduced in by an englishman named f. a. winzer or windsor, in pall mall, one of the fine streets of london. the first gas lights in america were installed in by david melville, of newport, rhode island, in his residence and in the streets adjacent. baltimore was the first city in the united states to adopt gas lighting for its streets. this was in . when gas was first used, there was much opposition to it, as there usually has been to improvements in general. the citizens of philadelphia protested for more than twenty years against the introduction of gas into that city for purposes of illumination. some of the newspapers of the time called gas a "folly and a nuisance"; and one of the professors in the university of pennsylvania declared that even if gas were the good thing its supporters were declaring it to be, tallow candles and oil lamps were good enough for him. but gas triumphed, and to-day the world could scarcely do without it, either for illumination or for fuel. the electric light had its beginning about in the experiments of sir humphry davy, a british investigator. he discovered that if two pieces of carbon are brought into contact, completing a circuit through which an electric current flows, and if the carbon points are separated by a short distance, the points will become intensely hot and emit a brilliant light. the word _arc_, used in connection with the arc lamp or light, refers to the gap or arc between the two carbon points, across which the electric current leaps in creating the light. following sir humphry davy's experiments, several arc lights were invented, with greater or less degree of success, and about electricity was tried successfully for lighting in some lighthouses along the british coast. the widespread usage and the usefulness of the arc electric light, however, are due to charles francis brush, an electrical inventor of cleveland, ohio, who in simplified the arc light so as to bring it into general use for lighting streets, large rooms, halls, and outdoor spaces. brush was also the inventor of an electric-dynamo machine that has added to his fame. after the invention of the arc light, he took out more than fifty other patents. the incandescent electric light, for lighting residences and small rooms, came a little later as the invention of edison. thomas alva edison is one of the most remarkable men of all times and places. alexander, caesar, and napoleon together did not benefit mankind as has this quiet american inventor. he was born at milan, ohio, february , . his father was of dutch descent and his mother was scotch. the mother, who had been a teacher, gave him all the schooling he received. early in life he showed great mental vigor and ingenuity. when he was twelve years old, he is said to have read the histories of hume and gibbon. [illustration: thomas a. edison] when thomas was seven years old, the edison family moved to port huron, michigan. he soon became a newsboy on the grand trunk railway running into detroit. he also became proprietor of a news stand, a book store, and a vegetable market, each a separate enterprise in port huron, employing eleven boys in all. his spare hours in detroit, between the arrival and departure of his train, he spent reading in the free library. before long he had bought a small hand printing press, some old type, and plates for "patent insides" from the proprietor of a detroit newspaper, and using the baggage car for an office, he started the _grand trunk herald_, the first and only newspaper ever published on a railway train. his inquiring mind led him one day to make some chemical experiments in the car. he overturned a bottle of phosphorus, set the car on fire, and as a result was not permitted to use it longer for a newspaper office. one day young edison snatched the child of the station agent at mount clemens, michigan, from beneath the wheels of a locomotive. in gratitude for this act, the station agent taught him telegraphy. in a few months his ingenuity, one of the chief characteristics of the great inventor, led him to string a private telegraph wire from the depot to the town. over this wire he forwarded messages, charging ten cents for each message. next he went to stratford, canada, as night operator for the grand trunk railway. one night he received an order to hold a train. he stopped to reply before signaling the train, and when he reached the platform the train had passed. a collision resulted, though not a serious one, and edison was ordered to report at the office of the general manager. edison hastily climbed on a freight train, went to port huron, and probably has not yet called on the general manager. edison worked as telegraph operator at various places. although he was a brilliant and rapid telegrapher, his fondness for playing pranks and making fun lost him several positions. after making his first experiments with a telegraph repeater, he left indianapolis for cincinnati, where he earned sixty dollars per month, besides something extra for night work. he worked next in louisville and memphis. he was poor in purse, for all his money went to defray the expenses of his experiments. his fondness for victor hugo's great work, _les miserables_, gained for him the nicknames of "victor" and "hugo." at memphis he perfected his telegraph repeater and was the first to bring new orleans into direct communication with new york. however, the manager at memphis was jealous of him and dismissed him. shabby and destitute, he made his way back to louisville, walking a hundred miles of the way, and resumed his old position. after he had worked in the louisville office for two years, his experimenting again got him into trouble. he upset some sulphuric acid, part of which trickled through the floor and spoiled the carpet in the manager's room below. for this he was discharged. he next went to new orleans, intending to sail for brazil; but the ship had gone and an old spanish sailor advised him to stay in america. he went back to cincinnati, where he made some of his first experiments in duplex telegraphy, a system whereby two messages may be sent over the same wire at the same time. a little while afterward, as poor as ever and as unattractive in dress, he walked into the telegraph office in boston, where he had procured work. his co-workers there, thinking they would have some fun at his expense, set him to receiving messages from the most rapid operators in new york. instead of throwing up his hands in defeat, as his companions expected, he received the messages easily, with a good margin to spare, and asked the operator sending at the other end of the line to "please send with the other foot." he was at once placed regularly on the new york wire. while in boston, edison opened a small workshop, put many of his ideas into definite shape, and took out his first patent. it was upon a chemical apparatus to record votes. he tried to introduce this into congress, but failed, although he proved that it "would work." he left boston not only without money, but in debt, and went to new york. this was in when he was twenty-four years old. at that time an apparatus called a "gold indicator" was in use in the offices of about six hundred brokers, to show fluctuations in the prices of gold. the system was operated from a central office near wall street. one day this central office was filled with six hundred messenger boys, each bringing the complaint that the machinery had broken. no one knew how to repair it. a stranger walked up, looked at the apparatus, and said to the manager, "mr. law, i think i can show you where the trouble is." the machinery was repaired, the office was cleared, and order was restored. "what is your name, sir?" asked the delighted manager. "edison," was the reply. he was engaged as superintendent at a salary of $ per month, and from that hour his fortunes were assured. edison at once busied himself with inventing. he improved and invented various machines used in the stock markets, and in perfected his system of duplex telegraphy. two years later he brought out the wonderful quadruplex system, by which four messages may be sent over the same wire at the same time. this system saved millions of dollars and dispensed with thousands of miles of poles and wires. he started a large factory at newark, new jersey, employing some three hundred men. sometimes he was working on as many as forty-five improvements and original inventions at once. in he stopped manufacturing and turned all his attention to inventing. in that year he established a laboratory at menlo park, new jersey, twenty-five miles from new york city. when this laboratory was outgrown, he founded a new one at orange, new jersey, the largest laboratory ever established by one man for scientific research and invention. it comprises one building feet long and three stories high, and four smaller buildings, each one hundred feet long and one story high. the principal building contains a library of thirty thousand reference books, a lecture room, and an exhibition room, where a remarkable collection of instruments of almost every kind is to be seen. when edison began working to produce an incandescent electric light for illuminating residences and small rooms, most of the scientists of england said that such a light could not be produced. for nine years he worked on this invention. the chief problem was to find, for the horseshoe thread or filament used to give off the light, a material that should glow with sufficient intensity and yet not be consumed by the great heat necessary to produce the light. in his search for this material he tried all kinds of rags and textiles steeped in various chemicals, different kinds of paper, wood, inner and outer bark, cornstalks, etc. finally he sent one of his assistants to the east, and in japan a kind of bamboo was found answering the requirements. perseverance won, and the incandescent electric light became a reality about . [illustration: an incandescent light] thomas edison is one of the most systematic of workers, and nearly all his inventions have been the result of intelligent and methodical labor directed toward a definite aim. he reads carefully what other investigators have found out, so as not to waste time in going over fruitless ground. he also keeps copious note books of his own operations, so that there may be no loss of time and energy. his invention of the phonograph, however, was accidental. while he was working to improve the telephone, the idea of the phonograph suddenly came into his mind. a little while afterward the first phonograph, crude but successful, was finished. at first this instrument was regarded as a toy, but later the invention was sold for a million dollars. edison is a man of remarkable personality. once when someone referred to him as a genius and said that he supposed a genius worked only when the spirit moved him, the inventor replied, "genius is two per cent inspiration and ninety-eight per cent perspiration." he certainly possesses great native talent for inventing. this was apparent in his early boyhood. but much of his marvelous success is due to the intelligent direction of effort, to tireless perseverance, and to long hours of work. in he devoted his attention exclusively to the invention of a new storage battery, upon which he had been working for five years. for more than a year he worked harder than a day laborer. he was in his laboratory by half past seven in the morning; his luncheon was sent to him there; he went home to dinner, but he returned by eight o'clock. at half past eleven his carriage called for him, but often the coachman was compelled to wait three or four hours before the inventor was willing to suspend his work. while the first incandescent electric lighting plant was being prepared in new york city, edison himself worked part of the time in the trenches, to be sure that the work would be properly done. there is scarcely an electrical apparatus or an electrical process in existence to-day that does not bear the mark of some great change for the better coming from this most ingenious of american inventors. he has taken out more than four hundred patents on original inventions and improvements. mr. edison is still living in his beautiful home at west orange, new jersey, near his laboratory. he is frequently called the "wizard of menlo park." the idea of using electricity as motive power on railroads is nearly as old as the railroads themselves. in , when the utility of steam for purposes of transportation was doubted, robert davidson propelled a car with an electric engine on the edinburgh and glasgow road. in the fifties thomas davenport, a vermont blacksmith, constructed an electric engine containing all the essential elements of the modern electric motor. little progress, however, was made in the use of electricity for motive power, because the cost of producing the electric current was so great. in lieut. sprague, overcoming most of the difficulties then existing, installed at richmond, virginia, the first successful electric railway in the world. managers of street railways in other cities visited richmond, and after an inspection of what sprague had done there, decided to substitute electricity for animal power. no other construction has had a more rapid growth since the time of its invention than the electric railway. in there were only thirteen unimportant electric roads. now there is hardly a city of the civilized world where the hum of the electric street car is not heard at all hours of day and night. modern urban life could scarcely exist without it. it is rapidly pushing its way into the country and giving the farmer the privilege of rapid and cheap transit. the uses of electricity are by no means exhausted in the four major inventions of the telegraph, the telephone, the electric light, and the electric street car. it has been put to many minor uses. among the most interesting and important of these are the roentgen or x-rays, discovered by wilhelm konrad von roentgen, a german physicist, in . they were named x-rays by their discoverer, because the ultimate nature of their radiation was unknown, the letter x being commonly used in algebra to represent an unknown quantity. the x-rays are peculiar electric rays having the power to penetrate wood, flesh, and other opaque substances. they are of much value to surgery in disclosing the location of bullets, foreign substances of various kinds, and other objective points in the interior of the human body. the united states government has demonstrated through its department of agriculture that electricity applied to the soil will quicken and help the growth of certain vegetables. it has also shown that certain crops are forwarded by the application of electric light. the new york legislature in passed a law providing that criminals should be executed in that state thereafter by electrocution, that is, by sending through the body of the condemned person, a current of electricity strong enough to produce death. execution in this way makes death quicker and apparently less painful than by hanging, the method used previously, and subsequently several other states have passed laws for electrical execution, following the example of new york. elisha gray, who contested with bell the invention of the telephone, was the inventor of a peculiar machine called the telautograph. _tele_ and _graph_ have been previously explained. _auto_ is from a greek word meaning "itself." the meaning of _telautograph_, therefore, is "to write afar by itself." by means of the telautograph, which is operated with electric currents, if a person writes with an ordinary lead pencil on paper, say in washington or any other place, at the same time the writing will be reproduced with pen and paper at the other end of the line, in new york or wherever the message may be sent. one of the important uses of electricity is in connection with the electric block signal. this is a device for preventing railroad collisions. the signals are operated with electricity, and show engineers whether or not a certain section of the track ahead of them is clear. electricity is used also in the production of certain chemical substances; in covering base metals with a coating of a precious metal, as gold or silver, called electroplating; in producing a solid metal page from rows of type, called an electrotype, which is used in printing; in the navigation of small boats and the propulsion of automobiles; in playing organs and pianos; in driving electric fans; in drawing elevators in high buildings; in call-bells and door-bells; in police-alarms and fire-alarms; in the treatment of certain diseases; and in many other useful ways. what electricity may do for the future cannot even be guessed. chapter vi the discovery of america the birthplace of mankind is supposed to have been somewhere in asia, untold thousands of years ago. the race is thought to have spread thence to the northern coast of africa and to the peninsulas that jut down from the south of europe. the travelers of ancient times were the phoenicians. they occupied a narrow strip of land along the eastern shore of the mediterranean sea. their country was small and with difficulty supported an increasing population. to the east of them were barbaric hordes, who poured over the mountains and pushed the phoenicians to the sea, making of them traders and colonizers. as early as twelve centuries before christ they were founding colonies, exploring strange lands, trading all over the known world, and leaving their alphabet wherever they went. arriving at a favorable place, they would pull their ships ashore, plant a crop, wait till it had matured, reap it, and go on. they founded many colonies on such sites. herodotus, a greek, born in asia minor nearly five hundred years before christ, is called the father of history and geography. he tells us that in his time the earth was thought to consist of the coast regions of the mediterranean sea, extending rather vaguely north and south, and bounded on the west by the atlantic ocean and on the east by the great persian empire. the word _mediterranean_ is made up of two latin words meaning "the middle of the earth." eratosthenes, a greek geographer who was born on the northern coast of africa about three centuries before christ, wrote a geographical treatise in which he announced his belief that the earth was in the form of a sphere revolving on its own axis. he succeeded in convincing only a few, however, that his theory was right. the next great geographer was strabo, born in the northeast part of asia minor in the year b.c. he was a great traveler and observer, and wrote a work on geography that has come down to us. the parts dealing with his own observations are especially valuable. the great traveler of mediæval times was marco polo, an italian, born in venice in a.d. he traveled widely, had many adventures, and published an account of his travels. his experiences were a great stimulus to geographical inquiry and discovery. about this time also the mariners' compass was introduced into europe. civilization seems to be indebted to the chinese for the compass, for it is mentioned by them as an instrument of navigation as early as the third or fourth century after christ. with the advent of the compass, seamen were no longer compelled to hug the shore; they acquired more daring to sail the open sea, and geographical exploration was correspondingly widened. geographical knowledge grew very slowly. by the beginning of the eighteenth century, explorers had become familiar with the range of the ocean, the outline of the continents, and with many islands. at the beginning of the nineteenth century, four fifths of the land area of the entire globe was unknown. africa, except a narrow rim of coast, was almost as little known as the planet mars is to-day. at the opening of the last century men knew little more about asia than did marco polo, three or four centuries earlier. in america the whole vast area west of the mississippi river was unknown in . the coast of australia had not yet been traced, and nothing was known of its interior. at that time south america was better known than any other of the continental land masses, except europe; now it is the least explored of all. the nineteenth century, wonderful for advancement in many fields of human endeavor, was a marvelous one for the growth of geographical knowledge. as we stand in the doorway of the twentieth century, there is scarcely one eleventh of the land area of the whole earth that remains unexplored. lewis and clark pushed their way through the unknown vastness of the american northwest; livingstone and stanley penetrated the dark continent of africa; and in september, , lieut. robert e. peary of the united states navy startled civilization by announcing his discovery of the north pole. with the exception of a few interior tracts to-day, the only portions of the earth unknown and unmapped lie around the poles, and these are being rapidly sought out and brought to knowledge. of all geographical conquests, by far the greatest is the discovery of america by christopher columbus in a.d. the story of columbus is one of the most interesting and pathetic in history. it is a story of toil, hardship, perseverance, and great success, requited with disappointment and disgrace. christophoro colombo was born in genoa, italy, about or a.d. following the custom of those times in giving names latin forms, his name became christopher columbus. in latin the word _columba_ means "dove." his father was a wool-comber who was wealthy enough to send his son to a university, where he studied mathematics and astronomy. on leaving the university, he worked a few months at his father's trade, but when he was fifteen years old he determined to be a sailor. of the late boyhood and early manhood of columbus little is known. he seems to have traveled much, and it is certain that he studied much. it was popularly supposed in the time of columbus that the earth was flat; that it was surrounded by a great world-river called "oceanus" or the ocean, and that if one should come to the edge he would plunge down into illimitable space. from the time of eratosthenes and aristotle, greek thinkers and scholars who lived several hundreds of years before the birth of christ had known that the earth was round, and columbus believed this fact too. he mastered the books, both ancient and contemporary, on geography and navigation, learned to draw charts and to construct spheres, and fitted himself to be a practical seaman and navigator. in he arrived at lisbon, portugal, after he had been shipwrecked in a sea fight and had escaped to land on a plank. in portugal he married the daughter of an old sea captain. he pored over the logs and papers of his father-in-law, and talked with old seamen of their voyages and of the mysteries of the western sea. about this time he seems to have arrived at the conclusion that much of the world remained undiscovered. there were strange rumors about the western sea. navigators had seen queer pieces of wood and some canes in the ocean, and the bodies of two strange men had been washed ashore, "very broad-faced, and differing in aspect from christians." european commerce was in need of a shorter route to asia than the overland route then in use. columbus hoped that he could reach the eastern coast of asia by sailing west. he did not believe the earth as large as it really is, and he over-estimated the size of asia, so that he did not realize the breadth of the atlantic or the magnitude of the task before him. columbus was poor, and money was required for so huge an undertaking as a voyage to asia. it was necessary, therefore, for him to seek aid in the enterprise. he asked help first from the senate of his native town, genoa; but genoa turned to him an unhearing ear. he applied next to king john of portugal. the king referred the matter to a council of geographers, who reported against it. with the lurking hope that there might be something in the plan, the king was dishonorable enough to send out an expedition secretly to test it. the sailors who made the attempt soon lost heart and returned without having accomplished anything. when columbus learned of the king's secret attempt, he was so outraged that he left portugal for spain. at about the same time he sent his brother bartholomew to england to enlist the assistance of the british sovereign, king henry vii. after much waiting and much vexation, columbus at last gained the interest of the spanish king, ferdinand, who referred the proposition to a council of his astronomers and geographers. they finally decided that the project was vain and visionary and that they could have nothing more to do with it. in great discouragement columbus began preparations to go to france. at the door of a monastery in the little maritime town of palos, he knocked and asked for bread and water for his son, diego, who was accompanying him. he was received at the monastery, and there he met some persons of influence who interceded for him with the spanish queen, isabella. he went to the court again, his plan was once more investigated, and once more columbus was refused the aid he was seeking. he set out for france and had journeyed some distance on the way. in the meantime an official won the queen's consent to the enterprise, and there is a story that in her enthusiasm she offered to pledge her jewels to raise money for the expedition. a messenger who was sent to overtake columbus brought him back, and on the seventeenth of april, , the formal agreement between him and the king and queen of spain was entered into, signed, and sealed. columbus's aim was to find the east coast of asia. for the accomplishment of this he had a number of motives. he wanted to win wealth and fame for himself, to provide a shorter and cheaper route for commerce with the east, and to convert to christianity the grand khan, a great asiatic ruler, to whom he bore a letter of introduction from the rulers of spain. great difficulty was experienced in finding sailors for so uncertain and terrifying a trip. freedom was offered to convicts and bankrupts if they would accompany the expedition. at last seamen were secured to man three small ships, stores were provided, and everything was made ready for the voyage. the adventurers numbered, all told, one hundred and twenty. the shore presented a strange spectacle on the morning of departure. the friends of the sailors stood on shore weeping and wringing their hands, confident in the belief that their loved ones would be swallowed up by some fabulous monster of the western deep, or in some way be forever lost to them. on the morning of friday, august , , at eight o'clock, the little fleet of three ships weighed anchor at the port of palos, spain, and set out on the most uncertain and the greatest of all ocean voyages. the ships had been on the sea three weeks, and no land had yet been sighted. the compass no longer pointed due north. a meteor fell into the ocean not far from the ships. the sailors lost courage. they declared that they must perish if they went on, and that their commander ought to be compelled to return. some of them proposed to throw him into the sea. columbus kept two reckonings; a correct one for himself, and an incorrect one to appease the sailors. he pleaded with his men to be courageous, as long as mild methods availed. he then grew harsh and commanded them. through all the uncertainty and the mutterings of the sailors, he clung unwaveringly to his purpose--to push forward. he had no thought of going back. flying birds and floating objects promised land, but time went on and no land appeared. the sailors grew more and more violent. on the night of the eleventh of october, columbus himself saw a light in the distance, which sometimes flickered and sometimes disappeared, as if it might be a torch borne by some one walking. all were now in eager expectancy. at two o'clock on the morning of friday, october twelfth, a cannon fired from one of the vessels announced that a sailor had actually discovered land. when daylight came, columbus landed. the first thing he did upon reaching the shore was to fall upon his knees, kiss the earth, and with tears of joy thank god for deliverance from the perils of such a voyage. his men, ashamed of their mutiny and distrust, threw themselves at his feet, imploring his forgiveness. columbus next drew his sword, planted the royal banner, and in the name of the spanish sovereigns took possession of the country. in honor of his deliverance he named the place san salvador, which means saint savior, or holy savior. one of his three vessels was wrecked by a storm near the island of santo domingo, called also hayti and hispaniola. columbus built a fort on this island from the wrecked ship, and left in it a colony of about forty of the crew. desirous of returning to spain with an account of his voyage, he set sail in january, , on the return trip. a terrific storm was encountered. columbus, fearing that his ships might sink, and wishing to preserve a record of what he had done, wrote an account of the voyage on a piece of parchment and placed it in a cask, which he threw overboard in the hope that it might be carried to shore and found. the storm abated, however, and on the fifteenth of march he sailed with two of his vessels into the port of palos. [illustration: columbus on the deck of the santa maria. from the painting by von piloty] he entered the city amid the shouts of the people, the booming of cannons, and the ringing of bells. hastening to barcelona, where the king and queen were then holding court, he was received with a triumphal procession. seated next to the throne, he gave an account of his discoveries and exhibited the new country's products which he had brought back--gold, cotton, parrots, curious weapons, strange plants, unknown birds and beasts, and the nine indians whom he had brought with him for baptism. great honors were poured upon him. the king and queen could scarcely do enough for him. in september, , columbus sailed westward on his second voyage. the fort which he had built on santo domingo was found burned, and the colony was scattered. he decided to build a second fort, and coasting forty miles east of cape haytien he selected a site where he founded the town of isabella, named in honor of the spanish queen. he discovered and explored a number of the islands of the west indies, including porto rico, which has belonged to the united states since the recent war with spain. the second voyage closed with his return to spain in june, . on next to the last day of may, , with six ships columbus set out on his third voyage. on the first day of august he discovered the continent of south america. he thought it was only an island. sailing along the shore, he believed that the various capes which he passed were islands, and not until he reached the mouth of the great orinoco river did he conclude that what he had discovered was not an island but a great continent. on his return to the new town of isabella, he found that matters had not gone well there while he was away. the natives had risen in revolt against the tyranny of the governor whom columbus left to rule the island in his absence. for some time columbus's enemies, who had become jealous of him, had been trying to poison the minds of the spanish king and queen against him. finally the spanish rulers sent an officer to inquire into the affairs of the new colony. when this officer arrived, he took possession of columbus's house, put columbus in chains, and sent him back to spain. these chains columbus kept to the day of his death, and his son hernando says his father requested that they might be buried with him. after he arrived in spain, he was restored to the good will of the king and queen who soon sent him on another voyage. in may, , columbus set sail on his fourth and last voyage, during which he endured very great dangers. two of his vessels were destroyed by a storm and the other two were wrecked off the coast of jamaica. separated from all the rest of the world, a number of his companions revolted, threatened his life, deserted him, and settled on another part of the island. the natives ceased to bring him food, and death seemed imminent. in this extremity he took advantage of an approaching eclipse of the moon. he told the natives that his god would destroy the moon as a token of the punishment to be inflicted upon them, if they did not bring the white men food. when the eclipse came, the natives implored columbus to intercede for them with his god, and they brought him food in abundance. after the shipwreck, the navigator sent some of his boldest men in canoes to ask relief of the governor of the colony in hispaniola. the messengers reached the colony in safety, but the governor would not undertake the rescue of columbus. they bought a vessel, took it to jamaica, and after a year of danger and anxiety on the island, in june, , columbus started on his homeward voyage. in september of this year he landed on spanish soil for the last time. this final voyage was not productive of any important results. soon after his return queen isabella died, and about two years later, on may , , columbus himself died at valladolid, spain. he was buried first at valladolid, but his remains were soon transferred to a monastery in seville, spain. they were exhumed in and taken across the sea to the city of santo domingo, on the island of hayti, which he had discovered. in the remains were taken to havana, cuba, where they remained until the close of the spanish-american war. in , after the island of cuba had passed from spain to the united states, the body of the great admiral was taken across the atlantic again to spain, where it now rests. in person columbus was tall and well formed. early in life he had auburn hair, but by the time he was thirty years old his hair had been turned white with care, hardship, and trouble. his face was long, and he had gray eyes and an aquiline nose. he was moderate in all his habits, and was one of the most religious of men. he was of a poetic temperament and thus lacked some of the essential qualities of great leadership. he was broad in his outlook, noble in his aspirations, and benevolent in spirit. columbus died ignorant of the fact that he had discovered a new world. he believed that the great continent which he gave to civilization was asia, and that he had only found a new way to that country. he called the natives whom he found "indians," thinking that they were inhabitants of india. when it was known that a new country had actually been discovered, it was named "america" in honor of amerigo vespucci, an italian geographer and navigator, who visited, it seems, the mainland of this country in . the land discovered by columbus on the night of october , , is believed to have been watling's island, one of the groups of the west indies. eighteen years elapsed between the time when christopher columbus conceived his enterprise and that august morning in when he set sail on his first voyage of discovery. he had gone about from place to place seeking aid, but spurned everywhere. these years were spent in almost hopeless anxiety, in poverty, and in neglect. the people of his day thought him crazy. when he passed by, they pointed to their foreheads and smiled. he braved the dangers of unknown waters, of mutinous crews, of hostile natives, and of starvation. what is worse, he endured the arrows of jealousy, slander, and misrepresentation. he had a contract with the spanish crown whereby he was to receive certain honors and wealth as a result of his discoveries. he could not get king ferdinand to fulfill the contract. he was sent home in chains from the great hemisphere he had discovered, and even the honor of its name went to another who had no claim to it. through the career of every successful man there runs a grim determination to do the thing in hand. columbus had this determination and with it he triumphed. the stars hid themselves behind storms; the compass refused to act normally; a strange and terrible ocean roared; mutiny howled and jealousy hissed, but on one thing he was determined--he would do his best to accomplish the thing he had set himself to accomplish; and he did it. one of the most inspiring poems in american literature is joaquin miller's "columbus:"-- behind him lay the gray azores, behind the gate of hercules; before him not the ghost of shores, before him only shoreless seas. the good mate said: "now must we pray, for lo! the very stars are gone. brave adm'r'l, speak, what shall i say?" "why, say: 'sail on! sail on! and on!'" "my men grow mutinous day by day; my men grow ghastly wan and weak." the stout mate thought of home; a spray of salt wave washed his swarthy cheek. "what shall i say, brave adm'r'l, say, if we sight naught but seas at dawn?" "why, you shall say at break of day: 'sail on! sail on! sail on! and on!'" they sailed and sailed, as winds might blow, until at last the blanched mate said: "why, now not even god would know should i and all my men fall dead. these very winds forget their way, for god from these dread seas is gone. now speak, brave adm'r'l, speak and say"-- he said: "sail on! sail on! and on!" they sailed. they sailed. then spake the mate: "this mad sea shows his teeth to-night. he curls his lips, he lies in wait, with lifted teeth as if to bite! brave adm'r'l, say but one good word: what shall we do when hope is gone?" the word leapt like a leaping sword: "sail on! sail on! sail on! and on!" then, pale and worn he kept his deck and peered through darkness. ah, that night of all dark nights! and then a speck-- a light! a light! a light! a light! it grew, a starlit flag unfurled! it grew to be time's burst of dawn. he gained a world; he gave that world its grandest lesson: "oh! sail on!" chapter vii weapons and gunpowder man's weapons of warfare, offensive and defensive, have been many and curious. david slew goliath with a stone from a sling. the scriptures tell us that samson, the mighty man of the bible, killed a thousand philistines at one time with the jaw-bone of an ass. the study of the development of arms makes one of the most significant chapters in the history of civilization. the use of stone weapons seems to have been universally characteristic of the earlier races of mankind, as it still is distinctive of the ruder races. the weapons made from stone were necessarily few and simple. the most common was an ax, made from various kinds of stone and with varying degrees of skill. spear-points and arrow-heads were made of flint. these show a comparatively high type of workmanship. the highest efforts of the ancient stone-workers culminated in a leaf-shaped dagger or knife of flint, various in form but uniform in type. these flint daggers differed also in size, but seldom exceeded a foot in length. they were never ground or polished, but delicately chipped to a fine, straight edge, and were often beautiful. [illustration: statues showing knights in armor] in the bronze age several kinds of bronze daggers were made. the characteristic weapon of this period, however, was the leaf-shaped bronze sword. "no warlike weapon of any period is more graceful in form or more beautifully finished." this sword had a very thin edge on both sides running from hilt to point, and the handle was of bone, horn, or wood. the thinness of the edge seems to have been produced without the aid of hammer or file. the weapon was better fitted for stabbing and thrusting than for cutting with the edge. bronze spear-points have been found, but throughout the bronze age arrow-heads were made of flint. there were also shields of bronze, held in the hand by a handle fastened to the center. the period of transition between the bronze age and the iron age is marked by an iron sword, which was similar in form to the leaf-shaped bronze sword. homer, the great greek bard who is supposed to have lived about a thousand years before the birth of christ, in speaking of the wars of the greeks, describes their weapons somewhat fully. they used a double-edged, bronze-bladed sword, the hilt and scabbard of which were adorned with gold and silver. in the combats of the homeric age, however, the spear, lance, or javelin played the principal part; swords were used only for fighting at close range. bows and arrows also were used. the only iron weapon specifically mentioned is the arrow-head. this was inserted in a split shaft, precisely like the flint arrow-heads of the early north american indians and other modern savages. the defensive armor of the heroic age of greece was entirely of bronze. it consisted of a helmet for the head, cuirass for the chest, greaves for the legs, and a shield. the bronze cuirass was often ornamented with gold. the shield was round or oval in shape, very large, and covered with hide. the greeks of the later or historic age fought chiefly with long, heavy spears. later the shield was reduced in size and the sword increased in length. the light-armed troops were furnished with a light javelin having a strap or thong fastened to the middle to assist in hurling. a linen corselet came into use instead of the heavy metal cuirass. the mounted troops were supplied with a longer sword, a javelin, and a short dagger. the military strength of early egypt lay in her archers, who fought either on foot or from chariots. the egyptian bow was a little shorter than a man's height. the string was of hide or cord; the arrows were of reed, winged with three feathers and pointed with bronze heads, and were from two to three feet in length. the egyptian archers carried a curved, broad-bladed sword, and a dagger or a battle-axe for combat at close quarters. their defensive armor consisted of a quilted head-piece and coat. they used no shield, as this would have interfered with the use of the bow. the infantry were classified according to the weapons with which they fought--as spearmen, swordsmen, clubmen, and slingers. the spears were five or six feet long and had triangular or leaf-shaped heads of bronze. the spearmen carried shields shaped like a door with a curved top, having a hole in the upper portion through which they could look. these shields were about half as high as a man and were covered with hairy hide, with the hair attached. the early swords of egypt were of bronze, straight, double-edged, tapering from hilt to point, and measuring from two and a half to three feet in length. the ancient assyrians fought with swords somewhat like those of egypt. they used also bows, lances, spears, and javelins. their shields were round and convex; and their cuirass was a close-fitting garment made of many layers of flax, plaited together or interwoven, and cemented and hardened with glue. this linen corselet was found also among the egyptians, the greeks, and the romans. the characteristic weapon of the romans, the greatest warriors of ancient times, was what the romans themselves called the "pilum." this weapon was a pike having a stout iron head carried on a rod of iron. the iron rod was about twenty inches long and terminated in a socket for the insertion of the wooden shaft, which was a little more than three feet in length. the entire weapon was therefore about five feet long. the pilum could be hurled as a javelin with great effect. piercing the shield of the enemy, the slender iron rod bent under the weight of the shaft, which trailed along the ground, making the shield useless for purposes of defense. when used at close quarters, the pilum had something of the efficiency of the modern bayonet; and when wielded firmly in both hands, it served to ward off sword-strokes, which fell harmlessly upon the long and strong iron neck of the weapon. no warrior of ancient times was more formidable than the roman with his pilum. the romans had also swords of bronze and bronze armor, resembling the armor and the swords of the greeks. in the prosperous days of rome, her legions, under one of the greatest military commanders of all time, julius caesar, brought nearly all the world of that day to the feet of their general. the franks, a germanic people who lived early in the christian era and who gave their name to france, used the battle-ax as their chief weapon. it had a broad blade and a short handle and was used as a missile. it is said that a blow of an ax, when hurled, would pierce an enemy's shield or kill him, and that the franks rarely missed their aim. they wore no armor, not even helmets, though they carried swords, round shields, and darts with barbed iron heads, which were used for throwing or thrusting. when this dart became fixed in an adversary's shield, it was the habit of the frank to bound forward, place a foot upon one end of the trailing dart, and, compelling the enemy to lower his shield, slay him with the battle-ax. the franks used also a short, straight, broad-bladed sword, double-edged and obtuse at the point. the military organization of the later franks changed from infantry to cavalry, and this change gave way in time to the era of chivalry. the superior soldiers of the time of charlemagne had added to their equipment the celebrated coat of mail. [illustration: a knight in action] our early anglo-saxon fathers fought with swords, spears, axes, and a heavy, single-edged knife. the sword was especially the weapon of the horseman, and was not carried by anyone under the rank of thane. the infantry bore the other weapons. the early anglo-saxons do not appear to have used the bow and arrow, though in later times the long bow was an important weapon in england. the anglo-saxons of olden times were not strong in cavalry. saxon warriors carried round or oval shields made of wood and covered with leather. suits of metal armor were worn for defense. the gallant knights of the middle ages fought on horseback, as they went about protecting the weak, redressing the wrongs of the injured, and upholding right against might. they were clad in armor of metal, with swords buckled to their sides. mail armor of interlinked metallic rings was used until the beginning of the fourteenth century. from this time to the beginning of the seventeenth century, armor was made of solid plates of metal. after , armor was gradually replaced by a new agent of warfare, against which it was no protection. likewise the shield, the dagger, and the bow gave way, though the long bow continued in use as an english weapon until the close of queen elizabeth's reign. [illustration: an archer of the fifteenth century] the invention of gunpowder was one of the most far-reaching events of all history. this terrific substance has not only revolutionized warfare, but has changed the current of human history itself. it is not known who invented gunpowder, or when it was first used. it is a compound of saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur; the proportions in which these three ingredients are mixed vary in different countries and in different kinds of powders. it seems likely that powder was invented in the far east, perhaps in china. saltpetre comes, for the most part, from china and india, on whose vast plains it is found mixed with the soil. an ordinary wood fire kindled on ground containing saltpetre would bring the saltpetre into contact with charcoal, and thereby practically produce powder. it is probable that the discovery of the explosive occurred in this accidental way. fireworks were used in china from a very early date, but it is doubtful if the chinese, or any other nation of asia, used gunpowder as a propelling force. it was left for the western nations to develop and give practical value to the discovery of the chinese. our first knowledge of powder as an agency of war dates from about the year a.d., when it was used by the byzantine emperors in defending constantinople against the saracens. it was employed there, however, not as a propelling force, but in the form of rockets or a fiery liquid called greek fire. its first real use in europe as a power for propulsion was in spain, where the moors and the christians both used some kind of artillery as early as the twelfth century after christ. gunpowder was first introduced into england by roger bacon, a british scientist, who was born early in the thirteenth century. he probably did not discover its properties independently, but by reading ancient manuscripts. owing to the crude and uncertain methods of making gunpowder, it did not attain much value until berthold schwarz, a german monk, at about a.d. introduced an improved method of manufacture. the improved powder thus made was first used in england by king edward iii in his war against the scotch in . it was perhaps used on the continent of europe earlier than this, but the occasions are uncertain. the tubes from which the missiles were propelled were called "crakeys of war." spenser called cannon "those devilish iron engines." they were probably used for the first time in field warfare by the english in the battle at crécy, a small town in france, where on august , , the english defeated the french. the artillery seemed to have been used in this battle merely to frighten the horses of the enemy, and the cannon were laughed at as ingenious toys. from the battle of crécy onward, the use of gunpowder spread rapidly throughout europe, the russians being the last to adopt it. saltpetre, at first used in its natural state, began to be produced artificially, and then the manufacture of powder extended among the nations. during the french revolution, according to carlyle, the revolutionists were driven to such extremities for want of powder that they scraped old cellars seeking material for its manufacture. many recent improvements have been made in the production of gunpowder, the most important resulting in the smokeless powder. before the introduction of cannon using gunpowder as a propelling force, various machines were used in warfare for hurling missiles. large stones and heavy darts or arrows were thrown by means of tightly twisted ropes, like the action of a bow, or through the aid of a lever and sling. various names were applied to these weapons, the chief of which were the ballista and the catapult. the ballista hurled stones by means of a twisted cord or a lever; the catapult by darts or arrows could throw a projectile half a mile. both machines were used by the romans with great effect, in both defensive and offensive warfare. in destroying the wall of a besieged town, the romans used a battering-ram. it consisted of a beam of wood with a mass of bronze or iron on the end resembling a ram's head. in its earliest form, the battering-ram was beaten against the wall by the soldiers; later it was suspended in a frame and made to swing with ropes. another kind moved on rollers, the swinging movement being given to it also by means of ropes. the beam of the ram was from sixty to one hundred and twenty feet long, the head sometimes weighed more than a ton, and as many as a hundred men were necessary to swing it. for the protection of the soldiers using it, a wooden roof covered it, and the whole was mounted on wheels. scarcely any wall could resist the continued blows of the battering-ram. the romans were the most effective in the use of this engine, though they borrowed it from the greeks. the first cannon were clumsy and comparatively inefficient. they were made of wooden bars held together with iron hoops, and they shot balls of stone. cannon of bronze were next made, and in the latter part of the fifteenth century iron cannon came into use. the next improvement was the production of cannon of steel, and for some years past the best artillery has been made of this material. after stone balls ceased to be used, round balls of iron were utilized. these in time gave way to cylindrical projectiles of steel. originally cannon were loaded at the muzzle, but in recent years breech-loading devices have been developed, so that now all of the best modern guns are loaded from the rear. within the last twenty-five years, rapid-fire guns have been developed. these have a mechanism by which the breech is opened and closed again by a single motion of a lever. the loading with projectile and powder is also done with one motion. the rapidity of firing varies from two hundred shots per minute in the smallest guns to one shot in two minutes in the largest. the largest british cannon are nearly eighteen inches in calibre (diameter of bore), weigh a hundred tons, are thirty-five feet long, shoot a shell weighing nearly a ton, consume at each charge pounds of powder, and have the power of penetrating solid iron armor plate to the depth of almost two feet, at a distance of one thousand yards. at least a year and a quarter is required for making one of the great, heavy guns, and often a longer time. the cost of constructing one of the largest english cannon is about $ , , and it costs about $ to fire the gun once. some of the most powerful cannon may be relied upon to hit an object ten feet high at a distance of about nine thousand yards. in battle, however, owing to conditions of atmosphere and the limitations of human vision, fire would rarely be opened at a greater distance than three thousand yards, or not quite two miles. guns discharged by machinery have been introduced within the last half-century. the fire from machine guns is practically continuous. several kinds have been invented and improved by various persons. one of the best types of this kind of ordnance is the gatling gun, invented in by dr. r. j. gatling, of indianapolis. it consists of a number of parallel barrels, usually ten, grouped around and fastened to a central shaft. each barrel has its own mechanism for firing. as the barrels revolve, loaded cartridges are fed into them by machinery and the empty cartridges are ejected. by means of an automatic mechanism, the bullets may be scattered over such an arc in front as may be desired, or concentrated upon a narrower range. the gatling gun can fire at the rate of shots per minute; it literally hails bullets. the greatest name connected with the manufacture of modern cannon is that of herr alfred krupp, of germany, who was born at essen in in humble circumstances. he erected the first bessemer steel works in germany in the city of his birth, and was the pioneer in the introduction of steel for the manufacture of heavy guns. he believed in the utility of steel when the great governments of the earth had no faith in it. the works at essen cover in all about one thousand acres, and in them twenty thousand persons find employment. to krupp germany owed much, and was not negligent in paying him honor. his factory supplied artillery to nearly all the nations of europe. he died in july, , and was succeeded in the management of the works by his son alfred, who also died recently. the plant still continues in operation. [illustration: musketeer and pikeman of the early seventeenth century] the first portable or hand gun consisted of a simple iron or brass tube fastened to a straight stock of wood. horsemen used the first guns, and fired them by placing the end of the stock against the breast and letting the barrel rest on a fork fastened to the saddle. the gun was discharged by applying a lighted match to a touch-hole in the top of the barrel. one kind of powder was used for priming; another for firing. before the invention of cartridges, the powder and bullets were loaded separately at the muzzle, with some kind of packing between. the colonial rifles in america were loaded in this way. in a fight at close quarters, after a gun had been once discharged, the soldier had to fight with his sword. about the middle of the seventeenth century, the bayonet was invented, taking its name from the town of bayonne, in france, where the inventor lived. the lighted match which soldiers originally carried for igniting their guns gave way to the flint and steel; and in a scotch clergyman named forsyth obtained a patent which led to the invention of the percussion cap. this improvement revolutionized the mechanism of firearms. many improvements have been made recently in arms, so that cartridges containing cap, powder, and projectile are fed automatically into guns so delicately constructed that they have great carrying power, precision, and rapidity. from the dawn of human existence man has sought by some method or other to overcome natural barriers of water. the idea of the ship is as old almost as the race itself. the most primitive form of vessel was the raft. in prehistoric ages men made vessels by hollowing out the trunks of trees, either with fire or with such crude tools as they possessed. the latin poet virgil mentions "hollowed alders" used for boats, and indeed canoes were made from hollowed tree trunks as long ago as the stone age. the next step forward in the art of shipbuilding was the bark canoe. in countries where bark is scarce, small vessels were made of skins, felt, or canvas covered with pitch. in process of time, boats were made by fastening timbers together, and in this method the basic principle of modern shipbuilding was reached. it is the relation of ships to purposes of war that interests us here. when the curtain rose for the drama of civilization in egypt five thousand years ago, men were fighting at sea. the oldest ships of which we have knowledge were egyptian. the vessels of war were then propelled by oarsmen, who were protected from the missiles of the enemy by planks. on the egyptian war-galleys there was often a projecting bow to which was attached a metal head for ramming the vessels of the enemy. our knowledge of greek fighting ships--thanks to greek literature--is fairly full. in the time of homer, about ten centuries before christ, greek men-of-war carried crews of from fifty to one hundred and twenty men, nearly all of whom took part in the labor of rowing. a military boat called the "bireme" came into use in greece about six or seven centuries before christ. the word means a vessel with two rows or banks of oarsmen on each side, one row above the other. this disposition of rowers was evidently for the purpose of securing the largest possible number in the least possible space. it is probable that the greeks did not originate the bireme, but borrowed the idea from the phoenicians or possibly from egypt. when athens was at the zenith of her glory, the principal war vessel was the "trireme," a ship with three rows of oarsmen to the side, each rising above another. larger ships were subsequently constructed with four, five, and even sixteen banks of rowers to a side, tier above tier. the romans, although they were so powerful in land warfare, were not strong in naval achievement until after the first punic war. in this war they learned the art of naval construction from their enemies, the carthaginians. a carthaginian "quinquereme," or boat with five banks of oars, drifted to the roman coast. the romans copied it, set up frames on dry land in which crews were taught to row, and in sixty days from the time the trees were felled they had built and manned a fleet. later the romans used grappling hooks with which they bound together their own and an opposing ship. they then boarded the enemy's vessel and carried on the fight at close quarters. these tactics gave the romans command of the sea, and their war galley came to be the supreme object of terror in the naval history of roman days. sails and wind superseded rowers as the motive force of ships. then came steam. but after gunpowder and steam had worked a revolution in the modes of naval combat, vessels of war continued to be made of wood. the first fight between iron ships in the history of the world was fought on the ninth of march, , in hampton roads, near norfolk, virginia, during the civil war in america. the battle was the combat between the _merrimac_ and the _monitor_. this engagement marked the end of wooden navies. thenceforth the nations of earth were to make their warships of iron and steel. among the largest battleships built for the united states navy are the _delaware_ and the _north dakota_. each of these battleships is five hundred and ten feet long, a little more than eighty-five feet wide, sinks to the depth of nearly twenty-seven feet in the water, and travels at the rate of twenty-one knots per hour. each vessel weighs twenty thousand tons, and is armed with ten great guns a foot in diameter at the mouth. the _north dakota_ required tons of steel armor at a cost of more than four hundred dollars per ton. each of its great twelve-inch guns cost nearly $ , , weighs fifty-two tons, and hurls a projectile weighing pounds a distance of twelve miles. three hundred and eighty-five pounds of powder are consumed at a single discharge. at a distance of more than a mile and a half the projectiles of the _north dakota_ will penetrate steel armor to a depth of nearly twenty inches. when these projectiles leave the guns, they fly through the air at the rate of , feet in a second. when one hundred shots have been fired from one of these guns, it is worn so that it will be useless until repaired. the cost of a single discharge from one of these guns is about $ . sub-marine navigation has always been attended by the most woeful catastrophes, but in spite of numerous accidents the development of the submarine boat has progressed uninterruptedly. each new model presents new preventive devices. flasks of oxylithic powder are carried for purifying the air in the water-tight compartments in which the crews live while the boat is below the surface of the water. there is also a special apparatus for signalling other vessels or the shore, in case of danger. in three vessels, designated x, y, and z, were completed, which could achieve submersion in the short space of two minutes. the boats were armed with six torpedoes each. france owns the largest fleet of under-water warships in the world. england stands next, and the united states government is third. chapter viii astronomical discoveries and inventions "when i consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained, what is man, that thou art mindful of him?" the hebrew psalmist feels the insignificance of man compared with the infinitude of the heavens. victor hugo expresses the opposite thought: "there is one spectacle grander than the sea--that is the sky; there is one spectacle grander than the sky--that is the interior of the soul." there is nothing more dignified, more sublime, more awful, than a contemplation of the heavens. in point of grandeur, astronomy may be regarded as king of the sciences. it is also their patriarch. thousands of years before the birth of christ the priests of chaldea, from the tops of their flat-roofed temples, studied the stars and laid the foundations of the science of astronomy. the heavens, with their teeming, whirling, circling congregation, obeying laws that have no "variableness neither shadow of turning" do, indeed, "declare the glory of god." from the earliest times the stars were supposed to influence for good and ill the lives of men. there were supposed to be stars of good luck and of bad omen. the cool, calculating cassius tells brutus, "the fault, dear brutus, is not in our stars, but in ourselves, that we are underlings." when you look up into the heavens at the flickering dots of light which we call the stars, you are looking at worlds, many of them far larger than our earth. they seem small because of vast distances from us. our own solar system, great as it is, in comparison with the celestial universe is but a clod in an acre. at the center of our system is the sun, a huge ball of fiery matter , , miles from the earth, and as large as , worlds like ours. circling around the sun like maddened horses around a race course are eight planets. these planets, with the sun and some comets, constitute our solar system; _our_ system, for how many solar systems there are in space no one knows. these planets, in their order outward from the sun, are mercury, venus, our earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, and neptune. of these, mercury is the smallest and jupiter is the largest. the following table shows some interesting facts about the planets: --------+----------+------------+-------------+-------------+---------- | | number of | | time | | | planets | distance | required | velocity name | diameter |required to | from sun | for one | in orbit, | in miles | equal sun | in millions | revolution | miles per | | in size | of miles | around sun | hour | | | | in days | --------+----------+------------+-------------+-------------+---------- mercury | , | , , | | | , venus | , | , | | | , earth | , | , | | - / | , mars | , | , , | | | , jupiter | , | , | | , | , saturn | , | , | | , | , uranus | , | , | , | , | , neptune | , | , | , | , | , --------+----------+------------+-------------+-------------+---------- the moon is , miles from the earth, and it would require nearly , , moons to equal the sun in size. other planets have moons, some of them several. if you lived on the planet mercury, your annual birthday would come around about once in three of our months. if you had your home out on the border land of the solar system, on the planet neptune, you would have a birthday once in about years, as we count time on the earth. it will be observed that the closer the planet is to the sun, the faster it travels in its orbit. this fact is due to the power of gravitation toward the sun. this strange influence drives the planets around the sun, and the nearer the planet is to the sun the greater is the power and consequently the faster the revolution. the law of gravitation was discovered by sir isaac newton. newton was born in in lincolnshire, england. his father was a farmer, and the farmhouse in which the son was born is still preserved. he was educated at a grammar school in lincolnshire, and later entered trinity college, cambridge, from which he was graduated in . early in life he displayed a great liking for mathematics. within a few years after he entered college, he had mastered the leading mathematical works of the day and had begun to make some progress in original mathematical investigation. newton's great life work--the achievement which insured to his name a place among the immortals--was suggested to him by accident. as the story goes, while he was walking one day in a garden, he saw an apple fall from a tree. he speculated upon the reasons for its falling, and ultimately concluded that the same force which causes an apple to fall from a tree holds the heavenly bodies in their places. further investigation brought him to the unfolding of this general law of gravitation: "every body in nature attracts every other body with a force directly as its mass, and inversely as the square of its distance." this law is the greatest law of nature. it is the central fact of the physical universe, the cement of the material world, the mighty, mystic shepherdess of space, that keeps the planets from wandering off alone. it is this awful, silent power reaching out from the enormous mass of the sun, that lashes the planets in their furious race, and yet holds them tightly reined in their orbits. newton was one of the greatest mathematicians, scientists, and thinkers in the history of the world. he died at kensington, england, on march , , and was buried in westminster abbey, with the illustrious dead of great britain. [illustration: sir isaac newton] the operation of this law of gravitation pointed the way to the discovery of the planet neptune, which is considered the greatest triumph of mathematical astronomy since the days of newton. prior to the discovery of neptune, uranus was the outermost known planet of the solar system. it was noticed that uranus was being pulled out of its proper path. it was being tugged away by some strange force beyond the edge of the known planetary system. as the result of a skilful and laborious investigation, leverrier, a young french astronomer, wrote in substance to an assistant in the observatory at berlin: "direct your telescope to a point on the ecliptic in the constellation of aquarius in longitude °, and you will find within a degree of that place a new planet, looking like a star of the ninth magnitude, and having a perceptible disk." leverrier did not know of the existence of such a planet. he calculated its existence, location, and mass from the fact that some such body must be there, to account for the disturbance caused to uranus. the telescope in the berlin observatory was directed to the place designated by leverrier, and on the night of september , , in exact accordance with his prediction and within half an hour after the astronomers had begun looking, neptune was discovered within less than one degree from the exact spot where leverrier had calculated it must be. such are the triumphs of the human mind. such are the failures of nature to hide her secrets from the inquiry of man, even behind untold millions of miles. according to the principles of gravitation as unfolded by newton, the power of attraction decreases directly as the square of the distance between the sun and a planet. neptune, being on the outer rim of the system and hence farthest away from the sun, moves in its orbit around the sun more sluggishly than any other planet. life such as we know it on the earth could not exist on neptune; it would be too cold. the light and heat from the sun on neptune are only one nine hundredth part of what we get on the earth. but even so, the sunlight falling upon neptune is equal in power to seven hundred of our full moons. it was thought that uranus was the last planet of the solar system until neptune was found. whether neptune is the last, or whether other worlds are roaming around beyond it, is not known. ptolemy, who was one of the most celebrated astronomers of earlier times, was born in egypt about a century and a half after christ. according to the ptolemaic system of astronomy, which ptolemy expounded but did not originate, the earth was considered the center of the universe, and around it the other planets and the sun were believed to revolve. a passage in the bible in which joshua commanded the sun to stand still indicates that the old hebrews believed the sun circled around the earth. the ptolemaic theory did not account for all the facts observed by astronomers, but for nearly fifteen centuries it held practically universal sway over the belief of men, until another thinker set the matter right. nicholas copernicus was born in prussia, february , . he studied mathematics, medicine, theology, and painting, but his greatest achievements were in astronomy. he made holes in the walls of his room, through which he might observe the stars. copernicus did not believe in the theory of ptolemy that the earth was the center of the universe, but held that the solar system had for its center the sun, and that around it the planets, including the earth, revolved. in working out this belief, which science has subsequently shown to be correct, he laid the foundations of the modern system of astronomy. the book in which copernicus expounded his theory was begun in and was completed in . he could not be induced to publish it, however, until shortly before his death. on may , , he lay dying in frauenburg. a few hours before his death, when reason, memory, and life were slipping away from him, the first printed copy of his book was borne to frauenburg and placed in the great astronomer's hands. he touched the book, looked at it for a time, and seemed conscious of what it was. quickly afterward he lapsed into insensibility and was gone. johann kepler, who was born in germany in , contributed several important facts to astronomy. he studied the motions and laws of the celestial bodies. copernicus taught that the planets revolved around the sun in circular orbits, but kepler discovered that their paths are ellipses. he also found that the nearer the planets are to the sun the faster they travel. kepler's discoveries were embodied in three great laws of astronomy known as kepler's laws. these furnished the foundation for newton's discoveries and are the basis of modern astronomy. kepler died in november, . many of the wonderful discoveries that have been made in the field of astronomy could not have been possible without the telescope, the most important instrument used by astronomers. the first part of the word is the same greek adverb meaning "afar," found in _telegraph_ and _telephone_; the last part is derived from a greek verb meaning "to see." the telescope, therefore, is an instrument for seeing objects that are far off. it is a long tube with lenses so arranged as to make objects appear much larger than they would to the naked eye. the telescope was invented by a dutch optician named hans lippershey about three hundred years ago. the italian scientist galileo, who was born at pisa in february, , heard of the invention, began studying the principles upon which it depends, and greatly improved it. galileo was the first to use the telescope for astronomical purposes. with it he discovered the satellites of jupiter, the spots on the sun, and the hills and valleys of the moon. [illustration: galileo] at the present time the largest telescopes in the world are made and owned in america. the largest is the yerkes telescope, belonging to the university of chicago and located on the shores of lake geneva, wisconsin. microscopes, opera glasses, and other magnifying instruments depend upon the same principles as the telescope. one of the most astounding of man's tools is the spectroscope, an instrument used for analyzing light. through a knowledge of chemistry scientists can establish scientific relations between different substances and the light which they emit. by analyzing the light from the heavenly bodies with the aid of the spectroscope, and comparing this result with the light sent out from different known kinds of matter, man can stand on this little flying speck of matter we call the earth and discover of what substances the stars are made. one of the most interesting questions arising in a study of the heavenly bodies is whether or not any of them besides the earth are inhabited. is there any good reason for supposing that our pigmy planet, so insignificant compared with many celestial bodies, is the only one containing life? on the other hand, life such as we know it could not exist on some of the other planets. mercury would be too hot; neptune too cold. climatic conditions on mars are most nearly like those of the earth. within recent years the telescope has revealed on the surface of mars a number of peculiar, regular lines. many scientists hold that these are artificial canals or irrigation ditches, and that the planet must be inhabited. the theory does not seem at all unreasonable. but the most that can be safely said is that if any of the other planets are inhabited, the most likely one is mars. chapter ix the cotton-gin another great invention is the cotton-gin. it is great because of the commercial prosperity which it brought to the southern states; because it cheapened and extended the use of an almost necessary article of life; and because of its effect on american history. the inventor was an american, eli whitney. the word _gin_ is an abbreviation of _engine_, and in former days was often used to denote a handy mechanical device of any kind. the cotton-gin is a machine for removing the seed from the fiber of the cotton-plant. its essential parts are a number of saws which tear the fiber from the seeds, some stiff brushes used to remove the fiber from the saws, and a revolving fan which blows the lighter substance of the cotton away from the saws and brushes. the original cotton-gin has been little changed by improvement since its invention. it seems to be one of those inventions which have been perfected by the inventor himself. eli whitney was born in westborough, worcester county, massachusetts, december , . his father was a thrifty farmer. nature bestowed upon the son marked ability in the use of tools. while he was yet a child, his inventive genius manifested itself. before he was ten years old, he could use every tool in the farm workshop with the ease and skill of an old workman. he made a violin before he was twelve and later he came to be noted in the neighborhood as a skilful mender of fiddles. he also turned his attention to making nails, which in revolutionary days were made by hand, and became the best nail-maker in worcester county. when he was twenty-four years of age, a desire for a college education possessed him. his father agreed to furnish the money to pay for his schooling, with the stipulation that the son should pay it back. he entered yale, where he was graduated in . after graduation whitney went south to act as tutor in a private family. upon arrival at his destination, he found that the position was already filled. at that time the widow of general nathanael greene, who fought in the revolutionary war, lived near savannah, georgia. she had become interested in young whitney and invited him to make her plantation his home. she noted his inventive skill, and one day when a group of georgia planters was discussing at her home the desirability of a machine for removing cotton-seeds from the fiber, mrs. greene said: "gentlemen, apply to my friend, mr. whitney; he can make anything." whitney was called in and the planters laid the matter of the machine before him. at this time he had never even seen cotton fiber. but he made up his mind to try what he could do toward solving the problem. he went to savannah and searched among the warehouses and flat-boats for samples of cotton. mrs. greene encouraged him in his undertaking and gave him a room in the basement of her house for his workshop. here he shut himself up with his task, and was heard early and late hammering, sawing, and filing. no one was admitted to the room but mrs. greene and phineas miller, the tutor of mrs. greene's children. at the outset whitney had neither money nor tools. the money was supplied by an old college friend; the tools whitney made himself. he could procure no wire in savannah for constructing his machine, and was compelled to make his own, which he did with much perseverance and skill. in the gin was sufficiently completed to convince the inventor that it would be a complete success. mrs. greene invited a number of distinguished planters and merchants to witness the working of the machine. the spectators were not slow in realizing the success and the significance of the invention. they saw that with this little machine one man could separate as much cotton from the seed in one day as he could separate by hand in a whole winter. with the gin the cotton grown on a large plantation could be separated in a few days; by hand, the separation would require a hundred workmen for several months. one dark night some unscrupulous persons broke open the shed in which the unfinished machine had been placed and carried it away. filled with rage and despair at the wrong which had been done him, whitney left georgia and went to connecticut to complete his invention. but he had scarcely left savannah when two other claimants for the honor of the invention appeared in georgia. a few weeks later a gin very closely resembling whitney's came out. his stolen gin was doubtless used as a model by these false claimants. on march , , whitney received a patent on his gin. phineas miller, who had become the husband of mrs. greene, entered into a partnership with whitney for managing the new invention. whitney was to manufacture the gins in the north and miller was to furnish the capital and attend to the interests of the business in the south. they planned not to sell machines or patent rights, but to make and own the gins, loaning them to planters for a rental of one pound in every three pounds of cotton ginned. they would have been wiser if they had manufactured and sold the machines outright. in the first place, it required a larger capital than the firm had to manufacture the necessary number of machines. in the second place, no one firm could make gins fast enough to supply the rapidly increasing demand, and consequently great encouragement was given to infringements on the patent rights. unending troubles beset the new firm. whitney himself was a victim to severe illness in the winter of . scarlet fever raged that year in new haven, connecticut, where the manufacturing was being done, and many of the workmen in the gin factory were unable to work. in whitney was again seized with severe sickness, and to add to the vexations of the business, the books, papers, and machinery were destroyed by fire. besides all this, rival claimants circulated a report that whitney's gin ruined the fiber of the cotton, and that for this reason cotton ginned by the patent process was discriminated against in the markets of england. another gin which did its work by crushing the seeds between rollers and leaving the crushed seeds in the fiber was represented as superior to whitney's machine. [illustration: eli whitney] in speaking of his troubles whitney said: "the difficulties with which i have had to contend have originated principally in the want of a disposition in mankind to do justice. my invention was new and distinct from every other; it stood alone. it was not interwoven with anything before known; and it can seldom happen that an invention or improvement is so strongly marked, and can be so clearly and specifically identified; and i have always believed that i should have had no difficulty in causing my rights to be respected, if it had been less valuable and been used only by a small portion of the community. but the use of this machine being immensely profitable to almost every planter in the cotton districts, all were interested in trespassing on the patent right, and each kept the other in countenance.... at one time but few men in georgia dared to come into court and testify to the most simple facts within their knowledge relative to the use of the machine. in one instance i had great difficulty in proving that the machine had been used in georgia, although at the same moment there were three separate sets of this machinery in motion within fifty yards of the building in which the court sat, and all so near that the rattle of the wheels was distinctly heard on the steps of the court house." whitney never received fair and proper compensation for his invention. the machine itself was stolen; others sought to rob him of his honor; he was opposed by an unlimited train of vexations; and after the expiration of his patent he was never able to secure a renewal. the effect of the invention of the cotton-gin was far-reaching, industrially and historically. in , at a session of the united states district court held in savannah, georgia, the inventor finally obtained judgment against the persons who had stolen his invention. in the opinion rendered in favor of whitney, judge johnson said of the cotton-gin: "is there a man who hears us who has not experienced its utility? the whole interior of the, southern states was languishing, and its inhabitants were emigrating for the want of some object to engage their attention and employ their industry, when the invention of this machine at once opened new views to them which set the whole country in active motion. individuals who were depressed with poverty and sunk in idleness have suddenly risen to wealth and respectability. our debts have been paid off, our capitals have increased, and our lands have trebled themselves in value. we cannot express the weight of the obligation the country owes to this invention. the extent of it cannot now be seen. some faint presentiment may be formed from the reflection that cotton is rapidly supplanting wool, flax, silk, and even furs, in manufactures, and may one day profitably supply the use of specie in our east india trade. our sister states also participate in the benefits of this invention; for besides affording the raw material for their manufactures, the bulkiness and quantity of the article afford a valuable employment for their shipping." in the south "cotton is king." the rise of the cotton industry dates from the invention of eli whitney's cotton-gin. before its invention the labor of removing the seed from the fiber was so tedious that the growth of the cotton was not profitable. partly because of this fact and partly because the revolutionary war was just over, the south lay dormant; its plantations were heavily mortgaged, its people were moving away in streams. then came a little machine that awoke the south from its sleep and made it rouse itself. it brought energy, hope, and prosperity, where before were languor, indifference, and stagnation. it increased the exportation of american cotton from less than , pounds in to , , pounds in . from the historical point of view the invention of the cotton-gin was tremendous in its influence. this machine multiplied by many times the demand in the south for slave labor and made slaves far more profitable. one writer has said of whitney: "he was, through his invention, probably one of the most potent agencies for the extension of slavery and the terrible struggle that marked the first half-century of our nation's existence. while he was quietly sleeping in his grave, the very earth was shaken with the tread of contending armies that he had done more than any other one man to call forth to battle; for there is little doubt that but for the invention of the cotton-gin slavery would not have lived out the century of the revolution." macaulay says: "what peter the great did to make russia dominant, eli whitney's invention of the cotton-gin has more than equaled in its relation to the power and progress of the united states." in the light of the wonderful, widespread material growth and prosperity that have come to the whole of our country in recent years, macaulay's statement is overdrawn. but as matters were when it was written by the great englishman, it was probably true. whitney achieved much success as the inventor of improved methods of manufacturing firearms. he was the first to conceive the plan of making the different parts of firearms by machinery, so that any part of a weapon would fit any other like weapon equally well. this principle has made possible the production of cheap watches, clocks, and sewing machines. he died in new haven, connecticut, january , . chapter x anÆsthetics if those inventions and discoveries out of which have come widespread safety, happiness, or prosperity to mankind are to be considered great, then dr. morton's discovery of anæsthetics and its application to surgery is entitled to a high place among the world's discoveries and inventions. the pain that has been destroyed, the lives that have been saved, the sorrow that has been averted, give their testimony to the value of this discovery to humanity. an anæsthetic is administered to produce temporary insensibility to pain. at least something of anæsthetics was known to the ancients. homer mentions nepenthe, a potion which was said to make persons forget their pains and sorrows. the word appears occasionally in literature. in "evangeline" longfellow refers to it in this line: "crown us with asphodel flowers, that are wet with the dews of nepenthe." virgil and other classical writers mention a mythical river lethe which was supposed to surround hades. souls passing over to the happy fields of elysium first drank from this river, whose waters caused them to forget their sorrows. milton speaks of the mythical stream in the following passage from "paradise lost:" "far off from these a slow and silent stream, lethe, the river of oblivion, rolls her watery labyrinth." herodotus wrote that it was the practice of the scythians to inhale the vapors of a certain kind of hemp to produce intoxication. the use of the mandrake plant as an anæsthetic is spoken of as far back as pliny, the roman historian. the sleep-producing effects of the mandragora or mandrake are alluded to by shakespeare. he also frequently mentions in a general way draughts that act as anæsthetics, without making clear their specific natures. an old chinese manuscript indicates that a physician of that country named hoa-tho in the third century after christ used a preparation of hemp as an anæsthetic in surgical operations. although the ancients had knowledge of anæsthetics of one kind or other, the practice of anæsthesia never became general, and surgeons of the ancient world appear to have looked upon it with disfavor. when in modern times joseph priestley, the english scientist (born in , died ) gave great impetus to chemical research by his discoveries in that science, the nature of gases and vapors was more and more closely studied. the belief soon sprang up that many gases and vapors would ultimately become of great value in medicine and surgery. in sir humphry davy experimented with nitrous oxide gas, called "laughing gas," and discovered its anæsthetic qualities. he suggested its use in surgery, but for practically half a century his suggestion passed unheeded. other scientists experimented with greater or less success, seeking to find something that would alleviate physical pain; but to dr. william t. g. morton, an american, belongs the credit for the practical introduction of anæsthetics into modern surgery. dr. morton was born in charlton, massachusetts, august , . his ancestors were of scotch extraction. he passed his early years in farm work. at the age of thirteen he entered an academy at oxford, massachusetts, where he remained only a few months, attending school thereafter at northfield and leicester. his father's financial condition caused him to leave school in and enter the employ of a publishing firm in boston. deciding to engage in the practice of dentistry, in he took a course in the baltimore college of dental surgery. two years afterward he began the practice of his profession in boston. as dentistry at that time was in its beginnings as a distinct profession, dr. morton took up, in addition to it, the study of general medicine and surgery in the harvard medical school. in the days prior to the use of anæsthetics, the operations of dental surgery were attended by much pain. dr. morton began seeking some means for alleviating it. in the course of his investigations he became acquainted with the effects of sulphuric ether as a local anæsthetic, and frequently used this drug in minor operations. on one occasion he applied it with unusual freedom in the treatment of a very sensitive tooth. observing how completely the tissues were benumbed by the ether, he conceived the idea of bringing the entire system under its influence, thereby producing temporary insensibility in all the sensory nerves. the most serious problem with which he had to deal was the manner of applying the ether. although the soporific tendencies of both ether and nitrous oxide gas were well known, it had not been proved that they could be inhaled in sufficiently large quantities, or, if so, that they would produce perfect insensibility. after a long series of experiments with various animals, dr. morton succeeded in fully establishing the narcotic power of ether. on october , , he made his first public demonstration of the new discovery in the operating room of the massachusetts general hospital, in boston, when he painlessly removed a tumor from the jaw of a patient. this operation was wholly convincing to the medical profession, and created profound public interest. dr. morton was brought into immediate prominence. a meeting of the leading physicians of boston was held to choose an appropriate name for the new process. a long list of words was presented, from which dr. morton selected the term _letheon_, related to the lethe of virgil and the classical writers. the words _anæsthetic_ and _anæsthesia_ were coined from the greek by dr. oliver wendell holmes, the american poet and physician, who was then living in boston. the words proposed by dr. holmes have become the established terms of the subject, superseding the _letheon_ of the discoverer. [illustration: dr. william t. g. morton] dr. morton secured a patent on his discovery, but derived little pecuniary profit from it. although he permitted the free use of his anæsthetic in charitable institutions, his patent was frequently infringed. he vainly applied to congress for compensation in and . a bill to give him one hundred thousand dollars as a national testimonial of his contribution to the welfare of the race was introduced into congress in and defeated. measures in his behalf at sessions of congress in and were likewise voted down. the only money that ever came to dr. morton for his discovery was a small prize from the french academy of sciences and the sum of one thousand dollars from the trustees of the massachusetts general hospital. the governments of russia and of norway and sweden conferred upon him certain awards of honor in recognition of his great contribution to science. he died in new york city, july , , and was buried in mount auburn cemetery, cambridge, massachusetts, perhaps the most beautiful and illustrious of american burial places. the monument of dr. morton in mount auburn bears this inscription: "william t. g. morton, inventor and revealer of anæsthetic inhalation, by whom pain in surgery was averted and annulled; before whom, in all time, surgery was agony; since whom, science has control of pain." he is included among the fifty-three illustrious sons of massachusetts whose names are inscribed upon the dome of the new hall of representatives in the state house at boston; and is among the five hundred noted men whose names adorn the facade of the boston public library. the news of morton's discovery reached england december , . within five days ether was in use as an anæsthetic by the english dentists and surgeons. a year later sir j. y. simpson, of edinburgh discovered the anæsthetic properties of chloroform, which has since that time been the preferred anæsthetic in europe. ether has continued in general use in america. chapter xi steel and rubber it has been shown already in this volume that the materials from which man has made his tools, and those tools themselves, are the best means of determining his advance in civilization. man passed from the stone age with its few, crude implements into the bronze age, and from this into the iron age, with each succeeding step increasing the number and efficiency of his tools. the race has lately passed into an age which might well be named the age of steel. the discovery or invention of this metal--for there is in it the nature of both invention and discovery--is sufficiently important to mark a distinct era in human progress. steel is not found native, but is a compound of iron and carbon and is produced artificially. the great value of steel lies in the fact that it can be made so hard that it can cut and shape almost every other substance known to man, and yet this very quality of hardness can be so modified as to make the metal capable of cutting and otherwise shaping itself. steel can be made nearly as hard as the diamond, or so soft that it can be cut, bent, or hammered into this shape or that, rolled into sheets, or drawn out into the finest wire. nearly the whole of the compound is iron, the carbon ranging from one-fourth of one per cent to two and one half per cent. ordinary steel contains certain other chemicals, such as silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus, but these are mere natural impurities existing in the metal. the essential ingredients are iron and carbon. steel is hardened by being heated to a high temperature and then suddenly cooled by contact with cold water, or in other like ways. fixing the degree of hardness in a piece of steel is called tempering. the degree of hardness is dependent upon the suddenness of cooling. the widespread use of steel and its importance in the life of to-day are due to sir henry bessemer, an english inventor, who was born january , , and died march , . the substance was known, made, and used before the time of bessemer, but its production was so costly that it was little used. by his process of production the cost was greatly reduced and steel consequently came into much wider usage. by the bessemer process molten iron is poured into a vessel with holes in the bottom. air at a powerful pressure is forced through these openings, so that the pressure of the air prevents the melted metal from running out. the air removes the carbon from the molten iron. afterward the required amount of carbon is admitted to the iron, and the result of the union is a piece of steel. the process of bessemer was patented in . steel is used in the construction of great modern buildings, bridges, and battleships; and in making cannon, railroad cars and rails, pipe, wire, bolts and nails, swords, knives, saws, watch-springs, needles, and innumerable tools and articles of every-day usage. manifestly a material that is used in the manufacture of articles ranging from a needle to a great city sky-scraper or a battleship must be of prime importance to the human race. [illustration: steel framework of the flatiron building, new york city] the united states steel corporation is the largest combination of capital in the world. it was organized in march, , under the laws of new jersey, for the manufacture and sale of steel products. this giant corporation was formed by the union of ten large corporations, each of which was, in turn, made up of smaller companies. its total capitalization is $ , , , , or one half of all the money in the united states. its property consists of steel works, with an annual capacity of , , tons; , coke furnaces; over , acres of land; and lake vessels and several small railroads. the corporation employs over , men, to whom it pays in wages annually over $ , , . when on a wet morning one puts on rubbers and a rain coat, one scarcely wonders about the history of the articles that give so much protection and comfort. the story of rubber is an interesting one. the substance at first was called "elastic gum." about it was discovered that the gum would rub out lead pencil marks. it was imported into great britain and sold for this purpose, and because of this property its name was changed to rubber. the correct name of the material now is caoutchouc, though its common name is india-rubber or simply rubber. it is obtained from the sap of certain tropical trees and shrubs. the best quality of rubber comes from brazil, though supplies are procured from other parts of south america, from central america, the west indies, africa, and parts of tropical asia. the details of collecting the sap and preparing it for market vary somewhat according to locality and the nature of the trees or shrubs from which it comes. in the region of the amazon, when the sap is to be obtained from a tree, cuts are made each morning in the bark. the milky sap that exudes is collected in little tin or clay cups fastened to the trunk. at the end of about ten hours these cups are emptied into larger ones, and on the morning of the following day new incisions are made in each tree, about eight inches below the old ones. this process is continued until incisions have been made in the bark from a height of about six feet down to the ground; the lower down on the trunk of the tree, the better is the quality of the sap. for the evaporation of the sap, a fire is built of material yielding dense volumes of smoke. workmen dip wooden paddles into the liquid and hold them in the smoke until the sap solidifies and acquires a slightly yellow tinge. they repeat the process of dipping the paddle into the sap and holding it in the smoke, until the paddle is covered with a layer of the dried gum about an inch and a half in thickness. this layer is then removed from the paddle and hung up to dry; and the process of evaporation is commenced anew. the raw material, which is an elastic, yellowish, gum-like substance, is sent away to be vulcanized. from the vulcanized product are made the rubber goods of commerce. as far back as a.d. the spaniards used rubber for waxing canvas cloaks so as to make them water-proof. but it was not until two centuries later that caoutchouc began to attract general attention. charles goodyear, an american inventor, found a way for making it commonly useful, and brought about its practical and widespread utility. the story of goodyear's life is pathetically interesting. he was born in new haven, connecticut, december , . his father was amasa goodyear, a pioneer hardware manufacturer, from whom the son inherited much of his inventive ability. charles goodyear was educated in the schools of new haven, and spent much of his time on his father's farm and in the factory, where the father manufactured steel implements and pearl buttons, the first ever made in america. the son intended to become a preacher, but obstacles arose and he abandoned his purpose. though he was not to minister to man's spiritual needs, yet he was to bring to the race a material blessing of great value. goodyear entered into the hardware business with his father in connecticut and at philadelphia, but their business failed. during the ten years extending from to he was frequently imprisoned for debt. all this time he was working to perfect unfinished inventions in order that his creditors might be paid. while a boy on his father's farm, he one day picked up a scale of rubber peeled from a bottle, and conceived the notion that this substance could be turned into a most useful material if it were made uniformly thin and prepared in such way as to prevent its melting and sticking together in a solid mass. when he was first imprisoned for debt, the use of rubber was attracting general attention. he became strongly interested in finding a way for making the article more useful. the chief difficulty in treating rubber lay in its susceptibility to extremes of temperature; it melted in summer and became stiffened in winter. strenuous effort had been expended in attempting to overcome this difficulty, but without success. goodyear dedicated his energies to a solution of the problem. his experiments were conducted in philadelphia, in new york, and in massachusetts towns. during this period he and his family lived literally from hand to mouth, and more than once subsisted upon what was virtually the charity of friends. sometimes it was necessary to sell the children's books and articles of household furniture to drive the wolf of hunger from the door. much of his experimentation was carried on in prison, with no encouragement from any source to cheer him on. at times his hopes arose as victory seemed near; they soon fell, as what he had mistaken for triumph proved to be defeat. he became the butt of those who did not share his own constant faith in the ultimate success of his labors. he was calm in defeat, patient in ridicule, and always bore himself with magnificent fortitude. [illustration: charles goodyear] in the early months of goodyear could shout with the old syracusan mathematician, "eureka!"--"i have found it!" he had discovered that rubber coated with sulphur and then heated to a high degree of heat is rendered uniformly elastic in all temperatures. he had solved the problem, but it was two long years before he could convince any one of the fact. william rider, of new york, finally furnished capital for carrying on the business of manufacturing rubber goods according to the new process. the firm was successful and goodyear had soon paid off thirty-five thousand dollars of indebtedness owed to creditors of his old business that had failed ten or fifteen years before. the new process was called vulcanizing. vulcan was the old roman god of fire and metal working, and was patron of handicrafts generally. the word _volcano_ is derived from _vulcan_, and melted sulphur is associated with volcanoes. the term _vulcanize_, therefore, is traceable either directly or indirectly, through the fire or the sulphur employed in the process, to the name of the roman god. according to the relative amount of sulphur used and the temperature to which the compound is raised, either soft or hard rubber may be produced. hard rubber contains a greater quantity of sulphur and is heated to a higher temperature. the heat used in vulcanization reaches as much as three hundred degrees fahrenheit. goodyear's first patent was taken out in , the year in which samuel f. b. morse invented the telegraph. about this time he was imprisoned for debt for the last time in the united states, though he suffered a jail sentence for debt in france later. his patents were repeatedly infringed in this country, and he could not secure any patents in great britain or france. the united states commissioner of patents said of goodyear, "no inventor, probably, has ever been so harassed, so trampled upon, so plundered by pirates as he, their spoliations upon him having unquestionably amounted to millions of dollars." daniel webster was the lawyer employed in the trial in which goodyear's legal right to the honor and profits of his invention was established. for his services in this case webster received a fee of twenty-five thousand dollars. goodyear himself made no very large sum of money from his invention, though he added to life not merely a new material but a new class of materials, applicable to many cases. before his death he had seen rubber put to more than five hundred different uses, and thousands of persons engaged in manufacturing the various articles fashioned from it. goodyear died in new york city, july , . chapter xii stenography and the typewriter it is difficult to see how man could now dispense with any of the great inventions and discoveries that give him power over time and space. not one of them could be sacrificed without corresponding loss of power. among the great devices that economize time are stenography and the typewriter. stenography is the world's business alphabet; the typewriter, its commercial printing press. the word _stenography_ is derived from the greek adjective _stenos_ meaning "narrow" or "close," and the greek verb _graphein_ signifying "to write." stenography, therefore, is the art of close or narrow writing, so named, perhaps, from the great amount of meaning that by its use is packed into a narrow compass. it is a phonetic system in which brief signs are used to represent single sounds, groups of sounds, whole words, or groups of words. the idea of stenography or shorthand writing originated in ancient times. antiquarians have tried to show, with more or less plausibility, that it was practised more than a thousand years before the birth of christ by the persians, egyptians, and hebrews. abbreviated writing, for taking down lectures and preserving poems recited at the olympic and other games, was used by the greeks. the first known practitioner of the art of shorthand writing was tiro, who lived in rome b.c., and who was the stenographer of the great orator cicero. he took down in shorthand the speeches of his master, by whom they were afterward revised. plutarch says that when the roman senate was voting on the charge which cicero had preferred against catiline, cicero distributed shorthand reporters throughout the senate house for the purpose of taking down the speeches of some of the leading senators. at the close of st. paul's letter to the colossians there is a note to the effect that the epistle was written from rome by tychicus and onesimus. it has been supposed that tychicus acted as shorthand writer and onesimus as transcriber. certain it is that the early christian fathers employed a system of shorthand writing. saint augustine refers to a church meeting held at carthage in the fourth century of the christian era, at which eight shorthand writers were employed, two working at a time. charlemagne, the great king of the franks, who died in a.d., delved deep into the art of shorthand writing as practised by tiro, cicero's stenographer. in chapter xxxviii of _david copperfield_, charles dickens describes his own experience with shorthand thus: "i bought an approved scheme of the noble art and mystery of stenography (which cost me ten and sixpence), and plunged into a sea of perplexity that brought me, in a few weeks, to the confines of distraction. the changes that were rung upon dots, which in such a position meant such a thing, and in such another position something else, entirely different; the wonderful vagaries that were played by circles; the unaccountable consequences that resulted from marks like flies' legs; the tremendous effects of a curve in a wrong place--not only troubled my waking hours, but reappeared before me in my sleep. when i had groped my way, blindly, through these difficulties, and had mastered the alphabet, which was an egyptian temple in itself, there then appeared a procession of new horrors, called arbitrary characters, the most despotic characters i have ever known; who insisted, for instance, that a thing like the beginning of a cobweb meant _expectation_, and that a pen-and-ink sky-rocket stood for _disadvantageous_. when i had fixed these wretches in my mind, i found that they had driven everything else out of it; then, beginning again, i forgot them; while i was picking them up, i dropped the other fragments of the system; in short, it was almost heart-breaking." till near the middle of the last century all systems of shorthand writing were more or less crude and illogical. about isaac pitman, an englishman, put stenography upon a phonetic basis and therefore a scientific basis. as there are in the english language forty-three different sounds represented by twenty-six letters, pitman adopted a shorthand alphabet in which consonants were represented by simple straight or curved strokes, the light sounds denoted by light strokes and the heavy sounds by heavy strokes. "the leading heavy vowels are represented by six heavy dots and a like number of heavy dashes, placed at the beginning, middle, or end of the strokes, and before or after as they precede or follow the consonants. the same course is followed with the light vowels. diphthongs are provided for by a combination of dash forms, and by a small semicircle, differently formed and placed in different positions. circles, hooks, and loops are employed in distinct offices." pitman's invention of a phonographic alphabet for shorthand was the beginning of verbatim reporting that has spread to every land which anglo-saxon civilization has touched. there is scarcely a legislative body, a court of importance, or a great convention of any kind, whose proceedings are not taken down on the spot in shorthand, accurately and at once, to say nothing of the very wide use of stenography in private business. in this bewildering commercial whirl of the twentieth century time is money, and stenography is time. the typewriter, invented about forty years ago, is parallel to stenography in importance. the daily volume of the world's business could not be accomplished without it. and, as in the case of all the great inventions, men do not see how they got on before it came. the world owes the typewriter to two americans, john pratt and christopher l. sholes. pratt was born in unionville, south carolina, april , . in , while in england, he produced the first working typewriter that ever secured a sale. a description of his machine in one of the english periodicals attracted the attention of sholes, who was born in pennsylvania in , but who at that time was living in milwaukee, wisconsin. he began working at the idea of the typewriter borrowed from pratt, and in the same year that pratt's machine was first made, sholes produced a typewriter that was practically successful and started the manufacture of a machine that was to become increasingly useful, and finally indispensable. no business in recent years has grown more rapidly than the typewriter industry. from nothing forty years ago, it has grown into an industry producing nearly a quarter of a million machines a year and employing thousands of workmen. american manufacturers not only supply the home trade with their output, but export machines to every part of the civilized world, making this country the home and center of the world's typewriter industry. chapter xiii the friction match the biggest things are not always the most important. a little article, used many times in the course of every day and familiar to every person, is one of the world's great inventions. it is the friction match. fire is one of man's absolute necessities. without it civilization would have been impossible, and life could scarcely continue. the story of man's power to produce and use fire is practically the story of civilization itself. so far as history can reveal there has never been in any time a people who were without the knowledge and use of fire; which, on its beneficent side, is man's indispensable friend; and in its wrath, a terrible destroyer. a mass of mythological stories has come down from the days of antiquity regarding the origin of fire. the persian tradition is that fire was discovered by one of the hero dragon-fighters. he hurled a huge stone at a dragon, but missed his aim. the stone struck another rock. according to the story, "the heart of the rock flashed out in glory, and fire was seen for the first time in the world." the dakota indians of north america believed that their ancestors produced fire from the sparks which a friendly panther struck with its claws in scampering over a stony hill. finnish poems describe how "fire, the child of the sun, came down from heaven, where it was rocked in a tube of yellow copper, in a large pail of gold." some of the australian tribes have a myth that fire came from the breaking of a staff held in the hands of an old man's daughter. in another australian legend fire was stolen by a hawk and given to man; in still another a man held his spear to the sun and thus procured fire. according to greek mythology, fire was stolen from heaven by prometheus, friend of men, and brought to them in a hollow stalk of fennel. as the legend runs, he took away from mankind the evil gift of foreseeing the future, and gave them instead the better gifts of hope and fire. for the bestowing of these gifts upon the human race, prometheus was sorely punished by zeus, king of the gods. the myth that fire was stolen from heaven by a hero is not confined to the greeks; it is scattered among the traditions of all nations. it is not strange that primitive man should ascribe the origin of fire to supernatural causes. before he learned how to use and control it, he must have been strangely impressed with its various manifestations--the flash of the lightning, the hissing eruption of the volcano, the burning heat of the sun, and perhaps the wild devastation of forest and prairie fires caused by spontaneous combustion. because of its mysterious origin and its uncontrollable power for good or ill, fire was supposed from the earliest times to be divine. the bible tells us that the lord went before the children of israel in their journey from egypt to the promised land in a pillar of fire by night. from the earliest hours of religious history the sun has been worshiped as a god. all the tribes of antiquity had a fire god. it was agni in ancient india; moloch among the phoenicians; hephaestus in greece; vulcan among the romans; osiris in egypt; and loki among the scandinavians. in ancient religious belief fire and the human soul were supposed to be one and the same in substance. in some instances fire was held to be the very soul of nature, the essence of everything that had shape. "from jupiter to the fly, from the wandering star to the tiniest blade of grass, all beings owed existence to the fiery element." this theory was believed by the aztecs, who invoked in their prayers "fire the most ancient divinity, the father and mother of all gods." of these ancient fire-divinities some were good and some evil; just as fire itself is both beneficent and malignant. among some peoples fire was used for purification from sin and the cure of disease. it also burned upon the tombs of the dead to dispel evil spirits. greek colonists, in setting out from the mother country for the purpose of founding new homes, took fire from the home altar with which to kindle fires in their new homes. upon some altars fires were kept constantly burning, and their extinguishment was considered a matter of great alarm. if by chance the fire that burned in the roman temple of vesta went out, all tribunals, all authority, all public and private business had to stop immediately until the fire should be relighted. the greeks and the aztecs received ambassadors of foreign countries in their temples of fire, where at the national hearth they prepared feasts for their guests. in some cases ambassadors were not received until they had stood close to fire in order that any impurities they might have brought should be singed away. no greek or roman army crossed a frontier without taking an altar whereon burned night and day fire brought from the public council hall and temple at home. the egyptians had a fire burning night and day in every temple, and the greeks, romans, and persians had such a fire in every town and village. among our anglo-saxon ancestors the ordeal by fire was one of the modes of trying cases of law. the accused was compelled to walk blindfolded over red-hot plowshares. if these burned him, he was adjudged guilty; if not, he was acquitted, for it was supposed that the purity of fire would not permit an innocent man to suffer. the custom of the north american indians was to discuss important tribal affairs around the council fire. each sachem marched around it thrice, turning to it all sides of his person. among peoples in both hemispheres it has been the practice to free fields from the demons of barrenness by lighting huge fires. the fields were supposed to be made fertile as far as the flames could be seen. in bavaria seeds were passed through fire before they were sown to insure fertility. in some places children were held over the flame of an altar fire for purposes of purification. nothing has played a more important part in the history of the race than fire. human culture began with the use of it, and increased in proportion as its use increased. for ages man felt his helplessness before fire; he did not know how to produce it, or to turn it to good account. by and by the secret was discovered; mind began to gain the mastery over this great force. the most primitive method of producing fire artificially was by rubbing two sticks together. this method was probably discovered by accident. fire from friction was caused also by pushing the end of a stick along a groove in another piece of wood, or by twirling rapidly a stick which had its end placed perpendicularly in a hole made in another piece of wood. focusing the rays of the sun powerfully upon a given point by means of a lens or concave mirror, was another method used for starting fire. the story is told that when the ancient city of syracuse in sicily was being besieged, the great mathematician archimedes, who was a resident of that city, set on fire the enemy's ships by focusing the sun's rays upon them with a mirror. in china the burning-glass was widely used not very long ago. when iron came into use, it was employed for making fire. a piece of flint was struck against an iron object. the concussion produced a spark, which fell into a box containing charred cotton called tinder. the tinder took fire but did not burst into flame. the flame came by touching the burning tinder with a strip of wood tipped with sulphur. this flint-and-steel method was used for producing fire until less than a century ago. no attempt was made to produce fire by chemical means until . in that year m. chancel, a paris professor, invented an apparatus consisting of a small bottle containing asbestos, saturated with sulphuric acid, and wooden splints or matches coated with sulphur, chlorate of potash, and sugar. the wooden splint, when dipped into the bottle, was ignited. the first really successful friction matches were made in by john walker, an english druggist. they consisted of wooden splints coated with sulphur and tipped with antimony, chlorate of potash, and gum. they were sold at a shilling or twenty-four cents per box, each box containing eighty-four matches. the modern phosphorus friction match came into use about . it is not possible to ascertain precisely who the inventor was. but in that year preschel had a factory in vienna, austria, for the manufacture of friction matches with phosphorus as the chief chemical. for years austria and the states in the south of germany were the center of the match industry. phosphorus is still used as the principal chemical ingredient in the manufacture of matches. the first patent in the united states for a friction match was issued october , , to alonzo d. phillips, of springfield, massachusetts. the "safety match," which will not ignite unless brought into contact with the side of the box in which it is packed, was invented by lundström of sweden, in . the match industry in norway and sweden has developed during the last few years with great rapidity. about sixty factories are in operation in these countries. one town alone contains six thousand matchmakers. in france the government has the sole right to manufacture matches. phosphorus is very poisonous, and the early manufacture of phosphorus matches was attended with loss of life and great suffering. inhalation of phosphorus fumes produced necrosis, or decay of the bone, usually of the lower jaw. in the first years of phosphorus match making, the business was chiefly carried on by the poorer people in large cities. the work was done in damp, foul cellars; and the peculiar disease of the bone caused by the phosphorus fumes became so widespread that the different governments drove the match factories out of the cellars and ordered that the business be conducted in better ventilated buildings. but the discovery of red phosphorus, which never produces the disease, the use of lessened quantities of the ordinary phosphorus, and better ventilation have all combined to make the malady now very rare. the first matches were made by hand, one by one, and were of necessity few and costly. matches are now made and boxed by machinery. one million splints can be cut in an hour with the machinery in use. some single manufacturing firms make as many as one hundred millions of matches in a day. with diminished cost of production have come decreased prices, so that now a large box can be purchased for a very few cents. until about railroads in the united states would not receive matches for transportation, owing to the danger involved. the distribution before that year was mainly by canal or wagon. a match is a little thing, but it is one of the world's really great inventions. chapter xiv photography photography is one of the many triumphs of the human mind over time and space. thousands of miles are between you and the wonderful taj mahal. you may never be able to go to it. but as the mountain would not go to mohammed and mohammed therefore went to the mountain, so photography brings the taj mahal to you. the chief struggle for civilization is with these two abstract antagonists--time and space. in this struggle the achievements of photography are such as to win it a place among the world's great inventions and discoveries. here, again, we borrow words from the greeks. _photography_ comes from the greek noun _phos_ meaning "light" and the greek verb _graphein_ signifying "to write," already referred to several times in this volume. photography is therefore the science and the art of writing or reproducing objects by means of light. the science of photography depends upon the action of light on certain chemicals, usually compounds of silver. these chemicals are spread upon a delicately sensitized metallic plate, which is exposed to light. the action of light fixes the object desired upon this plate, from which copies of the picture are made on paper of suitable kind. like most of the great discoveries and inventions, photography is not old. it had its beginning in , when the swedish chemist scheele began to inquire scientifically into the reason and effect of the darkening of silver chloride by the rays of the sun. the first picture ever made by the use of light on a sensitive surface was made in by thomas wedgewood, an englishman. the principle of the photographer's camera was discovered in by della porta, of naples. to nicéphore niepce, a frenchman, belongs the honor of producing the first camera picture. this was in after thirteen years of experimenting. he called his process "heliography," _helios_ being the greek word for _sun_. his process consisted of coating a piece of plated silver or glass with asphaltum or bitumen, and exposing the plate in the camera for a time varying in length from four to six hours. the light acted on the asphaltum in such a way as to leave the image on the plate. the predecessor of the modern photograph was the daguerreotype. it was named for its inventor, louis daguerre, a french scene-painter, who was born in . in he formed a partnership with niepce, and together they labored to advance the art of photography. the discovery of the daguerreotyping process was announced in january, . the process of daguerre consisted in "exposing a metal plate covered with iodide of silver for a suitable time in a photographic camera, the plate being afterwards transferred to a dark room, and exposed to the vapor of mercury, which develops the latent image, it being afterwards fixed. although this process has become almost obsolete, it was really the first which was of any practical value, and experts all agree that no other known process reproduces some subjects--for example, the human face--with such fidelity and beauty." a little while before the daguerreotyping process was announced, fox talbot, a british investigator, discovered a method of making pictures by means of the action of light on chemically prepared paper instead of metal, as in the case of daguerre. talbot originated the terms _negative_ and _positive_ which are still used in photography. daguerre in france and talbot in great britain had independently achieved success in producing pictures, but neither had discovered a way to make photographs permanent. in the course of time the pictures faded. in sir john herschel of england found a chemical process for making photographs permanent, by removing the cause for their fading. the first sunlight photograph of a human face was that of miss dorothy catherine draper, made by her brother, prof. john william draper, of the university of the city of new york, early in . various chemical discoveries for improving photographs have been made by different persons from time to time, until the art of photography has now reached a high state of development. an important improvement is in the lessening of the time of exposure to light necessary for producing a photograph. formerly hours were required, but under improved conditions only the shortest instant of time is requisite. in a photographic paper for producing prints in color from an ordinary negative was placed on the market. this paper is coated with three layers of pigmented gelatin, colored respectively red, yellow, and blue. after being exposed to the daylight in the usual way, the paper is placed in hot water, where the image is developed. the grays and blacks of the negative are translated into the colors they represent in the object. the brothers lumière of paris have found a method of producing a photograph on a sensitive plate which, viewed as a transparency, shows the object in its original colors. no prints can be taken from this plate, and the picture cannot be viewed by reflected light, but the colors are true and brilliant. the cinematograph is an instrument by which about fifteen photographs per second can be received on a film, each representing the photographed group at a different instant from the others. the advantages of this mode of photographing and of throwing pictures on a screen over the older methods are obvious. by controlling the rate at which the pictures are represented on the screen, movements too rapid to be analyzed by the eye may be made slow enough to permit observation; and, similarly, movements too slow for comprehension or rapid observation may often be quickened. the busy life of a city street, the progress of races or other competitions, many scenes in nature, and even the growth of a plant from seed to maturity, may be shown by means of a "moving picture." photography is a noble servant of mind and soul. it brings to us likenesses of eminent persons and objects of nature and art which perhaps we should never be able to see otherwise. it has been used in measuring the velocity of bullets and in showing the true positions of animals in motion. photography has created the "new astronomy." immediately after its discovery, photography was applied to the science of the stars, and it has been ever since of incalculable service in this field of inquiry. photographs of the moon were made as early as , and much that is known to-day of the sun has been revealed by photography. so sensitive is the modern photographic plate to the influence of light, that photography has discovered and located stars which are invisible through a strong telescope. astronomers are now engaged in making a photographic chart of the sky. chapter xv clocks the matters of every-day life, much less the affairs of a complex civilization, could scarcely be carried on without some accurate and uniform system of measuring time. nature herself furnishes measurements for certain divisions of time. the "two great lights" that god made, as the bible tells us, were designed "for signs, and for seasons, and for days and for years." the revolution of the earth around the sun marks the year; the revolution of the moon around the earth determines the month; the rotation of the earth on its axis causes and measures day and night. but no object of nature distinguishes the hours of the day or the divisions of the hour. man requires a smaller unit of time than the day. he must divide the day into hours; the hours into minutes; the minutes into seconds. the division of the day into twenty-four hours is as old as authentic history. but the means for determining the hours and their subdivisions were at first quite crude and inefficient. [illustration: a sun dial] perhaps the most primitive of all time-measuring devices was a stick or pole planted upright in a sunny place. the position of the shadow which it cast marked time. the sun-dial was a development of this simple device. it consisted essentially of two parts: a flat plate of metal marked off much like the dial of a modern clock or watch, and an upright piece, usually also of metal, fastened to the center of the dial. to make the direction of the shadow uniform for any given hour throughout the year, the upright piece was made parallel to the axis of the earth. as the earth rotated on its axis the shadow cast by the upright piece moved from point to point on the dial, measuring the flight of time. the sun-dial was in use among the earliest nations. herodotus is authority for the statement that the greeks borrowed it from the babylonians. the sun-dial was obviously of no use on cloudy days or dark nights, and even in sunny weather it could not accurately or delicately indicate the passage of time. however, it continued in use so long that to the end of the seventeenth century the art of dialling was considered a necessary element of every course in mathematics. another ancient invention for measuring time was the water-clock. water was permitted to drop from a small orifice in a containing vessel. the period required for emptying the vessel marked a unit of time. its principle was the same as the common hour-glass, according to which time is measured by the slow dropping of sand from one receptacle into another. the water-clock was used by the ancient chaldeans and the hindoos, and also by the greeks and romans. demosthenes mentions its use in the courts of justice at athens. in order to mark the hours of the day, the saxon king alfred the great is said to have made wax candles twelve inches in length, each marked at equal distances. the burning of six of these candles in succession consumed, roughly, just twenty-four hours. to prevent the wind from extinguishing them they were inclosed in cases of thin, white, transparent horn. the candles thus inclosed were the ancestors of the modern lantern. our word _clock_ comes from the anglo-saxon verb _clocean_ meaning "to strike," "to give out a sound." it is impossible to ascertain by whom clocks were invented, or when or where. it is fairly clear, however, that a benedictine monk named gerbert, who afterward became pope sylvester ii, made a clock for the german city of magdeburg a little before the year a.d. clocks may have been made before this, but if so it would be hard to establish the fact. in gerbert's clock weights were the motive power for the mechanism. weight clocks were used in the monasteries of europe in the eleventh century, but it is probable that these early clocks struck a bell at certain intervals as a call to prayer, and did not have dials for showing the time of day. [illustration: a "grandfather's clock," belonging to william penn] the first clocks were comparatively by large and were stationary. portable ones appeared about the beginning of the fourteenth century, though the inventor is not known, nor the exact time or place of invention. when portable clocks were invented, the motive power must have been changed from weights to main-springs, and this change in motive force marks an era in the development of the clock. the introduction of the pendulum as a regulating agent was, however, the greatest event in clock development. this invention has been credited to huygens, a dutch philosopher, who was certainly, if not the discoverer of the pendulum, the first to bring it into practical use, about . credit for inventing the pendulum is also claimed for harris, a london clockmaker; for hooke, the great english philosopher; for a son of galileo, the celebrated italian scientist; and for others. the modern watch is in reality but a developed type of the clock. watches were made possible by the introduction of the coiled spring as motive power, instead of the weight. the coiled spring came into use near the end of the fifteenth century, though it is not known where or by whom it was invented. watches were not introduced into general use in england until the reign of elizabeth, and then on account of the cost they were confined to the wealthy. at first watches were comparatively large and struck the hours like clocks. after the striking mechanism was abandoned, they were reduced in size and for a time were considered ornamental rather than useful. they were richly adorned with pictures in enamel and with costly jewels. they were set in the heads of canes, in bracelets, and in finger-rings. watches and clocks had originally only one hand, which indicated the hour. minute and second hands were added later. devices have been introduced to counteract the effect of temperature on the mechanism of time-pieces, so that they run uniformly in all kinds of weather. within recent years clocks operated with electricity have been invented. with the advent of clock and watch manufacture by machinery, the cost has been so reduced that practically any one may own an accurate time-piece. the united states is one of the foremost countries of the world in the manufacture and sale of clocks and watches. chapter xvi some machines the sewing machine civilization owes the invention of the sewing machine to elias howe, an american. howe was born at spencer, massachusetts, july , . his father was a miller, and work in the mills gave the son's mind a bent toward machinery. one day in while howe was working in a machine-shop in boston, he overheard a conversation among some men regarding the invention of a knitting machine. "what are you bothering yourselves with a knitting machine for? why don't you make a sewing machine?" asked one. "i wish i could," was the reply, "but it can't be done." "oh, yes it can," said the first, "i can make a sewing machine myself." "well, you do it," replied the second, "and i'll insure you an independent fortune." this conversation impressed howe with the idea of producing a sewing machine. the hope of relieving his extreme poverty set him to work on the invention in earnest in the year . george fisher, a coal and wood dealer of cambridge, massachusetts, who was a former schoolmate of howe, formed a partnership with him for producing the invention. in december, , howe moved into fisher's house, set up his shop in the garret, and went to work. in the following april he sewed the first seam with his new machine, and by the middle of may he had sewed all the seams of two suits of clothes, one for himself and one for his partner. on september , , a patent on the sewing machine was issued to howe from the united states patent office at washington. the tailors of boston, believing that a sewing machine would destroy their business, waged fierce warfare against it. in the spring of , seeing no prospect of revenue from his invention, howe took employment as a railroad engineer on one of the roads entering boston, but this labor proved too hard for him and he soon gave it up. howe's partner, fisher, could see no profit in the machine and became wholly discouraged. howe then determined to try to market his invention in england, and sent a machine to london. an english machinist examined it, approved it, and paid $ for it, together with the right to use as many others in his own business as he might desire. howe was afterward of the opinion that the investment of this $ by the english machinist brought ultimately to that man a profit of one million dollars. [illustration: elias howe] during all this time howe was extremely poor. he and his wife and children had gone to england, but on account of poverty he was compelled to send his family back to america. his fourth machine, which he had constructed in england, he was obliged to sell for pounds (about $ ), although it was worth ten times as much, in order to procure money enough to pay his return passage to america. he also pawned his first-made machine and his patent on the invention. in april, , he landed at new york with only an english half-crown in his pocket. procuring employment in a machine-shop, the inventor took up his abode in one of the cheapest emigrant boarding-houses. at this time his wife lay dying in cambridge, massachusetts, and his father had to send him ten dollars to enable him to go to her. finally the sewing machine began to succeed commercially. the inventor's long night of discouragement was breaking on a day of assured prosperity. in howe was in new york superintending the manufacture of fourteen sewing machines. his office was equipped with a five-dollar desk and two fifty-cent chairs. a few years later he was rich. isaac merritt singer became acquainted with his machine, and submitted to him the sketch of an improved one. it was singer who first forced the sewing machine upon the attention of the united states. howe charged that singer was infringing his patent rights. litigation ensued. judge sprague of massachusetts decided in favor of howe. in his opinion he stated that "there is no evidence in this case that leaves a shadow of doubt that, for all the benefit conferred upon the public by the introduction of a sewing machine the public are indebted to mr. howe." from this time howe began to reap the financial reward of his labors. his revenues from the sewing machine amounted ultimately to more than $ , a year. he spent vast sums, however, in defending his patent rights, and many others of the "sewing machine kings" were wealthier than he. howe died at brooklyn, new york, october , . the sewing machine is used not only for sewing cloth into all kinds of garments, but for making leather into boots, shoes, harness, and other necessary articles of daily life. great improvements have been made in the sewing machine since its invention, but its essential principles to-day are for the most part those that the inventor discovered and brought into successful operation in his first machine. it is agreed by disinterested and competent persons that "howe carried the invention of the sewing machine further toward its complete and final utility than any other inventor before him had ever brought a first-rate invention at the first trial." the reaper in the louvre at paris is one of the noblest and most famous paintings of modern art, purchased some years ago at a cost of three hundred thousand francs. it is "the gleaners" from the brush of the french artist jean françois millet. it pictures three peasant women who have gone out into the fields to glean at the end of the harvest. they are picking up the grain left by the reapers, seeking the little that is left on the ground. in the background are the field, the groups of reapers, the loaded wagons and the horses bringing the garnered sheaves to the rick, the farmer on horseback among his men, and the homestead among the trees. the transparent atmosphere of the summer day, the burning rays of the sun, and the short yellow stubble are all as if they were nature and not art. in the foreground are the three gleaners, "heroic types of labor fulfilling its task until 'the night cometh when no man can work.'" one of the most beautiful stories of the bible is the tale of ruth, the moabitess, who went out into the fields of palestine to glean. "and she went, and came, and gleaned in the field after the reapers; and her hap was to light on a part of the field belonging unto boaz, who was of the kindred of elimilech." according to the old english law, gleaners had the right to go into the fields and glean. and those needy ones who went for the leavings of the reapers could not be sued for trespass. but it is not with reaping in art, literature, or law that we are here concerned, but with the reaper as a machine, a concrete thing, a tool, an instrument of civilization. from the earliest times until nearly the middle of the last century the cutting of grain was done by means of a hand sickle or curved reaping-hook. the sickles used by the ancient jews, egyptians, and chinese differed very little from those of our own ancestors. this tool was only slightly improved as the centuries went by, and to this day the sickle may be seen in use. in many parts of the british isles the reaping-hook gave place to the scythe in the earlier part of the nineteenth century. an attempt to trace the idea of a machine for reaping would carry us far back into the early stages of agriculture; pliny, the roman writer, born early in the first century of the christian era, found a crude kind of reaper in the fields of gaul. for the great modern invention of the reaping machine, civilization is indebted to cyrus hall mccormick, an american. mccormick was born in rockbridge county, virginia, february , . his father, robert mccormick, a farmer of inventive mind, worked long to produce a reaper. in he put a reaping machine in the field for trial, but it failed to work and its inventor was completely discouraged. against the counsel of his father, cyrus mccormick began a study of the machine that had failed, to determine and to overcome the causes of failure. he produced another reaper, and in the late harvest of he tested it in the wheat fields of his father's farm and in some fields of oats belonging to a neighbor. the machine was a success. mccormick's invention, soon destined to revolutionize agriculture, was combated for the alleged reason that it would destroy the occupation of farm laborers during the harvest season. it was some years before mccormick himself realized the importance of his invention, and he did not take out a patent on it until june , . it was not until that he began manufacturing reapers for the market. in that year he constructed one and sold it to a neighbor. for the harvest of he made and sold twenty-nine machines. these had all been built upon the home farm by hand, the workmen being himself, his father, and his brothers. in he traveled with his reaper from virginia to new york state, and from there through the wheat fields of wisconsin, illinois, ohio, and missouri, showing the machine at work in the grain and enlisting the interest of agricultural men. [illustration: a modern reaper this machine cuts, threshes, winnows, and sacks the wheat] in and chicago was but a trading village. mccormick, foreseeing its future growth, located his reaper factory there. in that factory he constructed about nine hundred reapers for the harvest of . in he exhibited his invention at the world's fair in london. the london _times_ facetiously called it "a cross between a wheel-barrow and a flying machine." later the same paper said of the reaper that it was "the most valuable contribution to the exposition, and worth to the farmers of england more than the entire cost of the exposition." in mccormick's patent on the reaper expired. although his claim as the inventor was clearly established, and the commissioner of patents paid him the highest compliments in words for his invention, a renewal of the patent was denied. other reapers had been made in the meantime, and others have been brought out subsequently. it is an historical fact, however, and one now seldom questioned, that every harvesting machine which has ever been constructed is in its essential parts the invention of cyrus hall mccormick. besides being a great inventor and successful business man, mccormick was a liberal philanthropist. he gave freely to educational and religious institutions. he died at his home in chicago, may , . an improved type of the ordinary reaper of mccormick is the self-binder, now in common use, a machine which not only reaps the stalks of grain but binds them together in sheaves. the most primitive method of threshing grain from the straw was doubtless by beating it with a stick. the ancient egyptians and israelites spread out their loosened sheaves upon a circular plot of earth and threshed out the grain by driving oxen back and forth over it. later a threshing-sledge was dragged over the sheaves. the greeks and the romans beat out grain with a stick, trod it out with men or horses, or used the threshing-sledge. the primitive implement for threshing in northern europe was the stick. a modification of this was the flail, made of two sticks loosely fastened together at one end by means of stout thongs. this implement was used by our ancestors in america and has not yet entirely disappeared from all parts of the world. the threshing machine was invented in by andrew meikle, a scotchman. only a few years ago threshing machines were drawn by horses, but of late years they have been moved with self-propelling steam engines, commonly called traction engines. a remarkable combination machine has come into use recently, particularly in the vast wheat fields of california, eastern washington, and the west. this machine is drawn by as many as thirty-two horses. at one operation it cuts the grain, threshes it, winnows it, and puts it into bags ready for the market. spinning and weaving machines the low, monotonous hum of the spinning-wheel in the old farmhouse on winter evenings, as the housewife spun the yarn which she was afterward to knit into warm stockings for the family, has not entirely passed away from the memory of the older generation of to-day. thomas buchanan read has a pathetic allusion to the old spinning-wheel in one of his best poems, "the closing scene." and who has not felt the charm of the spinning-wheel scene in longfellow's "the courtship of miles standish," which pictures john alden as he sits clumsily holding on his hands the skein which priscilla winds for knitting. there are two essential principles in the art of spinning: first, the drawing out of uniform quantities of fiber in a continuous manner; and second, the twisting of the fiber so as to give it coherency and strength. the earliest spinning apparatus, and for ages the only one, was the distaff and spindle. the former was a staff upon which was loosely bound a bundle of the fiber to be spun. it was held in the left hand or was fastened in the belt. the spindle, a tapering rod smaller than the distaff, was held in the right hand. the rotation of the spindle gave the necessary twist to the thread, and around the spindle the thread was wound as it was twisted. the next development in spinning machinery was the spinning-wheel, which has continued in use in some rural parts of the world practically to the present day. the series of inventions that overthrew hand spinning, and made this industry possible on a large scale, really began in when lewis paul, an english inventor, discovered a process for drawing out and attenuating threads of wool or cotton by passing the fiber through successive pairs of rollers. to-day this principle forms a fundamental feature of all spinning machinery. in james hargreaves, an illiterate weaver and carpenter of lancashire, england, invented the spinning-jenny, a device by which eight threads could be spun at once. with a little improvement in this invention, eighty threads were produced as easily as eight. the idea of the spinning-jenny is said to have been accidentally suggested to its inventor by watching the motions of a common spinning-wheel which one of his children had unintentionally upset. hargreaves is another in the long list of those who have suffered persecution because of having done something to make the world better. his fellow-spinners, filled with prejudice toward his invention because they feared it might rob them of employment, broke into his house and destroyed his machine. he then moved to nottingham, where he erected a spinning mill. in hargreaves took out a patent on his invention, but the patent was subsequently annulled on the ground that he had sold a few machines before patenting the invention. valuable as was the spinning-jenny of hargreaves, it was adapted only to producing the transverse threads, or the woof. it could not produce sufficient firmness and hardness for the longitudinal threads, or the warp. in richard arkwright, another native of lancashire, invented the spinning-frame, which was able to yield a thread fine enough and firm enough to make the warp. at the time of his invention arkwright was so poor that he had to be furnished with a suit of clothes before he looked respectable enough to appear at an election. like hargreaves, he also was persecuted. both were driven out of lancashire to nottingham to escape popular rage. arkwright's patent was annulled, and at one time his factory was destroyed by the populace in the presence of a powerful military and police force, who did nothing to restrain it. and why were hargreaves and arkwright driven out of lancashire? they had invented machines that would produce more and cheaper clothing; that would give powerful impetus to the cotton and the woolen industries; that would lift the race higher in the path-way of civilization. what was the reason? misunderstanding, prejudice, and selfishness. the interests of the few were shutting out the interests of the world. and these interests of the few were imaginary. in spite of all opposition, however, arkwright succeeded, and may be regarded as the founder of the modern factory system. in samuel crompton, another lancashire inventor, produced an improved spinning machine called the spinning-mule. this invention combined the good qualities of the spinning-jenny of hargreaves and the spinning-frame of arkwright. its chief point of excellence lay in the fineness of the threads which it spun; from this kind of thread could be made finer fabrics than were possible with the machines of hargreaves and of arkwright. crompton was very poor. by day he worked at the loom or on the farm to earn bread for himself, his mother, and his two sisters, and at night he toiled away on his invention. no sooner had he perfected his machine than he was beset by persons seeking to rob him of its benefits. all kinds of devices were employed for learning the secret. ladders were placed against his windows in order that unscrupulous spectators might get a view of the machine. he did not dare to leave the house, lest his secret be stolen from him. he had spent his last farthing upon the invention and had no funds for securing a patent. a manufacturer persuaded him to disclose to the trade the nature of his invention under promise of a liberal subscription; but crompton received only a paltry sum amounting to less than $ . he finally saved up enough money to begin manufacturing on a small scale, but his rivals had already out-distanced him. he died in june, , disspirited at the ill treatment he had received, but not until he had seen his invention a powerful agency in british cloth manufacturing. an interesting glimpse of the days when weaving was done by hand in england may be found in the first chapter of george eliot's _silas marner, the weaver of raveloe_. the hand-loom in weaving was superseded by the power-loom early in the nineteenth century. the loom was the invention of the rev. edmund cartwright, an english clergyman, poet, and inventor. the date of the invention was . cartwright's first loom was very crude, but he subsequently improved it. the idea for the invention of his power-loom came to cartwright after a visit to the spinning mills of arkwright. he too was subjected to opposition from the weavers on account of his invention. at one time he was associated with robert fulton in his experiments in applying steam to navigation. chapter xvii aeronautics to fly in the air has been the dream of all peoples in all ages. "oh that i had wings like a dove! then would i fly away and be at rest!" sang the psalmist. it would seem from the recent inventions in the science of aeronautics that this dream is to become in the near future a practical experience of our every-day lives. a balloon is an apparatus with an envelope filled with gas, the specific gravity of which is less than that of the atmosphere near the surface of the earth. it is practically at the mercy of air-currents. the science of balloon aeronautics dates definitely from , when the montgolfier brothers at angonay in france constructed their first balloons. these frenchmen and their successors developed the spherical balloons to a state of efficiency which has scarcely been improved upon to this day. the balloon in time came to be adopted throughout europe for military uses, mainly for the purpose of spying out the enemy's position and defenses. a dirigible balloon usually has an elongated envelope and is equipped with a motor and a rudder by which it can be steered at will against a moderate wind. balloon aeronautics became popular in , when santos-dumont, a wealthy young brazilian, performed a series of spectacular feats with his dirigible balloon. immediately ballooning became the sporting fad in france and the craze spread rapidly over the continent and to england. numerous airships of the dirigible type made their appearance and many balloon factories were established. [illustration: a wright biplane by courtesy of brooks brothers] in germany every community has its aero club. in the united states there are about , club members scattered throughout the land who individually or collectively own over balloons. all of the great nations own one or more aerial warships of the dirigible type, as well as numerous spherical balloons. an aeroplane, as commonly known, is a machine which is sustained in the air by one, two, or three sets of rigid surfaces or planes. unlike the balloon, it is heavier than air, and it must therefore maintain its position in the air by some form of mechanical propulsion. it must, in other words, fly like a bird. [illustration: a bleriot monoplane] the first aeroplane was invented by henson, an englishman, who in flew his machine, using a two-horse-power steam engine. in and in two other practically successful models appeared, one made by a french and the other by an english inventor. langley, an american, who began experimenting in , managed to fly over the potomac in . the wright brothers made their initial flights under motor power in . during the years since innumerable types of aeroplanes have been developed, all based upon the lines laid down by langley, henson, maxim, and other pioneers. among the most successful experimenters have been farman, delagrange, bleriot, curtiss, and the voisins. the flapping-wing machine is called an orthopter (_orthos_, straight, + _ptera_, wing) and is supposed to copy bird flight. screw-flyers, called helicopters, lift themselves from the ground by the thrust of varying numbers of rapidly moving propellers, revolving horizontally. some startling feats have been performed in the field of aeronautics. on august , , john b. moisant, an american, flew in a bleriot monoplane across the english channel, a distance of about twenty-five miles, in thirty-two minutes. he carried one passenger. on september , , claude grahame-white, an englishman, flew in a farman biplane thirty-three miles in thirty-four minutes, near boston, winning a prize of ten thousand dollars. every day new ideas take shape and are developed in some form that promotes the pleasure, comfort, or safety of mankind. there seems to be literally no limit to man's inventive power. his brain teems with thoughts and his hands labor incessantly to force his thoughts into material forms. he mounts higher and higher on the scale of civilization, casting away old ideas, inefficient methods, and worn-out machines, and substituting the new and wonderful things which he has achieved. graded supplementary reading series classic fables. for first and second grades. selected and edited by edna henry lee turpin. pages, mo, cloth cents grimm's fairy tales. for second and third grades. selected and edited by edna henry lee turpin. pages, mo, cloth cents andersen's fairy tales. for third and fourth grades. selected and edited by edna henry lee turpin. pages, cloth cents stories from american history. for fourth and fifth grades. selected and edited by edna henry lee turpin. pages, mo, cloth cents stories from greek history. for fourth and fifth grades. by louise diman. pages, mo, cloth cents heroes of history. for fifth and sixth grades. by ida prentice whitcomb. pages, mo, cloth cents brief biographies from american history. for fifth and sixth grades. by edna henry lee turpin. pages, mo, cloth cents part i. for fifth grade. pages, mo, cloth cents part ii. for sixth grade. pages, mo, cloth cents english history stories. for sixth and seventh grades. pages, mo, cloth cents the young american. a civic reader. for sixth, seventh and eight grades. pratt judson, ll.d. pages, mo, cloth cents available by internet archive (http://www.archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see http://www.archive.org/details/romanceofwarinve corbiala transcriber's note: in this plain text version, underlined text in the original is surrounded by =equals symbols=; italic typeface is surrounded by _underscores_; bold typeface and small caps typeface are represented by upper case. the oe-ligature appears as [oe]. changes to the text (to correct typographical errors) are listed at the end of the book. a few cases of missing punctuation have been regularised in the advertisements without comment. all advertising material has been retained in the same position as it appears in the original book. there are extensive advertisements before and after the title page, following the index and in a sixteen page publisher's catalogue at the end of the book. the romance of war inventions * * * * * the ian hardy series by commander e. hamilton currey, r.n. _each volume with illustrations in colour. s. each_ ian hardy's career in h.m. navy is told in four volumes, which are described below. each volume is complete in itself, and no knowledge of the previous volumes is necessary, but few boys will read one of the series without wishing to peruse the others. ian hardy, naval cadet "a sound and wholesome story giving a lively picture of a naval cadet's life."--_birmingham gazette_. "a very wholesome book for boys, and the lurking danger of ian's ill deeds being imitated may be regarded as negligible in comparison with the good likely to be done by the example of his manly, honest nature. ian was a boy whom his father might occasionally have reason to whip, but never feel ashamed of."--_united service magazine_. ian hardy, midshipman "a jolly sequel to his last year's book."--_christian world_. "the 'real thing.' ... certain to enthral boys of almost any age who love stories of british pluck."--_observer_. "=commander e. hamilton currey, r.n., is becoming a serious rival to kingston as a writer of sea stories.= just as a former generation revelled in kingston's doings of his three heroes from their middy days until they became admirals all, so will the present-day boys read with interest the story of ian hardy. last year we knew him as a cadet; this year we get _ian hardy, midshipman_. the present instalment of his stirring history is breezily written."--_yorkshire observer_. ian hardy, senior midshipman "of those who are now writing stories of the sea, commander currey holds perhaps the leading position. he has a gift of narrative, a keen sense of humour, and above all he writes from a full stock of knowledge."--_saturday review_. "=it is no exaggeration to say that commander currey bears worthily the mantle of kingston and captain marryat.="--_manchester courier._ "the ian hardy series is just splendid for boys to read, and the best of it is that each book is complete in itself. but not many boys will read one of the series without being keenly desirous of reading all the others."--_sheffield telegraph_. ian hardy fighting the moors "by writing this series the author is doing national service, for he writes of the navy and the sea with knowledge and sound sense.... what a welcome addition the whole series would make to a boy's library."--_daily graphic._ "the right romantic stuff, full of fighting and hairbreadth escapes.... commander currey has the secret of making the men and ships seem actual."--_times_. "by this time ian hardy has become a real friend and we consider him all a hero should be."--outlook. seeley, service & co. limited * * * * * the library of romance _each volume profusely illustrated. ex. crown vo. s._ "the library of romance offers a splendid choice."--_globe._ the romance of piracy by e. keble chatterton, b.a. author of "the romance of the ship" _with many illustrations_ the romance of aeronautics by charles c. turner "a valuable contribution to the literature of this most marvellous subject."--_british weekly_ _with forty illustrations_ the romance of modern astronomy by hector macpherson, junr. _with thirty-seven illustrations_ the romance of savage life describing the habits, customs, everyday life, arts, crafts, games, adventures and sports of primitive man by prof. g. f. scott elliot m.a., b.sc., f.r.g.s., f.l.s., &c. _with forty illustrations_ the romance of modern sieges by the rev. edward gilliat _with sixteen illustrations_ the romance of animal arts & crafts h. coupin, d.sc., & j. lea, m.a. _with twenty-seven illustrations_ "a charming subject well set forth."--_athenæum_ the romance of modern locomotion by archibald williams b.a., f.r.g.s. _with twenty-five illustrations_ "crisply written, brimful of incident. to intelligent lads should be as welcome as a ballantyne story."--_glasgow herald_ the romance of polar exploration by g. firth scott _with twenty-four illustrations_ _extra crown vo. s._ "thrillingly interesting." _liverpool courier_ the romance of scientific discovery by c. r. gibson, f.r.s.e. _with many illustrations_ the romance of submarine engineering by thomas w. corbin author of "mechanical inventions of to-day" _with many illustrations & diagrams_ the romance of the ship by e. keble chatterton, b.a. _with thirty-four illustrations_ the romance of the world's fisheries with descriptions of the many and curious methods of fishing in all parts of the world by sidney wright _with twenty-four illustrations_ the romance of modern photography by charles r. gibson, f.r.s.e. _with sixty-three illustrations_ the romance of modern engineering by archibald williams b.a., f.r.g.s. _with many illustrations_ the romance of mining by archibald williams b.a., f.r.g.s. _with twenty-four illustrations_ "we cannot praise this book too highly."--_british weekly_ the romance of the mighty deep by agnes giberne _with illustrations_ "most fascinating; admirably adapted for the young." _daily news_ seeley, service & co. limited * * * * * the library of romance _lavishly illustrated. ex. crown vo. s. each volume_ "splendid volumes."--_the outlook_ the romance of the spanish main by n. j. davidson, b.a. (oxon.) _with many illustrations_ _new & revised edition_ the romance of modern electricity by charles r. gibson, f.r.s.e. _with forty-five illustrations_ "admirable ... clear and concise."--_the graphic_ the romance of modern exploration by archibald williams b.a., f.r.g.s. _with twenty-six illustrations_ "a mine of information and stirring incident."--_scotsman_ the romance of modern mechanism by archibald williams b.a., f.r.g.s. _with thirty illustrations_ "a genuinely fascinating book." _liverpool courier_ the romance of insect life by edmund selous _with twenty illustrations_ "well merits its alluring title." _daily telegraph_ the romance of early british life prof. g. f. scott elliot, m.a. 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(oxon.) _with many illustrations_ _new & revised edition_ the romance of modern invention by archibald williams b.a., f.r.g.s. _with twenty-five illustrations_ the romance of early exploration by archibald williams b.a., f.r.g.s. _with sixteen illustrations_ "vivid and vigorous." _glasgow herald_ the romance of missionary heroism by j. c. lambert, b.a., d.d. _with thirty-nine illustrations_ "a most entrancing volume." _expository times_ the romance of plant life by g. f. scott elliot, m.a. _with thirty-four illustrations_ "intensely interesting." _leeds mercury_ the romance of the animal world by edmund selous _with sixteen full-page illustrations_ "a very fascinating book." _graphic_ the romance of modern geology by e. s. grew, m.a. _with twenty-five illustrations_ "absorbingly interesting." _scotsman_ the romance of modern manufacture by c. r. gibson, f.r.s.e. _with forty illustrations_ "well planned, well written, and well illustrated." _pall mall gazette_ seeley, service & co. limited * * * * * popular science for young people by charles r. gibson, f.r.s.e. "among writers for boys on science, easily the most skilful is mr. charles gibson. he writes so clearly, simply and charmingly about the most difficult things that his books are quite as entertaining as any ordinary book of adventure. mr. gibson has a first-rate scientific mind and considerable scientific attainments. he is never guilty of an inexact phrase--certainly, never an obscure one--or a misleading analogy. we could imagine him having a vogue among our young folk comparable with that of jules verne."--_the nation._ "mr. gibson has fairly made his mark as a populariser of scientific knowledge."--_guardian._ _just published_ the stars & their mysteries (vol. iii. science for children series). with coloured frontisp. & other illustrations. _s._ _d._ our good slave electricity (vol. i. science for children series). with illustrations. _s._ _d._ "an exquisitely clear book for childish beginners."--_the nation._ "told in simple and remarkably clear language, and with such ingenuity that many pages of it read like a fairy tale."--_glasgow herald._ the great ball on which we live (vol. ii. science for children series). with coloured frontispiece and other illustrations. _s._ _d._ "capital."--_field._ "a most fascinating and suggestive story of the earth. mr. gibson not only knows his subject thoroughly, but has the capacity of conveying the knowledge to young folk."--_church family newspaper._ the romance of modern electricity. describing in non-technical language what is known about electricity and many of its interesting applications. with illustrations. extra crown vo, _s._ "admirable, clear and concise."--_graphic._ "very entertaining and instructive."--_queen._ "a book which the merest tyro, totally unacquainted with elementary principles, can understand."--_electricity._ the romance of modern photography. its discovery and its applications. with illustrations. extra crown vo, _s._ "there is not a dry or uninteresting page throughout."--_country life._ "the narration is everywhere remarkable for its fluency and clear style."--_bystander._ the romance of scientific discovery. a popular account of the most important discoveries in science. with illus. _s._ "the most curious boy of mechanical bent would find such a book satisfying."--_westminster gazette._ the romance of modern manufacture. a popular account of the marvels of manufacturing. _s._ "a popular and practical account of all kinds of manufacture."--_scotsman._ "just the sort of book to put into the hands of senior boys as a school prize."--_sheffield telegraph._ heroes of the scientific world. an account of the lives, sacrifices, successes, and failures of some of the greatest scientists in the world's history. with illustrations. extra crown vo, _s._ "the whole field of science is well covered.... every one of the odd pages contains some interesting piece of information."--_athenæum._ the autobiography of an electron. with illustrations. long vo, _s._ _d._ net. "a brilliant study."--_daily mail._ "quite a unique book in its way, at once attractive and illuminating."--_record._ the wonders of modern electricity. with illustrations and diagrams. extra crown vo, _s._ the wonders of modern manufacture. with illustrations. extra crown vo, _s._ seeley, service & co. limited * * * * * the romance of war inventions [illustration: a tank. these weird-looking engines are literally moving forts, and are the evolution of a peaceful agricultural machine fitted with "caterpillar" wheels, that is, a broad band encircles the driving wheels, and so the whole construction moves as it were on its own revolving platform and is thus prevented from sinking into the soft ground. the principle itself is not new, as it was adapted to transport carts during the crimean war.] the romance of war inventions a description of warships, guns, tanks, rifles, bombs, and other instruments and munitions of warfare, how they were invented & how they are employed by t. w. corbin author of "the romance of submarine engineering," "mechanical inventions of to-day," &c., &c., &c. with many illustrations london seeley, service & co. limited great russell street * * * * * the library of romance _extra crown vo. with many illustrations. s. each._ "splendid volumes."--_the outlook._ "the library of romance offers a splendid choice."--_globe._ "gift books whose value it would be difficult to over-estimate." _the standard._ "this series has now won a considerable & well deserved reputation." _the guardian._ "each volume treats its allotted theme with accuracy, but at the same time with a charm that will commend itself to readers of all ages. the root idea is excellent, and it is excellently carried out, with full illustrations and very prettily designed covers."--_the daily telegraph._ by prof. g. f. scott elliot, m.a., b.sc. the romance of savage life the romance of plant life the romance of early british life by edward gilliat, m.a. the romance of modern sieges by john lea, m.a. the romance of bird life by john lea. m.a. & h. coupin, d.sc. the romance of animal arts and crafts by sidney wright the romance of the world's fisheries by the rev. j. c. lambert, m.a., d.d. the romance of missionary heroism by g. firth scott the romance of polar exploration by charles r. gibson, f.r.s.e. the romance of modern photography the romance of modern electricity the romance of modern manufacture the romance of scientific discovery by charles c. turner the romance of aeronautics by hector macpherson, junr. the romance of modern astronomy by archibald williams, b.a. (oxon.), f.r.g.s. the romance of early exploration the romance of modern exploration the romance of modern mechanism the romance of modern invention the romance of modern engineering the romance of modern locomotion the romance of modern mining by edmund selous the romance of the animal world the romance of insect life by agnes giberne the romance of the mighty deep by e. s. grew, m.a. the romance of modern geology by j. c. philip, d.sc., ph.d. the romance of modern chemistry by e. keble chatterton, b.a. the romance of the ship the romance of piracy by t. w. corbin the romance of submarine engineering the romance of war inventions by norman j. davidson, b.a. (oxon.) the romance of the spanish main seeley, service & co., limited. * * * * * contents chapter page i. how peaceful arts help in war ii. gunpowder and its modern equivalents iii. radium in war iv. a good servant, though a bad master v. mines, submarine and subterranean vi. military bridges vii. what guns are made of viii. more about guns ix. the guns they use in the navy x. shells and how they are made xi. what shells are made of xii. measuring the velocity of a shell xiii. some adjuncts in the engine room xiv. engines of war xv. destroyers xvi. battleships xvii. how a warship is built xviii. the torpedo xix. what a submarine is like xx. the story of wireless telegraphy xxi. wireless telegraphy in war xxii. military telegraphy xxiii. how war inventions grow xxiv. aeroplanes xxv. the aerial lifeboat index list of illustrations a tank _frontispiece_ page machine-gun versus rifle an italian mine-layer an incident at loos an -pounder in action a german automatic pistol bomb throwing bomb-throwers at work the tripod mast listening for the enemy diagram showing the principle by which the aerials are connected to the apparatus the parent of the tank the "guardian angel" parachute the romance of war inventions chapter i how peaceful arts help in war in the olden times warfare was supported by a single trade, that of the armourer. nowadays the whole resources of the greatest manufacturing nations scarcely suffice to supply the needs of their armies. so much is this the case that no nation can possibly hope to become powerful in a military or naval sense unless they are either a great manufacturing community or can rely upon the support of some great manufacturing ally or neutral. it is most astonishing to find how closely some of the most innocent and harmless of the commodities of peace are related to the death-dealing devices of war. of these no two examples could be more striking than the common salt with which we season our food and the soap with which we wash. yet the manufacture of soap furnishes the material for the most furious of explosives and the chief agent in its manufacture is the common salt of the table. common salt is a combination of the metal sodium and the gas chlorine. there are many places, of which cheshire is a notable example, where vast quantities of this salt lie buried in the earth. fortunately it is very easily dissolved in water so that if wells be sunk in a salt district the water pumped from them will have much salt in solution in it. this is how the underground deposits are tapped. it is not necessary for men to go down as they do after coal, for the water excavates the salt and brings it to the surface. to obtain the solid salt from the salt water, or brine as it is called, it is only necessary to heat the liquid, when the water passes away as steam leaving the salt behind. important though this salt is in connection with our food, it is perhaps still more important as the source from which is derived chlorine and caustic soda. how this is done can best be explained by means of a simple experiment which my readers can try in imagination with me or, better still, perform for themselves. take a tumbler and fill it with water with a little salt dissolved in it. next obtain two short pieces of wire and two pieces of pencil lead, which with a pocket lamp battery will complete the apparatus. connect one piece of wire to each terminal of the battery and twist the other end of it round a piece of pencil lead. place these so that the ends of the leads dip into the salt water. it is important to keep the wires out of the solution, the leads alone dipping into the liquid, and the two leads should be an inch or so apart. in a few moments you will observe that tiny bubbles are collecting upon the leads and these joining together into larger bubbles will soon detach themselves and float up to the surface. those which arise from one of the leads will be formed of the gas chlorine and the others of hydrogen. it will be interesting just to enumerate the names of the different parts of this apparatus. first let me say that the process by which these gases are thus obtained is called electrolysis: the liquid is the electrolyte: the two pieces of pencil lead are the electrodes. that electrode by which the current enters the electrolyte is called the an-ode, while the other is the cath-ode. in other words, the current traverses them in alphabetical order. now it is familiar to everyone that all matter is supposed to consist of tiny particles called molecules. these are far too tiny for anyone to see even with the finest microscope, so we do not know for certain that they exist: we assume that they do, however, because the idea seems to fit in with a large number of facts which we can observe and it enables us to talk intelligibly about them. we may, accordingly, speak as if we knew for a certainty that molecules really exist. now when we dissolve salt in water it seems as if each molecule splits up into two things which we then call "ions." salt is not peculiar in this respect, for many other substances do the same when dissolved in water. all such substances, since they can be "ionized," are called "ionogens." now the peculiarity about ions is that they are always strongly electrified or charged with electricity. at this stage we must make a little excursion into the realm of electricity. you probably know that if a rod of glass be rubbed with a silk handkerchief it becomes able to attract little scraps of paper. that is because the rubbing causes it to become charged with electricity. in like manner a piece of resin if rubbed will become charged and will also attract little pieces of paper. a piece of electrified resin and an electrified glass rod will, moreover, attract each other, but two pieces of resin or two pieces of glass, if electrified, will repel each other. this leads us to believe that there are two kinds of electrification or two kinds of electrical charge. at first these two kinds were spoken of as vitreous or glass electricity and resinous electricity, but after a while the idea arose that there was really one kind of electricity and that everything possessed a certain amount of it, the electrified glass having a little too much of it and the electrified resin a shade too little of it. from this came the idea of calling the charge on the glass a "positive" charge and that on the resin a "negative" charge. recent investigations seem to show that we have got those two terms the wrong way round, but to avoid confusion we still use them in the old way. it will be sufficient for our purpose, therefore, if we assume that every molecule of matter has a certain normal amount of electricity associated with it and that under those conditions the presence of the electricity is not in any way noticeable. when a molecule becomes ionized, however, one ion always seems to run off with more than its fair share of the electricity, the result being that one is electrified positively, like rubbed glass, while the other is negatively charged, like rubbed resin. thus, when the common salt is dissolved in water, two lots of ions are formed, one lot positively charged and the other lot negatively. each molecule of salt consists of two atoms, one of sodium and one of chlorine: consequently, one ion is a chlorine atom and the other is a sodium atom, the latter being positive and the former negative. now the electrodes are also charged by the action of the battery. that connected to the positive pole of the battery becomes positively charged and the other negatively. the anode, therefore, is positive and the cathode negative. it has been pointed out that two similarly charged bodies, such as two pieces of glass or two pieces of resin, repel each other, while either of these attracts one of the other sort. hence we arrive at a rule that similarly charged bodies repel each other, while dissimilarly charged bodies attract each other. acting upon this rule, therefore, the anode starts drawing to itself all the negative ions, in this case the atoms of chlorine, while the cathode gathers together the positive ions, the atoms of sodium. thus the action of the battery maintains a sorting out process by which the sodium is gathered together around one of the electrodes and the chlorine round the other. those ions, by the way, which travel towards the _an_-ode are called _an_-ions, while those which go to the cath-ode are termed cat-ions. thus far, i think, you will have followed me: the chlorine is gathered to one place and the sodium to the other. the former creates bubbles and floats up to the surface and escapes. but where, you will ask, does the hydrogen come from, which we found, in the experiment, was bubbling up round the cathode. moreover, what becomes of the sodium? both those questions can be answered together. the sodium ions, having been drawn away from their old partners the chlorine ions, are unhappy, and long for fresh partners. they therefore proceed to join up with molecules of water. but water contains too much hydrogen for that. every molecule of water has two atoms of hydrogen linked up with one of oxygen, but sodium does not like two atoms of hydrogen: it insists on having one only. accordingly the oxygen atom from the water, together with one of the hydrogen atoms, join forces with the sodium atom into a molecule of a new substance, a most valuable substance in many manufactures, called caustic soda, while the odd atom of hydrogen, deprived of its partners, has nothing left to do but to cling for a while to the cathode and finally float up and away. the sum-total of the operation therefore is this: when we pass an electric current through salt water, between graphite electrodes, chlorine goes to the anode and escapes, while caustic soda is formed round the cathode and hydrogen escapes. let us see now how this is applied commercially. for the production of chlorine the apparatus need be little more than our experimental apparatus made large. the anode can be covered in such a way as to catch the gas as it bubbles upwards. in times of peace this gas is chiefly used for making bleaching powder. it is led into chambers where it comes into contact with lime, with which it combines into chloride of lime, a powder which is sometimes used as a disinfectant, but the chief use of which is for bleaching those cotton and woollen fabrics for the manufacture of which this country is famous throughout the world. the germans, however, have taught the world another use for chlorine. those gallant canadians who were the first victims of the attack by "poison gas" who suddenly found themselves fighting for breath, and a few of whom, more fortunate than the rest, have reached their homes shattered in health with permanent damage to their lungs, those brave fellows suffered from poisoning by chlorine. we cannot obtain the other product, the caustic soda, by the same simple means. in our little experiment we succeeded in manufacturing some of it in the region around the cathode, and had we drawn off some of the liquid from there we would have been able to detect its presence. but it would have been mixed up with much ordinary salt, and for commercial purposes we need the caustic soda separate from the salt. the principle is, however, just the same, as you will see. imagine a large oblong vat divided by vertical partitions into three separate chambers. these partitions do not quite reach the bottom of the vessel, so that there is a means of communication between all three chambers. this is closed, however, by filling the lower part of the vat with mercury up to a level a little higher than the lower ends of the partitions. thus we have three separate chambers with communication between them but that communication is sealed up by the mercury. the two end chambers are filled with salt water, or brine, while the centre one is filled with a solution of caustic soda. in each end compartment is a stick of graphite, both being electrically joined together and so connected up that they form anodes, while in the centre compartment is the cathode. when the current flows from the anodes it carries the sodium ions with it, just as it did in our little experiment. but its course, this time, is not straight, since in order to travel from anode to cathode it has to pass through the openings in the partitions, in other words through the mercury. on arrival at or near the cathode the ions of sodium cause the caustic soda to be formed just as in our experiment, but in this case, you will notice, the formation takes place in a chamber from which the salt brine is completely excluded by the mercury. brine is continually fed into the outer chambers and the solution of caustic soda is drawn from the centre one, while the chlorine is collected over the anodes. and now we can go a step further on our progress from common salt to explosive. in the soap works there are enormous coppers in which are boiled various kinds of fat. the source of the fat may be either animal or vegetable, many kinds of beans, nuts and seeds furnishing fats practically identical with that which can be got from the fat flesh of a sheep, for instance. to this fat is added some caustic soda solution and the whole is kept boiling for some considerable time. this protracted boiling is to enable the soda thoroughly to attack the fat and combine with it, whereby two entirely new substances are formed. at first the two new substances are not apparent, for they remain together in one liquid. the addition, however, of some brine causes the change to become obvious for something in the liquid turns solid, so that it can be easily taken away from the rest. that solid is nothing else than soap. it remained dissolved in the water which forms part of the liquid until the salt was put in, but as it will not dissolve in salt water, as you will discover if you attempt to wash in sea water, it separates out as soon as the salt is added. but still a liquid remains: what can that be? it is mainly salt water and glycerine, that sticky stuff which in peace times we put on our hands if they get sore in winter, or take, in a little water, to soothe a sore throat. that it has other and very different uses was brought home to me when, during the war, i tried to buy some at a chemist's, only to learn that it could not be sold except in cases of extreme need under the orders of a doctor. the mixed liquid is distilled with the result that the water is driven off and the salt deposited, which with other minor purifying processes gives the pure glycerine. the next step takes us to the explosives factory, where the glycerine is mixed with sulphuric and nitric acids. now glycerine, as you will have observed, comes from the animal or vegetable sources and therefore is one of those substances known as "organic," and, like many other of the organic compounds, it consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. nature has a marvellous way of combining these same three things together in many various ways to form many widely different substances and if, to such a compound, we can add a little nitrogen, we usually get an explosive. thus, the glycerine, with some nitrogen from the nitric acid, becomes nitro-glycerine, a most ferocious and excitable explosive, the basis of several of those explosives without which warfare as we know it to-day would be impossible. chapter ii gunpowder and its modern equivalents the origin of gunpowder appears to be lost in antiquity. at all events it has been in use for many centuries and is still made in many countries. most boys have tried to make it at some time or other and with varying degrees of success. such experiments generally lead to a glorious blaze, a delightfully horrid smell and no harm to anyone, the experimenter owing his safety to his invariable lack of complete success, for although other and better explosives have superseded it for many purposes it is capable of doing a lot of harm when it is well made. it consists of a mixture of charcoal, sulphur and saltpetre ground up very fine and mixed very intimately together. the mixture is wetted and pressed into cakes and dried, after which it is broken up into small pieces. the precise proportions of the various materials seem to vary a great deal in different countries, but generally speaking there is about per cent of saltpetre (or to give it its scientific name, nitrate of potash), per cent of charcoal and per cent of sulphur. now gunpowder, like all explosives, is simply some thing or mixture of things which is capable of burning very quickly. when we light the fire we set going the process which we call combustion, or burning, and, as we know from our own experience, that process causes heat to be generated. what takes place in the fire-grate is that the carbon of the coal enters into combination with oxygen from the air, the two together forming a new compound called "carbonic acid gas." there is nothing lost or destroyed in this process, the carbon and oxygen simply changing into the new substance, and could we weigh the gas produced we should find that it agreed precisely with the weight of the carbon and oxygen consumed. for the purpose for which we require the fire, namely, to heat the room, the chief feature about this process is not what is formed in the shape of gas, for that simply goes off up the chimney, but the heat which is liberated. we believe that in some mysterious way the heat is locked up in the coal. latent is the term we use, which means hidden: in other words we believe that the heat is hidden in the coal: we cannot feel it or perceive it in any way, but it comes out when we let the carbon combine with the oxygen. why these two things combine at all is one of those mysteries which may never be solved. we have theories on the subject, but all we really know is that under certain conditions if they be in contact with one another they will combine, apparently for the simple reason that it is their nature so to do. when we apply the match to the fire all we do is to set up the conditions under which the carbon and oxygen are able to follow their natural instincts, so to speak. a coal fire, as we all know, burns slowly, for the simple reason that it is only at the surface of the lumps that carbon and oxygen are in contact. if we grind up the coal into a fine powder and then blow it into a cloud, so that every tiny particle is surrounded with air, a spark will cause an explosion. that is how these terrible explosions in coal-pits are caused. this is sometimes seen on a small scale when one shakes the empty fire-shovel after putting coal on the fire to get rid of the fine dust adhering to it and to save making a mess in the fender. that little cloud of fine dust will often burst into flame like a mild explosion. we see from this that to make an explosion we require fuel, just as we do to make a fire: but we need that it shall be very intimately mixed with oxygen, so that all of it can burn up in practically a single instant. now in gunpowder we get these conditions fulfilled. we have the carbon in the shape of charcoal, we also have some sulphur which likewise burns readily, and we have saltpetre which contains oxygen. thus, you see, we do not need to go to the air for the oxygen, for the gunpowder possesses it already, locked up in the saltpetre. moreover, we can see now why it is so important for all the materials to be ground up very fine, for it is only by so doing that we can ensure that every particle of charcoal or sulphur shall have particles of saltpetre close by ready to furnish oxygen at a moment's notice. another thing to be observed, for it lets us into the great key to the manufacture of nearly all explosives, is the scientific name of saltpetre. it is "nitrate of potassium," and all substances whose names begin with "nitr-" contain nitrogen: while the termination "ate" signifies the presence of oxygen. we need the oxygen to make the explosion but we do not need the nitrogen, yet the latter has to be present for without it the oxygen would be too slow in getting to work. nitrogen is one of the strangest substances on earth. extremely lazy itself, it has the knack of hustling its companions, particularly oxygen, and making them work with tremendous fury. whenever we get the lazy gas nitrogen to enter into a combination with other things we may confidently look for extraordinary activity of some sort. so when we put a light to a quantity of gunpowder we set up those conditions under which the carbon and oxygen can combine, and at the same moment our lazy friend the nitrogen turns out his partner oxygen from the nitrate in which they were till then combined and a sudden burning is the result. the solid gunpowder is suddenly changed into a volume of hot gas times as great. that is to say, one cubic inch of gunpowder changes suddenly into cubic inches of gas. that sudden expansion to times its volume is what we term an explosion. if it takes place in an enclosed space so that the gas formed wants to expand but cannot, the result is a pressure of about forty tons per square inch. if that enclosed space were the interior of a gun, that force of forty tons per square inch would be available for driving out the projectile. now, gunpowder is still used for sporting purposes and also for some special purposes in warfare, but it has the great disadvantage that it makes a lot of smoke, so that the enemy would be easily able to locate the guns were it to be used in them. as we know so well, by the messages from france, guns and rifles drop their shells and bullets apparently from nowhere and are extremely difficult to locate. that is owing to the use of improved powders one of the great features of which is their smokelessness. the reason why gunpowder makes a dense smoke, is because the burning which takes place is very incomplete. therefore, by some such means as a more intimate mixture of the materials a better and more complete burning must be brought about. one of the best known of the new powders (they are all spoken of as powders, whatever their form, since they have taken the place of the old gunpowder) is nitro-glycerine, the basis of which is glycerine. the way in which we obtain this useful material has already been explained. it consists of carbon, a lot of hydrogen and some oxygen. these are not merely mixed together but are in combination, just as oxygen and hydrogen are combined in water. carbon and hydrogen will both combine with oxygen and will give off heat in the process, but in glycerine they are already happily united together and so glycerine itself is no use as an explosive. if, however, we bring nitric acid and sulphuric acid into contact with it a pair of new partnerships is set up, one being water and the other a compound containing carbon and hydrogen, a lot of oxygen and, most important of all, some of that disturbing, restless though lazy nitrogen. this is nitro-glycerine, a particularly furious explosive, for that curious nitrogen seems to be so uncomfortable in his new surroundings that at the smallest provocation he will break up the whole combination and then there will be a mass of free atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, all seeking new partners, just right for a glorious explosion. so furious and untamed is this stuff that it was almost useless until the famous nobel hit upon the idea of taming it down by mixing it with an earth called kieselguhr, which reduces its sensitiveness sufficiently to make it a very safe explosive to use. to this mixture nobel gave the name of dynamite. it is interesting at this point to compare the action of this typical modern explosive with that of the older gunpowder. the latter is only a mixture: the former is a chemical compound. the smallest particle of material in the gunpowder is a little lump containing millions of molecules and still more of atoms: when the nitrogen has broken up the original nitro-glycerine, just before the explosion actually takes place, we have a mixture of _single atoms_. thus the mixture is far more intimate in the latter case and the burning is therefore quicker and more thorough. [illustration: machine-gun _versus_ rifle. this illustrates the rapidity and accuracy with which the modern rifle can be used. sergeant o'leary, v.c., tackled a gun crew of five and killed them all before they had time to slew their gun round--a striking contrast to the "brown bess" of a hundred years ago.] another well-known explosive is gun-cotton. surely this must be a fancy name, for what can harmless, simple cotton have to do in connection with guns. it is a perfectly genuine descriptive name, however. it seems very strange at first, but it is perfectly true that nitrogen, as it turned glycerine into dynamite, can also turn cotton into gun-cotton. cotton consists mainly of cellulose, a compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, happily combined together and therefore showing, as we well know from experience, no tendency whatever to change into anything else, least of all to "go off bang." but that state of things is very much changed when we have induced nitrogen to take a hand in the game. in actual practice, cotton waste, pure and clean, is dipped into a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids whereby the cellulose becomes changed into nitro-cellulose, just as a similar process changes glycerine into nitro-glycerine. the whole process of manufacture is of course far more than that simple dipping, but that is the fundamental fact of it all. the rest is concerned with getting rid of the superfluous acid, tearing the stuff into pulp and pressing it into blocks. it is probably the safest of explosives, since it can be kept wet, in which case the danger of an accidental explosion is practically nil, provided reasonable care be taken. even when dry, it behaves in a very kindly way. if hit with a hammer, it only burns for a moment just at the point struck. if ignited with a red-hot rod, it burns but does not explode, unless it is enclosed. the burning, that is to say, is not sufficiently rapid to constitute an explosion. on the other hand, if it be exploded by a detonator, by which is meant a small quantity of a very powerful explosive, such as fulminate of mercury, fired close to it, it then goes off with a violence which leaves little to be desired. it would be better still could we persuade a little more oxygen to enter into its composition, for as it is there is not quite enough to burn up the other matters completely. that, however, does not cause smoke, since the combustion is complete enough to change everything into invisible gases. with more oxygen more heat might be generated and the power of the explosion be made greater. still, even as it is, the explosion of gun-cotton has been estimated by a high authority to produce a pressure of tons per square inch, four times as much as gunpowder. nitro-glycerine has the advantage of a rather larger proportion of oxygen to carbon, resulting in its being rather more energetic. yet another class of explosive is made from coal tar. this is a by-product in the manufacture of gas for lighting and also in the manufacture of coke for industrial purposes. it comes from the retorts along with the gas in a gaseous form but condenses into a black liquid in the pipes and more particularly in an arrangement of cooled pipes called a condenser specially placed to intercept it. in the chemist's eyes it is the most interesting of liquids, for it is full of mysteries and possibilities. the most wonderful achievements of chemistry have it for their raw material and there is still scope for much more in the same direction. if the tar be gently heated in a closed vessel it will evaporate and the vapour can be led to another vessel, there cooled and converted back into a liquid. this looks rather like doing work for nothing, but the various liquids, of which tar is a mixture, evaporate at different temperatures, so that this furnishes a means of separating them. the first liquid thus procured is known as coal tar naphtha, and if it be again distilled it can be subdivided further, the first liquid separated from it being known as benzine. this, again, is another of those almost numberless things which consist of carbon and hydrogen. also, like the other similar substances which we have been discussing, it can, if treated with nitric acid, be made to take into partnership a quantity of oxygen and nitrogen. thus we get nitro-benzene. we can repeat the process, when it will take more and become di-nitro-benzene. again we can repeat it, thus producing tri-nitro-benzene. the second liquid separated from coal tar naphtha is called toluene, which again is composed of carbon and hydrogen in slightly different proportions. like its confrère benzene it, too, can be treated with nitric acid, becoming nitro-toluene and then di-nitro-toluene and finally tri-nitro-toluene, the deadly explosive of which we read in the papers as t.n.t. after the naphtha has been removed from the tar another substance is obtained called phenol, which in a prepared form is familiar to us all as the disinfectant carbolic acid. it also can be treated with nitric acid, to produce tri-nitro-phenol, otherwise known as picric acid, which after a little further treatment becomes the famous "lyddite." most of the actual explosives used in warfare are prepared from one or more of the above-mentioned compounds. for example, nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton, having been dissolved in acetone (another compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) and a little vaseline added, form a soft gelatinous substance which on being squeezed through a fine hole comes out looking like a cord or string, and hence is called cordite. other explosives are finished in the form of sheets, the dissolved gun-cotton or whatever it may be being rolled between hot rollers which give it the convenient form of sheets and at the same time evaporate the solvent. by combining these various substances various characteristics can be given to the finished explosive. for instance, the one which drives the shell from the gun, known as the propellant, must not be too sudden in its action. it must push steadily. its purpose is to drive the shell not to burst the gun, wherefore its action must be comparatively slow and continuous so long as the shell is still in the gun. it must "follow through" as the golf player would put it. the charge in the shell, however, needs to go off with the greatest possible violence so as to blow the shell to pieces and to scatter the fragments so that they do the maximum of damage. those explosives, whose function is thus to burst with a sudden shock, are called high explosives, as distinguished from the propellants which produce a more or less sustained push. the great fundamental principle which enables large quantities of these powerfully explosive substances to be handled with comparative safety involves the use of two different substances in combination. that which is used in quantity and which actually does the work is made comparatively insensitive, indeed in some cases it is very insensitive, so that it can safely travel by train, by ship and by road and also may be handled by the soldiers and sailors with very little risk. some of these compounds can be struck or set on fire with impunity. they are none the less violent, however, when, by the agency of a suitable detonator they are caused to explode. the detonator, of course, has to be very sensitive indeed, but it need only be used in very small quantities, so that by itself it, too, is comparatively safe. fulminate of mercury is often employed for this purpose--a compound based upon mercury but in which nitrogen of course figures largely. thus, there are two things necessary for the successful explosion, one of which is powerful but insensitive, while the other is highly sensitive but relatively harmless since it is never allowed to exist in large quantities, and as far as possible these are kept apart until the last moment. one other thing may be mentioned in regard to this matter which is of the greatest importance. that is the necessity for the utmost uniformity in these various compounds, so that when the gunners put a charge into a gun they can rely upon it to throw the shell exactly as its predecessor did. modern artillery seeks to throw shell after shell within a small area which would clearly be quite impossible if one charge were liable to be stronger or weaker than another, for we can easily see that the more powerful the impetus given the farther will the shell go. to secure this uniformity the greatest care is taken at all stages of the manufacture, and various batches of the same stuff are tested and mixed, and any of them turning out a little too strong are placed with some a little too weak, so that their faults may neutralize each other. by such methods as these a remarkable degree of uniformity is attained, the result of which we see when we read in the papers of the wonderfully accurate gunnery of which our soldiers and sailors are capable. in conclusion, a word of warning may be appropriate. reference has been made above to the safety of modern explosives in the absence of the detonators, but do not let that lead anyone to take liberties. should any reader come into possession of any of these materials, even in the smallest quantities, let him treat it with the utmost respect, for although what has been said about safety is quite correct, it only means comparative safety, there can be no absolute safety where these substances are concerned. chapter iii radium in war when we remember how all forms of scientific knowledge were called upon to help in the great struggle, it is not surprising to hear that, although in a comparatively humble way, radium has had to do its share. now radium is one of the most, if not actually the most, remarkable substance known. about a generation ago scientific men, or some of them at all events, were getting rather cocksure. of course they were quite right when they realized how much was known about things and what great strides had been made during the years through which they had lived. they were proud of the achievements of their scientific friends, for i am not imputing personal vanity to anyone, and they had reason to be proud. they made the mistake, however, of thinking that in one direction at least they had learnt all that there was to be known. the present generation of scientific men seem to be almost too prone to go to the other extreme and to dwell rather much on how little we know now and the wonderful things which are going to be discovered in time. but that is by the way. a generation ago men seem to have pretty well made up their minds that they knew all about atoms. they said that everything was made up of atoms, that the atoms could not be subdivided nor changed into anything else except temporarily by combination with other atoms, and that when these combinations were broken up the atoms remained just as before, quite unchanged. they believed that the atoms were unchangeable and everlasting. professor tyndall, in a famous address, referred to this in somewhat flowery language, telling his hearers that the atoms would be still the same when they and he had "melted into the infinite azure of the past," which a wag translated into the slang expression of the time, "till all is blue." now not very long after professor tyndall made this historic speech professor henri becquerel, of paris, was trying some experiments with phosphorescent materials, that is, materials which glow in the darkness. in the course of these experiments he used some photographic plates upon which, to his surprise, he found marks which he thought ought not to have been there. thinking at first that he had accidentally "fogged" his plates, as every photographer has done at some time or other, he tried his experiments again with special care but still he got the mysterious marks. those marks were caused by some of those "unchangeable and everlasting" atoms deliberately and of their own accord blowing themselves to bits. for the celebrated frenchman was not content to let the matter of those mysterious marks rest: he wanted to know what caused them and he did not desist until he was on the track of the secret. it appeared after careful investigation that they were made by the action of something in some of the ore of the metal "uranium" which he had been using. moreover, this something evidently had the power of penetrating through the walls of the dark-slide to the plate within. finally, it was tracked down to the uranium itself which was unquestionably proved to be giving off something in the nature of invisible light, or at all events invisible rays, of strange penetrative power. a little later it was observed that certain ores of uranium seemed to give off these rays more freely than would be accounted for by the amount of uranium present, from which fact it was inferred that there must be something else present in the ore capable of giving off the rays much more powerfully than uranium can. madame curie ultimately found out two such substances, one of which she called, after her native land, polonium (for she is a pole), and the other radium. it is the latter which is responsible for by far the greater part of the rays formed. the rays are invisible, but they affect a photographic plate in the same way that light does. they also make air into a conductor of electricity and if allowed to impinge upon a surface coated with a suitable substance they cause it to glow. this spontaneous giving off of rays is now spoken of by the general term of "radio-activity," and it has grown into an important branch of science. a number of other substances have been found to exhibit the same peculiar ray-forming powers, notably thorium, one of the components of the incandescent gas mantle by the prolonged application of a fragment of which to a photographic plate an impression can be obtained due to the rays. what, then, are these rays? it is found that they are of three kinds, not that they vary from time to time, but that they can be sorted out into three different sorts of rays which are given off simultaneously all the time. the first sort are stopped by a sheet of paper, the second passing easily through a thick metal plate, while the third appear to be identical with x-rays. for convenience the three sorts are termed alpha, beta and gamma rays, respectively, after the first three letters of the greek alphabet. further, the alpha rays prove to be a torrent of tiny particles about the size of atoms, indeed if they be collected the gas helium is obtained, so that evidently they are helium atoms, and since that is one of those substances whose molecules consist of a single atom each they are also molecules of helium. no doubt the reason why they are so easily stopped by a piece of paper is because being complete atoms they are large, huge indeed, compared with the particles which form the beta rays, for they are apparently those same electrons which are found in the x-ray tube, and which are at least times smaller than the smallest atom. when the electrons in the vacuum tube are suddenly brought to a standstill x-rays are given off and in like manner x-rays no doubt would be given off when they start on their journey, providing that they started suddenly enough. hence it is the starting or sudden explosion-like ejection of the beta particles which is believed to give rise to the gamma rays. the strength or intensity of the rays can be measured very conveniently by their action in making air conductive to electricity, for which purpose a very beautiful but simple instrument called an electroscope is employed. it consists generally of a glass-sided box or else a bottle with a large stopper, consisting of sulphur or some other particularly good insulator. through this a wire passes down into the inside of the vessel terminating in a vertical flat strip to the upper end of which is attached a similar strip of gold leaf or aluminium foil. normally the leaf hangs down close to the strip, but if the wire above the stopper be electrified by touching it with a piece of sealing-wax rubbed lightly against the coat sleeve the charge of electricity passes down into the inside and causes both strip and leaf to become so electrified that they repel each other. owing to the non-conductivity of the air in its normal condition the leaf will, if the insulation of the stopper be good, remain projecting almost horizontally for some time until, as it loses its charge by a slow leakage, it gradually settles down close to the strip. if, however, a piece of radium be brought near while it is sticking out, the leaf will fall almost instantly. x-rays have a similar effect even from several feet or yards away. the intensity of the radio-activity of different substances can be compared by noting the difference in the rate at which the leaf falls under the influence of each. what is happening, then, to the atoms of radium, which causes them to show these curious effects and to give off these strange rays? to give any intelligent answer to that question we are bound to assume that which the older generation of scientists thought impossible, namely, that atoms can be broken up. then we are forced to believe that the atoms of this particular substance radium are of a peculiarly flimsy unstable sort, so that they cannot permanently hold their parts together but are liable to break up, as far as we can see through their own inherent weakness and under the influence of disruptive forces at work within themselves. we must remember, however, that the tiniest speck of matter which we can see contains a number of atoms of such a size as to be quite beyond the grasp of our minds. to give a rough idea of it in figures is useless as no one can comprehend the real value of a figure or two followed by probably from a dozen to twenty "noughts." it is best to content ourselves with the general statement that a speck of matter only just visible to the eye contains an exceedingly vast number of atoms. of course a speck of radium is no exception to this and we must remember, too, that all of them do not break up at once. indeed, the number breaking up at any time are actually countable by means of a very simple contrivance and a sensitive electrometer. consequently, in view of the enormous number present and the comparatively small number breaking up at any moment, it is not surprising to hear that, so it is estimated, the process can go on for an almost indefinite number of years, certainly for hundreds. there are, moreover, certain facts which we need not go into here from which the above fact can be clearly inferred, quite apart from what has been said about the vast numbers of the atoms. it seems as if the uranium atoms break up first, giving off helium atoms and electrons and leaving an intermediate substance called ionium which in its turn breaks up giving off the same things again and leaving radium. that in its turn goes through a complicated series of changes still giving off the same alpha particles or atoms of helium and electrons until, it is suggested, it finally settles down into the simple commonplace metal lead of which we make bullets and water pipes and such-like ordinary things. we see then that all through its history--its radio-active history at any rate--this stuff is throwing off atoms of helium at a very high velocity (about , miles a second), and if it be enclosed in anything this enclosing vessel or substance will be subjected to a continual bombardment by the alpha particles. now just as a piece of iron gets hot if we hammer it, so the enclosing matter is heated by the continual blows which it is receiving night and day, year in and year out, from the alpha particles. consequently the immediate surroundings of a speck of radium are always slightly raised in temperature. moreover, if a speck of radium be placed against a screen covered with suitable materials each particle which strikes it will make a little splash of light. at least that is what it looks like when seen through a magnifying glass, but to the naked eye there only appears a beautiful steady glow. suppose, then, that instead of putting the speck of radiant matter in front of a screen we mix it up intimately with a fluorescent substance such as sulphide of zinc, we then get the same conditions in a slightly different form. each particle of the substance serves as a tiny screen which glows every time a particle hits it. thus is produced a luminous paint which glows by night, suitable for painting the dials of instruments which have to be used in the dark. no doubt some of my readers will have experienced the strangely mingled delight and horror of seeing a zeppelin in the night sky intent on dropping murder and death on the sleeping civilians of a peaceful town or city. some too may have witnessed the later acts in that wonderful drama, when, beside the silvery monster illuminated by the beams of the searchlight there must have been, though quite invisible, a little aeroplane manned by one man or at most two. that aeroplane was, no doubt, fitted with instruments at which the pilot glanced now and then and which he was able to see and read because of the tiny speck of radium mixed into the paint. the little alpha particles gave him the light by which to see, but they gave no help to the germans on the zeppelin. hence, in due time he did his work and the gigantic balloon, the pride of the kaiser and his hordes, fell to the ground, a blazing wreck. how he did it i cannot tell, but of this i am sure, that most probably radium helped him by making luminous and visible the instruments which guided him. but probably it has rendered and will still render us even greater services in the way of helping to repair the damages to our injured manhood. how many men came back from the war crippled with rheumatism because of the hardships through which they went. that disease is believed to be due to a substance which mingles with the blood and which, although usually liquid and harmless sometimes changes into a solid and settles in the joints. now it is believed that radium properly administered will act upon that solid and cause it to change back into its liquid form again, thereby curing the disease. certainly many of the mineral springs at such places as bath and buxton give forth a water which shows a certain amount of radio-activity and it may be that which gives those waters their healing properties. if so, we may look forward with confidence to the time when radio-activity will be induced to play a still more successful part in meeting this painful and widespread illness. then, of the other ills which will inevitably arise in our men through the hardships which they have endured are sure to be some of the cancerous type, many of which appear to succumb to treatment by radium. if a very small quantity indeed be carried for a few days in a pocket it will imprint itself upon the skin beneath as if it burnt the tissues. it is never advisable, therefore, to carry radium in the pocket without special precautions. one cannot help feeling, however, that in that little fact is a hint of usefulness when the best modes of application have been discovered, for as a means of safely and painlessly burning away some undesirable growth it would seem to be without a rival. it is said, too, that it has the strange power of discriminating between the normal and the abnormal, attacking the latter but leaving the former, so that when applied, say, to some abnormal growth like cancer it may be able to remove it without harmful effect upon the surrounding tissues. of this, however, it is too soon to write with confidence. it has not been known long enough for our doctors to find out the best modes of use, but that will come with time: meanwhile there are indications that in all probability it will render good service to mankind. chapter iv a good servant, though a bad master one morning during the war the whole british nation was startled to learn that mr. lloyd george, then the minister of munitions, had taken over a large number of distilleries. could it be that he, a teetotaller and temperance advocate, was going to supply all his workers with whiskey? or was he going to close the places so as to stop the supply of that tempting drink? neither of these suggestions was his real reason. what he wanted the distilleries for was to make alcohol for the war, not for drinking purposes but for the very many uses which only alcohol can fulfil in most important manufactures. probably alcohol is the next important liquid to water. for example, certain parts of shells have to be varnished and the only satisfactory way to make varnish is to dissolve certain gums in alcohol. the spirit makes the solid gum for the time being into a liquid which we can spread with a brush, yet, after being spread, it evaporates and passes off into the air, leaving behind a beautiful coating of gum. that is how all varnishing is done, the alcohol forming the vehicle in which the solid gum is for the moment carried and by which it is applied. it is far and away the most suitable liquid for the purpose, and without it varnishing would be very difficult and unsatisfactory. hence one need for alcohol, to carry on the war. then again some of the most important explosives are solid or semi-solid, and yet they require to be mixed in order to form the various "powders" in use by our gunners. the best way to bring about this mixture is to dissolve the two components in alcohol, thereby forming them both into liquids which can be readily mixed. afterwards the alcohol evaporates; indeed, one of its great virtues for this and similar purposes is that it quietly takes itself off when it has done its work like a very well-drilled servant. what then is this precious liquid and how is it produced? in order to answer that question it is necessary first to state that there are a whole family of substances called "alcohols," all of which are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in certain proportions. there are also a number of kindred substances also, not exactly brothers but first cousins, so to speak, which because of their resemblance to this important family have names terminating in "ol." they owe their existence to the wonderful behaviour of the atoms of carbon. in order to obtain some sort of system whereby the various combinations of carbon can be simply explained chemists picture each carbon atom as being armed with four little links or hooks with which it is able to grapple, as it were, and hold on to other atoms. each hydrogen atom, likewise, has its hook, but only one instead of four. now it is easy to picture to ourselves an atom of carbon in the middle with its hooks pointing out north, south, east and west with a hydrogen atom linked on to each. that gives us a picture of the molecule of methane, the gas which forms the chief constituent of coal gas such as we burn in our homes. methane is also given off by petroleum and it is the cause of the explosions in coal mines, being known to the miners as "firedamp." it is the first of a long series of substances which the chemist called paraffins. the first, as you see, consists of one of carbon and four of hydrogen. add another of carbon and two more of hydrogen and you get the second "ethane." add the same again and you get the third, propane, and so on until you can reach a substance consisting of thirty-five parts of carbon and seventy-two parts of hydrogen. all we need trouble about, however, is the first two, methane and ethane. we have pictured to ourselves the molecule of methane: let us do the same with ethane. imagine two carbon atoms side by side linked together or hand in hand. each will be using one of its hooks to grasp one hook of its brother atom. hence each will have three hooks to spare on to which we can hook a hydrogen atom. thus we get two of carbon and six of hydrogen neatly and prettily linked up together. the atoms form an interesting little pattern and to build up the various paraffin molecules with a pencil and paper has all the attractions of a puzzle or game. all you have to do is to add a fresh atom of carbon alongside the others and then attach an atom of hydrogen to each available unused hook. if you care to try this you will get the whole series, each one having one atom of carbon and two of hydrogen more than its predecessor. if you mix together a quantity of methane and an equal quantity of chlorine, which i have shown you in another chapter how to get from common salt, a change takes place, for in each molecule of methane one hydrogen atom becomes detached and an atom of chlorine takes its place. how or why this change occurs we do not know. it is a fact that the chlorine has this power to oust the hydrogen and there we must leave it, for the present at any rate. the substance so formed is called methyl chloride. in another chapter reference has been made to that substance which is made from common salt and which is so important in so many manufactures called caustic soda. if we bring some of it into contact with the methyl chloride the chlorine is punished for its rudeness in displacing the hydrogen; it is paid back in its own coin, for it is in turn displaced not this time by a single atom but by a little partnership called "hydroxyl" one atom of hydrogen and one of oxygen acting together. we can again form a neat little picture of what happens. the oxygen atom has two hooks, one of which it gives to its friend the hydrogen atom and thus they go about hand-in-hand, the oxygen having one unused hook with which to hook on to something else. in this case it hooks on to that particular hook from which it pushes the chlorine. we have thus seen two changes take place. first, the hydrogen is displaced by the chlorine: then the chlorine is turned out and its place taken by the hydroxyl. and during both these changes the central carbon atom and its three hydrogen partners have remained unaffected. those four atoms are called the methyl group, and a methyl group combined with a hydroxyl group forms _methyl alcohol_. similar changes can be brought about with ethane as with methane, and in them the two carbon atoms and the five hydrogen remain unchanged, whence they too are regarded as a group, the ethyl group, and an ethyl group hooked on to a hydroxyl group gives us a molecule of _ethyl alcohol_. these groups of which we have been speaking never exist separately except at the moment of change, but in the wonderful changes which the chemist is able to bring about the atoms forming these groups seem to have a fondness for keeping together and moving together from one substance into another. in a word, they behave as if they were each a single atom and they are called by the name of radicles; the word simply means a little root. the methyl radicle and the ethyl radicle, since they form the basis of two of the paraffin series, are called paraffin radicles, so that we can describe this useful alcohol as a paraffin radicle with a hydroxyl radicle hooked on to it. if we use the methyl radicle we get methyl alcohol: if we use the ethyl radicle we get ethyl alcohol. now ethyl alcohol is the spirit which is contained in all strong drink. whiskey has as much as per cent and brandy and rum about the same, while ale has only about per cent. all of them may be regarded as impure forms of ethyl alcohol, the various impurities giving to each its particular taste. ethyl alcohol, too, is what is sold at chemists' shops as "spirits of wine," where also we can purchase that which is familiar as "methylated spirits," whereby there hangs a tale. all governments regard alcohol for drinking as a fit subject for taxation. when anyone buys a drink with alcohol in it a part of what he pays goes to the government in the form of duty. on the other hand, when alcohol is used for trade purposes, for making varnish or something like that, there is no reason whatever why it should be charged with duty. but if the varnish manufacturer is to have alcohol duty-free what is to prevent him from using some of it for drinking? to get over the difficulty, that which is supplied to him or to anyone else for trade purposes is deliberately adulterated so as to make it so extremely nasty that no one is likely to want to put it in his mouth. it so happens that methyl alcohol, while as good as the other for many purposes, is horrible to the taste and so it forms a very convenient adulterant for this purpose. therefore, when methylated spirit is sold to you for drying your photographs, the chemist gives you ethyl alcohol with enough methyl alcohol in it to make sure that neither you nor anyone else will ever want to drink it. that, then, is alcohol: a near relative of paraffin oil and also of coal gas, yet it is from neither of these that we get it. the changes described above enable you to realize what it is, but they do not tell how it is made in large quantities. ethyl alcohol is obtained from sugar by the employment of germs or microbes. any sort of sugar will do: it need not be sugar such as we eat. in practice the sugar is usually obtained from starch, that very common substance which forms the material of potatoes, grain of all kinds, beans and so on. there is a kindly little germ which will quite readily turn starch into sugar for us if we give it the chance. the maltster starts the process. he gets some grain, and spreading it out in a damp condition upon his floor sets it a-growing. as soon as it has just started to grow, however, he transfers it to his kiln, where by heating it he kills the young plants. as is well known, every seed contains the food to nourish the little growing plant until it is strong enough to draw its supplies from the soil and the food thus provided for the young wheat plant is starch, which, when it is ready for it, it turns into sugar. the little shoot lives on sugar and the maltster and distiller conspire to steal that sugar intended for the baby plants and turn it into alcohol. so the little plant liberates by some wonderful means a material called diastase, which has the power of changing starch into sugar. it does it, of course, for the purpose of providing its own necessary food, but the maltster does not want the process to go too far: he only wants to produce the diastase, and that is why he kills the plants, after which he has finished with the matter and hands the "malted" grain or "malt" over to the distiller for the next process. the distiller mixes the malt with warm water, whereupon the diastase commences the conversion of the starch of the grain. at this stage fresh grain may be added and potatoes, indeed almost anything composed largely of starch for the diastase to work upon. the process goes on until, in time, the liquid consists very largely of sugar dissolved in water, which is strained away from what is left of the grain, etc. malt sugar is very similar to, but not quite the same as, cane sugar. it consists of twelve parts of carbon, twenty-two of hydrogen and eleven of oxygen. it is an interesting little puzzle to sketch those atoms out on paper, each with its proper number of hooks, and see how they can be combined together. malt sugar, milk sugar and cane sugar all consist of the same three elements in the same proportions and the difference between them is no doubt due to the different ways in which the atoms can be hooked up together. yeast is next added to the liquid, upon which the process of fermentation is set up, the tiny living cells of the yeast plant producing a substance which is able to change the sugar into alcohol. the alcohol thus formed is, of course, combined with water, but it can be separated from it by gentle heating since it passes off into vapour at a lower temperature than does water. thus the vapour first arising from the mixture is caught and cooled whereby the liquid alcohol is obtained. this operation, called fractional distillation, has to be repeated if alcohol quite free from water is required, in addition to which the attraction which quicklime has for water is called into play to coax the last remnant of water from the other. and now, how about the methyl alcohol? that is obtained in quite a different way, by heating wood and collecting the vapours given off by it. hence it is often called "wood spirit." as a matter of fact, at least two very valuable substances are obtained by this operation, methyl alcohol and acetone. the vapours given off by the wood are cooled, whereupon tar is formed while upon it there floats a dark liquid which contains the wood spirit, acetic acid and acetone. to capture the acetic acid lime is added to the mixture, and since there is a natural affinity between them, the acetic acid and lime combine into a solid which remains behind when the whole mass is suitably heated. what comes over in the form of vapour is a mixture of water, acetone and wood spirit. the former is enticed away by the use of quicklime, while the other two are separated by the process of fractional distillation already referred to. now let me ask you to form another little picture, either in your mind or with paper and pencil. imagine two methyl radicles, each, let me remind you, a carbon atom with three hydrogen atoms hooked on and one spare hook. also imagine one atom of oxygen with its two hooks outstretched like two arms, and just link one radicle on to each. then you have the picture of methyl ether. all the ethers are formed by taking two of the paraffin radicles and linking them together by means of the two hooks of an oxygen atom. the ether which is so largely used in hospitals for wounded soldiers is _ethyl_ ether, consisting of two ethyl radicles joined by oxygen. how it is made we will come to in a moment, but as you see already it is a close relative of alcohol. now from methyl ether take away the central oxygen and in its place put carbon. this atom will have two hooks to spare which it can employ to hold on to the two hooks of the oxygen. the result is a molecule of acetone. this is used as a solvent in a similar manner to alcohol for many purposes, and there was a great demand for it no doubt during the war. one interesting use of acetone is in connection with the gas acetylene. of great use both for lighting and also in conjunction with oxygen for welding and cutting metals, this gas suffers from the disadvantage that it cannot be compressed into cylinders and carried about as oxygen can. it can, however, be dissolved in acetone. the cylinders in which it is carried are therefore filled with coke saturated with acetone and then when the acetylene is pressed in it dissolves, coming out of solution again as soon as the pressure is released. in this dissolved condition it is quite safe to carry about. for a moment let us turn back to the commencement of the chapter to the subject of methane. when mixed with chlorine, it will be remembered, one hydrogen atom gave place to a chlorine atom. if the process be repeated another hydrogen atom will be displaced in the same way, while a further repetition will result in the removal of a third, when there will be a carbon atom in the centre with three chlorine and one hydrogen hooked on to it. with that picture in your mind's eye you will be contemplating the molecule of that wonderful and beneficent substance, chloroform. when we think of the numberless operations which have been carried out by the surgeons in the course of this last war we realize a little how great is the total sum of pain and suffering which has been saved through the agency of this substance, this simple neat little arrangement of five tiny atoms. now that again is obtained in manufacture from alcohol. alcohol, bleaching powder and water are mixed and then distilled, by which of course is meant that the mixture is evaporated by heat and the vapour collected and cooled back into liquid again. the liquid so obtained is chloroform. hardly less important than this, in our military hospitals, is ether, to which reference has already been made. it, too, is manufactured from alcohol. the alcohol, together with sulphuric acid, is placed in a still and heated, the vapour given off being led to another vessel and there condensed. the liquid thus obtained is ether and so long as the supply of fresh alcohol is kept up the production of ether goes on continuously. the sulphuric acid does not disappear and so does not need to be replaced, from which it would appear as if it might just as well not be there, but that is not the case. it plays the part of what is called a "catalyst," one of the curiosities of chemistry. there are many instances in which two things will combine only in the presence of a third which appears to be itself unaffected. this third substance is a catalyst. it reminds one of the clergyman at a wedding who unites others but remains unchanged himself. in conclusion, one may mention that many of the medicines with which our injured men were coaxed back to health and strength owe their existence to alcohol, for many drugs are obtained from vegetable substances by dissolving out a part of the herb with alcohol. thus, as a drink, it is unquestionably very harmful. indeed, in that way it probably kills more people per year than its use in the manufacture of explosives caused in the worst year of the war. yet it also furnishes chloroform, ether and medicinal drugs and performs a whole host of useful services to mankind. finally, if oil and coal should ever run short it is quite prepared to run our engines for us. truly it is a wonderful substance. chapter v mines, submarine and subterranean the word mine in its military sense originally meant just the same as it does in the ordinary way, but like many other words it has got twisted into new uses the connection of which with the original meaning is very obscure. one of the most striking of these verbal puzzles is the submarine _mine_. there seems at first sight not the remotest connection between the floating barrel of explosives concealed beneath the water and what we ordinarily call a mine. the explanation of this is that the term has acquired this meaning after passing through a series of stages. when soldiers "mine" for the purpose of blowing up their enemies they dig a hole in the ground, and conceal therein a quantity of explosives so arranged that they blow up when the enemy pass over or near. the operation of digging the hole in the earth is clearly akin to the work of the miner and so such is quite appropriately called a "mine." the hole may be dug from the surface downwards, the marks of excavation being afterwards covered up and obliterated as much as possible. in other cases the hole may be a tunnel starting from a trench and driving towards the enemy's position. the idea, of course, is to burrow until the end of the tunnel is just under some important part of the enemy's works or fortifications. when the end of the tunnel has reached the right spot explosives can be placed there, the tunnel partly stopped to prevent the explosion from driving back upon those who make it and the whole fired at the desired moment. this tunnelling is also called "sapping" and the tunnel itself a sap. military engineers are often spoken of as "sappers and miners" as if the two things were clearly different, but as a matter of fact both are often used to describe the same thing. roughly, we may say that a mine which stays still in the hope that the enemy will walk upon it is a mine proper, while a mine which itself progresses towards the enemy until it ultimately goes off beneath him, is a "sap" and the making of such a thing is "sapping." or we might say that sapping is under-mining, in which sense we use it in general conversation when we speak of something sapping a man's strength. soldiers speak of their engineering comrades as "sappers" just as they term artillerymen "gunners," but the only reason why they call them by that name instead of miners is because the latter is a well-known term applied to those who work in coal mines. a subterranean mine, then, is nothing more or less than a hole in the ground, made in any way that may be convenient, filled with explosives and fired at a suitable time to do damage to the enemy. in other words, it is simply some explosive _concealed in the ground_ with means for firing it, and when the sailor _conceals explosives in the sea_ so that they may blow up the enemy's ships, he borrows his military comrades' term and calls it a "mine" too. counter-mining is the enemy's reply to mining. suppose i was foolish enough to wish to blow up my neighbour who lives in the house opposite to mine. i might start from my cellar and dig a tunnel under the road until i knew that i had arrived under his dwelling. but suppose that he got to know of my little scheme: he could then try counter-mining. in this case it would mean starting a tunnel of his own from his cellar towards my tunnel: then, as soon as the two tunnels had come sufficiently near to each other, he could let off his explosives thereby wrecking my tunnel and putting an end to my operations while yet i was only half-way across the road. thus he would stop me before i had had time to harm him, and since he need only tunnel just far enough to render the necessary explosion harmless to his house, while i to succeed would have to tunnel right across the road, the man who is counter-mining always has a slight natural advantage over the man who is doing the mining. if only he gets to know what is going on in time he can always retaliate. all forms of land mine are improvised on the spot according to circumstances. not so, however, with submarine mines on which much ingenuity has been expended, the mines being made in workshops ashore ready for laying and then laid by ships and sometimes by divers. of these there are two main kinds, those which are put in place in times of peace for the protection of particular harbours and channels, and those which are simply dropped overboard from a mine-laying ship during the actual war. they all consist essentially of a case of iron or steel plates riveted together just as a steam boiler is made, in fact the cases are made in a boiler shop. the charge is gun-cotton fired by a detonator, the latter being excited by a stroke from a hammer, as in a rifle, or else by electricity. in the latter case, a tiny filament of platinum wire is in contact with the detonator, and the wire being heated by the current, just as the filament of a lamp is, the detonator is fired by the heat. of the permanent mines whereby the entrances to important channels are protected arrangements are often made for firing by observation, that is to say, by the action of an observer ashore. being laid by divers and securely anchored to heavy weights laying on the bottom, wires are carried from the mines to the observation station. the observer watches and fires the mines at the right moment by simply pressing a key thereby making the electrical circuit. more often, however, mines are fired by contact. observation mines have the advantage that while they may be exploded under an enemy they will allow a friendly ship to pass in perfect safety. contact mines, on the other hand, will afford protection against attacks by night when enemy craft may attempt to creep in under cover of darkness. [illustration: an italian mine-layer. this photograph was taken looking down upon the deck of the ship. the mines run upon rails, and are pushed by the men towards the stern, whence they are dropped one at a time into the water. the splash indicates that one has just fallen.] contact mines are often fired electrically, sometimes by batteries of their own inside their own cases, or else by current from the shore through wires, the circuit being completed by an automatic device of some sort actuated unwittingly by the unfortunate victim. one of these contact devices will illustrate the general character of them all. imagine a little vessel with mercury in it: it is, generally speaking, of some insulating material, but right at the bottom is a metal stud with which the mercury makes contact. the rim may likewise be of metal or a metal rod may project downwards into it: it matters not which, for we can see at once that it is quite easy so to arrange things that whereas, while upright, the mercury shall be well clear of the upper contact, it shall when the vessel is tilted flow on to it, thereby bridging from lower contact to upper contact and completing the circuit. of course, a mine must only go off when actually struck by a ship and not when it is gently swung to and fro by the action of tide or current in the water. that is easily arranged, for the vessel and contacts can be so shaped that contact is not made until an angle of tilt is reached which no tide or ordinary commotion of the water could bring about. it is clearly possible, too, to combine the contact and observation arrangements in such a way that contact mines can be made safe for friendly ships during the daytime. it is only necessary to adopt the shore battery arrangement already mentioned and disconnect the batteries during the day or when no enemy is in sight, restoring the connection during the darkness or in the event of hostile ships trying to rush the passage. another interesting scheme for keeping mines safe until required is to anchor them in what is termed a "dormant" condition. this means that a loop is taken in the wire rope by which they are anchored, the loop being fastened by means of a link. this link, however, contains a small quantity of explosive which can be fired from the shore. this has the effect of breaking the link, releasing the loop and allowing the mine to float upwards to the full length of the rope. thus the mine is down deep, well below the bottom of the biggest ship until released for action. it is doubtful whether much use is made nowadays of permanent mines of the types just described, for they have, no doubt, been largely displaced by the temporary mine which can be laid in a moment by simply being dropping overboard from a ship, but it is quite possible that some of the defences of, say, the dardanelles, were of the permanent nature. so let us pass on to the temporary mines. these were used by the germans from the first few hours of the war. one of the first naval incidents was when our ships discovered a small german excursion steamer which had been converted into a mine-layer strewing these deadly things surreptitiously in the north sea in the hope that some of our vessels would run upon them. needless to say, that ship went on no more excursions. laid thus, it is evident that there can be no wires running ashore, so that all mines of this class must be contact mines. what makes them of extreme interest is the way they are laid. just think for a moment what is involved. from the very nature of things their laying must often be done in secret. it is not the british practice to place them in the open seas, except avowedly, after due notice, in certain specified areas, where they are laid quite openly under the protection of adequate forces to ensure against interruption. there is little doubt, however, that they have laid many a mine field secretly in purely german waters, while everyone knows that the germans have not hesitated to sow the shipping routes broadcast with these things, such work of course being done secretly and largely at night. the mine can therefore only be laid by dropping it into the water and leaving it. yet it must not float on the surface or it will be easily seen and picked up; it must float below, so that the unsuspecting ship may run upon it. and it is quite impossible to make a thing float in water anywhere except upon the surface. if it does not float upon the surface it sinks to the bottom: there is no "half-way house" between. many people are surprised to hear this, judging, no doubt, by the fact that a balloon floats _in_, and not on, the air and expecting an object floating in water to be able to do the same thing. the difference is due to the fact that air is easily compressible, so that the air close to the earth is denser, more compressed, and therefore heavier, than the air higher up owing to its having the whole weight of the upper air pressing downwards upon it. the density of the air diminishes, for this reason, as one ascends, and a balloon which displaces more than its own weight of air at the surface of the earth rises until it has reached just that height when the air displaced exactly equals in weight the balloon itself: then it goes no higher. precisely the same conditions exist in the sea except that water being incompressible is no denser at the bottom of the sea than on the surface. therefore, if a thing sinks at all it sinks right to the bottom. there is one very ingenious device for overcoming this difficulty by means of a motor and propeller. the mine has enclosed in its case a motor driven by a store of compressed air which operates a propeller. in this it is somewhat like a torpedo, but in this case the propeller is set vertically so that its action lifts the mine up in the water. now the mine is so weighted that it just and only just sinks when dropped in, but on reaching a certain depth the motor starts and by means of the propeller raises it nearly to the surface again. on nearing the surface the motor stops and the mine sinks once more, only to be raised again in due course, so that the thing keeps on rising and falling; it never rises above a certain depth nor falls below a certain depth, but oscillates continually between its two limits. the question then arises, what starts and stops the motor at precisely the right moments to produce this result? it is done by means of a hydrostatic valve. as just pointed out, the water at the bottom of the sea is supporting the weight of all that water which is above it. the water is not compressed by this, but the pressure is there all the same. obviously the degree of pressure at any point depends upon the weight of the layer of water above, and since the weight of that layer will obviously increase and diminish with its thickness it follows that, starting from the surface, where the pressure is nil, we get a perfectly steady and regular increase as we descend, until we reach the maximum at the bottom. now within the mine is a small watertight diaphragm, the outer surface of which is in contact with the water and upon which, therefore, the water presses. as the mine descends, therefore, this diaphragm is bent inwards more and more by the pressure of water and that is made to start the motor. adjustments can easily be made so that a certain degree of bending shall result in starting the motor, which is the same as saying that the motor shall start automatically at a certain depth. likewise as the mine rises under the influence of the propeller the pressure decreases, the diaphragm straightens out and at a certain predetermined depth the motor is stopped. when, finally, the store of motive power is exhausted the mine sinks to the bottom and is lost, a very valuable feature from a humanitarian point of view, since it means that the active life of the mine is short and it cannot go straying about the oceans for weeks or even months, finally blowing up some quite innocent passenger ship. more often, however, this difficulty of depth is overcome by anchoring the mine at the depth most suitable for striking the bottom of a passing ship. but here again there seem to be insuperable difficulties, for the depth of the sea varies and so the length of the anchor rope must be varied with almost every mine that is laid. it has been found possible, however, to make the mines automatically adjust the length of their own anchor ropes so that the desired result is attained without difficulty no matter how deep the sea may be. let me describe how it is done in the elia mines used by great britain. the inventor, captain elia, was an officer in the italian navy. the mine consists of three parts: ( ) the mine proper, a case containing the explosive, gun-cotton and the firing mechanism; ( ) the anchor; and ( ) the weight, all of which are connected together by suitable wire ropes. the mine is lighter than water and so floats: the anchor, which bears no resemblance to the ordinary anchor but which is an iron case containing mechanism, only able to act as an anchor by virtue of its weight, is heavier than water and so sinks, while the weight of solid cast iron sinks more readily still. the anchor is often fitted with wheels so that it forms a truck upon which the mine and the weight are placed, the whole running upon rails laid on the deck of the mine-layer. as this ship steams ahead the men push the mines along the rails, dropping them over the stern at regular intervals. when the thing reaches the water, the weight sinks the most rapidly, thereby tugging at the chain whereby it is connected to the anchor. the latter, being less compact, sinks more slowly so that the pull upon the rope is maintained until at last the weight rests upon the bottom. _then and only then is the pull relaxed._ now inside the anchor is a winch, upon which is wound a length of flexible wire rope, the other end of which is attached to the mine. the latter, it will be remembered, is light enough to float and so, since it lies upon the surface while the anchor sinks, the rope is drawn off the winch. but there is a spring catch which is able to hold the winch and to prevent it from paying out rope, and that catch is only held off by the pull of the weight. consequently, as soon as the weight touches the bottom and its pull upon the anchor ceases, the winch is gripped by the catch, no more rope is paid out, and from that moment, as the anchor descends, it drags the mine down with it. the result, then, is that the mine becomes anchored at a depth below the surface roughly equal to the length of the rope connecting weight to anchor. mines of this kind can, of course, be fired electrically by the tilting of a cup of mercury or similar device as already described. another arrangement is to fit projecting horns upon the surface of the mine made of soft metal so that they will be bent or crushed by a strong blow such as a passing ship would give. this breaks a glass vessel inside, liberating chemicals which cause detonation. the method adopted in the elia mines is to have a projecting arm pivoted upon the top of the mine. the mine is spherical (they are nearly all either spherical or cylindrical), with the rope attached to the south pole, so to speak, and the arm pivoted to the north pole. as the mine floats in the water the arm projects out horizontally. the effect of this arrangement is that when a ship strikes the mine the latter rolls along its side, but the arm being too long, simply trails along. thus the spherical case of the mine turns while the arm remains still and that is made to unscrew and eventually release a hammer which, striking the detonator, fires the mine. in other words, this type of mine is exploded not by the ship giving it a blow, but by its rubbing itself along in contact with the mine. the great advantage of this is that it is only a ship that can do this. no chance commotion in the water can do it: no chance blow from floating wreckage can do it: only the rubbing action of a ship can accomplish it. such a mine, too, is less likely to be affected by counter-mining, of which more presently. apparently the laying of these mines must be very dangerous work, for since a blow will explode most of them, what is to prevent their receiving that blow while on the deck of the mine-layer, or at all events as they are dropped into the water. in all cases, precautions are taken against such an event. sometimes a hydrostatic valve is employed, the arrangement being that the firing mechanism is locked until released by the valve, until, that is, the mine is immersed to a predetermined depth in the water. another device for the same purpose is a lump of sugar. the mine is so made that it cannot be fired until this lump has been melted by the action of the water: sal ammoniac is another substance employed for the same purpose. the technical term for this is a "soluble seal." the firing arrangement, whatever it may be, is sealed up so that it cannot come into operation until the seal has been dissolved away by the water, or until the mine has been in the water long enough for the mine-layer to get out of harm's way. another interesting feature of the elia mine is connected with the source of the power which drives the hammer which causes the explosion. the anchor, it will be remembered, pulls the mine down under water, the latter being of itself buoyant. there is a continual pull, therefore, upon the rope by which the mine is held under. it is that pull which works the hammer. and now observe the beautiful result of that simple arrangement. suppose the mine breaks its rope and gets loose, so that it can drift about and carry danger far and wide. it can break loose and it can drift about, but at the very moment of getting loose the danger vanishes, for the rope ceases to pull and the firing mechanism loses its motive power. in other mines the same result has been sought by means of clockwork, which throws the firing arrangements out of action after the lapse of a given time. this scheme of captain elia's, however, whereby the very act of breaking adrift produces its own safeguard, is one of the most delightful instances of a happy invention. in conclusion, just a word about the measures taken against mines. counter-mining is one. it consists in letting off other mines in the midst of a mine-field with the purpose of giving them such a shaking up that some of them will be exploded by the shock. the simplest and indeed the only effective way, however, seems to be the simple primitive method of dragging a rope along between two light draught vessels and thus tearing the mines up by their roots, so to speak. the very act of thus dragging it along by its anchor rope often causes a mine to explode, well astern of the mine-sweeping vessels, but sometimes they are pulled up and fired or sunk by a shot from a gun which the sweeper carries for the purpose. the sweeping up of the mine-fields is a duty often allotted to the steam fishing boats or trawlers, whose crews seem particularly well fitted for the work. it is a hazardous duty, and many lives have been lost through it. let us hope that in time to come all submarine mines and the dangers connected with them will be a thing of the past, for they are mean, cowardly and contemptible weapons. chapter vi military bridges bridging has always been an important part of actual warfare. in my school days i studied "cæsar" from a textbook which is not much in use nowadays and which had very copious notes, prominent among which was a description, with drawings, of a bridge made by the roman legions in gaul. and a fine bridge it was, too. how its details came to be known was partly through the description given by cæsar himself and partly by a study of certain old timbers found in the bed of the rhone, which timbers were believed to be relics of the very bridge which the great julius himself had had built. this bridge of nearly two thousand years ago appeared to be built of baulks of timber fastened together in very much the same manner as that adopted by the engineering units of the great armies of to-day. every observant person has noticed how tall poles and short sticks tied together with ropes can be fashioned into the firm, strong scaffolding from which workmen can in safety raise great tall buildings. that mode of construction can always be used to form a bridge. equally well known, no doubt, are the gantries built over the footway while a large building is in course of construction. generally of huge square baulks of timber, they are intended to carry very heavy loads of materials and to save the public passing beneath from any possibility of damage through heavy objects falling from above. those gantries furnish us with an example of another sort of construction in wood which can be and is often used in bridging. when the germans retired in northern france they blew up all bridges behind them, and before the allies could use those bridges they had to repair them. if only for foot-traffic, a contrivance of poles, lashed together after the manner of the builder's scaffold, is ample in most of such cases and by its means a strong and safe bridge can be made upon what is left of the old bridge in the course of a few hours. for light vehicles a similar structure but made stronger by more lashings and of poles closer together will suffice, but for heavy traffic, with guns and possibly railway trains, recourse has to be had to the heavy timberwork exemplified by the builder's gantry. this takes longer to make, since the timbers are big, heavy and not easy to move about: they are, moreover, not simply laid beside or across each other and tied, but are cut the right lengths, and one is notched where the end of another fits into or against it. the baulks are connected by bolts and nuts for which holes have to be drilled or by rods of iron with a sharply pointed prong on each end stretching across from one baulk to another, one prong being driven into each. with the long-thought-out military operations of modern warfare it is just possible that steelwork for repairing certain particular bridges might be prepared in advance and simply launched across when the time arrives, but that is manifestly impossible except in certain cases and under particularly favourable conditions, such as railway facilities for bringing up the new bridge close to the site where it is to go. nearly every military bridge therefore has to be more or less improvised on the spot. in a highly developed country scaffold poles or baulks may be found or brought up by road or rail, in less civilised lands their equivalents may be cut and prepared from neighbouring forests, but all armies have, as a recognised part of their organisation, certain engineering "field companies," and "bridging trains," which carry with them large quantities of material carefully schemed out long in advance, so shaped and so prepared that it can be fashioned into almost anything, much as the strips of a boy's "meccano" can be adapted to form a great variety of objects. first, there are pontoons, large though light boats or punts, about feet long, constructed of thin wood with canvas cemented all over to give additional strength and water-tightness. each pontoon rides upon its own carriage upon which there are also stowed away quantities of timbers of various sorts, anchors for holding the pontoons in place, oars for rowing them, ropes of different kinds, and so on. each pontoon, moreover, is divided about the middle into two pieces called respectively the bow piece and the stern piece. the two are normally coupled together by cunningly devised fastenings but they can be quickly separated, in which state they form two shorter boats. other carriages carry more timber and material intended for the purpose of forming "trestle bridges" but which is also usable in connection with the pontoons. of this material the chief sorts are "legs," long straight pieces which form the uprights; transomes, heavier beams which can be fitted across horizontally between two legs so that the three form a huge letter h or a very robust rugby goal; "baulks" which are light timbers tapered off towards each end for the sake of lightness and of such size that they fit snugly into notches which are cut in the upper surface of the transomes; and planks called "chesses" for forming the floors of a bridge. probably the most dramatic incident of the war was when the british, having been apparently beaten by the turks in mesopotamia, driven far back and their general and many troops captured, suddenly turned the tables upon their enemies, driving them from kut and sending them fleeing helter-skelter to bagdad and then beyond. now the capture of kut and then of bagdad were both made possible by the rapid bridging of the tigris, and without doubt this is the sort of material which was used. let us see how it is done. an army arrives at a river across which it is decided to throw a pontoon bridge. the pontoons are unloaded off their wagons and launched into the water. one is rowed out and anchored a little way from the shore, while upon the bank parallel with the river is laid a "transome." on the centre of the pontoon is a centre beam with notches in it like those in the transomes and from the one to the other "baulks" are passed. meanwhile a second pontoon has been rowed into place and more baulks are passed from the first pontoon to the second, while chesses are laid upon the baulks to form a platform or floor. thus, pontoon by pontoon, the bridge grows until it has reached the further bank. if pontoons are scarce and the loads to be carried by the bridge are light they are divided in two, and instead of a row of pontoons joined by "baulks" there is a row of "pieces" joined by baulks. pieces arranged thus form a light bridge, pontoons a medium bridge, while pontoons placed closer together form a heavy bridge. which shall be built depends upon the number of pontoons available in relation to the width of the river and the nature of the traffic which will have to pass over. an alternative arrangement is to make the pontoons up first into groups or rafts and then bridge from raft to raft instead of bridging between pontoons. there is still another way of making the bridge, and that is to put it together alongside the bank, afterwards swinging it across the river like the opening or shutting of a door. anyone can see that there must be many advantages in this latter method when it is practicable, since more men can work at once and with greater safety, for all will be near the bank. it is evident that such a structure depends for its security entirely upon the anchors. those which are carried for the purpose are like those of a ship but there may not be enough or they may not suit every kind of river-bed. they are often improvised therefore. two wagon wheels lashed together, with heavy stones clipped between them, are said to be a very effective anchor. under certain conditions a net filled with stones is surprisingly effective. two pickaxes tied together form a good imitation of the conventional anchor, as also does a harrow sunk and held down by stones thrown upon it. trestle bridges are made in quite a different way. the trestles are formed of two legs or uprights with a transome between, a shape which resembles, as has been already remarked, a very robust rugby goal. the transome is connected to the legs by a special form of band which permits it to be fixed at any height without having to drill any special holes for the connections. the legs are so shaped at their ends that they can be shod with steel shoes provided for the purpose, enabling them to get a good foothold even on shifty soil. the trestles are put together ashore, and each is taken out in a boat or on a pontoon to the place where it is to stand. then it is launched feet foremost into the water, the boat being on the side away from the shore, so that a rope from the trestle to the shore will enable men on land to pull the trestle into an upright position. [illustration: an incident at loos. this picture gives us some little idea of the devastation caused by modern weapons. it also shows the inventiveness of the soldier who makes his rifle into a battering-ram. incidentally we see a kind-hearted soldier rescuing a little girl from danger. this incident really happened.] thus trestle after trestle is added until the bridge has grown right across the water to the further bank. the trestles cannot fall over sideways because of their own width, they cannot fall forwards or backwards because of the "baulks" which pass between them and carry the floor, but as a precaution diagonal ties of rope are always added here and there along the bridge, that is to say, two trestles are tied together with two ropes, each rope passing from the bottom of one trestle to the top of the other, a form of tying which is very effective and very easy and simple to carry out. one interesting thing to notice is the form of the "baulks," in which connection i would like to remark that when i use the word without inverted commas i mean it in the ordinary sense as implying a big heavy timber, but when i use the commas i mean it in its technical sense as it is used in military engineering. in this latter sense it describes the timbers specially provided for the purposes just described. large supplies of the ordinary heavy baulks could not be carried with an army: but strength is required nevertheless. hence the military engineers have invented a form which combines strength with lightness. if you stand a plank upon its edge, supported at each end so as to form a beam, its strength will vary as its width and as the _square of its height_. if then you double its width you only double its strength, but if you double its height you multiply its strength _four_ times. if you halve the width of a given beam you halve its strength, but if you then double its height you quadruple that half, in other words, without making the beam any heavier by these two operations you double its strength. moreover, if you support a beam at each end and pass a load over it or spread a load permanently upon it, its greatest strength is required in the middle. you can shave away the ends without making the beam as a whole any less strong. so these "baulks" are made like planks, very oblong if looked at endwise, also thinner at the ends than in the middle. but if by chance they tipped over on to their sides they would for that very reason be very weak, and that is why the notches are provided in the transomes and the centre beams of the pontoons, in order that the "baulks," having been laid edgewise in them, cannot tip over. thus a considerable saving is made in the weight of the bridging material to be carried. it sometimes happens that when a trestle is dropped into the water one leg will fall into a depression in the river-bed or will sink more deeply if the bed be soft, leaving the whole structure lop-sided and useless. that, however, is easily overcome, since it is provided against. a little iron bracket, which is carried for the purpose, is clipped on to the leg which has sunk near its top and on to it is hung a pair of pulley blocks--one of those little contrivances which everyone has seen at some time or another by which one man pulling a chain quickly can raise, although slowly, a heavy load. by this means the end of the transome is raised until it is horizontal and the legs have assumed an upright posture, when the transome is refastened to the leg in its new position. thus we see the advantage of clamping the transome to the leg rather than fixing it with any arrangement of holes. the iron band, which is fastened on to the transome and which grasps the leg, is so arranged that the greater the load the more tightly does it hold, so that it is perfectly safe under all conditions. the trestle bridge has a great advantage over the floating bridge if the height of the water varies at all, as for instance, with the tide. the former remains still, while the latter goes up and down, requiring a special arrangement to be contrived for connecting it to the shore. under some conditions a suspension bridge is the most convenient form of all, particularly if the banks are high and strong, or if the current be very rapid or the river-bed very soft. in such cases steel wire ropes are stretched across the water between two trestles. the latter may be made in the way just described, but more often they have to be stronger and are built specially out of big strong timbers securely fastened together. their form does not matter much so long as they are strong and stiff, high enough to carry the ends of the suspension ropes and of such a shape as not to block the entrance to the bridge itself. the higher they are the better, because, according to the natural laws which govern such things, the more sag or dip there is in the ropes across the river the less severely will they be strained. they need to be very strong, as the whole weight of the bridge and its load falls upon their shoulders. the pull of the suspension ropes, moreover, tends to pull them forward into the water, so they must be held back by other strong ropes called guys, and the action of these two sets of ropes entails the unfortunate trestles bearing really _more_ weight than the actual weight of the bridge and load. the guys, too, require very strong anchorage or at the critical moment they may give way, when the whole contrivance, with possibly valuable guns or ammunition on board, will be precipitated into the water. the men may be able to swim but the guns will sink. having, then, constructed a trestle upon each bank, securely guyed it back and connected the suspension ropes to it, the next operation is to attach smaller vertical ropes to the suspension ropes at intervals, to support the ends of the transomes. then upon the latter are laid "baulks" and upon them the flooring as usual. or if ropes be not sufficiently plentiful, timbers may be lashed on to the suspension ropes instead, the transomes being fastened to them. that is all that is absolutely essential to a suspension bridge, but one so formed would be rather flimsy and unstable. it needs to be stiffened by diagonal timbers at suitable places and often it has props placed upon the bank reaching out as far as their length will permit over the water to steady and consolidate what to commence with is rather too much like a spider's web. those little strengthening dodges can be laid down in no books. they need to be left to the judgment of the men in charge to do what is necessary in the best way they can with the materials which happen to be at hand. but very often warfare has to be carried on in the most outlandish places where armies can only travel light, and where, hampered by bridging material of the conventional sort, they would have no chance in catching up with a fleet and agile native enemy. yet bridges are needed even more under those conditions perhaps than under any other. there are many examples of this in the wars just beyond the frontier in northern india. then ingenuity has to make good the luck of prepared material and the bridges are made of those materials which happen to be procurable. an army in india once wanted to cross a river, where no materials of the ordinary kind were available. the river, however, was lined with tall reeds. a reed has for centuries been a favourite example of weakness and untrustworthiness, so how can reeds be made to form a safe bridge? this is how it was done. great quantities of reeds were cut and were made up into neat round bundles about a foot in diameter. ropes were scarce too, but these likewise were improvised by twisting long grasses into ropes. it is surprising what good ones can be made in this way, and they served their purpose well. many bundles having thus been made numbers of them were tied together so as to form rafts. each bundle in fact was a small pontoon, and the rafts which were thus constituted differed only in size from the regulation rafts made of pontoons. while this work was being done two ropes were got across the river and secured on both banks: then rafts were floated down in succession, each one on arrival being tied up under the two ropes. finally a track of boards was laid over the centre and the bridge was strong enough for men in fours to walk over it. had it been necessary, the floor could have been made of brushwood, interlaced so as to form a kind of continuous matting or of a layer of branches covered with canvas. floors for bridges can be made in many ways. a dodge which soldiers in the british army are taught is how to make boats for bridging purposes out of a tarpaulin or piece of canvas, supported on a framework of light wood poles or twigs. the outline of the boat is first drawn roughly on the ground. then three posts are driven in on the centre line of the boat and to the top of these three a horizontal pole is tied, thin, flexible branches stripped of their bark, being fixed by having their ends stuck in the ground on either side. the ends are driven in on the outline already marked out so that when done the branches form a framework like the ribs of a boat upside down. other branches are intertwined among these so as to bind them together and finally a tarpaulin or canvas sheet is laid over all. a number of boats formed after this fashion can be used as pontoons to support a bridge, or several can be made into a raft and towed to and fro--a sort of floating bridge. another scheme is to make a number of crates like those in which crockery and other things are often packed. these are of very simple and easy construction, consisting of sticks slightly pointed at the ends driven into other pieces which are perforated with suitable holes to receive the ends. the only tools necessary are an axe (or even a pocket-knife will do) to sharpen the ends and an auger to make the holes. almost any sort of wood can be made to serve. the cover for this, and indeed for most of these improvised rafts, is tarpaulin or canvas, the latter of which, being the material used for so many purposes, is almost sure to be available in some form or other. for instance, every one of those familiar "general service wagons" has its large canvas cover. in fact, a general service wagon, taken off its wheels and wrapped up in its own canvas cover, makes quite a serviceable boat, pontoon, punt, barge or whatever you like to call it. then there is an ingenious type of little bridge which can be quickly and easily made where bamboos or similar light canes or sticks are available. the only tool required in making this is a couple of poles ten feet or so in length. to commence with, these poles are laid side by side upon the bank with one end of each pointed out over the water, overhanging it by about four feet. two men then climb along these, while others sit upon the inshore ends to keep them from tipping into the water. seated, then, on the outer ends of the poles the men drive some bamboos or whatever they are using into the water, after which they tie a crosspiece to the uprights, so forming a light trestle. then the poles are pushed forward until they overhang another four feet beyond the trestle just made, the other men, of course, continuing to sit upon the rear ends. and so the bridge grows until it entirely crosses the stream. between the trestles other light poles are laid and tied, forming the floor upon which men can cross in single file. another type, known as the "hop pole" bridge is made of slightly heavier poles which are tied together in threes so as to form isosceles triangles. each triangle forms one trestle. the two poles which form the sides project a little above the apex so that in fact we have an isosceles triangle with a v at the apex. to the root of the v another pole is tied loosely and the whole trestle is pushed feet first into the water. then, by pushing the pole, it is forced into an upright position in which it is secured by the pole being firmly fixed to the shore and strongly lashed to the root of the v where, before, it was only loosely tied. a second trestle is then in like manner fixed in front of the first one, connected to it by a pole just as the first is connected to the bank. and so the thing grows. to all the upper ends of the v's a light pole is tied to form a handrail. in this case, of course, the floor of the bridge is nothing more than a pole, but with the assistance of a handrail it is quite easy to walk along a single pole. and that reminds me of a simple type of suspension bridge which, an engineer officer once assured me, is actually copied from one habitually made by some of the indian natives. it consists of three ropes upon one of which you walk, while the other two form a handrail upon either side. the three ropes are held at intervals in their correct relative positions by little wooden frames formed of three sticks tied together, one rope being tied to each corner of each triangle. on the banks stakes are driven in and tied back with cords to give additional strength, and to them the ends of the ropes are secured. one drawback to this form of bridge is that the ropes are naturally far from level and one has to walk down a steep hill to commence with and up again at the other end. i once saw a specimen of this kind of bridge across a wide ditch, a part of the old defences of chatham, and an elderly gentleman who was with me, a man of considerable proportions, insisted upon trying it for himself. he took but a step or two when his foot began to slide downhill along the foot rope faster than he dare move his hands along the hand ropes, with the result that he was very soon in a very uncomfortable position. thus he remained, to the amusement of all his friends, until two stalwart royal engineers came to his aid and "uprighted" him. in crossing a swamp something in the nature of a bridge is sometimes required. canvas laid upon branches often makes a good road over what would otherwise be impassable. rapidly moving detachments of cavalry are provided with what is called "air-raft equipment," which enables them to get their light "horse artillery" guns across rivers which would be impassable otherwise. it consists of sixty bags like huge cylindrical footballs except that the outer covering is canvas instead of leather. these are blown up partly by the mouth and partly by pumps provided for the purpose until they are just about as tight as a football should be. then they are laid out in rows of twelve, each row being fastened together by the bags being tied to a pole running lengthwise of the row. cords are attached to the bags for the purpose. the five rows are then placed parallel and connected together by two light planks called wheelways placed across the rows and tied thereto. this arrangement is capable of carrying light guns or ammunition wagons. the men are expected to ride through the water, but if necessary something can be laid upon the raft, between the wheelways, to form a floor upon which men and even horses can ride. as part of the equipment there is a small collapsible boat with oars and by its means men first cross, carrying with them a line by which, afterwards, the raft can be hauled to and fro. rafts can be made, too, of hay tightly tied up in waterproof ground-sheets or tarpaulins or canvas. indeed, given a little ingenuity and the need to use it (for it is very true that necessity is the mother of invention), it is surprising what a large variety of things can be pressed into this service. of course, barrels can be made to form excellent pontoons, but there is one clever little way of using them which is more than usually interesting, and with that i must conclude this chapter which has already exceeded its appointed limits. imagine two poles perhaps ten feet long, placed parallel. between them, at one end, a barrel is lashed: at the other end is a plank forming with the poles a t. a man can then sit upon the barrel and paddle about, for the poles and planks will steady the barrel just as the outriggers and floats steady the narrow canoes or catamarans of which we read in books of travel. for that reason a bridge formed of such is called a "catamaran" bridge. of course, if there are only a few barrels to be had they can be fitted out like this and then combined into a raft. or if there are enough of them they can be anchored at intervals and poles or planks laid from one to another so as to form a continuous bridge. or a single one may be used as a boat. i can almost fancy i see some of my readers who have access to a pond rigging up an old barrel in this way, just to see how it goes. chapter vii what guns are made of no longer ago than the days of the crimea, the largest guns were made of the cheapest and commonest kind of iron, that known as cast iron. this material has the advantage of being cheap and easily worked, but is comparatively weak and liable to crack, so that the guns of that time were comparatively small compared with those of to-day; they could only withstand a feeble explosion and their range was therefore limited. had the energetic explosives of the present time been employed in them they would inevitably have burst, killing their gunners instead of the enemy. attempts were made to strengthen them with bands made of wrought iron, a form of the metal which is tough and elastic and therefore better able to withstand sudden shocks than the more brittle cast iron, but it was not a real success. at first sight one naturally wonders why the whole gun was not made of the stronger wrought iron. the reason was that while cast iron can be melted and poured in a liquid form into a mould, so as to produce the shape of the gun, wrought iron will not melt. it will soften with heat, in which condition it can be hammered into shape and, moreover, when in a very soft state two pieces can be joined by simply forcing them closely together, which operation is called welding. with the machinery available now it would be possible to make a gun of wrought iron, but even a few years ago it would have been quite impossible. there was an obvious need therefore of a metal which could be melted and cast in moulds like cast iron, yet tough and strong to resist shock like wrought iron. fortunately this problem excited the interest of a certain mr. henry bessemer, a gentleman who, having made a considerable fortune through an ingenious method of manufacturing bronze powder, had sufficient leisure and money to devote himself to its solution. the vast steel industries of great britain and the united states are the direct results of this gentleman's labours, and in the latter country there are quite a number of towns which, being the home of steelworks, are called by his name. iron is one of the most plentiful things in the world. deposits running into millions of tons are to be found in many parts, but it is practically always in the form of ore, that is to say, in combination with something else generally oxygen and sometimes oxygen and carbon. the former sort of ore is called oxide of iron and the latter carbonate of iron, and both of them bear not the slightest resemblance to the metal. they are just rocks which form part of the earth's crust, and it is only the metallurgist who can tell what they consist of. in order that the iron may be obtained from the ore it is necessary for the oxygen to be separated from it, an operation which requires the intervention of heat, and the heat must be obtained from a fuel which consists mainly of carbon. wood fulfils these requirements, but there is not enough wood in the whole world to smelt all the iron which we need. it was not until "pit-cole" displaced "char-cole" (to use the spelling of the period) that the iron industry began to assume its present importance. to produce iron cheaply, therefore, ore and coal should for preference lie side by side, and in some few favoured localities that state of things exists. generally speaking, however, the ore and the coal are not found together, with the result that one has to be taken to the other, and in practice it is usually the ore which is taken to the coal. hence, the iron and steelworks are generally to be found on the coalfields, while the ore comes by rail or ship from, it may be, remote parts of the world. the method by which the metal is obtained from the ore is in principle very simple. coal and ore are mixed together in a furnace, the fire being fanned by a powerful blast of air. the result is that the bonds uniting iron and oxygen are relaxed by the heat, when the oxygen, having a preference for union with carbon rather than with iron, leaves the latter to join up with some of the carbon of the coal. the furnace in which this operation is carried out is a tall, vertical cylinder of iron, lined with firebrick. the fire is at the bottom and the fresh fuel and ore are thrown in at the top. as the ore is "reduced" (the chemist's term for removing oxygen from anything) the liquid iron accumulates in the lowest part of the furnace, whence it is drawn off at intervals, being allowed to run into grooves or gutters in a bed of sand, where it solidifies into what is called "pig iron." along with the coal and ore, there is thrown into the furnace from time to time quantities of limestone which combines with the earthy impurities with which the ore is contaminated. together these form what is called "slag," which also exists, while in the furnace, as a liquid, but is so much lighter than the molten iron that it keeps quite separate and can periodically be drawn off through a hole higher up than that through which the iron is obtained. the slag solidifies into a hard stone which is broken up and used for making concrete and tar-paving, also for road metal. the kind of furnace just described is, owing to the strong blast of air needed for its operation, called a "blast-furnace." one would be inclined to think that a fire so well supplied with oxygen, both from the blast and from the ore itself, would cause the fuel to be completely burnt up, yet such is not the case. the gases which ascend from the fire consist largely of "carbon-monoxide," a burnable gas with lots of heat still left in it. years ago, and one may still see instances of it, this gas was allowed to escape at the top of the furnace, where it burnt in the form of a huge flame. in most modern furnaces, however, there is a kind of plug in the orifice at the top which, while it can be lowered in order to admit the ore and fuel, normally prevents the escape of the gases, which are led away through pipes. in some cases the gases are burnt under boilers to provide the works with steam, in other cases they heat other furnaces for metallurgical purposes, while in yet others they are employed to drive large gas-engines to generate electricity. it is sometimes a difficulty to find useful employment for the vast quantities of this "blast-furnace gas" which are produced at a large works. we see, then, how is obtained the pig iron from which the other kinds of iron and steel are made. it is not pure iron by any means; indeed, it is not sought to make iron pure, as is the case with most other metals, since, in its pure state, it is too soft to be of much use. all the familiar forms of iron and steel are really alloys of iron and carbon, a fact which tends to give iron its unique position among the metals, since by exceedingly slight variations in the percentage of carbon we can vary the properties of the iron to an amazing extent, thereby producing in effect a wide range of different substances each particularly suitable for a particular purpose. to make cast iron, such as the guns of the crimea were made of, it is only necessary to melt up some pig iron and to pour it into a mould. there is scarcely a town in which there is not an iron foundry, either large or small, and that is the work carried on there. a smaller form of the blast-furnace, known as a "cupola," melts the pig iron, and the moulds are generally made of sand. the process of pouring the melted metal into the moulds is called "casting" and the things so produced are "castings," and are said to be made of "cast" iron. [illustration: an -pounder in action. the crew consists of six men. no. (the sergeant) gives instructions. no. stands at the right of the breech. no. fires the gun. no. holds the shell ready for placing in the bore. no. adjusts the fuse and hands the shell to no. . no. prepares the ammunition and hands it to no. . in this picture only three of the crew are left.] wrought iron is made by working the molten pig iron instead of casting it. the work is done in a different type of furnace altogether from the blast furnace and the cupola. it is more like an oven, in the floor of which is a depression wherein the molten metal lies. the fire-place is so arranged that the flames pass over the metal, being deflected downwards upon it by the roof as they pass. it should be understood that in casting pig iron one does little more than form it into some desired shape, the nature of the metal undergoing little or no change. in working it, however, into wrought iron, we change its nature. the pig iron contains from to per cent of carbon, which it obtains from the coal in the blast-furnace, and it is this particular proportion of carbon which gives it its own peculiar properties. to convert it into wrought iron a workman puts a long iron rod into the furnace and stirs the metal about, thereby exposing it to the air and permitting the carbon to be burnt out. as it loses carbon the iron becomes less and less fluid until it reaches a sticky stage. thus the workman, who is known by the name of puddler, as the process is called puddling, works up a ball of decarbonized and therefore sticky iron upon the end of his rod. having thus produced a rough ball or lump he draws it out of the furnace and leaves it to cool. thus the result of the puddling process is to produce a number of rough lumps or balls of iron with only about one-tenth per cent of carbon. they are next reheated, in another furnace, and a number of them are hammered together under a mechanical hammer into larger lumps called blooms or billets. the hammering process has the effect of driving out impurities and also of improving the texture of the metal. iron sheets, bars, rods and so on are formed by heating the billets and rolling them out in powerful rolling mills, machines which in principle are precisely similar to the domestic mangle, wherein two iron rollers with properly shaped grooves in them squeeze out the billet into the desired form. wrought iron, owing to the method by which it is produced, is not homogeneous, that is to say, it is nor quite the same all through, with the result that when it is rolled it develops a grain somewhat similar to the grain in wood, so that if bent across the grain it is somewhat liable to crack. on the other hand, it has the advantage over steel that it rusts much less readily. hence, for outdoor purposes it is still sometimes preferred to the otherwise more popular steel. now the problem which bessemer set before himself was to find out how to make a metal which could be cast like cast iron yet should be as strong and tough as wrought iron. after a little experimenting, by a happy inspiration, he hit upon the idea of blowing air through a mass of molten pig iron, thereby burning out the carbon, just as is done in the puddling process, only much quicker and with less labour. by this means he produced a metal with less carbon than cast iron and more than wrought iron, a sort of intermediate state between the two, and to his joy he found that this "bessemer steel" could be cast like cast iron yet had strength and toughness equal to if not superior to that of wrought iron. moreover, it was homogeneous and when rolled did not possess the troublesome grain characteristic of wrought iron. having thus found the way to make this new and desirable metal, bessemer encountered a great disappointment, so great that it would have entirely beaten many men. he made samples of steel and submitted them to experts in iron manufacture. everyone thought them admirable and many large iron works were induced by them to make arrangements with bessemer for the right to use his process. his name was already famous and it seemed as if a new fortune was made, when, to his alarm, he learned that wherever it was tried except in his own works, the process was a miserable failure. instead of being at the end of his labours he was just at the beginning. it turned out that the particular iron which he happened to buy and use at his own works was particularly free from an impurity which is, generally speaking, a great nuisance in iron, namely, phosphorus. it was pure accident which had led him to use this iron: it happened to be the kind he could purchase most easily in the small quantities needed for his experiments but it led him into a great difficulty, for other people, after paying him for the right to use his process and after spending large sums on the requisite plant, found themselves unable to make the steel because of the phosphorus in their iron and finding themselves unable to make a success were inclined to write him down a fraud. as it turned out, after much labour on bessemer's part, it was due to the presence of tiny percentages of phosphorus in most of the iron that is produced. after much trouble he was able to induce certain owners of blast-furnaces to make, by special methods, a kind of pig iron practically free from phosphorus and therefore suitable for his process. this special pig iron was known as bessemer pig iron. a little later a new inventor, a welshman, thomas by name, overcame the difficulty in another way, but to explain that i must first describe the bessemer converter, the special apparatus designed by bessemer for making his steel. it can best be likened to a huge iron kettle with a big spout at the top and with two projecting pins, one on each side. these pins rest in supports, so that it is easy to tilt the whole thing over on to its side. this is lined with fire-clay or some suitable heat-resisting material. through one of the "pins" (trunnions is their proper name) there runs a hole, communicating to what we might call a grating in the bottom of the converter. to this hollow trunnion there is connected the pipe from a powerful blowing engine, so that air can be driven in at will. to load or charge the converter it is tilted over somewhat to one side so that molten pig iron can be poured into it. the blast is then turned on after which it is raised to an upright position with the air bubbling up from below through the iron. thus by being brought into close contact with air, the carbon is burnt out of the metal until none is left. that, however, is not desired, so, as soon as the carbon is known to have all gone, a fresh quantity of molten iron is added of a special kind, the amount of carbon in which is known very exactly. thus all the carbon is first removed and then exactly the right amount is added, and so the desired result is attained with certainty. now thomas's improvement was this. he discovered that the converter could be lined with certain substances which have a great attraction for phosphorus and under those conditions any phosphorus which may be in the ore goes readily from the iron into the lining, or forms, with material from the lining, a slag which floats upon the surface of the metal. when the process is completed the converter is tipped over once more and the metal, now steel, is poured into rectangular moulds from which the steel can be lifted after cooling in the form of ingots. steel produced by bessemer's process as improved by thomas is called basic bessemer steel. incidentally thomas, by this invention, laid the foundation of much of the steel industry of germany and belgium, for there are enormous deposits of ore in the neighbourhood of luxemburg which because of the presence of phosphorus were useless until thomas showed how it could be dealt with. and there is another interesting feature of this "basic" process. phosphorus is a valuable fertilizer, so that the "slag" makes a very fine chemical manure. it is ground up into a fine powder and is sold to farmers under the name of thomas's phosphate powder. it owes its fertilizing virtues to the presence of the phosphorus which it has stolen from the molten iron. bessemer derived a huge fortune from his process after he had fought and overcome his difficulties, in addition to which he received the honour of knighthood and became sir henry bessemer. it will be noticed that one of the virtues of the process is its economy in fuel. during the whole time that the metal is in the converter, from twenty to thirty minutes, no fuel is used to keep it hot. the reason for that is that the carbon which is being got rid of is acting as fuel. it is burning with the air which is driven through, thereby generating heat. in bessemer's early days, it was arranged that he should attend a meeting of ironmasters at birmingham to explain his new process. on the morning of his lecture two eminent ironmasters were breakfasting together in a birmingham hotel when one exclaimed to the other, "what do you think, there is a fellow coming here to-day to tell us how to make steel without fuel." to this eminent south wales ironmaster the proposal seemed preposterous but it was true all the same. although vast quantities of steel are made by the bessemer process there is another one of equal importance known as the siemens-martin open-hearth process. in this the molten metal is kept in a huge bath practically boiling until the carbon has been reduced to the required amount. perhaps the most interesting feature about it is the way in which fuel is saved by what is called the "regenerative" method due to that versatile genius sir william siemens. the open-hearth, as it is termed, is a huge rectangular chamber of firebrick with a firebrick roof, and doors along one side just under the roof through which the process can be watched and new materials be added from time to time. the fire is some way away and not underneath as one might perhaps expect. now if a deep coke fire is fed with insufficient air it does not give off carbonic acid such as usually arises from a fire, and which as everyone knows will not burn, but a gas called carbon monoxide which will burn very well. so the fire-place for these furnaces is constructed in such a manner as to produce carbon monoxide, which then passes through a huge flue to one end of the open-hearth. here it meets air coming through another flue and the two combining burst into flame over the metal. the hot gases resulting from this burning pass out through a flue at the other end of the hearth to a tall chimney which causes the necessary draught, but on their way they pass through a chamber loosely filled with bricks. consequently the hot gases only reach the open air after having given up much of their heat to these bricks. after that operation has been going on for a time certain valves are operated and the gas and air then come in at the other end of the hearth, travelling through it in the opposite direction. and the air comes through the chamber which has the hot bricks in it, bringing back into the furnace a large quantity of that heat which otherwise would have gone up the chimney but which the bricks intercepted. thus all day long does this reversal take place at intervals, the fresh air all the time picking up and bringing back some of the heat which just previously had escaped towards but not into the chimney. this arrangement enables the process to compete, so far as economy is concerned, with the bessemer process. at intervals the steel is tapped off from the furnace and run into ingot-moulds, the same as with the other process. on the whole it is regarded as producing a slightly better steel, the operation being under slightly better control. however the steel is made the ingots are reheated and either hammered under a powerful steam hammer or pressed in an enormous hydraulic press. this greatly improves the quality. the steel can then be rolled into plates, bars or whatever form may be required. the finer qualities of steel such as are used for making sharp tools are made in quite another way. instead of being made from crude iron by taking out the carbon, the materials are the finest qualities of wrought iron and charcoal which are mixed together in the correct quantities and melted in a crucible. this cast steel is very hard, so that it will carry a very fine, sharp edge. it is also capable of being tempered by heating and cooling, so that the exact degrees of hardness and toughness can be attained. of recent years a special quality of steel for tools called "high-speed" steel has been produced, mainly by the addition to ordinary cast steel of a small percentage of tungsten. the advantage of this is that, within certain limits, this does not soften with heat, and it is, i can assure you, a great invention in war-time, when a nation is straining every nerve to turn out guns and shells as fast as possible. for all these things need to be turned in lathes and if you have ever watched a metal-turning lathe at work you will have noticed that the tool which actually takes a shaving off the article being turned tends to get hot. for this reason lathes are usually fitted with pumps which pump cold soap-suds on to the tool as it works. what you see there is the energy employed in shaving the metal being turned into heat in the tool. if left uncooled by the water it would soon be red-hot. and the faster the machine works the hotter will the tool get. now with the old steel a very little heat will suffice to make it soft, when its cutting power is lost. so with the old steel, no matter how much cooling water you might use, there was a distinct limit to the speed of the lathe and the speed at which the work was finished, for if that speed were once exceeded a stop became necessary to regrind the tool or to put in a fresh one. but with high-speed steel that limit is much higher, for it can get almost red-hot before it loses its hardness and consequently machines can be run and jobs finished at a speed which would have been out of the question only a few years ago. if one belligerent knew how to make high-speed steel while the other did not the former would have an enormous advantage in war-time. speaking generally, steel such as is used for tools is called hard steel, while that made by the bessemer and siemens-martin processes is called mild steel. leaving out of account for the moment fancy steels such as that just described, where other metals are added to the mixture, the essential difference between all the varieties of steel is simply a slight difference in the percentage of carbon. this is so remarkable that it is worth while to tabulate these percentages again. cast iron has from to per cent. steel from one-fifth to one per cent. wrought iron less than one-fifth per cent. mild steel, which has least carbon of all the varieties of steel and in this respect is therefore nearest to wrought iron, is used for the same purposes as wrought iron, such as shipbuilding, bridges and roofs, tanks, gas-holders, etc. when the admiralty want a specially fast ship such as a torpedo-boat destroyer with a hull as light as possible consistent with strength they have it made of steel with a slightly larger percentage of carbon so that the steel is stronger and the vessel's frame can be made lighter. the steel for shells, too, needs to be of a certain strength to give the best results, so the percentage of carbon is adjusted accordingly. for guns themselves, again, special properties are needed, and so not only is the carbon regulated to a nicety but other things such as nickel and chromium are added. altogether, steel is one of the most marvellous substances known, certainly the most marvellous metal. copper is just copper and no more, zinc is just zinc, and the same with lead, but iron (which really includes steel) can be adapted to so many purposes, can be endowed at will with so many different properties, that without doubt iron, common, plentiful iron, is the king of all the metals. chapter viii more about guns as has been remarked elsewhere, some of the guns used by the soldiers in land warfare are very different from those used in the navy. the latter, being carried on the ships to which they belong, can be of those proportions which best suit their purpose. consequently they are usually very long compared with their diameter. the field guns used by the royal field artillery are shorter in proportion to their calibre than are the big naval guns. otherwise they would be far too long to handle in the field. they are mounted on carriages drawn by horses, and are so handy that they can go anywhere where infantry can go and can travel just as fast. it takes a very short time to get them ready for action, too, so that they can accompany infantry quite freely, neither arm impeding the movements of the other. the horse artillery, again, whose guns are even lighter still, can accompany cavalry, travelling as fast and coming into action almost as quickly as the troopers themselves. the famous french "seventy-fives" (meaning millimetres calibre) which played such a great part in the war, are field guns intended to move rapidly and to operate with infantry. both these types of gun were used by the british in south africa, as also were some field howitzers, a type of gun to which further reference will be made later. but the boers taught the world something new as to the possibilities of moving heavy guns quickly. perhaps the reason for this was that they, being something of the nature of amateurs in the art of warfare, were less under the influence of tradition. anyway, they surprised the british by the quick way in which they moved heavy guns, sometimes into quite difficult positions, over rough ground and up steep hills. these heavy guns of theirs were called by the british soldiers "long toms." but the british were quick to respond, particularly the ever-resourceful navy. when the war broke out there were, in the neighbourhood of durban, a number of warships which had as part of their own armament some of those guns which afterwards became famous as " · 's," that being the diameter of the bore in inches. they were of the long shape usual in naval guns, and it is easy to see that they were much heavier than the field guns of inches or so in diameter. captain scott (now admiral sir percy scott) saw that these would be useful, so he quickly designed some carriages for them, got these made in the railway workshops at durban, and in a few hours was rushing them up to ladysmith. it was these guns very largely which enabled that town to hold out for so long, until, in fact, it was triumphantly relieved. thus the effect of the boer war was to show that much heavier weapons could be manipulated in the field than had been considered possible before. the great war which followed but a few years later carried on this same lesson, for one of the great surprises with which the allies were confronted in the early days of the conflict was the inexplicable fall of fortresses which till then had been deemed almost impregnable. liége, namur, maubeuge and, finally, antwerp, all fell to a wonderful gun of enormous dimensions which the austrians had produced from up their sleeve, so to speak. like conjurers they had kept them secret until the last moment. these weapons which made history so fast were of the kind called howitzers, a name mentioned just now. it should be explained here that gunners talk of guns and howitzers as if the latter were not guns; but that is only a convenient habit which has grown up, for the latter are unquestionably guns. the distinction is, however, so convenient that we may well adopt it ourselves for the rest of this chapter. repeated references have been made already to the question of the length of guns, and it has been pointed out that to get high velocity, great range and vigorous hitting power a gun needs to be as long as possible. on ships this is only limited by the strength of the steel of which the gun is made, for beyond a certain length the gun bends of its own weight. ashore, however, the difficulties of transport impose a further limitation in most cases, although the famous · , like many other naval guns, has a length of calibres, and the guns of small calibre do approximate somewhat to the proportions of the naval guns, since even then their length comes within manageable limits. modern warfare, however, requires the use of larger shells containing larger charges of explosives, and to fire these requires guns of greater calibre. we hear of shells of as great a diameter as inches being thrown into the belgian fortresses and of course nothing smaller than a -inch gun could do that. now a -inch gun, if made to the naval proportions of calibres or even calibres, would mean a length of at least to feet. it would also mean a weight exceeding tons, for the -inch naval gun of calibres weighs about tons. and it is easy to see that such a gun would be very difficult to move on the field of battle. indeed, it would be almost useless because of the time it would take to get it into position and to construct the foundations which it would need. if the austrians had only had such as those the belgians would have had plenty of time to prepare for them at antwerp, whereas it was the quickness with which they brought up their heavy guns that astonished everyone and took their opponents by surprise. the secret of this astonishing performance lies in the fact that they were not guns at all but howitzers, which instead of being long, slender tubes are short, fat ones, and that involves a different idea in gunnery altogether. the "gun" fires _at_ an object. the howitzer fires its shell upwards with the purpose of dropping it _upon_ the object. the difference between the two is well illustrated by the methods of practising with them. in learning to work a gun the gunners fire at a vertical target just as those of you who practise shooting at a miniature range fire at a target of paper placed vertically against a wall. the target for howitzer practice, on the other hand, is a square marked out on the level ground, and the object of the gunners is to see how great a proportion of a given number of shots they can drop inside that square. of course, being so much shorter the howitzers cannot throw a shell so far or at such a high velocity as the naval guns, but that can to a certain extent be compensated for by using a higher explosive for the propellant. that, however, involves greater stresses in the tube when firing takes place and also calls for stronger foundations in order that the aim may be steady. a great part, too, of the velocity of a naval shell is required for the penetration of the armour, whereas against forts or earthworks it is sufficient if the shell "gets there." moreover, generally speaking, it is possible to get much nearer to a fortress or entrenched position for the purpose of attacking it than it is to an enemy ship on the sea. except for the occasional help of a mist there is no "cover" to be obtained at sea, while on land the ground must be very flat indeed if there is no low hill or undulation behind which a gun can be set up unnoticed. the austrians cherish a piece of steelwork from one of the forts of antwerp which they smashed with a shell from one of their big howitzers at a range of seven miles. they evidently were able to get their big howitzers within that comparatively short distance of the antwerp fortifications without being molested. [illustration: a german automatic pistol. the action is fully described on the illustration.] in this connection one often hears the word mortar used, and just a reference to that will be appropriate here. many years ago short guns which threw their balls very high were in use, and because of their resemblance to the mortar which is used for pounding up things with the aid of a pestle these were termed mortars. later a man named howitzer introduced a type of gun which was something of a compromise between the long thin gun and the short stubby mortar. as time has gone on, however, the mortars have grown in length while the howitzers have shortened, until to-day the two names are used almost indiscriminately to denote the same thing. hence the giant howitzers of the austrians are often spoken of as the "skoda" mortars, skoda being the name of the factory where they were made. at one time many people wondered why the germans did not put some of these huge mortars on their battleships: many thought that they would do so, and that by that means they would demolish our navy as they had already smashed the belgian forts. the reason they did not is, no doubt, the very simple one, that our naval guns would have probably sunk their ships before the howitzers could have reached ours, because if they had attempted to make up for the shortness of the weapons by using higher explosives, these mortars would, there is little doubt, have knocked to pieces the ships on which they were mounted. the old-fashioned fortress, suddenly made "out-of-date" by the skoda mortars, was usually armed with guns of the naval type. sea-coast forts are always so armed. nowadays, however, the inland fortress takes the form of a labyrinth of trenches and underground passages, combined with deeply excavated chambers known as dug-outs, and these do not fitly accommodate large guns at all. the guns are placed well back behind the trenches sheltered behind hills or woods, over which they hurl their shells. the chief defenders of the actual trench are the machine gun, which is little more than an automatic rifle on a stand, and the trench mortar. we are now in a position to sum up broadly the features of modern artillery. there is first the naval gun, the ideal gun, long and of great range, able to send forth its shells with great velocity. this gun appears again in the sea-coast forts, where the conditions are very much those which obtain on a ship and where the attacking party is of necessity a ship. in the field we have the field and horse artillery, which we may regard as the naval gun modified somewhat in order to make it easy to move about, so that it can accompany troops and support the operations of both infantry and cavalry. these light guns are supported by the field howitzers, which are also light and easily handled, and the guns of the · type, originally naval guns but now mounted on wheels and possessing a certain amount of mobility, not equalling the field guns it is true, but still very serviceable in a campaign. then we have the howitzers of various sizes which have rendered the old-fashioned steel and concrete forts useless, and which are the chief weapons used in the modern trench warfare. it is these which blow in the walls of the trenches and dug-outs, shatter the barbed-wire entanglements and render it possible for the infantry to attack an entrenched position. finally, we have the machine guns, each of which is equivalent to a considerable number of riflemen and which, with the trench mortars, form the chief defences of the actual trench itself. of course these are only useful against attacks by infantry: they cannot in any way cope with the heavy artillery. that has to be dealt with by the opposing artillery posted away back behind the trenches. and now let us take a rather more close look at some of these weapons. essentially each one is a steel tube. it may be a single tube or it may be several one outside another. it may even have a layer of wire between two tubes as many naval guns have. it is invariably (one small exception will be mentioned later) loaded at the breech or rear end and not through the muzzle as used to be the custom. for this purpose it needs a breech-block or door, which can be opened to put in the shell and explosive, and which can then be closed tightly so that it will not be driven out or burst open when the explosion takes place and also shall be gas tight so as not to let any of the force of the explosion escape. then the gun must be mounted upon a carriage so that it can be quickly moved about. the lighter forms of artillery are fired when upon the same carriage upon which they travel. in years gone by the whole thing, carriage as well as gun, used to run back when the gun was fired, which was a great nuisance since it had to be got back into position again after each shot. to obviate this the gun is now mounted upon a slide, and it is the slide which is fitted to the carriage. thus the gun can slide back without the carriage moving at all. the latter is made very strong, and shoes are provided at the end of chains which go under the wheels just like the "drag" which coaches and heavy carts have for use going down hills. there is also a part like a spade which can be driven down into the ground so that, what with the shoes and the spade, the carriage is fixed very firmly. the gun is kept at the front part of the slide by means of a powerful spring, which is compressed when the gun is fired but which, as the force of the recoil is spent, pushes the gun back to its original position once more. the spring is often reinforced by a cylinder and a piston with compressed air or water behind it, acting after the manner of those door checks with which we are all familiar, its function being to steady the motion of the gun and to let it go gently back to its place without slamming, just as the door check prevents a door from slamming. by this means the gun is returned automatically after each shot to practically the same position which it occupied before, so that it does not need re-aiming each time, but only a slight readjustment if even that. the result of this is that such a gun can be fired very rapidly. in fact, it can be fired just as fast as the gunners can keep on reloading it. the big skoda mortars owed their mobility to the clever way in which they were constructed. the gun tube itself, the support for it or mounting, and the steel foundation were each fitted to a special motor-driven trolley. the steel foundation was dumped down on the ground, which of course was prepared for it in advance, then the mounting was run right on to it so that it simply needed bolting down and finally the tube was hoisted by specially prepared appliances into its place. it is said that the whole operation occupied less than an hour. for firing, these mortars of course are pointed at a very high angle, almost like an astronomical telescope. no doubt the gunners have many jokes about "shooting the moon" and so on, for that is just what they seem to be attempting. for loading, however, they are lowered into a horizontal position: the shell comes up on a small hand-truck, is raised by a specially designed jack until it is level with the breech, and is then pushed into its place. the breech is then closed, the tube re-elevated, and all is ready for firing. between these two forms of gun, the field gun on its light carriage, which not only bears it from place to place but forms its support while in action, and the great mortar carried in parts on specially made trolleys, there are now an enormous variety of guns and mortars adapted for the various purposes which experience in the great war revealed. artillery suffered many changes in the light of the south african campaign and of the russo-japanese war, but of far more importance have been the lessons learnt in northern france and on the plains of poland. to some extent these lessons have been learnt and profited by during the actual war, but there is no doubt that as men have time to think over them in the years of peace which are ahead many more developments will take place. unless, that is, we are on the threshold of that happy time when guns and fighting material of all sorts will be looked upon as the relics of a bad and ruinous time now happily past. in conclusion, a passing reference must be made to the trench mortars and similar contrivances which have arisen as the result of the prolonged spell of trench warfare which no one had ever contemplated. these are in effect very short range mortars or howitzers, specially intended for throwing bombs from trench to trench. some are simply the larger mortars on a small scale, but one has decidedly original features. this consists of a short light mortar into which the bombs are slipped through the muzzle, thus reverting to the old method of loading. the propellant is combined with the bomb and there is a percussion cap which fires it as soon as it strikes the bottom of the tube. thus the operation is just about as simple as it can be: the man merely places the bomb in the upturned muzzle and lets it slide down. an instant later, up it comes again, to go sailing through the air into the trench of the enemy a hundred yards away. one must not conclude this chapter, however, without a reference to those useful weapons which are known among the soldiers as "archibalds" and officially as anti-aircraft guns. these are perhaps the most familiar guns of all to the general public, since they were installed in many places in britain for the purpose of dealing with the zeppelins. no doubt not a few of my readers have had the experience of being awakened from their beauty sleep by the cracking of the anti-aircraft guns and have seen their shells bursting like squibs in the air. they are fairly long guns, not unlike field guns, but they are mounted upon special supports which enable them to be pointed at any angle so that they can fire right up into the sky. the sights, also, are somewhat different, being fitted with prisms, or reflectors, so that the gunners can look along the sights and align the gun upon an object overhead without lying on their backs. much more could be said on this subject, but national interests forbid, so with this general review of modern artillery we must pass to another subject. chapter ix the guns they use in the navy both the great english-speaking nations are immensely proud of their navies. they can, on occasion, produce soldiers by the million of the very highest and most efficient type, but they never feel quite that pride and patriotic fervour over their soldiers that they do over their ships of war and their sailors. the guns, therefore, with which the ships are armed, always form a subject of great interest, especially those large ones which constitute the armament of the dreadnought battleships and battle-cruisers. let us first consider what is required in a naval gun, for it must be remembered that the naval and military weapons are different in some respects. experience at the dardanelles showed that even the guns of the _queen elizabeth_, the largest and most powerful then known, fresh from the finest factories, were not particularly successful against the turkish forts. the germans, too, set up what was probably a naval gun and occasionally dropped shells into dunkirk with it at a range of twenty miles or so, but without causing much harm, and the fact that they only did it occasionally and then abandoned it altogether seems to indicate that in their opinion they were not doing much good with it. it must not be assumed from this that naval guns are bad guns or poor guns, however, but simply that they are made for a special purpose for which they are highly efficient, from which it follows almost as a natural consequence that they are somewhat less efficient when used for some other purpose. their purpose is to pierce the hard steel armour with which warships are protected and then to explode in the enemy's interior, whereas in modern warfare the greatest military guns are chiefly required to blow a big hole in the ground or to shatter a block of concrete. in both cases the ultimate object is to carry a quantity of explosive into the enemy's territory and there explode it, but whereas the land gun has simply to do that and no more, the naval gun has to pierce thick armour-plate as well. and just think what that means. many large ships have their vital parts protected by armour-plates twelve inches thick. moreover, the armour-plates are made of very special steel, the finest that can be invented for the purpose. vast sums of money have been expended in experimenting to find out just the best sort of steel for resisting penetration by shells. some time ago i saw several pieces of armour-plate which had been used in one of these tests. they had been set up under conditions as nearly as possible the same as those obtaining on the side of a ship and then they had been fired at from varying distances, the effects of the various shots being carefully recorded. and that is only one experiment out of tens of thousands which have been tried again and again, while the steel manufacturers are always trying to improve and again improve the shell-resisting properties of their steel. thus, we see, the presence of the steel armour which has to be perforated before the shell can do its work makes the task set before the naval gun somewhat different from that which confronts its military brother. these considerations result in the naval gun needing to have as flat a trajectory as possible and its projectiles the highest possible speed. now trajectory, it may be useful to explain, is the technical term employed to denote the course of a projectile, which is always more or less curved. let us imagine that we see a gun, pointed in a perfectly horizontal direction, and let us also imagine that by some miracle we have got rid of the force of gravity and also that there is no air. under those conditions the shot from the gun would go perfectly straight and with undiminished velocity for ever and ever. then let us imagine that the air comes into being. the effect of that is to act as a brake which gradually slows the shell down until finally it stops it. theoretically, perhaps, it would never quite stop it, but for all practical purposes it would. again, let us suppose that while the air is absent the force of gravity comes into play, what effect will that have? it will gradually pull the shell downwards out of its horizontal course, making it describe a beautiful curve. but, someone may think, does not a rapidly-moving body remain to some extent unaffected by gravity? not at all: it falls just the same and just as quickly as if it were falling straight down. if our imaginary horizontal gun were set at a height of sixteen feet and a shell were just pushed out of it so that it fell straight down the shell would touch the ground in one second. if the ground were perfectly flat and the shell were fired so that it reached a point half a mile away _in one second_ it would strike the ground exactly half a mile away. you see, the horizontal motion due to the explosion in the gun and the downward motion due to gravity go on simultaneously and the two combined produce the curve. to make this quite clear, let us imagine two guns precisely alike side by side and both pointed perfectly horizontally. from one the shell is just pushed out: from the other it is fired at the highest velocity attainable: both those shells will fall sixteen feet or a shade more in one second, and if the ground were perfectly level both would strike the ground at the same moment although a great distance apart. clearly, then, the faster the shell is travelling the more nearly horizontally will it move, for it will have less time in which to fall, and the slower the more curved will be its path, from which we see that the air by reducing the velocity causes the curve to become steeper and steeper as the shell proceeds. if, then, our gun is placed low down, as it must be on a ship, to get the longest range we must point it more or less upwards because otherwise the shell will fall into the water before it has reached its target. when we do that we complicate matters somewhat, for gravity tends to reduce the velocity while the shell is rising and to add to it again while it is falling. we need not go too deeply into that, however, so long as we realize that, whatever the conditions may be, the shell in actual use has to follow a curved course, first rising and then falling. the really important part about a shell's journey is the end. so long as it hits it really does not matter what it does on the way, and if it misses it is equally immaterial. the reason why we need to bother about the first part of the trip is because upon it depends the final result. whatever the trajectory may be we see that the shell must necessarily arrive in a slanting direction. and the more steeply slanting that direction is _the less likely is the target to be hit_. if the shell went straight it would only be necessary to point the gun in the right direction and the object would be hit no matter how far away it might be. the more curved the course is, the more likely the shell is to fall either too near or too far, in the one case dropping into the water, in the other passing clear over the opposing ship. let us look at it another way. suppose the vital parts of a ship rise feet out of the water and the shell arrives at such an angle that it falls feet in yards: then, if the ship be within a certain zone yards wide it will be hit in a vital spot. if it be nearer the shell will pass over, if it be further the shell will fall into the water. that yards is what is called the "danger zone." if the shell is falling less steeply, say, feet in yards, then the danger zone is increased to yards and so on, which gives us the rule that the flatter the trajectory, or the more nearly straight the course of the shell the greater is the danger zone and the more likely is the enemy ship to be hit. we have established two facts, therefore, first, that the trajectory must be as flat as possible and, second, that to make it flat the velocity must be high. we can also see another reason for high velocity, namely, to give penetrating power. to obtain a high velocity the gun must be long, and consequently naval guns are always long, a fact which is very noticeable in the photographs of warships. the reason for this is quite obvious after a little thought. you could not throw a cricket ball very far if you could only move your hand through a distance of one foot. to get the best result you instinctively reach as far back as ever you can and then reach forward as far as you are able, so that the ball shall have as long a journey as possible in your hand. perhaps you do not know it but all the time you are moving your hand with the ball in it you are putting energy into that ball, which energy carries it along after you have let go of it. and it is just the same with the shell in the gun. so long as it is in the gun energy is being added to it but as soon as it leaves the muzzle that ceases. after that it has to pursue its own way under the influence of the energy which has been imparted to it. the powder which is employed as the propellant or driving power is of such a nature and so adjusted as to quantity that as far as possible it shall give a comparatively slow steady push rather than a sudden shock, so as to make full use of the gun's length, the expanding gases following up the shell as it goes forward and keeping a constant push upon it. on the other hand, a gun can be too long, for no steel is infinitely strong and stiff, so that beyond a certain limit the muzzle of the gun would be likely to droop slightly of its own weight and so make the shooting inaccurate. the limit seems to be about calibres or, in other words, fifty times the diameter of the bore. for a considerable time the standard big gun of the british navy was the -inch, that being the calibre or diameter of the bore. the famous _dreadnought_ had guns of that calibre and so had her immediate successors. the -inch gun of fifty calibres weighs tons and fires a projectile weighing lbs. which it hurls from its muzzle at a velocity of about feet per second. more recently the size has grown to ½, and even as great as inches calibre, but we may for the moment take the -inch gun as typical of all these large guns and have a look at its construction. it is made of a special kind of steel known as nickel-chrome gun steel, formed by adding certain proportions of the two rare metals nickel and chromium to the mixture of iron and carbon which we ordinarily call steel. the metal is made after the manner described in another chapter and is cast into the form of suitably-sized ingots which are afterwards squeezed in enormous hydraulic presses into the rough shape required. besides giving the metal the desired form this action has the effect of improving its quality. since a gun is necessarily a tube it may be wondered why the steel is not cast straight away into that shape instead of into a solid block and the reason why that is not done is very interesting. it is found that any impurities in the metal--and it is impossible to make it without some impurities--collect in that part which cools last and obviously that part of a block which cools last is the centre. thus the impurities gather together in the centre of the mass whence they are removed when that centre is cut away, whereas if the first casting were a tube they would collect in a part which would remain in the finished gun. the ingot, then, is cast and pressed roughly to shape. then it is put into a lathe where it is turned on the outside and a hole bored right through the centre. but that is by no means all of the troubles through which this piece of steel has to pass. it undergoes a very stringent heat treatment, being alternately heated in a furnace to some precise temperature and then plunged into oil, whereby the exact degree of hardness required is attained. moreover, this is only one of the tubes which go to make up the gun, which is a composite structure of four tubes placed one over another with a layer of tightly wound wire as well. first, there is the innermost tube, the whole length of the gun, then a second one outside that, usually made in two halves. both are carefully made to fit, and then the outer is expanded by heat to enable it to be slidden over the inner one, after which on cooling it contracts and fits tightly. outside this second tube is wound the wire, or more strictly speaking tape, for it is a quarter of an inch wide and a sixteenth thick. it is so strong that a single strand of it could sustain a ton and a half. it is carefully wound on; first several layers running the whole length of the gun and then extra layers where the greatest stresses come, that is to say, near the breech, for that has to withstand the initial shock of the explosion. altogether about miles of wire go on a single gun. the advantages of this form of construction are many. for one thing, a wire or strip can be examined throughout its whole length and any defect is sure to be found, whereas in a solid piece of steel, no matter how carefully it may be made, there may lurk hidden defects. moreover, if a solid tube develops a crack anywhere it is liable to spread, whereas a few strands of wire may be broken without in any way affecting the rest. it has been found that even if a shell burst while inside one of these guns no harm is done to the men in the turret where it stands, a thing which cannot be said for guns composed entirely of tubes, so that the merit rests with the wire. a third advantage is that the wire can be wound on to the tube beneath it at precisely that tension which is calculated to give the best result, whereas in shrinking one tube on to another this cannot always be attained. over the wire there come two more tubes not running the whole length but meeting and overlapping somewhat near the middle, so that at one point there are actually four concentric tubes besides the wire. at the rear end a kind of cap called the breech-piece covers over the ends of all the tubes, itself having a central hole into which fits the breech-block, one of the triumphs of modern engineering, of which more in a moment. while we have in mind the wire-wound form of construction it is interesting to note that something similar but in a crude form was practised sixty years or more ago. the guns of that era were some of them even of cast iron while the more refined consisted of a steel tube strengthened with coils of wrought iron. this iron was first rolled into flat bars, then it was made hot, and wound on spirally round an iron bar the same size as the tube. a little hammering converted this spiral into a tube which was then fitted round the steel tube. thus, although very different there is still a distinct resemblance between this old method and the up-to-date wire-wound weapon. the manufacture of guns, it may be remarked, owes more to one man than to any other, namely, mons. gustave canet, a french engineer who, having fought in the franco-german war, decided to devote his engineering talents to developing the artillery of his native land. he spent many years in england but later established works at havre for the manufacture of guns upon improved methods, finally merging his interests into those of the great french armament firm of schneider of creusot. by french and english artillerists at all events the name of canet is regarded with reverence. but to get back to our naval gun. it will be clear that operations such as have been described, involving the handling of great tubes fifty feet or more in length, heating them as required, dipping them in oil while hot and so on, can only be carried out at works specially designed for the purpose. the furnaces where the tubes are heated are well-like formations in the ground, deep enough to take the tube vertically. to lift them in and out there have to be tall travelling cranes capable of catching the tube by its upper end and lifting it right out of the furnace so that its lower end clears the ground. to accomplish this with a little to spare the cranes need to be seventy feet or so high. then there are deep pits full of oil so that a tube can be heated in a furnace, drawn out by a crane and quickly dropped into the adjacent oil bath. likewise there have to be pits of a third kind wherein a cold tube can be set up while a hot one is dropped over it for the purpose of shrinking the latter on. then, of course, there have to be lathes of gigantic dimensions capable of taking a length of nearly sixty feet and of swinging an object weighing anything up to fifty tons. but of those machines we can only pause to make mention, for we must pass on to the breech-block, in some ways the most interesting part of the gun. when it was first suggested to leave the back end of the gun open so that the powder and projectiles could be put in that way instead of through the muzzle, people at once foresaw how much would depend upon the arrangements for stopping up the hole while the gun was fired. for, of course, the force of the explosion is exerted equally in all directions, backward just as much as forward, so that unless very securely fixed the stopper closing the breech would be liable to become a projectile travelling in the wrong direction. to fix such a thing securely enough to avoid accidents would surely take up too much time and so largely neutralize any advantage arising from its use. these fears were, indeed, to some extent justified by accidents which actually occurred with the early examples of breech-loading guns, and for that reason our own authorities for a time looked askance at breech-loaders. now let us take a look at the breech-block of the -inch naval gun of to-day, which never blows out, not even when lbs. of cordite go off just the other side of it. the explosion hurls an -pound shell at the rate of feet per second but it never stirs the breech-block. yet it can be opened and closed so quickly, including the necessary fastening-up after closing, that shots can be fired from the gun at the rate of one every fifteen seconds. the breech-block partakes of the nature of a plug and also of a door. it swings upon hinges like the latter but its shape more resembles the former. if we want to make such a thing very secure we usually make it in the form of a screw with many threads, but that entails turning it round many times and that takes time. given plenty of time to screw the breech-block into its place and there would never have been any anxiety as to the possibility of its blowing out, but there is not time. the problem, therefore, was to get the strength of a screw combined with quickness of action. this dilemma is avoided in the following simple manner. the breech-block is given a screw thread on its exterior surface, and the hole in the breech-piece is given a similar screw-thread on its inner surface, just as if the one were to be laboriously screwed into the other after the manner of an ordinary screw in machinery. then four grooves are cut right across the threads on the block and similarly on the breech-piece, so that at four different places there is no thread left. in other words, instead of the thread running round and round continuously, each turn is divided up into four sections with sections of plain unthreaded metal in between. thus in a certain position the block can be pushed into the hole without any threads engaging at all, for each strip of threaded block passes over an unthreaded strip in the hole and vice versa, in other words, the threads on the one part miss those on the other part. yet an eighth of a turn serves to make all the threads engage and the thing is held almost as securely as if it were just an ordinary screw with threads its whole length. the block is carried upon a hinged arm so that although it can be turned in this manner it can also be swung back freely when necessary. combined with the breech-block is a pneumatic contrivance which blows a powerful jet of air through the gun every time the breech is opened, thereby cleaning away the effects of the last explosion. each of these great guns is mounted upon a slide so that when it is fired it can slide back, thereby exhausting the effect of the recoil, yet can be returned instantly to its original position. indeed, this return is brought about quite automatically by the agency of springs, compressed air and hydraulic power. thus the gun fires, slides back, returns and is at once ready for the next shot. it is trained, or pointed in a horizontal plane, by turning the turret in which it stands but the correct elevation is gained by the use of telescopic sights. the principle of these sights is very simple. imagine a graduated circle fixed to the side of the gun. pivoted at the centre of the circle is a small telescope. the telescope can be turned round to any angle upon the circle and it can then be clamped at that particular angle. the range having been given to the officer in command of the gun from the range-finding station on another part of the ship, the telescope is set to the correct angle. then the gun is elevated or depressed until the ship being aimed at is precisely in the centre of the field of view of the telescope, in other words, until the telescope is pointing exactly at the ship. then the gun is fired. the effect, therefore, is this. the telescope always points (while the gun is being fired) at the object aimed at, but the gun is pointed upwards at a certain angle, which angle depends upon how the telescope is set upon the divided circle. thus the setting of the telescope for a given range produces the correct upward tilt of the gun for that range. the breech-block carries a trigger and hammer arrangement whereby the firing can be done and also an electrical arrangement so that an electric spark can be employed. both these firing contrivances are so made that they cannot be operated until the breech-block has been inserted and _made secure_. thus a premature explosion is guarded against. chapter x shells and how they are made modern warfare seems to resolve itself very largely into a question of which side can procure the most shells. during the great war there was a time when the british and their allies were hard pressed because they had not sufficient shells. the enemy had in that matter stolen a march upon them and had during the winter, when military activity is at its minimum, rapidly produced large supplies of high-explosive shells. discovering their lack the british set about remedying it in true british fashion. it is quite characteristic of this strange people to let the enemy get ahead at the commencement, after which they pull themselves together and put on a spurt, so to speak, and after that the enemy had better prepare for the worst, for defeat is only a question of time. so, finding themselves short of shells, they set to and dotted the whole country in an incredibly short time with huge factories entirely devoted to making shells. older factories also were adapted to the same purpose. places intended and normally used for the manufacture of the most peaceable things--ploughs, gramophones and piano parts for example--were soon turning out shells or parts thereof by the thousand. electric-light works, waterworks, cotton mills, technical schools, all sorts of places where, for doing their own repairs or for some similar reason, there happened to be a lathe or two, all these were organized and in a few weeks they too were working night and day "something to do with shells." meanwhile other factories were springing up for the purpose of making explosives while others again were erected for producing the acids and other chemicals necessary for the explosive works; and yet another kind of works, the filling factories, came into being as if by magic and thousands of girls flocked from far and near to these places, there to fill the shells with the explosives. even the soldiers did not realize a few years ago how important the supply of shells was going to be. the rifle has fallen from its old place of importance while the gun and the shell have risen to the first place. what, then, is a shell? it is what its name implies, a case covering something else, just as the shell of a fish covers its owner. it is a hollow cylinder of steel with certain things inside it. its chief function is to hold these other things and to be shot out of a gun carrying them with it to their destination. you want to cause an explosion in an enemy's ship. you cannot get near enough to put the explosives there by hand, for he will not let you, so you put them into a steel shell and then hurl the whole thing at him out of a gun. [illustration: bomb throwing. one of the most striking things about the war was the re-invention of the bomb thrown by hand. this officer hurled bombs at the enemy for twenty-four hours continuously.] in the attempt to prevent your doing him any harm by thus throwing boxes of explosives at him, the enemy clothes the sides of his most valuable and important ships with thick steel plates, wherefore you have to make your shell strong and tough so that it shall not splinter against the armour but shall on the contrary bore its way through, finally exploding in the interior of the ship. if it is not a ship that you are attacking but, say, an earthwork or an arrangement of trenches, then you do not need to penetrate steel armour and your shell can be thinner and of lighter construction. it still needs to be strong, however, for it has another function besides simply carrying the explosive. it must hold the force of the explosion in for a moment while it gathers force so that when the hour comes the pent-up energy may strike all round with the utmost violence. even the most powerful explosives are comparatively feeble if they go off in the open. by holding them in check for a moment and then letting their force loose suddenly you get a much more forceful blow. shells which contain only an explosive are called common shells or high-explosive shells. shrapnel shells constitute another type in which the force of the explosion is simply employed to release a number of round bullets, which strike mainly because of the velocity which they derive from the original motion of the shell. these are above all things man-killing shells, for their result is akin to a volley of bullets at close range. we can thus sum up the chief types of shell as follows: the naval shell which has to be capable of penetrating armour: the high-explosive shell which must be able to break up earthworks and blow down the walls of trenches: and the shrapnel shell which scatters a shower of bullets and is most useful in attacks upon bodies of men rather than upon material structures. some shells have their propellent explosive combined with them just as the familiar rifle cartridge contains the propellant combined with the bullet. in the larger sizes, however, it is much more convenient to have the propellant in a separate cartridge, which can be handled separately and loaded into the gun separately. as has been already explained, the propellant is a "powder" which gives a steady push rather than a destructive blow: moreover, it is practically smokeless, so as not to "give away" the position of the gun to the enemy. the "high explosive," however, shatters and usually makes a dense smoke, so that the observers can see where it fell and report to the gunners whether or not they have got the range. soldiers' letters have told us of the "black marias" and "coal boxes" used by the germans, those terms being simply soldiers' nick-names arising no doubt from the fact that certain particular shells are filled with "tri-nitro-toluene" which gives a black smoke. clearly, smoke, which is most objectionable in the propellant, is a positive advantage in the bursting charge. and now let us take a glimpse at the manufacture of one of these terrible missiles. an ingot of shell-steel is first cast as described in an earlier chapter. since impurities are apt to rise, while the metal is liquid, the top of the ingot is always cut off and discarded. this waste material is used for many other purposes, in which a chance flaw would not be a serious matter, under the title of "shell-discard" steel. the lower part is then heated and passed through a rolling mill, a machine very similar in principle to the domestic mangle, the rollers being of iron with suitable grooves cut in them. a few passages through this machine transforms the ingot into a thick round bar. this is then sawn into short pieces called billets, each of which is the right size to form a shell. again heated, a powerful press drives a pointed bar through the softened steel, thereby converting the short billet into a rough tube. another press then slightly closes in one end, making it resemble a bottle without a bottom and with the neck broken off. the rough forging is then ready to be machined, an operation which is performed in a lathe. the outside is made perfectly round and smooth and of precisely the right size. the inside is also bored out to the correct diameter and finished off to an exceeding smoothness so as to avoid the possibility of any rough places irritating the explosive which in due time will be filled into it. for the same reason, the inside, when finished, is varnished in a certain way and with a certain varnish. the formation of this varnish is one of those little thought of but highly important services which alcohol renders to us, as mentioned elsewhere. the smaller end (that which has already been partially squeezed in) is bored out and screwed for the reception of the nose-bush, while the other end is recessed for the reception of the plate which forms the bottom. most of these operations have to be very accurately carried out and, to ensure that that is so, gauges are continually employed to check the work. these gauges are based upon a very simple principle, known as the "limit" principle. this is both interesting and important, sufficiently so to merit a more detailed reference. it must first be realized that no two things are alike and no measurement is perfectly correct. when we lightly speak of two things being "alike" we really mean that for the purpose contemplated they are nearly enough alike. two things might be "alike" for one purpose and yet be so unlike as to be useless for another. what the authorities do in the case of shells, therefore, and what is done nowadays in many branches of engineering, is to recognize this fact and at the same time overcome the difficulty by stating what difference is permissible. in other words, instead of saying that a thing must be a certain size, it is required to fall between two limits: it must not be more than one or less than the other. for example, suppose a hole is required to be nominally an inch in diameter it may be specified that it shall not exceed an inch plus one-thousandth or fall short of an inch minus one-thousandth. in such a case a variation of a thousandth of an inch either way is permitted. the permitted variation may be more than that, or it may be less and be measured in ten-thousandths, it all depends upon circumstances. clearly in every case it is desirable to permit as large a variation as is consistent with a good result. now to make measures with the degree of accuracy just mentioned is not easy. one can just about see through a crack a thousandth of an inch wide if held up to a bright light. how then can dimensions such as these be dealt with easily and quickly in the rough conditions of a large workshop? let us again think of that one-inch hole and we shall see how simply and easily it is done. the gauge in such a case would be shaped somewhat like a dumb-bell, one end being the "go" end and the other the "not-go" end. the former is made to agree as nearly as possible with the lower limit, the other with the higher limit, and all the inspector has to do is to try first one end in the hole and then the other. one must "go" in and the other must "not-go." so long as that happens he knows that the hole is correct within the prescribed limits. if, on the other hand, both go in, then he knows the hole is too large, or if neither goes in he knows it is too small. it may be urged by some acute reader that the gauges themselves cannot be correct, and that is quite true, but it is possible, by great care and laborious methods, to produce gauges which are correct to within far narrower limits than those mentioned. in the case of outside dimensions the gauges take the form of a thumb and finger capable of spanning the object to be measured, and in that case also two are used, one of which must "go" and the other "not-go." by methods such as these the shells are measured and examined. one of the most important features of a shell is its driving band. in the old days of round cannon balls it is said that the gunners used to wrap greasy rag round each so as to make it fit the cannon and to prevent the force of the explosion to some extent wasting itself by blowing past the ball. that is one of the functions of the driving band. it is made of copper which is comparatively soft, and it forms a fairly tight fit in the bore of the gun, so that while the shell is free enough to slide out of the gun it is tight enough to prevent the loss of any of the driving force of the explosive. its second purpose is to give the necessary spinning action to the shell. the old cannon ball suffered from the fact that it offered a considerable surface to the air in proportion to its weight. the idea arose, therefore, of making projectiles cylindrical and with a pointed nose, so that while the weight might be increased the resistance to the air might be even reduced. but it was clearly no use doing this unless the thing could be made to travel point foremost. now for some rather mysterious reason, if you shoot a cylindrical object out of a gun, it will turn head over heels in the air, unless you give it a spinning motion. this motion, however, because of a gyroscopic effect, keeps the shell point first all the time. it has another effect, too, known as "air-boring." a spinning shell seems actually to bore its way through the air. probably this is due to a centrifugal action, the spinning shell throwing the air outwards from itself and so to some extent sucking the air away out of its own path. whether that be the true explanation or not, the fact remains that the spinning shell makes its way through the air better than a non-spinning one would do. the gun, therefore, has formed in its bore a very slow screw-thread called "rifling," from a french word meaning a screw. and it is the second function of the copper band to catch this rifling and by it be turned as the shell proceeds along the barrel. the soft copper conforms to the shape of the rifling and so itself becomes in a sense a screw engaging with the rifling. this band is situated near the base of the shell, lying in a groove turned in the shell for its reception. to prevent the band turning round without turning the shell there is a wavy groove turned in the bottom of the larger groove, and the band, being put on hot, is squeezed into the latter by a powerful press. the nose-bush is a little fitting of brass which screws into the smaller end of the shell and it has a hole in its centre into which another brass fitting, the nose itself, is screwed. the base of the shell is closed with a little disc of steel plate. people sometimes wonder why the original forging is not made solid at the bottom so as to save the necessity for this disc, but the reason is that if that were done defects might very possibly arise in the steel in the centre which, since it is the very spot whereon the propellant acts, might let some of the heat or force of the propellant through, causing a premature explosion of the charge inside the gun itself instead of among the ranks of the enemy. in the case of naval shells, the nose is not of brass but of a soft kind of steel. one might expect it to be of the very hardest steel, since it has to pierce the hard armour, but experience has shown that the soft nose is better than a hard one. the reason probably is that a hard nose splinters, whereas a soft one spreads out on striking the armour and then acts as a protection to the body of the shell behind it. in these shells, too, the fuse which explodes the charge is placed in the base. in the others it is in the nose, but clearly it could not be so placed in the armour-piercing shell. it is interesting to mention that the propellent "powder" has combined in it some vaseline or other greasy matter which acts as a lubricant between the gun and the shell when firing takes place. shrapnel is so different from the other types of shell that it merits a short paragraph or two to itself. instead of being filled, as the others are, solely with explosive, the front part of it accommodates a considerable number of small round bullets, behind which comes a charge of gunpowder. the front half of the shell is separate from the back part, the two being connected by rivets of soft iron wire, so that a sudden shock can rend them apart. the shell is fired from the gun and comes flying along: suddenly, owing to the action of the fuse, the gunpowder explodes: the case then flies in two, the bullets are liberated and fall in a shower. in the south african war, where fortifications were few, these shells were very effective, but against fortifications, and particularly against trenches and barbed wire, big explosive shells are of much greater value. chapter xi what shells are made of the body of a shell is made of steel of a fairly strong variety. that is to say, it is stronger than that used for shipbuilding and for bridges and such work: but it is less so than some of the higher grades of steel, such as that used for making wire ropes. owing to so much of this steel being rolled during the war, "shell quality" has come to be as well known to the general engineer as any of the many varieties which he has been accustomed to since his apprentice days. many people wondered, at one time, why the cheaper and more easily worked cast iron could not be used for shells. there was a period when the steel works were quite unable to cope with the demands for steel, yet the iron foundries were crying out for work. this question then arose in many minds, why not make cast iron shells? the answer is that cast iron is too weak: it would blow into fragments too soon. just think what a shell is and what it has to do. it is a metal case filled with explosive. it is thrown from a gun and is intended to blow itself to pieces on arrival at its destination. it is that self-destruction which carries destruction to all around as well. it is necessary, in order to obtain the best result, that an appreciable time should elapse between the ignition of the explosive and the bursting of the case. the force of the most sudden explosion is not really developed at once, but takes an appreciable time. after ignition, therefore, as the explosion gradually becomes complete, the pressure inside the shell is growing, and too weak a shell would go to pieces before the maximum pressure had been attained. thus much of the energy of the explosion would simply be liberated into the air instead of being employed in hurling the fragments of shell with enormous force. that is, of course, not a complete explanation of the whole action of a high-explosive shell, but it indicates generally the reason why a special quality of steel is required in order to get the best results. steel having been dealt with in another chapter, we will pass to the other metals which play important if not essential parts in the production of modern projectiles. so important are several of these that the lack of one or two of them would, under modern conditions, mean certain defeat for a nation. let us first of all take copper, of which is made the driving bands of the shells and which in combination with zinc forms brass of which noses and other important parts are made. its ore is found in many parts of the world, notably in the united states, chile and spain. the ores are of several kinds, the simpler ones to deal with being oxides and carbonates of copper, meaning compounds of copper with oxygen and with oxygen and carbon respectively. it will be remembered that ores of iron are usually of the same nature, namely, oxides and carbonates, and consequently we find that the method of obtaining copper from these ores resembles the methods employed to obtain iron from its ores. the ore is thrown into a large furnace, like the blast furnaces of the ironworks, and in the heat of the fire the bonds between copper and oxygen are loosened and the superior attractions of the carbon in the fuel entice the oxygen away, leaving the metal comparatively pure. unfortunately, however, copper is found most plentifully in combination with sulphur with which it forms what is termed sulphide. this copper sulphide is called by miners "copper pyrites." another trouble is that mixed with the copper pyrites there is usually more or less of iron pyrites, or sulphate of iron, so that to obtain the copper not only has the sulphur to be got rid of but also the iron. this complicates the operations very much, the ore having to be subjected to repeated roastings and meltings during which the sulphur passes off in the form of sulphur dioxide (a material from which sulphuric acid can be obtained), leaving oxygen in its place. thus the copper sulphide becomes copper oxide, after which the oxygen is carried away by carbon, leaving the relatively pure metal. moreover, at each operation various substances are thrown into the furnace called fluxes, which do not mingle with the metal but float on the top in the form of slag, and into the slag the iron passes, so that finally the copper is obtained alone. zinc is another important material for shell-making. its ores used to be found in great plenty in silesia, but the chief source of supply is now australia. it is what is called "zinc blende," and consists of zinc sulphide, or zinc and sulphur in combination. in all these names, it may be interesting to mention, at this point, the termination "ide" indicates a compound of two substances, so that we can safely conclude that the "ides" consist of the two elements named in their titles and no others. thus zinc sulphide is zinc and sulphur and nothing else, iron sulphide is iron and sulphur, copper oxide is copper and oxygen, and so on. the blende is first roasted in huge furnaces specially built for the purpose. to ensure its being thoroughly treated it has to be "rabbled" or turned over and over, since otherwise all of it might not be brought into contact with the necessary oxygen. at one time done by men with rakes, it is now generally accomplished by mechanical means. a description of one such furnace will be of interest. it consists of a long rectangular building of brickwork bound together with steel framework. inside it is divided up into low chambers, the roof of each forming the floor of the one above. at intervals along its length mighty shafts of iron pass up from underneath right through all the floors, emerging finally above the topmost, while along underneath the furnace there runs a shaft the action of which turns the vertical shafts slowly round and round. attached to the vertical shafts are long strong arms of iron, one arm to each floor, and upon the arms are placed rabbles, as they are termed, pieces of iron shod sometimes with fireclay, resembling most of any familiar objects a small ploughshare. as the arms slowly revolve, at the rate of once or twice per minute, the arms are carried round and round and the rabbles plough up and turn over and over the layer of ore lying upon the floor. there are arms on the top of the furnace, too, sometimes, where the ore is first laid so that it may be dried by the heat escaping from the furnace beneath, an interesting example of economy effected by utilizing heat which would otherwise be wasted. the whole of the furnace, from end to end and on every floor, is thus swept continually by the rotating arms with their dependent rabbles, and the latter are cunningly shaped so that they not only turn the ore over and over, but gradually pass it along the different floors or hearths. it is fed automatically by a mechanical feeder which pushes it on, a small quantity at a time, to the drying hearth on the top. then the rabbles take charge of it and gradually pass it from the area swept by one shaft to that of the next until it has passed right along the top and has become thoroughly dried. arrived there it falls through a hole on to the topmost hearth or floor, along which it travels by the same means but in the contrary direction until it again falls through a hole on to the top floor but one. and so it goes on until at last, fully roasted, it falls from the bottom floor of the furnace into trucks or other provision for carrying it away. some kinds of ore require to be heated by means of gas which is generated in a "gas-producer" near by. in others, however, the sulphur in the ore acts as the fuel, and so the furnace, having been once started, can be kept up for long periods without the expenditure of any coal at all. very little attention is needed by furnaces such as these, so that with no fuel to pay for and very little labour, they are extremely economical. owing to the great heat, too, the arms would stand a very good chance of getting melted were they not kept cool by a continual stream of water flowing through the shafts and arms. this furnishes a continual supply of hot water which is sometimes used for other purposes in the works. the process of roasting, whether carried on in furnaces such as these or not, results in the formation of oxide instead of sulphide; in other words, the sulphur is turned out and oxygen takes its place. the dislodged sulphur then joins up with some more oxygen and forms sulphur dioxide, which can be led away to the sulphuric acid plant and there, by union with water, turned into that extremely valuable substance, sulphuric acid. we cannot, however, treat zinc oxide as we would iron oxide or copper oxide, for zinc is volatile, and so, instead of accumulating in the bottom of a blast furnace as the iron and copper do, would pass off up the chimney. the oxide is therefore mixed with coal or some other form of carbon and placed in retorts made of fireclay. these retorts are fixed in rows one above the other like the retorts at a gasworks, and hot gases from a gas-producer down below pass around and among them. to the mouth of each retort is fitted a condenser, also made of fireclay. now what happens in the retorts is this: the heat loosens the bonds between the zinc and the oxide, the latter passing into union with some carbon from the coal. the zinc at the same time becomes vapour and passes into the condenser, the lower temperature of which turns it into a liquid which the workmen remove at intervals in ladles. on being poured into moulds and allowed to solidify this metal is called by the name of "spelter," which bears to zinc the same relation that pig-iron does to the more highly developed forms of iron. spelter is simply zinc in its crudest form. tin, although less important in war than copper and zinc, plays a not unimportant part. it has been found for centuries in cornwall. the romans used to trade with the natives of britain for tin. although considerable quantities of it is still obtained from there, the greatest tin-producing country of all at present is the federated malay states. australia also furnishes ore, as does bolivia and nigeria. in cornwall the ore occurs as rock in veins or lodes filling up what must once have been fissures in granite rocks. that near the surface has long been taken, so that to-day the mines are very deep and costly to work. some can only afford to operate when the market price of tin is above a certain limit. much of the ore from the newer districts--the malay states, for example--is in small fragments mixed with gravel in beds near the surface. such is called alluvial or stream tin, since the deposits were undoubtedly put in their present position by streams or rivers. so long as they last these easily accessible alluvial deposits will always be cheaper to work than the deep mines. on the other hand, they may give out, and recent explorations underground seem to indicate that there is still much valuable ore not only of tin but of other metals too, to be obtained from the old mines of cornwall. the ore of tin, like so many other ores, is generally oxide. it is first roasted to expel sulphur and arsenic which are often present as impurities, and then it is melted in a reverberatory furnace such as that described for the manufacture of wrought iron. as usual, the oxygen combines with carbon, the impurities form slag which floats on the top, and the pure metal falls to the bottom of the furnace from whence it can be drawn off. mixed with or in the neighbourhood of tin ore there is sometimes found another mineral called wolfram, which plays an extremely important part in modern warfare, so much so that the british and other governments engaged in the war were at times hard put to it to find enough. its value resides in the fact that it contains tungsten, an element which has wonderful powers in hardening steel. it consists of tungsten and oxygen, but is not an oxide since there is also iron in the partnership. this fact is very useful, however, since it enables the particles of wolfram to be picked out from the mass of other stuff among which they are found by a magnet. there are some very wonderful machines called magnetic separators, made for this express purpose. in one, with which i am familiar, there is an endless band stretched horizontally upon two rollers. one of the rollers being driven round the belt travels along so that the mineral being fed on to it in a stream is carried along under several magnets. these magnets are very different from the ordinary magnet, inasmuch as they are revolving. we might almost describe them as small magnetized flywheels. as they spin round they pick up slightly the particles of ore which contain iron, but have no effect at all upon those which do not contain iron. they do not actually lift the particles up on to themselves: they just exercise a slight pull upon them, and by virtue of the fact that they are revolving, pull them off the band and throw them to one side. the wheels can be set closer or farther from the belt at will so as to make them act more or less strongly, and thus the most magnetic particles can be separated from those less magnetic, these latter being still kept separate from the wholly non-magnetic particles. thus by simple and purely mechanical means are the precious bits of wolfram obtained from the other less valuable or worthless minerals with which they are mixed. the same method is used with other minerals besides wolfram: it can be applied to all those which exhibit in some small degree the magnetic properties which we usually associate with iron. this sorting out of one mineral from others continually crops up in connection with nearly all the metals except iron. iron is practically the only one whose ore occurs in vast masses which need simply to be dug up and thrown into the furnace. the others, where they occur as rock in veins, have to be crushed to detach what is wanted from what is not wanted, and then the two have to be sorted in some way. magnetic separation is but one of these ways. another takes advantage of the fact that we seldom find two things together which have precisely the same specific gravity. consequently, if we throw the mixture on to a shaking table the heavier particles will behave differently from the lighter ones and the two will separate. the same result can be obtained by throwing the mixture into a stream of water, the water acting differently upon the lighter and upon the heavier particles. another way which may be mentioned is founded upon the fact that some things can be readily wetted with oil while others throw the oil off and refuse to be wetted by it. if a mixture of these two sorts of thing be stirred violently in a suitable oily liquid the former will be found eventually in the froth, while the latter will sink to the bottom. all these different methods are employed, as they are found necessary in preparing the ores of the various metals to which we have been referring. except in the case of alluvial ores which have been broken already by the action of ancient streams of water, nearly all ores (except iron) have to be crushed before the ores can be separated out. some of this work is done by the very simplest contrivances, showing how in some cases invention has almost come to a stop through the machines having been reduced to their simplest form. a notable instance of this is the stamp mill, in which heavy timbers are lifted up by machinery and then allowed to slide down upon the ore, just like gigantic pestles. more elaborate grinding machines are sometimes used, however, but it is impossible to mention them all here. the action of sorting out the fragments of ore from the miscellaneous assortment of crushed rocks is termed "concentrating," and the sorted ores are called "concentrates." another metal which has proved itself of immense importance in war is aluminium, and it fittingly comes at the close of the list since it is dealt with in a manner peculiar to itself. practically all the others are obtained from their ores by means of heat and heat alone. aluminium is obtained by electricity acting in the process called electrolysis. it is surprising to learn that aluminium is one of the very commonest things on the face of the earth. clay and many common rocks are very largely made of it. clay, to be precise, is a silicate of alumina, a term which is interesting when it is explained. silica is the name given to oxide of silicon. sand is mostly silica. alumina, too, is oxide of aluminium. silicate of alumina is a combination of the two. any clay, therefore, could be used as an ore from which to obtain aluminium, but of course there are certain minerals specially suitable for the purpose, since in them the metal is plentiful and easily extracted. in another chapter reference is made to the production of caustic soda from a solution of common salt by electrolysis. the same principle, precisely, is used to obtain the metal aluminium from its ore, which is generally an oxide. common salt, let me remind you, is sodium and chlorine combined. when you dissolve it in water it becomes ionized, which means that each molecule of salt splits up into two ions one of which is electrically positive and the other electrically negative. then, when we introduce two electrodes into the solution and connect them to a battery or dynamo, all the positive ions go to one electrode and all the negative ions to the other. we cannot dissolve aluminium ore in water, but we can in a bath of molten cryolite, and for some reason or other, whether because of the heat or not we cannot say, the ore becomes ionized, the aluminium atoms being one sort and the oxygen atoms the other sort. these ions then sort themselves out, the oxygen ions being taken into combination with the carbon rod which forms the positive electrode, while the metal ions collect upon the negative electrode. since this latter is a slab of carbon which forms the bottom of the vessel in which the process is carried on, the result is that pure aluminium gradually accumulates in the bottom of the vessel and can be drawn off from time to time. aluminium is always produced in places where electric power can be obtained cheaply, such as near waterfalls. chapter xii measuring the velocity of a shell in at least two of the preceding chapters of this book reference has been made to the speed at which a shell fired from a gun travels through the air. such velocities as , feet per second have been mentioned in this connection, and some readers are sure to have wondered how such measurements could possibly be made. possibly some sceptics have even supposed that they were not measured at all but simply estimated in some way or other. they are actually measured, however, and by very simple and ingenious means. needless to say, electricity plays a very important part in this wonderful achievement. in fact, without the aid of electricity it is difficult to see how it could be done at all. people often ask how quickly electricity travels, as if when we sent a telegraph signal along a wire a little bullet, so to speak, of electricity were shot along the wire like the carriers of the pneumatic tubes in the big drapers' shops. that is quite a misconception, for in reality the circuit of wire is more like a pipe full of electricity, and when we set a current flowing what we do is to set the whole of that electricity moving at once. if we think of a circular tube full of water with a pump at one spot in the circuit, we see that as soon as the water begins to move anywhere it moves everywhere. moreover, if it stops at one point it stops simultaneously at every other point. while practically this is the case it is theoretically not quite so, for the inertia of the water when it is suddenly started or stopped no doubt causes a slight distortion of the tube itself resulting in a very slight (quite imperceptible) retardation of the movement of the water. electricity also has a property comparable to the inertia which we are familiar with in the objects around us, and there is also a property in every conductor which to a certain extent resembles the elasticity of the water-pipe, whereby it may for a moment be bulged out. in a short wire, however (up to a mile or so), particularly if the flow and return parts of the circuit be twisted together, this electrical inertia practically vanishes and consequently we may say that for all practical purposes the current starts or stops, as the case may be, at precisely the same moment in every part of the circuit. that fact is of great value when, as in the case we are now discussing, we want to compare very exactly two events occurring very near together as to time but far apart as to place. [illustration: bomb-throwers at work. many kinds of bombs are used. one has a metal head and a handle about a foot long, with a streamer to ensure correct flight; another form resembles a brush when it is flying through the air; and a third, known as "the egg," is oval in form.] we need to compare the time when the shell leaves the gun with the time when it passes another point, say, one hundred yards away, and then again another point, say one hundred yards further on still. supposing, then, a velocity of , feet per second, the time interval between the first point and the second and between the second and third will be somewhere about a tenth of a second. so we shall need a timepiece of some sort which will not only measure a tenth of a second, but will measure for us a very small _difference_ between two periods, each of which is only about a tenth of a second and which will be very nearly alike. that represents a degree of accuracy exceeding even what the astronomers, those princes of measurers, are accustomed to. this exceedingly delicate timepiece is found in a falling weight. so long as the thing is so heavy that the air resistance is negligible, we can calculate with the greatest nicety how long a weight has taken to fall through a given distance. near the muzzle of the gun there is set up a frame upon which are stretched a number of wires so close together that a shell cannot get past without breaking at least one of them. these wires are connected together so as to form one, and through them there flows a current of electricity the action of which, through an electro-magnet in the instrument house, holds up a long lead weight. at some distance away, say one hundred yards, there is a similar frame also electrically connected to an electro-magnet in the same instrument house. this second magnet, when energized by current from the frame, holds back a sharp point which, under the action of a spring, tends to press forward and scratch the lead weight. the third frame is likewise connected to a third magnet controlling a point similar to the other. to commence with, current flows through all three frames so that all three magnets are energized. the gun is then fired and immediately the shell breaks a wire in the first frame, cutting off the current from the first magnet and allowing the weight to fall. meanwhile, the shell reaches the second frame, breaking a wire there, with the result that the second magnet loses its power, lets go the point which it has been holding back and permits it to make a light scratch upon the falling weight. this action is followed almost immediately by a similar action on the part of the third magnet, resulting in a second scratch on the lead weight. the position of these two scratches on the weight and their distance apart gives a very accurate indication of the time taken by the shell to pass from the first screen to the second and from the second to the third. from those times it is possible to calculate the initial velocity of the shell and the speed at which it will move in any part of its course. indeed, with those two times as data, it is possible to work out all that it is necessary to know about the behaviour of the shell. this is rendered practicable by the fact that the moment the wire is cut the magnet lets go, no matter what the distance of the screen from the instrument may be. but for the instantaneous action of the current, allowance of some sort would have to be made for the fact that one screen is farther than another and the whole problem would be made much more complicated. even as it is, someone may urge that the magnets themselves possess inertia and will not let go quite instantaneously, but that can be overcome by making the magnets all alike so that the inertia will affect all equally. it is only necessary to have a switch which will break all the three circuits at the same moment (quite an easy thing to arrange) and then adjust all three magnets so that when this is operated they act simultaneously. after that they can be relied upon to do their duty quite accurately. thus by a method which in its details is quite simple is this seemingly impossible measurement taken. chapter xiii some adjuncts in the engine room before we deal with the subject of the engines employed in warfare, it may be interesting to mention two beautiful little inventions which have been made in connection with them. let us take first of all a contrivance which tells almost at a glance the amount of work which the engines of a ship are doing. as everyone knows, there is in every ship (except those few which are propelled by paddles) a long steel shaft, called the tail-shaft, which runs from the engine situated somewhere near amidships to the propeller at the stern. many ships, of course, have several propellers, and then there are several shafts. now each of these shafts is a thick strong steel rod supported at intervals in bearings. if anyone were told that, in working, that shaft became more or less twisted, he would be tempted to think he was being made fun of. yet such is literally the case. the thick strong massive bar becomes actually twisted by the turning action of the engine at one end and the resistance of the propeller at the other. and the amount of that twisting is a measure of the work which the engine is doing. the puzzle is how to measure it while the engine is running, for of course the twist comes out of it as soon as the engine stops. a space on the shaft is selected, between two bearings, for the fixing of the apparatus. near to each bearing there is fitted on to the shaft a metal disc with a small hole in it. on one of the bearings is fixed a lamp and on the other a telescope. when the engine is at rest and there is no twist in the shaft, all these four things--the lamp, the two holes, and the telescope--are in line. consequently, on looking through the telescope the light is visible. but when the engine is at work and the shaft is more or less twisted one of the holes gets out of line and it becomes impossible to see the light through the telescope. a slight adjustment of the telescope, however, brings all four into line again, which adjustment can be easily made by a screw motion provided for the purpose. and the amount of adjustment that is found necessary forms a measure of the amount of the twisting which the shaft suffers and that again tells the number of horse-power which the engine is putting into its work. but it is also necessary to know how fast the engine is working. there are many devices which will tell this, of which the speedometer on a motor-car is a familiar example. most of those work on the centrifugal principle, the instrument actually measuring not the speed but the centrifugal force resulting from the speed, which amounts to the same thing. there is one instrument, however, which operates on quite a different principle, because of which it is specially interesting. it consists of a nice-looking wooden box with a glass front. through the glass one sees a row of little white knobs. if this be placed somewhere near the engine while it is at work immediately one of the knobs commences to move rapidly up and down, so that it looks no longer like a knob but is elongated into a white band. there is no visible connection between the instrument and the engine, yet the number over that particular knob which becomes thus agitated indicates the speed of the engine. let us in imagination open the case and we shall find that the knobs are attached to the ends of a number of light steel springs set in a row. the springs are all precisely alike except for their length, in which respect no two are alike. indeed, as you proceed from one side of the instrument to the other each succeeding one is a little longer than the previous one. now a spring has a certain speed at which it naturally vibrates and other things being equal that speed depends upon its length. you can, of course, force any spring to vibrate at any speed if you care to take the trouble, but each one has its own natural speed at which it will vibrate under very slight provocation. every engine is, of course, made to run as smoothly as possible. all revolving or reciprocating parts are for this reason carefully balanced and in turbines the whole moving part, since it is round and symmetrical, naturally approaches a condition of perfect balance. hence every engine ought to run perfectly smoothly. as a matter of fact, however, no engine ever does. there are certain limitations to man's skill and at the high speed of a fast-running engine, such as is to be found on a destroyer, for example, some little irregularity is sure to make itself felt by a slight vibration in the floor. it may be hardly perceptible to the senses, but to a spring whose natural frequency happens to be just that same speed or nearly so, it will be very apparent and in a few seconds that spring will be responding quite vigorously. it is another example of the principle of resonance, which is employed so finely in making wireless telegraph apparatus selective. every wireless apparatus is made to have a certain natural frequency of its own and it therefore picks up readily those signals which proceed from another station having the same frequency while ignoring those from others. in just the same way a reed or spring in this speed-indicator picks up and responds to impulses derived from the engine only when they are of a frequency corresponding with its own natural frequency. hence, one spring out of the whole range responds to the vibrations of the engine while the others remain almost if not entirely unaffected. in another form, the springs are actuated electrically. a magnet, or a series of magnets, is arranged so that as the engine turns the magnets pass successively near to a coil of wire, thereby inducing currents in that wire. they form, in fact, a small dynamo or generator, generating one impulse per revolution or two or three or whatever number may be most convenient. then the current from this is led round the coil of a long electro-magnet placed just under the free ends of all the springs. the magnet therefore gives a series of pulls, at regular intervals, and the rapidity of those pulls will depend upon the speed of the engine, while the frequency of them will be registered by the movement of one or other of the springs. this instrument can also be employed to determine the speed of aeroplane motors and, in fact, any kind of engine, especially those whose speed is very high. chapter xiv engines of war the phrase which i have used for the title of this chapter is often given a very wide meaning which includes all kinds and varieties of devices used in warfare. in this case i am giving it its narrower sense, taking it to indicate the steam-engines and oil-engines which are employed to drive our battleships, cruisers and destroyers, our submarines and our aircraft. they are inventions of the highest importance, which have played a large part in shaping modern warfare. the type of engine almost invariably used on ships of war other than submarines is the steam turbine. great britain, for the most part, uses that particular kind associated with the name of the hon. sir c. a. parsons, while the united states rather favour the curtiss machine. other nations have adopted either one of these or else something very similar. all turbines are very simple in their principle, far more so that the older type of steam-engine, called, because the essential parts of it move to and fro, the "reciprocating" steam-engine. in these latter machines there are a number of cylinders with closed ends and with very smooth interiors, in each of which slides a disc-like object called a piston. the steam enters a cylinder first at one end and then at the other, thus pushing the piston to and fro. the movement of the piston is communicated to the outside by means of a rod which passes through a hole in the cover at one end of the cylinder, the to and fro motion being converted into a round and round motion by a connecting-rod and crank just as the up and down motion of a cyclist's knees is converted into a round and round motion by the lower leg and the crank. the lower part of a cyclist's leg is, indeed, a very accurate illustration of what the connecting-rod of a steam-engine is. as is evident to the hastiest observer, some arrangement has to be made whereby the steam shall be led first into one end and then into the other end of the cylinder: also that provision shall be made for letting the steam out again when it has done its work. moreover, such arrangements must be automatic. hence, every reciprocating engine has special valves for this purpose and such valves need rods and cranks (or something equivalent) to operate them. further, to get the best results the steam must not simply be passed through one cylinder but through several in succession. engines where the steam goes through only one cylinder are called "simple," where it goes through two they are "compound," where three "triple-expansion," where four "quadruple-expansion." generally speaking, each cylinder has its own connecting-rod and crank, also its own set of rods, etc., for working its valves. hence, a high-class marine reciprocating engine is of necessity a complicated mass of cylinders, rods, cranks and other moving parts continually swinging round or to and fro at considerable speeds, all needing oiling and attention and all liable at times to give trouble. and now compare that with the turbine, which has two parts, only one of which moves. that part, moreover, is tightly shut up inside the other one, being thereby protected from any chance of damage from outside and likewise rendered unable to inflict any damage upon those in attendance upon it. at first sight it seems very strange that the turbine should be the newer of the two, for it is simply an improved form of the old time-honoured picturesque windmill which used to top every hill and grind the corn for every village and hamlet. the old windmill had four sails against which the wind blew, driving the whole four round as everyone knows. the new turbine has a great many sails, only we now call them blades, and the steam blows them round. the old windmill had to have another smaller set of sails at the back for the purpose of keeping the main sails always in that position in which they would catch the full force of the breeze. in the turbine we need not do that, for we shut the windmill up in a kind of tunnel and cause the steam to blow in at one end and out at the other. the difference between the various kinds of turbine lies simply in the manner in which the steam is guided in its passage through the machine. after that general description we can take a more detailed view of the parsons turbine. the casing or fixed part is a huge iron box suitably shaped for standing firmly and rigidly upon the floor of the engine-room. it is made in two halves, the upper of which can be easily lifted off when necessary. often, indeed, this upper half is hinged to the lower, so that it can be opened like the lid of a box. inside, the casing is cylindrical, comparatively small at one end but increasing by steps till it is very much larger at the other end. at each end is a bearing or support in which the rotor or moving part is held and in which it can turn freely. the rotor or part which rotates is a strong steel forging shaped somewhat to follow the lines of the inside of the casing. it does not entirely fill the casing but leaves a space all round and all the way along, which space is intended to accommodate the blades. the ends of the rotor are smaller than the body since they are intended to fit into the bearings, and one of the ends is prolonged so as to be available for coupling to the propeller-shaft of the ship. at one end of the casing, the smaller one, is the steam inlet and the steam after emerging from it passes along till it finds its way out at a very large outlet formed at the bigger end. on its way it has to pass thousands of small blades so that the progress of each individual particle of steam is not a straight line but a continual zigzag. there are rings of blades round the rotor, tightly fixed to its surface. there are likewise rings of blades affixed to the inner surface of the casing, the rings upon the casing coming in the spaces between the rings on the rotor. let us imagine that we can see through the casing of a turbine at work and that looking down upon it from above we can trace the progress of a particle of steam. it rushes in from the inlet and at once makes straight for the outlet at the further end. suddenly, however, it encounters one of the guide blades (those on the case) and by it is deflected to one side, we will suppose the left. that causes it to rush straight at one of the blades upon the rotor against which it strikes violently, giving that blade a distinct and definite push to the left. rebounding, it then comes back towards the right but quickly is caught by another guide blade and by it hurled back upon a second rotor blade, giving it a leftward push just as it did to the first. thus it goes zigzagging from one set of blades to the other until, tired out, so to speak, it finally flows away forceless and feeble through the outlet, having given up all its energy to the blades of the rotor against which it has struck in its course. that, then, is the journey of one single particle. multiply that by an unknown number of millions and you have a description of what takes place in the interior of a steam turbine. the blades are so proportioned, so arranged and so placed that it is very difficult indeed for a particle of steam to creep past without doing its share of work. practically every one is made use of and while, of course, the action of a single particle of steam would have but a negligible effect, the vast number engaged cause the rotor to be powerfully blown round. the reason why the casing and rotor are made larger and larger as one proceeds from the inlet towards the exhaust or outlet is that the steam must, if all its energy is to be extracted, expand as it goes and the enlargement provides room for this expansion. one of the great advantages of the turbine is that the steam is always entering at the same end. in the cylinder of a reciprocating engine the steam enters alternately. it comes in hot but as it does its work and finally goes out it becomes very much cooler: the next lot of steam which enters, therefore, is chilled by the cool walls of the cylinder which have just been cooled by the departure of the previous lot of steam: so heat is wasted. wasted heat means fuel lost, and as any given ship can only carry a limited quantity of fuel, wasted heat means less range and more frequent returns to the base to coal or to "oil." also let me remark again upon the simplicity of the turbine as opposed to the other sort. the latter consists of a mass of moving and swaying rods and cranks, to work among which, as the engineers have to do, is a terrifying and nerve-racking experience. the turbine, on the other hand, has its only working part enclosed. it is difficult to tell, by looking at it, whether a turbine is at work or not, so silent and still is it, so self-contained. the reciprocating engine-room is noisy and full of turmoil: the turbine room is weirdly still by comparison. on the whole, too, it makes better use of the steam which it uses, but it has one decided drawback. it will not reverse, which the other type of engine does readily. this means that two turbines have to be coupled together, one with the blades so set that the steam drives it round correctly to produce motion ahead and the other set the opposite way so that it drives the vessel astern. the steam can be sent through either turbine at will and so motion can be obtained in either direction. whichever turbine is in use the other revolves idly. unfortunately it is impossible to make a turbine to go slowly and yet be efficient. consequently, slow steamers cannot use turbines, but for warships, which are nearly all fast boats, it has almost displaced the older type of engine. the curtiss turbine is different from the parsons in that the steam encounters periodically, in its passage through, a partition perforated with funnel-shaped holes. between the partitions it passes blades upon which it acts just as already described. the chief effect of this is to permit the machine being made of a rather more convenient shape and size. other varieties of turbine are more or less combinations of the two ideas underlying these two. when we look at a locomotive in motion we always see steam coming out of the funnel, but we never see that in the case of a steamer. that is because all the energy of the steam is taken and used in the latter case, while in the former much valuable energy goes off up the funnel, making a puffing noise instead of doing useful work. on the steamship the steam is led not to the open air but to a vessel called a condenser the walls of which are kept cool by a continual circulation of cold water. the steam on entering the condenser at once collapses into water, leaving a vacuum. a pump called the "air-pump" removes the water (which was once steam) from the condenser and also any air which might get in, with the result that the engine is always discharging its steam into a vacuum. thus to the pressure of the steam is added the suction of the vacuum. in turbine ships the cooling water for the condensers is circulated by powerful centrifugal pumps driven by subsidiary engines. the steam is obtained from boilers of that special variety known as "water-tube." the boilers with which most people are familiar are either lancashire or cornish, both sorts being large steel cylinders with two steel flues in the former and one in the latter running from back to front. the fire is made in the front part of the flue and the hot gases from it pass to the back and then along the sides and underneath through flues formed in the brickwork in which the boiler is set. locomotive boilers, however, have no flues, but the hot gases from the fire in the fire-box pass through tubes which run from end to end through the cylindrical shell, each tube starting from the fire-box behind and terminating in the smoke-box in front. thus we have tubes with fire inside and water outside: hence such boilers are called "fire-tube" boilers. on many ships of the merchant type cylindrical boilers are used which combine the features, to some extent, of the cornish and the fire-tube, since there is a flue running from front to back in which the fire is made and the hot gases return from back to front through a number of tubes which occupy the space above the fire. arrived at the front the gases pass upwards to the chimney. water-tube boilers are different from all of these, since in them the water is inside the tubes while the fires play around the outside. this enables steam to be got up very quickly, a matter of much importance for a warship which may be called upon to undertake some operation at a moment's notice. the boilers are fed with water from the condensers, so that the same water is used over and over again. when coal is burnt it is put on the fires by hand, for although mechanical stoking is a great success on land, there are special difficulties which prevent its use at sea. it is becoming more and more the fashion now to burn oil instead of coal in several types of ships and in those cases the oil is blown in the form of spray into the furnace. this has many advantages, some of which are exemplified on a small scale by the difference between using a coal fire and a gas stove. like the latter, the oil spray can be quickly lit when needed and as quickly extinguished. it can be regulated and adjusted with equal facility. oil can be taken on board too through a pipe, silently and quickly and without the terrible dirt and the exhausting labour involved in coaling a big ship. oil, too, can be taken on board at sea, from a tank steamer, almost as easily as it can be taken in ashore, whereas the difficulty of coaling at sea despite many ingenious efforts has never been solved quite satisfactorily. finally, oil can be stowed anywhere, for the stokers do not need to dig it out with a shovel. therefore it can be carried in those spaces between the inner and outer bottoms which have to be there in order to give strength to the ship's hull but which would be quite useless for carrying coal. the advantages of oil fuel, therefore, are many and no doubt it will be used more and more as time goes on. for great britain, oil fuel has the disadvantage that it has to be imported whereas the finest steam coal in the world is found in abundance in south wales, but the difficulty may eventually be overcome by distilling from native coal an oil which will serve as well as that which is now imported. so much for the turbine, the engine of the big ships: now for the diesel oil-engine which drives the submarines. it belongs to that family of engines called "internal-combustion" since in them the fuel is burnt actually inside the cylinder and not under a separate contrivance such as a boiler. there have been oil-engines, so called, for many years, but they were really gas-engines since the oil was first heated till it turned into vapour and then that vapour was used as a gas. the diesel engine, however, actually burns oil in its liquid state. to understand how it works let me ask you to conjure up this little picture before your mind's eye. a hollow iron cylinder is fixed in a vertical position: its upper end is closed but its lower end is open: inside it is a piston, free to slide up and down: by means of a connecting-rod hinged to it and passing downwards through the open lower end the piston is connected to a crank and flywheel. at the upper end of the cylinder are certain openings which can be covered and uncovered in succession by the action of suitable valves. now let us assume that that engine is at work, the piston going rapidly up and down in the cylinder. as it goes down it draws in a quantity of air through a valve which opens to admit the air at just the right moment. the moment the piston reverses its movement and starts to go up again that valve closes and the air is entrapped. the piston continues to rise, however, with the result that the air becomes compressed in the upper part of the cylinder. now it is necessary to remind you at this point that compressing air or indeed any gas, raises its temperature. this air, therefore, which was drawn in at the temperature of the outer atmosphere, by the time the piston has reached the top of its stroke has attained a temperature well above the ignition point of the oil fuel. the piston, having arrived at the top of its stroke, the upper part of the cylinder is filled with hot compressed air: the next moment the piston commences its descent, but at precisely that same moment a valve opens and there is projected into the cylinder a spray of oil. instantly it bursts into flame, heating the air still more, so that as the piston descends the air, expanding with the heat, pushes strongly and steadily upon it. the amount of that push can be varied by varying the duration of the jet. the longer the jet is injected the more heat is generated and the more sustained is the push. on the other hand, if the jet is cut off very quickly the push is only a gentle one. the power of the engine can thus be adjusted to suit varying circumstances by a slight variation in the valve which controls the jet. the piston having thus been driven down to the limit of its stroke, it commences another upward movement, at which moment another valve opens and lets out the hot waste gases which have resulted from the burning of the oil. thus the cylinder is cleaned out ready for a fresh supply of pure air to be drawn in on the next ensuing downstroke. the engine thus works upon a series or cycle of operations which are repeated automatically over and over again. first comes a downstroke, drawing in air: then an upstroke, compressing it: then a second downstroke, during which the fuel burns and the power is generated: and, finally, a second upstroke during which the waste products of the burning are ejected. power, it will be noticed, is only developed in one out of the four strokes: the other movements having, in single cylinder engines, to be performed by the momentum of the flywheel. in most cases, however, the engine has several cylinders in which the cycles are arranged to follow in succession. thus, if there are four cylinders, there is always power being developed by one of them. the valves are operated automatically by the engine itself just as is the case with steam-engines. the engine also works a small pump which provides the very highly compressed air necessary to blow the oil jet into the cylinder. arrangements are often provided whereby the engine when working stores up a reserve of compressed air which can be used to start it. from the very nature of its working such an engine cannot develop power until it has accomplished at least four strokes or two revolutions, so that it cannot possibly start itself. if, however, compressed air be admitted to the cylinders to give it a vigorous push or two and so get it going, it can then take up its own work and go on indefinitely. in some cases this is not necessary and that of an engine in a submarine is one of them. in that instance, the electric motor, which drives the boat when submerged, can be made to give the engine a start. by altering the rotation in which the valves act the direction can be reversed. a very simple mechanism can be made to effect this change, so that reversing is quite easy. aircraft are mostly, if not entirely, driven by petrol engines, some of which are very little different from those of a motor-car or motor-cycle. these motor-car engines are so well known that little need be said about them. it may be well to explain, however, that they, like the diesel engines, work on a cycle of four strokes, as follows:-- first stroke (down) draws in a mixture of air and gas. second stroke (up) compresses the mixture. just at the top of this stroke an electric spark fires the mixture, causing an explosion which drives the piston downwards, thus making the third stroke (down), during which the power is developed. fourth stroke (up) expels the waste products of the explosion. although all of them work on this same cycle, in which they resemble the engines of the motor-car, there are several much-used types of aero-engine in which the mechanical arrangement of the parts is quite different. of these the best known is the famous gnome engine which has a considerable number of cylinders arranged around a centre like the spokes of a wheel. the centre is in fact a case which covers the crank, and the cylinders are placed in relation to it just as the spokes are placed around the hub of a wheel. there is only one crank and all the connecting-rods drive on to it. owing to their position around it they thus act in succession, giving a nice regular turning effort. further, these engines differ from all others in that the crank is a fixture while the rest of the engine goes round, exactly the opposite of what we are accustomed to. the engine, in fact, constitutes its own flywheel. rushing thus through the air, the cylinders tend to keep themselves cool, doing away with the need for cooling water and radiators. consequently engines of this type are the very lightest known in proportion to their horse-power. a fifty horse-power engine can be easily carried by one man. it would be possible to go on much longer with this most interesting subject of engines, but having treated the three types which are most used in warfare, it is now time to pass on to something else. chapter xv destroyers except for the submarine the most prominent craft during the war has undoubtedly been the destroyer. all warships are in one sense destroyers, since it is their prime duty to destroy other ships, so why should one particular kind of boat be given this name specially? like many other of the terms which we use it is an abbreviation, a mere remnant of a fully descriptive title. "torpedo boat destroyer" is what these ships are called in the navy list. even that full title, however, only tells us what their original purpose was: it leaves us very much in the dark as to the many various functions which they perform. the invention of the torpedo called for the construction of small boats whereby the new weapon could be used to best advantage, and so we got our torpedo boats. they in turn called forth another boat whose duty it was to run down and destroy them, and in that way we get our destroyers. from that bit of naval history we can almost see for ourselves what the characteristics of the destroyers must be. they have to be bigger than the torpedo boats, but as the latter were quite small the destroyers, though larger, are still comparatively small craft, latterly of about one thousand tons. then they have to be very fast, in order to be able to chase the others and, finally, they need one or two guns, comparatively small so as not to overburden the ship and yet large enough to dispose of anything of their own size or smaller. unquestionably, their greatest feature is their speed. they are the fastest ships afloat, rivalling even a fairly fast train. some of them can exceed forty miles an hour. they are very active and nimble, too, being able to turn in a comparatively small circle. for warships, too, they are cheap, so that a commander can afford to risk losing a destroyer when he would fear to risk another vessel. for all purposes except the actual hard-hitting they are the most useful weapon which the commander of the fleet possesses. when the main fleet puts to sea a whole cloud of these smaller craft hover round looking for submarines or for the surface torpedo boats which might try to attack the large ships under cover of darkness, while keeping a sharp look-out, too, for mines or any other kind of floating danger, and thus they screen the more valuable ships. likewise do they convoy merchant ships sometimes, especially through waters believed to be infested with submarines. they also sally forth on little expeditions of their own, knowing that they can fight any craft equally speedy and show a clean pair of heels to any heavier ships, while by adroit use of their own torpedoes they may even "bag" a cruiser or two. they are pre-eminently the enemy of the submarine, for the under-water boat is necessarily less active even when it is on the surface than they are, so that a submarine caught by a destroyer stands a very good chance of being rammed by it, which means that the destroyer deliberately rushes at it, using its own bow as a ram wherewith to knock a hole in it. or if that be not practicable the destroyer, while dodging the torpedo of the submarine, may plant a single well-aimed shot into its opponent and the fight is over. a cleverly-handled destroyer appears to have little difficulty in avoiding the comparatively slow torpedo, but no ship ever built could avoid a properly aimed shell, two facts which are clearly indicated by the very few cases in which, during the war, a destroyer has succumbed to a submarine. the gun of the latter, if it has one, is no match for the guns of the destroyer. naval strategy and tactics, when one thinks about them carefully, reveal a very close resemblance to those of the football field. the destroyers are like the forwards, quick, light and nimble, valuable chiefly because of their ability to run swiftly and to dodge cleverly, while the heavy, stolid backs represent the battleships in their ability to withstand the heavy shocks of the game. any imaginative boy will be able to carry this simile farther still and a comparison of the description of the battle of jutland with his own knowledge of the game will reveal a surprising parallelism. thus the reader will to a very large extent be able to see for himself the manifold uses to which these wonderful little ships lend themselves, and he will see that above everything else it is their speed which counts, which fact gives us the key to their peculiar construction. to commence with, they are made as light as possible. the material used is different from that of ordinary ships, being "high-tensile" steel, a steel into which a little more carbon than usual is introduced, resulting in about per cent higher tensile strength but also involving, alas! rather more brittleness. when made of this material the whole framework of the vessel can be made of lighter beams and the covering can be of thinner plates than would be the case if the mild steel ordinarily employed for shipbuilding were used. the high-tensile steel is lighter for a given strength and therefore a ship built of it is lighter than it would otherwise have to be. besides the use of this particular material every resource in the way of ingenuity and skill on the part of the designers is bent towards saving weight. no unnecessary part is ever put in, but, on the other hand, necessaries are skinned down to the utmost limit consistent with safety in order to produce a light ship. how difficult this problem is is hardly realized until one thinks of the conditions which prevail when a ship floats in the water. the upward support of the water is exerted in a fairly regular way all along the ship while the weights inside which are pressing downward are concentrated in lumps. the engines, for example, represent a very heavy weight concentrated in one fairly confined spot. thus the vessel has to have sufficient stiffness to resist the action of these opposing forces which are thus tending to break her in two. that, moreover, occurs in the stillest water; when the sea is rough still worse stresses are brought to bear upon the comparatively fragile hull, for a wave may lift each end, leaving the middle more or less unsupported, or one may lift the middle while the ends to a certain extent are left overhanging. all this, too, is in addition to the knocks and buffets caused by huge volumes of water being flung against the ship by cross seas in the height of a tempest. in the case of ordinary ships where speed is not of such great importance, the problem is simplified by the use of what is termed a high "factor of safety," which means that the designers calculate these forces as nearly as they can and then make the structure _amply_ strong enough. in other words, care is taken to keep well on the safe side. in a destroyer, however, there is no room for such a margin of safety. risks have to be taken, and it is only the high degree of skill and experience possessed by our ship designers which enable these light ships to be made with, as experience shows, a very considerable degree of safety. they have to be continually choosing between strength on the one hand and lightness on the other and the way in which they combine the two is marvellous. the weight thus saved is used for carrying engines, boilers and fuel. relatively to its size, the destroyer is about as strong as an egg-shell, but its engines are of extraordinary power. the destroyers are generally organized and operate in little groups or flotillas of perhaps twenty or so with a small cruiser or a flotilla leader as a flagship, on which is the officer in command of them all. there is also usually a depot ship for each flotilla. the flotilla leaders are what one might call super-destroyers, about double the size of the ordinary large destroyer, which is to say, about two thousand tons, and capable of very high speed. the depot ships form a kind of floating headquarters for their respective flotillas. they are usually old cruisers which are specially fitted up for the purpose, and although they are of comparatively slow speed they can by wireless telegraphy keep in touch with the destroyers, which can return to them when occasion permits or demands. they carry workshops in which small repairs can be carried out, spare ammunition and stores of all kinds and spare men for the crews. in fact they can look after the smaller craft much as a mother looks after her children, and for that reason they are sometimes called "mother ships." as has been said, the destroyer was originally intended to destroy torpedo boats, but small torpedo boats have almost gone out of existence or rather the class have so grown in size as to have become merged in the destroyers, which, it must be remembered, are well armed with torpedoes which they have at times used with great effect. it is not surprising, therefore, to find that a still newer class of ship has arisen which has been described by one authority as "destroyer-destroyers." officially known as "light armoured cruisers," not very much is known of their details. they are, however, about tons, with guns, large enough that is to dispose of any destroyer which they might encounter. thus, to review the whole class of ships of which we have been speaking, we may say that there are the destroyers, all the more recent of which are about tons but diminishing as we go backward in time to about or ; the flotilla leaders about twice the size of the largest destroyers; and the destroyer-destroyers nearly twice as large as the flotilla leaders: all are characterised by high speed and by guns just large enough for the work for which they are intended. all are armed, too, with the deadly torpedo for attack upon larger ships than themselves. they are essentially night-birds, much of their time being spent stealing about with all lights out, in pitch darkness, seeking for information or for a chance to put a torpedo into some chance victim. these night operations are very hazardous, but so skilful are the young officers who have charge of these boats that seldom do we hear of mishaps. but although, as has been said, the torpedo boat has almost vanished, its under-water comrade has recently assumed a place in the first rank of importance, and perhaps to us the most valuable work of all done by the destroyer is that of hunting down and sinking these modern pirates. chapter xvi battleships perhaps the greatest war invention of modern times was the british battleship _dreadnought_. of course, there have been battleships for centuries. in history we read of fleets consisting of so many "ships of the line" or in other words "line-of-battle" ships, meaning ships which were considered capable of taking their place in "line of battle," as distinguished from "frigates" which correspond to the modern "cruiser." the "line-of-battle" ships were stout and strong with plenty of guns. they went into the thick of the fight, since they were capable of giving and receiving hard blows, while the lighter frigates hovered around seeking an opening to use their higher speed to cut off stragglers or to prey upon merchant ships. although so different in form and material that a sailor of the old days, could he revisit the earth, would not recognize them, the battleships of to-day are the real descendants of the "line-of-battle" ships of those times. they are stout and strong, with the heaviest guns, capable of giving and taking the hardest knocks, and it is they who form the backbone of the fleet. as we saw in the accounts of the battle of jutland, the german fleet tackled our cruisers and lighter vessels but discreetly withdrew when the battleships came up. looked at in another way, we may say that a battleship is a floating fortress. its speed is not great, when compared with other ships, but it is constructed to carry enormous guns. it is also armoured with steel plates of great thickness and of special hardness placed upon the outside of the hull so as to cover its vital parts and protect them from the shells of the enemy. its chief function, we may say, is to carry its guns: to enable it to do this with safety, it is armoured: and to enable it to get to grips with its enemies it has engines and boilers. those are the three features of greatest importance in a battleship, its guns, its armour and its engines. all else is of minor importance. it is strange to think how short a time the iron or steel ship has been with us. in the american civil war, for instance, only about sixty years ago, the battleships were made of wood. it was during that war that ericcson thought of the idea of putting iron plates to protect the sides of a ship from the hostile shots, and from that improvised armouring of a wooden ship has arisen the iron-clad or, more correctly, steel-clad monsters of to-day. it is just about fifty years ago since the last iron-clad wooden battleship was launched for the british navy. her name was _repulse_, and she took the water in . with a tonnage of and a horse-power of , she had a speed of knots. her armouring of iron was in parts ½ inches and in other parts inches thick, while she carried guns of sizes which to-day would seem mere toys. if all her guns were discharged together she would throw a total weight of lbs. of projectiles. now, for comparison, let us take a modern battleship, the _orion_, for example. the tonnage is , , the horse-power , . she is more than twice the length of the older ship and is armoured with steel inches thick. her large guns, each ½ inches in diameter, if fired together (as i once heard them, like thunder, though miles away) throw a weight of , lbs. from this we see the wonderful growth in size, speed and in hitting power during the comparatively short period of fifty years. but there is a more striking comparison still. the _repulse's_ guns threw lbs. and the _orion's_ throw , . but that takes no account of the energy with which the weight is thrown. a tennis ball hit hard, might really contain more energy and do more damage to anything it hit than a cricket ball thrown gently, which illustrates the fact that in comparing the power of guns we need to consider something more than the mere weight of the projectiles. to arrive at a real comparison we take the weight of the projectiles in tons and multiply it by the speed at which they leave the guns in _feet per second_. and we call the answer so many "foot-tons." now the energy of the _repulse_ thus reckoned comes to just under , ; that of the _orion_ to just under , . the _orion_ can hit twenty-three times as hard as could its forerunner of only fifty years ago. since the _repulse_ all our battleships have been built of wrought iron or mild steel. speaking generally, there was a steady development in size and horse-power and in speed until , in which year there was launched the world-famous h.m.s. _dreadnought_. previously no battleship had been faster than knots: she was designed for knots. her tonnage was , , exceeding by more than tons anything that had gone before. but the great change was in the guns. pre-dreadnoughts had, or one ought to say "have" for there are still many in existence, four of the biggest guns, a number of medium-sized guns and a still larger number of smallish guns intended for the purpose of keeping off torpedo craft and such small fry. at one stroke lord fisher, who was then the first sea lord of the british admiralty, changed all this. he swept all the medium-sized guns away and gave this new ship ten of the largest guns then in use. the advent of this ship startled the whole naval world, for it was seen at once by all those able to judge that there was a vessel which might be expected to sink with ease any other ship afloat. the onslaught from those ten guns would be more than any other ship could stand. so other powers set to work to copy more or less exactly, while great britain quickly built more like her. so important was this new invention that very soon the strength of the naval powers began to be reckoned entirely on the number of dreadnoughts they possessed, the older ships being left out of account as though they did not make any difference one way or the other. but great britain was not content with the _dreadnought_, for each succeeding ship or set of ships was improved until, only four years later, there was launched the _orion_ already referred to, nearly tons bigger, with more horse-power, and with ½-inch guns instead of -inch. the _orion_ and her sisters are often spoken of as super-dreadnoughts. the dreadnoughts as a class are often referred to as "all-big-gun" ships, since that is the feature which most distinguishes them from those which went before. these large guns are mounted in turrets as they are called. we might describe these as turn-tables with a cover over something like a small gas-holder. there are usually two guns in each turret, although there are a few ships whose turrets have three in each. the turrets seem to be standing on the deck of the ship and it is by turning them round that the guns are trained or pointed at their target. the original _dreadnought_ had one turret in front and two behind, all on the centre-line of the ship, and two more, one each side, amidships. in late vessels all five turrets are on the centre-line. thus the _dreadnought_ can fire six guns ahead, eight astern and eight to either side, while the newer ships can fire four ahead, four astern and all ten on either side. there are other battleships with even more guns than these, such as the u.s.a. ship _wyoming_, with twelve -inch guns, but the british navy seems to prefer to stick to the original number of ten. the reason for this is that every such ship is a compromise between three alternatives. the three great features have already been pointed out, namely, the guns, the armour and the propelling machinery. either of these can be increased at the cost of one or both of the others, but all cannot be increased without sinking the ship, unless indeed, the ship be made larger and then other considerations crop up. and that brings us to another class of ship often ranked among the battleships. these remarkable vessels are also termed cruisers and the fashion seems to have established itself of combining the two names and calling them battle-cruisers. they gave a fine account of themselves during the war. the first three of these, of which the _invincible_ is usually taken as the type, made its appearance the year after the _dreadnought_, and like the latter were the offspring of the fertile brain of lord fisher. the _invincible_ was about the same size as the _dreadnought_, but had nearly twice the horse-power ( , ), which enabled it to attain an actual speed of nearly six knots more, namely, · . for guns it had eight of the same large weapons, and it was armoured with -inch steel armour-plates instead of -inch. thus we see illustrated what has just been said, less guns and thinner armour, to allow for more engine power and higher speed. or, to put it the other way, we observe how higher speed was attained at the expense of the guns and the armour. but just as the _dreadnought_ was followed by other still greater improvements in the same direction we get, in , the famous ship _lion_, a vessel not unknown to the germans, a "super-invincible." this ship has a tonnage of over , and , horse-power. it was designed to do knots. we saw the use of these ships in the jutland battle, when, using their high speed, they attacked the german battleships and kept them engaged while the slower battleships came up. though they suffered severe losses, which probably the more heavily armoured battleships would have escaped, they held the germans so that it was only the failing light which saved them from utter destruction. another example was the way in which they hunted down von spee and his squadron off the falklands, when they caught the germans because of their higher speed and then sank them by means of their heavier guns with practically no loss to themselves. we saw them again in the heligoland battle, coming up to the assistance of the lighter vessels just in the nick of time and scattering the enemy like so much chaff. a fact little known to most people and productive of much surprise is that these battleships and cruisers are not such very large vessels, when compared with those of the merchant service. the _lion_ is feet long and feet wide, the _aquitania_ is feet long and feet wide, and the _olympic_ is feet long and feet wide. the mighty _orion_ makes a poorer showing still in point of size, since she is only feet long and feet wide--little over half the length of the _aquitania_. it is difficult to compare the tonnage of a warship with that of a merchant ship, since they are not measured in the same way. the former is the "displacement" or actual weight of water displaced: in other words the precise weight of the vessel in tons of lbs. the tonnage of a merchant ship, however, has nothing to do with weight but is based upon capacity and is arrived at by a purely arbitrary rule, thus: all the enclosed space in the ship is measured in cubic feet and the total is divided by one hundred. that gives the gross tonnage. to arrive at the net tonnage the space occupied by the engines and all other space necessary for the working of the ship is excluded. originally the tonnage of a merchant ship was the number of "tuns" of wine which it could carry. thus, you see, comparing the tonnage of a warship with that of a merchant ship is somewhat like comparing a pound with a bushel. net registered tonnage is generally considerably less than the displacement tonnage of the same ship, so that a warship is usually less than a merchant ship of the same nominal number of tons. and now let us turn to some of the internal arrangements of these wonderful ships, more particularly to the means for working the guns. each turret is placed over the top of what we might call a well, running right down deep into the inside of the ship. at the bottom of this well is the magazine, where the shells are stored and also the cartridges containing the explosive which drives the shell from the gun. underneath the turret, forming a kind of basement to it, is a chamber called the working chamber, and up to it the shells and cartridges pass by means of lifts. for safety's sake only a small quantity of explosives is kept here at any one time, but it is from here that the guns overhead are fed. shells and cartridges alike pass up as required by means of hoists right to the guns. indeed, the hoists are ingeniously contrived so that in whatever position a gun may be the hoist stops exactly opposite the breech, or opening at the back of the gun through which it is loaded. then a mechanical rammer drives the shell or cartridge into its place in the gun. the hoists are worked by hydraulic power or electricity, and in most cases by both, arrangements being made so that either can be used at will, thus serving as alternatives in case either should get out of order. the turrets themselves are also turned by power. indeed, so heavy are the weights involved that only by the use of carefully designed machinery is the operation of such great weapons made possible. a single shell of the · -inch gun weighs lbs. around each turret there is placed a wall of thick armour plate as high as it is possible to make it without interfering with the movement of the guns. this is called the barbette armour and the space enclosed by it, in which the turret stands, is called a barbette, an old fortification term meaning a place behind a rampart. the turret is covered over, as has already been remarked, by a steel hood, so that altogether the guns and their crews are about as well protected as it is possible to be. that all this means a considerable burden upon the ship is shown by the fact that a pair of -inch guns with their turret and barbette armour will weigh something like tons, and if there be five of them that means tons in all. down below in the magazine there are lifting appliances whereby the shells can be readily picked up and run to the hoist. moreover, there is elaborate machinery for keeping them cool. our allies the french had, years ago, several bad accidents through the explosives going off spontaneously in their ships, and this is quite likely to happen if the magazines become too hot. so refrigerating apparatus is installed similar to that employed in meat-carrying ships, which provides a constant flow of cool air into the magazines. the ships also are subdivided to the greatest possible extent consistent with efficient working, so that in the event of a collision or a torpedo making a hole below water the ship may not sink. as far as possible the divisions or bulkheads are made to run right from top to bottom without any openings, but that obviously is a very inconvenient arrangement, so in many places there have to be doorways through them, leading from one part of the ship to another. in such cases these are closed by water-tight doors, which can be shut before the ship goes into action or into any dangerous region. the engines of these vessels are now always turbines. this type of engine has many advantages over the older type, in which certain parts move to and fro, that motion being changed by cranks into a round and round action. for one thing, they are lighter for a given power, so that more power can be put into a ship without adding to the weight. that means higher speed. then there is less to get out of order. anyone who has been into a ship's engine room where to and fro or reciprocating engines are at work will realize this, for there is a maze of rods and cranks all moving together, and many parts which need to be oiled while in motion and which would get hot and tight if they were not carefully looked after. all this in an enclosed space with possibly an uncomfortable motion of the whole ship used to make the engineer's life at sea a very hazardous and unhappy one. but the turbine is entirely enclosed. there is nothing to be seen moving at all. indeed, there is only one moving part, and that is coupled directly to the propeller-shaft, so that nothing could possibly be simpler. chapter xvii how a warship is built when it is decided to build a certain ship, the first thing to be done is to draw it on paper. the admiralties of the world, and also the great shipbuilders, have each their own chief designer installed in a big, light, quiet office fitted with large strong, flat tables at which work a number of draughtsmen. the naval authorities tell the "chief" in general terms what they want the ship to be capable of, and he determines its size and form. then the draughtsmen work out his ideas on paper, themselves deciding upon the minor details, until they have produced exact representations of the ship which is to be. some draughtsmen deal with the actual hull of the ship, while others design the various fittings and minor details, all working, of course, under the constant supervision of the chief. in this connection one may perhaps allude to a matter which the general public often seems to misunderstand--the work and functions of a draughtsman. i have heard people say of a boy that he is good at drawing so they think of making a draughtsman of him. now the point is that the actual drawing is perhaps the least important part of a draughtsman's work. he has to know _what to draw_. he is given just a rough idea of something and from that he has to produce a perfect design, bearing in mind that the thing to be made must well fulfil its purpose, must be easy and cheap to construct, must be strong enough yet not too heavy, must be made of the most suitable material and so on. he has to possess a good deal of the knowledge of the skilled workman, he has to be something of a scientist and a good mathematician in addition to his ability to make neat and accurate drawings. so, you see, these men whose minds conceive the details of our great ships are men of long training and experience, with far greater knowledge and skill than we sometimes give them credit for. anyway, there they stand, each at his own table, bending over his own drawing-board, each doing his own particular share towards producing the perfect ship. but when all is said and done, there are limitations to the cleverness of the cleverest among us, so the next step, after the draughtsmen have done their best, is to test what they have done by experiment. years ago a certain mr. william froude interested himself in the question of the best shapes for ships, and he found that by making an exact model of a ship and then drawing that model through water it was possible to foretell just how that ship would behave. he built himself a tank for the purpose of these experiments at torquay, where he lived, and by its aid he added a very important chapter to the science of shipbuilding. nowadays the admiralty have a large and well-fitted tank at portsmouth, the united states navy have one at washington, private shipbuilders have the use of a national tank at bushey, near london, while several of the large firms have tanks of their own. the national tank at bushey, by the way, was given to the nation by mr. yarrow, a famous shipbuilder, in memory of mr. froude, it being called the "william froude tank" in recognition of the great work done by him. now these tanks may be described as rather elongated swimming-baths. such a structure is generally a little narrower than the average bath, but it is longer and much deeper. at one end there are miniature docks in which the models float when not in use, while at the other there is a sloping beach upon which the waves caused by the models expend their energy harmlessly. along each side there runs a rail upon which are supported the ends of a travelling bridge. driven by electric motors, this bridge can run to and fro from end to end of the tank, and its purpose is to drag the models through the water. carried upon the bridge is a platform which bears a number of instruments, chief among which is a self-recording dynamometer. now a dynamometer is an instrument for measuring the force of a "pull," and when we call it self-recording we mean that it automatically takes a record of a series of pulls or of a varying pull. in this case there projects below the bridge a lever, to the end of which the model under test is attached. as the bridge rushes along it pulls the model through the water by means of this lever, and the force which is expended in doing so is recorded in the form of a wavy line upon a sheet of ruled paper. if the model slips through the water very easily there is little pull upon the lever and the line drawn by the pen of the instrument remains low down upon the chart. if, however, much power is needed and the pull is a strong one the pen moves and the line rises towards the top of the paper. any change, whether increase or decrease, is thus shown by the rise or fall of the ink line. one model can be thus tried at various speeds and its behaviour noted under different conditions. other matters can be investigated too, such as whether or not the bow rises in the water or falls when the boat is in motion, also how much such rise or fall may amount to. the suitability of a certain shape of vessel, moreover, can to a certain extent be seen by observing the commotion which it makes in the water. everyone has noticed the way in which a ship throws up a wave at its bows, and that bow-wave, as it is termed, represents so much energy being wasted. the power of the engines is absorbed to a certain extent in making that wave. it is impossible to make anything which when forced through the water will not make some wave, but certain forms cause less of it than others, and the designer of a ship seeks to find that form which will make the smallest bow-wave. in like manner the eddies which a ship leaves in its wake are the result of wasted energy, and the ship must be so shaped that they too will be reduced to a minimum. shipbuilders find that there are three things which retard a ship's movement: skin friction, or friction between the water and the sides of the ship; wave making at the bow and eddy making at the stern. the first depends largely upon the smoothness of the ship's surface, the second and third depend upon its shape. if a model behaves badly in the tank the fault may be either too much wave making or too much eddy making, and which of these it is the dynamometer does not of course tell. in many cases the experienced eye of the tank officials furnishes the clue to the trouble, but in some cases a cinematograph is used to make a complete series of photographs of the model and the water around it as it rushes from end to end. these can then be studied in conjunction with the chart and the cause of the fault discovered. the real aim, it is obvious, of all these tank experiments is to find out the lowest horse-power necessary to drive the ship, or the best form of ship to get the highest speed out of a given horse-power. the cost of keeping up these large tanks and making the models and conducting the experiments is very great, for not only are the premises very large (i know one in which the water alone cost nearly a hundred pounds) but a highly skilled staff is necessary. the saving effected in the cost of ships and the superior efficiency of the ships makes it well worth while however. there is still one other point about this matter which will possibly be puzzling the observant reader. what are the models made of and how are they made? they are made of paraffin wax, and a very important department of the experimental tank is that where the models are formed. first of all a rough mould is fashioned by hand in modelling clay and into this is poured melted wax, the result being a very rough model of the ship. this is then placed in the model-making machine. those of my readers who are familiar with an engineer's shop will know what a planing machine is like, and from that they can form an idea of the general structure of this remarkable tool. there is, first of all, a travelling table which, as the machine works, travels to and fro. spanning this table is a beam which carries on its under side two revolving cutters, so that as the table passes beneath them the cutters can operate upon anything placed upon the table. another part of the machine is a board upon which is placed the drawing showing the external shape of the proposed ship, and working over this board is a pointer connected by a system of rods and levers to the cutters just mentioned. the rough block of wax, then, having been placed upon the table and the to and fro motion set going, the attendant guides the pointer along the lines of the drawing, and as he does so the cutters so move as to carve away the soft wax into the precise shape of the model. a little smoothing by hand is all that is necessary to complete the conversion of the rough piece of wax into a perfect model. it is then placed in the water and ballasted with little bags of shot until it floats at just the correct depth, and finally a light wooden frame is fitted to it for the purpose of making the connection to the lever by which it is pulled along. thus, after much thought and experiment, the designs for a new ship are completed. tracings are then made of them on semi-transparent paper or cloth, which tracings are then used as "negatives," from which a number of photographic prints are made, just as the amateur photographer makes prints from his negatives. at least that is how they used to be done, in a huge printing frame, but nowadays a machine is more often employed which passes the tracing or negative with a piece of photographic paper behind it slowly past an electric light, thus doing the work more quickly and more conveniently, for the drawings of ships are often very long and would either require an enormous frame or else would have to be made in pieces and joined together. the prints are finally passed out to the works to be translated in terms of iron, steel and wood. perhaps the most important part of a shipyard is the mould loft, a large apartment on the floor of which the ship is drawn out full size. then from these full-size drawings moulds or templets are made of wood or soft metal, showing the exact size and shape of the various parts. the moulds or templets go thence to the workshops, where the bars and plates of steel are cut to the right shape and perforated with holes, and some of the pieces are there joined together with rivets. [illustration: the tripod mast. here we see one leg of the tripod mast of a warship. these masts have greater stability and freedom from vibration than others. they are used for observation and range-finding, and have a fighting-top on which guns of small calibre are mounted. here is shown a sailor carrying a wounded comrade.] from the workshops the various pieces or parts go to the yard where the slip is on which the vessel is being built. this slip is by the water's edge, conveniently placed with a view to the fact that later on the great structure, weighing possibly thousands of tons, has got to slide down into the water. where the keel of the ship is to go a row of timber blocks is placed a few feet apart, and upon these blocks the plates of steel which form the lowest part of the ship are laid. upon them are laid other parts, and upon them others, the joints being made by riveting. thus the great ship grows from the keel upwards. as she gets bigger and bigger there comes the danger of her tipping over, and that is provided against by the use of props or shores along both sides. by the time the hull is ready for launching it is often of great weight, all of which is borne upon the wooden blocks underneath the keel. consequently, if the ground be not good, piles have to be driven in or concrete foundations laid to enable the huge mass of the ship to be supported. for this reason a large vessel cannot be built anywhere but only on a properly prepared "slip," and it is the possession of a large number of such places which enables great britain to build so many ships at once. along each side of the slip there is usually a row of tall masts with a beam projecting out sideways near the top of each, forming cranes by which the heavier parts can be hoisted into position. in other yards, again, there is a tall iron structure called a gantry along each side of the slip, while travelling cranes span across from one to the other over where the growing ship lies. these travelling cranes, worked by electricity, permit heavy weights to be handled with ease and safety. other subsidiary cranes, meanwhile, carry the heavy hydraulic riveting machines by which riveting is done. much riveting is done by hand, men working together in squads of four. of these one, often quite a boy, heats the rivets in a small furnace, after which he throws them one by one to man number two, who inserts each as he receives it in its proper hole and holds it there with a big heavy hammer or else a tool called a "dolly." number two is called the "holder-up," since he holds the rivet up in its place while the remaining two hammer it over with alternate blows of their hammers. in many cases, however, the two last described men give place to one, who is armed with a tool in shape much like a pistol and operated by compressed air obtained through a flexible tube. when he presses a trigger a little hammer inside the "pistol" gives a rapid series of blows to the rivet, completing the job more quickly than the two men can do with hand hammers. a third way of doing this operation so important in the building of a ship is by the hydraulic machine suspended from the cranes. to the casual onlooker this has the notable feature of being silent, whereas riveting by hand and still more by a pistol hammer is terribly noisy. the reason for this is that the hydraulic riveter does not hammer at all, but, like a huge mechanical hand, it takes the rivet between finger and thumb and just squeezes it down. one strange result of all this hammering in of rivets is that every ship by the time it leaves the slip has become a huge magnet, with somewhat disconcerting effects upon its own compasses, but of that more later on. thus the great ship grows, being made piece by piece in the workshops to the shapes indicated from the mould loft and put together and riveted on the slip, until finally in due time it is ready to take its first journey. the launching of a big ship always strikes me as about the boldest and most daring thing which is ever done in the course of industry. for the huge structure, naturally top-heavy, weighing hundreds or thousands of tons, is just allowed to slide at its own sweet will. from the moment it starts until it is well in the water it is in charge of itself, so to speak, and if anything were to go wrong no power on earth could stop it once it had got a start. that nothing ever does go wrong, or scarcely ever at all events, is due to the care with which all preparations are made before that critical moment when the ship is let loose and to the skill and experience of those in charge. as the hull reaches that degree of completion when it can safely be put in the water, strong wooden structures termed launching ways are constructed one on each side of her. these really act like huge rails upon which in due course there will slide a gigantic toboggan. tremendously solid and strong they have to be, as they have each to carry half the total weight of the ship. under each side of the ship and upon the launching ways there is built a timber framework capable of raising the ship bodily off the blocks upon which until now it has reposed. these two frames, being connected together by chains passing beneath the keel, constitute what is called the cradle, the "toboggan" which is to slide down the ways, bearing the ship upon it. it is easy to see that being top-heavy something must be done to give the ship support before the shores on either side can be taken away, and it is equally clear that these latter must be removed before she can slide down to the water. neither would it do to let the vessel slide upon her own plates, so we see that the cradle fulfils a twofold purpose, first enabling the ship to reach the water without ripping holes in her own plates, and secondly giving it the necessary side support to prevent it from toppling over on the way. when all is ready, but a short time before the hour appointed for the launch, a curious operation is performed. between the main part of the cradle and the part which actually slides upon the ways wedges are inserted, hundreds of them, and they are all driven in simultaneously. their purpose is to make the cradle slightly higher and so to lift the ship off the blocks upon which it was built. if they were driven in one at a time each would only dig its way into the timber and nothing else would happen, but being driven all together a most powerful lifting action is produced which actually raises the mighty ship. so hundreds of men stand, each with his hammer ready to strike a wedge, while the foreman stands by with a gong. at a stroke on the gong the hundreds of hammers strike as one, and so the ship is raised off the blocks, which can then be removed, to facilitate which they too are built of wedge-shaped pieces which can easily be knocked apart. the shores, too, have ceased to serve any useful purpose and can be taken away until at last all shores and all blocks are gone and the vessel rests upon the cradle only. meanwhile tons of grease have been put on the ways, and the ship, urged by its own weight, is straining to get down the greasy slope into the element for which all along it has been intended. at this stage the only thing which restrains it is a kind of trigger arrangement on either side which locks the cradle in its place. in some yards elaborate mechanical catches controlled by electricity are used for this, but in many the old device of "dog shores" is still used. these are simply two stout wood props which fit between a projection on the ways and one on the cradle, there being one dog shore on either side. just over each dog shore there hangs a weight. the person who performs the ceremony cuts the cord which holds the weights, the weights fall, the dog shores are knocked away, and the ship is free. slowly at first, but gathering speed every moment, she moves majestically downwards into the water, being ultimately brought to rest by means of chains. whether done by the simple dodge of cutting a cord or by the more refined method of pressing an electric push, the launching is generally preceded by the breaking of a bottle of wine against the bows and the pronouncement of the vessel's name. once safely afloat, the vessel is towed away and berthed alongside a wharf whereon are cranes and other machines which lightly drop on board of her the massive turbines and boilers which in time will propel her, and the guns with which she will fight. all the multitudinous little finishing touches are here put into her until at last she sallies forth on her trial trips to show what she is capable of, after which follow trials of her guns, and then she takes her place in the fleet. thus, briefly sketched, we see the history of the warship from her inception in the minds of her designers till she is ready to meet the foe. chapter xviii the torpedo in parts of south america there lives a little fish, which, if you touch its nose, gives you a severe electric shock. the natives call it the "torpedo." when an artificial fish came to be invented, capable of giving a very nasty shock to anyone touching its snout, that name was bestowed upon it too. even more than the submarine, the torpedo resembles a fish with its graceful outlines and its fins and tail, the chief difference being that the tail of the torpedo carries a couple of little rotating propellers. looked at another way we may say that the torpedo is an automatic submarine. as a matter of fact, we all know it best as the weapon of the submarine. it was originally invented by an austrian who took it to a mr. whitehead, an englishman who then had an engineering works at fiume. this gentleman took up the idea and developed it into the whitehead torpedo, which is to-day used by half the navies in the world, the rest using something very similar. it is curious to note that the german variety is called the schwartzkopf, the meaning of which is "blackhead." the smooth, steel, fish-like body consists of two separate parts, which can be detached from each other. the front part called the "head" is made in two kinds, the war-head and the peace-head. the former contains a large quantity of explosive and the mechanism for firing it on coming into contact with any hard body. it is only used in actual warfare. the peace-head is precisely the same shape and weight as the other but is quite harmless, so that when it is fitted to the torpedo the latter can be handled with perfect safety, a valuable feature during the frequent exercises through which our sailors go in their efforts to attain perfection in the use and handling of these valuable weapons. so much for the head. the body of the torpedo contains a beautiful little engine precisely similar to a steam-engine but on a small scale, which is driven by compressed air, a store of which is carried in a compartment provided for the purpose. then there is an automatic steering apparatus controlled by a gyroscope, the purpose of which is to keep the torpedo steered in precisely that direction in which it is started. if any outside force, such as current or tide, deflects it from its path the gyroscope, acting through a rudder at the tail, brings it back again. like the submarine, moreover, it has rudders which can steer it upwards or downwards and these again are controlled automatically so that having been set to travel at a certain depth the torpedo can be launched into the water with the practical certainty that it will descend to that depth and then maintain it. this remarkable result is attained by the use of two devices acting in combination, namely, a hydrostatic valve and a pendulum. either of these alone would set the thing going by leaps and bounds, at one time above the required depth and at another equally below it, and so on alternately. the hydrostatic valve consists of a flexible diaphragm, one side of which is in contact with the water outside, so that since the pressure increases with increasing depth, it is bent inwards more or less as the depth varies. this deflection is made to control the horizontal rudders. suppose that things are adjusted for the rudders to steer the torpedo horizontally when at a depth of ten feet: if it descends to twelve feet the increased deflection of the diaphragm will so change the rudders that they will tend to steer slightly upwards: if, on the other hand, it rises to eight feet the contrary will happen, with the result that it will descend. as has been said already, this alone would result in a continually undulating course, so the pendulum is introduced to check the too decided changes in direction and so produce a practically straight course. there is an interesting feature, too, about the propeller. it is "twin" but not, as in ships, two screws side by side. instead, they are both set upon one shaft or rather upon two concentric shafts, like the two hands of a clock. the hour-hand of a clock is on one shaft, a solid one, which itself turns inside the shaft of the minute hand, which is hollow. the propellers of the torpedo are likewise, one on a tubular shaft and the other on a solid shaft inside it. these two shafts turn in opposite directions, but since the two propellers are made opposite "hands" they both equally push the torpedo along. the reason for this arrangement is that without it the action of a single propeller would tend to turn the torpedo over and over. instead of the torpedo turning the propeller the propeller would to some extent turn the torpedo. the range of the torpedo depends, clearly, upon the quantity of compressed air which it is able to carry and that is limited by certain practical considerations. one of these is the space required to store it, and a very ingenious method has been invented whereby the limited supply is eked out so that in effect its quantity is increased. as the air is used up the pressure in the air-chamber naturally falls and when that has gone on to a certain extent chemicals come into action which generate heat, whereby the remaining air is raised in temperature. this, of course, increases the volume of air and the result is just the same as if a greater quantity were carried to commence with. the explosion is brought about by the pressing in of a pin which normally projects from the nose or point of the torpedo, and it would be very easy to knock this accidentally, causing a premature explosion, were not precautions taken to prevent it. these take the form of a little fan which is turned by the water as the torpedo proceeds through it. the firing-pin is locked by means of a screw so that it cannot be operated until it has been released by the withdrawal of the screw and that can only be done by the fan. thus, while on the submarine or whatever ship carries it, the torpedo cannot be fired: it only becomes capable of explosion after it has passed through the water for a certain distance, far enough, that is, for the fan to have undone the screw. thus the maximum of safety is combined with the maximum of sensitiveness when the object aimed at is struck. there are other forms of torpedo which although little used are by no means lacking in interest. there is the brennan, for example, at one time much favoured in the british navy. its propellers were operated from the shore, by the pulling of two very flexible steel wires. the effect was much as if the thing were driven by reins, as a horse is driven. on shore was a powerful engine with two large drums on which the wires could be wound and by which they could be drawn in at a very high speed. by pulling one more than the other the torpedo could be steered and it is said that such a torpedo could be made to follow a ship through complicated evolutions and fairly hunt it down, finally overtaking and striking it. the purpose of such weapons was clearly to defend a port or roadstead against enemy craft which might try to rush in. it needed to be controlled by someone perched upon an eminence of some sort from which he could watch its course and guide it as might be necessary. compare this with the ease with which the whitehead torpedo is just slipped into the water and then left to itself. a submarine has in its bows either one or two tubes just large enough to hold the torpedo easily. at the front is a flap door which is kept closed while the torpedo is slipped into its place. then the similar door at the rear of the tube is closed after which the front one can be opened. water of course flows in and surrounds the torpedo when this takes place and a little push from some compressed air sends it floating out. as it emerges from the tube the engines are set going automatically and likewise the gyroscope which steers it, after which it continues to proceed in a straight line, soon seeking and maintaining the desired depth. other vessels besides submarines have submerged torpedo-tubes like these, but others again have tubes of a different kind. these are fixed on the deck and have the advantage that they can be pointed in any direction almost like a gun, whereas the others are either fixed rigidly in the vessel or are only slightly movable. in the case of these other tubes the torpedo is shot over the side of the ship, off which it leaps into the water somewhat like a man diving. one other kind of steerable torpedo may be mentioned because of its ingenuity, although so far as is known it is not in actual use. it is called the armorl, a compound of the names of its inventors, messrs. armstrong and orling. it is controlled by wireless telegraphy in a very simple but effective manner. the rudder which steers it is connected to a small crank in such a way that as the crank revolves it turns the "helm" first to one side and then to the other. suppose that, to commence with, the rudder is straight: a quarter of a revolution of the crank sets it to one side, say, the right: another quarter sets it straight again: a third quarter sets it to the left: and so on. the crank is turned by a wound-up spring, the effect of which is, however, normally held in check by a catch. when a wireless impulse comes along the catch is lifted for a moment, the crank slips round a quarter of a turn and the rudder is moved accordingly. every impulse changes the position of the rudder and by sending suitable series of impulses it can be set as desired and changed at any moment. a difficulty with all these guided torpedoes is that they must carry some indication whereby their place at any moment will be made visible to the man in control. a little mast and flag would do, for example, but it would be a fair mark for the enemy's guns and being shot away would leave the torpedo uncontrollable. the same objection seems to apply to the wireless antenna which this last type must carry with which to receive their guiding impulses, but that can be made light and almost invisible. it is when the thing is clearly visible that the danger arises, and, of course, to serve its purpose it must be visible. the way in which this difficulty was overcome by messrs. armstrong and orling is a beautiful example of ingenuity. they cause a jet of water to be blown upwards by compressed air, something like the spouting of a whale, so familiar in books of natural history. that forms a mast which is clearly visible, yet the enemy may blaze away at it to their heart's content without damaging it in the least. chapter xix what a submarine is like the precise details of the submarines of our own navy or of any other for that matter are wrapped in mystery. those who might tell do not know and those who know must not tell. true, there have been fully descriptive articles in many books and magazines, but it may be safely asserted that those descriptions are nothing more than what this chapter avowedly is, reflections by the authors on what such a craft must be like, more or less. it is just as well that this should be clearly understood, and the following description does not claim to be any more than that. just as an aeroplane follows the general design of a bird of the swallow type, which soars without flapping its wings, so the submarine necessarily follows much the lines of a fish. it has fins which help to guide it, it has rudders which compare with the fish's tail, and while it cannot use either fins or tail to push itself along as the fishes do, it has one or more propellers which serve that purpose admirably. it is rather remarkable that, while we often imitate nature very closely, there is one very important mechanical feature which almost invariably distinguishes man-made schemes from natural ones--that is, that man uses rotary motion for many purposes whereas nature practically never does. to be perfectly honest, the natural mechanisms are far too difficult for us to copy or i expect we should do so. for example, watch a goldfish and see how cleverly it uses its tail. man could never hope to make anything so perfect as that tail. absolutely under its owner's control, it serves a double purpose of propelling and steering in a manner which is equally beautiful and impossible to imitate. for certain definite purposes, however, a rotary propeller is quite as good as anything which the fishes can show us. as a straightforward, simple, forward-pushing device it is equal to anything that a fish possesses. it has to be given that one duty, however, and no other, the steering being the task of a separate device, the rudder. there again, too, we see how nature does two things with one kind of mechanism while we have to use two, for the fish steers itself to right and to left with its tail in a vertical plane, but if it wants to steer upwards or downwards it twists its tail over somewhat towards a horizontal plane. the submarine, however, needs two distinct and separate rudders, one for right and left steering and one for up and down, the latter being generally a pair, one each side the vertical rudder for the sake of symmetry and balance. so we find that a submarine has a body like that of a fish except that it is rather more rotund, perhaps, than the most portly fish usually seen. it has certain fixed fins projecting from its sides, which together with the rudders enable it to be guided. it has also certain long fins called bilge keels for the purpose of keeping it from rolling too much. also, it has one or more propellers and the two kinds of rudder already referred to. a fish, never wishing to get outside itself and walk about upon its own upper surface, needs no deck, in which the submarine differs from it, for the crew require somewhere where they can enjoy a breath of fresh air when opportunity offers. it is not a very commodious place, one could not exactly take a long walk upon it, nor even play deck-quoits, but on the back of the submarine there is an undoubted deck where the men can get out and upon which they can stand when she is on the surface. a fish, moreover, takes little heed of things upon the surface: its interests lie almost entirely below. hence it has no conning-tower or periscope, but without these the submarine would be useless. the former is a little oblong tower something like a chimney, which projects upward from the deck, while projecting to a higher level still is the tall hollow mast with prism and lenses at the top called the periscope, through which the commander of the submarine, himself comparatively inconspicuous, can sweep the horizon for enemies or victims. the problem of constructing a ship to travel under water is quite different from making one to travel on the surface in the ordinary way. when deep down the pressure of the water tending to crush the vessel is something enormous. roughly speaking, it is a pound per square inch for every two feet in depth, so that if a submarine dives to a depth of fifty feet the water presses upon it with a force of about twenty-five pounds upon every square inch of its surface. on a square foot, that means over a ton. and there are many square feet of the surface in even a small submarine. consequently, the whole shell of the ship has to be of very substantial construction. moreover, there are curious strains which come upon the vessel when it dives to which surface ships are not subject. all these have to be reckoned as far as possible and allowed for. the size of the modern submarine is not known with any certainty, but we may put it down roughly as two hundred feet long and at least a thousand tons displacement, which means that that is its actual weight, including everything and everybody on board, when it is just about to submerge. of course, a submarine, alone among boats, has two "tonnages." when it is on the surface it is comparatively light. indeed, "running light" is the technical term describing it when it is riding upon the surface of the water like an ordinary ship. then, by increasing its weight, it can cause itself to sink until the little promenade or deck called the superstructure is just submerged and little can be seen above water except the conning-tower. that is termed the "awash" position, and it is clear that it is then displacing more water than when running light, and hence its displacement tonnage must be more. when it is desired to sink, the vessel is set in motion in the awash position, from which it is gradually steered downwards by the diving rudders, until only the periscope, or it may be not even that, is left showing above. then the maximum of water is being displaced. it is then actually displacing more than its own weight of water, for if left to itself it will rise rapidly and it is only the speed and the action of the rudders which keep it under. we see, then, that the action of a submarine in submerging itself is a real genuine dive. it sinks upon an even keel until it is awash, after which it goes under "head-first," just as a swimmer does. it also rises bow first. this tendency to rise when the combined action of movement and rudder ceases constitutes a very considerable safeguard, for should anything happen to the propelling machinery the vessel simply rises. at one time weights were attached to the under side of the hull which could be detached from the inside so that in the event of the vessel descending against the wish of her commander, she could be simply forced to the surface by the great excess of buoyancy resulting from shedding these "safety weights." of course, in the event of a serious perforation of the hull neither of these forms of surplus buoyancy would bring the boat up. let us now trace the operations of diving right through, supposing that our submarine is first running light. in that condition she is being driven by the oil engines which constitute her primary propelling power. the hatch or door at the top of the conning-tower is open, as also, it may be, is the one lower down, just at the foot of the tower. men are standing upon the little platform formed by the tower, and one of them is steering by means of a wheel, keeping his eye, moreover, upon a compass also provided there, that being in fact, to the submarine when light, what the bridge is to the ordinary steamer. other members of the crew may be upon the superstructure or deck just below, while others again are down inside, attending to their duties there. under these conditions the inside is by no means an unpleasant place. plenty of fresh air comes down through the open hatches and through the ventilators, it being drawn down through the latter by means of a fan. preparations are then made for submerging. the hand-rail along the little deck is removed. the upper steering wheel and compass are covered up or shut away into the coverings provided for them, the wireless apparatus, if provided, is removed and the mast shut down. hatches are securely closed and valves in the ventilating pipes are closed. in fact every opening is shut and made water-tight so that no risk shall be run of diving prematurely and taking in water accidentally. the quarter-master transfers himself to the steering wheel inside, where he has another compass to guide him, not of the magnetic variety this time but a cunning application of the gyroscope. the commander, too, having descended before the last hatch was closed down, takes his stand at the eyepiece of the periscope, since that is now his only means of seeing what is going on above. another man takes his place at the wheel which controls the diving rudder, conveniently near to which is a pressure gauge so connected to the outer water that as the ship dives its depth is recorded upon its dial: that in effect is to him what the compass is to his comrade at the other wheel. with every movement of men there needs to be adjustment made to keep the ship on an even keel. otherwise she would go down by the bow or down by the stern according as the men's weight shifted towards either end. this is arranged for by two small tanks formed in the structure of the vessel, one at either end. connected together by pipes and controlled by compressed air, water can be transferred from one to the other at will and so the balance be always kept. quite simple manipulations of a valve serve to accomplish this delicate balancing performance. it is perhaps not of such importance at this stage, but in a moment, when the whole vessel will be under water, a very little movement indeed will suffice to upset the equilibrium. next water ballast is admitted into certain other spaces in the ship's structure, these spaces being called, because of the use to which they are put, ballast tanks. gradually, as the incoming water increases the weight of the vessel, she sinks until she is awash. then the diving rudders are set at the right angle (a pendulum serves to show the angle at which the boat points) and down she goes. as the pressure-gauge indicates the approach to the required depth the rudder is flattened out a little until just that position is found which keeps the boat under at the desired depth. of course, when all hatches and openings were closed the supply of fresh air was cut off and after that the crew had to depend upon the air contained in the submarine. also, they had to stop the engine, for without air it cannot work: nor can it work without giving off fumes, which, if admitted to the ship, would soon suffocate the crew. just before closing up, therefore, the engine is stopped and electric motors take up the task of driving the ship. now suppose that, while running submerged, the commander espies, through his periscope, an unsuspecting enemy. he tries forthwith to get as close as he can. having noted the direction of the vessel and which way she is going and as far as possible her speed, he submerges more deeply, in all probability, lest the white streak which represents the wake caused by his periscope should reveal his presence. for possibly she is one of those terrible destroyers in fair fight with which he has but a poor chance. his only safety lying in complete invisibility, he therefore submerges entirely, trusting to his calculations to lead him in the desired direction. thus he attempts and, if he have good luck, he succeeds in getting reasonably near to his foe. then he must try so to man[oe]uvre that his bow shall at the right moment be pointing towards the quarry, for his torpedo tubes are in the bow and they are fixed, or nearly so at all events, so that he can only fire them in a direction nearly, if not precisely, in the direction of the centre line of his ship. nay, he must do even more than that. it will not do to fire the torpedo directly at the ship, for a torpedo is comparatively slow. suppose it is capable of forty miles an hour, and the other ship is a mile away: the torpedo will take ninety seconds to reach it. and in that time it may have travelled a mile or so itself. so the submarine man has to allow for that. occasionally, therefore, he comes up a little for a moment in the hope of getting a sight of the enemy while not revealing his own presence. or perhaps he may decide to risk being seen and caught, trusting to the chance of getting his own blow in first. he needs to be a most resourceful man, with clear and keen judgment and supreme self-confidence, or he can never grapple with such a task. supposing, then, that he succeeds in getting undetected into a favourable position, as he thinks; at the critical moment the other ship may change its course, and the whole scheme goes awry. perhaps he then tries to follow, but that is bad, for the end of a ship is not nearly so good a target as the side and the part hit is not so vulnerable. the first torpedo may, however, so disable the vessel as to give him chance to get into position for a second and better shot. anyway, when he thinks he has got his best chance he lets off a torpedo, immediately diving to be safe out of harm's way for a while. then he rises to see the result of his work. if successful he would be sure to hear the sound, for water is an excellent sound-conductor and a submarine is like a gigantic telephone ear-piece. it must be a nerve-racking job at the best of times, for the submarine is a very vulnerable craft. a member of the crew of a german submarine captured during the war is reported to have said that out of ten submarines attacked, nine were sunk. that may or may not be true, but it is certain that a very little damage, which would hardly affect an ordinary craft, is enough to sink a submarine. that is because, in order to be able to sink at will, the reserve of buoyancy has to be very low. an ordinary surface ship has at least as much of its bulk above water as below: hence it can take on board a weight of water almost equal to, if not exceeding its own weight before it sinks. at the best a submarine has not more than per cent of excess and so it sinks if water amounting to only per cent of its weight gets into it. in other words, the reserve in one case is at least per cent: in the other at most per cent. during the war a submarine saw and tried to track down, somewhat after the manner described, a slow, steady-going collier which plies between london and the north carrying coal for a london gas-works. having, as it thought, got into position for discharging its torpedo it rose for a final look when (it must have been to the amazement of the crew) the collier was seen making straight for them. what they really thought no one will ever know, for the collier had the best of the encounter, the submarine was crushed beneath her blunt bows and sank, no doubt, for ever. the mere fact that a slow, clumsy, heavily-laden collier could ever thus vanquish an up-to-date submarine is eloquent testimony to their vulnerability. many a submarine, too, has fallen to the shells of an armed fishing trawler simply because the shells of the latter were so much quicker in action than a torpedo, coupled with the fact that one well-placed shot, by preventing a submarine from diving, renders it almost helpless. some submarines, however, have a gun on the deck, so that when light they can fight like a destroyer or other lightly-armed vessel. the gun shuts down into a cavity when the vessel goes below. the periscope, which forms such an important part of the submarine's equipment, is really very little more than a telescope. on the top there is a little mirror, or more probably a prism or three-cornered piece of glass which serves precisely the same purpose in that it reflects exactly as a mirror does. this is so placed that it throws the light from distant objects down the tube into the interior of the ship. in the tube are lenses very like those of an ordinary telescope and the light may be made to throw a picture upon a little table or screen or else can be viewed through another prism directly by the eye. in either case the periscope is just like an ordinary telescope set up vertically with a prism at the top so that it can "see" at right angles, and possibly another at the bottom so that the picture can be viewed at right angles to the direction of the tube. the latter is necessary only for the convenience of the observer, since otherwise he would have to be upon his back to look up the tube. the whole apparatus can be rotated mechanically and a scale forms a means of measuring the precise direction in which the prism or mirror is at any moment pointed. this is useful for measuring roughly the position of the "prey," and it may even be used as a rough means of getting the range. another feature is the gyroscope compass, to which a passing reference has already been made. it is fairly well known that an object when spinning exhibits properties quite different from those which it possesses when still. a boy's top is a familiar illustration, for while spinning it will stand perfectly steady, supported only upon a tall peg with a sharp point, a pose which it will absolutely refuse to maintain when not spinning. now fortunately for the present purpose it so happens that one of the peculiarities of the gyroscope or spinning-wheel is this: that if mounted in a certain way it persists in placing its axis in the same plane as that in which the axis of the earth lies. if you imagine for a moment a plane or flat surface of which the earth's axis forms a part you will see that wherever that plane cuts the surface of the earth will be a line in a north and south direction. consequently, if any horizontal object has its axis in that same plane it, too, will always point north and south. a wheel, small but heavy, is therefore mounted with its axis supported horizontally upon a little metal raft floating in a trough of mercury and driven round at a very fast speed by a small electric motor fixed in it. whatever its position may be to start with, this revolving wheel will in a short time slew itself round upon the supporting mercury until its own axis is in the same plane as the axis of the earth: until, in fact, its axis points due north and south. arrived in that position, it will remain there no matter how the ship upon which it stands may turn. since it floats freely upon mercury the motion of the ship has little effect upon it, so little indeed, that it has no difficulty in following its own peculiar bent, even if the ship be describing circles. the advantages of this are various: two of them may be stated. first, the apparatus points to the actual geographical north and not to the magnetic north, which is a slightly different direction and one, moreover, subject to frequent variation. second, it is absolutely unaffected by the presence of iron or other magnets, a very fruitful source of error in the magnetic compass when used upon an iron ship close to steel guns and electrical machinery. surrounded with iron as is the compass in the interior of a submarine, the magnetic needle practically refuses to work at all, so that, although employed on other ships, it is on the submarine that the gyro-compass finds its most important field of usefulness. the pressure-gauge or manometer, which indicates the depth, is probably not different in any respect, except in its dial, which is marked in feet-depth instead of in pounds-pressure, from the pressure-gauge used on steam boilers. it has either a little cylinder with a piston in it which the water presses upwards more or less against the force of a spring, a diaphragm which is bent more or less, or a bent tube which tries to straighten itself out as the pressure inside it increases. the older submarines derived their power from petrol engines similar to those which drive high-power motor-cars, but nowadays these have given place to engines of the type invented by the unfortunate diesel who, after making one of the most brilliant and successful inventions of modern times, committed suicide, apparently in the height of his success. these engines burn cheap heavy oil in place of the costly refined petrol: they are exceedingly reliable and well-behaved, and are free from many of the troubles which affect the petrol motor. they are referred to in more detail in another chapter. in twin-screw boats there are two distinct engines, one for each propeller. each engine, too, is coupled to a dynamo by which it can generate electric current, which is stored in large accumulator batteries until required and then withdrawn to drive the dynamos as motors while the boat is submerged, for if you feed a dynamo with current it becomes a motor. a great deal of work is done, on the submarine, by compressed air, of which large stores are carried in strong steel cylinders. for example, the ballast is ejected from the ballast tanks, when the boat is required to rise, not by pumps but by the action of compressed air from a cylinder. the simple movement of a tap thus suffices to blow out the water in a very short time. the torpedoes, too, are given their initial push which sends them out of their tube into the water by compressed air. in other ways, too, compressed air is employed and to facilitate its use there are many tubes and valves whereby the cylinders and other apparatus are connected. like all things human, these tubes and valves have their defects, which in this case means that they leak somewhat, but this defect is of value since the leaking air helps to keep pure and sweet the air inside the boat which, when submerged, the men have to breathe. to what extent it is used i do not know, but it is a fact that certain chemicals, caustic soda for instance, have the power to absorb the objectionable carbonic acid which makes tightly-shut rooms seem "close" and uncomfortable, and if something of that sort be employed, it, together with the fresh air which thus leaks in by accident, is undoubtedly enough to enable men to live under water for many hours at a stretch. on the other hand, several instances are on record in which strong healthy young officers have, after a course of service on a submarine, been found to be suffering seriously from chest and lung trouble, brought on, no doubt, by long spells of duty in this unhealthy atmosphere. it used to be the custom to keep some white mice on board a submarine to give warning of the impurities in the air. being very susceptible to the smell of petrol vapour, which used to be a source of considerable danger, and also to carbonic acid, these little creatures squeaked with anxiety some time before the conditions became really dangerous, thus giving timely warning. there is an instrument, however, which will give an indication of this sort and probably it has been brought in to reinforce the mice if not actually to supplant them. this interesting little instrument, which the gasworks people use for detecting leakage, consists of a metal drum with a porous diaphragm. normally the pressure of the atmosphere upon the diaphragm is equalled and balanced by the pressure of the air inside the drum, but if there be gas in the air this balance is upset, the diaphragm is bulged in or out and a finger is thereby moved, which movement forms a measure of the amount of gas present. in conclusion, we may fittingly take a glance at what happens when a submarine founders. only a few years ago this occurred with lamentable frequency, though now it is quite rare except under the actual stress of warfare. several interesting schemes were therefore invented to give the men at least a sporting chance of getting to safety. one was to make the conning-tower detachable and water-tight, so that the men could get into it, fasten themselves in and float up to the surface. the practical difficulties in the way prevented this being a success. for example, if sufficiently detachable in an emergency it was difficult to make it sufficiently water-tight in ordinary use. another and better device provided the men with small helmets and jackets, like the dress of a diver very much simplified. one of these for each man was stored in an accessible place in the boat and partitions were devised inside the hull itself in order that whatever happened there should be air entrapped somewhere wherein the men could live for a time and put on their helmets in safety. then, thus provided, they could crawl out through the hatchway and float up to the surface. arrived there they could inflate their jackets by blowing into them, open the window of the helmet and float upon the surface in comparative safety until rescued. this apparatus was largely installed in british submarines and a tank was built at portsmouth where the men could actually practise with it under water. a third device may also be mentioned. this takes the form of a buoy fitted into a recess in the boat's upper surface. sufficient line is coiled up inside it and when the occasion arises it can be released from inside. this does not in itself save the crew but it may go a long way towards ensuring their safety by letting those above know just where the sunken craft is and guiding them in their efforts to raise it. the torpedo, the weapon without which the submarine would be practically useless, is dealt with in another chapter. enough has been said here to give a good general idea of these interesting craft, their fittings, their uses and the sort of life which befalls those who man them. chapter xx the story of wireless telegraphy for ages people were puzzled as to the nature of light. pythagoras, that old greek who invented what we now call the forty-seventh proposition of euclid, thought that the bright body shot off streams of tiny particles which literally hit the observer in the eye. sir isaac newton thought the same, but for once "the greatest scientist of all time" was wrong. for when the danish astronomer, romer, discovered that light travelled at the rate of somewhere about , miles per second it dawned upon people that it was scarcely believable that particles of any kind could by any means be made to move so fast. so they set about searching for a new explanation, and they found it in the idea that light was conveyed from the bright body to the observer's eye by means of waves, and as there cannot be waves of nothing they had to imagine a something to exist in all the vacant spaces of the universe capable of forming the waves of light. this something was called the luminiferous ether or light-bearing ether. we can neither see, feel, taste nor hear it. our senses tell us nothing about it. indeed, if it does really exist it must be so very different from anything that we do know by our senses that one is often tempted to doubt its existence. still, it explains so many things which are otherwise unexplainable and enables us so correctly to reason from one phenomenon to another that our reason forces us to accept it as a fact, at all events until something better comes along. this wave theory in regard to light was finally set at rest by the curious discovery about a century ago by dr. thomas young of london that if two lots of light were brought together in a certain way they produced darkness. now if a ray of light were a stream of particles, two such rays would inevitably and always, if added together, produce a doubly brilliant light, and under no conceivable circumstances could they do anything else. but two lots of waves can, and do, under the proper conditions, neutralize each other so as to produce rest. this mutual action upon each other of two sets of waves can be very simply exhibited by two violin strings tuned to _nearly but not quite the same note_. if you have a violin handy, try it and you will find that when either string is plucked separately it gives a steady continuous sound, but if both be plucked at the same time they give a throbbing sound. that is because, periodically, as one string is coming up the other is going down, so that they neutralize each other, while at other times, owing to the fact that one is vibrating faster than its fellow, both are rising and falling together. when neutralizing each other there is a momentary silence, while in between the silences come the times when both are acting together and therefore producing a specially loud sound. and so as the vibrations of the faster keep gaining upon those of the slower string one hears a continual crescendo and then diminuendo repeated over and over again. so two sets of sound waves sometimes produce silence. and in like manner two sets of light waves can be made so to "interfere" (that is the technical term) that together they produce darkness. so for a hundred years or more people have, generally speaking, accepted the idea that light consists of waves in a medium called the ether. heat also is brought to us from the sun and from any distant hot body by similar means, the difference between light waves and heat waves being simply in their wave length or the distance apart. the different colours of light, too, are to be accounted for by different wave lengths. you have of course seen how a magnet can act upon a piece of iron at a distance. you may, too, have tried the experiment of jerking a magnet past a piece of wire, thereby generating an electric current in the wire. both those things need, for explanation, that we assume the existence of a something invisible and undetectable by our senses between the magnet and the iron and between the magnet and the wire, by which the action of one is conveyed to the other. so people imagined another ether capable of acting like a link between the magnet and the iron and between the magnet and the wire. now just about half a century ago a celebrated professor of cambridge university brought all these facts about light, heat, magnetism and electricity together and by skilful reasoning showed that but one ether sufficed to explain all these things. he showed how magnetic and electric forces acting together could produce waves like those of light and heat. and finally he demonstrated by figures that waves so formed would necessarily travel at the very speed at which light and heat are known to move. this is known as the electro-magnetic theory of light. and not content with showing the nature of things already known, professor clerk-maxwell added a prophecy that there were other waves in existence of longer wave length, which no one then knew how to make or to detect if made. following up this prophecy many investigators sought these waves, and the first to find them was professor hertz of carlsruhe in germany. fortunately for his position in the minds of english people he died before the war, so that his name is not sullied by the stupidities of which german professors in more recent days have been guilty. on the contrary, his writings show him to have been a kindly, modest, genial soul, and particularly gratifying is his generous assertion in one of his books that had he not himself discovered these waves he is certain sir oliver lodge would have done so. he seemed quite anxious to share the credit of his discovery with his "english colleague" as he called him. let us see then how these "hertzian waves" are produced. in the year a dutch experimenter named cuneus thought he would try to electrify water. he got a glass flask and filled it with water into which he let drop one end of a chain connected to an old-fashioned frictional electrical machine. thus he stood with the flask in his hand while a friend worked the machine. after a short time the friend stopped and cuneus took hold of the chain to lift it out, when to his astonishment he received a shock which knocked him over, broke his flask and sent him to bed to recover. unwittingly cuneus had invented what became known thereafter as a leyden jar, leyden being the town in which he lived. it consisted, you will notice, of two conductors, the water and his hand, with an insulator, the glass, in between. to understand or rather to give ourselves a useful working explanation of how such an apparatus comes to be charged we must first imagine that everything contains a certain normal amount of electricity which we can by certain means add to or take away from at will. when we add some to anything we say we have given it a positive charge: when we subtract some we say that we have imparted a negative charge. clearly, if we add some to one thing we must first obtain it from something else, and if we take some away from one thing we must do something with what we have taken, and so we add it to something else. therefore whenever we charge anything positively we must charge something else negatively and vice versa. now the ease with which we can thus charge two bodies seems to depend upon their nearness to each other, so that the easiest things to charge are two plates of metal separated by the thinnest possible insulator. modern leyden jars are usually formed of a thin glass jar with a lining inside and out of tinfoil. the leyden jar is, however, only one form of the piece of electrical apparatus known as an electrical condenser, and many other forms exist. for example, a flat sheet of glass with foil above and below, or several such piled one on top of another. an eminent electrician whom i know has recently made some of two tin patty pans put bottom to bottom, nearly but not quite touching, the whole being enclosed in a solid block of paraffin wax. and i might describe many other forms, but whatever they may be every one is essentially two conductors with an insulator between. now when a condenser has been charged its charges remain for a considerable time unless they be given a chance to escape. suppose you have a charged condenser and that you take a wire and with it touch simultaneously both the conductors, the surplus on one "plate" will rush through the wire and make good the deficiency upon the other; it will thus in an instant become discharged. now several scientific men had suggested, before hertz's time, that when that occurred something else happened too. they thought that the charge did not simply rush from one plate to the other instantly, but that it oscillated to and fro for a period; that the surplus rushing round overshot the mark, so to speak, and not only made up the deficiency but caused a surplus on the opposite plate, after which this new surplus rushed back again through the wire, doing the same thing, though to a less and less degree, several times over before a condition of perfect rest was reached. to use a simple analogy, it was thought that the surplus swung to and fro like the swinging of a pendulum. we know that a pendulum swings because of its inertia, and electricity possesses a property very like inertia which, it was thought, would cause it to behave in the same way. the ether waves travel at the rate of , miles per second, so that if, as was thought, a sudden current of electricity gives rise to a wave, currents which succeed each other at the rate of one per second would produce waves , miles apart. a hundred currents per second would give a wave length of miles. a thousand per second would give miles. but a thousand succeeding currents per second are difficult to produce, and miles is so very much greater than the tiny fraction of an inch, which is the length of the light and heat waves, that hertz had to find some way of making currents succeed each other faster even than a thousand times per second. so he thought of these oscillating currents which were supposed to occur when a condenser was discharged, and he rigged up a condenser with an induction coil and a spark gap in a way which he thought would do what he wanted. there is not room here to explain the induction coil, indeed it is so well known that it will be quite sufficient to state that it is an apparatus which takes steady current from a battery and gives back instead a lot of little spurts or splashes of current at a rate of, say, fifty or one hundred splashes per second, according as we adjust the little vibrating spring which forms a part of the coil. we can so connect this to a condenser that each splash will charge it up; and we can combine with it a spark-gap, that is to say, a gap between two knobs, so that every time it is charged it immediately discharges again through this gap. thus we may have, say, one hundred splashes per second, and each splash is followed by several oscillations across the air-gap, the oscillations taking place at the rate of perhaps a million per second. each series of oscillations is called a "train." now a million per second gives a wave-length somewhere about what hertz wanted, so he arranged his apparatus as just described. for a condenser he used two metal plates a little distance apart, the air between forming the insulating material. he set up his apparatus in a large room, and having started the coil he moved about with a nearly complete hoop of wire, the ends of which nearly touched. working in darkness he found after a while that sometimes he could see little sparks, very small but just visible across the gap between the ends of the bent wire. those sparks only occurred when the coil was in action, and so he knew that the one was the result of the other's work. by careful painstaking experiment he found that the sparks were unquestionably caused by waves, and that the waves moved with the same speed as light, also that they could be reflected and refracted just on precisely the same principles as those which control light. moreover, he measured the wave-length. at first sight it seems incredible that anyone could measure the distance apart of waves which travel at such a speed as , miles per second, but fortunately, by a special application of "interference," it is possible to make the waves stand still and tamely submit to measurement. an example of this can be seen by simply tapping a glass of water, when the ripples being reflected off the sides interfere with each other and become stationary. stationary waves are half the wave-length of the original waves, and by using this method hertz was able to make a measurement which at first sight seems beyond the bounds of possibility. thus hertz discovered how to make the waves which clerk-maxwell had predicted and also how to detect them when made. it was not long before the idea arose of using these waves for signalling to a distance. many experiments were made but with no very striking success until when marconi first came to england. hertz had noticed that the farther apart he placed the plates of his condenser the farther could he get his tell-tale spark, so marconi saw that the plates of his condenser, too, must be far apart. he also found that the earth could be used as one of the plates, that in fact there was a great advantage in so using it. so, one plate having to be the earth itself and the other removed as far as possible from it, the tall masts of the wireless antenna came into being. [illustration: listening for the enemy. special sensitive cylinders are sunk into the ground to which the usual telephonic apparatus is fixed. this enables the sappers to detect any underground operations by the enemy.] when marconi came to england he was taken under the kindly wing of sir william preece, the veteran engineer of the post office, and the facilities which sir william was able to give no doubt helped largely in his subsequent rapid progress. after a few experiments in london he got to work across the channel, sending messages from the north foreland lighthouse to wimereux on the coast of france, including congratulatory messages between the french authorities and good queen victoria. a little later he was signalling from niton in the isle of wight to the mainland and to the far west at the lizard. the first wireless telegram which was actually paid for was sent by lord kelvin, the father of cable telegraphy, from niton to the mainland, whence it was transmitted by land wires to sir george stokes. this incident, so interesting because of its marking a stage in the history of this great invention, also because of the persons concerned, occurred in . but marconi was quickly increasing the range of his apparatus far beyond anything already mentioned. he journeyed in the italian warship _carlo alberto_ as far north as cronstadt and as far east as italy, keeping in communication with england all the time. then he crossed the atlantic, again keeping up communication with england the greater part of the journey. raising his wires to a great height by means of kites he was soon able to signal from nova scotia to the great station just previously built at poldhu in cornwall, and then wireless telegraphy from land to land across the great ocean became an accomplished fact. we all know how things have progressed since then. a telegram by marconi is as commonplace to-day as a telegram by cable. the british government is now engaged upon a series of stations dotted about the globe in such a way that every part of the widely separated british empire shall be in constant touch with every other part by wireless telegraphy. in other words, the range of the system has now become such that nothing further is needed. the british admiralty has a few wires slung to posts on the top of the offices in london, and those few wires enable touch to be maintained with ships. as almost every intelligent newspaper reader in great britain knows, the germans were in the habit, during the war, of sending news to the united states by wireless telegraphy, which news was always picked up by the admiralty installation and circulated to the british newspapers, often to the amusement of their british readers. the famous _emden_, too, which had such a run of success until it encountered the australian cruiser _sydney_, met its end entirely through the intervention of wireless telegraphy. these incidents give us a good idea of the usefulness of wireless in naval warfare. in military work it is used chiefly in connection with air-craft, but of that more will be said in another chapter. [illustration: transmitter. receiver. diagram showing the principle by which the aerials are connected to the apparatus.] chapter xxi wireless telegraphy in war the history of this wonderful invention has been described in the preceding chapter. now we will see how it is applied in warfare. let us take first its uses in connection with the navy. the aerial wires or antenna are stretched to the top of the highest mast of the vessel. where there are two masts they often span between the two. ships which have masts for no other reason are supplied with them for this special purpose. in the case of submarines, the whole thing, mast and wires included, is temporary and can be taken down or put up quickly and easily at will. the stations ashore are equipped much after the same manner as are the ships, except that sometimes they are a little more elaborate, as they may well be since they do not suffer from the same limitations. for example, the well-known antenna over the admiralty buildings in london consists of three masts placed at the three corners of a triangle with wires stretched between all three. however these wires may be arranged and supported they are very carefully insulated from their supports, for when sending they have to be charged with current at a high voltage and need good insulation to prevent its escape, while, in receiving, the currents induced in them are so very faint that good insulation is required in order that there may not be the slightest avoidable loss. the function of these wires, it will be understood, is to form one plate of a condenser, the earth being the other plate and the air in between the "dielectric" or insulator. in the case of ships "the earth" is represented by the hull of the vessel. it makes a particularly good "earth" since it is in perfect contact with a vast mass of salt water, and that again is in contact with a vast area of the earth's surface. salt water is a surprisingly good conductor of electricity. in land stations "earth" consists of a metal plate well buried in damp ground. the whole question of conduction of electricity through the earth is very perplexing. there seems to be resistance offered to the current at the point where it enters the ground, but after that none at all. consequently the resistance between two earth plates a few yards apart and between similar ones a thousand miles apart is about the same. though the earth is made up mainly of what, in small quantities, are very bad conductors indeed, taking the earth as a whole it is an exceedingly good conductor. that makes it all the more important that where the current enters should be made as good a conductor as possible, and the construction and location of the earth plates is therefore very carefully considered so as to get the best results. wires, of course, connect the antenna to the earth, thereby forming what is called an "oscillatory circuit." the ordinary electric circuit is a complete path of wire or other good conductor around which the current can flow in a continuous stream. an oscillatory circuit is one which is incomplete, but the ends of which are so formed that they constitute the two "plates" of a condenser. in that way, according to theory, the circuit is completed between the two ends by a strain or distortion in the "ether" between them. a continuous current will not flow in such a circuit, but an alternating, intermittent or oscillating current will flow in it in many respects as if there were no gap at all but a complete ring of wire. at some convenient point in this oscillatory circuit are inserted the wireless instruments, one set for sending and the other set for receiving, either being brought into circuit at will by the simple movement of a switch. in small installations the central feature of the sending apparatus is an induction coil operated by a suitable battery or by current from a dynamo. connected with it is a suitable spark gap consisting of two or three metal balls well insulated and so arranged that the distance between them can be delicately adjusted. this is generally done by a screw arrangement with insulating handles, so that the operator can safely adjust them while the current is on. the current from the battery or dynamo to the coil is controlled by a key similar to those used in ordinary telegraphy, the action being such that on depressing the key the current flows and the coil pours forth a torrent of sparks between the knobs of the spark-gap, but on letting the key up again the sparks cease. since the sparks send out etherial waves which in turn affect the distant receiving apparatus it follows that a signal is sent whenever the key is depressed. moreover, if the key be held down a short time a short signal is sent, but if it be kept depressed for a little longer a long signal is sent, by which means intelligible messages can be transmitted over vast distances. certain specified wave lengths are always used in wireless telegraphy. that is to say, the waves are sent out at a certain rate so that they follow each other at a certain distance apart. in other words, it is necessary to be able to adjust the rate at which the currents will oscillate between the antenna and earth. every oscillatory circuit possesses two properties which are characteristic of it. these two properties are known as capacity and inductance. it is not necessary to explain here what these terms mean precisely. it is quite sufficient just to name them and to state that the rate at which oscillations take place in such a circuit depends upon the combined effect of these two properties. consequently, if we can arrange things so that capacity or inductance or both can be added to a circuit at will and in any quantity within limits, we can within those limits obtain any rate of oscillation which we desire and consequently send out the message-bearing waves at any interval we like; in other words, we can adjust the wave-length at will. fortunately, it is very easy to add these properties to an oscillatory circuit in a very simple manner. a certain little instrument called a "tuner" is connected up in the circuit and by the simple movement of a few handles the desired result can be obtained quickly even by an operator with but a moderate experience. he has certain graduated scales to guide him, and he is only called upon to work according to a prearranged rule in order to obtain any of the regulation wave-lengths. as a matter of fact, the instruments are not directly inserted in the antenna circuit, the circuit that is which is formed by the aerial wires, the earth and the inter-connecting wires. instead, the two sides of the spark-gap are connected together so as to form a separate circuit of their own, the local circuit as we might call it, and then the two circuits, the antenna circuit and the local circuit, are connected together by "induction." a coil of wire is formed in each, and these two coils are wound together so that currents in one winding induce similar currents in the other winding, and by that means the oscillations set up by the coil in the local circuit are transformed into similar oscillations in the antenna circuit. this transformation involves certain losses, but it is found in practice to be by far the most effective arrangement. both the circuits have to be tuned to the desired wave length, but that is done quite easily by the operation of the handles in the tuner already referred to. it is to this coupling together of tuned circuits that marconi's most famous patent relates. it is registered in the british patent office under the number , and hence is known as the "four sevens" patent. it has been the subject of much litigation, which proves its exceptional importance, and it is to the fact that the marconi company have been able to sustain their rights under it that they owe their commanding position to-day in the realm of wireless telegraphy. the receiving apparatus also consists of a separate local circuit which can be coupled when desired to the antenna circuit through a transformer. the same simple tuning arrangement is made to affect this circuit also, so that the "multiple tuner," as the instrument is called, controls all the circuits both for sending and for receiving. the oscillations caused in the antenna circuit by the action upon it of the etherial waves flowing from the distant transmitting station pass through one winding of the transformer and thereby induce similar oscillations in the local receiving circuit which are made perceptible by the receiving instrument. reference has already been made to the original form of receiving apparatus called the coherer. this, however, has been very largely superseded by the magnetic detector of marconi and the crystal detector, both of which make the signals perceivable as buzzing sounds in the telephone. the magnetic detector owes its existence to the fact that oscillations tend to destroy magnetism in iron. it is believed that every molecule of iron is itself a tiny magnet. if that be so one would expect every piece of iron to be a magnet, which we know it is not. we can always make a piece of iron into a magnet by putting another magnet near it, but when we take the other magnet away the iron loses its power, or to be precise it _almost_ loses it. a piece of even the best and softest iron having once been magnetized retains a little magnetic power which we call "residual" magnetism. all this is easily explained if we remember first that a heap of tiny magnets lying higgledy-piggledy would in fact exhibit no magnetic power outside the heap. if, however, we brought a powerful magnet near them it would have the effect of pulling a lot of them into the same position, of arranging them in fact so that instead of all more or less neutralizing each other they could act together and help each other. then the heap would become magnetic. on removing the powerful magnet, however, a lot of the little ones would be sure to fall down again into their old places and so the heap would at once lose a large part of its power, yet some would remain and so it would retain a certain amount of "residual" magnetism. if, then, you were to give the table on which the little magnets rest a good shake, the "higgledy-piggledyness" would be restored and even the "residual" magnetism would vanish. so we believe that the little molecules lie just anyhow, wherefore they neutralize each other and the mass of iron is powerless. when another magnet comes near, however, they are more or less pulled into the right position and the iron becomes magnetized. when the magnet is removed the magnetism which it produced is largely lost, and if last of all we give the iron a smart blow with a hammer even the residual magnetism vanishes too. now, oscillations taking place in the neighbourhood of a piece of iron possessing residual magnetism have much the same effect as the blow of a hammer. probably because of its rapidity an oscillating current shakes the molecules up and strews them about at random, entirely destroying any orderly arrangement of them. and marconi used that fact in detecting oscillations. two little coils of wire are wound together, one inside the other. through the centre of the innermost there runs an endless band of soft iron wire. stretched on two rollers this band travels steadily along, the motive power being clockwork, so that it is always entering the coil at one end and leaving it at the other. as it travels it passes close to two powerful steel magnets, so that as it enters the coil it is always slightly magnetized. the oscillations are passed through one of the two concentric coils, and their action is to remove suddenly the residual magnetism in that part of the moving wire which is at the moment passing through. that sudden demagnetization then affects the second of the concentric coils, inducing currents in it, not of an oscillating nature but of an ordinary intermittent kind which can make themselves audible in a telephone which is connected with the coil. this arrangement, then, causes the oscillations, which will not operate a telephone, to produce other currents of a different nature which will. the reason why oscillations have no effect in a telephone is no doubt because they change so rapidly, at rates, as has been mentioned already, of the order of a million per second. the telephone diaphragm, light and delicate though it is, is far too gross and heavy to respond to such rapidly changing impulses as that. in the magnetic detector the difficulty is overcome by making them change the magnetic condition of some iron wire which change in turn produces currents capable of operating a telephone. the crystal detector achieves the same result in another way. there are certain substances, of which carborundum is a notable example, which conduct electricity more readily in one direction than the other. most of these substances are crystalline in their nature, and hence the detector in which they are used gets its name. carborundum, by the way, is a sort of artificial diamond produced in the electric furnace and largely used as a grinding material in place of emery. it is easy to see that by passing an oscillating current, which is a very rapidly alternating current, through one of these one-direction conductors one half of each oscillation is more or less stopped. oscillations, again, are surgings to and fro: the crystal tends to let the "tos" go through and to stop the "fros." that does not quite explain all that happens. it is not fully understood. the fact remains, however, that by putting a crystal in series with the telephone the oscillations become directly audible. the term "in series with" means that both crystal and telephone are inserted in the local receiving circuit so that the currents in that circuit pass through both in succession. the resistance of the crystal being very great, a special telephone is needed for use with it. it is quite an ordinary telephone, however, except in that it is wound with a great many turns of very fine wire and is therefore called a high-resistance telephone. whichever of these detectors be used, then, the operator sits, with his telephone clipped on to his head, and with his tuner set for that wave length at which his station is scheduled to work, listening for signals. he may go for hours without being called up, and in the meantime he may hear many signals intended for others. he knows they are not for him, since every message is preceded by a code signal indicating to whom it is addressed. under the conditions of warfare there is far more listening than there is sending, but when a station wishes to send the operator just switches over, cutting out his receiving apparatus and bringing his transmitting instruments into operation, and, having adjusted his tuner for the wave length of the station to which he desires to communicate, he flings out his message. in war-time, too, there is much listening for the signals of the enemy, which is the reason why as few messages are sent out as possible. in this case the man sits with his telephone on his head carefully changing his tuner from time to time in the endeavour to catch any message in any wave-length which may be travelling about. this searching the ether for a chance message of the enemy must be at times a very wearisome job, but it must be varied with very exciting intervals. on aircraft it is clear that no earth connection is possible. the antenna in that case usually hangs vertically down from the machine or airship. under these conditions the valuable effect of the earth connection is of course lost. as will be remembered, the earth-connected apparatus sends forth waves which cling more or less to the neighbourhood of the earth's surface, while those from the non-earthed apparatus as used by aircraft tend to fly in all directions. the latter apparatus is in fact almost precisely similar to that which hertz used in his first experiments. hence the range is comparatively poor under these conditions, but it is good enough for very valuable work in warfare. communication between airman and artillery by this means has revolutionized the handling of large guns in the field. to save the airman from the accidental catching of his aerial wire in a tree or on a building there is sometimes fitted a contrivance of the nature of wire-cutters so that he can at any moment cut himself free from it. so far we have dealt almost exclusively with the naval and aerial use of this wonderful invention. it is employed, though in a lesser degree, in land warfare. in such cases the aerial may be merely a wire thrown on to and caught up on a high tree. more elaborate devices are used, however, such as a high telescopic tower similar to the tall fire-escape ladders of the fire-brigades. anyone who has seen the ladders rush up to a burning building and commence to erect themselves almost before they have stopped will realise how valuable such a machine must be for forming a temporary and easily movable wireless antenna. the power which causes the tall tower to extend itself erect in a few seconds is compressed air carried in cylinders upon the machine, while the power which takes it from place to place is a petrol motor, and since the latter can be made to re-charge the storage cylinders it is clear that in it we have a marvellously convenient adjunct to the wireless apparatus. but apart from such carefully prepared devices the men of the royal engineers are past masters in the art of rigging up, according to the conditions of the moment, all sorts of makeshift apparatus whereby signalling over quite long ranges can be carried on by "wireless." such improvisations, could they be recorded, would constitute war inventions of a high order. chapter xxii military telegraphy telegraphy plays a very important part in warfare. the commander of even a small unit cannot see all that his men are doing or suffering, but is kept posted by telegraph or telephone, while communication between units depends very largely indeed upon such means. wireless telegraphy, in land warfare, is largely devoted to communication between aircraft and the artillery batteries with which they are working, and to avoid interference with that important work telegraphy _by wire_ is employed for most other purposes. right at the front this communication is kept up by means of that type of instrument which the soldiers call a "buzzer," for the good and sufficient reason that that is really what it does. in view of the fact that soldiers speak of their home-land, for which they are enduring all manner of risk and hardship, and to which they are longing to return, by the contemptuous-sounding name of "blighty," we might expect that what they call a buzzer has nothing whatever to do with making sound, but in this case the name describes the thing very aptly. its sole purpose and intent is to make buzzing sounds of either long or short duration. perhaps the simplest way in which i can describe this useful and interesting invention is by telling you how you can make one for yourself. it is nothing more than an electric-bell mechanism connected up in a certain way. as most people know, an electric bell contains a magnet made of two round pieces of iron placed parallel and yoked together at one end by means of a third piece of iron, generally flat, while on to each round piece is threaded a bobbin of insulated wire. the iron becomes a magnet when, and only when, current flows through the wire. near the free ends of the round pieces, or the poles of the magnet, to use the orthodox term, is placed another little piece of iron called the armature, carried upon a light spring. when the current flows in the wire the armature is pulled towards the poles against the force of the spring, but when the current ceases the magnet lets go and the armature, urged by the spring, swings back again. behind the armature is a little post through which passes a screw tipped with platinum, and in operation this screw is advanced until its point touches a small plate of platinum carried by the armature. connection for the current is made to this "contact screw" whence it passes to the armature, through the spring to the wire upon the magnet, through that and away. on completing the circuit, then, as when you push the button at the front door, current flows and energizes the magnet. a moment later, however, the armature moves, breaks the contact with the screw and stops the current. then the magnet lets go and the armature springs back, making contact once more and setting the current flowing again. these actions repeat themselves over and over again quite automatically, and the hammer which is attached to the armature vibrates accordingly. that is the ordinary familiar electric bell. cut off the hammer and you have a buzzer with which excellent telegraph signals can be sent. so much for the sending apparatus. the receiving device is simply an ordinary telephone receiver. there is sometimes a little confusion in people's minds because of this. a telephone is used, but it is used as a telegraph instrument. the sounds heard in it are not speech but long and short buzzing sounds which, being interpreted according to the code of morse, deliver up their message. now the telephone, by which term is always meant the receiver (the sending part of the telephone apparatus being a "microphone"), is one of the most remarkable pieces of electrical apparatus which the mind of man has ever conceived. it is astonishingly robust. with ordinary care you cannot damage it. there is no need whatever to keep it wrapped in cotton wool or even to keep it in a case. without harm you can put it loose in your pocket. within reason you may even drop it a few times without harm. its cost is only a few shillings. yet its sensitiveness is simply astounding. it will detect the existence of currents so small that any other type of instrument to deal with them has to be extremely delicate and costly. it consists of a magnet fitted into a little brass case with a little piece of soft iron fixed on each pole, while each of these "pole-pieces" is surrounded by a tiny coil of wire. the lid of the box is a disc of thin sheet-iron, and things are so proportioned that the pole pieces nearly but not quite touch this sheet-iron "diaphragm." an outer cover, generally of ebonite, serves to catch the sound-waves caused by any movement of the diaphragm and convey them to the ear. the action of the permanent magnet tends to pull the diaphragm inwards--to bulge it in slightly--so that it is in a state of very unstable equilibrium. because of this instability a very tiny current flowing through the coils and either adding to or subtracting from the strength of the magnet is sufficient either to draw it still closer or to let it recede a little. whether it approaches or recedes depends upon the direction of the current through the coils and makes no difference to the sound. the movement of the diaphragm is great or small according as the current is strong or weak: any variation in the current causes a perfectly corresponding movement in the diaphragm. even those very small and very complex changes in air-pressure which give us the sensation of sound are very faithfully followed by this simple bit of sheet iron, so that the sounds are faithfully reproduced for our benefit. at the moment, however, we are not dealing with speech but with buzzing sounds, which are very simple, being merely a rapid succession of "ticks." the telephone, it must be remembered, takes no notice of a steady current, except when it starts and stops. but each time that occurs it gives a tick. hence, if we start and stop a current very rapidly, or to use another term, make it rapidly intermittent, we get a rapid succession of ticks, and if rapid enough they form a humming, buzzing, or singing sound. if very fast you can get a positive shriek. the precise character of the sound depends entirely upon the rapidity of the intermittency. now it is easy to see that the current passed through an electric-bell mechanism is intermittent. it is the very nature of the apparatus to make the current intermittent. it is by so doing that it works. therefore, if we pass the same current which works a bell through a telephone we get a buzzing or humming sound according to the speed of interruption. the vibration of the armature itself also causes a humming sound of a similar note or tone to that heard in the telephone, but it must be clearly understood that these two sounds are quite different. one is the result of mechanical motion, the other is the result of electrical action producing motion in the diaphragm of the telephone. when you listen in the telephone it is not that you hear the sound of the bell mechanism, you hear another sound altogether, although, since both have the same origin, both have the same note or tone. take any old bell, then, which you may happen to have or be able to procure and an old telephone such as can be bought for a shilling or so at a second-hand shop, and these together with a pocket-lamp battery can be formed into a military field telegraph. the way to connect these up is to run a wire from one of the copper strips on the battery to one of the terminal screws on the bell, a second wire from the other screw on the bell to one of the flexible wires of the telephone, which may be a mile away if you like, a third wire returning from the other flexible wire of the telephone back to the battery. to send signals all you have to do is to touch the return wire upon the second strip of the battery for short or long intervals, thereby making the dot-and-dash signals. or a simple form of key can easily be contrived for the purpose. every time you complete the circuit the buzzer will buzz, in other words, it will permit an intermittent current to pass round the circuit and a buzzing or humming sound will be heard in the telephone, no matter how far away it may be. this arrangement, however, involves two wires between the two stations, and in practice only one is usual. this could be arranged by running the third wire from the telephone not back to the sending station but to a peg driven into the earth, connecting the second pole of the battery in like manner to an earth pin at the sending end. thus the return wire would be done away with and the earth utilized instead. to do that, unfortunately, you would need to increase very greatly the power of your battery, for although the path through the earth itself offers practically no resistance at all to the current, the actual places where the current passes to earth and from earth, especially if they be simply temporary pegs driven into the ground, offer very considerable resistance, so that in order to get enough current through the buzzer to make it work would need a powerful battery. there is another way, however, by which that difficulty can be overcome quite easily. probably all my readers know something of the induction or shocking coil, wherein intermittent currents in one part of the coil induce intermittent currents of a somewhat different kind in another part of the coil. few people realize, however, that the same effect can be attained, within limits, in a single coil such as the winding upon the magnet of an electric bell. watch a bell at work and you will notice a bright spark at the place where the contact is made and broken. that spark is due to a sudden rush of current which takes place in the coil when the original current is stopped, in other words, when the contact is broken. it is as if the coil gives a rather vicious "kick" every time the current is stopped. there is not much electricity in this "kick" current, but it is very forceful, and it is that force which makes it actually jump across the gap after contact has been broken, thereby causing the spark. now we can capture most of that energy and make it go a long distance through wire and through earth carrying our messages for us. to do this we need to make a new connection on the bell at the place where the spring is fixed. then we can make two circuits. one is between the two terminal screws of the buzzer, in which circuit we must include the battery and the key. that circuit will be just as it would be if we were fixing the buzzer to announce our visitors at the front door. the second circuit is different: lead one wire from the new connection just made and take it to a pin driven into the ground. if the ground is just a shade moist a wire meat-skewer will answer admirably. then lead a second wire from that one of the two terminal screws which is connected directly to the winding of the magnet (not to that one which is connected to the contact screw) and lead it away to your distant station. at the other station connect the single wire to the telephone as before and the other "end" of the telephone to a pin in the earth. you will find that the "kicks" from the coil will traverse wire and earth-return quite easily, while there will be no difficulty about working the bell, for the small battery will do that quite well. in fact, after cutting the hammer off and so converting a bell into a buzzer, i have got quite good results with one-third of a pocket-lamp battery. the little flat batteries so familiar to us all if divested of their outer covering will be found to consist of three little dry cells any one of which is quite capable of sending messages in the way described as far as any amateur is likely to want to send. to be able to send and receive at either end it is only necessary to connect both telephones and both coils "in series." that is to say, connect one end of the coil to the long wire and the other to one wire of the telephone, the other wire of the telephone being connected to earth. if this be done at both ends signals can be sent and received both ways. many young readers, scouts, members of cadet corps and the like, will find great pleasure and interest in constructing and working this apparatus, besides which it shows precisely what the official "buzzer" is like. although beautifully made, of course, the army instrument is essentially just that and little more. it has an additional feature, however, namely, a microphone, so that when desired it can be used as a speaking telephone for transmitting verbal messages. it also has the bottom of the case made of a brass plate so that earth pins are often unnecessary, the case dumped down upon the ground being a good enough "earth." buzzers are not used for very long lines: forty miles is about the limit, and usually the distances are very much less. that is because long lines rather object to rapidly changing currents flowing through them. why, you say, what currents could change more rapidly than telephone currents carrying speech, yet they go for hundreds of miles? true, but in that case there are two wires, flow and return, twisted together all the way, under which conditions they interact upon each other in such a manner as to abolish the difficulty to which i am referring. buzzers and indeed all the telegraph circuits consist of one wire and the earth, which is quite different. another objection to the buzzer is that it is apt to interfere with others. for instance, if two buzzer sets are at work anywhere near each other and the wires run parallel for a distance they will be able to hear each other's signals as well as their own. if two such sets are earthed near together the same thing happens, the signals of one are picked up by the other, a very annoying state of affairs for the operators. right at the front, however, amid the rough and tumble of the actual fighting, the buzzer is supreme. the wire used is sometimes plain copper enamelled: more often, however, it is a mixture of steel and copper strands twisted together and covered with a strong insulating covering. this is carried on reels in properly fitted carts which can advance at a gallop, paying out the wire as they go. the inner end of the wire is connected to the axle of the reel in such a way that a telegraphist in the cart is in communication all the time with the starting-point, the wheels of the cart providing him with an earth connection. when laying these wires another interesting little device is often used--an earth plate on the operator's heel. thus, while carrying the wire along, laying it as he goes, he can still be in communication with the starting-point every time he puts his heel to the ground. for the longer lines away back from the fighting the methods employed are just the same as those of peace. "sounder" instruments are used, wheatstone automatic machines, duplex and quadruplex systems, whereby two and four messages are sent simultaneously over the same wire, indeed all the contrivances and refinements of the home telegraph office are to be found in the field telegraph offices. but it would hardly be fitting to describe them here. some information on the subject will be found in "the romance of submarine engineering," where their application to cable telegraphy is dealt with. a genuine speciality of warfare, however, is the methods by which makeshift arrangements can be set up, such as sending telegraph messages over a telephone wire without interfering with the latter. imagine that a and b are the two wires of a telephone circuit running (for the sake of simplicity) from north to south. at the south end i connect a telegraph set to both wires while you, we will imagine, do the same at the north end. you and i can then signal to each other without the telephone man hearing us at all. to him the two wires are flow and return, to us they are both "flow," the earth being our return. thus our signals never reach his instruments at all. but when we each connect to both his wires, do we not "short-circuit" or connect them to each other, thereby destroying his circuit? no, we are too cunning for that. we first connect the two wires a and b together with a coil of closely wound wire, having, in scientific language, much "inductance," and telephone currents shun a coil of that sort. then we make our connection to the centre of that coil so that our currents go to a through half the coil and to b through the other half. this enables us to use the apparatus without interfering with the other fellow at all. for this, by the way, we must use ordinary telegraph instruments. we cannot employ a buzzer, for these coils which we use to obstruct the passage of the other man's telephone currents would also obstruct the changing currents from a buzzer. the slow, steady currents of the ordinary telegraph pass quite easily, however. again, suppose you and i want to communicate by buzzer and there is already a wire laid passing both of us but in use already for ordinary telegraphy. we only need to add a "condenser" to our apparatus and we can manage all right. as a matter of fact, the service instruments generally have condensers partly for this very purpose. each of us then connects his instrument to the wire and to earth, after which we can signal to each other while the telegraphist is unaware of the fact. the reason that is possible is the reverse of what we saw just now. there we had a coil which obstructed buzzer or telephone currents but passed ordinary telegraph currents. here we use condensers which will pass our buzzer currents but not the ordinary telegraph currents. thus the soldier telegraphist is up to many dodges whereby he can save time or save material, both of which may be precious. as in bridge building and other branches, he needs to be quick to adapt himself to circumstances, to utilize to the full any opportunities which may present themselves. but his principles are quite simple and do not differ in any way from those of peace. it is only in applying them that the differences arise. chapter xxiii how war inventions grow the inventor of one of the devices described later on in this book modestly claims that he did not invent it but it invented itself. what he means is that he worked step by step, from simple beginnings, each step when complete suggesting the next. to put it another way, many inventions grow in the inventor's mind, sometimes from unpromising beginnings, the most unlikely start often resulting in the most successful ending. who has not heard of the "tanks" which made such a name for themselves when they suddenly appeared in northern france? the british commander-in-chief simply mentioned that a new type of armoured car had come into use with good results, but the newspaper men set the whole non-teutonic world laughing with droll stories of huge monsters suggestive of prehistoric animals which suddenly began to crawl through the slime and mud of the battle-field, pouring death and destruction upon the astounded germans. how they came to be called tanks no one seems to know clearly but that is how they will be known for all time. it has been suggested that they were so named because tank is one of the things which they certainly are not, the intention being thereby to add to the mystification of the enemy. that is by the way, however, for we are more concerned with the things than with their name. their precise origin is wrapped in mystery but we have it on excellent authority that they grew out of the peaceful "tractor," originally intended to drag a plough to and fro across a field in the service of the farmer. an illustration of one of these interesting machines will be seen in this book which will well repay a little study. it consists of a steel frame or platform upon which is mounted a four-cylinder petrol engine with a reservoir above to carry the supply of fuel and with a radiator in front to cool the water which keeps the engine from becoming too hot. towards the back of the vehicle is what is called by engineers a worm-gear, the function of which is to reduce the one thousand revolutions per minute of the engine to somewhere near the slow speed required of the wheels of the tractor. this worm-gear is simply a wheel with suitable teeth on its edge in conjunction with a screw so made that its thread can engage comfortably with the teeth. this latter, because of the wriggling appearance which it presents when it is revolving is called a worm, which name it gives to the whole apparatus. both wheel and worm are mounted in bearings which form part of a case enclosing the whole so that dirt is excluded while, the case being filled with oil, ample lubrication is assured. the shafts of both wheel and worm emerge through holes in the case. it will easily be seen that each single turn of the worm will propel the wheel one tooth, so that if the wheel have fifty teeth, for example, the worm will turn fifty times to the wheel's once. thus a great reduction in speed is attainable with this device and what is equally valuable, a great increase of power also results. thus a small engine, working at a high speed, is able by means such as this to pull very heavy loads at a slow speed. it is evident, however, that the reduction necessary in this case cannot be attained even by a worm-gear, for there are other wheels visible which show that ordinary tooth gearing is also employed to reduce the speed even further before it is applied to driving the tractor along. practically all the other gear which we see in the picture, above the platform, consists of the controlling apparatus. the object with a screw-like appearance just behind the engine is not really a screw but is a flexible coupling joining the engine to the worm-gear, its "flexibility" enabling the two to work sweetly together even though by chance they may get just a little out of line with each other. but by far the most interesting part of the machine is that which is underneath the frame. at one end we see a pair of ordinary-looking wheels and between them the gear for swinging them to right or left for steering purposes, but even they are somewhat unusual, since they will be seen to have flanges or rims round the edge for the purpose of biting into the earth, so that they may be able to guide the machine the better in soft ground. the back wheels, however, are quite peculiar, for there is a pair on each side and round each pair is a chain somewhat after the fashion of a huge bicycle chain. the links of this chain are made of tough steel and they are two feet wide, so that each chain forms a broad track upon which the machine moves. the links of this track-chain will be seen to be tooth-shaped so that they grip or bite deeply into the yielding ground. the teeth, moreover, are shaped like those of a saw and they are so placed as best to help the tractor forward. between the two chain-wheels will be noticed a row of smaller wheels and it is these which largely support the weight of the machine, the chains forming tracks upon which they run. the wheels actually turned by the power of the engine are the chain-wheels, and their action is such as to keep on laying down and then taking up again two broad firm tracks along which, at the same time, they keep propelling the other wheels which carry the weight above. the effect, really, is just as if the machine had a pair of driving wheels two feet wide and of enormous diameter, of such diameter, in fact, that the part in contact with the ground is almost flat. thus there is always a broad bearing surface to prevent sinking in soft earth, while the tooth-like shape of the links gives a firm hold even under very adverse conditions. this form of construction has been used for some few years now under the name of "caterpillar" or "centipede" traction. a glance at the picture will explain those names, particularly if the chain-driven part of the vehicle be imagined to be a little longer than it is in the particular machine shown. the idea of armouring a vehicle with bullet-proof plates is also a fairly old conception. armoured trains were used again and again during the south african war, and armoured motor-cars became familiar to most people. in the case of cars, however, the armour could only be very light and the guns carried were limited practically to a single machine-gun and some rifles. moreover, the operations of a car are very largely confined to such places as are blessed with good roads or smooth plains. an armoured car of the older type would have cut a poor figure amid the shell-holes and mine-craters of northern france. it would have had to keep to the roads and so it was little used. but the idea of an armoured vehicle was good and a good idea is never entirely lost. sooner or later some genius puts it to good use. thus the idea of an armoured vehicle came to be associated with the idea represented in the centipede tractor and the result was the tank. why not armour a large centipede, said someone? make it very big and strong. it will trample down the barb-wire entanglements as if they were grass. if made long enough and rightly balanced it will pass over the trenches like a moving bridge. nothing but a direct hit from a heavy gun will do it much harm. for, observe, the mechanism can be entirely covered up, all the vital parts can be well protected, and the chain tracks can be so strong as to be almost undamageable. [illustration: _by permission of_ _messrs. foster and co._ the parent of the tank. here we see an innocent agricultural tractor with caterpillar hind wheels. it is out of such a machine that the idea of the formidable tank was evolved.] thus we get a glimpse of the growth of this simple peaceful agricultural machine into one of the most striking mechanical achievements of the great war. another thing which seems to have grown more or less of itself is the bomb or grenade. before the time of modern accurate fire-arms hand-grenades were quite a recognized weapon. the "grenadier" guards owe their title to this fact and carry the design of a bursting grenade upon their uniforms. yet until a few years ago everyone thought that such things were done with for ever: that with modern rifles soldiers would seldom get near enough together to use grenades and that if they did the bayonet would be the weapon to be used. when, however, the germans were driven back at the battle of the marne and found themselves compelled to entrench in order to avoid further disaster, it soon became evident that neither rifle nor bayonet nor both together entirely filled the needs of the infantryman. since the allies were not powerful enough to drive the germans from their trenches forthwith, they, too, had to entrench. gradually the trenches drew nearer and nearer together and at the same time skill in entrenching increased. thus a time soon arrived when both rifle and bayonet were largely useless for purposes of offence. then the hand-grenade came into its own again, for the men could throw it from the depths of their own trench high into the air in the hope that it would fall into the trenches of the enemy. the call for these quickly produced the supply. there is little need to describe them here, for who among us has not intimate friends who used them again and again? this much may be said, however. they were little hollow balls of cast iron, sometimes chequered so that when they burst they flew into many fragments. inside was a charge of explosive with a suitable fuse or firing mechanism. some were fixed to the end of a stick for convenience in throwing, while others were simply handled like a cricket-ball. they serve to show us, however, how an old idea may under fresh conditions be revived into what is practically a new invention. another example of the same sort is the revival of chain mail. who, but a few years ago, would have thought it possible that modern soldiers would go to battle sheathed in shirts consisting of little metal plates cunningly connected by wire links and so overlapping each other as to form a perfect shield for all the more vital parts of the body? to what extent these were worn i do not know, for the british soldier is a very shy fellow in some ways and there are few who would not be a trifle ashamed to let their comrades see them thus garbed. they would feel that it was a confession of fear, and however afraid an englishman may be he will never admit it. he is really a pious fraud, for the more he is really afraid inwardly the more courageously will he act just to hide his fear. since, however, the bullet-proof helmet is worn officially nowadays there seems no reason whatever why the bullet-proof waistcoat should not be adopted officially too. it is very light and very flexible and it is claimed that it is quite effectual in stopping rifle and machine-gun bullets. thus we see in what different ways inventions grow. some are warlike from first to last, like the gun and the torpedo, but we find a vast range of peaceful things growing into implements of warfare, as the farmer's tractor has been developed into the tank, while not less interesting are the old ideas revived and adapted to modern needs, exemplified by the hand-grenade and the chain armour. chapter xxiv aeroplanes of all the great inventions perhaps the most striking because of the suddenness with which they have come upon us are those relating to the navigation of the air. until a few years ago "to fly" was taken to typify the impossible. now we see men flying every day and there is scarcely anyone who has not had a friend or relative in the flying corps. recent experience, too, has shown that this one invention has revolutionized warfare in several important departments, particularly in the use of very heavy long-range artillery. huge guns, hidden in a hollow or behind a hill, have been set to throw shells on to an unseen target, while a man in an aeroplane above watches the result and signals back by wireless. thus by the aid of aircraft the power of artillery has been immensely increased. again, aircraft have superseded cavalry for reconnaissance purposes, that is to say, for finding out the enemy's strength and preparedness. only a few years ago a general who needed information as to his foe would send forward a screen of cavalrymen who would cautiously creep forward until, judging by what they could see and by what sort of a reception they got, they were able to form some idea of the foe's arrangements. nowadays, however, the airmen sail over his head and take photographs of him and his positions. a careful commander to-day not only screens his men and his guns from view along the land but he also tries his best to make them invisible from above. and, speaking of inventions, the soldiers have shown a degree of ingenuity in making themselves and their guns invisible which almost merits a volume to itself. the airman, therefore, goes up and sails over the enemy. he may be simply observing for some particular unit of artillery, or he may be sent to find out things generally--nothing in particular, but anything which seems likely to be of use. he looks out intently and carefully, moreover he not only looks with his own eyes: as has just been mentioned, he takes photographs, which can be developed on his return and studied minutely at leisure. he may, or may not, according to circumstances, send back reports of an urgent nature by wireless telegraphy. in some cases these duties are all carried out by one man, but in others there are two: one the pilot who looks after the working of the machine, and the other the observer whose whole attention can thus be devoted to scrutinizing the enemy. of course, when aeroplanes go on scouting expeditions like this they are apt to be attacked by the enemy both by anti-aircraft guns and also by other aeroplanes. the former can only be met by high speed and the steering of a somewhat erratic course so as to confuse the gunners and prevent them from taking good aim. the other aeroplanes, however, must be met by actual fighting. the only way to defeat them is to go for them and attack them, a machine-gun being the most usual weapon. besides those who go up for definite scouting operations or to "spot," as it is termed, for the artillery, there are other machines whose sole duty is fighting. these go up for the purpose of driving off those machines of the enemy which may come prying, or to keep the ground, so to speak, for the scouting machines and enable them to do their work unmolested. then there are, of course, still others whose function is to carry out bombing expeditions. all these different duties call for different types of machine, but i do not propose to go into the differences here since changes are so rapid in this particular field that only the general principles remain unchanged for any length of time. what has just been hinted, however, as to the different kinds of work which the aeroplane is called upon to do will enable the reader to see why different kinds of machines are needed. so far we have only spoken of aeroplanes. there is a kind of machine sometimes called a hydroplane but which we are gradually getting to call a sea-plane. the latter term is much to be preferred, since the former is also in use to denote a special kind of high-speed boat. now a sea-plane only differs from an aeroplane in that it has floats instead of wheels. the aeroplane has wheels to enable it to alight upon and arise from the ground: the sea-plane has floats by which it can alight upon the water and arise from the water also. in some instances this float idea is made so pronounced a feature of the machine that it becomes a flying boat. sea-planes are therefore really only aeroplanes specially adapted for a certain purpose. they are really just as much aeroplanes as those machines which go by that name. it is somewhat unfortunate, therefore, that a separate term is used to describe them. but there it is: names grow in a very curious way, not always in a logical way, and a name having once stuck to a thing in the mind of the public it is very difficult to make any alteration. aeroplanes, then, may be said to include a subdivision known as sea-planes, and for the rest of this chapter what is said of aeroplanes will apply to sea-planes also. without doubt, these are the fastest vehicles in existence. many of them can exceed a speed of a hundred miles an hour. consequently, the pilot lives while he is aloft in the equivalent of a furious gale, and it would seem as if that must produce such a degree of cold as to be almost unendurable. moreover, it appears that this cold is almost as bad in summer as in winter, for the temperature high up in the air is much the same all the year round. the consequent muffling up with thick clothes and gloves, while it mitigates the cold, must add greatly to the pilot's difficulties in managing his machine. the protection for his eyes and ears which is made necessary by the same conditions must likewise add to his difficulties or at any rate to his discomfort. on the other hand, the effect of gliding at a very high speed over a perfectly smooth track, for that is in effect what it is, is very exhilarating, which to some extent compensates for the other drawbacks. moreover, the handling of such a machine in the air, particularly if a fight is included in the programme, appeals strongly to the sporting instincts of young men, so much so that during the war, in spite of the dangers and hardships, and the continual loss of life, there was never a dearth of men anxious to become pilots. owing to these considerations, too, it follows that the best aviators are to be found in those lands where the people are most devoted to sports. hence, as we have it on excellent authority, the young men of great britain and the united states, with their love of adventure and their strong sporting instincts, make better men in the air than the germans. but really we are more concerned here with the machines than with the men, so let us get back to our subject. the aeroplane consists of one or more "planes" or surfaces which, on being held at a certain slant and then pushed forward rise or remain supported in the air. therefore the plane or planes need to be supplemented by first a tail and horizontal rudder to hold them at the correct slant, and an engine and propeller to drive them forward. it is not necessary, here, to go over the history of the aeroplane, as that has been told so often. it is not of much interest, moreover, except to those who are particularly concerned with small details of construction, for in a general way the machine of to-day is very little different from one pictured by sir george cayley a hundred years ago. it is only the perfecting of the details which has transformed a dream into a very real thing. so we will look only at the construction of the aeroplane in a general way, to do which we must first consider why it flies at all. it is due to the well-established law that action is always accompanied by a reaction equally strong and in the opposite direction. when a gun is fired the explosion not only drives the shell forward but equally drives the gun itself backward. the backward energy of the recoil is precisely equal to the forward energy of the shell. the two are equal but in opposite directions. in like manner a rocket ascends because the hot gases from the paper cylinder blow forcibly downwards, thereby producing an equal reaction upwards. now the plane of a flying machine is held with its forward edge a little higher than its rear edge, so that as it is pushed along it tends to catch the air and throw it downwards. hence the reaction tends to lift the plane upwards. when the machine starts the reaction is not sufficient to overcome gravity, which is trying to hold the machine down upon the ground, but as the speed increases and the air is thrust down with more and more violence the point is ultimately reached when the reaction is able to overcome gravity and the machine ascends. when a sufficient height is reached, the pilot alters the position of his horizontal rudder or "elevator" so as to make the position of the plane more flat, with the result that it throws the air downwards to a less extent, and the reaction is thereby reduced until it is only just sufficient to keep the machine at the same height. to descend, the position of the plane is made still flatter, the reaction is reduced still more and gravity has its way once again, bringing the machine to earth. in other words, the machine acts under the influence of two forces: the downward pull of gravity and the upward reaction due to the action of the machine in throwing the air downward. the former never varies, the latter can be varied by the pilot at will: he can increase it by increasing the speed or by increasing the tilt of his plane or planes: he can reduce it by diminishing the speed or the tilt. since generally speaking the speed of his engine will remain constant, he rises, remains at the same height or falls, at will, by the simple manipulation of the elevator through which he can change the tilt or inclination. most machines have a fixed tail as well as a horizontal rudder or elevator, the same being so set that it tends to keep the plane in a certain normal inclination, the elevator being called in to increase that or diminish it as may be required. in addition to the elevator there is also another rudder of the ordinary kind, such as every ship and boat has, for guiding the machine to right or left. the elevator steers up and down, the rudder steers to either hand. provision is also made for balancing the machine. this is sometimes in the form of two small planes hinged to the main plane, one at either end, connected together and to a controlling lever by wires, so that by their use the pilot can steer the right-hand side of his machine upwards and the left-hand downward, or vice versa, if through any cause he finds a tendency to capsize. in some machines the same effect is produced not by separate planes but by pulling the main plane itself somewhat out of shape, but precisely the same principle is involved. the planes are usually made with a slight curve in them, so that they may the better catch the air and "scoop" it downwards, so to speak. they usually consist of fabric specially made for the purpose, stretched upon a light wooden framework. the whole framework is usually of wood with metal fittings frequently made of aluminium for the sake of lightness. the engines have been mentioned in another chapter. the propeller which is almost invariably fixed directly upon the shaft of the engine has two blades only and not three as is usual with those of ships. precisely why this should be so is not clear, but experience shows that two-bladed propellers are preferable for this work. they are made of wood, several layers being glued together under pressure, the resulting log being then carved out to the required shape. this makes a stronger thing than it would be if cut out of a single piece of wood. all parts, engine, elevator, rudder and balancing arrangement, are controlled by very simple means from the pilot's seat. in monoplanes there is but one main plane, resembling a pair of bird's wings. or if we care to look upon it as two planes, one each side of the "body," then we must call it a pair. since the name "mono" indicates one it is best to think of it as one plane although it may be in two parts. the biplane has, as its name implies, two planes, but in that case there can be no doubt, since they are placed one above the other. machines have been made with three planes and even with as many as five, but monoplanes and biplanes appear to hold the field. it is not possible for an aeroplane to be in any sense armoured for protection against bullets: for defence the pilot has to depend upon his own cunning man[oe]uvres combined with the fast speed at which he can move. for offensive purposes he usually has a machine gun mounted right in front of him with which he can pour a stream of bullets into an opponent or even, by flying low, he can attack a body of infantry. it is recorded that one german prisoner during the war, speaking of the daring of the british pilots in thus attacking men on foot, exclaimed, "they will pull the caps off our heads next." some of the aeroplanes have their propeller behind the pilot and some have it in front. the latter, to distinguish them, are called "tractor" machines, since in their case the propeller pulls them along. now it is easy to see that a difficulty arises in such cases through the best position for the gun being such that it throws its bullets right on to the propeller. but that has been overcome in a most simple yet ingenious way. the gun is itself operated by the engine with the result that a bullet can only be shot forth during those intervals when neither blade of the propeller is in the way. the propeller is moving so fast that it cannot be seen and the bullets are flying out in a continuous rattle, yet every bullet passes between the blades and not one ever touches. it is easy to see that when an aeroplane is manned by a single man, as is often the case, he must have his hands very full indeed, what with the machine itself and the gun as well. in fact, he often has to leave the machine for a short time to look after itself while he busies himself with the gun. now there we see a sign of the wonderful work which has been done in the course of but a few years in the perfecting of the aeroplane, the result of a series of improvements in detail which make but a dreary story if related but which make all the difference between the risky, uncertain machine of a few years ago and the safe, reliable machine of to-day. modern machines are inherently stable. the older ones had the elements of stability in them but they were so crudely proportioned that these inherent qualities did not have a chance to come into play. if one drops a flat card edgewise from a height it seems as if it ought to fall straight down to the ground. yet we all know from experience that it seldom does anything of the kind. instead, it assumes a position somewhere near horizontal and then descends in a series of swoops from side to side. there we see the principle at work which, in a well-designed aeroplane, causes inherent stability. the explanation is as follows. the aeroplane is sustained in the air through the upward pressure of the air resisting the downward pull of gravity. that has been fully explained already. now gravity, as we all know, acts upon every part of a body whether it be an aeroplane or anything else. but for practical purposes, we may regard its action as concentrated at one particular point in that body, called the "centre of gravity." likewise, the upward pressure of the air acts upon the whole of the under surface of the plane or planes, yet we may regard it as concentrated at a certain point called the "centre of pressure." further, we all know from experience that a pendulum or other suspended body is only still when its centre of gravity is exactly under the point of suspension. if we move it to either side it will swing back again. in just the same way, the only position in which an aeroplane will remain steady is that in which the centre of gravity is exactly under the point of suspension or, in other words, the centre of pressure. for the centre of pressure in the aeroplane is precisely similar to the point of suspension of a pendulum. let us, then, picture to ourselves an aeroplane flying along on a horizontal course with this happy state of things prevailing. something we will suppose occurs to upset it with the result that it begins to dive downwards. it is then in the position of sliding downhill and instantly its speed increases in consequence. that increase of speed causes the air to press a little more strongly than it did before upon the front edge of the planes. in other words, the centre of pressure shifts forward a little, with the result that the centre of gravity is then a little to the rear of the centre of pressure. a moment's reflection will show that with the centre of pressure (or point of suspension) in advance of the centre of gravity there is a tendency for the machine to turn upwards again, or, in other words, to right itself. if, on the other hand, the initial upset causes it to shoot upwards the speed instantly falls off and the centre of pressure retreats, turning the machine downwards once more. and the same principle applies whatever the disturbance may be. instantly and automatically a turning force comes into play which tends to check and ultimately to correct what has gone wrong. this principle explains the behaviour of the card dropped from an upstairs window and, no doubt, as has been said, it operated also in the early flying machines, but in their case other factors caused disturbing elements with which the self-righting tendency was not strong enough to cope. as time went on, however, experience taught the makers how to avoid these disturbing factors until at last the self-righting tendency was able to act effectively, thus producing the aeroplane which is inherently stable and which will, for short periods at all events, fly safely without attention from its pilot. each little improvement in this direction was an invention. of course, there were certain men whose names stand out prominently in the history of the aeroplane, notable among whom are the wright brothers, but the final result is due to innumerable inventions, many of them by unknown men. but perhaps someone will say, how can you possibly talk about final results in a matter which is still in its infancy? the answer to that is that so far as the safe, "flyable" machine is concerned, it has arrived. little now remains to be done in that direction. further improvements there will, of course, be, but the great fundamental problems of flight have been solved. chapter xxv the aerial lifeboat balloons had not long been invented when the idea arose of a device by means of which an aeronaut who found himself in difficulties might be able to reach the ground in safety. in other words, the need was felt for something which should play towards the balloon the part which the lifeboat does to the ship. the original idea of a parachute was even older than that, since we are told of a man away back in the seventeenth century who amused the king of siam by jumping from a height and steadying his descent by means of a couple of umbrellas. it was not, however, until the very end of the eighteenth century or the beginning of the nineteenth that descents were made from really considerable heights from balloons. the usual arrangement then was to have the parachute hanging at full length fastened below the basket, or tied to one side of the balloon in such a manner that it could be detached by cutting the cords that held it up. when the parachute was carried below the balloon basket the man was already in the cradle or seat of the parachute ready to be dropped, but when the seat was tied to the side of the car of the balloon the aeronaut, when he wished to make a descent, first got from the car into the seat, and, casting himself adrift from the car, swung out from under the centre of the balloon so that when he was hanging clear another man in the balloon cut the cords or pulled a slip-knot which set the parachute free. there were different ways of doing this and when a man was by himself he had to get into the sling of the parachute and, on finding himself clear of everything, he would give a tug to a cord which would release a catch holding up the parachute and allow it to drop to earth. the parachute, at the very first, was but a simple affair, being little more than a circular sheet of cotton or similar fabric, but it was very soon found necessary to make it _a bag_ or it would not properly hold the air. cords were attached at regular intervals all around the edge of this bag, these cords being gathered together and attached to the edge of a basket which carried the man. sometimes only a sling was used, or a simple light seat after the fashion of the "bosun's chair" upon which a sailor is sometimes hauled to the top of an unclimbable mast, or a steeplejack to the top of a chimney. thus, when it was dropped, the weight of the man, pulling upon all the cords simultaneously, drew down the edge of the bag, which, catching the air in its fall, acted as a powerful brake and reduced the rate of falling to such an extent that if all went well the man alighted in safety if not comfort. as has already been remarked in another chapter, air, which seems to us sometimes to be so exceedingly light as to have practically no weight at all, really has weight and also the property which we call inertia, by virtue of which things at rest prefer to stay at rest. now when this open air-bag, of considerable area, is pulled downwards it causes a very considerable disturbance in the air. as it descends the air inside and beneath it is first pushed downwards and compressed a little, then it commences to move outwards, towards the edge, round which it finally escapes to fill the slight vacuum in the space just above the descending parachute. all this the air objects to do because of its inertia. the parachute has to force it to act thus and in that way it uses up some of the force of gravity which all the time is pulling the man earthwards. in other words, that force, instead of dragging the man downwards at such a speed as to dash him to pieces, is so far employed in churning up the air that what is left only brings him down quite slowly and ends with just a gentle bump. that is the scientific explanation of what happens, although expressed in somewhat homely language. to anyone who thinks of this matter it will be clear that a relatively heavy weight like a man, suspended from a parachute, is like a very delicately poised pendulum, and consequently it is not surprising to hear that the early parachutes oscillated very considerably from side to side, so much so, indeed, that this oscillation became a decided danger, for before the proper shape of the air-bag was found out they sometimes skidded and even turned inside out. it was found, however, at quite an early stage that this instability could be to some extent cured by making a hole right in the centre or crown of the parachute through which the air compressed inside could blow upwards in a powerful jet. at first sight it seems as if this would much weaken the parachute and cause it to descend too quickly, but quite a large hole can be safely made, and to make such a hole is only the same thing as slightly reducing the area and that can be easily remedied by slightly increasing the diameter. reading of this many years ago, i have often been puzzled as to why the presence of the hole should have this steadying effect, the explanation given in the old scientific textbook from which i learnt it being obviously very unsatisfactory. of recent years, however, this subject of parachutes has been very deeply studied by an eminent engineer of london, mr. e. r. calthrop, the inventor of the "guardian angel" parachute to which these remarks are leading up, and he has hit upon what is undoubtedly the explanation. he says that the big jet of air shooting upwards through the crown of the parachute forms in effect a rudder which steers the parachute in a straight downward course, just as the rudder guides a boat upon the surface of the water. it is quite possible that thus far the impression conveyed to the reader's mind is that the parachute and its use are very simple, straightforward matters. one may be inclined to think that it is only necessary to get a circular sheet of fabric, to fasten the cords to it, to connect them to a suitable seat and then to descend from any height at any time in perfect safety. if you make a model from a flat sheet of cotton, then one made like a bag, and drop them with little weights attached from the top window of your house you will see what funny things the air can do. after having tried these little ones, you will begin to suspect that the big parachute is full of waywardness: and, as a matter of fact, until recent years, it has been very largely a delusion and a snare. by its refusal to act and open at the right moment it has sacrificed many lives. although apparently so simple, there were conditions existing and forces at work which for a century or more had never been properly considered and investigated, and it is only now that we have arrived at a parachute whose certainty of action and general trustworthiness entitle it to be called the "lifeboat of the air." the troubles with the older parachutes were two. first, although often it opened quite quickly, and carried its load as perfectly as could be desired, it sometimes had the habit of delaying its opening, and unless the fall were from a very great height it was unsafe to take the risk, indeed, it sometimes refused to open at all, and the poor parachutist suffered a fearful death. it had to be carried in a more or less folded-up state. often it was hung up by its centre to the side of a balloon, when it was very like a shut-up umbrella. consequently the power of opening quickly and certainly was of the first importance, and the lack of that power and the uncertainty of its action were a very serious defect. it has always suffered from an ill reputation as to reliability. the second fault lay with the cords. they would persist in getting entangled. everyone knows how a dozen cords hanging near together will get entangled with each other on the slightest provocation. such cords if blown about by a strong wind would be much worse even than when still, and if, as must often be the case with parachutes, they be coiled up, we all know from our own experience that some of them would be almost sure to get knotted and tangled together when, in a sudden emergency, the attempt was made to pull them all out of their coils in a second or two. just picture to yourself what it means: a dozen coiled cords all close together, themselves all coiled up in loops, suddenly pulled. something awkward appears almost inevitable. and the result of even one rope going awry may be fatal, for it may prevent the parachute opening out fully, probably giving it a "lop-sided" form incapable of gripping the air effectually and consequently allowing the unfortunate man to fall with a velocity which means certain death. this second cause of failure to open, through entanglement of cordage, has happened in a number of cases, with fatal results. so much for the faults of the old primitive parachute. now let us consider for a moment the urgent need for a parachute which is free from such faults. the man who goes up in a balloon on a saturday afternoon feels so sure of his "craft" that he thinks he needs no "lifeboat," yet men in ordinary free balloons have been killed for want of them. the spectators at country fairs no longer appreciate a parachute descent as a great and extraordinary spectacle. but in warfare, with kite balloons by the dozen, with dirigible balloons by the score and aeroplanes by the hundred, the call for parachutes is urgent and irresistible. at all events, mr. calthrop found an irresistible call to devote years of close study, unceasing toil and considerable sums of money to the task of perfecting an improved parachute which would always open and open quickly, and whose cords would never get entangled. he has the satisfaction of knowing that by so doing he has provided an appliance that in the air is as reliable as a lifeboat is at sea, and that at all times, and from every kind of aircraft, can be depended upon in case of accident to save the lives of gallant airmen who but for his work would be dashed to death. the great war has taught us to regard life somewhat cheaply. for years we were more concerned with taking life than with saving it, yet surely to save the life of one's own men is equivalent to taking the lives of one's opponents, so that even from the point of view of warfare the saving of life may be a help towards victory. this is particularly so when the lives saved are those of the choicest spirits, and among the most highly trained. it has been reckoned that to make a fully-trained pilot costs as much as £ , so that to save but a few, even in their preparatory nights on the training-grounds where so many accidents happen, makes quite an appreciable difference in the cost of a war, without considering the main question of the men's lives. many inventions arise through a man thinking of an idea and then seeking and finding some application for it. elsewhere in this book, i give examples of such cases. here we have an instance of the opposite, for mr. calthrop found his thoughts strongly directed in this direction by the death of a personal friend, the hon. c. s. rolls, one of the early martyrs in the cause of aviation, not to mention others who shared the same risks and in some cases the same fate. his interest thus aroused, he first studied all the records which could be found relating to parachute accidents, so as to ascertain, if possible, what were the causes of failure. then he commenced a long series of experiments with a view to removing these causes. improvement after improvement was tried, unexpected difficulties were discovered and grappled with, the kinematograph was called in to record the movements of the falling objects, a task for which it is far better fitted than the human eye, and after years of this there emerged the finished parachute, automatic in its action, perfectly reliable and a true safeguard, which i am about to describe. the parachute's body consists of the finest quality silk carefully cut into gussets of such a shape that when sewn together somewhat after the manner of the cover of an umbrella, they form a shallow bag, parabolic in section, of that particular shape which the material would assume naturally were it perfectly elastic when enclosing its resisting body of compressed air. at intervals round the edge are fastened twenty-four v-shaped tapes. these are only a few feet long and the lower end of each v-shaped pair is attached to a long main tape. there are twelve of these main tapes, and their lower ends unite in a metal disc from which is suspended the sling and harness by which the man is supported. [illustration: the "guardian angel" parachute. ( ) shows the airman in the harness by which he is attached to the parachute. by means of the star-shaped buckle he can instantly release himself. ( ) shows the parachute two seconds after the airman has jumped from the aeroplane. in ( ) he is seen nearing the ground. (_by permission of e. r. calthrop, esq._)] so the twenty-four short tapes form twelve v's to the points of which are attached the twelve long tapes which support the man. the reason why tapes are used in this particular parachute and not cords will be referred to later. in the crown of the silk body there is the usual hole for the purpose of forming the air-rudder to steady the parachute in its descent. and now we can consider the first great feature of this wonderful invention and ask ourselves these questions: "by what means is it made to open?" "what makes it more reliable than others?" to answer that we must first see why the others sometimes refused to open. in whatever way an ordinary parachute may be packed it must, when coming into use, assume the state of a shut umbrella with a hole in the top. in this condition it is assumed that as it falls the air will find a way in through the lower end and will blow the parachute open in precisely the same way that a strong wind will sometimes blow out the folds of an umbrella. but, as a matter of fact, the loose folds of a parachute, when the edge of the gussets is gathered in, are sure to overlap and enfold each other more or less. thus, when in the shut-umbrella state, it sometimes happens that air which is inside can escape upwards through the hole more easily than fresh air can get in from below. the parachute, in such a state, is, let us imagine, falling rapidly through the air. the result is just the same as if it were still and the air were rushing upwards past it. and the upward rush past the top hole tends to _suck air out_ through the hole faster than fresh air can find a way in at the bottom. this is the principle of the ejector, which engineers have put to many uses. for example, the vacuum brakes employed on many large railways owe all their power to stop a train to a vacuum caused by an ejector. there is a short tube or nozzle, placed in the centre of another tube through which steam blows. the action of the steam in the outer tube as it rushes past the end of the inner tube drags after it the air which is in the inner tube so effectively as to produce quite a good vacuum. and in precisely the same way, the upward rush of air past the parachute, or what is just the same, the falling of the parachute through stationary air, can suck the air from inside the latter and create a vacuum in it if the gussets gathered together at the mouth unfortunately overlap one another and are thus locked together by the pressure of the air striving to get in. thus, instead of the downward fall causing the ordinary parachute to open, as in most cases it will do quite well, the fall under these particular conditions actually binds its folds together and prevents it from opening. it is true this does not often happen, but the risk is _always_ present at every drop, and this unreliability has cost the lives of brave men and women, and the knowledge of this constant risk has led others to write down the parachute a failure, by reason of its known unreliability to open instantly. even when it does open the depth it falls before it opens is so variable, by reason of the fight between vacuum and pressure, that it may be one hundred feet one time and one thousand feet next time with the same parachute. now the "guardian angel" is designed so that those conditions cannot occur. its silken covering is first laid out on the ground and into the centre is introduced a beautifully-designed disc of aluminium, somewhat like a large inverted saucer, of exceeding lightness but of ample strength for what it has to do. then the silk body is pleated and folded back over the upper part of this launching-disc and gradually packed so that it occupies but a very small space upon the upper surface of the disc. it is so folded that its edge comes in the topmost layer and also in such a manner that on the tapes being pulled the silk unfolds easily and regularly, flowing down as it were over the edge of the disc almost as water flows if allowed to fall from a tap upon the centre of an inverted saucer. after the folding is complete another aluminium disc is placed above the packed silk body which shields it from the enormous air pressure when it is being released from an aeroplane flying at top speed. the upper and lower fabric covers are then superimposed and sealed and the "guardian angel" parachute is ready for use. the tapes, likewise, are folded up, in a special way upon the bottom cover, which is sprung over the bottom of the disc. the bottom cover with the tapes upon it, is pulled away by the weight of the airman as he makes his jump to safety, and the tapes are so arranged that a pull upon them causes them to draw out steadily and smoothly, almost like water falling from a height. if we regard the silk as forming a shallow bag inverted, we may say that it is folded upon the disc inside out and the function of the disc is to cause it to spread and enclose a wide column of air as it is pulled from its folds. to commence with it is nothing more than so much folded-up silk, but from the first moment of action it becomes a bag with a wide-open mouth, for its open mouth cannot be smaller than the disc. therefore, from the first instant it begins to grip the air and the ejector action never gets a chance to commence. the pressure of air inside is from the very commencement of the fall greater than that of the surrounding air. moreover, the disc covers the hole until the parachute is actually open, thereby making ejector action doubly impossible. the widely-opened mouth of the air-bag (i cannot help repeating that term for it is so expressive) swallows up more and more air as the thing falls rapidly, with the result that the air inside is instantly compressed and the increasing pressure as the silk is more and more fully drawn out causes it to expand until the whole is fully extended like a huge umbrella. the instant compression of the enclosed column of air is what causes it _always_ to open automatically. when once it is pointed out it is easy to see what a difference the presence of this disc makes. it is so simple that it cannot fail to act and having once produced that open mouth all the rest is due to the action of natural forces which can be absolutely relied upon. the ordinary parachute with its hopeless irregularities has, in fact, been converted into a machine whose action can _never_ fail. the disc is fastened to the balloon or aeroplane and is left behind when the parachute falls, having done its work. and now let us consider the tapes. as has already been remarked, a series of coiled cords cannot be relied upon to pull out straight without possibility of entanglement, but a tape, if folded to and fro like a chinese cracker, will invariably do so. so packed tapes have been substituted for coiled corded rigging, with the certainty that they cannot be entangled in the fiercest air current. and now we come to another interesting feature. the man is not suspended directly from the small disc to which the tapes are attached but by a non-spinning sling which contains a shock absorber. this latter consists of a number of strands of rubber and it is owing to its action that the aviator who trusts his life to the parachute suffers little or no shock; even when the instant opening of the parachute begins to arrest his fall. and not only does it save him from shock, but it also avoids the possibility of too great a stress coming suddenly upon the parachute or its rigging of tapes. the aviator himself is attached to the parachute through the shock-absorber sling, by means of a harness which he wears constantly throughout his flight, so that in the event of trouble he only has to jump overboard and the parachute automatically does the rest. this harness consists of two light but strong aluminium tubular rings through which he places his arms, combined with a series of straps which can be so adjusted that the stress of carrying him comes upon those parts of his body best adapted to bear it. this improved parachute is the only one which is capable of being used instantly and without preparation for descent from an aeroplane flying at top speed. it is easy to see that it is one thing to drop from a stationary or nearly stationary balloon and quite another to dive from an aeroplane at one hundred miles per hour. the latter is equivalent to suddenly trusting oneself to a parachute _during the strongest gale_. it has been found, by experiment, however, that high speed is no bar to the use of this parachute since it only causes the parachute to open a little more quickly than usual, which means that it can be used with safety from an even lower height. under the worst conditions this wonderful parachute can be relied upon always to open and carry its load at a height of only one hundred feet, and its use is safe in all circumstances when dropped from two hundred feet above the ground. after it has once got into operation and taken charge of affairs, so to speak, the man descends at the rate of only fifteen feet per second, which is just about the same as dropping from a height of a little over three feet. in other words, he will arrive on the ground with no worse bump than you would get by jumping off the dining-room table. but suppose that there were a wind blowing: would not the parachute come down in a slanting direction and then drag the man along? or may he not alight upon a tree or the roof of a house, only to be pulled off again and flung headlong? quite true he might, were not proper provision made for such occurrences. embodied in the harness is a lock which can be instantly undone, by a simple movement of a lever in the hand, and by its aid the man on touching earth or on alighting upon anything solid can release himself instantly, after which the parachute can sail away whither it will, but he will be safe and sound. what mr. calthrop has accomplished by the invention of his "guardian angel" parachute may be summarised briefly by saying that he has reduced the minimum height from which a parachute could be dropped from two thousand to two hundred feet, and that he has made it possible to launch a parachute, with the certainty of safety, from any kind of aircraft flying at the slowest or highest speed of which they are capable. * * * * * you are only a boy now, but when in years to come you are quite old and have grey hair you may become a member of the air board and--who knows--it may become your duty to decide that this great invention shall be always used on the training grounds to save the lives of the young men, not yet born, who are then learning to fly. during the war, one was killed every day, in a year, many of whom might have been saved had more "guardian angels" been in use. index acetone, , , acetylene, aeroplanes, types of, , air-raft equipment, alcohols, , , , , , aluminium, anchors for floating bridges, anti-aircraft guns, _aquitania_, s.s., armourer, austrian heavy mortars, , , bamboo, bridges made of, basic steel, becquerel, h., benzene, bessemer, sir henry, , , , , blast-furnace, , boilers in warships, breech-block of guns, , "brennan" torpedo, calthrop, e. r., , canet, gustave, canvas boats, carbolic acid, carbon, , , , carbon in steel, carbon monoxide, carriages of guns, cast iron, , catamaran bridge, , caustic soda, , , chloride of lime, chlorine, , , , , chloroform, clerk-maxwell, professor j., coal dust explodes, coal tar, contact-firing mines, copper, cordite, cotton explosives, , countermining, , crucible steel, curie, madame, detonator, diastase, diesel engine, , _dreadnought_, h.m.s., driving-band on shells, dynamite, electricity, positive and negative, , electrodes, electrolysis of salt, , electrolyte, electrons, electroscope, "elia" mines, ethane, ether, , explosion, force of, field guns, , flotilla leaders, fractional distillation, , french field artillery, froude, william, fulminate of mercury, glycerine, gravity, action of upon shells, , , "guardian angel" parachute, gun-cotton, , gunpowder, , gyroscope, uses of, , helium, hertzian waves, high explosives, , high-explosive shells, high-speed steel, hop-pole bridges, horse artillery, , howitzers, , , hydrostatic valve, , hydroxyl, , "interference" of waves, , _invincible_, h.m.s., ionogens, ions of common salt, iron ore, kieselguhr, ladysmith, guns at, launching a ship, "limit" gauges, line-of-battle ships, _lion_, h.m.s., lyddite, machine guns, magnetic detector, malt, marconi, methane, methylated spirit, mine, submarine, _et seq._ mine, subterranean, mortars, , , , , naval guns, , _et seq._ naval shells, , nitrate of potassium, nitro-benzene, nitro-glycerine, , , nitrogen, action of, , observation mines, oil fuel, _olympic_, s.s., organic substances, _orion_, h.m.s., parachutes, paraffins, periscope, , petrol engine, , phenol, picric acid, pig iron, , poison gas, pontoons for bridging, propellants, , , radio-activity, radium, _et seq._ rays from radium, , reeds, bridges made of, _repulse_, h.m.s., rheumatism and radium, rifling in guns, rolling mills, , salt and explosives, saltpetre, , , scott, sir percy, sea-planes, shell-steel, shrapnel shells, , , siemens steel, , sights for guns, smokeless powder, soap, sodium, , soluble seal used in mines, spinning action of shells, stability of aeroplanes, steam-engines, steel for guns, sulphuric acid, , , suspension bridges, "tanks," telephone used in telegraphy, tin, , t.n.t., toluene, torpedo boats, trajectory, trench mortars, trestle bridges, , tri-nitro-benzene, tri-nitro-phenol, tri-nitro-toluene, tungsten, , "tuning" wireless telegraph apparatus, turbine, steam, uranium, "whitehead" torpedo, wire-wound guns, wolfram, wood spirit, wrought iron, _wyoming_, u.s. battleship, x-rays, , zeppelin _v._ aeroplane, zinc, , , printed by william brendon and son, ltd., plymouth, england. _great classics for little children_ the children's odyssey told for little children by prof. a. j. church, m.a. _with fourteen illustrations. extra crown vo, s._ "a really charming volume in all respects. no writer has done work of this kind so well since kingsley first set the fashion in his masterpiece, _the heroes_."--_guardian._ "the stories could not be told more simply and directly, or in a way better fitted to delight and interest children, than they are in this charming book. we are delighted to see the book embellished with flaxman's exquisite illustrations. greatly daring ... they have been coloured in simple colours, like those of classical wall paintings. the effect is quite excellent."--_spectator._ the children's iliad told for little children by prof. a. j. church, m.a. _with fourteen illustrations. extra crown vo, s._ "what need nowadays to praise prof. church's skill in presenting classical stories to young readers? this is a capital example of the cultured, simple style. a delightful gift-book."--_athenæum._ "prof. church has written as good a book as can ever be produced for english children from the literary treasures of greece. the illustrations are worthy of the writing."--_sheffield independent._ "with delightful simplicity of style prof. church retells the story of the siege of troy so that it ceases to be 'history,' and becomes an engrossing narrative. the handsome volume has a dozen excellent illustrations."--_dundee courier._ the children's Æneid told for little children by prof. a. j. church, m.a. _with fourteen illustrations in colours. extra crown vo, s._ "professor church has probably done more than any other man living to bring the classics of greece and rome within the comprehension of young folks. he has a simple style that must be the envy of writers for children."--_dundee advertiser._ "a delightful gift-book."--_athenæum._ seeley, service & co. limited * * * * * the romance of animal arts & crafts describing the wonderful intelligence of animals revealed in their work as masons, paper makers, raft & diving-bell builders, miners, tailors, engineers of roads & bridges, &c. &c. by h. coupin, d.sc., & john lea, b.a. (cantab.) _with thirty illustrations. extra crown vo., s._ "will carry most readers, young and old, from one surprise to another."--_glasgow herald._ "a charming subject, well set forth, and dramatically illustrated."--_athenæum._ "it seems like pure romance to read of the curious ways of nature's craftsmen, but it is quite a true tale that is set forth in this plentifully illustrated book."--_evening citizen._ the romance of insect life describing the curious & interesting in the insect world by edmund selous author of "the romance of the animal world," _&c._ _with sixteen illustrations. extra crown vo, s._ "an entertaining volume, one more of a series which seeks with much success to describe the wonders of nature and science in simple, attractive form."--_graphic._ "offers most interesting descriptions of the strange and curious inhabitants of the insect world, sure to excite inquiry and to foster observation. there are ants white and yellow, locusts and cicadas, bees and butterflies, spiders and beetles, scorpions and cockroaches--and especially ants--with a really scientific investigation of their wonderful habits not in dry detail, but in free and charming exposition and narrative. an admirable book to put in the hands of a boy or girl with a turn for natural science--and whether or not."--_educational times._ the romance of the animal world describing the curious and interesting in natural history by edmund selous _with sixteen full-page illustrations. extra crown vo, s._ "mr. selous takes a wide range in nature; he has seen many wonders which he relates. open the book where we will we find something astonishing."--_spectator._ "it is in truth a most fascinating book, as full of incidents and as various in interest as any other work of imagination, and, beyond the pleasure in the reading there is the satisfaction of knowing that one is in the hands of a genuine authority on some of the most picturesque subjects that natural history affords. mr. selous' method is strong, safe, and sound. the volume has numerous illustrations of a high order of workmanship and a handsome binding of striking design."--_school government chronicle._ seeley, service & co. limited * * * * * the romance of modern electricity describing in non-technical language what is known about electricity & many of its interesting applications by charles r. gibson, a.i.e.e. author of "electricity of to-day," etc. _extra crown vo. with illustrations and diagrams. s._ "everywhere mr. charles r. gibson makes admirable use of simple analogies which bespeak the practised lecturer, and bring the matter home without technical detail. the attention is further sustained by a series of surprises. the description of electric units, the volt, the ohm, and especially the ampere, is better than we have found in more pretentious works."--_academy._ "mr. gibson's style is very unlike the ordinary text-book. it is fresh, and is non-technical. its facts are strictly scientific, however, and thoroughly up to date. if we wish to gain a thorough knowledge of electricity pleasantly and without too much trouble on our own part, we will read mr. gibson's 'romance.'"--_expository times._ "a book which the merest tyro totally unacquainted with elementary electrical principles can understand, and should therefore especially appeal to the lay reader. especial interest attaches to the chapter on wireless telegraphy, a subject which is apt to 'floor' the uninitiated. the author reduces the subject to its simplest aspect, and describes the fundamental principles underlying the action of the coherer in language so simple that anyone can grasp them."--_electricity._ the romance of the ship the story of her origin and evolution from the earliest times by e. keble chatterton, b.a. oxon. author of "sailing ships and their story," etc. etc. _with illustrations. price s._ "one of the most instructive and intelligent treatises on sea-life that it has yet been our lot to peruse."--_syren and shipping._ "there is not a doubt about this volume being the best of its kind yet published."--_dundee courier._ "absorbingly interesting and highly instructive."--_liverpool daily post._ the romance of modern astronomy by hector macpherson, junior _with illustrations & diagrams. extra crown vo. price s._ "we can conceive no book better adapted than this handsomely got up and beautifully illustrated volume to attract the young, and even older people to the study of the sublimest of sciences."--_edinburgh news._ "described in popular language, yet with a thoroughness which will give the reader a surprisingly complete grasp of the subject."--_christian._ "an ideal book for presentation, as indeed all messrs. seeley's romance books are."--_eastern morning news._ "an excellent compendium of the most interesting facts in astronomy, told in popular language. great care has evidently been taken to secure accuracy. the illustrations are exceedingly good."--_the athenæum._ seeley, service & co. limited * * * * * stories by prof. a. j. church "the headmaster of eton (dr. the hon. e. lyttelton) advised his hearers, in a recent speech at the royal albert institute, to read professor a. j. church's "stories from homer," some of which, he said, he had read to eton boys after a hard school day, and at an age when they were not in the least desirous of learning, but were anxious to go to tea. the stories were so brilliantly told, however, that those young etonians were entranced by them, and they actually begged of him to go on, being quite prepared to sacrifice their tea time." _profusely illustrated. extra crown vo, s. each_ the children's Æneid the children's iliad the children's odyssey the faery queen and her knight the crusaders greek story and song stories from homer stories from virgil the crown of pine stories from greek tragedians stories of the east from herodotus story of the persian war stories from livy roman life in the days of cicero with the king at oxford count of saxon shore the hammer story of the iliad story of the odyssey stories from greek comedians heroes of chivalry and romance helmet and spear stories of charlemagne _extra crown vo, illustrated, and other sizes_ _s._ _d._ last days of jerusalem the burning of rome the fall of athens stories from english history patriot & hero _s._ _d._ the chantry priest of barnet heroes of eastern romance three greek children to the lions a young macedonian _s._ heroes of eastern romance _s._ _d._ heroes and kings greek gulliver nicias story of the iliad and Æneid to the lions _s._ story of the iliad story of the odyssey story of the iliad and Æneid _d._ last days of jerusalem story of the iliad story of the odyssey stories from virgil seeley, service & co. limited * * * * * a catalogue of books for young people, published by seeley, service & co limited, great russell street, london _some of the contents_ adventure, the library of bedford library, the church, stories by professor giberne, books by miss heroes of the world library, the marshall, stories by miss beatrice marshall, stories by mrs. missionary biographies olive library, the pink library, the prince's library, the romance, the library of royal library, the russell series, the scarlet library, the science for children sunday echoes wonder library, the _the publishers will be pleased to send post free their complete catalogue or their illustrated miniature catalogue on receipt of a post-card_ seeley, service & co. limited * * * * * catalogue of books _arranged alphabetically under the names of authors and series_ aguilar, grace. the days of bruce. with illustrations. extra crown vo, s. (scarlet library.) andersen, hans. fairy tales. with illustrations. s. d., s., and s. d. (scarlet and prince's libraries.) alcott, l. m. little women and good wives. with illustrations. s. (scarlet library.) also little women, extra crown vo, s. d.; and good wives, extra crown vo, s. d. arabian nights' entertainments. with illustrations, s. d. (pink library); s. (royal & scarlet libraries); s. d. (prince's library). ballantyne, r. m. the dog crusoe and his master. with illustrations by h. m. brock, r.i. extra crown vo, s. and s. d. bedford library for boys and girls, the. a series of books describing the adventures, bravery, and resource of soldiers, sailors, and others in all parts of the world. sq. crown vo, with many illustrations in colour, s. d. daring deeds of famous pirates. by lieut. e. keble chatterton, r.n.v.r., author of "sailing ships and their story," &c. &c. daring deeds of hunters and trappers. by ernest young, b.sc., f.r.g.s., author of "the king of the yellow robe," &c. &c. berthet, e. the wild man of the woods. with illustrations, s. d. blake, m. m. the siege of norwich castle. with illustrations, s. boisragon, major alan m. late royal irish fusiliers. jack scarlett, sandhurst cadet. with coloured illustrations. extra crown vo, s. brock, mrs. carey. dame wynton's home. a story illustrative of the lord's prayer. with eight illustrations. crown vo, s. d. my father's hand, and other stories. crown vo, s. sunday echoes in weekday hours. a series of illustrative tales. seven vols. crown vo, s. d. each. i. the collects. ii. the church catechism. iii. journeyings of the israelites. iv. scripture characters. v. the epistles and gospels. vi. the parables. vii. the miracles. working and waiting. crown vo, s. brown linnet. the kidnapping of ettie, and other tales. with sixteen illustrations. crown vo, s. bunyan, john. the pilgrim's progress. with illustrations. extra crown vo, s. (scarlet library). carter, miss j. r. m. diana polwarth, royalist. a story of the life of a girl in commonwealth days. with eight illustrations. crown vo, s. d. charlesworth, miss. england's yeomen. crown vo, s. d. oliver of the mill. with eight illustrations. cr. vo, s. d. ministering children. . olive library. crown vo, cloth gilt, s. d. . scarlet library. crown vo, cloth, s. . with illustrations. cloth, s. d. ministering children: a sequel. with illustrations. cloth, s. d. also with eight illustrations. cloth, s. and s. d. the broken looking-glass. crown vo, s. the old looking-glass and the broken looking-glass; or, mrs. dorothy cope's recollections of service. in one volume. with eight illustrations. crown vo, s. d. chatterton, e. keble. the romance of the ship. with illus. ex. cr. vo, s. the romance of piracy. many illus. ex. cr. vo, s. church, professor alfred j. "the headmaster of eton (dr. the hon. e. lyttelton) advised his hearers, in a recent speech at the royal albert institute, to read professor a. j. church's 'stories from homer,' some of which, he said, he had read to eton boys after a hard school day, and at an age when they were not in the least desirous of learning, but were anxious to go to tea. the stories were so brilliantly told, however, that those young etonians were entranced by them, and they actually begged of him to go on, being quite prepared to sacrifice their tea time." the children's Æneid. told for little children. with twelve illustrations in colour. extra crown vo, s. the children's iliad. told for little children. with twelve illustrations in colour. extra crown vo, s. the children's odyssey. told for little children. with twelve illustrations in colour. extra crown vo, s. the crown of pine. a story of corinth and the isthmian games. with illustration in colour by george morrow. ex. cr. vo, s. the count of the saxon shore. a tale of the departure of the romans from britain. with sixteen illustrations. crown vo, s. the faery queen and her knights. stories from spenser. with eight illustrations in colour. extra crown vo, s. stories of charlemagne and the twelve peers of france. with eight illustrations in colour. crown vo, s. the crusaders. a story of the war for the holy sepulchre. with eight illustrations in colour. extra crown vo, s. stories from the greek tragedians. with illustrations. crown vo, s. greek story. with illustrations in colour. crn. vo, s. stories from the greek comedians. with illustrations. crown vo, s. the hammer. a story of maccabean times. with illustrations. crown vo, s. the story of the persian war, from herodotus. with coloured illustrations. crown vo, s. heroes of chivalry and romance. with illustrations. crown vo, s. stories of the east, from herodotus. coloured illustrations. crown vo, s. helmet and spear. stories from the wars of the greeks and romans. with eight illustrations by g. morrow. crown vo, s. the story of the iliad. with coloured illustrations. crown vo, s. also thin paper edition, cloth, s. nett; leather, s. nett. cheap edition, d. nett; also cloth, s. roman life in the days of cicero. with illustrations. crown vo, s. stories from homer. coloured illustrations. crn. vo, s. stories from livy. coloured illustrations. crn. vo, s. story of the odyssey. with coloured illustrations. s. also thin paper edition, cloth, s. nett; leather, s. nett. cheap edition, d. nett. also cloth, s. stories from virgil. with coloured illustrations. crown vo, s. cheap edition, sewed, d. nett. with the king at oxford. a story of the great rebellion. with coloured illustrations. crown vo, s. crown vo, / each. the fall of athens. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d. the burning of rome. a story of nero's days. with sixteen illustrations. cheaper edition. crown vo, s. d. the last days of jerusalem, from josephus. crown vo, s. d. also a cheap edition. sewed, d. stories from english history. with many illustrations. cheaper edition. revised. crown vo, s. d. patriot and hero. with illustration. crown vo, s. d. extra crown vo, / each. to the lions. a tale of the early christians. with coloured frontispiece and other illustrations. s. d. heroes of eastern romance. with coloured frontispiece and eight other illustrations. extra crown vo, s. (royal library); s. d. a young macedonian in the army of alexander the great. with illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. the chantry priest. with illustrations. s. d. three greek children. extra crown vo, s. d. crown vo, / each. a greek gulliver. illustrated. crown vo, s. d. heroes and kings. stories from the greek. illus. s. d. the stories of the iliad and the Æneid. with illustrations. mo, sewed, s.; cloth, s. d. also without illustrations, cloth, s. to the lions. a tale of the early christians. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d. cody, rev. h. a. on trail and rapid. by dog-sled and canoe. a story of bishop bompas's life among the red indians and esquimo. told for boys and girls. with twenty-six illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. apostle of the north, an. memoirs of bishop bompas. with illustrations and a map. s. d. nett. _new and cheaper edition._ with illustrations. extra crown vo, s. nett. (crown library.) coolidge, susan. what katy did at home and at school. illustrations in colour by h. m. brock, r.i. crown vo, s. (scarlet library.) what katy did at home. extra crown vo, s. d. coupin, h., d.sc., and j. lea, m.a. the romance of animal arts and crafts. with twenty-five illustrations. extra crown vo, s. cowper, f. caedwalla: or, the saxons in the isle of wight. with illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. (prince's library.) the island of the english. a story of napoleon's days. with illustrations by george morrow. crown vo, s. d. the captain of the wight. with illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. craik, mrs. john halifax. illustrated. extra cr. vo, s. (scarlet liby.) currey, commander e. hamilton, r.n. ian hardy, naval cadet. coloured illus. ex. cr. vo, s. ian hardy, midshipman. a stirring story for boys. with coloured illustrations. extra crown vo, s. ian hardy, senior midshipman. with col. illus., s. davidson, n. j., b.a. a knight-errant and his doughty deeds. the story of amadis of gaul. col. illus. by h. m. brock, r.i. crown vo, s. the romance of the spanish main. ex. crown vo. with many illustrations, s. things seen in oxford. cloth, s. nett; leather, s. nett and s. nett. dawson, rev. canon e. c. heroines of missionary adventure. with twenty-four illustrations. extra crown vo, s. lion-hearted. bishop hannington's life retold for boys and girls. illustrated. crown vo, s., s. d. (olive library), and s. d. in the days of the dragons. crown vo, s. d. missionary heroines in many lands. ex. cr. vo, s. d. missionary heroines of the cross. with illus., s. d. defoe, daniel. robinson crusoe. with illustrations. extra crown vo, s. and s. d. (scarlet and prince's libraries.) elliott, miss. copsley annals preserved in proverbs. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d. mrs. blackett. her story. fcap. vo, s. elliot, prof. g. f. scott, m.a., b.sc., f.r.g.s., f.l.s. the romance of plant life. describing the curious and interesting in the plant world. with illustrations. ex. crown vo, s. "popularly written by a man of great scientific accomplishments." the outlook. the romance of savage life. with forty-five illustrations. extra crown vo, s. the romance of early british life: from the earliest times to the coming of the danes. with illustrations. ex. crown vo, s. everett-green, evelyn. a pair of originals. with coloured frontispiece and eight other illustrations. extra crown vo, s. & s. d. field, rev. claud, m.a. heroes of missionary enterprise. with many illustrations. extra crown vo, s. missionary crusaders. with many illustrations and a frontispiece in colour, s. d. gardiner, linda. sylvia in flowerland. with illustrations cr. vo, s. d. gaye, selina. coming; or, the golden year. a tale. third edition. with eight illustrations. crown vo, s. the great world's farm. some account of nature's crops and how they are grown. with a preface by professor boulger, and sixteen illustrations. second edition. crown vo, s. giberne, agnes. the romance of the mighty deep. with illustrations. s. "most fascinating."--daily news. among the stars; or, wonderful things in the sky. with coloured illustrations. eighth thousand. crown vo, s. duties and duties. crown vo, s. the curate's home. crown vo, s. d. the ocean of air. meteorology for beginners. illustrated. crown vo, s. the starry skies. first lessons on astronomy. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d. sun, moon, and stars. astronomy for beginners. with a preface by professor pritchard. with coloured illustrations. twenty-sixth thousand. revised and enlarged. crown vo, s. the world's foundations. geology for beginners. with illustrations. crown vo, s. beside the waters of comfort. crown vo, s. d. gibson, charles r., f.r.s.e. our good slave electricity. with many illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. the great ball on which we live. with coloured frontispiece and many other illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. the stars and their mysteries. with a coloured frontispiece and illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. romance of scientific discovery. illustrated. s. heroes of the scientific world. an account of the lives and achievements of scientists of all ages. with illustrations. s. autobiography of an electron. long vo. s. d. nett. the wonders of electricity. with eight illustrations. extra crown vo, s. the wonders of modern manufacture. illustrated. s. wireless telegraphy. many illustrations. s. nett. the romance of modern electricity. describing in non-technical language what is known about electricity and many of its interesting applications. with forty-one illustrations. ex. crown vo, s. "admirable ... clear, concise."--the graphic. the romance of modern photography. the discovery and its application. with many illustrations. extra crown vo, s. the romance of modern manufacture. with twenty-four illustrations and sixteen diagrams. extra crown vo, s. how telegraphs and telephones work. explained in non-technical language. with many diagrams. crown vo, s. d. nett. gilliat, edward, m.a. formerly master at harrow school. forest outlaws. with illustrations. crown vo, s. heroes of modern crusades. illus. ex. cr. vo, s. in lincoln green. illustrated. crown vo, s. the king's reeve. illustrated by sydney hall. s. d. wolf's head. with eight illustrations. crown vo, s. d. the romance of modern sieges. illus. ex. cr. vo, s. heroes of the elizabethan age. illus. ex. cr. vo, s. heroes of modern africa. illus. ex. cr. vo, s. heroes of modern india. with many illustrations. extra crown vo, s. heroes of the indian mutiny. with many illustrations. extra crown vo, s. stories of elizabethan heroes. with coloured and other illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. stories of great sieges. with illus. ex. cr. vo, s. d. stories of indian heroes. with illus. ex. cr. vo, s. d. golden reciter, the. _see_ reciters, the golden. grew, edwin, m. a. (oxon.). the romance of modern geology. a popular account in non-technical language. with twenty-four illustrations. ex. crown vo, s. grimm's fairy tales. with illustrations. extra cr. vo, s. and s. d. (scarlet and prince's libraries); also pink library, s. d. * * * * * heroes of the world library each volume lavishly illustrated. extra crown vo, s. heroes of the indian mutiny. by the rev. edward gilliat. heroes of the scientific world. by c. r. gibson, f.r.s.e. heroes of modern africa. by rev. edward gilliat. heroes of missionary enterprise. by rev. claud field, m.a. heroes of pioneering. by rev. edgar sanderson, m.a. heroines of missionary adventure. by rev. canon dawson, m.a. heroes of modern crusades. by rev. edward gilliat. heroes of modern india. by rev. e. gilliat. heroes of the elizabethan age. by rev. e. gilliat. hughes, thomas. tom brown's schooldays. with illustrations. extra crown vo, s. and s. d. (scarlet and olive libraries.) hyrst, h. w. g. extra crown vo, price s. adventures in the great deserts. with illustrations. adventures in the great forests. with illustrations. adventures among wild beasts. with illustrations. adventures in the arctic regions. with illustrations. adventures among red indians. with illustrations. stories of red indian adventure. with coloured and other illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. stories of polar adventure. extra crown vo, s. d. kingsley, charles. westward ho! with illustrations. extra crown vo, s. & s. d. (scarlet and olive libraries.) knight-errant and his doughty deeds. the story of amadis of gaul. edited by n. j. davidson, b.a. with eight coloured illustrations by h. m. brock, r.i. sq. ex. crown vo, s. lamb, charles and mary. tales from shakespeare. with illustrations. ex. crown vo, s. (scarlet library.) lambert, rev. john, m.a., d.d. the romance of missionary heroism. true stories of the intrepid bravery and stirring adventures of missionaries in all parts of the world. with thirty-nine illustrations. extra crown vo, s. missionary heroes in asia. illustrated. cr. vo, s. d. missionary heroes in africa. illustrated. cr. vo, s. d. missionary heroes in oceania. illustrated. cr. vo, s. d. missionary heroes of north and south america. illustrated. crown vo, s. d. missionary knights of the cross. with many illustrations and a frontispiece in colour. s. d. lea, john, m.a. (oxon.) the romance of animal arts and crafts. _see_ coupin. the romance of bird life. with twenty-six illustrations. s. wonders of bird life. extra crown vo, s. leyland, j. for the honour of the flag. a story of our sea fights with the dutch. with illustrations by lancelot speed. crown vo, s. macpherson, hector, jun. the romance of modern astronomy. with twenty-four illustrations. extra crown vo, s. wonders of modern astronomy. ex. crown vo, s. marryat, captain. masterman ready. with illustrations by h. m. brock, r.i. s. (scarlet library.) marshall, beatrice. his most dear ladye. a story of the days of the countess of pembroke, sir philip sidney's sister. illustrated. extra crown vo, s. the siege of york. a story of the days of thomas, lorde fairfax. with eight illustrations. crown vo, s. an old london nosegay. gathered from the day-book of mistress lovejoy young. with eight illustrations. crown vo, s. old blackfriars. in the days of van dyck. a story. with eight illustrations. crown vo, s. the queen's knight-errant. a story of the days of sir walter raleigh. with eight illustrations. extra crown vo, s. marshall, emma. crown vo, /- in colston's days. a story of old bristol. with illustrations. crown vo, s. in four reigns. the recollections of althea allingham, - . with illustrations. crown vo, s. in the choir of westminster abbey. a story of henry purcell's days. with illustrations. crown vo, s. and at s. d. in the east country with sir thomas browne, knight. with illustrations. crown vo, s. a haunt of ancient peace. memories of mr. nicholas ferrar's house at little gidding. with illustrations by t. hamilton crawford. crown vo, s. kensington palace. in the days of mary ii. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d. and s. the master of the musicians. a story of handel's day. with illustrations. crown vo, s. and at s. d. the parson's daughter, and how she was painted by mr. romney. with eight illustrations. crown vo, s. and at s. d. penshurst castle. in the days of sir philip sidney. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d., s. cheap edition. demy vo, d. winchester meads. in the days of bishop ken. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d., s. cheap edition. demy vo, d. under salisbury spire. in the days of george herbert. with illustrations. crown vo, s. d., s. cheap edition. d. under the dome of st paul's. in the days of sir christopher wren. with illustrations. crown vo, s. crown vo, /- under the mendips. a tale of the times of hannah more. with illustrations. crown vo, s. constantia carew. crown vo, s. crown vo, / castle meadow. a story of norwich a hundred years ago. an escape from the tower. life's aftermath. now-a-days. on the banks of the ouse. winifrede's journal. extra crown vo, / the old gateway. millicent legh. violet douglas. helen's diary. crown vo, / brothers and sisters. brook silverstone. /- the first light on the eddystone. * * * * * missionary biographies. with many illustrations and a frontispiece in colour. price, s. d. extra crown vo. . a hero of the afghan frontier. being the life of dr. t. l. pennell, of bannu, told for boys and girls. by a. m. pennell, m.b., b.s. (lond.), b.sc. . missionary crusaders. by claude field, m.a., sometime c.m.s. missionary in the punjab. . judson, the hero of burma. the life of judson told for boys and girls. by jesse page, f.r.g.s. . on trail and rapid by dogsled and canoe. by the rev. h. a. cody, m.a. . missionary knights of the cross. by rev. j. g. lambert. . missionary heroines of the cross. by canon dawson. * * * * * the olive library. stories by well-known authors. extra crown vo. with coloured and other illustrations, s. d. each. andersen, hans. fairy tales. r. m. ballantyne. the dog crusoe. charlesworth, miss. ministering children. a sequel to ministering children. england's yeomen. oliver of the mill. church, prof. a. j. the chantry priest. heroes of eastern romance. a young macedonian. three greek children. to the lions. a tale of the early christians. dawson, rev. canon e. c. lion-hearted. the story of bishop hannington's life told for boys and girls. everett-green, evelyn a pair of originals. hughes, t. tom brown's schooldays. kingsley, chas. westward ho! marshall, mrs. the old gateway. helen's diary. brothers and sisters. violet douglas. millicent legh. mulock, miss. john halifax. stowe, mrs. beecher. uncle tom's cabin. wilberforce, bishop. agathos, the rocky island, and other sunday stories. philip, james c., d.sc., ph.d. the romance of modern chemistry. with twenty-nine illustrations. extra crown vo, s. * * * * * the pink library. stories by well-known authors. crown vo. with many illustrations, s. d. church, prof. a. j. to the lions. the greek gulliver. marshall, mrs. brothers & sisters. brook silvertone. charlesworth, miss. ministering children. the sequel to ministering children. the old & the broken looking-glass. dawson, canon e. c. lion-hearted. missionary heroines in many lands. lambert, rev. j. g. missionary heroes of n. & s. america. missionary heroes in asia. missionary heroes in oceania. missionary heroes in africa. wilberforce, bishop. agathos & the rocky island. alcott, l. m. little women. good wives. berthe, t. e. the wild man of the woods. seeley, e. the world before the flood. andersen, hans. fairy tales and stories. grimm, the brothers. fairy tales and stories. coolidge, susan. what katy did at home _by various authors_ the life of a bear. only a dog. the life of an elephant the arabian nights. * * * * * the prince's library. with coloured frontispiece and other illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. patriot & hero. by prof. a. j. church. cranford. by mrs. gaskell. the vicar of wakefield. by oliver goldsmith. the arabian nights' entertainments. andersen's fairy tales. grimm's fairy tales. the wolf's head. by the rev. e. gilliat. the last of the white coats. by g. i. whitham. diana polwarth, royalist. by j. r. m. carter. the fall of athens. by professor a. j. church. the king's reeve. by the rev. e. gilliat. the cabin on the beach. by m. e. winchester. the captain of the wight. by frank cowper. caedwalla. by frank cowper. robinson crusoe. by daniel defoe. reciter, the golden. a volume of recitations & readings in prose & verse selected from the works of rudyard kipling, r. l. stevenson, conan doyle, maurice hewlett, christina rossetti, thomas hardy, austin dobson, a. w. pinero, &c., &c. with an introduction by cairns james, professor of elocution at the royal college of music and the guildhall school of music. extra crown vo, pp., s. d. also thin paper edition for the pocket, with gilt edges. small crown vo, s. "an admirable collection in prose and verse."--the spectator. reciter, the golden humorous. edited, and with an introduction by cairns james, professor of elocution at the royal college of music. recitations and readings selected from the writings of f. anstey, j. m. barrie, s. r. crockett, major drury, jerome k. jerome, barry pain, a. w. pinero, owen seaman, g. b. shaw, &c. over pages, extra crown vo, cloth, s. d. also a thin paper edition, with gilt edges, small crown vo, s. robinson, commander c. n. for the honour of the flag. a story of our sea fights with the dutch. with illustrations by lancelot speed. crown vo, s. sanderson, rev. e. heroes of pioneering. true stories of the intrepid bravery and stirring adventures of pioneers in all parts of the world. with sixteen illustrations. extra crown vo, s. stories of great pioneers. with coloured and other illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. * * * * * royal library for boys and girls, the. a series of handsome gift books by celebrated authors. illustrated by h. m. brock, lancelot speed, and other well-known artists. ex. crown vo, s. each. . a pair of originals. by evelyn everett-green. . john halifax. by miss mulock. . uncle tom's cabin. by h. beecher-stowe. . westward ho! by charles kingsley. . robinson crusoe. by daniel defoe. . tom brown's school-days. by thomas hughes. . grimm's fairy tales. a new translation. . the arabian nights' entertainments. . andersen's fairy tales. . what katy did at home and at school. by susan coolidge. . heroes of eastern romance. by prof. a. j. church. . lion hearted. by the rev. canon e. c. dawson. . the adventures of a cavalier. by g. i. whitham. * * * * * the library of adventure with many illustrations. extra crown vo, s. each. "delightful books of adventure, beautifully printed and tastefully got up."--educational times. adventures of missionary explorers. by r. m. a. ibbotson. adventures in southern seas. by richard stead, b.a. adventures among trappers & hunters. by e. young, b.sc. adventures in the arctic regions. by h. w. g. hyrst. adventures among wild beasts. by h. w. g. hyrst. adventures on the high seas. by r. stead, b.a. adventures in the great deserts. by h. w. g. hyrst. adventures on the great rivers. by richard stead. adventures in the great forests. by h. w. g. hyrst. adventures on the high mountains. by r. stead. adventures among red indians. by h. w. g. hyrst. * * * * * russell series for boys & girls, the. coloured and other illustrations. extra crown vo, s. d. stories of polar adventure. by h. w. g. hyrst. stories of great pioneers. by edgar sanderson, m.a. stories of elizabethan heroes. by the rev. e. gilliat. stories of red indian adventure. by h. w. g. hyrst. stories of indian heroes. by e. gilliat, m.a. stories of great sieges. by e. gilliat, m.a. * * * * * the library of romance fully illustrated. bound in blue, scarlet, and gold. extra crown vo, s. each. "splendid volumes."--the outlook. "gift books whose value it would be difficult to overestimate."--standard. the romance of the spanish main. by n. j. davidson, b.a. (oxon.) the romance of piracy. by e. keble chatterton, b.a. (oxon.). with many illustrations. the romance of scientific discovery. by charles r. gibson, f.r.s.e. the romance of submarine engineering. by thomas w. corbin. the romance of aeronautics. by charles c. turner. the romance of the ship. the story of its origin and evolution. by e. keble chatterton. with thirty-three illustrations. the romance of modern astronomy. by hector macpherson, jun. with twenty-four illustrations. the romance of modern chemistry. by j. c. philip, d.sc., assistant professor of chemistry, south kensington. the romance of modern manufacture. by c. r. gibson, f.r.s.e. the romance of early british life. by prof. g. f. scott elliot, m.a., b.sc. with illustrations. the romance of modern geology. by e. s. grew, m.a. 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"boys will revel in this volume."--city press. the wonders of modern engineering. ex. crown vo, s. whitham, g. i. the last of the white coats. a story of cavaliers and roundheads. illustrated in colour by oscar wilson. ex. crown vo, s. d. * * * * * the wonder library with eight illustrations. extra crown vo. price s. wonders of animal life. edmund selous. the wonders of modern manufacture. by c. r. gibson, f.r.s.e. the wonders of savage life. by professor g. f. scott elliot, m.a., b.sc. the wonders of astronomy. by hector macpherson, junr., m.a. the wonders of invention. by a. williams, b.a. revised and brought up to date by t. w. corbin. the wonders of modern chemistry. by james c. philip, d.sc. the wonders of electricity. by charles r. gibson, f.r.s.e. the wonders of animal ingenuity. by h. coupin, d.sc., and john lea, m.a. the wonders of mechanical ingenuity. by archibald williams, b.a., f.r.g.s. the wonders of asiatic exploration. by archibald williams, b.a., f.r.g.s. the wonders of the plant world. by g. f. scott elliot, m.a., b.sc., f.l.s., &c. the wonders of modern railways. by archibald williams, b.a., f.r.g.s. the wonders of the insect world. by e. selous. the wonders of modern engineering. by archibald williams, b.a. (oxon.) the wonders of bird life. by john lea, m.a. * * * * * wright, sidney. the romance of the world's fisheries. with many illustrations. extra crown vo, s. young, ernest. adventures among trappers and hunters. with sixteen illustrations. ex. crown vo, s. * * * * * transcriber's note: the following changes have been made to the text: page : added missingopen quotation mark: ("=it is no exaggeration to say that commander currey bears worthily the mantle of kingston and captain marryat.=") page : added missing open quotation mark ("by writing this series the author is doing national service, ...") page : added missing word "on" (needless to say, that ship went on no more excursions.) page : changed "bridginv" to "bridging" ( ... certain engineering "field companies," and "bridging trains," ...) page : changed "chili" to "chile" ( ... notably in the united states, chile and spain.) page : changed "alumimium" to "aluminium" (alumina, too, is oxide of aluminium.) page : changed comma to period at end of sentence (... if the mild steel ordinarily employed for shipbuilding were used.) page : deleted spurious comma following "experience" (... as experience shows, a very considerable degree of safety.) page : changed "nutil" to "until" ( ... which is stored in large accumulator batteries until required ...) page : added missing period ( ... by long spells of duty in this unhealthy atmosphere.) page : changed "aliminium" to "aluminium" ( ... another aluminium disc ...) henry horn's x-ray eye glasses by dwight v. swain [transcriber note: this etext was produced from amazing stories december . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] [illustration: "look!" said henry horn with a gasp. "here, you look at the camp through the glasses!"] [sidenote: henry horn had a new invention; a pair of glasses that worked on the x-ray principle. but he didn't expect them to reveal nazi secret agents and their works of sabotage!] "it's not enough to have a nudist colony move in next door!" fumed professor paulsen. "no, indeed! that wouldn't disrupt things enough. now, in addition, every ne'er-do-well in the county comes prowling over our farm in order to spy on the naked numbskulls!" scowling ferociously, the gaunt scientist stamped violently back across the meadow's lush verdure toward the little country home he shared with his partner, henry horn. beside him, matching his own long strides, came the savant's old friend, major ray coggleston of army intelligence. "none of us can hope for a bed of roses all the time, joe," coggleston remarked, grinning at the professor's outburst. "'into each life some rain must fall,' you know. you've got trespassers to bother you. me, i'm responsible for protecting one of the biggest explosives laboratories in the country against axis espionage and sabotage." instinctively, as he spoke, the officer's eyes sought out the long, low ordnance experiment station, barely a mile away. professor paulsen, following the glance, nodded. "you're right," he agreed. "and when you come right down to it, my worries over the nudist camp back there"--he jerked his head toward the high board fence which marked the boundary--"aren't very important. not with a war in progress." by now the two were in the yard and rounding the corner of the house. the next instant they stopped dead in their tracks. there, in the shade of the building, stood a slight, familiar figure. a figure which, at the moment, was the center of attention for a little knot of interested spectators. "oh, yes, gentlemen, it certainly does work!" cried henry horn enthusiastically, his scraggly goatee jerking spasmodically with each nod of emphasis. he waved the battered pair of binoculars he clutched in his right hand. "yes, it's a marvelous invention. you can see everything you want to, just like you were right inside that camp. and only a dollar for a minute's look!" the professor's face jumped to beet red, then apoplectic purple. his fists clenched, and the sound he made as he sucked in his breath closely resembled that of a cow pulling her foot out of a mudhole. he started forward. major coggleston choked off an incipient frame-racking spasm of mirth barely in time. he caught the tall scientist's arm. "see you later, joe!" he snickered. "i've got to get back on duty. there's a new super-explosive being tested, and i'm supposed to be on hand." "all right. later." professor paulsen grated the words through clenched teeth, but it is doubtful that he was even conscious of speaking. his eyes were focussed straight at henry in a horrible glare, and the smoke of indignation hovered about him in clouds. * * * * * "only a dollar, gentlemen!" cried henry, oblivious to all this new attention. "it's just like going inside the camp. really it is!" "he's right, boys!" broke in a burly, red-headed character. "those glasses of his are better than a seat on the fence." and, turning to the little man: "i'll even buy 'em from you. how much'll you take?" "you see, gentlemen?" whooped henry, steel-rimmed spectacles nearly sliding off the end of his nose in his excitement. "the gentleman says my invention is everything i say it is--" "_henry!_" the little man jumped as if a red-hot flatiron had just been applied to that portion of his trousers designed for sitting. "urghk!" he exclaimed profoundly. "you prying piltdown[ ]!" flamed the professor. "is there anything you won't do for money?" a moment of thunderous silence. "i'm surprised you're not doing a fan dance yourself, if these would-be peeping toms are willing to pay for nakedness." the red-headed man guffawed. "and you!" exploded the savant, turning on the spectators. "get out of here! yes, all of you, you riffraff! i won't have you on the place!" henry's potential customers fled before the paulsen wrath like chaff before the wind, leaving the quaking little entrepreneur to face his fate alone. he stood braced against the verbal cloud-burst, eyes squeezed tight shut behind steel-rimmed glasses, goatee sticking straight out. "for days these snoopers have driven me half-crazy!" raged the professor. "i've tried every trick i could think of to keep them out. i've put signs forbidding trespassing on every tree. i've threatened mayhem and murder. yet still they come!" "but joseph--" "keep quiet 'til i'm finished, you disgrace to science!" the lean scholar ran trembling fingers through his greying hair. then: "and now--today! major coggleston and i go down to the end of the meadow to drive three of the sneaking human dung beetles away from knot-holes. when we get back, what do we find?" "joseph, please--" "we find you--my colleague, my partner, my friend! you--peddling the use of your binoculars to the slimy creatures!" he glared savagely at his victim. "if you were in paris, henry horn, you'd be selling french postcards to tourists!" * * * * * still purple with rage, the savant turned away. stared dourly back toward the high board fence that surrounded the nudists. the next instant he jerked as stiff as if an electric shock had jolted through him. "henry!" "yes, joseph." the other's voice was meekly plaintive as he awaited a renewal of the diatribe. "henry, that fence is between us and the nudists! how could you see them, binoculars or not?" henry's face brightened. his goatee moved to a more confident angle. "that's what i've been trying to tell you, joseph," he explained. "it's my new invention--" "invention!" there was a hysterical note in the way professor paulsen exclaimed the word. "please, henry, not that! don't tell me you've been inventing again--" his little colleague bristled. "and why shouldn't i be inventing, joseph paulsen?" he demanded querulously. "my inventions are mighty valuable. why my new explosive--"[ ] "--which you ran onto quite by accident, and which turned out not to be an explosive at all," the professor cut in grimly. "well, the government--" "the government doesn't have to live with you. nor to put up with your 'inventive' ways." henry's tall partner was fierce in his vehemence. "you've cited one of your devil's devices that turned out well. well, now let me mention a few. remember what happened when you decided to find the universal solvent[ ]?" "but scientists all make mistakes sometimes, joseph--" "and how about that time you wiped out every peony within ten miles? was that a mistake too?" "honestly, i didn't think it would kill anything but ragweed," henry sniveled miserably. "of course it was all an accident when you rendered every one of our guinea pigs sterile, wasn't it?" sneered the other. "that was a nice invention, henry. all it did was to cut off our income for months on end, and nearly destroy our reputation for reliability as breeders of laboratory guinea pigs." "oh, joseph!" henry's voice was an abject wail. his goatee hung limp and bedraggled. "you know i didn't mean any harm any of those times. really i didn't. i just want to be a scientist--" again he began sniveling. professor paulsen, still glaring, opened his mouth to denounce his partner further. then, thinking better of it, he relaxed and put his arm around henry's quivering shoulders. "do you think i like to talk to you like this?" he asked, leading the way toward the porch. "do you think it's pleasant for me?" wearily, he shook his head. "i hate to be shouting at you all the time, henry. it's just that patience will stretch only so far. then it snaps." a pause. "i keep thinking you'll learn by experience, henry. that you'll realize you can't be forever blowing the roof off the laboratory, or lord knows what else, and quit fooling around with things you don't understand. "but instead, you go right on. you dabble into some new branch of science, and a cloud of trouble sweeps down on us like a typhoon on zamboanga." * * * * * together, the friends climbed the porch steps and took seats on the ancient but comfortable wicker settee. henry darted a quick glance at his partner. saw that the professor's face once more was placid; that the storm was over. unconsciously, the little man's goatee perked up. he readjusted his steel-rimmed glasses to a more stable position. "honestly, joseph, this time my invention can't do any harm," he ventured. "really it can't." for a moment fire flashed in the scientist's eyes. then faded again. "all right, henry. what is it this time?" henry extended the binoculars. "here, joseph. look at the nudist camp." "but the fence--" "please, joseph. go ahead and look." "oh, all right--" the professor raised the field glasses. the next instant he nearly dropped them. "what on earth--!" "see, joseph?" shrilled henry. "isn't it a wonderful invention? isn't it?" his tall partner took down the binoculars and stared at them in blank amazement, his face a puzzled mask. "i'd swear i saw right through that fence!" he gasped. "i looked right into the middle of a whole pack of nudists!" "of course!" henry was bubbling with delight. "that's why i call them my x-ray eyeglasses. you can see through anything with them." he took the glasses from the professor. again leveled them at the nudist colony. then, giggling: "doesn't that blonde girl have the cutest--" "henry!" "oh, all right." the little man returned the binoculars to his partner, who studied them with interest. "just what principle do these things work on, henry?" he asked curiously. henry beamed. his goatee was at its jauntiest, most confident angle. the light of triumph played in his eyes. "really, joseph, it's quite simple," he proclaimed. "there are lots of rays that go through anything, you know, except maybe lead. so i just developed a special glass that translated those rays into images, instead of just using the light rays. it was easy. the only thing you have to be careful of is to focus real close, because otherwise you'll look right through the thing you want to see--" "simple!" choked the scientist. "easy! henry, i hope you kept complete notes this once." he raised the glasses again. studied a signboard on the nearby road. "oh, yes, i've got good notes, joseph--" "and you still need a concave eyepiece, so that the images won't reverse," professor paulsen interrupted. "the way it works now, pictures are all right, but 'camels' are spelled 'slemac'." * * * * * henry sniffed contemptuously. "that's nothing," he retorted. "i've got it figured out already. only it'll take a special lens, not just a concave one. because now it doesn't just reverse letters like a mirror; it transposes them--" "all right, all right!" the professor threw up his hands in despair. "this is one time you've invented something worth while, and you seem to have some kind of notion of how it works, for a change." "how you talk!" henry was suddenly cocky. he sneered. "i always know how my inventions work--" his gaunt friend glowered. "i was afraid of this," he grunted. "give you half a compliment and there's no living with you." then: "however, i won't waste time and energy bringing you down to earth right now. the main thing is, get your notes together. i want you to show them to major coggleston tonight; i think maybe the army can use this invention of yours." and, as henry again raised the glasses in the direction of the nudist camp: "but get rid of those glasses for now. i don't want to catch you ogling blonde beauties, or any other kind. those people in that camp put up that fence because they wanted privacy. so put those binoculars away right now. do you understand?" "oh, all right," fretted henry. "i'll get rid of them." dinner was a thing of the past, and major coggleston, professor paulsen and henry were settled comfortably on the front porch, enjoying the quiet of the summer evening. "if these glasses of yours work as well as you say they do, the army certainly can use them," commented the major thoughtfully. "such an invention would completely revolutionize espionage and its counter-measures. nothing would be safe! why, a spy could stand half-a-mile from the laboratory i'm supposed to be protecting, look through the walls to the records room, and steal the formulae for our latest explosives right from under our noses, with none of us the wiser." "yes." the professor nodded. "i can see how much it would mean. that's why i had you over tonight--wanted you to have a chance to investigate." a pause. "by the way, how's the work coming at the laboratory?" "better than we'd hoped for, joe. we've got a young fellow in charge who's a genius on explosives." the major hesitated for a moment, then continued: "confidentially, i understand he's just developed a new powder that makes tnt look like something to use for loading firecrackers. it's the greatest thing in years. the nazis and japs would give their eye-teeth for it. it's simpler to make than gunpowder, even--" _brrrnng!_ "i'll answer," said henry. he skittered inside to the telephone. a minute later he was back. "it's for you, major coggleston." * * * * * the officer hurried to answer. when he returned, his face was tense with worry. "something's wrong!" he rapped. "it looks like the nazis have made a play for that formula already! i've got to get right back to the laboratory!" henry and the professor still were excitedly discussing this news when, half an hour later, the 'phone rang again. this time the tall scientist answered. he returned to the porch frowning. "that was coggleston," he reported. "apparently the spy didn't get the formula, but he made a clean getaway, and he killed a sentry to do it." "oh, that's terrible!" henry was afire with indignation. "of all things! killing a sentry--" "yes." the professor nodded. "the trouble is, coggleston says they don't have much to go on. no description, except that he was big and had red hair--" "red hair!" "yes. red hair." the savant eyed henry suspiciously. "why does that surprise you so?" "why ... er ... oh, it doesn't. i mean--" "what do you mean?" "really, joseph, it's nothing." the little man squirmed nervously, his goatee hanging guiltily to one side. "i'm not surprised at all. really i'm not!" "oh, you're not, aren't you?" professor paulsen started across the room with grim determination, his eyes sharp. "well, then--" "joseph--" the scientist reached for his colleague's shoulder. but the shoulder slipped away. henry dived frantically for the doorway. "oh, no, you don't!" * * * * * spinning about with surprising agility, the professor's hand speared out. it stabbed home to its goal on henry's chin with deadly aim. caught the little man's goatee in a grip that stopped his headlong rush dead still. "joseph!" screamed henry, his eyes filling with tears. "stop it! you're hurting!" "and i intend to keep right on hurting until i get the truth out of you, you amoeba-brained atom!" thundered the other. "i can smell your lies a block away--and this is one time you're not going to get away with it! now: tell me who the red-headed man was." "i don't know, joseph! really--" professor paulsen gave his colleague's chin-whiskers a savage jerk. "i want the truth!" he rapped. "hurry up! tell me!" he jerked again. "oh! ow! joseph, please! oh, let me go! i'll tell--" "you bet you'll tell!" grated his friend. "it's one thing to let you get away with making a fool of me. but when it comes to tampering with the united states army--" and then, breaking off: "all right. why did you jump so when i mentioned the spy was believed to have red hair?" "well...." henry squirmed some more. he tried hard to look dignified despite the professor's grip on his goatee, but failed miserably. "out with it!" "it's really nothing, joseph--" "out with it, i say!" "ow! joseph, stop!" and then: "it's just ... the man who bought my x-ray glasses had red hair--" "the man who bought your x-ray glasses!" "joseph! you're hurting!" "what do you mean, 'the man who bought your x-ray glasses'?" the professor thrust his gaunt face to within an inch of henry's, his eyes like steel gimlets. "if you tell me you've sold those glasses, you misbegotten moron--" "but joseph!" henry struggled to free himself. "you told me to get rid of them. you warned me not to use them." "i never told you to sell them! you knew i wanted to talk to coggleston about their use to the army--" "yes, but you didn't tell me _not_ to sell them. and i had all my notes, and knew just how to make another pair, and so when the red-headed man offered me fifty dollars for them--" but professor paulsen had ceased to listen. already he was on the telephone and calling major coggleston. tersely he explained the situation. then: "could he have gotten the formula, ray? was it anywhere he could see it through those devil's glasses?" and, a moment later: "oh. coggleston, i can't tell you how sorry i am--" "what did he say?" henry demanded excitedly as the other hung up. "is it all right, joseph--" "no." the scientist shook his head, eyes dark with worry. "coggleston says we can be practically certain the spy got that formula. he says the man in charge was having a staff meeting of his aides, and they had it written out on a blackboard for discussion." "joseph--" "ray's on his way over now. he wants to ask you some questions about the man's description--" * * * * * even as the words left the savant's mouth, they heard a car roar up the driveway. major ray coggleston hurried in the door, a sergeant at his heels. he wasted no time on preliminaries. "what did he look like?" he demanded. "well, he had red hair...." "yes, yes. we know that." "he was pretty big. almost as tall as joseph." "yes. go on." "i guess he talked sort of loud." "got it." henry hesitated. tugged at his goatee, his face screwed with concentration. "really, major coggleston, that's about all i can remember about him," he said at last. the officer swore. he paced the floor in a frenzy of anxiety. "we've nothing to go on!" he fumed. "the description's meaningless. it could fit any one of a thousand men in this area. we don't even know where to start to hunt." "excuse me, major--" gulped henry. the military man whirled on him. "what is it? have you thought of something else?" "why, about where to start to hunt--" "yes?" "why don't you try the nudist camp?" "the nudist camp?" professor paulsen exploded. "are you completely crazy, henry? why would a spy be in a nudist camp?" henry glared back at him. "no, i'm not completely crazy," he snapped peevishly. "and i don't know what a spy is doing in a nudist camp, but that's where he was when i sold him my glasses." he sniffed. "really, joseph, i get awfully tired of your acting like you were the only one around here who was half smart." but major coggleston interrupted. "let's get this straight," he pleaded. "where did you meet this red-headed man? how'd you come to sell him the glasses?" "oh, that?" henry sniffed so hard his glasses slid down his nose. "why, he was one of the men who was out peeking at the nudists." he turned to professor paulsen. "you remember, joseph. he's the one who said i was telling the truth about my x-ray eyeglasses being able to look through the fence." "yes, heaven preserve me, i remember!" groaned the professor. "but why didn't i think--" "so he asked me to sell him my glasses," henry continued. "and when joseph told me to get rid of them, i took them over to the nudist camp and sold them to him for fifty dollars." "but how'd you know he was in the nudist camp?" "how?" henry's goatee jerked with contempt. "how would i know anyone was there? i saw him. he was right behind the blonde with the cute--" "henry!" "oh, all right. anyhow, he was right behind a blonde girl. i saw him when i looked through my glasses while i was showing joseph how to use them." * * * * * again major coggleston paced the floor. his face was lined with worry. he bit nervously at his lip. "i'll be damned if i know what to do!" he exploded. "i've got to find that spy. but i can hardly seize a whole nudist camp just because a red-headed man bought a pair of binoculars." "couldn't you ask that all red-headed men be brought to the gate?" suggested professor paulsen. "no." the officer shook his head. "if the man we want is there, that would tip him off." "excuse me, sir," broke in the sergeant who accompanied major coggleston, "but why not just search the whole place with the men you've got detailed for guard duty? it wouldn't be much of a job." the major nodded. "if i have to, that's just what i plan," he replied. "however, there are women in that camp. nude women. and, frankly, i don't hanker after any of the kind of publicity which undoubtedly would result from such a search. so i want to avoid it if i can." "then what--" "i'll go in alone! that's it!" major coggleston straightened, suddenly decisive. "sergeant, go back to the laboratory and round up all but a skeleton guard. bring them back to the nudist camp and surround it. don't let anyone escape! do you understand me?" "yes, sir. i am to surround the nudist camp with our men as soon as possible, leaving only a skeleton guard on the laboratory." "right. on your way." the sergeant strode out, and a moment later the car in the driveway roared to life. and back in the house, the major drew a deep breath. "well, i'm off!" he snapped. "wish me luck!" "wait!" bleated henry, his goatee waggling excitedly. "what's the matter?" "i'm going with you!" "you?" major coggleston stared. "what for?" henry started in indignation at the other's tone. he drew himself to his full height and thrust his chin out aggressively. "'what for?'" he mimicked. "hmmph! let me ask you a question, mister officer: how are you going to identify the man who bought my glasses if i'm not along?" the major considered this. then, at last: "all right. i guess you'll have to come." "then so do i." it was professor paulsen. "joe, there's no need to talk like that," major ray coggleston began. "if henry goes, i go," the savant reiterated stubbornly. "he gets in enough jams with me around to look after him. lord knows what he'd do if he got away from me." * * * * * and so it was, ten minutes later, that the three appeared at the main gate of the sunset glow nudist colony: let old sol bring you health. from within the fenced enclosure came the glow of firelight and the sound of festivities. a burly short-clad gateman was on duty. "well?" he demanded. major coggleston displayed his credentials. "you've got a man in there whom we suspect of being a spy," he explained. "we've got to come in and investigate." the gateman hesitated and chewed his lower lip. "o.k.," he said finally. "ditch your clothes in the brush, over there." "ditch our clothes!" "sure." the gateman nodded determinedly. "you didn't think you could come in the way you are, did you?" "but we represent the united states government--" "i don't give a damn who you represent." the gateman was adamant. "if you want to enter sunset glow, you'll do it in bare skin or not at all." the three stared from one to another. at last the major broke the silence. "all right," he snapped. "have it your own way. i suppose we _would_ stand out like sore thumbs if we wore clothes." it took the trio but a minute to disrobe. they slipped through the gate, a strange sight: henry, small and spindly, chin-whiskers waving animatedly; professor paulsen, gaunt, lean-shanked, stooped; and major coggleston, still strong and well-built, but with a noticeable spare tire beginning to develop around his midriff. inside, a great open fire was burning, with a throng of male and female nudists disporting themselves about it. some were toasting wieners and marshmallows; other only their own epidermis. there was much laughter and good-natured raillery. "joseph!" exclaimed henry tensely, his goatee quivering to a point like a setter's tail. "there! see her? that blonde girl--" his colleague turned on him. "henry horn, i'm warning you for the last time!" he clipped. "we're having a hard enough time as it is, without your calling that young lady's anatomical details to our attention. so keep quiet!" "oh, all right," the little man sulked. "just because you think you're smarter than i am--" "joe! henry!" major coggleston interrupted excitedly. "look! that man walking off into the shadows! hasn't he red hair?" the two friends shot quick glances in the direction the officer pointed. "that's him!" squealed henry, dancing about like a monkey on a stick. "that's the man who bought my glasses!" "come on!" the major darted forward, looking for all the world like an oversize kewpie doll. henry and the professor followed close on his heels. * * * * * ahead of them, the red-headed nudist hurried farther and farther out of the firelight and into the brush. bushes began to slap against the three friends' faces. "damn that devil!" fumed major coggleston. "i can't see him. has he lost us?" "ouch!" yipped henry, close beside him. "oh! the mosquitoes!" professor paulsen slapped vigorously at his own anatomy. "they're awful!" he agreed. then, to his friend, the major: "do you see him? where is he?" and from the darkness behind them a voice answered: "right here i am, gentlemen! at your service, now and always!" as one man, the trio whirled. a burly figure loomed in the gloom. it was the red-headed man! "did you buy a pair of binoculars--" the major began. the other waved him down. "sure, i bought 'em. and tonight i used 'em to snag onto the most important military secret i've seen in a month of sundays. believe me, mister, i'll make my fortune from this job!" "then you admit you're a spy?" the officer rasped, starting to move forward. "you admit you're the dirty dog who murdered our sentry--" "sure, sure, i admit it." the burly one seemed unperturbed. "why, you--" "hold it!" there was a sharp note of command in the red-headed man's voice this time. "don't come no closer, buddy. not if you want to keep your health!" he held out one ham-like hand. it gripped a heavy, bottle-shaped package. "i got a little private lab in my suitcase," the spy explained. "when i saw how simple that formula was, i just brewed me up a batch of your new powder. now i got it right here"--he waved the package--"complete with detonator. if you guys try to jump me, all i do is let go and the whole works goes off." he chuckled unpleasantly. "i guess you know what happens when two pounds of that stuff lets go." the three friends shrank back. henry's teeth already were chattering like the gourds in a rumba band. "i guess you've got us," major coggleston said tautly. "however, you can't go far. my men are surrounding this camp right now." the red-headed man sneered. "why don't you tell me something new?" he commented caustically. "why'd you think i grabbed you?" "what?" "you didn't think you guys surprised me, did you?" the burly one laughed. "hell, i saw you the second you came in. "the way i'd planned it, i was going to hide out in the camp, here, until the stink blew over. then i figured on pulling a fast sneak out of the country. "but someone caught wise. i guess it was you"--he nodded at the quaking henry--"so i had to revise things a little. i knew you'd have support coming up--army intelligence officers don't walk into trouble without backing except in the movies." * * * * * "so what do you plan to do with us?" demanded the major. "you can see you haven't a chance to get away--" "haven't i?" "the camp is surrounded." "sure." their captor was amused. "that's why i grabbed you. the four of us are going to march out of here together. and you"--he jerked his head toward major coggleston--"are going to make your boys lay off. you'll go with me 'til i'm satisfied i'm in the clear. then i'll turn you loose." "and if we refuse?" grated the major. the other shrugged. "o.k. by me," he said. "we all blow up together." there was a long moment of silence, pregnant with panic. "you must have a great deal of confidence in your ability as a chemist, to prepare this explosive on such short notice and with limited equipment," professor paulsen commented at last. the red-headed man laughed. "why shouldn't i have?" he demanded. "i may have been raised in brooklyn, but i learned my business in berlin, and they know how to teach there." another long silence. "well, make up your mind!" their captor grunted finally. "we ain't got all night, you know. do you come quiet, or do i have to blow us all to smithereens?" he waved the package in his hand menacingly. major coggleston threw up his hands in a gesture of defeat. "you win!" he snapped. "if i were alone, i'd say blow and be damned. but my friends deserve a better fate." "you're smart," the other reported approvingly. "come on!" slowly, the trio moved forward. "hurry up!" grated the red-head. and then, to the professor: "you skinny, get a move on!" for the gaunt savant was distinctly lagging. he had dropped back until he was a full yard behind henry and the major, and only a step in front of the spy. "hurry up!" the nazi repeated, his eyes suddenly cold and menacing. "joseph! come on!" urged henry, his teeth chattering. "don't make him mad! please, joseph!" "i'm coming," grunted the scientist. "i certainly can't be blamed if the pebbles and twigs hurt my feet, can i?" and with that, he sprang. like a human octopus, all long arms and legs, he launched himself at the spy. his hands clutched at the red-head's throat. his legs wrapped around the man's waist and dashed him backward to the ground. "help!" screamed the spy. with a wild motion he hurled the package from him in a long arch. _bang!_ * * * * * but the explosion was the crack of a detonating cap, not the thunderous roar of a heavy charge of powder. major coggleston lunged forward. his fists beat a meaty tattoo on the spy's face. the next instant the crackle of military commands and the thud of footsteps burst upon them. the four--professor paulsen, major coggleston and the spy, in a heap on the ground; and henry horn, wide-eyed and trembling, standing near at hand--were illumined in a powerful flashlight's beam. half a dozen soldiers rushed up. "major! we heard that shot! are you all right?" the officer struggled to his feet, trying hard to preserve the dignity of his rank despite his nudity. in the light of the flash he looked even more than before like an overgrown kewpie doll. "of course i'm all right!" he puffed. "what's more, that red-headed rat on the ground is the spy and murderer we've been looking for. take him away, men!" he turned to professor paulsen. "joe, this is one time i don't know what to say. if it hadn't been for you that devil would have made a clean getaway." "forget it," retorted the gaunt scientist. "it's little enough i can do for my country at my age." "honestly, joseph, i can't see how you got the nerve to do it!" marveled henry, still wide-eyed. "just think, we might all have been killed--" the professor glared. "what do you mean, we might all have been killed?" "why, the explosive in that package, and the detonator--really, joseph, it was terribly dangerous--" "dangerous!" snorted the savant. "the only dangerous part was that he might have hit me over the head with it." "but--the explosive--" "explosive, my eye!" and, again glaring: "do you mean to tell me you can't understand why that stuff he had in the package didn't go off, you abbreviated atom?" henry's goatee waggled uncertainly. he adjusted the steel-rimmed spectacles which were his only garment. "well ... really, joseph...." "i'll admit right out i don't get it," broke in major coggleston. "you mean there wasn't any danger of that stuff going off?" "of course not." professor paulsen was distinctly snappish. "but why--" * * * * * the scientist turned back to henry. "don't you remember what i said to you this morning about those devil's glasses of yours transposing letters instead of just reversing them? and that you told me it would take a special lens to straighten them out?" "you mean--" "take any formula and transpose the symbols all the way through, and see what you get. trinitrocresol, for instance. the formula is c_{ }h_{ }n_{ }o_{ }. transpose it all the way through, and you have _{ }o_{ }n_{ }h_{ }c. in that particular case, it wouldn't even make sense. but when our red-headed spy said he was a chemist and hadn't had any trouble compounding this new explosive, i figured the formula must be one that would be at least half-way logical, no matter which way you wrote it. only the odds were a million to one that one way it would equal an explosive; the other, nothing at all. so i didn't hesitate to attack him." "joe," said major coggleston admiringly, "that's a lot faster thinking than i've ever done. and i don't need to tell you how grateful the army will be." "really, joseph, it was awfully clever!" henry chimed in. "i'd never have thought of it--" and then, changing thought in mid-sentence: "look! there's that pretty blonde girl with the--" "henry!" exploded professor paulsen. "you're old enough to behave like a grown man, not an inspectionistic schoolboy!" his hand shot out to grip his little partner's goatee and jerk his eyes from the luscious creature now parading her charms before them. "ouch!" squealed henry, his face screwing up with pain. "joseph, you're hurting!" "then will you be good? will you behave yourself?" "of course, joseph. just let me go!" then, sulkily, as the tall scientist released him: "though i still think you're mighty finicky, joseph paulsen. after all, what's wrong with my liking the cute way that girl wears the bangs across her forehead?" * * * * * [footnote : the piltdown man was a species of prehistoric being (_eoanthropus dawsoni_), long since extinct, with a retreating, apelike chin and thick cranial bones, but a human-type cranium.--ed.] [footnote : see "henry horn's blitz bomb," amazing stories, june, ' .--ed.] [footnote : see "henry horn's super-solvent," _fantastic adventures_, november, ' .--ed.] images generously made available by the internet archive/american libraries.) triumphs of invention and discovery in art and science. [illustration: george stephenson's home. page .] triumphs of invention and discovery in art and science. by j. hamilton fyfe. "peace hath her victories no less than war." london: t. nelson and sons, paternoster row; edinburgh; and new york. . preface. "_peace hath her victories, no less renowned than war._"--milton. it is not difficult to account for the pre-eminence, generally assigned to the victories of war over the victories of peace in popular history. the noise and ostentation which attend the former, the air of romance which surrounds them,--lay firm hold of the imagination, while the directness and rapidity with which, in such transactions, the effect follows the cause, invest them with a peculiar charm for simple and superficial observers. as schiller says,-- "straight forward goes the lightning's path, and straight the fearful path of the cannon ball. direct it flies, and rapid, shattering that it _may_ reach, and shattering what it reaches. my son! the road the human being travels, that on which blessing comes and goes, doth follow the river's course, the valley's playful windings: curves round the corn-field and the hill of vines, honouring the holy bounds of property! and thus secure, though late, leads to its end." the path of peace is long and devious, now dwindling into a mere foot-track, now lost to sight in some dense thicket; and the heroes who pursue it are often mocked at by the crowd as poor, half-witted souls, wandering either aimlessly or in foolish chase of some jack o' lantern that ever recedes before them. the goal they aim at seems to the common eye so visionary, and their progress towards it so imperceptible,--and even when reached, it takes so long before the benefits of their achievement are generally recognised,--that it is perhaps no wonder we should be more attracted by the stirring narratives of war, than by the sad, simple histories of the great pioneers of industry and science. picturesque and imposing as deeds of arms appear, the victories of peace--the development of great discoveries and inventions, the performance of serene acts of beneficence, the achievements of social reform--possess a deeper interest and a truer romance for the seeing eye and the understanding heart. wounds and death have to be encountered in the struggles of peace as well as in the contests of war; and peace has her martyrs as well as her heroes. the story of the cotton-spinning invention is at once as tragic and romantic as the story of the peninsular war. there were "forlorn hopes" of brave men in both; but in the one case they were cheered by sympathy and association, in the other the desperate pioneers had to face a world of foes, "alone, unfriended, solitary, slow." the following pages contain sketches of some of the more momentous victories of peace, and the heroes who took part in them. the reader need hardly be reminded that this brief list does not exhaust the catalogue either of such events or persons, and that only a few of a representative character are here selected. in the present edition the different sections have been carefully revised, and the details brought down to the latest possible date. j. h. f. contents. the art of printing-- . john gutenberg, . william caxton, . the printing machine, the steam engine-- . the marquis of worcester, and his successors, . james watt, the manufacture of cotton-- . kay and hargreaves, . sir richard arkwright, . samuel crompton, . dr. cartwright, . sir robert peel, the railway and the locomotive-- . "the flying coach," . the stephensons: father and son, . the growth of railways, the lighthouse-- . the eddystone, . the bell rock, . the skerryvore, steam navigation-- . james symington, . robert fulton, . henry bell, . ocean steamers, iron manufacture-- henry cort, the electric telegraph-- . mr. cooke, . professor wheatstone, . the submarine telegraph, the silk manufacture-- . john lombe, . william lee, . joseph marie jacquard, the potter's art-- . luca della robbia, . bernard palissy, . josiah wedgwood, the miner's safety lamp-- . sir humphrey davy, . george stephenson's lamp, penny postage-- . sir rowland hill, . new departments of the postal system, the overland route-- . lieutenant waghorn, . the suez canal, the art of printing. i.--john gutenberg. ii.--william caxton. iii.--the printing machine. the art of printing. "a creature he called to wait on his will, half iron, half vapour--a dread to behold-- which evermore panted, and evermore rolled, and uttered his words a millionfold. forth sprung they in air, down raining in dew, and men fed upon them, and mighty they grew." leigh hunt, _sword and pen_. i.--john gutenberg. some dutch writers, inspired by a not unnatural feeling of patriotism, have endeavoured to claim the honour of inventing the art of printing for a countryman of their own, laurence coster of haarlem. their sole reliance, however, is upon the statements of one hadrian junius, who was born at horn, in north holland, in . about he wrote a work, entitled "batavia," in which the account of coster first appeared. and, as an unimpeachable authority has remarked, almost every succeeding advocate of coster's pretensions has taken the liberty of altering, amplifying, or contradicting the account of junius, according as it might suit his own line of argument; but not one of them has succeeded in producing a solitary fact in confirmation of it. the accounts which are given of coster's discovery by junius and his successors present many contradictory features. thus junius says: "walking in a neighbouring wood, as citizens are accustomed to do after dinner and on holidays, he began to cut letters of beech-bark, with which, for amusement--the letters being inverted as on a seal--he impressed short sentences on paper for the children of his son-in-law." a later writer, scriverius, is more imaginative: "coster," he says, "walking in the wood, picked up a small bough of a beech, or rather of an oak-tree, blown off by the wind; and after amusing himself with cutting some letters on it, wrapped it up in paper, and afterwards laid himself down to sleep. when he awoke, he perceived that the paper, by a shower of rain or some accident having got moist, had received an impression from these letters; which induced him to pursue the accidental discovery." not only are these accounts evidently deficient in authenticity, but it should be remarked that the earliest of them was not put before the world until laurence coster had been nearly a hundred and fifty years in his grave. the presumed writer of the narrative which first did justice to his memory had been also twelve years dead when his book was published. his information, or rather the information brought forward under cover of his name, was derived from an old man who, when a boy, had heard it from another old man who lived with coster at the time of the robbery, and who had heard the account of the invention from his master. for, to explain the fact of the early appearance of typography in germany, the dutch writers are forced to the hypothesis that an apprentice of coster's stole all his master's types and utensils, fleeing with them first to amsterdam, second to cologne, and lastly to mentz! the whole story is too improbable to be accepted by any impartial inquirer; and the best authorities are agreed in dismissing the dutch fiction with the contempt it deserves, and in ascribing to john gutenberg, of mentz, the honour to which he is justly entitled. * * * * * of the career of gutenberg we shall speak presently, but let us first point out that the invention of typography, like all great inventions, was no sudden conception of genius--not the birth of some singularly felicitous moment of inspiration--but the result of what may be called a gradual series of causes. printing with movable types was the natural outcome of printing with blocks. we must go back, therefore, a few years, to examine into the origin of "block books." mr. jackson observes that there cannot be a doubt that the principle on which wood engraving is founded--that of taking impressions on paper or parchment, with ink, from prominent lines--was known and practised in attesting documents in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. towards the end of the fourteenth, or about the beginning of the fifteenth century, he says, there seems reason to believe that this principle was adopted by the german card-makers for the purpose of marking the outlines of the figures on their cards, which they afterwards coloured by the practice called _stencilling_. it was the germans who first practised card-making as a trade, and as early as the name of a _kartenmacher_, or card-maker, occurs in the burgess-books of augsburg. in the town-books of nuremburg, the designation _formschneider_, or figure-cutter, is found in ; and we may presume that block books--that is, books each page of which was cut on a single block--were introduced about this time. these books were on religious subjects, and were intended, perhaps, by the monks as a kind of counterbalance against the playing-cards; "thus endeavouring to supply a remedy for the evil, and extracting from the serpent a cure for his bite." the earliest woodcut known--one of st. christopher--bears the date of , and was found in a convent situated within about fifty miles of the city of augsburg--the convent of buxheim, near memmingen. it was pasted on the inside of the right hand cover of a manuscript entitled _laus virginis_, and measures eleven and a quarter inches in height, by eight and one-eighth inches in width. the following description of it by jackson is interesting:-- "to the left of the engraving the artist has introduced, with a noble disregard of perspective, what bewick would have called a 'bit of nature.' in the foreground a figure is seen driving an ass loaded with a sack towards a water-mill; while by a steep path a figure, perhaps intended for the miller, is seen carrying a full sack from the back-door of the mill towards a cottage. to the right is seen a hermit--known by the bell over the entrance to his dwelling--holding a large lantern to direct st. christopher as he crosses the stream. the couplet at the foot of the cut,-- 'cristofori faciem die quacunque tueris, illa nempe die morte mala non morieris,' may be translated as follows,-- each day that thou the image of st. christopher shall see, that day no frightful form of death shall chance to fall on thee. these lines allude to a superstition, once popular in all catholic countries, that on the day they saw a figure or image of st. christopher, they would be safe from a violent death, or from death unabsolved and unconfessed." passing over some other woodcuts of great antiquity, in all of which the figures are accompanied by engraved letters, we come to the block books proper. of these, the most famous are called, the _apocalypsis, seu historia sancti johannis_ (the "apocalypse, or history of st. john"); the _historia virginis ex cantico canticorum_ ("story of the virgin, from the song of songs"); and the _biblia pauperum_ ("bible of the poor"). the first is a history, pictorial and literal, of the life and revelations of st. john the evangelist, partly derived from the book of revelation, and partly from ecclesiastical tradition. the second is a similar biography of the virgin mary, as it is supposed to be typified in the song of solomon; and the third consists of subjects representing many of the most important passages in the old and new testaments, with texts to illustrate the subject, or clinch the lesson of duty it may shadow forth. with respect to the engraving, we are told that the cuts are executed in the simplest manner, as there is not the least attempt at shading, by means of cross lines or hatchings, to be detected in any one of the designs. the most difficult part of the engraver's task, says jackson, supposing the drawing to have been made by another person, would be the cutting of the letters, which, in several of the subjects, must have occupied a considerable portion of time, and have demanded no small degree of perseverance, care, and skill. these block books were followed by others in which no illustrations appeared, but in which the entire page was occupied with text. the grammatical primer, called the "donatus," from the name of its supposed compiler, was thus printed, or engraved, enabling copies of it to be multiplied at a much cheaper rate than they could be produced in manuscript. and thus we see that the art of printing--or, more correctly speaking, engraving on wood--has advanced from the production of a single figure, with merely a few words beneath it, to the impression of whole pages of text. next, for the engraved page were to be substituted movable letters of metal, wedged together within an iron frame; and impressions, instead of being obtained by the slow and tedious process of friction, were to be secured by the swift and powerful action of the press. * * * * * about the year , john gænsfleisch, or gutenberg, was born at mentz. he sprung from an honourable family, and it is said that he himself was by birth a knight. he seems to have been a person of some property. about we find him living in strasburg, and, in partnership with a certain andrew drytzcher, endeavouring to perfect the art of typography. how he was induced to direct his attention towards this object, and under what circumstances he began his experiments, it is impossible to say; but there can be no doubt that he was the first person who conceived the idea of _movable types_--an idea which is the very foundation of the art of printing. an old german chronicler furnishes the following account of the early stages of the great printer's discovery:-- "at this time (about ), in the city of mentz, on the rhine, in germany, and not in italy as some persons have erroneously written, that wonderful and then unheard-of art of printing and characterizing books was invented and devised by john gutenberger, citizen of mentz, who, having expended most of his property in the invention of this art, on account of the difficulties which he experienced on all sides, was about to abandon it altogether; when, by the advice and through the means of john fust, likewise a citizen of mentz, he succeeded in bringing it to perfection. at first they formed or engraved the characters or letters in written order on blocks of wood, and in this manner they printed the vocabulary called a 'catholicon.' but with these forms or blocks they could print nothing else, because the characters could not be transposed in these tablets, but were engraved thereon, as we have said. to this invention succeeded a more subtle one, for they found out the means of cutting the forms of all the letters of the alphabet, which they called _matrices_, from which again they cast characters of copper or tin of sufficient hardness to resist the necessary pressure, which they had before engraved by hand." this is a very brief and summary account of a great invention. by comparison of other authorities we are enabled to bring together a far greater number of details, though we must acknowledge that many of these have little foundation but in tradition or romance. let us, therefore, take a peep at the first printer, working in seclusion and solitude in the old historic city of strasburg, and endeavouring to elaborate in practice the grand idea which has been conceived and matured by his energetic brain. doubtlessly he knew not the full importance of this idea, or of how great a social and religious revolution it was to be the seed, and yet we cannot believe that he was altogether unconscious of its value to future generations. shutting himself up in his own room, seeing no one, rarely crossing the threshold, allowing himself hardly any repose, he set himself to work out the plan he had formed. with a knife and some pieces of wood he constructed a set of movable types, on one face of each of which a letter of the alphabet was carved in relief, and which were strung together, in the order of words and sentences, upon a piece of wire. by means of these he succeeded in producing upon parchment a very satisfactory impression. to be out of the way of prying eyes, he took up his quarters in the ruins of the old monastery of st. arbogaste, outside the town, which had long been abandoned by the monks to the rats and beggars of the neighbourhood; and the better to mask his designs, as well as to procure the funds necessary for his experiments, he set up as a sort of artificer in jewellery and metal-work, setting and polishing precious stones, and preparing venetian glass for mirrors, which he afterwards mounted in frames of metal and carved wood. these avowed labours he openly practised, along with a couple of assistants, in a public part of the monastery; but in the depths of the cloisters, in a dark secluded spot, he fitted up a little cell as the _atelier_ of his secret operations; and there, secured by bolts and bars, and a thick oaken door, against the intrusion of any one who might penetrate so far into the interior of the ruins, he applied himself to his great work. he quickly perceived, as a man of his inventiveness was sure to perceive, the superiority of letters of metal over those of wood. he invented various coloured inks, at once oily and dry, for printing with; brushes and rollers for transferring the ink to the face of the types; "forms," or cases, for keeping together the types arranged in pages; and a press for bringing the inked types and the paper in contact. [illustration: gutenberg in the old monastery. page .] day and night, whenever he could spare an instant from his professed occupations, he devoted himself to the development of his great design. at night he could hardly sleep for thinking of it, and his hasty snatches of slumber were disturbed by agitating dreams. tradition has preserved the story of one of these for us as he afterwards told it to his friends. he dreamt that, as he sat feasting his eyes upon the impression of his first page of type, he heard two voices whispering at his ear--the one soft and musical, the other harsh, dull, and bitter in its tones. the one bade him rejoice at the great work he had achieved; unveiled the future, and showed the men of different generations, the peoples of distant lands, holding high converse by means of his invention; and cheered him with the hope of an immortal fame. "ay," put in the other voice, "immortal he might be, but at what a price! man, more often perverse and wicked than wise and good, would profane the new faculty this art created, and the ages, instead of blessing, would have cause to curse the man who gave it to the world. therefore let him regard his invention as a seductive but fatal dream, which, if fulfilled, would place in the hands of man, sinful and erring as he was, only another instrument of evil." gutenberg, whom the first voice had thrown into an ecstasy of delight, now shuddered at the thought of the fearful power to corrupt and to debase his art would give to wicked men, and awoke in an agony of doubt. he seized his mallet, and had almost broken up his types and press, when he paused to reflect that, after all, god's gifts, although sometimes perilous and capable of abuse, were never evil in themselves, and that to give another means of utterance to the piety and reason of mankind was to promote the spread of virtue and intelligence, which were both divine. so he closed his ears to the suggestions of the tempter, and persisted in his work. gutenberg had scarcely completed his printing machine, and got it into working order, when the jealousy and distrust of his associates in the nominal business he carried on, brought him into trouble with the authorities of strasburg. he could have saved himself by the disclosure of all the secrets of his invention; but this he refused to do. his goods were confiscated; and he returned penniless, with a heavy heart, to his native town mentz. there, in partnership with a wealthy goldsmith named john fust, and his son-in-law schoeffer, he started a printing office; from which he sent out many works, mostly of a religious character. the enterprise throve; but misfortune was ever dogging gutenberg's steps, and he had but a brief taste of prosperity. the priests looked with suspicion upon the new art, which enabled people to read for themselves what before they had to take on trust from them. the transcribers of books,--a large and influential guild,--were also hostile to the invention, which threatened to deprive them of their livelihood. these two bodies formed a league against the printers; and upon the head of poor gutenberg were emptied all the vials of their wrath. fust and schoeffer, with crafty adroitness, managed to conciliate their opponents, and to offer up their partner as a sacrifice for themselves. by the zeal of his enemies, and the treachery of his friends, gutenberg was driven out of mentz. after wandering about for some time in poverty and neglect, adolphus, the elector of nassau, became his patron; and at his court gutenberg set up a press, and printed a number of works with his own hands. though poor, his last years were spent in peace; and when he died, he had only a few copies of the productions of his press to leave to his sister. meanwhile, at strasburg, some of his former associates pieced together the revelations that had fallen from him, while at the old monastery, as to his invention; and not only worked it with success, but claimed all the credit of its origin. in the same way, fust and schoeffer, at mentz, grew rich through the invention of the man they had betrayed, and tried to rob of his fame. there is a curious, but not very well authenticated story about a visit fust made to paris to push the sale of his bibles. "the tradition of the devil and dr. faustus," writes d'israeli in the "curiosities of literature," "was said to have been derived from the odd circumstances in which the bibles of the first printer, fust, appeared to the world. when fust had discovered this new art, and printed off a considerable number of copies of the bible to imitate those which were commonly sold as mss., he undertook the sale of them at paris. it was his interest to conceal this discovery and to pass off his printed copies for mss. but, enabled to sell his bibles at sixty crowns, while the other scribes demanded five hundred, this raised universal astonishment; and still more when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and even lowered his price. the uniformity of the copies increased the wonder. informations were given in to the magistrates against him as a magician; and on searching his lodgings, a great number of copies were found. the red ink, and fust's red ink is peculiarly brilliant, which embellished his copies, was said to be his blood; and it was solemnly adjudged that he was in league with the infernal. fust at length was obliged, to save himself from a bonfire, to reveal his art to the parliament of paris, who discharged him from all prosecution in consideration of the wonderful invention." the edition of the bible, which was one of the very first productions of gutenberg and fust's press, is called the mazarin, in consequence of the first known copy having been discovered in the famous library formed by cardinal mazarin. it seems to have been printed as early as august , and is a truly admirable specimen of typography; the characters being very clear and distinct, and the uniformity of the printing perfectly remarkable. a copy in the royal library at paris is bound in two volumes, and every complete page consists of two columns, each containing forty-two lines. the reader will recognize the appropriateness of the fact that from the first printing press the first important work produced should be a copy of god's word. it sanctified the new art which was to be so fruitful of good and evil results--the good superabounding, and clearly visible--the evil little, and destined, perhaps, to be directed eventually to good--for successive generations of mankind. it was a fitting forerunner of the long generation of books which have since issued so ceaselessly from the printing press; books, of the majority of which we may say, with milton, that "they contain a potency of life in them to be as active as those souls were whose progeny they are; to preserve, as in a vial, the purest efficacy and extraction of the living intellects that feed them." gutenberg's career was dashed with many lights and shadows, but it closed in peace. in , the archbishop-elector of mentz appointed him one of his courtiers, with the same allowance of clothing as the remainder of the nobles attending his court, and all other privileges and exemptions. it is probable that from this time he abandoned the practice of his new invention. the date of his death is uncertain; but there is documentary evidence extant which proves that it occurred before february , . he was interred in the church of the recollets at mentz, and the following epitaph was composed by his kinsman adam gelthaus:-- "d. o. m. s. "joanni gesnyfleisch, artis impressoriae repertori, de omni natione et lingua optime merito, in nominis sui memoriam immortalem adam gelthaus posuit. ossa ejus in ecclesia d. francisci moguntina feliciter cubant." ii.--william caxton. during the last thirty or forty years of the fifteenth century, while printing was becoming gradually more and more practised on the continent, and the presses of mentz, bamberg, cologne, strasburg, augsburg, rome, venice, and milan, were sending forth numbers of bibles, and various learned and theological works, chiefly in latin, an english merchant, a man of substance and of no little note in chepe, appeared at the court of the duke of burgundy at bruges, to negotiate a commercial treaty between that sovereign and the king of england; which accomplished, the worthy ambassador seems to have liked the place and the people so well, and to have been so much liked in return, that for some years afterwards he took up his residence there, holding some honourable, easy appointment in the household of the duchess of burgundy. this was william caxton, who here ripened, if he did not acquire, his love of literature and scholarship, and began, from hatred of idleness, to take pen in hand himself. "when i remember," says he, in his preface to his first work, a translation of a fanciful "recueil des histoires de troye," "that every man is bounden by the commandment and counsel of the wise man to eschew sloth and idleness, which is mother and nourisher of vices, and ought to put himself into virtuous occupation and business, then i, having no great charge or occupation, following the said counsel, took a french book, and read therein many strange marvellous histories. and for so much as this book was new and late made, and drawn into french, and never seen in our english tongue, i thought in myself, it should be a good business to translate it into our english, to the end that it might be had as well in the royaume of england as in other lands, and also to pass therewith the time; and thus concluded in myself to begin this said work, and forthwith took pen and ink, and began boldly to run forth, as blind bayard, in this present work." while at work upon this translation, caxton found leisure to visit several of the german towns where printing presses were established, and to get an insight into the mysteries of the art, so that by the time he had finished the volume, he was able to print it. at the close of the third book of the "recuyell," he says: "thus end i this book which i have translated after mine author, as nigh as god hath given me cunning, to whom be given the laud and praise. and for as much as in the writing of the same my pen is worn, mine hand weary and not steadfast, mine eyen dimmed with overmuch looking on the white paper, and my courage not so prone and ready to labour as it hath been, and that age creepeth on me daily, and feebleth all the body; and also because i have promised to divers gentlemen and to my friends, to address to them as hastily as i might, this said book, therefore i have practised and learned, at my great charge and dispense, to ordain this said book in print, after the manner and form you may here see; and is not written with pen and ink as other books are, to the end that every man may have them at once. for all the books of this story, named the 'recuyell of the historyes of troye,' thus imprinted as ye here see, were begun in one day, and also finished in one day" (that is, in the same space of time). by the year , caxton had returned to london, and set up a printing establishment within the precincts of westminster abbey; had given to the world the three first books ever printed in england,--"the game and play of the chesse" (march ); "a boke of the hoole lyf of jason" ( ); and "the dictes and notable wyse sayenges of the phylosophers" ( ),--and was fairly started in the great work of supplying printed books to his countrymen, which, as a placard in his largest type sets forth, if any one wanted, "emprynted after the forme of this present lettre whiche ben well and truly correct, late hym come to westmonster, in to the almonesrye, at the reed pale, and he shal have them good chepe." from the situation of the first printing office, the term chapel is applied to such establishments to this day. [illustration: william caxton. page .] caxton published between sixty and seventy different works during the seventeen years of his career as a printer, all of them in what is called black letter, and the bulk of them in english. he had always a view to the improvement of the people in the works he published, and though many of his productions may seem to us to be of an unprofitable kind, it is clear that in the issue of chivalrous narratives, and of chaucer's poems (to whom, says the old printer, "ought to be given great laud and praising for his noble making and writing"), he was aiming at the diffusion of a nobler spirit, and a higher taste than then prevailed. in , caxton, an old, worn man, verging on fourscore years of age, wrote, "every man ought to intend in such wise to live in this world, by keeping the commandments of god, that he may come to a good end; and then, out of this world full of wretchedness and tribulation, he may go to heaven, unto god and his saints, unto joy perdurable;" and passed away, still labouring at his post. he died while writing, "the most virtuous history of the devout and right renouned lives of holy fathers living in the desert, worthy of remembrance to all well-disposed persons." wynkyne de worde filled his master's place in the almonry of westminster; and the guild of printers gradually waxed strong in numbers and influence. in germany they were privileged to wear robes trimmed with gold and silver, such as the nobles themselves appeared in; and to display on their escutcheon, an eagle with wings outstretched over the globe,--a symbol of the flight of thought and words throughout the world. in our own country, the printers were men of erudition and literary acquirements; and were honoured as became their mission. iii.--the printing machine. between the rude screw-press of gutenberg or caxton, slow and laboured in its working, to the first-class printing machine of our own day, throwing off its fifteen or eighteen thousand copies of a large four-page journal in an hour, what a stride has been taken in the noble art! step by step, slowly but surely, has the advance been made,--one improvement suggested after another at long intervals, and by various minds. with the perfection of the printing press, the name of earl stanhope is chiefly associated; but, although when he had put the finishing touches to its construction, immensely superior to all former machines, it was unavailable for rapid printing. in relation to the demand for literature and the means of supplying it, the world had, half a century ago, reached much the same deadlock as in the days when the production of books depended solely on the swiftness of the transcriber's pen, and when the printing press existed only in the fervid brain and quick imagination of a young german student. not only the growth, but the spread of literature, was restricted by the labour, expense, and delay incident to the multiplication of copies; and the popular appetite for reading was in that transition state when an increased supply would develop it beyond all bounds or calculation, while a continuance of the starvation supply would in all likelihood throw it into a decline from want of exercise. such was the state of things when a revolution in the art of printing was effected which, in importance, can be compared only to the original discovery of printing. in fact, since the days of gutenberg to the present hour, there has been only one great revolution in the art, and that was the introduction of steam printing in . the neat and elegant, but slow-moving stanhope press, was after all but little in advance of its rude prototype of the fifteenth century, the chief features of which it preserved almost without alteration. the steam printing machine took a leap ahead that placed it at such a distance from the printing press, that they are hardly to be recognised as the offspring of the same common stock. all family resemblance has died out, although the printing machine is certainly a development of the little screw press. of the revolution of , which placed the printing machine in the seat of power, _vice_ the press given over to subordinate employment, mr. john walter of the _times_ was the prominent and leading agent. but for his foresight, enterprise, and perseverance, the steam machine might have been even now in earliest infancy, if not unborn. familiar as the invention of the steam printing machine is now, in the beginning of the present century it shared the ridicule which was thrown upon the project of sailing steam ships upon the sea, and driving steam carriages upon land. it seemed as mad and preposterous an idea to print off impressions of a paper like the _times_ in one hour, as, in the same time, to paddle a ship fifteen miles against wind and tide, or to propel a heavily laden train of carriages fifty miles. mr. walter, however, was convinced that the thing could be done, and lost no time in attempting it. some notion of the difficulties he had to overcome, and the disappointments he had to endure, while engaged in this enterprise, may be gathered from the following extracts from the biography of mr. walter, which appeared in the _times_ at the time of his death in july :-- "as early as the year , an ingenious compositor, named thomas martyn, had invented a self-acting machine for working the press, and had produced a model which satisfied mr. walter of the feasibility of the scheme. being assisted by mr. walter with the necessary funds, he made considerable progress towards the completion of his work, in the course of which he was exposed to much personal danger from the hostility of the pressmen, who vowed vengeance against the man whose inventions threatened destruction to their craft. to such a length was their opposition carried, that it was found necessary to introduce the various pieces of the machine into the premises with the utmost possible secresy, while martyn himself was obliged to shelter himself under various disguises in order to escape their fury. mr. walter, however, was not yet permitted to reap the fruits of his enterprise. on the very eve of success he was doomed to bitter disappointment. he had exhausted his own funds in the attempt, and his father, who had hitherto assisted him, became disheartened, and refused him any further aid. the project was, therefore, for the time abandoned. "mr. walter, however, was not the man to be deterred from what he had once resolved to do. he gave his mind incessantly to the subject, and courted aid from all quarters, with his usual munificence. in the year he was induced by a clerical friend, in whose judgment he confided, to make a fresh experiment; and, accordingly, the machinery of the amiable and ingenious koenig, assisted by his young friend bower, was introduced--not, indeed, at first into the _times_ office, but into the adjoining premises, such caution being thought necessary upon the threatened violence of the pressmen. here the work advanced, under the frequent inspection and advice of the friend alluded to. at one period these two able mechanics suspended their anxious toil, and left the premises in disgust. after the lapse, however, of about three days, the same gentleman discovered their retreat, induced them to return, showed them, to their surprise, their difficulty conquered, and the work still in progress. the night on which this curious machine was first brought into use in its new abode was one of great anxiety, and even alarm. the suspicious pressmen had threatened destruction to any one whose inventions might suspend their employment. 'destruction to him and his traps.' they were directed to wait for expected news from the continent. it was about six o'clock in the morning when mr. walter went into the press-room, and astonished its occupants by telling them that 'the _times_ was already printed by steam! that if they attempted violence, there was a force ready to suppress it; but that if they were peaceable, their wages should be continued to every one of them till similar employment could be procured,'--a promise which was, no doubt, faithfully performed; and having so said, he distributed several copies among them. thus was this most hazardous enterprise undertaken and successfully carried through, and printing by steam on an almost gigantic scale given to the world." on that memorable day, the th of november , appeared the following announcement,--"our journal of this day presents to the public the practical result of the greatest improvement connected with printing since the discovery of the art itself. the reader now holds in his hands one of the many thousand impressions of the _times_ newspaper which were taken off last night by a mechanical apparatus. that the magnitude of the invention may be justly appreciated by its effects, we shall inform the public that after the letters are placed by the compositors, and enclosed in what is called a form, little more remains for man to do than to attend and watch this unconscious agent in its operations. the machine is then merely supplied with paper; itself places the form, inks it, adjusts the paper to the form newly inked, stamps the sheet, and gives it forth to the hands of the attendant, at the same time withdrawing the form for a fresh coat of ink, which itself again distributes, to meet the ensuing sheet, now advancing for impression; and the whole of these complicated acts is performed with such a velocity and simultaneousness of movement, that no less than sheets are impressed in one hour." koenig's machine was, however, very complicated, and before long, it was supplanted by that of applegath and cowper, which was much simpler in construction, and required only two boys to attend it--one to lay on, and the other to take off the sheets. the vertical machine which mr. applegath subsequently invented, far excelled his former achievement; but it has in turn been superseded by the machine of messrs. hoe of new york. all these machines were first brought into use in the _times'_ printing office; and to the encouragement the proprietors of that establishment have always afforded to inventive talent, the readiness with which they have given a trial to new machines, and the princely liberality with which they have rewarded improvements, is greatly due the present advanced state of the noble craft and mystery. the printing-house of the _times_, near blackfriars bridge, forms a companion picture to gutenberg's printing-room in the old abbey at strasburg, and illustrates not only the development of the art, but the progress of the world during the intervening centuries. visit printing-house square in the day-time, and you find it a quiet, sleepy place, with hardly any signs of life or movement about it, except in the advertisement office in the corner, where people are continually going out and in, and the clerks have a busy time of it, shovelling money into the till all day long. but come back in the evening, and the place will wear a very different aspect. all signs of drowsiness have disappeared, and the office is all lighted up, and instinct with bustle and activity. messengers are rushing out and in, telegraph boys, railway porters, and "devils" of all sorts and sizes. cabs are driving up every few minutes, and depositing reporters, hot from the gallery of the house of commons or the house of lords, each with his budget of short-hand notes to decipher and transcribe. up stairs in his sanctum the editor and his deputies are busy preparing or selecting the articles and reports which are to appear in the next day's paper. in another part of the building the compositors are hard at work, picking up types, and arranging them in "stick-fulls," which being emptied out into "galleys," are firmly fixed therein by little wedges of wood, in order that "proofs" may be taken of them. the proofs pass into the hands of the various sets of readers, who compare them with the "copy" from which they were set up, and mark any errors on the margin of the slips, which then find their way back to the compositors, who correct the types according to the marks. the "galleys" are next seized by the persons charged with the "making-up" of the paper, who divide them into columns of equal length. an ordinary _times_ newspaper, with a single inside sheet of advertisements, contains seventy-two columns, or , lines, made up of upwards of a million pieces of types, of which matter about two-fifths are often written, composed, and corrected after seven o'clock in the evening. if the advertisement sheet be double, as it frequently is, the paper will contain ninety-six columns. the types set up by the compositors are not sent to the machine. a mould is taken of them in a composition of brown paper, by means of which a "stereotype" is cast in metal, and from this the paper is printed. the advertisement sheet, single or double, as the case may be, is generally ready for the press between seven or eight o'clock at night. the rest of the paper is divided into two "forms,"--that is, columns arranged in pages and bound together by an iron frame, one for each side of the sheet. into the first of these the person who "makes up" the paper endeavours to place all the early news, and it is ready for press usually about four o'clock. the other "form" is reserved for the leading articles, telegrams, and all the latest intelligence, and does not reach the press till near five o'clock. the first sight of hoe's machine, by several of which the _times_ is now printed, fills the beholder with bewilderment and awe. you see before you a huge pile of iron cylinders, wheels, cranks, and levers, whirling away at a rate that makes you giddy to look at, and with a grinding and gnashing of teeth that almost drives you deaf to listen to. with insatiable appetite the furious monster devours ream after ream of snowy sheets of paper, placed in its many gaping jaws by the slaves who wait on it, but seems to find none to its taste or suitable to its digestion, for back come all the sheets again, each with the mark of this strange beast printed on one side. its hunger never is appeased,--it is always swallowing and always disgorging, and it is as much as the little "devils" who wait on it can do, to put the paper between its lips and take it out again. but a bell rings suddenly, the monster gives a gasp, and is straightway still, and dead to all appearance. upon a closer inspection, now that it is at rest, and with some explanation from the foreman you begin to have some idea of the process that has been going on before your astonished eyes. the core of the machine consists of a large drum, turning on a horizontal axis, round which revolve ten smaller cylinders, also on horizontal axes, in close proximity to the drum. the stereotyped matter is bound, like a malefactor on the wheel, to the central drum, and round each cylinder a sheet of paper is constantly being passed. it is obvious, therefore, that if the type be inked, and each of the cylinders be kept properly supplied with a sheet of paper, a single revolution of the drum will cause the ten cylinders to revolve likewise, and produce an impression on one side of each of the sheets of paper. for this purpose it is necessary to have the type inked ten times during every revolution of the drum; and this is managed by a very ingenious contrivance, which, however, is too complicated for description here. the feeding of the cylinders is provided for in this way. over each cylinder is a sloping desk, upon which rests a heap of sheets of white paper. a lad--the "layer-on"--stands by the side of the desk and pushes forward the paper, a sheet at a time, towards the tape fingers of the machine, which, clutching hold of it, drag it into the interior, where it is passed round the cylinders, and printed on the outer side by pressure against the types on the drum. the sheet is then laid hold of by another set of tapes, carried to the other end of the machine from that at which it entered, and there laid down on a desk by a projecting flapper of lath-work. another lad--the "taker-off"--is in attendance to remove the printed sheets, at certain intervals. the drum revolves in less than two seconds; and in that time therefore ten sheets--for the same operation is performed simultaneously by the ten cylinders--are sucked in at one end and disgorged at the other printed on one side, thus giving about , impressions in an hour. such is the latest marvel of the "noble craft and mystery" of printing; but it is not to be supposed that the limits of production have even now been reached. the greater the supply the greater has grown the demand; the more people read, the more they want to read; and past experience assures us that ingenuity and enterprise will not fail to expand and multiply the powers of the press, so that the increasing appetite for literature may be fully met. * * * * * we have briefly alluded to stereotyping; but some fuller notice seems requisite of a process so valuable and important, without which, indeed, the rapid multiplication of copies of a newspaper, even by a hoe's six-cylinder machine, would be impossible. if stereotyping had not been invented, the printer would require to "set up" as many "forms" of type as there are cylinders in the machine he uses; an expensive and time-consuming operation which is now dispensed with, because he can resort to "casts." there is yet another advantage gained by the process; "casts" of the different sheets of a book can be preserved for any length of time; and when additional copies or new editions are needed, these "casts" can at once be sent to the machine, and the publisher is saved the great expense of "re-setting." the reader is well aware that while many books disappear with the day which called them forth, so there are others for which the demand is constant. this was found to be the case soon after the invention of printing, and the plan then adopted was the expensive and cumbrous one of setting up the whole of the book in request, and to keep the type standing for future editions. the disadvantages of this plan were obvious--a large outlay for type, the amount of space occupied by a constantly increasing number of "forms," and the liability to injury from the falling out of letters, from blows, and other accidents. as early as the eighteenth century attempts seem to have been made to remedy these inconveniences by cementing the types together at the bottom with lead or solder to effect their greater preservation. canius, a french historian of printing, states that in june he received a letter from certain booksellers of leyden, with a copy of their stereotype bible, the plates for which were formed by soldering together the bottom of common types with some melted substance to the thickness of about three quires of writing-paper; and, it is added, "these plates were made about the beginning of the last century by an artist named van du mey." this, however, was not true stereotyping; whose leading principle is to dispense with the movable types--to set them again, as it were, at liberty--by making up perfect fac-similes in type-metal of the various combinations into which they may have entered. these fac-similes being made, the type is set free, and may be distributed, and used for making up fresh pages; which may once more furnish, so to speak, the punches to the mould into which the type-metal is poured for the purpose of effecting the fac-simile. the inventor of this ingenious process of casting plates from pages of type was william ged, a goldsmith of edinburgh, in . not possessing sufficient capital to carry out his invention, he visited london, and sought the assistance of the london stationers; from whom he received the most encouraging words, but no pecuniary assistance. but ged was a man not readily discomfited, and applying at length to the universities and the king's printer, he obtained the effective patronage he needed. he "stereotyped" some bibles and prayer-books, and the sheets worked off from his plates were admitted equal in point of appearance and accuracy to those printed from the type itself. but every benefactor of his kind is doomed to meet with the opposition of the envious, the ignorant, or the prejudiced. "the argument used by the idol-makers of old, 'sirs, ye know that by this craft we have our wealth,' and, 'this our craft is in danger to be set at nought,' was, as is usual in such cases, urged against this most useful and important invention. the compositors refused to set up works for stereotyping, and even those which were set up, however carefully read and corrected, were found to be full of gross errors. the fact was, that when the pages were sent to be cast, the compositors or pressmen, bribed, it is said, by a typefounder, disturbed the type, and introduced false letters and words. poor ged died, and left the dangerous secret of his art (which he did not disclose during his life-time) to his son, who, after many struggles for success, failed as his father had done before him." there is a tradition current, however, that he joined the jacobite rebellion, was arrested, imprisoned, tried, and sentenced, but was eventually spared in consideration of the value of his father's admirable invention. that invention, after being forgotten for nearly half a century, was revived by a dr. tilloch, and taken up, improved, and extended by the ingenious earl stanhope. it is now practised in the following manner:-- the type employed differs slightly from that in common use. the letter should have no shoulder, but should rise in a straight line from the foot; the spaces, leads, and quadrats are of the same height as the stem of the letter; the object being to diminish the number and depth of the cavities in the page, and thus lessen the chances of the mould breaking off and remaining in the form. each page is corrected with the utmost care, and "imposed" in a small "chase" with metal furniture (or frame-work), which rises to a level with the type. of course the number of pages in the form will vary according to the size of the book; a sheet being folded into sixteen leaves, twelve, eight, four, or two for mo, mo, vo, quarto, or folio. having our pages of type in complete order, we now proceed to rub the surface with a soft brush which has been lightly dipped into a very thin oil. plumbago is sometimes preferred. a brass rectangular frame of three sides, with bevelled borders adapted to the size of the pages, is placed upon the chase so as to enclose three sides of the type, the fourth side being formed by a single brass edge, having the same inward sloping level as the other three sides. the use of this frame is to determine the size and thickness of the cast, which is next taken in plaster-of-paris--two kinds of the said plaster being used; the finer is mixed, poured over the surface of the type, and gently worked in with a brush so as to insure its close adhesion to the exclusion of bubbles of air; the coarser, after being mixed with water, is simply poured and spread over the previous and finer stratum. the superfluous plaster is next cleared away; the mould soon sets; the frame is raised; and the mould comes off from the surface of the type, on which it has been prevented from encrusting itself by the thin film of oil or plumbago. the next step is to dress and smoothen the plaster-mould, and set it on its edge in one of the compartments of a sheet-iron rack contained in an oven, and exposed, until perfectly dry, to a temperature of about °. this occupies about two hours. a good workman, it is said, will mould ten octavo sheets, or one hundred and sixty pages in a day: each mould generally contains a couple of octavo pages. [illustration] in the state to which it is now brought, the mould is exceedingly friable, and requires to be handled with becoming care. with the face downwards it is placed upon the flat cast-iron _floating-plate_, which, in its turn, is set at the bottom of a square cast-iron tray, with upright edges sloping outwards, called the "dipping pan." it has a cast-iron lid, secured by a screw and shackles, not unlike a copying machine. this pan having been heated to °, it is plunged into an iron pot containing the melted alloy, which hangs over a furnace, the pan being slightly inclined so as to permit the escape of the air. a small space is left between the back or upper surface of the mould, and the lid of the dipping-pan, and the fluid metal on entering into the pan through the corner openings, _floats_ up the plaster together with the iron plate (hence called the _floating-plate_) on which the mould is set, with this effect, that the metal flows through the notches cut in the edge of the mould, and fills up every part of it, forming a layer of metal on its face corresponding to the depth of the border, while on the back is left merely a thin metallic film. the dipping-pan, says tomlinson, is suspended, plunged in the metal, and removed by means of a crane; and when taken out, is set in a cistern of water upon supports so arranged that only the bottom of the pan comes in contact with the surface of the water. the metal thus _sets_, or solidifies, from below, and containing fluid above, maintains a fluid pressure during the contraction which accompanies the cooling. as it thus shrinks in dimensions, molten metal is poured into the corners of the pan for the purpose of maintaining the fluid pressure on the mould, and thus securing a good and solid cast. for if the pan were allowed to cool more slowly, the thin metallic film at the back of the inverted plaster mould would probably solidify first, and thus prevent the fluid pressure which is necessary for filling up all the lines of the mould. tomlinson concludes his description of these interesting processes by informing us that an experienced and skilled workman will make five dips, each containing two octavo pages, in the course of an hour, or, as already stated, at the rate of nearly ten octavo sheets a day. when the pan is opened, the cake of metal and plaster is removed, and beaten upon its edges with a mallet, to clear away all superfluous metal. the stereotype plate is then taken by the _picker_, who planes its edges square, "turns" its back flat upon a lathe until the proper thickness is obtained, and removes any minute imperfections arising from specks of dirt and air-bubbles left among the letters in casting the mould. damaged letters are cut out, and separate types soldered in as substitutes. after all this anxious care to obtain perfection, the plate is pronounced ready for working, and when made up with the other plates into the proper form, it may be worked either at the hand-press or by machine. other modes of stereotyping have been introduced, but not one has attained to the popularity of the method we have just described. the steam engine. i.--the marquis of worcester. ii.--james watt. the steam engine. "it is said that ideas produce revolutions and truly they do--not spiritual ideas only, but even mechanical."--carlyle. i.--the marquis of worcester. as the last century was drawing to its close, two great revolutions were in progress, both of which were destined to exercise a mighty influence upon the years to come,--the one calm, silent, peaceful, the other full of sound and fury, bathed in blood, and crowned with thorns,--the one the fruit of long years of patient thought and work, the other the outcome of long years of oppression, suffering, and sin,--the one was watt's invention of the steam engine, the other the great popular revolt in france. these are the two great events which set their mark upon our century, gave form and colour to its character, and direction to its aims and aspirations. in the pages of conventional history, of course, the french revolution, with its wild phantasmagoria of retribution, its massacres and martyrdoms, will no doubt have assigned to it the foremost rank as the great feature of the era,-- "for ever since historians writ, and ever since a bard could sing, doth each exalt with all his wit the noble art of murdering." but those who can look below the mere surface of events, and whose fancy is not captivated by the melo-drama of rebellion, and the pageantry of war, will find that watt's steam machine worked the greatest revolution of modern times, and exercised the deepest, as well as widest and most permanent influence over the whole civilized world. like all great discoveries, that of the motive power of steam, and the important uses to which it might be applied, was the work, not of any one mind, but of several minds, each borrowing something from its predecessor, until at last the first vague and uncertain idea was developed into a practical reality. known dimly to the ancients, and probably employed by the priests in their juggleries and pretended miracles, it was not till within the last three centuries that any systematic attempt was made to turn it to useful account. but before we turn our attention to the persons who made, and, after many failures and discouragements, _successfully_ made this attempt, it will be advisable we should say something as to the principle on which their invention is founded. the reader knows that gases and vapours, when imprisoned within a narrow space, do struggle as resolutely to escape as did sterne's starling from his cage. their force of pressure is enormous, and if confined in a closed vessel, they would speedily rend it into fragments. let some water boil in a pipkin whose lid fits very tightly; in a few minutes the vapour or steam arising from the boiling water, overcoming the resistance of the lid, raises it, and rushes forth into the atmosphere. take a small quantity of water, and pour it into the hollow of a ball of metal. then with the aid of a cork, worked by a metallic screw, close the opening of the ball hermetically, and place the ball in the heart of a glowing fire. the steam formed by the boiling water in the inside of the metallic bomb, finding no channel of escape, will burst through the bonds that sought to confine it, and hurl afar the fragments with a loud and dangerous explosion. these well-known facts we adduce simply as a proof of the immense mechanical power possessed by steam when enclosed within a limited area. now, the questions must have occurred to many, though they were themselves unable to answer them,--why should all this force be wasted? can it not be directed to the service and uses of man? in the course of time, however, human intelligence _did_ discover a sufficient reply, and _did_ contrive to utilize this astonishing power by means of the machine now so famous as the steam engine. let us take a boiler full of water, and bring it up to boiling point by means of a furnace. attach to this boiler a tube, which guides the steam of the boiler into a hollow metallic cylinder, traversed by a piston rising and sinking in its interior. it is evident that the steam rushing through the tube into the lower part of the cylinder, and underneath the piston, will force the piston, by its pressure, to rise to the top of the cylinder. now let us check for a moment the influx of the steam _below_ the piston, and turning the stopcock, allow the steam which fills that space to escape outside; and, at the same time, by opening a second tube, let in a supply of steam _above_ the piston: the pressure of the steam, now exercised in a downward direction, will force the piston to the bottom of its course, because there will exist beneath it no resistance capable of opposing the pressure of the steam. if we constantly keep up this alternating motion, the piston now rising and now falling, we are in a position to profit by the force of steam. for if the lever, attached to the rod of the piston at its lower end, is fixed by its upper to a crank of the rotating axle of a workshop or factory, is it not clear that the continuous action of the steam will give this axle a continuous rotatory movement? and this movement may be transmitted, by means of bands and pulleys, to a number of different machines or engines all kept at work by the power of a solitary engine. this, then, is the principle on which the inventions of papin, the marquis of worcester, newcomen, and james watt have been based. the great astronomer huyghens conceived the idea of creating a motive machine by exploding a charge of gunpowder under a cylinder traversed by a piston: the air contained in this cylinder, dilated by the heat resulting from the combustion of the powder, escaped into the outer air through a valve, whereupon a partial void existed beneath the piston, or, rather, the air considerably rarified; and from this moment the pressure of the atmospheric air falling on the upper part of the piston, and being but imperfectly counterpoised by the rarified air beneath the piston, precipitated this piston to the bottom of the cylinder. consequently, said huyghens, if to the said piston were attached a chain or cord coiling around a pulley, one might raise up the weights placed at the extremity of the cord, and so produce a genuine mechanical effect. [illustration: general principle of the steam engine.] but experiment, the touchstone of physical truth, soon revealed the deficiencies of an apparatus such as huyghens had suggested. the air beneath the piston was not sufficiently rarified; the void produced was too imperfect. evidently gunpowder was not the right agent. what was? denis papin answered, steam. and the first steam engine ever invented was invented by this ingenious frenchman. papin was born at blois on the nd of august . he died about , but neither the exact date nor the place of his death is known. the lives of most men of genius are heavy with shadows, but papin's career was more than ordinarily characterized by the incessant pursuit of the evil spirits of adversity and persecution. a protestant, and devoutly loyal to his creed, he fled from france with thousands of his co-religionists, when louis xiv. unwisely and unrighteously revoked the edict of nantes, which permitted the huguenots to worship god after their own fashion. and it was abroad, in england, italy, and germany, that he realized the majority of his inventions, among which that of the steam engine is the most conspicuous. in papin constructed a steam engine on the principle we have already described, and placed it on board a boat provided with wheels. embarking at cassel on the river fulda, he made his way to münden in hanover, with the design of entering the waters of the weser, and thence repairing to england, to make known his discovery, and test its capabilities before the public. but the harsh and ignorant boatmen of the weser would not permit him to enter the river; and when he indignantly complained, they had the barbarity to break his boat in pieces. this was the crowning misfortune of papin's life. thenceforward he seems to have lost all heart and hope. he contrived to reach london, where the royal society, of which he was a member, allowed him a small pittance. in this ingenious man had devised an engine in which atmospheric vapour instead of steam was the motive agent. at a later period, newcomen, a native of dartmouth in devonshire, conceived the idea of employing the same source of power. but, previously, the value of steam, if employed in this direction, had occurred to the marquis of worcester, a nobleman of great ability and a quick imagination, who, for his loyalty to the cause of charles i., had been confined in the tower of london as a prisoner. on one occasion, while sitting in his solitary chamber, the tight cover of a kettle full of boiling water was blown off before his eyes; for mere amusement's sake he set it on again, saw it again blown off, and then began to reflect on the capabilities of power thus accidentally revealed to him, and to speculate on its application to mechanical ends. being of a quick, ingenious turn of mind, he was not long in discovering how it could be directed and controlled. when he published his project--"an admirable and most forcible way to drive up water by fire"--he was abused and laughed at as being either a madman or an impostor. he persevered, however, and actually had a little engine of some two horse power at work raising water from the thames at vauxhall; by means of which, he writes, "a child's force bringeth up a hundred feet high an incredible quantity of water, and i may boldly call it the most stupendous work in the whole world." there is a fervent "ejaculatory and extemporary thanksgiving prayer" of his extant, composed "when first with his corporeal eyes he did see finished a perfect trial of his water-commanding engine, delightful and useful to whomsoever hath in recommendation either knowledge, profit, or pleasure." this and the rest of his wonderful "centenary of inventions," only emptied instead of replenishing his purse. he was reduced to borrow paltry sums from his creditors, and received neither respect for his genius nor sympathy for his misfortunes. he was before his age, and suffered accordingly. * * * * * in his work was taken up by thomas savery, a miner, who, through assiduous labour and well-directed study, had become a skilful engineer. he succeeded in constructing an engine on the principle of the pressure of aqueous vapour, and this engine he employed successfully in pumping water out of coal mines. we owe to savery the invention of a vacuum, which was suggested to him, it is said, in a curious manner: he happened to throw a wine-flask, which he had just drained, upon the fire; a few drops of liquor at the bottom of the flask soon filled it with steam, and, taking it off the fire, he plunged it, mouth downwards, into a basin of cold water that was standing on the table, when, a vacuum being produced, the water immediately rushed up into the flask. in tracing this lineage of inventive genius, we next come to thomas newcomen, a blacksmith, who carried out the principle of the piston in his atmospheric engine, for which he took out a patent in . it is but just to recognize that this engine was the first which proved practically and widely useful, and was, in truth, the actual progenitor of the present steam engine. it was chiefly used for working pumps. to one end of a beam moving on a central axis was attached the rod of the pump to be worked; to the other, the rod of the piston moving in the cylinder below. underneath this cylinder was a boiler, and the two were connected by a pipe provided with a stop-cock to regulate the supply of steam. when the pump-rod was depressed, and the piston raised to the top of the cylinder, which was effected by weights hanging to the pump-end of the beam, the stop-cock was used to cut off the steam, and a supply of cold water injected into the cylinder through a water-pipe connected with the tank or cistern. the steam in the cylinder was immediately condensed; a vacuum created below the piston; the latter was then forced down by atmospheric pressure, bringing with it the end of the beam to which it was attached, and raising the other along with the pump-rod. a fresh supply of steam was admitted below the piston, which was raised by the counterpoise; and thus the motion was constantly renewed. the opening and shutting of the stop-cocks was at first managed by an attendant; but a boy named potter, who was employed for this purpose, being fonder of play than work, contrived to save himself all trouble in the matter by fastening the handles with pieces of string to some of the cranks and levers. subsequently, beighton, an engineer, improved on this idea by substituting levers, acted on by pins in a rod suspended from the beam. properly speaking, newcomen's engine was not a steam, but an atmospheric engine; for though steam was employed, it formed no essential feature of the contrivance, and might have been replaced by an air-pump. all the use that was made of steam was to produce a vacuum underneath the piston, which was pressed down by the weight of the atmosphere, and raised by the counterpoise of the buckets at the other end of the beam. watt, in bringing the expansive force of steam to bear upon the working of the piston, may be said to have really invented the steam engine. half a century before the little model came into watt's hands, newcomen's engine had been made as complete as its capabilities admitted of; and watt struck into an entirely new line, and invented an entirely new machine, when he produced his condensing engine. ii.--james watt. there are few places in our country where human enterprise has effected such vast and marvellous changes within the century as the country traversed by the river clyde. where glasgow now stretches far and wide, with its miles of swarming streets, its countless mills, and warehouses, and foundries, its busy ship-building yards, its harbour thronged with vessels of every size and clime, and its large and wealthy population, there was to be seen, a hundred years ago, only an insignificant little burgh, as dull and quiet as any rural market-town of our own day. there was a little quay at the broomielaw, seldom used, and partly overgrown with broom. no boat over six tons' burden could get so high up the river, and the appearance of a masted vessel was almost an event. tobacco was the chief trade of the town; and the tobacco merchants might be seen strutting about at the cross in their scarlet cloaks, and looking down on the rest of the inhabitants, who got their livelihood, for the most part, by dealing in grindstones, coals, and fish--"glasgow magistrates," as herrings are popularly called, being in as great repute then as now. there were but scanty means of intercourse with other places, and what did exist were little used, except for goods, which were conveyed on the backs of pack-horses. the caravan then took two days to go to edinburgh--you can run through now between the two cities in little more than an hour. there is hardly any trade that glasgow does not prosecute vigorously and successfully. you may see any day you walk down to the broomielaw, vessels of a thousand tons' burden at anchor there, and the custom duties which were in little over £ , have now reached an amount exceeding one million! glasgow is indebted, in a great part, for the gigantic strides which it has made, to the genius, patience, and perseverance of a man who, in his boyhood, rather more than a hundred years ago, used to be scolded by his aunt for wasting his time, taking off the lid of the kettle, putting it on again, holding now a cup, now a silver spoon over the steam as it rose from the spout, and catching and counting the drops of water it fell into. james watt was then taking his first elementary lessons in that science, his practical application of which in after life was to revolutionize the whole system of mechanical movement, and place an almost unlimited power at the disposal of the industrial classes. when a boy, james watt was delicate and sickly, and so shy and sensitive that his school-days were a misery to him, and he profited but little by his attendance. at home, though, he was a great reader, and picked up a great deal of knowledge for himself, rarely possessed by those of his years. one day a friend was urging his father to send james to school, and not allow him to trifle away his time at home. "look how the boy is occupied," said his father, "before you condemn him." though only six years old, he was trying to solve a geometrical problem on the floor with a bit of chalk. as he grew older he took to the study of optics and astronomy, his curiosity being excited by the quadrants and other instruments in his father's shop. by the age of fifteen he had twice gone through de gravesande's elements of natural philosophy, and he was also well versed in physiology, botany, mineralogy, and antiquarian lore. he was further an expert hand in using the tools in his father's workshop, and could do both carpentry and metal work. after a brief stay with an old mechanic in glasgow, who, though he dignified himself with the name of "optician," never rose beyond mending spectacles, tuning spinets, and making fiddles and fishing tackle, watt went at the age of eighteen to london, where he worked so hard, and lived so sparingly in order to relieve his father from the burden of maintaining him, that his health suffered, and he had to recruit it by a return to his native air. during the year spent in the metropolis, however, he managed to learn nearly all that the members of the trade there could teach, and soon showed himself a quick and skilful workman. in we find the sign of "james watt, mathematical instrument maker to the college," stuck up over the entrance to one of the stairs in the quadrangle of glasgow college. but though under the patronage of the university, his trade was so poor, that thrifty and frugal as he was, he had a hard struggle to live by it. he was ready, however, for any work that came to hand, and would never let a job go past him. to execute an order for an organ which he accepted, he studied harmonics diligently, and though without any ear for music, turned out a capital instrument, with several improvements of his own in its action; and he also undertook the manufacture of guitars, violins, and flutes. all this while he was laying up vast stores of knowledge on all sorts of subjects, civil and military engineering, natural history, languages, literature, and art; and among the professors and students who dropped into his little shop to have a chat with him, he soon came to be regarded as one of the ablest men about the college, while his modesty, candour, and obliging disposition gained him many good friends. [illustration: james watt. page .] among his multifarious pursuits, watt had experimented a little in the powers of steam; but it was not till the winter of - , when a model of newcomen's engine was put into his hands for repair, that he took up the matter in earnest. newcomen's engine was then about the most complete invention of its kind; but its only value was its power of producing a ready vacuum, by rapid condensation on the application of cold; and for practical purposes was neither cheaper nor quicker than animal power. watt, having repaired the model, found, on setting it agoing, that it would not work satisfactorily. had it been only a little less clumsy and imperfect, watt might never have regarded it as more than the "fine plaything," for which he at first took it; but now the difficulties of the task roused him to further efforts. he consulted all the books he could get on the subject, to ascertain how the defects could be remedied; and that source of information exhausted, he commenced a series of experiments, and resolved to work out the problem for himself. among other experiments, he constructed a boiler which showed by inspection the quantity of water evaporated in a given time, and thereby ascertained the quantity of steam used in every stroke of the engine. he found, to his astonishment, that a small quantity of water in the form of steam heated a large quantity of water injected into the cylinder for the purpose of cooling it; and upon further examination, he ascertained the steam heated six times its weight of well water up to the temperature of the steam itself ( °). after various ineffectual schemes, watt was forced to the conclusion that, to make a perfect steam engine, two apparently incompatible conditions must be fulfilled--the cylinder must always be as hot as the steam that came rushing into it, and yet, at each descent of the piston, the cylinder must become sufficiently cold to condense the steam. he was at his wit's end how to accomplish this task, when, as he was taking a walk one afternoon, the idea flashed across his mind that, as steam was an elastic vapour, it would expand and rush into a previously exhausted place; and that, therefore, all he had to do to meet the conditions he had laid down, was to produce a vacuum in a separate vessel, and open a communication between this vessel and the cylinder of the steam-engine at the moment when the piston was required to descend, and the steam would disseminate itself and become divided between the cylinder and the adjoining vessel. but as this vessel would be kept cold by an injection of water, the steam would be annihilated as fast as it entered, which would cause a fresh outflow of the remaining steam in the cylinder, till nearly the whole of it was condensed, without the cylinder itself being chilled in the operation. here was the great key to the problem; and when once the idea of separate condensation was started, many other subordinate improvements, as he said himself, "followed as corollaries in rapid succession, so that in the course of one or two days the invention was thus far complete in his mind." it cost him ten long weary years of patient speculation and experiment, to carry out the idea, with little hope to buoy him up, for to the last he used to say "his fear was always equal to his hope,"--and with all the cares and embarrassments of his precarious trade to perplex and burden him. even when he had his working model fairly completed, his worst difficulties--the difficulties which most distressed and harassed the shy, sensitive, and retiring watt--seemed only to have commenced. to give the invention a fair practical trial required an outlay of at least £ ; and one capitalist, who had agreed to join him in the undertaking, had to give it up through some business losses. still watt toiled on, always keeping the great object in view,--earning bread for his family (for he was married by this time), by adding land-surveying to his mechanical labours, and, in short, turning his willing hand to any honest job that offered. he got a patent in , and began building a large engine; but the workmen were new to the task, and when completed, its action was spasmodic and unsatisfactory. "it is a sad thing," he then wrote, "for a man to have his all hanging by a single string. if i had wherewithal to pay for the loss, i don't think i should so much fear a failure; but i cannot bear the thought of other people becoming losers by my scheme, and i have the happy disposition of always painting the worst." and just then, to make matters still more gloomy, he learned that some rascally linen-draper in london was plagiarizing the great invention he had brought forth in such sore and protracted travail. "of all things in the world," cried poor watt, sick with hope deferred, and pressed with little carking cares on every side, "there is nothing so foolish as inventing." when nearly giving way to despair, and on the point of abandoning his invention, watt was fortunate enough to fall in with matthew boulton, one of the great manufacturing potentates of birmingham, an energetic, far-seeing man, who threw himself into the enterprise with all his spirit; and the fortune of the invention was made. an engine, on the new principle, was set up at soho; and there boulton and watt sold, as the former said to boswell, "what all the world desires to have, power;"--the infinite power that animates those mighty engines, which-- "england's arms of conquest are, the trophies of her bloodless war: brave weapons these. victorious over wave and soil, with these she sails, she weaves, she tills, pierces the everlasting hills, and spans the seas." watt's engine, once fairly started, was not long in making its way into general use. the first steam-engine used in manchester was erected in ; and now it is estimated that in that district, within a radius of ten miles, there are in constant work more than fifty thousand boilers, giving a total power of upwards of one million horses. and the united steam power of great britain is considered equal to the manual labour of upwards of four hundred millions of men, or more than double the number of males on the face of the earth. from the factory at soho, watt's improved engines were dispersed all over the country, especially in cornwall--the firm receiving the value of a third part of the coal saved by the use of the new machine. in one mine, where there were three pumps at work, the proprietors thought it worth while, it is said, to purchase the rights of the inventors, at the price of £ yearly for each engine. the saving, therefore, on the three engines, in fuel alone, must have been at least £ a year. in the first year of the present century, watt withdrew himself entirely from business; but though he lived in retirement, he did not let his busy mind get rusty or sluggish for want of exercise. at one time he took it into his head that his faculties were declining, and though upwards of seventy years of age, he resolved to test his mental powers by taking up some new subject of study. it was no easy matter to find one quite new to him, so wide and comprehensive had been his range of study; but at length the anglo-saxon tongue occurred to him, and he immediately applied himself to master it, the facility with which he did so, dispelling all doubt as to the failing of his stupendous intellect. he thus busied himself in various useful and entertaining pursuits, till close upon his death, which took place in . extraordinary as was watt's inventive genius, his wide range of knowledge, theoretic and practical, was equally so. great as is the "idea" with which his name is chiefly associated, he was not a man of one idea, but of a thousand. there was hardly a subject which came under his notice which he did not master; and, as was said of him, "it seemed as if every subject casually started by him had been that he had been occupied in studying." he had no doubt a rapid faculty of acquiring knowledge; but he owed the versatility and copiousness of his attainments above all to his unwearied industry. he was always at work on something or other, and he may truly be called one of those who-- "could time's hour-glass fall, would, as for seed of stars, stoop for the sand, and by incessant labour gather all." in a recent volume of memoirs by mrs. schimmel pennick, we find the following graphic sketch of this extraordinary man:--"he was one of the most complete specimens of the melancholic temperament. his head was generally bent forward or leaning on his hand in meditation, his shoulders stooping, and his chest falling in, his limbs lank and unmuscular, and his complexion sallow. his utterance was slow and impassioned, deep and low in tone, with a broad scotch accent; his manners gentle, modest, and unassuming. in a company where he was not known, unless spoken to, he might have tranquilly passed the whole time in pursuing his own meditations. when he entered the room, men of letters, men of science, many military men, artists, ladies, and even little children, thronged around him. i remember a celebrated swedish artist being instructed by him that rat's whiskers made the most pliant painting-brushes; ladies would appeal to him on the best modes of devising grates, curing smoking chimneys, warming their houses, and obtaining fast colours." his reading was singularly extensive and diversified. he perused almost every work that came in his way, and used to say that he never opened a book, no matter what its subject or worth, without learning something from it. he had a vivid imagination, was passionately fond of fiction, and was a very gifted story-teller himself. when a boy, staying with his aunt in glasgow, he used every night to enthral the attention of the little circle with some exciting narrative, which they would not go to bed till they had heard the end of; and kept them in such a state of tremor and excitement, that his aunt used to threaten to send him away. since watt's time, innumerable patents have been taken out for improvements in the steam engine; but his great invention forms the basis of nearly all of them, and the alterations refer rather to details than principles of action. the application of steam to locomotive purposes, however, led to the construction of the high pressure engine, in which the cumbrous condensing apparatus is dispensed with, and motion imparted to the piston by the elastic power of the steam being greater than that of the atmosphere. the manufacture of cotton. i.--kay and hargreaves. ii.--sir richard arkwright. iii.--samuel crompton. iv.--dr. cartwright. v.--sir robert peel. the manufacture of cotton. "are not our greatest men as good as lost? the men who walk daily among us, clothing us, warming us, feeding us, walk shrouded in darkness, mere mythic men."--carlyle. i.--kay and hargreaves. on the d of may , there was a hanging at cork which made a good deal more noise than such a very ordinary event generally did in those days. there was nothing remarkable about the malefactor, or the crime he had committed. he was a very commonplace ruffian, and had earned his elevation to the gallows by a vulgar felony. what was remarkable about the affair was, that the woollen weavers of cork, being then in a state of great distress from want of work, dressed up the convict in cotton garments, and that the poor wretch, having once been a weaver himself, "employed" the last occasion he was ever to have of addressing his fellow creatures, by assuring them that all his misdeeds and misfortunes were to be traced to the "pernicious practice of wearing cottons." "therefore, good christians," he continued, "consider that if you go on to suppress your own goods, by wearing such cottons as i am now clothed in, you will bring your country into misery, which will consequently swarm with such unhappy malefactors as your present object is; and the blood of every miserable felon that will hang after this warning from the gallows will lie at your doors." all which sayings were no doubt greatly applauded by the disheartened weavers on the spot, and much taken to heart by the citizens and gentry to whom they were addressed. this is only one out of the many illustrations which might be drawn from the chronicles of those days, of the prejudice and discouragement cotton had to contend against on its first appearance in this country. prohibited over and over again, laid under penalties and high duties, treated with every sort of contumely and oppression, it had long to struggle desperately for the barest tolerance; yet it ended by overcoming all obstacles, and distancing its favoured rival wool. returning good for evil, cotton now sustains one-sixth of our fellow-countrymen, and is an important mainstay of our commerce and manufactures. first imported into great britain towards the middle of the seventeenth century, cotton was but little used for purposes of manufacture till the middle of the eighteenth. the settlement of some flemish emigrants in lancashire led to that district becoming the principal seat of the cotton manufacture; and probably the ungenerous nature of its soil induced the people to resort to spinning and weaving to make up for the unprofitableness of their agricultural labours. a nobler monument of human skill, enterprise, and perseverance, than the invention of cotton-spinning machinery is hardly to be met with; but it must also be owned that its history, encouraging as it is in one aspect, is in another sad and humiliating to the last degree. it is difficult at first to credit the uniform ingratitude and treachery which the various inventors met with from the very men whom their contrivances enriched. "there is nothing," said james watt in the crisis of his fortunes, worn with care, and sick with hope deferred--"there is nothing so foolish as inventing;" and with far more reason the inventors of cotton-spinning machines could echo the mournful cry. it is sad to think that so proud a chapter of our history should bear so dark a stain. in the primitive method still prevailed of spinning between the finger and thumb, only one thread at a time; and weaving up the yarn in a loom, the shuttle of which had to be thrown from right to left and left to right by both hands alternately. in that year, however, the first step was made in advance, by the invention of the fly-shuttle, which, by means of a handle and spring, could be jerked from side to side with one hand. this contrivance was due to the ingenuity of john kay, a loom-maker at colchester, and proved his ruin. the weavers did their best to prevent the use of the shuttle,--the masters to get it used, and to cheat the inventor out of his reward. poor kay was soon brought low in the world by costly law-suits, and being not yet tired of inventing, devised a rude power-loom. in revenge a mob of weavers broke into his house, smashed all his machines, and would have smashed him too, had they laid hands on him. he escaped from their clutches, to find his way to paris, and to die there in misery not long afterwards. kay was the first of the martyrs in this branch of invention. james hargreaves was the next. the use of the fly-shuttle greatly expedited the process of weaving, and the spinning of cotton soon fell behind. the weavers were often brought to a stand-still for want of weft to go on with, and had to spend their mornings going about in search of it, sometimes without getting as much as kept them busy for the rest of the day. the scarcity of yarn was a constant complaint; and many a busy brain was at work trying to devise some improvement on the common hand-wheel. amongst others, james hargreaves, an ingenious weaver at standhill, near blackburn, who had already improved the mode of cleaning and unravelling the cotton before spinning, took the subject into consideration. one day, when brooding over it in his cottage, idle for want of weft, the accidental overturning of his wife's wheel suggested to him the principle of the spinning-jenny. lying on its side, the wheel still continued in motion--the spindle being thrown from a horizontal into an upright position; and it occurred to him that all he had got to do was to place a number of spindles side by side. this was in , and three years afterwards hargreaves had worked out the idea, and constructed a spinning frame, with eight spindles and a horizontal wheel, which he christened after his wife jenny, whose wheel had first put him in the right track. directly the spinners of the locality got knowledge of this machine that was to do eight times as much as any one of them, they broke into the inventor's cottage, destroyed the jenny, and compelled him to fly for the safety of his life to nottingham. he took out a patent, but the manufacturers leagued themselves against them. sole, friendless, penniless, he could make no head against their numbers and influence, relinquished his invention, and died in obscurity and distress ten years after he had the misfortune to contrive the spinning-jenny. the history of the cotton manufacture now becomes identified with the lives of arkwright, crompton, and cartwright--the inventors of the water-frame, the mule, and the power-loom. ii.--sir richard arkwright. somewhere about the year , any one passing along a certain obscure alley in preston, then a mere village compared with the prosperous town into which it has since expanded, might have observed projecting from the entrance to the underground flat of one of the houses, a blue and white pole, with a battered tin plate dangling at the end of it, the object of which was to indicate that if he wanted his hair cut or his chin shaved, he had only to step down stairs, and the owner of the sign would be delighted to accommodate him. but either people in that quarter had little or no superfluous hair to get rid of, or they had it taken off elsewhere; for dicky arkwright, the barber in the cellar, for whom the pole and plate stood sponsor in the upper world, had few opportunities of displaying his talents, and spent most of his time whetting his razors on a long piece of leather, one end of which was nailed to the wall, while the other was drawn towards him, and keeping the hot water and the soap ready for the customers who seldom or never came. this sort of thing did not suit dick's notions at all; for he was of an active temperament, and besides feeling very dull at being so much by himself all day, he pulled rather a long face when he counted out the scanty array of coppers in the till after shutting up shop for the night. as he sat one night, before tumbling into his truckle bed that stood in a recess in one corner of the dingy little room, meditating on the hardness of the times, a bright idea struck him; and the next morning the attractions of the sign-pole were enhanced by a staring placard, bearing the urgent invitation:-- come to the subterraneous barber! he shaves for a penny!! now twopence, as we believe all those who have investigated the subject are agreed, was the standard charge for a clean shave at that period; and as soon as this innovation got wind, we can fancy how indignant the fraternity were at the unprincipled conduct of one of their number; how they denounced the reprobate, and prophesied his speedy ruin, over their pipes and beer in the parlour of the "duke of marlborough," which they patronized out of respect for that hero's enormous periwig,--in their eyes his chief title to immortality, and a bright example for the degenerate age, when people had not only taken to wearing their own hair, but were even beginning to leave off dusting it with flour! and to make matters worse, here was a low fellow offering to shave for a penny. a number of people, tickled with the originality of the placard, and not unmindful of the penny saved, began to patronize the "subterraneous barber," and he soon drew so many customers away from the higher-priced shops, that they were obliged to come down, after a while, to a penny as well. not to be outdone, arkwright lowered his charge to a halfpenny, and still retained his rank as the cheapest barber in the place. arkwright's parents had been very poor people; and as he was the youngest of a family of thirteen, it may be readily supposed that all the school learning he got was of the most meagre kind,--if, indeed, he ever was at school at all, which is very doubtful. he was of a very ardent, enterprising temperament, however, and when once he took a thing in hand, stubbornly persevered in carrying it through to the end. about the year , being then about thirty years of age, arkwright got tired of the shaving, which brought him but a very scanty and precarious livelihood, and resolved to try his luck in a business where there was more scope for his enterprise and activity. he therefore began business as an itinerant dealer in hair, travelling up and down the country to collect it, dressing it himself, and then disposing of it in a prepared state to the wig-makers. as he was very quick in detecting any improvements that might be made in the process of dressing, he soon acquired the reputation amongst the wig-makers of supplying a better article than any of his rivals, and drove a very good trade. he had also picked up or discovered for himself the secret of dyeing the hair in a particular way, by which he not only augmented his profits, but enlarged the circle of his customers. he throve so well, that he was able to lay by a little money and to marry. he was very fond of spending what leisure time he had in making experiments in mechanics; and for a while was very much taken up with an attempt to solve the attractive problem of perpetual motion. no doubt he soon saw the hopelessness of the effort; but although he left the question unsolved, the bent thus given to his thoughts was fruitful of most valuable consequences. living in the midst of a manufacturing population, arkwright was accustomed to hear daily complaints of the continual difficulty of procuring sufficient weft to keep the looms employed; while the exportation of cotton goods gave rise to a growing demand for the manufactured article. the weavers generally had the weft they used spun for them by their wives or daughters; and those whose families could not supply the necessary quantity, had their spinning done by their neighbours; and even by paying, as they had to do, more for the spinning than the price allowed by their masters, very few could procure weft enough to keep themselves constantly at work. it was no uncommon thing, we learn, for a weaver to walk three or four miles in a morning, and call on five or six spinners, before he could collect weft to serve him for the rest of the day. arkwright must have been constantly hearing of this difficulty, and of the restrictions it placed on the manufacture of cotton goods; and being a mechanical genius, was led to think how it might be lessened, if not got rid of altogether. the idea of having an automaton spinner, instead of one of flesh and blood, had occurred before then to more than one speculator; but the thing had never answered, and no models or descriptions of the machines proposed were preserved. one inventor had, indeed, destroyed his own machine, after having constructed it and found it to work, for fear that if it came into use it would deprive the poor spinners of their livelihood,--in reality its effect would have been to provide employment and food for thousands more than at that time got a miserable living from their spinning-wheels. while arkwright was intent on the discovery of perpetual motion, he fell in with a clockmaker of the name of kay, who assisted him in making wheels and springs for the contrivance he was trying to complete. this led to an intimate connection between them; and when arkwright had given up the perpetual motion affair, and applied his thoughts to the invention of some machine for producing cotton weft more rapidly than by the simple wheel, kay continued to help him in making models. arkwright soon became so engrossed in his new task, and so confident of ultimate success, that he began to neglect his regular business. all his thoughts, and nearly all his time, were given up to the great work he had taken in hand. his trade fell off; he spent all his savings in purchasing materials for models, and getting them put together, and he fell into very distressed circumstances. his wife remonstrated with him, but in vain; and one day, in a rage at what she considered the cause of all their privations, she smashed some of his models on the floor. such an outrage was more than arkwright could bear, and they separated. in , arkwright, having completed the model of a machine for spinning cotton thread, removed to preston, taking kay with him. at this time he had hardly a penny in the world, and was almost in rags. his poverty, indeed, was such, that soon after his arrival in preston, a contested election for a member of parliament having taken place, he was so tattered and miserable in his appearance, that the party with whom he voted had to give him a decent suit of clothes before he could be seen at the polling-booth. he had got leave to set up his machine in the dwelling-house attached to the free grammar school; but, afraid of suffering from the hostility of the spinners, as the unfortunate hargreaves had done some time before, he and kay thought it best to leave lancashire, and try their fortune in nottingham. poor and friendless, it may easily be supposed that arkwright found it a hard matter to get any one to back him in a speculation which people then regarded as hazardous, if not illusory. he got a few pounds from one of the bankers in the town; but that was soon spent, and further advances were refused. nothing daunted, arkwright tried elsewhere for help, and at length succeeded in convincing messrs. need and strutt,[a] large stocking-weavers in the place, of the value of his invention, and inducing them to enter into partnership with him. in he took out a patent for the machine, as its inventor, and a mill, worked by horse-power, was erected for spinning cotton by the new machine. two years after, he and his partner set up another mill in derbyshire, worked by a water-wheel; and in he took out another patent for some improvements on his original scheme. the machinery which he patented consisted of a number of different contrivances; but the chief of these, and the one which he particularly claimed entirely as his own invention (for he frankly admitted that some of the other parts were only developments of other inventors), was what is called the water-frame throstle for drawing out the cotton from a coarse to a finer and harder twisted thread, and so rendering it fit to be used for the warp, or longitudinal threads of the cloth, which were formed of linen, as well as the weft. this apparatus was a combination of the carding and spinning machinery; and the principle of having two pairs of rollers, one revolving faster than the other, was now for the first time applied to machinery. in a year or two the success of arkwright's inventions was fairly established. the manufacturers were fully alive to its importance; and arkwright now reaped the reward of all the toil and danger he had undergone in the shape of a diligent and persistent attempt to rob him of his monopoly, which was carried on for a number of years, and was at length successful. some of the manufacturers, who were greedy to profit by the new machinery without paying the inventor, got hold of kay, who had quarrelled with arkwright some time before, and found him a willing instrument in their hands. it would take too long to go over all the law processes which arkwright had now to engage in to defend his rights. kay got up a story that the real inventor was a poor reed maker named highs, who had once employed him to make a model, the secret of which he had imparted to arkwright; and this was a capital excuse for using the new machinery in defiance of the patent, although the evidence at the various trials is now held completely to vindicate arkwright's title as inventor. one law plea was lost to him, on account of some technical omission in the specifications; another restored to him the enjoyment of his monopoly; and a third trial destroyed the patent, which arkwright never took any steps to recover. besides trying to defraud arkwright of his patent-rights, the rival manufacturers, with jealous inconsistency, did their best to discountenance the use of the yarns he made, although much superior in quality to what was then in use. but arkwright not only surmounted this obstacle, but turned it to good account, for it set him to manufacturing the yarn into stockings and calicoes, the duty on which being soon after lowered, in spite of the strenuous opposition of the manufacturers, turned out a very profitable speculation. for the first five years arkwright's mills yielded little or no profit; but after that, the adverse tide against which he had struggled so bravely changed, and he followed a prosperous and honourable career till his death, which happened in . he was knighted, not for being, as he was, a benefactor to his country, but because, in his capacity of high sheriff, he chanced to read some trumpery address to the king. he left behind a fortune of about half a million sterling. footnotes: [a] the founder of the family of strutt of belper, afterwards ennobled. iii.--samuel crompton. excellent as was the yarn produced by the spinning-jenny and the water-frame, compared with the old hand-spun stuff, it was coarse and full of knots; and when a demand arose for imitations of the fine india muslins, the weavers found they could produce but a very poor piece of work with such rough materials. among those who were inconvenienced for want of a better sort of yarn was young samuel crompton, who lived with his widowed mother and two sisters in an old country house called hall-in-the-wood, near what was then the little rural town of bolton in the moors. when samuel was only five years old his father died, and left his widow with the three children on her hands, to struggle through the world as best she could. a hard-working, energetic, god-fearing woman, she buckled to the fight with a stout heart and a resolute will. her husband had been both farmer and weaver, like most of the men in that quarter; and she did her best to fill his place, looking after the little farm and the three cows, and working at the loom, the yarn for which she taught the bairns to spin. whatever she took in hand she did with might and main, and the result was, her webs were the best woven, her butter the richest, her honey the purest, her home-made wines the finest flavoured of any in the district. small as her means were, she gave her boy the best education that could be got in bolton--first at a day-school, and afterwards, when he was old enough to take his place by day between the treadles, at a night-school. rigid in her sense of duty, and resolute to do her own share of the work, she exacted the same from others, and kept her lad tightly to the loom. every day he had to do a certain quantity of work; and there was no looking her in the face unless each evening saw it done, and well done too. anxious to satisfy his mother, and yet get time for his favourite amusement of fiddle-making and fiddle-playing, sam grew quickly sensitive of the imperfections of the machinery he had to work with. "he was plagued to deeath," he used to say, "wi' mendin' the broken threeads;" and could not help thinking many a time whether the jenny could not be improved so as to spin more quickly, and produce a better thread. by the time he came to man's estate, in , his thoughts had settled so far into a track, that he was able to begin making a contrivance of his own, which he hoped would accomplish the object he had in view. he had a few common tools which had belonged to his father, but his own clasp-knife served nearly every purpose in his ready hands. he had his "bits of things" filed at the smithy, and to get money for materials, he fiddled at the theatre for s. d. a night. every minute he could spare from the task-work of the day was spent in his little room over the porch of the hall in forwarding his invention. as it advanced, he grew more and more engrossed with it, and often the dawn found him still at work on it. the good folks down in bolton were sorely puzzled to think what light it was that was so often seen glimmering at uncanny hours up at the old hall. the story went abroad that the place was haunted, and that the ghost of some former resident, uneasy from the sorrows or the sins of his past life, kept watch and ward till cock crow, with a spectral lamp. the mystery was cleared up at last. it was discovered that the ghost was only sam crompton "fashing himself over bits of wood and iron;" and sam was pointed out as a "conjuror"--the cant term for inventor--when he walked through the town. the five years of labour and anxiety bore fruit in , when the "mule-jenny" with its spindle carriage was finished and set to work. as its name indicates, it was an ingenious cross between the jenny and the water-frame, combining the best features of both with several novel ones, which rendered it a very valuable machine. just as crompton had put the finishing touches to his mule, the weavers and spinners broke out in open riot at blackburn, and scoured the country with the cry, "men, not machines;" breaking every machine they could lay hands on. to keep himself out of trouble and save his mule, crompton took it to pieces, and hid it in the roof of the hall. when the storm had swept past, he brought it out, put it together, and began to use it in his daily work. the fine yarn he turned out made quite a sensation, and the fame of his invention spread far and wide. people came from all quarters to get a sight of it; and when denied admittance, brought ladders and harrows, and climbed up to the window of the room where it stood. one pertinacious fellow actually ensconced himself for several days in the cockloft, from which he watched crompton at work in the room below, through a gimlet hole he bored in the ceiling. crompton lost all patience with this constant espionage. "why couldn't folk let him enjoy his machine by himself?" he asked. a friend, whose advice he asked, urged him not to think of taking out a patent, but to make a present of his invention to the community at large. save me from my friends, crompton might well have cried. simple, guileless fellow that he was, he acted on his "friend's" advice, and on a number of manufacturers putting down their names for subscriptions varying from a guinea to a crown, threw open the invention to the world. when the time came for the subscriptions to be called in, some of the manufacturers actually were base enough to refuse payment of the paltry sums they had promised, and overwhelmed with abuse the man by the fruit of whose brain they were making their fortunes. when all the money was collected, it amounted to only £ , just as much as built crompton a new machine, with no more than four spindles. shy, simple, confiding, innocent of the cunning ways of the world, sadly backward in the study of mankind, and perhaps somewhat ungenial and unpractised to boot, crompton, from the time when one would have thought he had set his foot on the first round of the ladder of fortune, went stumbling on from one misfortune to another, ill-used on every side, and unsuccessful in every effort to get on in the world. wheedled out of his patent rights, cheated of the money promised him, his workmen lured away from him as soon as he had taught them the construction of the mule, he grew morbid and distrustful of everyone. he would have no more workmen; and as the production of his machines was thus restricted to the labours of his own hands, he could not compete with the large factories, who drew all the customers away from him. peel, the father of the statesman, offered him first a lucrative place of trust, and afterwards a partnership; but he would not listen to him. he grew more wretched and discouraged every day. in despair he cut up his spinning machines, and hacked to pieces with an axe a carding machine he had invented, exclaiming bitterly, "they shall not have this too." he then retired into comparative obscurity at oldham, where he drudged away at weaving, farming, cow-keeping, and overseeing the poor, and found it no easy matter withal to support his family, for he had married some years before. afterwards he re-appeared at bolton as a small manufacturer; and there was a brief interval of sunshine. the muslin trade was very brisk, and the weavers walked about with five-pound notes stuck in their hats, and dressed out in ruffled shirts and top boots, like fine gentlemen. while this lasted crompton found abundant sale for his superior yarn. but trade grew depressed, and the gloom settled over crompton's life to its close. the idea was started of getting parliament to do something for him; but he was too independent to supplicate government officials in person. spencer perceval, the chancellor of the exchequer, was willing to befriend him; but crompton's ill luck was at his heels. on the th of may , crompton was talking with peel and another gentleman in the lobby of the house of commons, when perceval walked up to them, saying, "you will be glad to know we mean to propose £ , for crompton. do you think it will be satisfactory?" crompton walked away out of delicacy not to hear the answer. an instant afterwards there was a great shout, and a rush of people in alarm. perceval lay bathed in his own blood, slain by the bullet of the assassin bellingham. crompton had lost his friend. when the subject of a grant to the inventor of the spinning-mule was brought up in the house a few days afterwards by lord stanley (now lord derby), only £ was proposed. no one thought of increasing it. "let's give the man a £ a-year," said an honourable member; "it's as much as he can drink." so the vote was agreed to; though at that very time the duty accruing to the revenue from the cotton wool imported to be spun upon the mule was £ , a-year, or more than £ a working day. the impulse which this invention gave to the cotton manufactures of great britain, and the commercial prosperity to which it led, enabled the country to bear the heavy drain of the war taxes; and it has been said, with no little truth, that crompton contributed as much as wellington to the downfall of napoleon. as soon as it became known, the mule-spindle took the lead in cotton-spinning machines. in above , , mule-spindles, made by his pattern, were in use. at the present time it is calculated that there are upwards of , , in use in great britain; and the increase goes on at the rate of above , , a-year. in france there were in about , , spindles on crompton's principle; and one firm of mule makers (hibbert, platt, and company, of oldham), make mules at the rate of , spindles a-year. the immense impetus given to trade, money, civilization, and comfort by this invention is almost incalculable. the grant of £ was soon swallowed up in the payment of his debts, and in meeting the losses of his business. "nothing more was ever done for him. the king, who was fond of patronizing merit, took no notice of him; his eldest son was promised a commission, which he did not get; and some time after, when struggling through life on only £ a-year, the post of sub-inspector of the factories in bolton became vacant; though he applied for the office, for which he was eminently qualified, he was passed over in favour of the natural son of one of the ex-secretaries of state--a man who did not know a mule from a spinning-jenny."[b] crompton spent his last days in poverty and privation, and died at the age of seventy-four, in . footnotes: [b] athenæum. iv.--dr. cartwright. in the summer of a number of gentlemen were chatting, after dinner, in a country house at matlock in derbyshire. some extensive cotton-mills had recently been set up in the neighbourhood, and the conversation turned upon the wonderful inventions which had been introduced for spinning cotton. there were one or two gentlemen present connected with the "manufacturing interest," who were very bitter against arkwright and his schemes. "it's all very well," said one of the grumblers, "but what will all this rapid production of yarn lead to? putting aside the ruin of the poor spinners, who will be starved because they haven't as many arms as these terrible machines, you'll find that it will end in a great deal more yarn being spun than can be woven into cloth, and in large quantities of yarn being exported to the continent, where it will be worked up by foreign weavers, to the injury of our home manufacture. that will be the short and the long of it, mark my words." "well, but, sir," remarked a grave, portly, middle-aged gentleman of clerical appearance, after a few minutes' reflection, "when you talk of the impossibility of the weaving keeping up with the spinning, you forget that machinery may yet be applied to the former as well as the latter. why may there not be a loom contrived for working up yarn as fast as the spindle produces it. that long-headed fellow arkwright must just set about inventing a weaving machine." "stuff and nonsense," returned the "practical man" pettishly, as though it were hardly worth while noticing the remarks of such a dreamer. "you might as well bid arkwright grow the cloth ready made. weaving by machinery is utterly impossible. you must remember how much more complex a process it is than spinning, and what a variety of movements it involves. weaving by machinery is a mere idle vision, my dear sir, and shows you know nothing about the operation." "well, i must confess my ignorance on the subject of weaving," replied the clergyman; "but surely it can't be a more complex matter than moving the pieces in a game of chess. now, there's an automaton figure now exhibiting in london, which handles the chess men, and places them on the proper squares of the board, and makes the most intricate moves, for all the world as if it were alive. if that can be done, i don't see why weaving should baffle a clever mechanist. a few years ago we should have laughed at the notion of doing what arkwright has done; and i'm certain that before many years are over, we shall have 'weaving johnnies,' as well as 'spinning jennies.'" dr. cartwright, for that was the clergyman's name, confidently as he foretold that machine-weaving would be devised before long, little dreamt at that moment that he was himself to bring about the fulfilment of his own prediction. a quiet, country clergyman, of literary tastes, a scholar, and poetaster, he had spent his life hitherto in the discharge of his ministerial duties, writing articles and verses, and had never given the slightest attention to mechanics, theoretical or practical. he had never so much as seen a loom at work, and had not the remotest notion of the principle or mode of its construction. but the chance conversation at the matlock dinner table suddenly roused his interest in the subject. he walked home meditating on what sort of a process weaving must be; brooded over the subject for days and weeks,--was often observed by his family striding up and down the room in a fit of abstraction, throwing his arms from side to side like a weaver jerking the shuttles,--and at last succeeded in evolving, as the germans would say, from "the depths of his moral consciousness," the idea of a power-loom. with the help of a smith and a carpenter, he set about the construction of a number of experimental machines, and at length, after five or six months' application, turned out a rude, clumsy piece of work, which was the basis of his invention. "the warp," he says, "was laid perpendicularly, the reed fell with the force of at least half a hundredweight, and the springs which threw the shuttle were strong enough to have thrown a congreve rocket. in short, it required the strength of two powerful men to work the machine at a slow rate, and only for a short time. this being done, i then condescended to see how other people wove; and you will guess my astonishment when i compared their easy modes of operation with mine. availing myself of what i then saw, i made a loom in its general principles nearly as they are now made. but it was not till the year that i completed my invention." having given himself to the contrivance of a loom that should be able to keep pace in the working up of the yarn with the jenny which produced it, solely from motives of philanthropy, he felt bound, now that he had devised the machine, to prove its utility, and bring it into use. to have stopped with the work of invention, would, he conceived, have been to leave the work half undone; and, therefore, at no slight sacrifice of personal inclination, and to the rupture of all old ties, associations, and ways of life, he quitted the ease and seclusion of his parsonage, abandoned the pursuits which had formerly been his delight, and devoted himself to the promotion of his invention. he set up weaving and spinning factories at doncaster, and, bent on the welfare of his race, began the weary, painful struggle that was to be his ruin, and to end only with his life. "i have the worst mechanical conception any man can have," wrote his friend crabbe, "but you have my best wishes. may you weave webs of gold." alas! the good man wove for himself rather a web of dismal sack-cloth, sore and grievous to his peace, like the harsh shirts of hair old devotees used to vex their flesh with for their sins. the golden webs were for other folk's wear,--for those who toiled not with their brain as he had done, but who reaped what they had not sown. he had invented a machine that was to promote industry, and save the english weavers from being driven from the field, as was beginning to be the case, by foreign weavers; and masters and men were up in arms against him as soon as his design was known. his goods were maliciously damaged,--his workmen were spirited away from him,--his patent right was infringed. calumny and hatred dogged his steps. after a succession of disasters, his prospects assumed a brighter aspect, when a large manchester firm contracted for the use of four hundred looms. a few days after they were at work, the mill that had been built to receive them stood a heap of blackened ruins. still, he would not give up till all his resources were exhausted,--and surely and not slowly that event drew nigh. the fortune of £ , with which he started in the enterprise melted rapidly away; and at length the day came when, with an empty purse, a frame shattered with anxiety and toil, but with a brave, stout heart still beating in his breast, cartwright turned his back upon his mills, and went off to london to gain a living by his pen. as he turned from the scene of his misfortunes, he exclaimed,-- "with firm, unshaken mind, that wreck i see, nor think the doom of man should be reversed for me." the lion that has once eaten a man has ever after, it is said, a wild craving after human blood. and it would seem that the faculty of invention, once aroused, its appetite for exercise is constant and insatiable. cartwright having discovered his dormant powers, could no more cease to use them than to eat. a return to his quiet literary ways, fond as he still was of such pursuits, was impossible. an inventor he was, and an inventor he must continue till his eye was glazed, and his brain numbed in death. when a clergyman he set himself to study medicine, and acquired great skill and knowledge in the science, solely for the benefit of the poor parishioners, and now he gave himself up to the labours of invention with the same benevolent motives. gain had not tempted him to enter the arena,--discouragement and ruin were not to drive him from it. the resources of his ingenuity seemed inexhaustible, and there was no limit to its range of objects. wool-combing machines, bread and biscuit baking machines, rope-making machines, ploughs, and wheel carriages, fire-preventatives, were in turn invented or improved by him. he predicted the use of steam-ships, and steam-carriages,--and himself devised a model of the former (with clock-work instead of a steam-engine), which a little boy used to play with on the ponds at woburn, that was to grow up into an eminent statesman--lord john russell. to the very last hour of his life his brain was teeming with new designs. he went down to dover in his eightieth year for warm sea-bathing, and suggested to his bathman a way of pumping up the water that saved him the wages of two men; and almost the day before his death, he wrote an elaborate statement of a new mode he had discovered of working the steam-engine. moved by an irresistible impulse to promote the "public weal," he truly fulfilled the resolution he expressed in verse,-- "with mind unwearied, still will i engage, in spite of failing vigour and of age, nor quit the combat till i quit the stage." in he was rewarded by parliament for his invention of the power-loom, and the losses it brought upon him, by a grant of £ , . he died in october . v.--sir robert peel. cartwright's power-loom was afterwards taken in hand and greatly improved by other ingenious persons--mechanics and weavers. "the names of many clever mechanics," says a writer in the _quarterly review_, "who contributed to advance it, step by step, through failure and disappointment, have long been forgotten. some broke their hearts over their projects when apparently on the eve of success. no one was more indefatigable in his endeavours to overcome the difficulties of the contrivance than william radcliffe, a manufacturer at mellor, near manchester, whose invention of the dressing-machine was an important step in advance. with the assistance of an ingenious young weaver in his employment, named johnson, he also brought out the dandy-loom, which effects almost all that can be done for the hand-loom as to motion. radcliffe was not, however, successful as a manufacturer; he exhausted his means in experiments, of which his contemporaries and successors were to derive the benefit; and after expending immense labour, and a considerable fortune in his improvements, he died in poverty in manchester only a few years ago." to the peel family the cotton manufacture is greatly indebted for its progress. robert peel, the founder of the family, developed the plan of printing calico, and his successors perfected it in a variety of ways. while occupied as a small farmer near blackburn, he gave a great deal of attention to the subject, and made a great many experiments. one day, when sketching a pattern on the back of a pewter dinner-plate, the idea occurred to him, that if colour were rubbed upon the design an impression might be printed off it upon calico. he tested the plan at once. filling in the pattern with colour on the back of the plate, and placing a piece of calico over it, he passed it through a mangle, and was delighted with seeing the calico come out duly printed. this was his first essay in calico-printing; and he soon worked out the idea, patented it, and starting as a calico-printer, succeeded so well, that he gave up the farm and devoted himself entirely to that business. his sons succeeded him; and the peel family, divided into numerous firms, became one of the chief pillars of the cotton manufacture. to such perfection has calico-printing now been brought, that a mile of calico can be printed in an hour, or three cotton dresses in a minute; and so extensive is the production of that article, that one firm alone--that of hoyle--turns out in a year more than , miles of it, or more than sufficient to measure the diameter of our planet. it was a favourite saying of old sir robert peel, in regard to the importance of commercial wealth in a national point of view, "that the gains of individuals were small compared with the national gains arising from trade;" and there can be no doubt that the success of the cotton trade has contributed essentially to the present affluence and prosperity of the united kingdom. it has placed cheap and comfortable clothing within the reach of all, and provided well-paid employment for multitudes of people; and the growth of population to which it has led, and consequent increase in the consumption of the various necessaries and luxuries of life, have given a stimulus to all the other branches of industry and commerce. from one of the most miserable provinces in the land, lancashire has grown to be one of the most prosperous. within a hundred and fifty years the population has increased tenfold, and land has risen to fifty times its value for agricultural, and seventy times for manufacturing purposes. from an insignificant country town and a little fishing village have sprung manchester and liverpool; and many other towns throughout the country owe their existence to the same source. these are the great monuments to the achievements of arkwright, crompton, peel, and the other captains of industry who wrought this mighty change, and the best trophies of their genius and enterprise. the railway and the locomotive. i.--"the flying coach." ii.--the stephensons: father and son. iii.--the growth of railways. the railway and the locomotive i.--"the flying coach." it is the grey dawn of a fine spring morning in the year , and early though it be, there are many folks astir and gathering in clusters before the ancient, weather-stained front of all souls' college, oxford. the "flying coach" which has been so much talked about, and which has been solemnly considered and sanctioned by the heads of the university, is to make its first journey to the metropolis to-day, and to accomplish it between sunrise and sunset. hitherto the journey has occupied two days, the travellers sleeping a night on the road; and the new undertaking is regarded as very bold and hazardous. a buzz rises from the knots of people as they discuss its prospects,--some very sanguine, some very doubtful, not a few very angry at the presumption of the enterprise. but six o'clock is on the strike--all the passengers are seated, some of them rather wishful to be safe on the pavement again--the driver has got the reins in his hand--the guard sounds his bugle, and off goes the "flying coach" at a rattling pace, amidst the cheering of the crowd and the benedictions of the university "dons," who have come down to honour the event with their presence. learned, liberal-minded men these "dons" are for the times they live in; but only fancy what they would think if some old seer, whose meditation and research had "pierced the future, far as human eye could see, seen the vision of the world, and all the wonders that would be," were to come forth and tell them, that before two centuries were over men would think far less of travelling from oxford to london in one hour than they then did of doing so in a day, by means of a machine of iron, mounted upon wheels, which should rush along the ground, and drag a load, which a hundred horses could not move, as though it were a feather. roger bacon had prophesied as much four centuries before; the marquis of worcester was propounding the same theory at that very day, and yet who can blame them if they treated the notion as the falsehood of an impostor, or the hallucination of a lunatic? in these days when railways traverse the country in every direction, and are still multiplying rapidly, when no two towns of the least size and consideration are unprovided with this mode of mutual communication--when we step into a railway carriage as readily as into an omnibus, and breakfasting comfortably in london, are whisked off to edinburgh, almost in time for the fashionable dinner hour,--it requires no little effort to realize the incredulity and contempt with which the idea of superseding the stage-coach by the steam locomotive, and having lines of iron railways instead of the common highways, was regarded for many years after the beginning of the present century. even after the practicability of the project had been proved, and steam-engines had been seen puffing along the rails, with a train of carriages attached, even so late as , we find one of the leading periodicals--the _quarterly review_--denouncing the gross exaggeration of the powers of the locomotive which its promoters were guilty of, and predicting that though it might delude for a time, it must end in the mortification of all concerned. the fact was, said the writer, that people would as soon suffer themselves to be fired off like a congreve rocket, as trust themselves to the mercy of such a machine, going at such a rate--the rate of eighteen miles an hour, which people now-a-days, accustomed to dash along in express trains at two or three times that speed, would deem a perfect snail-pace. the "railway" had the start of the locomotive by a couple of centuries, and derives its parentage from the clumsy wooden way-leaves or tram-roads which were laid down to lessen the labour of dragging the coal-waggons to and from the place of shipment in the newcastle colleries. these were in use from the beginning of the seventeenth century, but it was not till the beginning of the nineteenth that the locomotive steam-engine made its appearance. watt himself took out a patent for a locomotive in , but nothing came of it; and the honour of having first proved the practicability of applying steam to the purposes of locomotion is due to a cornishman named trevithick, who devised a high-pressure engine of very ingenious construction, and actually set it to work on one of the roads in south wales. at first, therefore, there was no alliance between the engine and the rail; and though afterwards trevithick adapted it to run on a tram-way, something went wrong with it, and the idea was for the time abandoned. there was a long-headed engine-man in one of the newcastle collieries about this time, in whose mind the true solution of the problem was rapidly developing, but trevithick had nearly forestalled him. the stories of these two men afford a most instructive lesson. a man of undoubted talent and ingenuity, with influential friends both in cornwall and london, trevithick had a fair start in life, and every opportunity of distinguishing himself. but he lacked steadiness and perseverance, and nothing prospered with him. he had no sooner applied himself to one scheme than he threw it up, and became engrossed in another, to be abandoned in turn for some new favourite. he was always beginning some novelty, and never ending what he had begun, and the consequence was an almost constant succession of failures. he was always unhappy and unsuccessful. if now and then a gleam of success did brighten on his path, it was but temporary, and was speedily absorbed in the gloom of failure. he found a man of capital to take up his high-pressure engine, got his locomotive built and set to work, brought his ballast engine into use, and stood in no want of praise and encouragement; and yet, one after another his schemes went wrong. not one of them did well, because he never stuck to any of them long enough. "the world always went wrong with him," he said himself. "he always went wrong with the world," said more truly those who knew him. his haste, impatience, and want of perseverance ruined him. after actually witnessing his steam engine at work in wales, dragging a train of heavy waggons at the rate of five miles an hour, he lost conceit of his invention, went away to the west indies, and did not return to england till stephenson had solved the difficulty of steam locomotion, and was laying out the stockton and darlington railway. the humble engine-man, without education, without friends, without money, with countless obstacles in his way, and not a single advantage, save his native genius and resolution, had won the day, and distanced his more favoured and accomplished rival. it was reserved for george stephenson to bring about the alliance of the locomotive and the railroad--"man and wife," as he used to call them--whose union, like that of heaven and earth in the old mythology, was to bear an offspring of titanic might--the modern railway. ii.--the stephensons: father and son. towards the close of the last century, a bare-legged herd-laddie, about eight years old, might have been seen, in a field at dewley burn, a little village not far from newcastle, amusing himself by making clay-engines, with bits of hemlock-stalk for imaginary pipes. the child is father of the man; and in after years that little fellow became the inventor of the passenger locomotive, and as the founder of the gigantic railway system which now spreads its fibres over the length and breadth, not only of our own country, but of the civilized world, the true hero of the half-century. the second son of a fireman to one of the colliery engines, who had six children and a wife to support on an income of twelve shillings a-week, george stephenson had to begin work while quite a child. at first he was set to look after a neighbour's cows, and keep them from straying; and afterwards he was promoted to the work of leading horses at the plough, hoeing turnips, and such like, at a salary of fourpence a-day. the lad had always been fond of poking about in his father's engine house; and his great ambition at this time was to become a fireman like his father. and at length, after being employed in various ways about the colliery, he was, at the age of fourteen, appointed his father's assistant at a shilling a-day. the next year he got a situation as fireman on his own account; and "now," said he, when his wages were advanced to twelve shillings a-week--"now i'm a made man for life." the next step he took was to get the place of "plugman" to the same engine that his father attended as fireman, the former post being rather the higher of the two. the business of the plugman, the uninitiated may be informed, is to watch the engine, and see that it works properly--the name being derived from the duty of plugging the tube at the bottom of the shaft, so that the action of the pump should not be interfered with by the exposure of the suction-holes. george now devoted himself enthusiastically to the study of the engine under his care. it became a sort of pet with him; and he was never weary of taking it to pieces, cleaning it, putting it together again, and inspecting its various parts with admiration and delight, so that he soon made himself thoroughly master of its method of working and construction. eighteen years old by this time, george stephenson was wholly uneducated. his father's small earnings, and the large family he had to feed, at a time when provisions were scarce and at war prices, prevented his having any schooling in his early years; and he now set himself to repair his deficiencies in that respect. his duties occupied him twelve hours a-day, so that he had but little leisure to himself; but he was bent on improving himself, and after the duties of the day were over, went to a night-school kept by a poor teacher in the village of water-row, where he was now situated, on three nights during the week, to take lessons in reading and spelling, and afterwards in the science of pot-hooks and hangers as well; so that by the time he was nineteen he was able to read clearly, and to write his own name. then he took to arithmetic, for which he showed a strong predilection. he had always a sum or two by him to work out while at the engine side, and soon made great progress. the next year he was appointed brakesman at black collerton colliery, with six shillings added to his wages, which were now nearly a pound a-week, and he was always making a few shillings extra by mending his fellow-workmen's shoes, a job at which he was rather expert. busy as he was with his various tasks, he found time to fall in love. pretty fanny henderson, a servant at a neighbouring farm, caught his fancy; and getting her shoes to mend, it cost him a great effort to return them to the comely owner after they were patched up. he carried them about with him in his pocket for some time, and would pull them out, and then gaze fondly at them with as much emotion as the old story tells us the sight of the dainty glass slipper, which cinderella dropped at the ball, excited in the breast of the young prince. bent upon taking up house for himself, with fanny as presiding genius, stephenson now began to save up, and declared himself a "rich man" when he put his first guinea in the box. instead of spending the saturday afternoon with his fellow-workmen in the public-house, stephenson employed himself in taking the engine to pieces, and cleaning it; but besides his attention to work, he was also remarkable for his skill at putting and wrestling, in which he beat most of his comrades. and he was not without pluck either, as he let a great hulking fellow, who was the bully of the village, know to his cost, by giving him such a drubbing as made him a "sadder and wiser man" for some time afterwards. he still continued his attendance at the night-school, till he had got out of the master as much instruction in arithmetic as he was able to supply. by the time he was of age he had saved up enough to take a little cottage and furnish it comfortably, though, of course, very humbly; and in the winter of , fanny, now mrs. george stephenson, rode home from church on horseback, seated on a pillion behind her husband, with her arms round his waist; and very proud and happy, we may be sure, he was that day, as the neighbours came to their doors to wish him "god speed" in his new mode of life. having learned all he could from the village teacher, george stephenson now began to study mensuration and mathematics at home by himself; but he also found time to make a number of experiments in the hope of finding out the secret of perpetual motion, and to make shoe-lasts and shoes, as well as mend them. at the end of his only son, robert, was born; and soon after the family removed to killingworth, seven miles from newcastle, where george got the place of brakesman. they had not been settled long here when fanny died--a loss which affected george deeply, and attached him all the more intensely to the offspring of their union. at this time everything seemed to go wrong with him. as if his wife's death was not grief enough, his father met with an accident which deprived him of his eye-sight, and shattered his frame; george himself was drawn for the militia, and had to pay a heavy sum of money for a substitute; and with his father, and mother, and his own boy to support, at a time when taxes were excessive and food dear, he had only a salary of £ or £ a-year to meet all claims. he was on the verge of despair, and would have emigrated to america, if, fortunately for our country, he had not been unable to raise sufficient money for his passage. so he had to stay in the old country, where a bright and glorious future awaited him, dark and desperate as the prospect then appeared. he still went on making models and experiments, and perfecting his knowledge of his own engine. to add to his earnings he also took to clock-cleaning, with the view of saving up enough to give his boy the best education it was in his power to bestow. "in the earlier period of my career," he used afterwards to say, "when robert was a little boy, i saw how deficient i was in education, and i made up my mind that he should not labour under the same defect, but that i would put him to a good school, and give him a liberal training. i was, however, a poor man, and how do you think i managed? i betook myself to mending my neighbours' clocks and watches at nights, after my daily labour was done, and thus i procured the means of educating my son." george began by teaching his son to work with him; and when the little chap could not reach so high as to put a clock-hand on, would set him on a chair for the purpose, and very proud robert was whenever he could "help father" in any of his jobs. about this time a new pit having been sunk in the district where he worked, the engine fixed for the purpose of pumping the water out of the shaft was found a failure. this soon reached george's ears. he walked over to the pit, carefully examined the various parts of the machinery, and turned the matter over in his mind. one day when he was looking at it, and almost convinced that he had discovered the cause of the failure, one of the workmen came up, and asked him if he could tell what was wrong. "yes," said george; "and i think i could alter it, and in a week's time send you to the bottom." george offered his services to the engineer. every expedient had been tried to repair the engine, and all had failed. there could be no harm, if no good, in stephenson trying his hand at it. so he got leave, and set to work. he took the engine entirely to pieces, and in four days had repaired it thoroughly, so that the workmen could get to the bottom and proceed with their labours. george stephenson's skill as an engine-doctor began to be noised abroad, and secured him the post of engine-wright at killingworth, with a salary of £ a-year. robert was now old enough to go to school, and was sent to one in newcastle, to which, dressed in a suit of coarse grey stuff cut out by his father, he rode every day upon a donkey. robert spent much of his spare time in the literary and philosophical institute of newcastle; and would sometimes take home a volume from the library, which father and son would eagerly peruse together. occasionally they tried chemical experiments together; and now and then robert would try his hand by himself. on one occasion he electrified the cows in an adjacent enclosure by means of an electric kite, making the bewildered animals dash madly about the field, with their tails erect on end; and another time he administered a severe electric shock to his father's galloway pony, which nearly knocked it over, and drew down upon him the affected wrath of his father, who, coming out at the instant, shook his whip at him and called him a mischievous scoundrel, though pleased all the while at the lad's ingenuity and enterprise. as an early proof of the former, there still stands over the cottage door at killingworth a sun-dial, constructed by robert when he was thirteen years old, with some little help from his father. the idea of constructing a steam-engine to run on the colliery tram-roads leading to the shipping-place was now receiving considerable attention from the engineering community. several schemes had been propounded, and engines actually made; but none of them had been brought into use. a mistaken notion prevailed that the plain round wheels of an engine would slip round without catching hold of the rails, and that thus no progress would be made; but george stephenson soon became convinced that the weight of the engine would of itself be sufficient to press the wheels to the rails, so that they could not fail to bite. he turned the subject over and over in his mind, tested his conceptions by countless experiments, and at length completed his scheme. money for the construction of a locomotive engine on his plan having been supplied by lord ravensworth, one was made after many difficulties, and placed upon the tram-road at killingworth, where it drew a load of tons up a somewhat steep gradient at the rate of four miles an hour. still there was very little saving in cost, and little advance in speed as compared with horse-power; but in a second one, which stephenson quickly set about constructing, he turned the waste steam into the chimney to increase the draught, and thus puff the fuel into a brisker flame, and create a larger volume of steam to propel the locomotive. the fundamental principles of the engine thus formed remain in operation to this day; and it may in truth be termed the progenitor of the great locomotive family. in george stephenson got the appointment of engineer, with £ of salary, to the stockton and darlington railway company, in the act of parliament for which power was given to use locomotive engines, if needful, either for the conveyance of goods or passengers. when the line was opened, it was worked partly by horses and partly by locomotive and stationary engines. this led to a partnership between mr. edward pease of darlington, the chief projector of the line, and stephenson, in a locomotive manufactory in newcastle,--for many years the only one of the kind in existence. meanwhile, young robert stephenson, having spent a year or two in gaining a practical acquaintance with the machinery and working of a colliery, went to the university of edinburgh, where he spent a session in attending the courses of lectures on chemistry, natural philosophy, and geology. he made the best of his opportunities; and that he might profit to the utmost by the lectures, he studied short-hand, and took them all down _verbatim_, transcribing his notes every evening before he went to bed. robert brought home the prize for mathematics, and showed he had made so much progress at college that, though the £ which the session cost was a large sum to his father at that time, george never failed, then or afterwards, to declare that it was one of the best investments he had ever made. after a year or two in his father's locomotive factory, robert spent two or three years in charge of the machinery of a mining company in columbia, and returned to england at the close of , to find the great question, "whether locomotives can be successfully and profitably applied to passenger traffic?" hotly agitated, his father, almost alone, taking the side of the travelling, against that of the fixed engines, and insisting that the wheel and the rail were clearly and closely part of one system. the success of the darlington line induced the liverpool merchants to project a line between that town and manchester; and george stephenson was almost unanimously chosen engineer, though it was still undetermined whether the new line should be worked by steam or horse power. but, apart from that question, a great, and, as it appeared to most of the engineers of the time, an insurmountable difficulty existed in the quagmire of chat moss,--an enormous mass of watery pulp, which rose in height in wet, and sank in dry weather like a sponge, and over whose treacherous depths it was pronounced impossible to form a firm road. it was perfect madness to think of such a thing, said the engineers, and none of them would support stephenson's scheme; but he resolved to see what could be done. truck-load after truck-load of stuff was emptied into the moss, and still the insatiable bog kept gaping as though it had not had half a feed. the directors, alarmed, would have abandoned the project, had they not been so deeply involved that they were obliged to let stephenson continue. but he never doubted himself--not for a moment. he only pushed on the works more vigorously; and, before six months were over, the directors found themselves whirling along over the very bog they expected all their capital was to be fruitlessly sunk to the bottom of. still, no decision had been come to as to whether locomotive or fixed engines were to be adopted; and the stephensons were still battling bravely in favour of the locomotive against a host of opponents. robert did his father good service by the able and pithy pamphlets which he wrote on the subject; and at length their perseverance was rewarded by the directors consenting to employ a locomotive, if they could get one that would run at the rate of ten miles an hour, and not weigh more than six tons, including tender; and offering a reward of £ for the best engine fulfilling these conditions. george stephenson and his son set to work immediately, and the product of their united skill and ingenuity was the celebrated _rocket_, which carried off the prize, and attained a speed of twenty-nine miles on the opening day. the practicability and success of the locomotive was now beyond a doubt; from that day forward public opinion began to turn. of course, for many a long year afterwards there were not wanting numbers of bigoted men of the old school who cried down the new-fangled system, and would hear of no means of transit but the stage-coach and the canal-boat. but shrewd folk, like the old duke of bridgewater, whose faculties were sharpened by their pockets being in danger, could not help crying out, "there's mischief in these tram-ways! i wish the canals mayn't suffer;" and, within ten years of the day when the _rocket_ went puffing triumphantly along the liverpool and manchester line, most sensible people had become convinced of the importance of the locomotive railway, and scarcely a principal town in the country but was supplied with a line. the stephensons had fought a hard fight for their protegé, "rail and wheel," and now they were to reap the fruits of their enterprise and foresight. to nearly all the most important of the new lines george stephenson acted as engineer; and thus, in the course of two years, above miles of railway were constructed under his superintendence, at a cost of £ , , sterling. robert at first left his father to attend to the laying out of railways, and directed his attention to the improvement of the locomotive in all its details, experimenting incessantly, and trying now one new device, now another. "it was astonishing," says mr. smiles, "to observe the rapidity of the improvements effected,--every engine turned out of stephenson's workshops exhibiting an advance upon its predecessor in point of speed, power, and working efficiency." by this time george had taken up his residence at tapton house, near chesterfield, where he continued to reside for the remainder of his life. close by were some extensive coal-pits, which he had taken in lease, and from which he supplied london with the first coals sent by railway. he was now a man of wealth and fame, known and honoured throughout his own country, and in many foreign ones, and blessed with many a staunch, true friend. more than once he was offered knighthood by sir robert peel, but declined the honour. as he grew up in years, he gradually abandoned his railway business to the charge of his son, and settled down into a quiet country gentleman of agricultural tastes. he was very fond of gardening and farming, and spent many a long day superintending the operations in the fields. when a boy, he had always been very fond of taming birds and rabbits, and had once had flocks of robins, which, in the hard winter, used to come hopping round his feet for crumbs. and now, in his old age, he had special pets among his dogs and horses, and was proud of his superior breed of rabbits. there was scarcely a nest on his estate that he was not acquainted with; and he used to go round from day to day to look at them, and see that they were kept uninjured. the year before his death he visited sir robert peel at drayton manor. dr. buckland, the geologist, was of the party. one sunday, as they were returning from church, they observed a train speeding along the valley in the distance. "now, buckland," said mr. stephenson, "i have a poser for you. can you tell me what is the power that is driving that train?" "well," said the other, "i suppose it is one of your big engines." "but what drives the engine?" "oh, very likely a canny newcastle driver." "what do you say to the light of the sun?" "how can that be?" asked the professor. "it is nothing else," said the engineer. "it is light bottled up in the earth for tens of thousands of years--light, absorbed by plants and vegetables, being necessary for the condensation of carbon during the process of their growth, if it be not carbon in another form; and now, after being buried in the earth for long ages in fields of coal, that latent light is again brought forth and liberated, made to work as in that locomotive, for great human purposes." on the th of august , this great, good man--one of the truest heroes that ever lived, and one of the greatest benefactors of our country--passed from among us, leaving his son, robert, to develop and extend the great work of which he had laid the foundation. among one of the first railways of any extent of which robert stephenson had the laying out, was the london and birmingham; and it is related, as an illustration of his conscientious perseverance in executing the task, that in the course of the examination of the country he walked over the whole of the intervening districts upwards of twenty times. many other lines, in england and abroad, were executed by him in rapid succession; and it was stated a few years ago, that the lines of railway constructed under his superintendence had involved an outlay of £ , , sterling. the three great works, however, with which his name will always be most intimately associated, and which are the grandest monuments of his genius, are the high level bridge at newcastle, the britannia bridge across the menai straits, and the victoria bridge across the st. lawrence at montreal. the first two are sufficiently well known--the one springing across the valley of the tyne, between the busy towns of newcastle and gateshead; the other spanning, in mid air, a wide arm of the sea, at such a height that vessels of large burden in full sail can pass beneath. the third great effort of robert stephenson's prolific brain he did not live to see the completion of. the victoria bridge at montreal is constructed on the same principle as the britannia bridge, but on a much larger scale. "the victoria bridge," says mr. smiles, "with its approaches, is only sixty yards short of two miles in length. in its gigantic strength and majestic proportions, there is no structure to compare with it in ancient or modern times. it consists of not less than twenty-five immense tubular bridges joined into one; the great central span being feet, the others, feet in length. the weight of the wrought iron on the bridge is about , tons, and the piers are of massive stone, containing some tons each of solid masonry." after the completion of the britannia bridge, and again after the opening of the high level bridge, robert stephenson was offered the honour of knighthood, which, like his father before him, he respectfully declined. in he received the title of d.c.l. from the university of oxford; and for many years before his death he represented whitby in parliament. he was passionately fond of yachting, and almost immediately after a trip to norway in the summer of , he was seized with a mortal illness, and died in the beginning of october. on the th october he was buried in westminster, amongst the illustrious dead of england. no man could be more beloved than robert stephenson was by a wide circle of friends, and none better deserved it. "in society," writes one who had opportunities of intercourse with him, "he was simply charming and fascinating in the highest degree, from his natural goodness of heart and the genial zest with which he relished life himself and participated its enjoyment with others. he was generous and even princely in his expenditure--not upon himself, but on his friends. on board the _titania_, or at his house in gloucester square, his frequent and numerous guests found his splendid resources at all times converted to their gratification with a grace of hospitality which, although sedulous, was never oppressive. there was nothing of the patron in his manner, or of the olympic condescension which is sometimes affected by much lesser men. a friend (and how many friends he had!) was at once his equal, and treated with republican freedom, yet with the most high-bred courtesy and happy considerateness.... his payment of half the debt of £ , which weighed like an incubus on an institution at newcastle, is generally known; but his private charities were as boundless as his nature was generous, and as quietly performed as that nature was unostentatious. such, then, was robert stephenson, as complete a character in the multifarious relations of life as probably any man has met or will meet in the course of his experience. not unlike, or rather exceedingly _like_, his father in some respects, especially in the easy, unimposing manner in which he went about his life's work, he was hardly to be accounted his father's inferior, except perhaps in the heroic quality of combativeness. father and son, independently of each other, and both in conjunction, have left grand and beneficent results to posterity, and both recall to us monckton milnes's men of old, who "'went about their gravest tasks like noble boys at play.'" iii.--the growth of railways. it was about the year that thomas gray of nottingham, travelling in the north of england, happened to visit one of the collieries. as he stood watching a train of loaded waggons being propelled by steam along the tram-road which led from the mouth of the pit to the wharf where the coals were shipped, the idea flashed through his mind that the same system was applicable to the ordinary purposes of locomotion. "why!" he exclaimed to the engineer who was showing him over the place,--"why are there not tram-roads laid down all over england so as to supersede our common roads, and steam engines employed to drag waggons full of goods, and carriages full of passengers along them, instead of horse-power?" "propose that to the nation," replied his companion, "and see what you will get by it. why, sir, you would be worried to death for your pains." gray was not to be balked, however. the idea took firm possession of his mind, and became the one great subject of his thoughts and conversation. he talked about it to everybody whom he met, and who had patience to listen to him, wrote letters and memorials to public men, and afterwards appealed to the people at large. he was laughed at as a whimsical, crochetty fellow, and no one gave any serious attention to his views. mr. jones of gromford manor, and mr. pease of darlington, also distinguished themselves by their agitation in favour of railways, at a time when they were regarded with suspicion and alarm. the growing trade of liverpool and manchester, and other large towns, however, spoke more imperatively and forcibly in favour of the new project than any amount of individual agitation. the means of communication between the various manufacturing towns had fallen far behind their wants; and it was at length felt that some new system must be adopted. the railroad and the locomotive got a trial; and before long the carriers' carts and the stage coaches were driven off the road for want of custom, although the conveyance of goods and passengers throughout the country went on multiplying an hundred-fold. one can fancy the astonishment and awe with which the country-folk watched the progress of the first railway train through their peaceful acres,--how old and young left their work and rushed out to see the marvellous spectacle,--how the "oldest inhabitants" shook their heads, and muttered about changed times,--how the horses in the field trembled with fear, and threw up their heels at their iron rival as it went snorting past--a strange, iron monster, the handicraft of man, able to drag the heaviest burdens, and yet outstrip _flying childers_ or _eclipse_, as fresh at the end of a journey as at the beginning, and never to be tired out by any toil, if only kept in meat and drink. just as in the days of charles the first, honest, short-sighted folk prophesied the ruin of the empire and a judgment upon the use of coaches, and bewailed the misfortunes of the hundreds of able-bodied men who would be thrown out of employment; so in the early days of the railroad, great fears were entertained that the horses' occupation would be gone, and that the noble breed would quickly become extinct. there was no measure to the lamentations over the ruin of that great institution of english life--the stage-coach, with its gallant driver and guard, and spanking team. the extension of the railway system is one of the wonders of our time. the few score miles of railroad planted in have put forth offshoots and branches, till now a mighty net-work of some ten thousand miles in all, is spread over the three kingdoms, with many fresh shoots in bud. up to the end of , when not a hundred miles of railway were open, the annual average of travellers by coach was some six millions a year; ten years afterwards there were more than four times that number, and to-day the annual average is more than a hundred millions! the number of persons employed upon the working railroads of the united kingdom amount to about one hundred and thirty thousand, while nearly half as many find employment in the construction of new lines. a few facts, stated by the late mr. robert stephenson, illustrate in a very striking manner the gigantic proportion of the railway system of great britain:--the railway has pierced the earth with tunnels to the extent of more than fifty miles, and there are about twelve miles of viaducts in the vicinity of london alone. the earthworks which have been thrown up would measure , , cubic yards, beside which st. paul's would shrink to a pigmy, for it would form a pyramid a mile and a half high, with a base larger than the whole of st. james's park. every moment four tons of coal flashes into steam twenty tons of water--as much water as would suffice to supply the domestic and other wants of a town the size of liverpool, and as much coal as equals half the consumption of the metropolis. the wear and tear is so great that twenty thousand tons of iron have to be replaced annually, and three hundred thousand trees, or as much as five thousand acres could produce, have to be felled for sleepers. when george stephenson was planning the liverpool and manchester line, the directors entreated him, when they went to parliament, not to talk of going at a faster rate than ten miles an hour, or he "would put a cross on the concern." george was sanguine, however, and spoke of fifteen miles an hour, to the astonishment of the committee, who began to think him crazy. the average speed is now twenty-five miles an hour, and a mile a minute can be done, if need be. the wind is hard pushed to keep ahead of a good engine at its fullest speed.[c] the express trains on the "broad gauge" of the great western travel at the rate of fifty-one miles an hour, or forty-three, including stoppages. to attain this rate, a speed of sixty miles an hour is adopted midway between some of the stations, and even seventy miles an hour have been reached in certain experimental trips. the engines on this line can draw a passenger-train weighing one hundred and twenty tons at a speed of sixty miles an hour, the engine and tender themselves weighing an additional fifty-two tons. the ordinary luggage-trains weigh some six hundred tons each. the locomotive, however, goes on the principle that the labourer is worthy of his hire; if it works hard, it eats voraciously. at ordinary mail speed the engine consumes about twenty lbs. of coke per mile; so that, costing £ to begin with, and spending an allowance of £ a year--as much as an under-secretary of state--the locomotive is rather an extravagant customer--only, it works very hard for the money, and earns it over and over again. with all its strength and size, the locomotive is a much more delicate concern than would be supposed; the different pieces of which it is composed must be put together as carefully as a watch, and, though guaranteed to go two years without a doctor, exacts the most devoted attention from its guardians to keep it in order. it would fill a volume of huge dimensions to dilate on all the phases of the social revolution which the modern railway has wrought in our own and other countries; how it is daily annihilating time and space, and making the land's end and john o'groat's house next door neighbours; rubbing down old prejudices and jealousies, both national and provincial, promoting commerce, developing manufacture, transforming poor little villages into flourishing towns, and industrious towns into mighty cities; carrying civilization into the heart of the jungle and the desert, and, with its twin-brother, the steam-ship, joining hands and hearts in peace and amity all the world over. after the wonders of the last thirty years, who can doubt that our children, at the close of the century, will regard us as little less backward than we now do our fathers at its dawn? footnotes: [c] the wind is calculated to travel at the rate of eighty-two feet in a second; the pace of a steam-engine, at the rate of sixty miles an hour, would be rather more. the lighthouse. i.--the eddystone. ii.--the bell rock. iii.--the skerryvore. the lighthouse. "far in the bosom of the deep, o'er these wild shelves my watch i keep: a ruddy gleam of changeful light, bound on the dusky brow of night; the seaman bids my lustre hail, and scorns to strike his timorous sail."--scott. i.--the eddystone. when worthy mr. phillips, the liverpool quaker, taking thought in what way he could best benefit his fellow-creatures, built the beacon on the smalls rock in , he could hardly have made a happier selection of "a great good to serve and save humanity." there are few enterprises more heroic or beneficent than those connected with the construction and management of lighthouses. from first to last, from the rearing of the column on the rock to the monotonous, nightly vigil in attendance on the lamps--from the setting to the rising of the sun--the valour, intrepidity, and endurance, of all concerned are called into play, and the wild perils and stirring adventures they experience impart to the story of their labours a thrilling and romantic interest. in the case of the smalls lighthouse, for instance, whiteside, the self-taught engineer, and his party of cornish miners had no sooner landed, and got a long iron shaft worked a few feet into the rock, than a storm arose that drove away their cutter, and kept them clinging with the tenacity of despair to the half-fastened rod for three days and two nights, when the wind fell and the sea calmed, and they were rescued, rather dead than alive, numbed from their long immersion in the water, which rose almost to their necks, and exhausted from want of food. and after the lighthouse had been erected, the engineer and some of his men again found themselves, as a paper in a bottle they had cast into the sea revealed to those on shore, in a "most dangerous and distressed condition on the smalls," cut off from the mainland by the stormy weather, without fuel, and almost at the end of their stock of food and water--in which alarming situation they had to remain some time before their friends could get out to their relief. most sea-girt beacons have their own legends of similar perils and fortitude; and the narratives of the erection of the three great lighthouses of eddystone, inchcape, and skerryvore, which may be selected as the types of the rest, are full of incidents as exciting as any "hair breadth 'scapes i' the imminent deadly breach." about fourteen miles south from plymouth, and ten from the ram's head, on the cornish coast, lies a perilous reef of rocks, against which the long rolling swell of the atlantic waves dashes with appalling force, and breaks up into those swirling eddies from which the reef is named--the eddystone. upon these treacherous crags many a gallant vessel has foundered and gone down within sight of the shore it had scarcely quitted or was just about to reach; and situated in the midst of a much frequented track, the rapid succession of calamities at the eddystone was not long in awakening men's minds to the necessity of some warning light. the exposure of the reef to the wild fury of the atlantic, and the small extent of the surface of the chief rock, however, rendered the construction of a lighthouse in such a situation a work of great and (as it was long considered) insuperable difficulty. the project was long talked of before any one was found daring enough to attempt the task; and when at length in henry winstanley stepped forward to undertake it, he might have been thought of all others the very last from whose brain so serious a conception would have emanated. the great hobby of his life had been to fill his house at littlebury, in essex, with mechanical devices of the most absurd and fantastic kind. if a visitor, retiring to his bedroom, kicked aside an old slipper on the floor, purposely thrown in his way, up started a ghost of hideous form. if, startled at the sight, he fell back into an arm chair placed temptingly at hand, a pair of gigantic arms would instantly spring forth and clasp him a prisoner in their rude embrace. tired of these disagreeable surprises, the astonished guest perhaps took refuge in the garden, and sought repose in a pleasant arbour by the side of a canal; but he had scarcely seated himself, when he found himself suddenly set adrift on the water, where he floated about till his whimsical host came to his relief. such was the man who now entered upon one of the most formidable engineering enterprises in the world. although winstanley's lighthouse was but a slight affair compared with its successors, it occupied six years in the erection--the frequent rising of the sea over the rock, and the difficulty and danger of passing to and from it greatly retarding the operations, and rendering them practicable only during a short summer season. for ten or fourteen days after a storm had passed, and when all was calm elsewhere, the ground-swell from the atlantic was often so heavy among these rocks that the waves sprang two hundred feet, and more, in the air, burying the works from sight. the first summer was spent in boring twelve holes in the rock, and fixing therein twelve large irons as a holdfast for the works that were to be reared. the next season saw the commencement of a round pillar, which was to form the steeple of the tower, as well as afford protection to the workmen while at their labours. when winstanley bade farewell to the rock for that year, the tower had risen to the height of twelve feet; and resuming operations next spring, he built at it till it reached the height of eighty feet. having got the apartments fit for occupation, and the lantern set up, winstanley determined to take up his abode there with his men, in order that no time might be lost in going to and from the rock. the first night they spent on the rock a great storm arose, and for eleven days it was impossible to hold any communication with the shore. "not being acquainted with the height of the sea's rising," writes the architect, "we were almost drowned with wet, and our provisions in as bad a condition, though we worked night and day as much as possible to make shelter for ourselves." the storm abating, they went on shore for a little repose; but soon returning, set to work again with undiminished energy. on the th november of the same year ( ), winstanley lighted his lantern for the first time. a long spell of boisterous weather followed, and it was not till three days before christmas that they were able to quit their desolate abode, being "almost at the last extremity for want of provisions; but by good providence then two boats came with provisions and the family that was to take care of the light; and so ended this year's work." it was soon found that the sea rose to a much greater height than had been anticipated, the lantern, although sixty feet above the rock, being often "buried under water." winstanley was, therefore, under the necessity of enlarging the tower and carrying it to a greater elevation. the fourth season, accordingly, was spent in encasing the tower with fresh outworks, and adding forty feet to its height. this proved too high for its strength to bear; and in the course of three years the winds and waves had made sad havoc in the unstable fabric. in november , winstanley went out to the rock himself, accompanied by his workmen, to institute the repairs. as he was putting off in the boat from plymouth, a friend who had for some time before been watching the condition of the lighthouse with much anxiety, mentioned to him his suspicion that it was in a bad way, and could not last long. winstanley, full of faith in the stability of his work, replied that "he only wished to be there in the greatest storm that ever blew under the face of the heavens, that he might see what effect it would have on his structure." and with these words he shoved off from the beach, and made for the rock. with the last gleams of daylight, before the night fell and shrouded it from view, the tower was seen rising proudly from the midst of the waters. before the dawn it had disappeared for ever, and the waves were lashing fiercely round the bare bleak ledge of the fatal rock. poor winstanley had had his presumptuous wish only too fully realized. the storm of the th november was one of the most fearful that ever ravaged our shores. the whole coast suffered severely from its fury, and when the morning came, not a sign remained of the lighthouse, architect, or workmen, save a fragment of chain-cable wedged firmly into a crevice of the rock. the disappearance of the warning light was quickly followed by the wreck of a large homeward-bound man-of-war, and the loss of nearly all her crew, upon the rocks. this first eddystone lighthouse was a strange, fantastic looking structure, deficient in every element of stability, and the wonder was not that it fell in pieces as it did, but that it was able to withstand so long the boisterous weather of the channel. but if of little merit as an architect, winstanley at least deserves respect, as smeaton remarks, for the heroism he displayed in undertaking "a piece of work that before had been looked on as impossible." for four years the eddystone remained bare and untenanted, till, in the summer of , the erection of a new lighthouse was commenced under the superintendence of john rudyerd, by profession a silk-mercer in ludgate hill, but by natural genius an engineer of considerable merit. with such skill and energy did he apply himself to the work, that before two summers were over his tower was completed, and its friendly light beamed over the troubled waters and sunken crags. rudyerd's lighthouse was entirely of wood, weighted at the base by a few courses of mason work, and feet in height. in form, it was a smooth, solid cone of elegant simplicity, unbroken by any of those ornamental outworks, which offered the wind and sea so many points to lay hold of, in winstanley's whimsical pagoda. smeaton speaks of rudyerd's tower as a masterly performance; and had it not been destroyed by fire, forty-six years after its erection, there seems little reason to suppose it might not have been standing to this day,--although no doubt the ravages of the worm in the wood would have demanded frequent repairs. on the d december , some fishermen who happened to be on the beach very early in the morning preparing their nets, were startled by the sight of volumes of smoke issuing from the lighthouse. they instantly gave the alarm, and a boat was quickly manned for the relief of the sufferers. it did not reach the rock till about ten o'clock, and the fire had then been raging for eight hours. it was first discovered by the light-keeper upon watch who, going into the lantern about two o'clock in the morning to snuff the candles, found the place filled with smoke. he opened the door of the lantern into the balcony, and a mass of flame immediately burst from the inside of the cupola. he lost no time in seizing the buckets of water kept at hand, and dashing them over the fire, but without effect. his two companions were asleep, and it was some time before they heard his shouts for assistance. when at length they did bestir themselves, all the water in the house was exhausted. the light-keeper--an old man in his ninety-fourth year--urged them to replenish the buckets from the sea; but the difficulty of lowering the buckets to such a depth, and their confusion and terror at the sudden catastrophe and their impending fate, destroyed their presence of mind, and rendered them quite powerless. the old man did his best to prevent the advance of the flames; but, exhausted by the unavailing labour, and severely injured by the melting lead from the roof, he had to desist. as the fire spread from point to point, with rapid strides descending from the summit to the base, the poor wretches fled before it, retreating from room to room, till at last they were driven to seek shelter from the blazing timbers and red hot bars, in a cleft of the rock. there they were found by their preservers, crouching together half dead with suffering and fright. it was with the greatest difficulty that they were got into the boat; and they had no sooner reached the shore than one of them, crazed by the terrors he had undergone, ran away, and was never heard of more. the old man lingered on for a few days in great agony, and died from the injuries he had received. such was the fate of the second lighthouse on the eddystone,--one element revenging, as it were, the conquest over another. in spite of the fatality which seemed to attend these lighthouses, the lessees of the eddystone--for it was then in private hands, and did not come into the hands of the trinity house till many years after--resolved to make another attempt; and this time they selected as the architect one of the ablest professional men of the day, and with sagacious liberality, adopted his advice to build it of stone and granite. smeaton truly belonged to the class of heaven-born engineers. from his earliest years the bent of his genius unmistakably revealed itself. before he was six years old, he one day terrified his parents by climbing to the top of a barn to fix up some contrivance he had put together, after the fashion of a windmill; and another time he constructed a pump that raised water, after watching some workmen sinking one. and as he grew older, his efforts took a more ambitious range, and were all equally remarkable for their originality and success. his father destined him for the bar; but his inclination for engineering was so irresistible, that he allowed him to resign all chance of the woolsack, and set up in business as a mathematical instrument maker. he gradually advanced to the profession of civil engineering,--which he was the first man in england to pursue, and which he may be said to have created. it was in he commenced the construction of the great work which may be regarded as the monument of his fame. having decided that his lighthouse should be of stone, the next point to be settled was its form. his thoughts, he tells us in his book, instinctively reverted to the analogy between a lighthouse shaft and the trunk of a stately oak. he remarked the spreading roots taking a broad, firm grip of the soil, the rise of the swelling base, gradually lessening in girth in a graceful curve, till a preparation being required for the support of the spreading boughs, a renewed swelling of diameter takes place; and he held that cutting off the branches we have, in the trunk of an oak, a type of such a lighthouse column as is best adapted to resist the influence of the winds and waves. whether or not smeaton arrived at the form of his lighthouse, which has since become the model for all others, from this fanciful analogy, its appearance rising from the rock presents a strong resemblance to a noble tree stripped of its boughs and foliage. smeaton commenced the undertaking by visiting the rock in the spring of , accurately measuring its very irregular surface, and in order to ensure exactness in his plans, making a model of it. in the summer of the same year he prepared the foundation by cutting the surface of the rock in regular steps or trenches, into which the blocks of stone were to be dovetailed. the first stone was laid in june , and the last in august . of that period there were only days when it was possible to stand on the rock, and so small a portion even of these was available for carrying on the work, that it is calculated the building in reality occupied but six weeks. the whole was completed without the slightest accident to any one; and so well were all the arrangements made, that not a minute was lost by confusion or delay amongst the workmen. the tower measures feet in height, and feet in diameter at the level of the first entire course, the diameter under the cornice being only feet. the first twelve feet of the structure form a solid mass of masonry,--the blocks of stone being held together by means of stone joggles, dovetailed joints, and oaken tree-nails. all the floors of the edifice are arched; to counteract the possible outburst of which, smeaton bound the courses of his stone work together by belts of iron chain, which, being set in grooves while in a heated state, by the application of hot lead, on cooling, of course, tightened their clasp on the tower. throughout the whole work the greatest ingenuity is displayed in obtaining the greatest amount of resistance, and combining the two great principles of strength and weight,--technically speaking, cohesion and inertia. on the th october , the warning light once more, after an interval of four years, shone forth over the troubled waters from the dangerous rock; but it was but a feeble illumination at the best, for it came from only a group of tallow candles. it was better than nothing, certainly; but the exhibition of a few glimmering candles was but a paltry conclusion to so stupendous an undertaking. for many years, however, no stronger light gleamed from the tower, till, in , when it passed from the hands of private proprietors into the charge of the trinity house, the mutton dips were supplanted by argand burners, with silvered copper reflectors. imperfect, however, as used to be the lighting apparatus, the eddystone beacon has always been a great boon to all those "that go down to the sea in great ships," and has robbed these perilous waters of much of their terror. we can readily sympathize with the exultation of the great engineer who reared it, when standing on the hoe at plymouth, he spent many an hour, with his telescope, watching the great swollen waves, in powerless fury, dash against his tower, and "fly up in a white column, enwrapping it like a sheet, rising at the least to double the height of the tower, and totally intercepting it from sight." it is now more than a hundred years since smeaton's lighthouse first rose upon the eddystone; but, in spite of the many furious storms which have put its stability to rude and searching proof, it still lifts its head proudly over the waves, and shows no signs of failing strength. ii.--the bell rock. the inch cape, or bell rock, is a long, narrow reef on the east coast of scotland, at the mouth of the frith of tay, and some dozen of miles from the nearest land. at high water the whole ledge is buried out of sight; and even at the ebb the highest part of it is only three or four feet out of the water. in the days of old, as the tradition goes, one of the abbots of arbroath, among many good works, exhibited his piety and humanity by placing upon a float attached to the perilous reef a large bell, so suspended as to be tolled by the rising and falling of the waves. "on a buoy, in the storm it floated and swung, and over the waves its warning rung." many a storm-tossed mariner heard the friendly knell that warned him of the nearness of the fatal rock, and changed his course before it was too late, with blessings on the good old monk who had hung up the bell; but after some years, one of the pirates who infested the coast cut it down in wanton cruelty, and was one of the first who suffered from the loss. not long after, he perished upon this very rock, which a dense fog shrouded from sight, and no bell gave timely warning of. "and even in his dying fear, one dreadful sound did the rover hear; a sound as if with the inch cape bell, the devil below was ringing his knell." after the lapse of many years, two attempts were made to raise a beacon of spars upon the rock; but one after the other they fell a prey to the angry waves, and were hardly set up before they disappeared. it was not till the beginning of the century that the commissioners of northern lighthouses took up the idea of erecting a lighthouse on this reef, the most dangerous on all the coast. several years elapsed before they got the sanction of parliament to the undertaking, and arrived before it was actually entered upon. mr. robert stevenson, to whom the work was intrusted as engineer, had from a very early age been employed in connection with lighthouses. he went almost directly from school to the office of mr. thomas smith of edinburgh, and when that gentleman was appointed engineer to the northern lighthouse commissioners, became his assistant, and afterwards successor. when only nineteen, mr. stevenson superintended the construction of the lighthouse on the island of little cumbray; and during the time he was engineer to the commissioners, which post he held till , he erected no fewer than forty-two lighthouses, and introduced a great many valuable improvements into the system. his reputation, however, will be chiefly perpetuated as the architect of the bell rock lighthouse. on the th august , mr. stevenson and his men landed on the rock, to the astonishment and discomposure of the seals who had, from time immemorial, been in undisturbed possession of it, and now floundered off into the water on the approach of the usurpers. the workmen at once set about preparing the rock for the erection of a temporary pyramid on which a barrack-house was to be placed for the reception of the workmen. they could only work on the rock for a few hours at spring-tide. as soon as the flood-tide began to rise around them, putting out the fire of the smith's forge, and gradually covering the rock, they had to gather up their tools and retreat to a floating barrack moored at a considerable distance, in order to reach which they had to row in small boats to the tender, by which they were then conveyed to their quarters. the operations of this first season were particularly trying to the men, on account of their having to row backwards and forwards between the rock and the tender at every tide, which in rough weather was a very heavy pull, and having often after that to work on the rock knee deep in water, only quitting it for the boats when absolutely compelled by the swelling waves. sometimes the sea would be so fierce for days together that no boat could live in it, and the men had, therefore, to remain cooped up wearily on board the floating barrack. one day in september, when the engineer and thirty-one men were on the rock, the tender broke from its moorings, and began to drift away from the rock, just as the tide was rising. mr. stevenson, perched on an eminence above the rest, surveying them at their labours, was the first, and for a while, the men being all intent on their work, the only one, who observed what had happened. he said nothing, but went to the highest point of the rock, and kept an anxious watch on the progress of the vessel and the rising of the sea. first the men on the lower tier of the works, then by degrees those above them, struck work on the approach of the water. they gathered up their tools and made towards the spot where the boats were moored, to get their jackets and stockings and prepare for quitting the rock. what their feelings were when they found only a couple of boats there, and the tender drifting off with the other in tow, may be conceived. all the peril of their situation must have flashed across their minds as they looked across the raging sea, and saw the distance between the tender and the rock increasing every moment, while all around them the water rose higher and higher. in another hour, the waves would be rolling twelve feet and more above the crag on which they stood, and all hope of the tender being able to work round to them was being quickly dissipated. they watched the fleeting vessel and the rising tide, and their hearts sank within them, but not a word was uttered. they stood silently counting their numbers and calculating the capacity of the boats; and then they turned their eyes upon their trusted leader, as if their last hope lay in his counsel. stevenson never forgot the appalling solemnity of the moment. one chance, and but a slender one, of escape alone occurred to him. it was that, stripping themselves of their clothes, and divesting the two boats, as much as possible, of everything that weighted and encumbered them, so many men should take their seats in the boats, while the others hung on by the gunwales; and that they should then work their way, as best they could, towards either the tender or the floating barrack. stevenson was about to explain this to his men, but found that all power of speech had left him. the anxiety of that dreadful moment had parched his throat, and his tongue clave to the roof of his mouth. he stooped to one of the little pools at his feet to moisten his fevered lips with the salt water. suddenly a shout was raised, "a boat! a boat!" and through the haze a large pilot boat could dimly be discerned making towards the rock. the pilot had observed the _smeaton_ drifting off, and, guessing at once the critical position of the workmen on the rock, had hastened to their relief. next morning when the bell sounded on board the barrack for the return to the rock, only eight out of the twenty-six workmen, beside the foreman and seamen, made their appearance on deck to accompany their leader. mr. stevenson saw it would be useless to argue with them then. so he made no remark, and proceeded with the eight willing workmen to the rock, where they spent four hours at work. on returning to the barrack, the eighteen men who had remained on board appeared quite ashamed of their cowardice; and without a word being said to them, were the first to take their places in the boats when the bell rang again in the afternoon. at length the barrack was completed, and the men were then relieved from the toil of rowing backwards and forwards between the tender and the rock, as well as from the constant sickness which tormented them on board the floating barrack. they were now able to prolong their labours, when the tide permitted, into the night. at such times the rock assumed a singularly picturesque and romantic aspect--its surface crowded with men in all variety of attitudes, the two forges and numerous torches lighting up the scene, and throwing a lurid gleam across the waters, and the loud dong of the anvils mingling with the dashing of the breakers. on the th july , the site having been properly excavated, the first stone of the lighthouse was laid by the duke of argyle; and by the end of the second season some five or six feet of building had been erected, and were left to the mercy of the waves till the ensuing spring. the third season's operations raised the masonry to a height of thirty feet above the sea, and the fourth season saw the completion of the tower. on the first night in february of the succeeding year ( ) the lamp was lit, and beamed forth across the waters. the bell rock tower is feet in height, feet in diameter at the base, and feet at the top. the door is feet from the base, and the ascent is by a massive bronze ladder. the "light" is revolving, and presents a white and red light alternately, by means of shades of red glass arranged in a frame. the machinery which causes the revolution of the lamp is also applied to the tolling of two large bells, in order to give warning to the mariner of his approach to the rock in foggy weather, thus reviving the traditional practice from which the rock takes its name. iii.--the skerryvore. "having crept upon deck about four in the morning, i find we are beating to windward off the isle of tyree, with the determination on the part of mr. stevenson that his constituents should visit a reef of rocks called skerry vhor, where he thought it would be essential to have a lighthouse. loud remonstrances on the part of the commissioners, who one and all declare they will subscribe to his opinion, whatever it may be, rather than continue this dreadful buffeting. quiet perseverance on the part of mr. stevenson, and great kicking, bouncing, and squabbling upon that of the yacht, who seems to like the idea of skerry vhor as little as the commissioners. at length, by dint of exertion, came in sight of this long range of rocks (chiefly under water), on which the tide breaks in a most tremendous style. there appear a few low broad rocks at one end of the reef which is about a mile in length. these are never entirely under water, though the surf dashes over them. we took possession of it in the name of the commissioners, and generously bestowed our own great names on its crags and creeks. the rock was carefully measured by mr. stevenson. it will be a most desolate position for a lighthouse--the bell rock and eddystone a joke to it, for the nearest land is the wild island of tyree, at miles distance." such is an entry in the diary of sir walter scott's yacht tour, on the th august ; but although the necessity of a lighthouse on the skerry vhor, or, as it is now generally called, skerryvore, was fully acknowledged by the authorities, it was not till twenty-four years afterwards that the undertaking was actually commenced, under the superintendence of mr. alan stevenson, the son of the eminent engineer who erected the bell rock lighthouse. in the execution of this great work, if the son had, as compared with his father, certain advantages in his favour, he had also various disadvantages to contend with at skerryvore from which the engineer of the bell rock was free. mr. alan stevenson had steam power at his command, and the benefit of all the experience derived from the experiments of his predecessors in similar operations; but at the same time, the rock on which he had to work was at a greater distance from the land, and separated from it by a more dangerous passage than that of either the bell or the eddystone; and the geological formation of which the rock is composed, was much more difficult to work upon. the skerryvore is distant from tyree, the nearest inhabited island, about miles; even in fine weather the intervening passage is a trying one, and in rough weather no ship can live in such a sea, studded as it is with treacherous rocks. the sandstone of the bell rock is worn into rugged inequalities, which favoured the operations of the engineer; but the action of the waves on the igneous formation of the skerryvore has given it all the smoothness and slippery polish of a mass of dark coloured glass. indeed, the foreman of the masons, on first visiting the rock, not unjustly compared the operation of ascending it to that of "climbing up the neck of a bottle." the th august was the first day of entire work on the rock, and with succeeding ones was spent in the erection of a temporary barrack of wood, for the men to lodge in on the rock. it was completed before the season closed; but one of the first heavy gales in november wrenched it from its holdings, and swept it into the sea, leaving nothing to mark the site but a few broken and twisted stanchions, attached to one of which was a portion of a great beam which had been shaken and rent, by dashing against the rocks, into a bundle of ribands. thus in one night were obliterated the results of a whole season's toil, and with them, the hopes the men cherished of having a dwelling on the rock, instead of on board the brig, where they suffered intensely from the miseries of constant sickness. the excavation of the foundations occupied the whole of the summer season of , from the th may to the d september. the hard, nitrified rock held out stoutly against the assaults of both iron and gunpowder; and much time was spent in hollowing out the basin in which the lighthouse was to be fixed. from the limited extent of the rock and the absence of any place of shelter, the blasting was an operation of considerable danger, as the men had no place to run to, and it had to be managed with great caution. only a small portion of the rock could be blown up at a time, and care had to be taken to cover the part over with mats and nettings made of old rope to check the flight of the stones. the excavation of the flinty mass occupied nearly two summers. the operations of included, much to the delight of the workmen, the reconstruction of the barrack, to which they were glad to remove from the tossing vessel. the second edifice was more substantial than the first, and proved more enduring. rude and narrow as it was, it offered, after the discomforts of the vessel, almost a luxurious lodging to its hardy inmates. "packed feet above the weather-beaten rock, in this singular abode," writes the engineer, mr. alan stevenson, "with a goodly company of thirty men, i have spent many a weary day and night, at those times when the sea prevented any one going down to the rock, anxiously looking for supplies from the shore, and earnestly longing for a change of weather favourable to the recommencement of the works. for miles around nothing could be seen but white foaming breakers, and nothing heard but howling winds and lashing waves. our slumbers, too, were at times fearfully interrupted by the sudden pouring of the sea over the roof, the rocking of the house on its pillars, and the spurting of water through the seams of the doors and windows; symptoms which, to one suddenly aroused from sound sleep, recalled the appalling fate of the former barrack, which had been engulphed in the foam not twenty yards from our dwelling, and for a moment seemed to summon us to a similar fate. on two occasions in particular, these sensations were so vivid as to cause almost every one to spring out of bed; and some of the men fled from the barrack by a temporary gangway to the more stable, but less comfortable shelter afforded by the bare walls of the lighthouse tower, then unfinished, where they spent the remainder of the night in the darkness and the cold." in spite of their anxiety to get on with the work, and their intrepidity in availing themselves of every opportunity, these gallant men were often forced by stress of weather into an inactivity which we may be sure they felt sadly irksome and against the grain. "at such seasons," says mr. stevenson, "much of our time was spent in bed, for there alone we had effectual shelter from the winds and the spray which reached every cranny in the walls of our barrack." on one occasion they were for fourteen days without communication with the shore, and when at length the seas subsided, and they were able to make the signal to tyree that a landing at the rock was practicable, scarcely twenty-four hours' stock of provisions remained on the rock. in spite of hardships and perils, however, the engineer declares that "life on the skerryvore rock was by no means destitute of its peculiar pleasures. the grandeur of the ocean's rage--the deep murmur of the waves--the hoarse cry of the sea birds, which wheeled continually over us, especially at our meals--the low moaning of the wind--or the gorgeous brightness of a glossy sea and a cloudless sky--and the solemn stillness of a deep blue vault, studded with stars, or cheered by the splendours of the full moon,--were the phases of external things that often arrested our thoughts in a situation where, with all the bustle that sometimes prevailed, there was necessarily so much time for reflection. those changes, together with the continual succession of hopes and fears connected with the important work in which we were engaged, and the oft recurring calls for advice or direction, as well as occasional hours devoted to reading and correspondence, and the pleasures of news from home, were more than sufficient to reconcile me to--nay, to make me really enjoy--an uninterrupted residence, on one occasion, of not less than five weeks on that desert rock." the skerryvore lighthouse was at length successfully completed. the height of the tower is feet inches, of which the first feet is solid. it contains a mass of stone work of more than double the quantity of the bell rock, and nearly five times that of the eddystone. the entire cost, including steam tug and the building of a small harbour at hynish for the reception of the little vessel that now attends the lighthouse, was £ , . the light is revolving, and reaches its brightest state once every minute. it is produced by the revolution of eight great annular lenses around a central light, with four wicks, and can be seen from the deck of a vessel at the distance of miles. mr. alan stevenson sums up his deeply interesting narrative in the following words: "in such a situation as the skerryvore, innumerable delays and disappointments were to be expected by those engaged in the work; and the entire loss of the fruit of the first season's labour in the course of a few hours, was a good lesson in the school of patience, and of trust in something better than an arm of flesh. during our progress, also, cranes and other materials were swept away by the waves; vessels were driven by sudden gales to seek shelter at a distance from the rocky shores of mull and tyree; and the workmen were left on the rock desponding and idle, and destitute of many of the comforts with which a more roomy and sheltered dwelling, in the neighbourhood of friends, is generally connected. daily risks were run in landing on the rock in a heavy surf, in blasting the splintery gneiss, or by the falling of heavy bodies from the tower on a narrow space below, to which so many persons were necessarily confined. yet had we not any loss of either life or limb; and although our labours were prolonged from dawn to night, and our provisions were chiefly salt, the health of the people, with the exception of a few slight cases of dysentery, was generally good throughout the six successive summers of our sojourn on the rock. the close of the work was welcomed with thankfulness by all engaged in it; and our remarkable preservation was viewed, even by many of the most thoughtless, as, in a peculiar manner, the gracious work of him by whom the very hairs of our heads are all numbered!" steam navigation. i.--james symington. ii.--robert fulton. iii.--henry bell. iv.--ocean steamers. steam navigation. i.--james symington. of the many triumphs of enterprise achieved by the agency of that tremendous power which james watt tamed and put in harness for his race, perhaps the greatest and most momentous is that which has reversed the old proverb, that "time and tide wait for no man," given ten-fold meaning to the truth that "seas but join the regions they divide," and enabled our ships to dash across the trackless deep in spite of opposing elements,-- "against wind, against tide, steadying with upright keel," in a fraction of the time, and with a fraction of the cost and peril of the old mode of naval locomotion. how amply realized has been james bell's prediction more than half a century ago, "i will venture to affirm that history does not afford an instance of such rapid improvement in commerce and civilization, as that which will be effected by steam vessels!" towards the close of the last century, a number of ingenious minds were in travail with the scheme of steam navigation. the marquis de jouffroy in france, and fitch and rumsey in america, were successful in experiments of its feasibility; but it is to the efforts of miller and symington in scotland, followed up by those of fulton and bell, that we are chiefly and more immediately indebted for the practical development of the project. having a natural bent for mechanical contrivances, and abundance of leisure and money to indulge his tastes, mr. miller of dalswinton, in dumfriesshire, somewhere about the year , was full of schemes for driving ships by means of paddle-wheels,--by no means a novel idea, for it was known to the romans, if not to the egyptians, and had often been tried before. all he aimed at originally was, to turn the wheels by the power of men or horses; and this he managed to do successfully enough. single, double, and treble boats were often to be seen driving along dalswinton lake, moved by paddle-wheels instead of oars. on one occasion, at leith, one of the double boats, sixty feet long, propelled by two wheels, each of which was turned by a couple of men, was matched against a custom-house boat, which was reckoned a fast sailer. the paddle-wheels did duty very well; but the men were soon knocked up with turning them, and the want of some other motive power was strongly felt. a young man named taylor, who was tutor to mr. miller's boys, is said to have suggested the use of steam; but whether this be so or not, it was not till miller met with james symington that the idea assumed a practical form. in james symington, then joint-engineer with his brother george, to the wanlockhead mines, was struck with the idea which, as we have seen, several other ingenious minds were also busy with about the same time,--of rendering the steam-engine available for locomotion both on land and sea. after much study and reflection, he succeeded in embodying the idea in a working model. it was supported on four wheels, which were moved in any direction by means of a small steam-engine, and could carry cwt., besides coals, water, &c. it was exhibited in edinburgh in the summer of , and made a considerable sensation. mr. miller, fond of all such inventions, did not fail to get a sight of symington's locomotive engine, the first time he was in town. he was delighted with its ingenuity and completeness, and procured an interview with the author. of course, miller was full of his own experiments, and told symington the whole story of his efforts to propel vessels by paddle-wheels, and the want of some stronger, and more constant power than that of men to turn the capstan, upon which the motion of the wheels depended. symington at once expressed the opinion he had formed,--that steam was equally available for vessels as for carriages, and showed him how the steam-engine which he had devised for his locomotive could be applied to the paddle-wheels. miller was so much struck by his statements, which he illustrated by reference to the model, that he determined to have an engine made on the same plan, and fitted into one of his double boats. accordingly, an engine was built under symington's directions and superintendence, sent to dalswinton, and put together in october . the engine, in a strong oak frame, was placed in the one half of a double pleasure-boat, the boiler occupying the other half, and the paddle-wheels being fixed in the middle. the autumn was withering into winter, the yellow leaves were swirling to the ground with every little breath of wind, and the boughs were beginning to show forth bare and grim, when the little boat was launched upon the bosom of dalswinton loch. at length all the preparations were finished, and on the th november mr. miller had the delight of seeing the vessel gliding over the mimic waves of the lake at the rate of five miles an hour. the company on board the boat on that memorable occasion were--mr. miller himself, of course, nervous with pleasure and exultation; taylor, the tutor; alexander nasmyth (the well-known landscape painter, and father of the man who, in the next generation, was to invent the wonderful steam-hammer, that knocks masses of iron about like putty, and can yet so moderate its force as to crack a nut without bruising the kernel); a brisk stripling with strongly marked features, by name harry brougham, afterwards to be lord chancellor of england, and perhaps the most many-sided genius of his time; and--last and greatest of the group--there was one of mr. miller's tenants, the farmer of ellisland,--robert burns, the great bard of scotland, enjoying to the full, no doubt, the novelty of the expedition, but, we must suppose, unconscious of its import and grand future consequences, since he has accorded it no commemorative verse. "many a time," says mr. james nasmyth, son of the distinguished painter, "i have heard my father describe the delight which this first and successful essay at steam navigation yielded the party in question. i only wish burns had immortalized it in fit, clinking rhyme, for, indeed, it was a subject worthy of his highest muse." the experiment was next tried on a large scale with a canal boat, on the forth and clyde canal, but one of the wheels broke. not to be balked, symington had stronger wheels made, and the next time the steam was put on, the vessel went off at the rate of seven miles an hour. the experiment was several times repeated with success. the vessel, however, was so slight, that many more trips would have knocked it to pieces; and it was therefore dismantled. the fitting up of these vessels, and the working of them, formed a heavy drain upon mr. miller's purse; and having laid satisfactory proof before the world that the thing could be done, he relinquished the enterprise, and left it to be worked out by others. just then, however, no one came forward to fill his place; and for some years the idea slumbered. in symington could not afford to indulge in further efforts at his own expense, but he found a patron in lord dundas, who commissioned him to construct a steam-tug for dragging canal boats. a stout, serviceable tug was built; and a series of experiments entered upon to test her efficiency, which cost upwards of £ . one bleak, stormy spring-day in , the people on the banks of the forth and clyde canal might have been seen staring with wonder, at the short, stumpy little tug pushing gallantly on at the rate of three or four miles an hour, with a strong wind right in her teeth, that no other vessel could make head against, and two loaded vessels (each of more than tons burden) in tow. by itself, the tug could do six miles an hour without any great strain. the company made some objection, however, about the banks of the canal being injured, and the tug fell into disuse. it served an important end, though, in giving both fulton and bell a basis for their operations, and must be considered the parent of our modern steam-craft. ii.--robert fulton. after dr. cartwright, the inventor of the power-loom, had retired penniless from his manufacturing enterprises, and had taken up his abode in london, one of the constant visitors at his modest residence in marylebone fields, was a thin, sharp-featured american, about twenty-eight years of age, an artist by profession, and formerly student of benjamin west, who, however, was now much more interested in the art of engineering than the art of painting. from an early age he had shown a taste for mechanics, and was fond of spending his play-hours at school loitering about workshops and factories, watching the men at their work, and studying the machines and instruments they used. this sojourn in england had brought him into contact with the duke of bridgewater, the great canal projector, and lord stanhope, well known for his improvements in the printing press and other contrivances, in whose company his boyish bent towards mechanics was revived, and became quite a passion with him. he threw aside his brushes and palette, and applied himself to his favourite pursuit with heart and soul. having formed the acquaintance of cartwright, he became a daily visitor at his house, and the enthusiastic, good-natured doctor and he would sit debating for hours the great problem: "whether it were practicable to move vessels by steam?" fulton, eager, restless, vivacious, with pencil in hand, was perpetually sketching plans of paddle-wheels; while the doctor, calm, dignified, and earnest, equally engrossed in the subject, was contriving various modes of bringing steam to act upon them. neither of them had any doubt that the thing could be done, but the "how" long baffled them; and even though the doctor constructed "the model of a boat, which, being wound up like a clock, moved on the water in a highly satisfactory manner," nothing practical came of their cogitations till some years after. while on a visit to paris, fulton was struck with the injury which standing navies of men-of-war inflicted on the mercantile marine, and gave his whole attention, as he says, "to find out the means of destroying such engines of oppression, by some method which would put it out of the power of any nation to maintain such a system, and compel every government to adopt the simple principles of education, industry, and a free circulation of its produce." the means presented itself to his mind in the shape of an explosive shell, called the torpedo, by which any ship of war could be blown to pieces; and for six or seven years he occupied himself in fruitless attempts to get first the government of france, and then that of england, to take up his project. he did not abandon his schemes with regard to steam-vessels, however; but, under the auspices of mr. livingstone, the american ambassador, made several experiments. one vessel of considerable size broke through the middle when the engines were placed on board, but a second one was rather more successful, though but a slow rate of movement was attained. his project came under the notice of napoleon, then first consul, who did not fail to appreciate its value. "it was," he said, "capable of changing the face of the world;" and he directed a commission to inquire into its merits. nothing came of it, however. shortly after, fulton visited scotland, and got an introduction to symington, whom he pressed for a sight of his boat. symington generously consented, and gave him a short sail on board the steam-tug. fulton made no concealment of his intention of starting steamboats in his own country, whither he was about to return, and asked symington to allow him to make a few notes of his observations on board. symington had no objections; and, therefore, he says, "fulton pulled out a memorandum book, and after putting several pointed questions respecting the general construction and effect of the machine, which i answered in a most explicit manner, he jotted down particularly everything then described, with his own remarks upon the boat while moving with him on board along the canal." fulton was very liberal in his promises not to forget his assistance, if he got steamboats established in america; but symington never heard anything more of him. fulton was at new york in , and busy getting a steamboat put together. it was a costly undertaking, and he had little spare cash of his own; so he offered shares in the concern to his friends, but no one would have anything to do with so ridiculous a scheme, as they thought. "my friends," says fulton, "were civil, but shy. they listened with patience to my explanations, but with a settled cast of incredulity on their countenances. i felt the full force of the lamentation of the poet,-- 'truths would you teach, to save a sinking land, all shun, none aid you, and few understand.' as i had occasion to pass daily to and from the building-yard while my boat was in progress, i have often loitered, unknown, near the idle groups of strangers, gathering in little circles, and heard various inquiries as to the object of this new vehicle. the language was uniformly that of scorn, sneer, or ridicule. the loud laugh rose at my expense, the dry jest, the wise calculation of losses and expenditure, the dull, but endless repetition of 'the fulton folly.' never did a single encouraging remark, a bright hope, or a warm wish, cross my path." let them laugh that win. the success which shortly attended fulton's scheme turned the tables upon those who had mocked at him. the _clermont_ was completed in august , and the day arrived when the trial was to be made on the hudson river. "to me," wrote fulton, "it was a most trying and interesting occasion. i wanted some friends to go on board to witness the first successful trip. many of them did me the favour to attend as a mark of personal respect; but it was manifest they did it with reluctance, fearing to be partners of my mortification, and not of my triumph. the moment arrived in which the word was to be given for the vessel to move. my friends were in groups on the deck. there was anxiety mixed with fear among them. they were silent, sad, and weary. i read in their looks nothing but disaster, and almost repented of my efforts. the signal was given, and the boat moved on a short distance, and then stopped and became immovable. to the silence of the preceding moment now succeeded murmurs of discontent and agitation, and whispers and shrugs. i could hear distinctly repeated--'i told you so; it is a foolish scheme; i wish we were well out of it.' i elevated myself on a platform, and stated that i knew not what was the matter; but if they would be quiet, and indulge me for half an hour, i would either go on or abandon the voyage. i went below, and discovered that a slight misadjustment was the cause. it was obviated. the boat went on; we left new york; we passed through the highlands; we reached albany! yet even their imagination superseded the force of fact. it was doubted if it could be done again, or if it could be made, in any case, of any great value." the simple-minded country folk on the banks of the hudson were almost frightened out of their wits at the awful apparition which they saw gliding along the river, and which, especially when seen indistinctly looming through the night, looked to their bewildered eyes, "a monster moving on the water, defying the winds and tide, and breathing flames and smoke." pine-wood was used for fuel, and whenever the fire was stirred, a great burst of sparks issued from the chimney. "this uncommon light," says colden, the biographer of fulton, "first attracted the attention of the crews of other vessels. notwithstanding the wind and tide were adverse to its approach, they saw with astonishment that it was rapidly coming towards them; and when it came so near that the noise of the machinery and paddles were heard, the crews in some instances shrunk beneath their decks from the terrific sight, and others left their vessels to go on shore; while others, again, prostrated themselves, and besought providence to protect them from the approach of the horrible monster which was marching on the tides, and lighting its path by the fires which it vomited." with the novelty of the spectacle its terror died away, and people soon got tired of rushing out to see the remarkable machine that had once seemed so miraculous to them. the _clermont_ soon began to travel regularly as a passage-boat between albany and new york, other steam-vessels were constructed on its model, and by degrees the steam marine of america grew into the host it is at present. thirty years after the first experiment on the hudson, it was calculated steamboats had been built in the states. fulton did not live long to enjoy his triumphs. he died in , having been actively engaged in promoting steam navigation to his last hours. iii.--henry bell. the honour which in america attached to fulton as the man who first brought the steamboat into use, and to the river hudson as being the scene of the experiment, in our own country fell (in a somewhat less degree, being subsequent), to henry bell, and the river clyde. brought up as a millwright, bell, from want of funds to start in business, was obliged for many years to gain his living as a common carpenter in glasgow, where he was noted among the trade as being very fond of "schemes," and suspected on that account by narrow-minded folk of being not very reliable in the lower branches of his craft. scheme after scheme issued from his fertile mind; but he was rash and hasty in working them out, and few proved of much worth. steam navigation being one of the vexed problems of the time, had every fascination for his peculiar genius; and he seems to have been brooding over it as the last century was closing, and the present opening upon the world. when fulton visited symington's invention, bell appears to have accompanied him, and to have afterwards corresponded with him on the subject. "this," he says, "led me to think of the absurdity of writing my opinions to other countries, and not putting it in practice myself in my own country; and from these considerations i was roused to set on foot a steamboat, for which i made a number of different models before i was satisfied." having removed to the little village of helensburgh, on the banks of the clyde, and there established a hotel and bath-house, which his wife managed, he endeavoured to work the passage-boats by which visitors were brought to the place, by means of paddle-wheels worked by the hand, instead of oars; but the plan did not succeed very well, for the same reason that led to mr. miller's abandonment of it--the inefficiency of manual power, which could not be applied with sufficiently sustained and continuous force. he therefore gave it up, and turned his attention to the employment of steam power for the same purpose. of course, he was laughed at for his pains; and henry bell's project for having steamers on the clyde became a standing joke among the frequenters of the watering-place. even after the permanent success of fulton's scheme was known, people would not moderate their incredulity; but bell's faith, which had never wavered, was now confirmed, and he set about the work with redoubled energy. in , bell, having procured the necessary funds, had a steam-boat built of twenty-five tons and four horse power. he named it the _comet_, because a comet had just then appeared in the north-west of scotland. the _comet_ began to run regularly between glasgow and helensburgh in january , and continued to ply successfully during the summer of that year. at first, however, she brought rather loss than gain to her projector. people were shy of trusting themselves on board, and parties interested in the stage-coaches and sailing vessels, spread all sorts of absurd reports about her. it was not till she had gone for some time without accident, that tourists began to think they might as well save their money and their time by patronizing the new mode of conveyance. in the second year bell took the _comet_ off the clyde, and sent her on a tour round the open coasts of the three kingdoms. before long the safety and utility of steam navigation was admitted on all hands, and numerous rival enterprises were on foot. in the _comet_ was lost between glasgow and fort william; and in the following year another of bell's vessels was burnt to the water-edge--two misfortunes that carried £ out of his pocket. his rivals, with abundant capital, soon drove him out of the field, and bell sank into poverty and neglect. a small annuity from the clyde trustees, and a subscription among his friends, to keep him from starving, were all the rewards he ever received for his enterprise and perseverance. he died in in the sixty-fourth year of his age. iv.--ocean steamers. in the quarter of a century which elapsed between , when the _comet_ first began to churn the waters of the clyde, and , steam navigation progressed steadily and surely. at first, content with plying along rivers and quiet bays, steamers by-and-by ventured out upon the open sea. we owe the regular establishment of deep-sea packets to the courage and enterprise of mr. david napier of glasgow, "who," says mr. scott russell, "has effected more for the improvement of steam navigation than any other man." he was quick to appreciate the capabilities of steam-vessels, and saw that they were fit for something more than mere inland voyages. before starting one of them upon the open sea, however, he carefully estimated the danger to be encountered and the difficulties to be overcome. he took passage at the worst season of the year in one of the sailing vessels which formerly plied between glasgow and belfast, and which often required a week to perform a journey that is now done by steam in a few hours. stationing himself on an elevated part of the deck, he kept a close watch on the movements of the vessel, observing the tossing to which she was subjected by the waves, the extent of the dip when she sank into a trough, the height of elevation when lifted on the summit of a wave, and calculating in his mind how all this would tell on the paddle-wheels. through the roughest of the storm, when the vessel was pitching worst, and the wind blowing at its fiercest, he kept his place on deck, regardless of the drenching spray and the blast that almost carried him off his legs. when at length he had satisfied himself by the observation of his own eyes and inquiries of the captain and crew, that there was nothing in the voyage which a steamer could not encounter, he retired contentedly to his cabin, leaving everybody astonished at his strange curiosity respecting the effect of rough weather on the ship. not long after david napier started the _rob roy_ steam-packet between greenock and belfast, and afterwards between dover and calais. in the course of two or three years more he had established steam communication between holyhead and dublin, liverpool and greenock, and various other parts. the length of each unbroken passage was then considered the great difficulty; but as steamers got improved both in form and machinery, passages of greater length were successfully accomplished. steamers traversed in all directions the german ocean, the mediterranean, the baltic, and, in short, all the waters on the eastern side of the atlantic; and were in use upon all the rivers and lakes of any size in europe. at length, in , the startling project was set on foot of superseding the far-famed new york and liverpool packet ships by a fleet of steam-ships. before this the _savannah_, a steam vessel of tons, had, in , crossed from new york to liverpool in twenty-six days, partly with sails and partly with steam; and another steam vessel had, in , made the voyage from england to calcutta; but one swallow does not make a summer, and many learned folks, on both sides of the atlantic, shook their heads doubtfully at the daring scheme of regular steam communication across , miles of ocean. the experiment was to be made, however; and on the th april , the _sirius_, of tons and horse power, sailed from cork for the far west. four days after the _great western_ followed in her wake from bristol. great was the excitement in new york as the time drew nigh when the _sirius_ was considered due. for days together the battery was crowded with anxious watchers, from the first breaking of the cold, grey dawn till night dropped its dark curtain on the scene. at that time a telescope was a thing to be begged, borrowed, or stolen,--to be got, somehow or other, if only for a minute,--and a man who possessed one was to be looked up to, made much of, and, if possible, coaxed out of the loan of it. all day long a hundred telescopes swept the sea. the ocean steamer was the great topic of the hour, and "any appearance of her?" the constant question when two people met. on st. george's day, the d april, a dim, dusky speck on the far horizon grew under the eye of the thousands of breathless watchers into a long train of smoke, beneath which, as the hours wore on, appeared the black prow of a huge steam-boat. there she was, long looked for come at last; and with the american colours at the fore, and the flag of old england rustling at the stern, the _sirius_ swept into the harbour amidst the cheers of the multitude, the ringing of the city bells, and the firing of salutes. the excitement reached its climax, and the shouting and firing grew deafening, when, some few hours later on the same auspicious day, the _great western_ came to anchor alongside of her rival. twenty-two years have passed since then, and the marvel of has become a mere everyday affair. there are some fourteen different lines of steamers, comprising more than fifty vessels, running between the united states and europe, to say nothing of the magnificent steam fleets of the peninsular and oriental, the royal west india, british and north american, pacific, australian, south western, and other companies. the employment of iron in the construction of ships, thus securing at once lightness and strength, and the invention of the screw propeller, in , by mr. j. p. smith, a farmer at hendon, by means of which a vessel can combine all the qualities of a first-rate sailing ship with the use of steam power, gave a great impulse to steam navigation, which is still making steady and continuous progress. from one steam vessel in the number in the kingdom has risen successively to in , in , and over in . during , steamers were built in the united kingdom, of which were of iron. it is interesting to observe the advance in size of the steam vessels from their first introduction on the clyde. length. breadth. . comet feet - / feet. . enterprise (built expressly to go to india, coaling at intermediate stations) " " . tagus (for mediterranean) " " . great western (the first ship built expressly for transatlantic service) " - / " . great britain (the first large screw ship, and largest iron ship up to that time) " " . himalaya (iron) " - / " . persia (do.) " " . great eastern (do.) " " in the interval between and the number of steamers in the united kingdom has increased from one to nearly three thousand; and the ocean-going steamer of is nearly six times the length of that of , and seventeen times the length of the _comet_, while the difference in tonnage is still greater. how fulton or bell would open their eyes at the sight of a vast moving city, such as the big ship, an eighth of a mile in length, propelled by both paddle-wheels and screw, each worked by four huge engines! iron manufacture. henry cort. iron manufacture. henry cort. the multifarious use of iron in our day has given its name to the age. we have got far beyond the primitive applications of that metal--every day it is supplanting some other substance, and there is no saying where the wide-spread and varied service we exact from it will stop. the invention of the steam-engine, and the improvement of manufacturing machines, would be comparatively valueless, unless we had at command a cheap and abundant supply of iron for their construction. the land is covered with a net-work of iron rails, traversed by iron steeds--gulfs and valleys are spanned by iron arches and iron tubes--huge ships of iron ride upon the deep. even stones and bricks are being discarded for this all-useful substance, and of iron we are building houses, palaces, theatres, churches, and spacious domes. there is no end to its uses. and yet, it is only between seventy and eighty years ago since britain, the richest of all countries in native ore, was dependent upon others for her supply of the manufactured metal. we wanted but little iron in those days, compared with the present demand, and yet that little we could not furnish ourselves with. as much as a million and a half a-year went out of our pockets to purchase wrought iron from sweden alone, and we were good customers to russia as well. all the iron that our country could then produce was some , tons. the man who showed us how to turn our own ore to account, who rendered us independent of all other countries for our supply, and made us the great purveyors of wrought iron to the world, who opened up to us this great source of national wealth, was henry cort of gosport. the great difficulty which he solved was how to get wrought iron out of the crude iron as it came from the smelting furnace, without using charcoal. with but a small tract of country, densely peopled, we had but a scant supply of wood at our command. the great forests which once overspread the land were gradually vanishing, partly before the spread of population and the growth of towns, and partly from the inroads made on them by the demand for timber. formerly, the first transformation of the ore into pig iron (the crude form of the manufactured metal) was effected by means of wood; and the consumption was so great that an act was passed in restraining its use. soon afterwards lord dudley discovered that coal would answer the purpose just as well, and obtained a patent of monopoly. he reaped but little profit from his invention, however, for his iron-works were destroyed by a mob; and it was not till a century afterwards, when people got more alarmed at the growing scarcity of timber, and the increased demand for it, that the plan was generally adopted. this was one step in the right direction, but another yet remained to be made, for the manufacture was still hampered in our country by the want of wood for the second process--the conversion of crude into malleable iron, in which state alone it is fit for service. about the year , henry cort, iron-master, of gosport, after many years of patient and wearisome research, of anxious thought, and indefatigable experiment, in which he spent a private fortune of some £ , , perfected a couple of inventions of priceless value. the first was the process of converting pig iron into wrought iron by the flame of pit coal in a puddling furnace, thus dispensing with the use of charcoal,--the cost and scarcity of which had before formed such a dead weight on the trade, and placed us at such a disadvantage compared with sweden and russia. the second was a further process for drawing the iron into bars by means of grooved rollers. till then, this operation had to be performed with hammer and anvil, and was very tedious and laborious. the new system not only reduced the cost and labour of producing iron to one-twentieth of what they were previously, but greatly improved the quality of the article produced. it is not easy to estimate all that henry cort's inventions have done for this country. without them we should have lost an overflowing and inexhaustible source of national wealth, and, moreover, large sums would have been taken out of the country in the purchase of wrought metal; we should never have been able to give full scope to the great mechanical inventions brought forth towards the close of the last, and the opening of the present century; we should have been debarred from taking rank as the great engineers and engine-makers for the rest of the world. the direct gain to this country from the inventions of henry cort, which enabled us to work up our own iron, has been calculated as equal by this time to not less than a hundred millions; and it is hardly possible to exaggerate the benefits which it has conferred. lord sheffield's prophecy, that the adoption of these processes would be worth more to britain than a dozen colonies, may be said to have been fulfilled. like many another benefactor of his country, cort got little good out of his invention for himself. he took out a patent for his process, and arranged with the leading iron-masters to accept a royalty of ten shillings a ton for the use of them. with a large fortune in prospect, his purse was just then exhausted by the expenses he had incurred in experiments and researches; and he had to look out for a capitalist to aid him in working the patent on his own account. as ill luck would have it, he entered into partnership with a certain adam jellicoe, then deputy-paymaster of the navy. jellicoe was considered a man of substance, and a "thoroughly respectable" character. he was to advance the ready money, and to receive in return half of the profits of the trade, cort assigning to him, by way of collateral security, his patent rights. for a year or two all went well. the patent was everywhere adopted, and cort's own iron works drove a lucrative and growing trade. he seemed in a fair way of getting back the fortune he had spent in bringing out the inventions, doubled or trebled, as he well deserved. the respectable jellicoe was seized with a mortal sickness: at his death his desk was filled by another, his books were examined, and it turned out that he had been robbing the government for many a year back, and was a large defaulter. cort, of course, had nothing to do with this villany, but he had to pay the penalty of it. as jellicoe's partner he was responsible, in those days of unlimited liability, for all jellicoe's debts; but that was not the worst of it. the treasurer of the navy was not content to exact only the payment of jellicoe's defalcations, as he had no doubt a right to do, but confiscated the whole of cort's patent rights, business, and property, which would have paid the debt seven or eight times over, had it been fairly valued. this incident has never been properly cleared up, but what glimpses of its secret passages have been obtained, seem to indicate clearly enough that poor cort was the victim, not of one, but of two or more swindlers. to the day of his death he never could obtain a distinct account of the proceedings; and when, after his death, a royal commission was appointed to inquire into the matter, the treasurer of the navy and his deputy took care, a week or two before the commission met, to indemnify each other by a joint release, and to burn their accounts for upwards of a million and a half of public money, for the application of which they were responsible, as well as all papers relating to cort's case. when the commission met, and the treasurer and his deputy were called before it, they refused to answer questions which would criminate themselves. his connection with jellicoe was, of course, the ruin of henry cort. he had no means of re-establishing himself in business; he was robbed of all income from his patents; and he died ruined and broken-hearted ten years after, leaving a family of nine children, without a sixpence in the world. four of these children now survive--old, infirm, and indigent--only saved from being dependent upon parish bounty by pensions, amounting in the aggregate to £ per annum. well may it be said, "there should be more gratitude in our iron age to the children of henry cort." the electric telegraph. i.--mr. cooke. ii.--professor wheatstone. iii.--the submarine telegraph. the electric telegraph. "speak the word and think the thought, quick 'tis as with lightning caught-- over, under lands or seas, to the far antipodes; here again, as soon as gone, making all the earth as one; moscow speaks at twelve o'clock,-- london reads ere noon the shock." i.--mr. cooke. of all the marvels of our time, the most marvellous is the subjugation of the electric fluid, that potent elemental force,--twin brother of the fatal lightning,--to be our submissive courier, to bear our messages from land to land, and "put a girdle round about the earth in forty minutes." the prospero that tamed this ariel was no individual genius, but "two single gentlemen rolled into one." the idea of employing the electric current for the conveyance of signals between distant points, can be traced pretty far back in date; but to mr. cooke and professor wheatstone is undoubtedly due the credit of having made the electric telegraph an actual and accomplished fact, and rendered it practicable for everyday uses. having served for a number of years as an officer in our indian army, mr. cooke came back to europe to recruit his health in the beginning of , and took up his abode at heidelberg. he found agreeable occupation for his leisure in the study of anatomy, and in the construction of anatomical models for his father's museum at durham, where he was a professor in the university. entirely self-taught in this delicate art, mr. cooke applied himself to it with characteristic ardour, and attained remarkable skill. one day he happened to witness some experiments which were made by professor möncke, to illustrate the feasibility of electric signalling. a current of electricity was passed through a long wire, and set a magnetic needle at the end quivering under its influence. the experiment was a very simple one, and not at all novel; but cooke had never paid any attention to the subject before, and was much struck with what he saw. he became strongly impressed with the possibility of employing electricity in the transmission of telegraphic intelligence between distant places. from the day he witnessed the experiments in professor möncke's classroom, he forsook the dissecting knife, threw aside his modelling tools, and applied himself to the realization of his conception. with such ardour and devotion did he labour, and such skill and ingenuity did he bring to the work, that within three weeks he had constructed a telegraph with six wires, forming three complete metallic currents, and influencing three needles, by the varied inclination of which twenty-six different signals were designated. in that short time he had also invented the detector, by which injuries to the wires, whether from water, fracture, or contact with substances capable of diverting the current, were readily traced, and the alarum, by which notice is given at one end of the wire that a message is coming from the other. both these contrivances were of the utmost value,--indeed, without them electric telegraphy would be impracticable,--and are still in use. possessing more of a mechanical than a scientific genius, mr. cooke bestowed more of his time and ingenuity on the perfection of a telegraph to be worked by clock mechanism, set in action by the withdrawal of a detent by an electro magnet than in the completion of the electric telegraph pure and simple. soon after having invented his telegraph, he came over to london, and spent the rest of the year in making a variety of instruments, and in efforts to get his telegraph introduced on the liverpool and manchester railway. he found an obstacle to the complete success of his mechanical telegraph, in the difficulty of transmitting to a distance sufficient electric power to work the electro magnet upon which its action depended. a friend advised him to consult professor wheatstone, then known to be deeply engaged in electrical experiments, with a view to telegraphy; and accordingly, an interview between them took place in february . ii.--professor wheatstone. mr. charles wheatstone, f.r.s., and professor of experimental philosophy in king's college at the time of that interview, had made considerable advances in the scientific part of the enterprise. at the commencement of his career as a maker and seller of musical instruments in london, he was led to investigate the science of sound; and from his researches in that direction, he was led--much as herschel was led--to devote himself to optics, and to study the philosophy of light. he was the first to point out the peculiarity of binocular vision, and to describe the stereoscope, which has since become so popular an instrument. gradually, however, his thoughts and researches came to be steadfastly directed to the application of electricity to the communication of signals. in determining the rate at which the electric current travels through a wire he had laid down, he made an important stride towards the end in view. he proved by a series of most ingenious experiments, that one spark of electricity leaps on before another, and that its progress is a question of time. he found that electricity travels through a _copper_ wire as fast as, if not faster, than light, that is, at the rate of , miles in a second; but through an _iron_ wire, electricity moves at the rate of only , miles in a second. in mr. wheatstone had begun experiments in the vaults of king's college, with four miles of wire, properly insulated, and was working out the details of a telegraph, the scientific principles of which he had already laid down. he had discovered an original method of converting a few wires into a considerable number of circuits, so that the greatest number of signals could be transmitted by a limited number of wires, by the deflection of magnetic needles. mr. wheatstone, however, was somewhat backward in the mechanical parts of the scheme, and the meeting between him and cooke was therefore of the greatest benefit to both, and an admirable illustration of the old proverb, that two heads are better than one. had they never been brought together,--had they kept on working out their own ideas apart--each would, no doubt, have been able to produce an electric telegraph; but a great deal of time would have been lost, and their respective efforts less complete and valuable than the one they effected in conjunction. cooke wanted sound, scientific knowledge; wheatstone wanted mechanical ingenuity; and their union supplied mutual deficiencies. a partnership was immediately formed between them. before their combined genius all difficulties vanished; and in the june of the same year they were able to take out a patent for a telegraph with five wires and five needles. their respective shares in its invention are clearly marked out by sir j. brunel and professor daniell, who, as arbiters between the two upon that delicate question, gave the following award in :-- "whilst mr. cooke is entitled to stand alone as the gentleman to whom this country is indebted for having practically introduced and carried out the electric telegraph as a useful undertaking, promising to be a work of national importance; and professor wheatstone is acknowledged as the scientific man whose profound and successful researches had already prepared the public to receive it as a project capable of practical application,--it is to the united labours of two gentlemen so well qualified for mutual assistance, that we must attribute the rapid progress which this important invention has made during the five years since they have been associated." shortly after the taking out of a patent, wires were laid down between euston square terminus and camden town station, on the north-western railway; and the new telegraph was subjected to trial. late in the evening of the th july , in a dingy little room in one of the euston square offices, professor wheatstone sat alone, with a hand on each handle of the signal instrument, and an anxious eye upon the dial, with its needles as yet in motionless repose. in another little room at the camden town station, mr. cooke was seated in a similar position before the instrument at the other end of the wires, along with mr., now sir charles fox, robert stephenson, and some other gentlemen. it was a trying, agitating moment for the two inventors,--how wheatstone's pulse must have throbbed, and his heart beat, as he jerked the handle, broke the electric current, and sent the needles quivering on the dial; in what suspense he must have spent the next few minutes, holding his breath as though to hear his fellow's voice, and almost afraid to look at the dial lest no answer should be made; with what a thrill of joy must each have seen the needles wag knowingly and spell out their precious message,--the "all's well; thank god," that flashed from heart to heart, along the line of senseless wire. "never," said wheatstone, "did i feel such a tumultuous sensation before, as when all alone in the still room i heard the needles click; and as i spelled the words, i felt all the magnitude of the invention now proved to be practicable beyond cavil or dispute." a few days before this trial of the telegraph in london, steinheil, of munich, is said to have had one of his own invention at work there; and it is a difficult question to decide whether he or cooke and wheatstone were the first inventors. it is, however, a question of no consequence, as each worked independently. since the first english electric telegraph was patented, there have been a thousand and one other contrivances of a similar kind taken out; but it may be doubted whether, for practical purposes, the original apparatus, with the improvements which its own inventors have made on it, is not still the best of them all. from being used merely to carry railway messages, the telegraph was brought into the service of the general public; the advantages of such almost instantaneous communication were readily appreciated; and eight years after messrs. cooke and wheatstone took out their patent, lines of telegraph to the extent of miles were in operation in england upon the original plan. in telegraphic correspondence had become so general, that the electric telegraph company was started to supply the demand. in that establishment the needle telegraph of wheatstone and cooke is the one generally used, with the chemical recording telegraph of bain for special occasions. by means of the latter, blue lines of various lengths, according to an alphabet, are drawn upon a ribbon of paper, and as many as , words can be sent in an hour, though the ordinary rate is per minute. in the purchase of patent rights alone, the company have spent £ , , and they are every year adding to the length of their wires. in june they had miles of wires, and despatched , messages a year. in december they had , miles of wires, and despatched , messages a-year. their lines now extend over a much larger mileage, and convey a greatly increased number of messages. the magnetic telegraph company have also a large extent of wires, and do a considerable business. iii.--the submarine telegraph. the land telegraph having had such success, the next step was to carry the wires across the deep, and link continent to continent,--an all-important step for an island kingdom such as ours, with its legion of distant colonies. the success of a submerged cable between gosport and portsmouth, and of one across the docks at hull, proved the feasibility of a water telegraph, at least on a small scale, and it was not long before more ambitious attempts were made. on the th of august , a cable, miles long, in a gutta percha sheathing, was stretched at the bottom of the straits between dover and cape grisnez, near calais. messages of congratulation sped along this wire between england and france; and although a ridge of rocks filed the cable asunder on the french coast, the suspension of communication was only temporary. the link has once more been established, and is in daily use. the first news sent by the wire to england was of the celebrated _coup d'etat_ of the d december, which cleared the way for louis napoleon's ascent of the throne. numerous other cables have since been sunk beneath the waters; complete telegraphic communication has just been established between england and india, and will, no doubt, before long be extended to australia. the greatest enterprise of this kind, however, still remains unaccomplished--that is, the laying of the atlantic cable. a company was started in to carry out this great enterprise, the governments of great britain and the united states engaging to assist them, not only with an annual subsidy of £ , a-year for twenty-five years, but to furnish the men and ships required for laying the cable from one side of the atlantic to the other. the chief difficulty which engaged the attention of mr. wildman whitehouse and the other agents of the notable enterprise was the enormous size of the cable which, it was thought, would be necessary. the general belief at that time was, that the greater the distance to be traversed, the larger must be the wire along which the electric current was to pass, and that the rate of speed would be in proportion to the size of the conductor. mr. whitehouse, however, thought it would be as well to begin by making sure that this was really the case, and that a monster cable was essential; and after some three thousand separate observations and experiments, was delighted to find that the difficulty which stared them in the face was imaginary. instead of a large cable transmitting the current faster than a small one, he ascertained beyond a doubt, that the bigger the wire, the slower was the passage of the electricity. it would be needful, therefore, to make the cable only strong enough to stand the strain of its own weight, and heavy enough to sink to the bottom. a single wire would have been quite sufficient, but a strand of seven wires of the finest copper was used for the cable, so that the fracture of one of them might not interfere with the communication,--as long as one wire was left intact the current would proceed. a triple coating of gutta percha, to keep the sea from sucking out the electricity, and a thick coating of iron wire, to sink the cable to the bottom and give it strength, were added to the copper rope, and then the cable was complete. no less than , miles of iron and copper wire were woven into this great cable,--as much as might be wound thirteen times round the globe; and its weight was about a ton per mile. the length of the cable was , miles--some miles being allowed to come and go upon, in case of accidents. the end of july was selected for the sailing of the ships that were to lay the cable, as fogs and gales were then out of season, and no icebergs to be met with. on the th of august, the _agamemnon_ (english) and _niagara_ (american), with four smaller steamers to attend them, and each with half of the mighty cable in her hold, got up their steam and left valentia harbour. one end of the cable was carried by a number of boats from the _niagara_ on shore, where the lord-lieutenant was in waiting to receive it, and place it in contact with the batteries, which were arranged in a little tent upon the beach. a slight accident to the cable for a little while delayed the departure of the ships; but by the th they had got miles out to sea, and so far the cable had been laid successfully. messages passed and repassed between the ships and the shore. the next day the engineer discovering that too much cable was being paid out, telegraphed to the people on board to put a greater grip on it; the operation was clumsily managed, and the cable snapped, sinking to a depth of , feet. not disheartened, however, the company replaced the lost portion of the cable; the government again furnished ships and men, and the cable was actually laid at the bottom of the atlantic from valentia bay to trinity harbour. addresses of congratulation passed between the queen and the president of the states, and numerous messages were transmitted. but gradually the signals grew fainter and more faint, till they ceased altogether. the cable was stricken dumb. a little to the north of the fiftieth parallel of latitude, at the bottom of the atlantic, where the plateau is unbroken by any great depression, some miles of the disabled cable were lying, on a soft bed of mud, which was constantly thickening, at a depth of from , to , feet. the importance of telegraphic communication between england and the united states was, however, so obvious that its projectors were not to be daunted by the failure they had sustained. nor was it altogether a failure. they had proved that a cable _could_ be laid, and messages flashed through it. what was wanted was evidently a stronger cable, which should be less liable to injury, and more perfect in its insulation of the telegraphic wires. from to , the company were engaged in the difficult task of raising fresh funds, and in endeavouring to secure grants from the british and american governments. their men of science, meanwhile, were devising improvements in the form of cable, and contriving fresh apparatus to facilitate its submersion. eventually the telegraph construction and maintenance company, an union of the gutta percha company with the celebrated firm of glass and elliott, constructed an entirely new cable, which was not only costlier, but thicker and stronger than the preceding one. the conductor, three hundred pounds per mile, and one-seventh of an inch thick, consisted of seven no. copper wires, each one-twentieth of an inch in thickness. the core or heart of the cable, says a writer in "chambers's encyclopædia," was formed of four layers of gutta percha alternating with four of chatterton's compound (a solution of gutta percha in stockholm tar); the wire and conductor being seven hundred pounds per mile, and nine-twentieths of an inch thick. outside this was a coating of hemp or jute yarn, saturated with a preservative composition; while the sheath consisted of ten iron wires, each previously covered with five tarred manilla yarns. the whole cable was an inch and one eighth thick, weighed thirty-five and three-quarter hundredweights per mile, and was strong enough to endure a breaking strain of seven tons and three-quarters. during the various processes of manufacture, the electrical quality of the cable was tested to an unusual extent. the portions of finished core were tested by immersion in water at various temperatures; next submitted to a pressure of six hundred pounds to the square inch, to imitate the ocean pressure at so great depth; then the conducting power of the copper wire was tested by a galvanometer; and various experiments were also made on the insulating property of the gutta percha. the various pieces having been thus severely put to the proof, they were spliced end to end, and the joints or splicings tested. in a word, nothing was left undone that could insure the success or guarantee the stability of the new cable. when completed, the cable measured two thousand three hundred miles, and weighed upwards of four thousand tons. it was felt that such a burden could only be intrusted to brunel's "big ship," the _great eastern_. for this purpose three huge iron tanks were built, in the fore, middle, and aft holds of the vessel, each from fifty to sixty feet in diameter, and each twenty and a half feet in depth; and in these the cable was deposited in three vast coils. on the rd of july , the _great eastern_ left valentia, the submarine cable being joined end to end to a more massive shore cable, which was hauled up the cliff at foilhummerum bay, to a telegraph-house at the top. the electric condition of the cable was continually tested during the ship's voyage across the atlantic; and more than once its efficiency was disturbed by fragments of wire piercing the gutta percha and destroying the insulation. at length on august nd, the cable snapped by overstraining, and the end sank to the bottom in two thousand fathoms water, at a distance of one thousand and sixty-four miles from the irish coast. attempts were made to recover it by dredging. a five-armed grapnel, suspended to the end of a stout iron-wire rope five miles long, was flung overboard; and when it reached the bottom, the _great eastern_ steamed to and fro in the direction where the lost cable was supposed to be lying; but failure followed upon failure, and the cable was never once hooked. there remained nothing to be done but for the _great eastern_ to return to england with the news of her non-success, and leaving (including the failure of - ) nearly four thousand tons of electric cable at the bottom of the ocean. the promoters of ocean telegraphy, however, were determined to be resolute to the end. a new company was formed, new capital was raised, and a third cable manufactured, differing in some respects from the former. the outside jacket was made of hemp instead of jute; the iron wires of the sheath were galvanized, and the manilla hemp which covered them was not tarred. chiefly through the absence of the tar, the weight of the cable was diminished five hundred pounds per mile; while its strength or breaking strain was increased. a sufficient quantity of this improved cable was made to cross the atlantic, with all due allowance for slack; and also a sufficient quantity of the cable to remedy the disaster of that year. on july th, , the _great eastern_ once more set forth on her interesting voyage, accompanied by the steamers _terrible_, _medway_, and _albany_, to assist in the submersion of the cable, and to act as auxiliaries whenever needed. the line of route chosen lay about midway between those of the and cables, but at no great distance from either. the _great eastern_ exchanged telegrams almost continuously with valentia as she steamed towards the american continent; and great were the congratulations when she safely arrived in the harbour of heart's content, newfoundland, on the th. operations were next commenced to recover the end of the cable, and complete its submergence. the _albany_, _medway_, and _terrible_ were despatched on the st of august, to the point where, "deep down beneath the darkling waves," the cable was supposed to be lying, and on the th or th they were joined by the _great eastern_, when grappling was commenced, and carried on through the remainder of the month. the cable was repeatedly caught, and raised to a greater or less height from the ocean bed; but something or other snapped or slipped every time, and down went the cable again. at last, after much trial of patience, the end of the cable was safely fished up on september st; and electric messages were at once sent through to valentia, just as well as if the cable had not had twelve months' soaking in the atlantic. an additional length having been spliced to it, the laying recommenced; and on the th the squadron entered heart's content, having thus succeeded in laying a second line of cable from ireland to america. the two cables, the old and the new, continued to work very smoothly during the winter of and ; but in may , the new cable was damaged by an iceberg, which drifted across it at a distance of about three miles from the newfoundland shore. the injury was soon repaired; but again, in july , the same cable broke at about fifty miles from newfoundland. the earlier cable continued to work for several years, but both cables gave way towards the close of the autumn of . no special inconvenience was felt, however, as two years ago a french line of cable was laid down between europe and america; the _great eastern_ being again employed, and the operations being conducted under the superintendence of english electricians. the two british cables will probably be repaired in the spring of the present year ( ). submarine cables have multiplied recently, and almost every ocean flows over the mysterious wires which flash intelligence beneath the rolling waters from point to point of the civilized world. by a telegraph-cable, which is partly submarine, the india office in westminster is united with the governor-general and his council at calcutta. there is also communication between singapore and australia, and the network of ocean telegraphy is being so rapidly extended that, before long, the british government in the metropolis will be enabled to convey its instructions in a few hours to the administrative authorities in every british colony. and thus the words which the poet puts into the mouth of "puck" will be nearly realized in a sense the poet never dreamed of--"i'll put a girdle round about the world in forty minutes." the silk manufacture. i.--john lombe. ii.--william lee. iii.--joseph marie jacquard. the silk manufacture. i.--john lombe. in the reign of the emperor justinian, a couple of persian monks, on a religious mission to china, brought away with them a quantity of silkworms' eggs concealed in a piece of hollow cane, which they carried to constantinople. there they hatched the eggs, reared the worms, and spun the silk,--for the first time introducing that manufacture into europe, and destroying the close monopoly which china had hitherto enjoyed. from constantinople the knowledge and the practice of the art gradually extended to greece, thence to italy, and next to spain. each country, as in turn it gained possession of the secret, strove to preserve it with jealous care; but to little purpose. a secret that so many thousands already shared in common, could not long remain so, although its passage to other countries might be for a time deferred. france and england were behind most of the other states of europe in obtaining a knowledge of the "craft and mystery." the manufacture of silk did not take root in france till the reign of francis i.; and was hardly known in england till the persecutions of the duke of parma in drove a great number of the manufacturers of antwerp to seek refuge in our land. james i. was very anxious to promote the breed of silkworms, and the production of silken fabrics. during his reign a great many mulberry-trees were planted in various parts of the country--among others, that celebrated one in shakspeare's garden at stratford-on-avon--and an attempt was made to rear the worm in our country, which, however, the ungenial climate frustrated. silk-throwsters, dyers, and weavers were brought over from the continent; and the manufacture made such progress that, by , the silk-throwsters of london were incorporated, and thirty years after employed no fewer than , hands. the emigration from france consequent on the revocation of the edict of nantes ( ) added not only to the numbers engaged in the trade, but to the taste, skill, and enterprise with which it was conducted. it is not easy to estimate how deeply france wounded herself by the iniquitous persecution of the protestants, or how largely the emigrants repaid by their industry the shelter which britain afforded them. although the manufacture had now become fairly naturalized in england, it was restricted by our ignorance of the first process to which the silk was subjected. up till , the whole of the silk used in england, for whatever purpose, was imported "thrown," that is, formed into threads of various kinds and twists. a young englishman named john lombe, impressed with the idea that our dependence on other countries for a supply of thrown silk prevented us from reaping the full benefit of the manufacture, and from competing with foreign traders, conceived the project of visiting italy, and discovering the secret of the operation. he accordingly went over to piedmont in , but found the difficulties greater than he had anticipated. he applied for admittance at several factories, but was told that an examination of the machinery was strictly prohibited. not to be balked, he resolved, as a last resort, to try if he could accomplish by stratagem what he had failed to do openly. disguising himself in the dress of a common labourer, he bribed a couple of the workmen connected with one of the factories, and with their connivance obtained access in secret to the works. his visits were few and short; but he made the best use of his time. he carefully examined the various parts of the machinery, ascertained the principle of its operation, and made himself completely master of the whole process of throwing. each night before he went to bed he noted down everything he had seen, and drew sketches of parts of the machinery. this plot, however, was discovered by the italians. he and his accomplices had to fly for their lives, and not without great difficulty escaped to a ship which conveyed them to england. lombe had not forgotten to carry off with him his note-book, sketches, and a chest full of machinery, and on his return home lost no time in practising the art of "throwing" silk. on a swampy island in the river derwent, at derby, he built a magnificent mill, yet standing, called the "old silk mill." its erection occupied four years, and cost £ , . it was five storeys in height, and an eighth of a mile in length. the grand machine numbered no fewer than , wheels. it was said that it could produce , , yards of organzine silk thread daily; but the estimate is no doubt exaggerated. while the mill was building, lombe, in order to save time and earn money to carry on the works, opened a manufactory in the town hall of derby. his machinery more than fulfilled his expectations, and enabled him to sell thrown silk at much lower prices than were charged by the italians. a thriving trade was thus established, and england relieved from all dependence on other countries for "thrown" silk. the italians conceived a bitter hatred against lombe for having broken in upon their monopoly and diminished their trade. in revenge, therefore, according to william hutton, the historian of derby, they "determined _his_ destruction, and hoped that of his works would follow." an italian woman was despatched to corrupt her two countrymen who assisted lombe in the management of the works. she obtained employment in the factory, and gained over one of the italians to her iniquitous design. they prepared a slow poison, and administered it in small doses to lombe, who, after lingering three or four years in agony, died at the early age of twenty-nine. the italian fled; the woman was seized and subjected to a close examination, but no definite proof could be elicited that lombe had been poisoned. lombe was buried in great state, as a mark of respect on the part of his townsmen. "he was," says hutton, "a man of quiet deportment, who had brought a beneficial manufactory into the place, employed the poor, and at advanced wages,--and thus could not fail to meet with respect; and his melancholy end excited much sympathy." ii.--william lee. in the stocking weavers' hall, in redcross street, london, there used to hang a picture, representing a man in collegiate costume in the act of pointing to an iron stocking-frame, and addressing a woman busily knitting with needles by hand. underneath the picture appeared the following inscription: "in the year , the ingenious william lee, a.m., of st. john's college, cambridge, devised this profitable art for stockings (but, being despised, went to france), yet of iron to himself, but to us and to others of gold; in memory of whom this is here painted." as to who this william lee was, and the way in which he came to invent the stocking-frame, there are conflicting stories, but the one most generally received and best authenticated is as follows:-- william lee, a native of woodborough, near nottingham, was a fellow of one of the cambridge colleges. he fell in love with a young country lass, married her, and consequently forfeited his fellowship. a poor scholar, with much learning, but without money or the knowledge of any trade, he found himself in very embarrassed circumstances. like many another "poor scholar," he might exclaim:-- "all the arts i have skill in, divine and humane; yet all's not worth a shilling; alas! poor scholar, whither wilt thou go?" his wife, however, was a very industrious woman, and by her knitting contributed to their joint support. it is said--but the story lacks authentic confirmation--that when lee was courting her, she always appeared so much more occupied with her knitting than with the soft speeches he was whispering in her ear, that her lover thought of inventing a machine that would "facilitate and forward the operation of knitting," and so leave the object of his love more leisure to converse with him. "love, indeed," says beckmann, "is fertile in invention, and gave rise, it is said, to the art of painting; but a machine so complex in its parts, and so wonderful in its effects, would seem to require longer and greater reflection, more judgment, and more time and patience than could be expected of a lover." but afterwards, when lee, in his painfully enforced idleness, sat many a long hour watching his wife's nimble fingers toiling to support him, his mind again recurred to the idea of a machine that would give rest to her weary fingers. his cogitations resulted in the contrivance of a stocking-frame, which imitated the movements of the fingers in knitting. [illustration: william lee, the inventor of the stocking-frame. page .] although the invention of this loom gave a great impulse to the manufacture of silk stockings in england, and placed our productions in advance of those of other countries, lee reaped but little profit from it. he met with neglect both from queen elizabeth and james i.; and, not succeeding as a manufacturer on his own account, went to france, where he did very well until after the assassination of henri iv., when he shared the persecutions of the protestants, and died in great distress in paris. iii.--joseph marie jacquard. joseph marie jacquard, the inventor of the loom which bears his name, and to whom the extent and prosperity of the silk manufacture of our time is mainly due, was born at lyons in , of humble parents, both of whom were weavers. his father taught him to ply the shuttle; but for education of any other sort, he was left to his own devices. he managed to pick up some knowledge of reading and writing for himself; but his favourite occupation was the construction of little models of houses, towers, articles of furniture, and so on, which he executed with much taste and accuracy. on being apprenticed to a type-founder, he exhibited his aptitude for mechanical contrivances by inventing a number of improved tools for the use of the workmen. on his father's death he set up as a manufacturer of figured fabrics; but although a skilful workman, he was a bad manager, and the end of the undertaking was, that he had to sell his looms to pay his debts. he married, but did not receive the dowry with his wife which he expected, and to support his family had to sell the house his father had left him,--the last remnant of his little heritage. the invention of numerous ingenious machines for weaving, type-founding, &c., proved the activity of his genius, but produced not a farthing for the maintenance of his wife and child. he took service with a lime-maker at brest, while his wife made and sold straw hats in a little shop at lyons. he solaced himself for the drudgery of his labours by spending his leisure in the study of machines for figure-weaving. the idea of the beautiful apparatus which he afterwards perfected began to dawn on him, but for the time it was driven out of his mind by the stirring transactions of the time. the whirlwind of the revolution was sweeping through the land. jacquard ardently embraced the cause of the people, took part in the gallant defence of lyons in , fled for his life on the reduction of the city, and with his son--a lad of sixteen--joined the army of the rhine. his boy fell by his side on the field of battle, and jacquard, destitute and broken-hearted, returned to lyons. his house had been burned down; his wife was nowhere to be heard of. at length he discovered her in a miserable garret, earning a bare subsistence by plaiting straw. for want of other employment he shared her labours, till lyons began to rise from its ruins, to recover its scattered population, and revive its industry. jacquard applied himself with renewed energy to the completion of the machine of which he had, before the revolution, conceived the idea; exhibited it at the national exposition of the products of industry in ; and obtained a bronze medal and a ten years' patent. during the peace of amiens, jacquard happened to take up a newspaper in a _cabaret_ which he frequented, and his eye fell on a translated extract from an english journal, stating that a prize was offered by a society in london for the construction of a machine for weaving nets. as a mere amusement he turned his thoughts to the subject, contrived a number of models, and at last solved the problem. he made a machine and wove a little net with it. one day he met a friend who had read the paragraph from the english paper. jacquard drew the net from his pocket saying, "oh! i've got over the difficulty! see, there is a net i've made." after that he took no more thought about the matter, and had quite forgotten it, when he was startled by a summons to appear at the prefectal palace. the prefect received him very kindly, and expressed his astonishment that his mechanical genius should so long have remained in obscurity. jacquard could not imagine how the prefect had discovered his mechanical experiments, and began vaguely to dread that he had got into some shocking scrape. he stammered out a sort of apology. the prefect was surprised he should deny his own talent, and said he had been informed that he had invented a machine for weaving nets. jacquard owned that he had. "well, then, you're the right man, after all," said the prefect. "i have orders from the emperor to send the machine to paris." "yes, but you must give me time to make it," replied jacquard. in a week or two jacquard again presented himself at the palace with his machine and a half manufactured net. the prefect was eager to see how it worked. "count the number of loops in that net," said jacquard, "and then strike the bar with your foot." the prefect did so, and was surprised and delighted to see another loop added to the number. "capital!" cried he. "i have his majesty's orders, m. jacquard, to send you and your machine to paris." "to paris! how can that be? how can i leave my business here?" "there is no help for it; and not only must you go to paris, but you must start at once, without an hour's delay." "if it must be, it must. i will go home and pack up a little bundle, and tell my wife about my journey, i shall be ready to start to-morrow." "to-morrow won't do; you must go to-day. a carriage is waiting to take you to paris; and you must not go home. i will send to your house for any things you want, and convey any message to your wife. i will provide you with money for the journey." there was no help for it, so jacquard got into the carriage, along with a gendarme who was to take charge of him, and wondered, all the way to paris, what it all meant. on reaching the capital he was taken before napoleon, who received him in a very condescending manner. carnot, who was also present, could not at first comprehend the machine, and turning to the inventor, exclaimed roughly, "what, do you pretend to do what is beyond the power of man? can you tie a knot in a stretched string?" jacquard, not at all disconcerted, explained the construction of his machine so simply and clearly, as to convince the incredulous minister that it accomplished what he had hitherto deemed an impossibility. jacquard was now employed in the conservatory of arts and manufactures to repair and keep in order the models and machines. at this time a magnificent shawl was being woven in one of the government works for the empress josephine. very costly and complicated machinery was employed, and nearly £ had already been spent on it. it appeared to jacquard that the shawl might be manufactured in a much simpler and less expensive manner. he thought that the principle of a machine of vaucousin's might be applied to the operation, but found it too complex and slow. he brooded over the subject, made a great many experiments, and at last succeeded in contriving an improved apparatus. he returned to lyons to superintend the introduction of his machine for figure-weaving and the manufacture of nets. the former invention was purchased for the use of the people, and was brought into use very slowly. the weavers of lyons denounced jacquard as the enemy of the people, who was striving to destroy their trade, and starve themselves and families, and used every effort to prevent the introduction of his machine. they wilfully spoiled their work in order to bring the new process into discredit. the machine was ordered to be destroyed in one of the public squares. it was broken to pieces,--the iron-work was sold for old metal, and the wood-work for faggots. jacquard himself had on one occasion to be rescued from the hands of a mob who were going to throw him into the rhone. before jacquard's death in , his apparatus had not only made its way into every manufactory in france, but was used in england, switzerland, germany, italy, and america. even the chinese condescended to avail themselves of this invention of a "barbarian." jacquard's apparatus is, strictly speaking, not a loom, but an appendage to one. it is intended to elevate or depress, by bars, the warp threads for the reception of the shuttle, the patterns being regulated by means of bands of punched cards acting on needles with loops and eyes. at first applied to silk weaving only, the use of this machine has since been extended to the bobbin net, carpets, and other fancy manufactures. by its agency the richest and most complex designs, which could formerly be achieved only by the most skilful labourers, with a painful degree of labour, and at an exorbitant cost, are now produced with facility by the most ordinary workmen, and at the most moderate price. of late years the silk manufacture has greatly improved, both in character and extent. the products of british looms exhibited at the great exhibition of vied with those of the continent. every year upwards of £ , , worth of silk is brought to england; and the silk manufacture engages some £ , , of capital, and employs eleven to twelve hundred thousand of our population. the potter's art. i.--luca della robbia. ii.--bernard palissy. iii.--josiah wedgwood. the potter's art. i.--luca della robbia. there can be little doubt as to the antiquity of the pottery manufacture. it probably had its origin in that of bricks, which at a very early date men made for purposes of construction; but it is not impossible that he had previously contrived to fabricate the commoner articles of domestic economy, such as pans and dishes, of sun-dried clay. bricks, as everybody knows, are fashioned out of a coarse clay, such as we meet with in very numerous localities. after mixing up with water a kind of paste out of these clayey earths, the moulder works up the paste into the shape of bricks, and they are then exposed to the heat of the kiln. sometimes it was thought sufficient to dry these bricks in the rays of a burning sun; but, so dried, their solidity is very inconsiderable. baked bricks owe their redness of colour to the oxide of iron which they contain. they are either moulded with the hand or cast in rectangular frames of wood, dusted with sand. to bake them, they are piled up in huge stacks, in which intervals are left for storing and kindling the fuel. they are also baked in kilns. the commoner pottery wares are manufactured with the coarse impure clays, which are allowed to rot in trenches for several years to render them more plastic. flower-pots, sugar-pans, vases, and other and more graceful articles, are moulded on the potter's wheel. now, this potter's wheel is one of the most ancient instruments of human industry, one of the earliest inventions by which man utilized and economized his labour. it consists of a large disc of wood, to which a rotatory motion is given by the workman's foot. a second and smaller disc, on which is placed the paste for working, is fixed upon the upper extremity of the vertical axis to which the larger and inferior disc is attached. seated on his bench, the workman places in the centre of the disc a certain quantity of soft moist clay, and turning the wheel with his foot, moulds the said paste with both hands, until it assumes the desired shape. you can imagine no prettier spectacle than that of a skilful potter causing the clay, under his nimble fingers, to assume the most varied forms. it seems as if by miracle the vase was created suddenly, and the rude clay sprang into a life and beauty of its own. the campanian potteries, improperly but commonly called the etruscan, and the ancient greek wares, belong to the class of soft and lustrous potteries which are no longer manufactured. the etruscan vases are the most remarkable specimens of the ancient potter's art; pure, simple, and elegant in form, they cannot be surpassed by any efforts of the modern potter. the paste of which they are made is very fine and homogeneous, coated with a peculiar glassy lustre, which is thin but tenacious, red or black, and formed of silica rendered fusible by an alkali. they were baked at a low temperature. in this ware, which was in vogue between and b.c., the aretine and roman pottery originated. the former was manufactured at arezzo or arretium. the knowledge of glazes, which was acquired by the egyptians and assyrians, seems to have been handed down to the persians, moors, and arabs. fayences, and enamelled bricks and plaques, were commonly used among them in the twelfth century, and among the hindus in the fourteenth. the celebrated glazed tiles, or _azulejos_, which contribute so much to the beauty of the alhambra, were introduced into spain by the moors about a.d. in italy, it is supposed, they were made known as early as the conquest of majorca by the pisans, in a.d. but brongniart places their introduction three centuries later, or in , and says this peculiar kind of ware was called _majolica_, from majorica or majorca. this, however, seems to have been the italian enamelled fayence, which was used for subjects in relief by the celebrated florentine sculptor, luca della robbia. robbia had been bred to the trade of a goldsmith--in those days a trade of great distinction and opulence--but his artistic tastes could not be controlled, and he abandoned it to become a sculptor. a man of a singularly enthusiastic and ardent nature, he applied himself arduously to his new work. he worked all day with his chisel, and sat up, even through the night, to study. "often," says vasari, "when his feet were frozen with cold in the night time, he kept them in a basket of shavings to warm them, that he might not be compelled to discontinue his drawings." such devotion could hardly fail to secure success. luca was recognised as one of the first sculptors of the day, and executed a number of great works in bronze and marble. on the conclusion of some important commissions, he was struck with the disproportion between the payment he received and the time and labour he had expended; and, abandoning marble and bronze, resolved to work in clay. before he could do that, however, it was necessary to discover some means of rendering durable the works which he executed in that material. applying himself to the task with characteristic zeal and perseverance, he at length succeeded in discovering a mode of protecting such productions from the injuries of time, by means of a glaze or enamel, which conferred not only an almost eternal durability, but additional beauty on his works in terra cotta. at first this enamel was of a pure white, but he afterwards added the further invention of colouring it. the fame of these productions spread over europe, and luca found abundant and profitable employment during the rest of his days, the work being carried on, after his death, by brothers and descendants. ii.--bernard palissy. the next great master in the art was bernard palissy,--a man distinguished not only for his artistic genius, but for his philosophical attainments, his noble, manly character, and zealous piety. born of poor parents about the beginning of the sixteenth century, bernard palissy was taken as apprentice by a land-surveyor, who had been much struck with the boy's quickness and ingenuity. land-surveying, of course, involved some knowledge of drawing; and thus a taste for painting was developed. from drawing lines and diagrams he went on to copy from the great masters. as this new talent became known he obtained employment in painting designs on glass. he received commissions in various parts of the country, and in his travels employed his mind in the study of natural objects. he examined the character of the soils and minerals upon his route, and the better to grapple with the subject, devoted his attention to chemistry. at length he settled and married at staines, and for a time lived thriftily as a painter. one day he was shown an elegant cup of italian manufacture, beautifully enamelled. the art of enamelling was then entirely unknown in france, and palissy was at once seized with the idea, that if he could but discover the secret it would enable him to place his wife and family in greater comfort. "so, therefore," he writes, "regardless of the fact that i had no knowledge of clays, i began to seek for these enamels as a man gropes in the dark. i reflected that god had gifted me with some knowledge of drawing, and i took courage in my heart, and besought him to give me wisdom and skill." [illustration: palissy the potter. page .] he lost no time in commencing his experiments. he bought a quantity of earthen pots, broke them into fragments, and covering them with various chemical compounds, baked them in a little furnace of his own construction, in the hope of discovering the white enamel, which he had been told was the key to all the rest. again and again he varied the ingredients of the compositions, the proportions in which they were mixed, the quality of the clay on which they were spread, the heat of the furnace to which they were subjected; but the white enamel was still as great a mystery as ever. instead of discouraging, each new defeat seemed to confirm his hope of ultimate success and to increase his perseverance. painting and surveying he no longer practised, except when sheer necessity compelled him to resort to them to provide bread for his family. the discovery of the enamel had become the great mission of his life, and to that all other occupations must be sacrificed. "thus having blundered several times at great expense and through much trouble, with sorrows and sighs, i was every day pounding and grinding new materials and constructing new furnaces, which cost much money, and consumed my wood and my time." two years had passed now in fruitless effort. food was becoming scarce in the little household, his wife worn and shrewish, the children thin and sickly. but then came the thought to cheer him,--when the enamel was found his fortune would be made, there would then be an end to all his privations, anxieties, and domestic unhappiness, lisette would live at ease, and his children lack no comfort. no, the work must not be given up yet. his own furnace was clumsy and imperfect,--perhaps his compositions would turn out better in a regular kiln. so more pots were bought and broken into fragments, which, covered with chemical preparations, were fired at a pottery in the neighbourhood. batch after batch was prepared and despatched to the kiln, but all proved disheartening failures. still with "great cost, loss of time, confusion, and sorrow," he persevered, the wife growing more shrewish, the children more pinched and haggard. by good luck at this time came the royal commissioners to establish the gabelle or tax in the district of saintonge, and palissy was employed to survey the salt marshes. it was a very profitable job, and palissy's affairs began to look more flourishing. but the work was no sooner concluded, than the "will o' the wisp," as his wife and neighbours held it, was dancing again before his eyes, and he was back, with redoubled energy, to his favourite occupation, "diving into the secret of enamels." two years of unremitting, anxious toil, of grinding and mixing, of innumerable visits to the kiln, sanguine of success, with ever new preparations; of invariable journeys home again, sad and weary, for the moment utterly discouraged; of domestic bickerings; of mockery and censure among neighbours, and still the enamel was a mystery,--still palissy, seemingly as far from the end as ever, was eager to prosecute the search. he appeared to have an inward conviction that he would succeed; but meanwhile the remonstrances of his wife, the pale, thin faces of his bairns, warned him he must desist, and resume the employments that at least brought food and clothing. there should be one more trial on a grand scale,--if that failed, then there should be an end of his experiments. "god willed," he says, "that when i had begun to lose my courage, and was gone for the last time to a glass-furnace, having a man with me carrying more than three hundred pieces, there was one among those pieces which was melted within four hours after it had been placed in the furnace, which trial turned out white and polished, in a way that caused me such joy as made me think i was become a new creature." he rushed home, burst into his wife's chamber, shouting, "i have found it!" from that moment he was more enthusiastic than ever in his search. he had discovered the white enamel. the next thing to be done was to apply it. he must now work at home and in secret. he set about moulding vessels of clay after designs of his own, and baked them in a furnace which he had built in imitation of the one at the pottery. the grinding and compounding of the ingredients of the enamel cost him the labour, day and night, of another month. then all was ready for the final process. the vessels, coated with the precious mixture, are ranged in the furnace, the fire is lit and blazes fiercely. to stint the supply of fuel would be to cheat himself of a fortune for the sake of a few pence, so he does not spare wood. all that day he diligently feeds the fire, nor lets it slacken through the night. the excitement will not let him sleep even if he would. the prize he has striven for through these weary years, for which he has borne mockery and privation, is now all but within his grasp; in another hour or two he will have possessed it. the grey dawn comes, but still the enamel melts not. his boy brings him a portion of the scanty family meal. there shall soon be an end to that miserable fare! more faggots are cast on the fire. the night falls, and the sun rises on the third day of his tending and watching at the furnace door, but still the powder shows no signs of melting. pale, haggard, sick at heart with anxiety and dread, worn with watching, parched and fevered with the heat of the fire, through another, and yet another and another day and night, through six days and six nights in all, bernard palissy watches by the glaring furnace, feeds it continually with wood, and still the enamel is unmelted. "seeing it was not possible to make the said enamel melt, i was like a man in desperation; and although quite stupified with labour, i counselled to myself that in my mixture there might be some fault. therefore i began once more to pound and grind more materials, all the time without letting my furnace cool. in this way i had double labour, to pound, grind, and maintain the fire. i was also forced to go again and purchase pots in order to prove the said compound, seeing that i had lost all the vessels which i had made myself. and having covered the new pieces with the said enamel, i put them into the furnace, keeping the fire still at its height." by this time it was no easy matter to "keep the fire at its height." his stock of fuel was exhausted; he had no money to buy any more, and yet fuel must be had. on the very eve of success--alas! an eve that so seldom has a dawn--it would never do to lose it all for want of wood, not while wood of any kind was procurable. he rushed into the garden, tore up the palings, the trellis work that supported the vines, gathered every scrap of wood he could find, and cast them on the fire. but soon again the deep red glow of the furnace began to fade, and still it had not done its work. suddenly a crashing noise was heard; his wife, the children clinging to her gown, rushed in. palissy had seized the chairs and table, had torn the door from its hinges, wrenched the window frames from their sockets, and broken them in pieces to serve as fuel for the all-devouring fire. now he was busy breaking up the very flooring of the house. and all in vain! the composition would not melt. "i suffered an anguish that i cannot speak, for i was quite exhausted and dried up by the heat of the furnace. further to console me, i was the object of mockery; even those from whom solace was due, ran, crying through the town that i was burning my floors. in this way my credit was taken from me, and i was regarded as a madman," if not, as he tells us elsewhere, as one seeking ill-gotten gains, and sold to the evil one for filthy lucre. he made another effort, engaged a potter to assist him, giving the clothes off his own back to pay him, and afterwards receiving aid from a friendly neighbour, and this time proved that his mixture was of the right kind. but the furnace having been built with mortar which was full of flints, burst with the heat, and the splinters adhered to the pottery. sooner than allow such imperfect specimens of his art to go forth to the world, palissy destroyed them, "although some would have bought them at a mean price." better days, however, were at hand for himself and family. his next efforts were successful. an introduction to the duke of montmorency procured him the patronage of that nobleman, as well as of the king. he now found profitable employment for himself and food for his family. "during the space of fifteen or sixteen years in all," he said afterwards, "i have blundered on at my business. when i had learned to guard against one danger, there came another on which i had not reckoned. all this caused me such labour and heaviness of spirit, that before i could render my enamels fusible at the same degrees of heat, i verily thought i should be at the door of my sepulchre.... but i have found nothing better than to observe the counsel of god, his edicts, statutes, and ordinances; and in regard to his will, i have seen that he has commanded his followers to eat bread by the labour of their bodies, and to multiply their talents which he has committed to them." when the reformation came, palissy was an earnest reformer, on sunday mornings assembling a number of simple, unlearned men for religious worship, and exhorting them to good works. court favour exempted him from edicts against protestants, but could not shield him from popular prejudice. his workshops at saintes were destroyed; and to save his life and preserve the art he had invented, the king called him to paris as a servant of his own. thus he escaped the massacre of st. bartholomew. besides being a skilful potter, palissy was a naturalist of no little eminence. "i have had no other book than heaven and earth, which are open to all," he used to say; but he read the wondrous volume well, while others knew it chiefly at second-hand, and hence his superiority to most of the naturalists of the day. he was in the habit of lecturing to the learned men of the capital on natural history and chemistry. when more than eighty years of age he was accused of heresy, and shut up in the bastille. the king, visiting him in prison, said, "my good man, if you do not renounce your views upon religious matters, i shall be constrained to leave you in the hands of my enemies." "sire," replied palissy, "those who constrain you, a king, can never have power over me, because i know how to die." palissy died in prison, aged and exhausted, in , at the age of eighty. before his death his wares had become famous, and were greatly prized. the enamel, which he went through so much toil and suffering to discover, was the foundation of a flourishing national manufacture. iii.--josiah wedgwood. josiah wedgwood, whose name in connection with pottery-ware has become a household word amongst us, was the younger son of a potter at burslem, in staffordshire, who had also a little patch of ground which he farmed. when josiah was only eleven years old, his father died, and he was thus left dependent upon his elder brother, who employed him as a "thrower" at his own wheel. an attack of smallpox, in its most malignant form, soon after endangered his life, and he survived only by the sacrifice of his left leg, in which the dregs of the disease had settled, and which had to be cut off. weak and disabled, he was now thrown upon the world to seek his own fortune. at first it was very uphill work with him, and he found it no easy matter to provide even the most frugal fare. he was gifted, however, with a very fine taste in devising patterns for articles of earthenware, and found ready custom for plates, knife-handles, and jugs of fanciful shape. he worked away industriously himself, and was able by degrees to employ assistance and enlarge his establishment. the pottery manufactures of this country were then in a very primitive condition. only the coarsest sort of articles were made, and any attempt to give elegance to the designs was very rare indeed. all the more ornamental and finer class of goods came from the continent. wedgwood saw no reason why we should not emulate foreigners in the beauty of the forms into which the clay was thrown, and made a point of sending out of his own shop articles of as elegant a shape as possible. this feature in his productions was not overlooked by customers, and he found a growing demand for them. the coarseness of the material was, however, a great drawback to the extension of the trade in native pottery; and it seemed almost like throwing good designs away to apply them to such rude wares. wedgwood saw clearly that if earthenware was ever to become a profitable english manufacture, something must be done to improve the quality of the clay. he brooded over the subject, tested all the different sorts of earth in the district, and at length discovered one, containing silica, which, black in colour before it went into the oven, came out of it a pure and beautiful white. this fact ascertained, he was not long in turning it to practical account, by mixing flint powder with the red earth of the potteries, and thus obtaining a material which became white when exposed to the heat of a furnace. the next step was to cover this material with a transparent glaze; and he could then turn out earthenware as pure in quality as that from the continent. this was the foundation not only of his own fortune, but of a manufacture which has since provided profitable employment for thousands of his countrymen, besides placing within the reach of even the humblest of them good serviceable earthenware for household use. the success of his white stoneware was such, that he was able to quit the little thatched house he had formerly occupied, and open shop in larger and more imposing premises. he increased the number of his hands, and drove an extensive and growing trade. he was not content to halt after the discovery of the white stoneware. on the contrary, the success he had already attained only impelled him to further efforts to improve the trade he had taken up, and which now became quite a passion with him. when he devoted himself to any particular effort in connection with it, his first thought was always how to turn out the very best article that could be made--his last thought was whether it would pay him or not. he stuck up for the honour of old england, and maintained that whatever enterprise could be achieved, that english skill and enterprise was competent to do. although he had never had any education himself worth speaking of, his natural shrewdness and keen faculty of observation supplied his deficiencies in that respect; and when he applied himself, as he now did, to the study of chemistry, with a view to the improvement of the pottery art, he made rapid and substantial progress, and passed muster creditably even in the company of men of science and learning. he contributed many valuable communications to the royal society, and invented a thermometer for measuring the higher degrees of heat employed in the various arts of pottery. again his premises proved too confined for his expanding trade, and he removed to a larger establishment, and there perfected that cream-coloured ware with which queen charlotte was so delighted, that she ordered a whole service of it, and commanding that it should be called after her--the queen's ware, and that its inventor should receive the title of the "royal potter." a royal potter wedgwood truly was; the very king of earthenware manufactures, resolute in his determination to attain the highest degree of perfection in his productions, indefatigable in his labours, and unstinting in his outlay to secure that end. he invented altogether seven or eight different kinds of ware; and succeeded in combining the greatest delicacy and purity of material, and utmost elegance of design, with strength, durability, and cheapness. the effect of the improvements he successively introduced into the manufacture of earthenware is thus described by a foreign writer about this period: "its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the advantage which it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine glaze, impenetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active and so universal, that in travelling from paris to petersburg, from amsterdam to the furthest port of sweden, and from dunkirk to the extremity of the south of france, one is served at every inn with wedgwood ware. spain, portugal, and italy are supplied with it, and vessels are loaded with it for the east indies, the west indies, and the continent of america." wedgwood himself, when examined before a committee of the house of commons in , some thirty years after he had begun his operations, stated that from providing only casual employment to a small number of inefficient and badly remunerated workmen, the manufacture had increased to an extent that gave direct employment to about twenty thousand persons, without taking into account the increased numbers who earned a livelihood by digging coals for the use of the potteries, by carrying the productions from one quarter to another, and in many other ways. wedgwood did not confine himself to the manufacture of useful articles, though such, of course, formed the bulk of his trade, but published beautiful imitations of egyptian, greek, and etruscan vases, copies of cameos, medallions, tablets, and so on. valuable sets of old porcelain were frequently intrusted to him for imitation, in which he succeeded so well that it was difficult to tell the original from the counterfeit, except sometimes from the superior excellence and beauty of the latter. when the celebrated barberini vase was for sale, wedgwood, bent upon making copies of it, made heavy bids against the duchess of portland for it; and was only induced to desist by the promise, that he should have the loan of it in order that he might copy it. accordingly, the duchess had the vase knocked down to her at eighteen hundred guineas, and wedgwood made fifty copies of it, which he sold at fifty guineas each, and was thus considerably out of pocket by the transaction. he did it, however, not for the sake of profit, but to show what an english pottery could accomplish. besides copying from antique objects, wedgwood tried to rival them in the taste and elegance of original productions. he found out flaxman when he was an unknown student, and employed him, upon very liberal terms, to design for him; and thus the articles of earthenware which he manufactured proved of the greatest value in the art education of the people. we owe not a little of the improved taste and popular appreciation and enjoyment of the fine arts in our own day to the generous enterprise of josiah wedgwood, and his talented designs. in order to secure every access from the potteries to the eastern and western coasts of the island, wedgwood proposed, and, with the aid of others whom he induced to join him, carried out the grand trunk canal between the trent and the mersey. he himself constructed a turnpike road ten miles in length through the potteries, and built a village for his work-people, which he called etruria, and where he established his works. he died there in , at the age of sixty-five, leaving a large fortune and an honoured name, which he had acquired by his own industry, enterprise, and generosity. a remarkable memorial to the genius and artistic labours of wedgwood was erected in , and some reference to it should undoubtedly be made in these pages. it is a twofold memorial: a bronze statue at stoke-upon-trent, and a memorial institute, erected close to the birth-place of the great potter at burslem. the foundation-stone was laid on the th of october by the right hon. w. e. gladstone, m.p., then chancellor of the exchequer, in the presence of a very large and enthusiastic assemblage. the chancellor delivered a public address, which in eloquent terms did homage to wedgwood's great mental qualities and his services to his country. he described as his most signal and characteristic merit, the firmness and fulness of his perception of the true law of what we term industrial art, or, in other words, of the application of the higher art to industry--the law which teaches us to aim first at giving to every object the greatest possible degree of fitness and convenience for its purpose, and next at making it the article of the highest degree of beauty, which compatibly with that fitness and convenience it will bear--which does not substitute the secondary for the primary end, but recognizes as part of the business the study to harmonize the two. mr. gladstone observed, that to have a strong grasp of this principle, and to work it out to its results in the details of a vast and varied manufacture, was a praise high enough for any man, at any time and in any place. but he thought it was higher and more peculiar in the case of wedgwood than it could be in almost any other case. for that truth of art which he saw so clearly, and which lies at the root of excellence, is one of which england, his country, has not usually had a perception at all corresponding in strength and fulness with her other rare endowments. she has long taken a lead among the european nations for the cheapness of her manufactures, not so for their beauty. and if the day should arrive when she shall be as eminent for purity of taste as she is now for economy of production, the result will probably be due to no other single man in so remarkable a degree as to josiah wedgwood. * * * * * we conclude with a lively extract from the chancellor's exhaustive and interesting address:-- "wedgwood," he says, "in his pursuit of beauty, did not overlook exchangeable value or practical usefulness. the first he could not overlook, for he had to live by his trade; and it was by the profit derived from the extended sale of his humbler productions that he was enabled to bear the risks and charges of his higher works. commerce did for him what the king of france did for sèvres, and the duke of cumberland for chelsea, it found him in funds. and i would venture to say that the lower works of wedgwood are every whit as much distinguished by the fineness and accuracy of their adaptation to their uses as his higher ones by their successful exhibition of the finest arts. take, for instance, his common plates, of the value of, i know not how few, but certainly of a very few pence each. they fit one another as closely as cards in a pack. at least, i for one have never seen plates that fit like the plates of wedgwood, and become one solid mass. such accuracy of form must, i apprehend, render them much more safe in carriage.... "again, take such a jug as he would manufacture for the wash-stand table of a garret. i have seen these made apparently of the commonest material used in the trade. but instead of being built up, like the usual and much more fashionable jugs of modern manufacture, in such a shape that a crane could not easily get his neck to bend into them, and the water can hardly be poured out without risk of spraining the wrist, they are constructed in a simple capacious form, of flowing curves, broad at the top, and so well poised that a slight and easy movement of the hand discharges the water. a round cheese-holder or dish, again, generally presents in its upper part a flat space surrounded by a curved rim; but the cheese-holder of wedgwood will make itself known by this--that the flat is so dead a flat, and the curve so marked and bold a curve; thus at once furnishing the eye with a line agreeable and well-defined, and affording the utmost available space for the cheese. i feel persuaded that a wiltshire cheese, if it could speak, would declare itself more comfortable in a dish of wedgwood's than in any other dish." * * * * * the worthiest successor to wedgwood whom england has known was the late herbert minton, who was scarcely less distinguished than his predecessor for perseverance, patient effort, and artistic sentiment. we owe to him in a great measure the revival of the elegant art of manufacturing encaustic tiles. the principal varieties of ceramic ware now in use are:-- . porcelain, which is composed, in england, of sand, calcined bones, china-clay, and potash; and, at dresden, of kaolin, felspar, and broken biscuit-porcelain; . parian, which is used in a liquid state, and poured into plaster-of-paris moulds; . earthenware, the _fayence_ of the italians, and the _delft_ of the dutch, made of various kinds of clay, with a mixture of powdered calcined flint; and, . stoneware, composed of several kinds of plastic clay, mixed with felspar and sand, and occasionally a little lime. it is estimated that our english potteries not only supply the demand of the united kingdom, but export ware to the value of nearly a million and a half annually. the establishments are about in number; employ , to , operatives; and export , , pieces. the miner's safety lamp. sir humphrey davy. the miner's safety lamp. sir humphrey davy. "what's that? is the house coming down?" cried mr. borlase, the surgeon-apothecary of penzance, jumping out of his cozy arm-chair, as a tremendous explosion shook the house from top to bottom, making a great jingle among the gallipots in the shop below, and rousing him from a comfortable nap. "please, sir," said betty, the housemaid, putting her head into the room, "here's that boy davy been a-blowing of hisself up agen. drat him, he's always up to some trick or other! he'll be the death of all of us some day, that boy will, as sure as my name's betty." "bring him here directly," replied her master, knitting his brow, and screwing his mild countenance into an elaborate imitation of that of a judge he once saw at the assizes, with the black cap on, sentencing some poor wretch to be hanged. "really, this sort of thing won't do at all." only, it must be owned, mr. borlase had said that many times before, and put on the terrible judicial look too, and yet "that boy davy" was at his tricks again as much as ever. "i'll bring as much as i can find of him, sir," said betty, gathering up her apron, as if she fully expected to discover the object of her search in a fragmentary condition. presently there was heard a shuffling in the passage, and a somewhat ungainly youth, about sixteen years of age, was thrust into the room, with the due complement of legs, arms, and other members, and only somewhat the grimier about the face for the explosion. his fingers were all yellow with acids, and his clothes plentifully variegated with stains from the same compounds. at first sight he looked rather a dull, loutish boy, but his sharp, clear eyes somewhat redeemed his expression on a second glance. "here he is, sir," cried betty triumphantly, as though she really had found him in pieces, and took credit for having put him cleverly together again. "well, humphrey," said mr. borlase, "what have you been up to now? you'll never rest, i'm afraid, till you have the house on fire." "oh! if you please, sir, i was only experimenting in the garret, and there's no harm done." "no harm done!" echoed betty; "and if there isn't it's no fault of yours, you nasty monkey. i declare that blow up gave me such a turn you could ha' knocked me down with a feather, and there's a smell all over the house enough to pison any one." "that'll do, betty," said her master, finding the grim judicial countenance rather difficult to keep up, and anxious to pronounce sentence before it quite wore off. "i'll tell you what it is, young davy, this sort of thing won't do at all. i must speak to mr. tonkine about you; and if i catch you at it again, you'll have to take yourself and your experiments somewhere else. so i warn you. you had much better attend to your work. it was only the other day you gave old goody jones a paperful of cayenne instead of cinnamon; and there's joe grimsly, the beadle, been here half a dozen times this day for those pills i told you to make up, and they're not ready yet. so just you take yourself off, mind your business, and don't let me have any more nonsense, or it'll be the worse for you." and so the culprit gladly backed out of the room, not a whit abashed by the reprimand, for it was no novelty, to begin his experiments again and again, and one day, by way of compensation for keeping his master's household in constant terror of being blown up, to make his name familiar as a household word, by the invention of a little instrument that would save thousands and thousands from the fearful consequences of coal-pit explosions. the mr. tonkine that his master referred to was the self-constituted protector of the davy family. old davy had been a carver in the town, and dying, left his widow in very distressed circumstances, when this generous friend came forward and took upon himself the charge of the widow and her children. young humphrey, on leaving school, had been placed with mr. borlase to be brought up as an apothecary; but he was much fonder of rambling about the country, or experimenting in the garret which he had constituted his laboratory, than compounding drugs behind his master's counter. as a boy he was not particularly smart, although he was distinguished for the facility with which he gleaned the substance of any book that happened to take his fancy, and for an early predilection for poetry. as he grew up, the ardent, inquisitive turn of his mind displayed itself more strongly. he was very fond of spending what leisure time he had in strolling along the rocky coast searching for sea-drift and minerals, or reading some favourite book. "there along the beach he wandered, nourishing a youth sublime, with the fairy-tales of science, and the long result of time." in after life he used often to tell how when tired he would sit down on the crags and exercise his fancy in anticipations of future renown, for already the ambition of distinguishing himself in his favourite science had seized him. "i have neither riches, nor power, nor birth," he wrote in his memorandum-book, "to recommend me; yet if i live, i trust i shall not be of less service to mankind and my friends than if i had been born with all these advantages." he read a great deal, and though without much method, managed, in a wonderfully short time, to master the rudiments of natural philosophy and chemistry, to say nothing of considerable acquaintance with botany, anatomy, and geometry; so that though the pestle and mortar might have a quieter time of it than suited his master's notions, humphrey was busy enough in other ways. [illustration: humphrey's experiments on the diffusion of heat. page .] in his walk along the beach, the nature of the air contained in the bladders of sea-weed was a constant subject of speculation with him; and he used to sigh over the limited laboratory at his command, which prevented him from thoroughly investigating the matter. but one day, as good luck would have it, the waves threw up a case of surgical instruments from some wrecked vessel, somewhat rusty and sand clogged, but in davy's ingenious hands capable of being turned to good account. out of an old syringe, which was contained in the case, he managed to construct a very tolerable air pump; and with an old shade lamp, and a couple of small metal tubes, he set himself to work to discover the causes of the diffusion of heat. at first sight the want of proper instruments for carrying on his researches might appear rather a hindrance to his progress in the paths of scientific discovery; but, in truth, his subsequent success as an experimentalist has been very properly attributed, in no small degree, to that necessity which is the parent of invention, and which forced him to exercise his skill and ingenuity in making the most of the scanty materials at his command. "had he," says one of his biographers, "in the commencement of his career been furnished with all those appliances which he enjoyed at a later period, it is more than probable that he might never have acquired that wonderful tact of manipulation, that ability of suggesting expedients, and of contriving apparatus, so as to meet and surmount the difficulties which must constantly arise during the progress of the philosopher through the unbeaten track and unexplored regions of science!" while davy was thus busily engaged qualifying himself for the distinguished career that awaited him, gregory watt, the son of the celebrated james watt, being in delicate health, came to penzance for change of air, and lodged with mrs. davy. at first he and humphrey did not get on very well together, for the latter had just been reading some metaphysical works, and was very fond of indulging in crude and flippant speculations on such subjects, which rather displeased the shy invalid. but one day some chance remark of davy's gave token of his extensive knowledge of natural history and chemistry, and thenceforth a close intimacy sprang up between them, greatly to the lad's advantage, for watt's scientific knowledge set him in a more systematic groove of study, and encouraged him to concentrate his energies on his favourite pursuit. another useful friend davy also found in mr. gilbert, afterwards president of the royal society. passing along one day, mr. gilbert observed a youth making strange contortions of face as he hung over the hutch gate of borlase's house; and being told by a companion that he was "the son of davy the carver," and very fond of making chemical experiments, he had a talk with the lad, and discovering his talents, was ever afterwards his staunch friend and patron. through his two friends, mr. gilbert and mr. watt, davy formed the acquaintance of dr. beddoes, who was just setting up at bristol, under the title of pneumatic institution, an establishment for investigating the medical properties of different gases; and who, appreciating his abilities, gave him the superintendence of the new institution. although only twenty years of age at this time, davy was well abreast of the science of the day, and soon applied his vigorous and searching intellect to several successful investigations. his first scientific discovery was the detection of siliceous earth in the outer coating of reeds and grasses. a child was rubbing two pieces of bonnet cane together, and he noticed that a faint light was emitted; and on striking them sharply together, vivid sparks were produced just as if they had been flint and steel. the fact that when the outer skin was peeled off this property was destroyed, showed that it was confined to the skin, and on subjecting it to analysis silex was obtained, and still more in reeds and grasses. as superintendent of dr. beddoe's institution, his attention was, of course, chiefly directed to the subject of gases, and with the enthusiasm of youth, he applied himself ardently to the investigation of their elements and effects, attempting several very dangerous experiments in breathing gases, and more than once nearly sacrificing his life. in the course of these experiments he found out the peculiar properties of nitrous oxide, or, as it has since been popularly called, "laughing gas," which impels any one who inhales it to go through some characteristic action,--a droll fellow to laugh, a dismal one to weep and sigh, a pugnacious man to fight and wrestle, or a musical one to sing. at twenty-two years of age, such was the reputation he had acquired, that he got the appointment of lecturer at the royal institution, which was just then established, and found himself in a little while not only a man of mark in the scientific, but a "lion" in the fashionable world. natural philosophy and chemistry had begun to attract a good deal of attention at that time; and davy's enthusiasm, his clear and vivid explanations of the mysteries of science, and the poetry and imagination with which he invested the dry bones of scientific facts, caught the popular taste exactly. his lecture-room became a fashionable lounge, and was crowded with all sorts of distinguished people. the young lecturer became quite the rage, and was petted and feted as the lion of the day. it was only six years back that he was the druggist's boy in a little country town, alarming and annoying the household with his indefatigable experiments. he could hardly have imagined, as one of his day-dreams at the sea-side, that his fame would be acquired so quickly. in spite of all the flatteries and attentions which were showered upon him, davy stuck manfully to his profession; and if his reputation was somewhat artificial and exaggerated at the commencement, he amply earned and consolidated it by his valuable contributions to science during the rest of his career. the name of humphrey davy will always be best known from its association with the ingenious safety lamp which he invented, and which well entitles him to rank as one of the benefactors of mankind. it was in the year that davy first turned his attention to this subject. of frequent occurrence from the very first commencement of coal-mining, the number of accidents from fire-damp had been sadly multiplied by the increase of mining operations consequent on the introduction of the steam engine. the dreadful character of some of the explosions which occurred about this time, the appalling number of lives lost, and the wide-spread desolation in some of the colliery districts which they had occasioned, weighed heavily on the minds of all connected with such matters. not merely were the feelings of humanity wounded by the terrible and constant danger to which the intrepid miners were exposed, but it began to be gravely questioned whether the high rate of wage which the collier required to pay him not only for his labour, but for the risk he ran, would admit of the mines being profitably worked. it was felt that some strenuous effort must be made to preserve the miners from their awful foe. davy was then in the plenitude of his reputation, and a committee of coal-owners besought him to investigate the subject, and if possible provide some preventative against explosions. davy at once went to the north of england, visited a number of the principal pits, obtained specimens of fire-damp, analyzed them carefully, and having discovered the peculiarities of this element of destruction, after numerous experiments devised the safety-lamp as its antagonist. the principles upon which this contrivance rests, are the modification of the explosive tendencies of fire-damp (the inflammable gas in mines) when mixed with carbonic acid and nitrogen; and the obstacle presented to the passage of an explosion, if it should occur, through a hole less than the seventh of an inch in diameter; and accordingly, while the small oil lamp in burning itself mixes the surrounding gas with carbonic acid and nitrogen, the cylinder of wire-gauze which surrounds it prevents the escape of any explosion. it is curious that george stephenson, the celebrated engineer, about the same time, hit on much the same expedient. to control a "power that in its tremendous effects seems to emulate the lightning and the earthquake," and to enclose it in a net of the most slender texture, was indeed a grand achievement; and when we consider the many thousand lives which it has been the means of saving from a sudden and cruel death, it must be acknowledged to be one of the noblest triumphs, not only of science, but of humanity, which the world has ever seen. honours were showered upon davy, from the miners and coal-owners, from scientific associations, from crowned heads; but all must agree with playfair in thinking that "it is little that the highest praise, and that even the voice of national gratitude when most strongly expressed, can add to the happiness of one who is conscious of having done such a service to his fellow-men." davy himself said he "valued it more than anything he ever did." when urged by his friends to take out a patent for the invention, he replied,--"no, i never thought of such a thing. my sole object was to serve the cause of humanity, and if i have succeeded, i am amply rewarded by the gratifying reflection of having done so." the honours of knighthood and baronetage were successively conferred on davy as a reward for his scientific labours; and the esteem of his professional brethren was shown in his election to the president-ship of the royal institution, in which, oddly enough, he was succeeded by his old friend mr. gilbert, who had first taken him by the hand, and whom he had got ahead of in the race of life. davy died at geneva before he had completed his fifty-first year, no doubt from over-exertion and the unhealthy character of the researches he prosecuted so recklessly. assiduous as he was in his devotion to his favourite science, he found time also to master several continental languages; to keep himself well acquainted with, and also to contribute to the literature of the day; and to indulge his passion for fly-fishing, at which he was a keen and practised adept. eminent as were the talents of sir humphrey davy, and valuable as his discovery of the safety-lamp has proved, it is but fair to own that his credit to the latter has been very openly denied. two persons of scientific celebrity have been put forward as the real inventors of the safety-lamp--namely, dr. reid clanny of newcastle, and the great railway-engineer, george stephenson. of clanny's safety-lamp a description appeared in the _philosophical transactions_ in --that is, ten years before sir humphrey made his communication to the royal society. however, it was a complicated affair, which required the whole attention of a boy to work it, and was based on the principle of forcing in air through water by the agency of bellows. stephenson's was a very different apparatus. in its general principle it resembled davy's, the chief difference being, that he inserted a glass cylinder inside the wire-gauze cylinder, and inside the top of the glass cylinder a perforated metallic chimney--the supply of air being kept up through a triple circle of small holes in the bottom. stephenson's claim has, of course, been disputed by the friends and admirers of sir humphrey davy; but mr. smile has conclusively proved that his lamp, the "geordy," was in use at the killingworth collieries at the very time that davy was conducting the experiments which led to his invention. it is not to be inferred, however, that davy knew aught of what stephenson had accomplished. it seems to be one of those rare cases in which two minds, working independently, and unknown each to the other, have both arrived simultaneously at the same result. penny postage. sir rowland hill. penny postage. "he comes, the herald of a noisy world, news from all nations lumb'ring at his back,-- houses in ashes, and the fall of stocks; births, deaths, and marriages; epistles wet with tears that trickled down the writer's cheeks fast as the periods of his fluent quill; or charged with am'rous sighs of absent swains, or nymphs responsive." cowper. the growth of the postal system is a sure measure of the progress of industry, commerce, education, and all that goes to make up the sum of civilization; and there is no more striking illustration to be found of the strides which our country has made in that direction since the century began than the introduction of a cheap and rapid delivery of letters, and the craving which it has at once satisfied and augmented. nothing gives us so forcible an idea of the difference between the britain of the present day and the britain of the stuart or even of the georgian period, than the contrast between the postal communication of these times and of our own. the itch of writing is now so strong in us, we are so constantly writing or receiving letters, our appetite for them is so ravenous, that we wonder how people got on in the days when the postman was the exclusive messenger of the king, and when even majesty was so badly served that, as one old postmaster[d] wrote in self-exculpation of some delay, "when placards are sent (to order the immediate forwarding of some state despatches) the constables many times be fayne to take the horses oute of plowes and cartes, wherein," he gravely adds, "can be no extreme diligence." it was a sure sign that the country was going ahead when cromwell ( ) found it worth while to establish posts for the people at large, and was able to farm out the post office for £ , a year. the profits of that establishment were doubled by the time the stuarts returned to the throne, and more than doubled again before the close of the seventeenth century. the country has kept on growing out of system after system, like a lad out of his clothes, and at different times has had new ones made to its measure. brian tuke's easy plan of borrowing farmers' horses on which to mount his emissaries, gave place to regular relays of post-boys and post-horses; and, in course of time, when the robbery of the mails by sturdy highwaymen had become almost the rule, and their safe conveyance the exception, post-boys were in turn supplanted by a system of stage-coaches, convoyed by an armed guard. this was thought a great advance; and so it was. a pushing, zealous man named palmer originated the scheme. amidst many other avocations, he found time to travel on the outside of stage-coaches, for the sake of talking with the coachmen and observing the routes, here, there, and everywhere all over england, and thus matured all the details of his plan from personal experience. "none but an enthusiast," said sheridan in a rapture of admiration in the house of commons, "could have conceived, none but an enthusiast could have practically entertained, none but an enthusiast could have carried out such a system." still, in spite of the exactitude with which palmer's scheme was declared to fit the wants of the country, it soon began to be grown out of like the rest. it became too short, too tight, too straitened every way, and impeded the circulation of correspondence,--no unimportant artery of our national system. the cost of postage was too high, the mode of delivery too slow, and the consequence was, that people either repressed their desire to write letters, or sent them through some cheaper and illegitimate channel. sir walter scott knew a man who recollected the mail from london reaching edinburgh with only a single letter. of all the tens of thousands of the modern babylon, only one solitary individual had got anything to say to anybody in the metropolis of the sister kingdom worth paying postage for. "we look back now," writes miss martineau, "with a sort of amazed compassion to the old crusading times, when warrior-husbands and their wives, grey-headed parents and their brave sons, parted with the knowledge that it must be months or years before they could hear of one another's existence. we wonder how they bore the depth of silence! and we feel the same now about the families of polar voyagers. but, till a dozen years ago, it did not occur to many of us how like this was the fate of the largest class in our own country. the fact is, there was no full and free epistolary intercourse in the country, except between those who had the command of franks. there were few families in the wide middle class who did not feel the cost of postage a heavy item in their expenditure; and if the young people sent letters home only once a fortnight, the amount at the year's end was a rather serious matter. but it was the vast multitudes of the lower orders who suffered like the crusading families of old, and the geographical discoverers of all times. when once their families parted off from home it was a separation almost like that of death. the hundreds of thousands of apprentices, of shopmen, of governesses, of domestic servants, were cut off from family relations as if seas or deserts lay between them and home. if the shilling for each letter could be saved by the economy of weeks or months at first, the rarity of correspondence went on to increase the rarity; new interests hastened the dying out of old ones; and the ancient domestic affections were but too apt to wither away, till the wish for intercourse was gone. the young girl could not ease her heart by pouring out her cares and difficulties to her mother before she slept, as she can now, when the penny and the sheet of paper are the only condition of the correspondence. the young lad felt that a letter home was a serious and formal matter, when it must cost his parents more than any indulgence they ever thought of for themselves; and the old fun and light-heartedness were dropped off from such domestic intercourse as there was. the effect upon the morals of this kind of restraint is proved beyond a doubt by the evidence afforded in the army. it was a well-known fact, that in regiments where the commanding officer was kind and courteous about franking letters for the privates, and encouraged them to write as often as they pleased, the soldiers were more sober and manly, more virtuous and domestic in their affections, than where difficulty was made by the indolence or stiffness of the franking officer." under the costly postal system, the revenue of the post office did not, as it had hitherto done, and should have continued to do, keep pace with the progress of the country. the appetite for communication between distant friends or men of business was evidently either decaying, or finding vent in an unlawful way. the latter was chiefly the case. there were vast numbers of people separated from each other by long weary miles, too many to permit of visits, who could not resist writing to each other,--the doating parent to the child, the lover to his mistress, the merchant to his agents, the lawyer to his clients. those who could not afford postage, were the very class who could not get franks; for the principle was, that those who could best afford postage money should have plenty of franks, which were, of course, quite out of the way of poor, humble folks,--the fat sow had his ear well greased, the lean, starving one had to consume his own fat, like the bear, or go without. the consequence was, that those who were eager to write and could not get letters through the post, found other means of forwarding them to the evasion of the law. there was no limit to the exercise of ingenuity in this direction. three or four letters were written on one piece of paper, to be cut up and distributed separately by one of the recipients; newspapers were turned into letters by underscoring or pricking with a pin the letters required to form the various words of the communication; some peculiarity in the style of address on the outside was arranged between correspondents, the sight of which was enough to indicate a message, and the letter was then rejected, having served its purpose; and so on, in a hundred other ways, fraudulent means were found of evading the law. some carriers had a large and profitable business in smuggling letters. in many populous districts the number of letters conveyed by carriers at a penny each in an illegal way far exceeded those sent through the post. in manchester, for every letter that went by the postman, six went by the carrier; and in glasgow the proportion was as one to ten. all this was notorious. the most honourable people saw no great harm in cheating the post to send a word of comfort or encouragement to an absent friend,--it was a vice that leaned to virtue's side. but it was a bad thing for the country that people should be driven to such devices, in obeying a natural and proper impulse. the man who began by smuggling letters, might end by smuggling tobacco or brandy; and the system was morally pernicious. all felt the evil, but remedy seemed impossible. as the urgency for a change grew to a head, the man came to effect it,--a man "of open heart, who could enter into family impulses; a man of philosophical ingenuity, who could devise a remedial scheme; a man of business, who could fortify such a scheme with impregnable accuracy"--that man was rowland hill. when quite a young man, on a pedestrian excursion through the lake district, rowland hill, passing a cottage door, observed the postman deliver a letter to a woman, and overheard her, after looking anxiously at the envelope, and then returning it, say she had no money to pay the postage. the man was about to put it back in his wallet and pass on, for it was an every-day thing for him to receive such a reply from the poor countryfolk, when mr. hill in his goodness of heart, out of compassion for the woman, stepped forward and paid the shilling, regardless of many shakes of the head, and hints of remonstrance from her, which he interpreted as merely unwillingness to trespass on a stranger's bounty. as soon as the postman was out of sight she broke the seal, and showed him why she did not want him to pay for the letter. the sheet was a blank, and the envelope had served as a means of communication between her and her correspondent. it appeared that she had arranged with her brother, that as long as all went well with him he should send a blank sheet in that way once a quarter, and thus she had tidings of him without paying the postage. as he pursued his walk, mr. hill could not help meditating on the incident, which had made a deep impression on his mind. he could not blame the poor woman and her brother for the trick they had played upon the post office in order to correspond with each other; and yet he felt there must be something wrong in a system which put it out of their reach, and of others similarly circumstanced, to do so in a lawful manner. every country post-master had a budget of touching stories of poor folk who were tantalized with the sight of a letter from some dear one, full, perhaps, of kind words and cheering news, or asking sympathy and condolence in misfortune, or transmitting money to help them in their straits; as well as of countless little frauds of the sort described, which they could not always harden themselves to circumvent and punish, so piteously eager did the poor souls appear to be to get word of their friends. and yet, in spite of all sorts of frauds, to people in humble life letters came like "angels' visits, few and far between." mr. hill asked himself whether there was no means of lessening the cost of postage, whether the government could not afford to charge a lower rate, or manage to get the work done more cheaply? keeping his ears and eyes open, always on the alert to pick up a fact as regarded the present, or a hint for the future, examining the mode of carriage and delivery, the routes chosen, and the time occupied, mr. hill, after a while, arrived at the conviction, that the postage rates might not only be reduced, but that the transmission of letters might be more quickly performed by a remodelling of the system. he ascertained that the cost of mere transit incurred upon a letter sent from london to edinburgh, a distance of miles, was not more than a thirty-sixth part of a penny, and that, therefore, there was a margin, under the existing charge, of - / d. for extra expenses and profit. he observed that the twopenny posts of london and other large towns were found to answer very well, although people, being within easy distances of each other, did not need so much as in the country to correspond in writing, and that the carriers, in spite of the illegality of the traffic, had loads of letters to deliver at a penny each, and that penny paid them for their trouble, as well as their risk of detection. he therefore came to the conclusion, that what was wanted, and what it was quite possible to establish, was a uniform penny postage rate over the whole of the united kingdom. he calculated that if that were adopted, the number of people then in the habit of writing letters would write a great many more than ever; that others, who had been precluded by the expense from corresponding, would come into the field; and that hundreds of letters forwarded illegally would now pass through the post, so that the number of letters sent by post would be increased fourfold, and the revenue, at first, perhaps a trifle curtailed, would soon mount up again. the post-office authorities were greatly shocked and disgusted at so audacious and utopian a proposal. but the public were greatly delighted with it, only doubting whether it was not too good news to be true. first by means of an anonymous pamphlet, then by direct and personal application to the government, mr. hill endeavoured to get his plans taken into consideration--no easy matter, for circumlocution officials had passed from contemptuous indifference to active hostility, as they gradually discovered how formidable an antagonist in the truth and accuracy of his calculations, the sincerity and earnestness of his purpose, they had to deal with. it was a great national cause mr. hill was fighting, and he was not to be put down. the people took his side, parliament granted an inquiry, and the result was a report in favour of his scheme. on the th of august --why is not the anniversary kept with rejoicings?--penny postage became the law of the land. during the last weeks of the year a uniform fourpenny rate was charged by way of accustoming people to the cheap system, and saving official feelings from the rude shock of a sudden descent from the respectable rate of a shilling, to the vulgar one of a penny. on the th january the penny system came into force. at first mr. hill availed himself of a suggestion thrown out some years before by mr. charles knight, that the best way of collecting the penny postage on newspapers would be to have stamped covers; but subsequently stamped envelopes were done away with, and queen's heads introduced. the franking privilege, of course, died with the dear postage. upon the adoption of the scheme, mr. hill received an appointment in the post office in order to superintend its working; but he had an uneasy berth of it. his plan was adopted only in part,--the postage rate was lowered, while the other compensating and essential features were thrown aside; official jealousy of reform showed itself in various attempts to thwart his efforts, and to fulfil its prediction of failure to the scheme. the consequence was, that the immediate results were not so satisfactory as could have been wished. the increase in the number of letters was certainly very great. during the last month of the old system the total number of letters passing through the post office was little more than two millions and a half, of which only a fifth were paid letters; while a twelvemonth after the introduction of the new system the total number of letters had risen to nearly six millions per month, of which the unpaid letters formed less than a twelfth part. very heavy expenses, however, not connected with the new plan, had been incurred; and the consequence was, that the profits of the post office were only a fourth of what they had been. advantage was taken of this to get mr. hill ousted from his post; but, after he had transferred his services for some years to the management of the london and brighton railway, the authorities were glad to receive him back again, to place the remodelling of the system in his hands, and to allow him to introduce the other parts of his scheme which had before been neglected. in this work mr. hill was busily engaged for a number of years, and most of his plans were gradually carried out with great advantage to the public. in a public testimonial of £ , was presented to mr. hill in acknowledgment of his distinguished services to the country; and at a later date he was made a knight of the bath. cheap postage has now been fairly tried, and must be pronounced a grand success. it has become part and parcel of our national life, and has been found precious as the gift of a new faculty. we should miss the loss of cheap and rapid correspondence with our friends and acquaintances almost as much as the loss of speech or the loss of sight. the postman has now to find his way to the humblest, poorest districts, where twenty years back his knock was never heard; and what was once a rare luxury, has now come to be considered a common necessary of life. instead of only seventy-six millions of letters passing through the post in a year, as in , the number has risen to between seven and eight hundred millions. on the average every individual in england receives twenty-eight letters a-year (in london the individual average is forty-six), in scotland eighteen, and in ireland nine. the gross revenue derived from these sources is over four millions; and some of the railway companies each make more money out of the conveyance of the mails in a year, than the annual revenue of the whole kingdom in the days of william and mary. the moral and social effects of the cheap postage are incalculable. it has tended to strengthen and perpetuate domestic ties, to bring the most scattered and distant members of a family under the benign influences of home, and to foster feelings of friendship and sympathy between man and man. upon the education and intelligence of the people, too, it has had, concurrently with other causes, a marked effect. many who looked upon the art of writing as only a temptation to forgery, were induced to take pen in hand and master the science of pot-hooks and hangers, for the sake of corresponding with their friends, and of being able to read the letters they received. in a third of the men and half of the women who were married, according to the registrar's returns, could not sign their own names; in that was the case with only a seventh of the men, and a fifth of the women; and not a little of this advanced education may be attributed to the impulse given by the introduction of cheap postage. nor have the advantages derived from the post office by the great body of the public ended here. it has shown itself the most progressive department of the government, and has undertaken many benevolent branches of work which were never contemplated by sir rowland hill. thus it carries on an extensive savings-bank system, worked out by mr. frank ives scudamore, adopted by mr. gladstone when chancellor of the exchequer, and established by act of parliament in . this valuable department, whose operations are now of a very extensive character, keeps a separate account for every depositor, acknowledges the receipt, and, on the requisite notice being furnished, sends out warrants authorizing post-masters to pay such sums as depositors may wish to withdraw. the deposits are handed over to the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt, and repaid to the depositors through the post office. the rate of interest payable to depositors is two and a half per cent. each depositor has his savings-bank book, which is sent to him yearly for examination, and the increasing interest calculated and allowed. the post office now acts, too, as a life-insurance society, offering advantages to the operative which no other society can offer, and which the public are beginning to appreciate. in the entire telegraphic system of the united kingdom passed into the hands of the post office, whose administrators have shown themselves anxious to offer increased facilities to the public for the transaction of business. the number of telegraphic stations has been greatly increased, and the rate reduced at which messages are flashed from one part of the island to the other. finally, a recent innovation, made entirely in the interest of the public weal, is the introduction of _halfpenny post cards_. on one side of these missives the sender writes the name and address of his correspondent; on the other, the communication intended for him. the card already bears a halfpenny stamp impressed, and nothing more remains to be done but to deposit it in the nearest office or pillar-post. we think, then, it may fairly be said that the post office has shown itself anxious to "keep abreast" with the ever-increasing wants of the commercial classes of great britain. * * * * * while these pages are passing through the press, the following particulars, apparently issued under official direction, have attracted our attention. we append them here, as they cannot fail to interest the reader:--"it appears that there are in the united kingdom miles yards of _pneumatic tubes_ in connection with the postal telegraphic system ( ). of these, miles yards exist in london, and miles yards in the provinces--the latter being confined to liverpool, manchester, birmingham, and glasgow. of the total length of tubes now existing, only miles yards existed prior to the transfer of the telegraphs to the post office; so that no less than miles yards have been laid since that date; or, in other words, the system has been considerably more than doubled in less than a year. the total length of new tubes ordered and in progress exceeds miles, and when these are completed, the system will be nearly miles in length. all of the tubes in the provinces, and all but two of those in london, are worked on clark's system. the two which form an exception are those between telegraph street and st. martin's-le-grand, which are worked on siemens' system. the former are made of lead, with a diameter varying from - / to - / inches--the more frequent size being - / inches. the latter are made of iron, and have a diameter of inches. the idea of iron tubes worked on siemens' principle is derived, we believe, from berlin, where the system is entirely of this description; and of the new tubes in progress, that from st. martin's-le-grand to temple bar will be of this kind. all of the tubes now in existence are worked in both directions by means of alternate pressure and vacuum; the motive power, in the shape of a steam-engine, being stationed at the central office, with which the out-stations have communication by this means. it is interesting to note the difference of time occupied by the different tubes in london in passing the 'carriers' through from one end to the other--the speed being governed by the length and diameter of the tube, and by the circumstance whether it is carried in a straight line, or has to encounter sharp curves and bends on its way. the great advantage of this means of communication, for short distance, over the electric is, that the tubes are not liable to sudden blocks of work as the wires are, and that a dozen or more messages may be sent through, at one blow, if desired. for local telegraphs in great towns the pneumatic system is invaluable, and is certain to be greatly extended under the postal administration." footnotes: [d] brian tuke, master of the post to king henry viii. the overland route. lieutenant waghorn. the overland route. lieutenant waghorn. worthy to stand on a par with, or at lowest, in the very next rank to, the men who originate great inventions, are those whose foresight and energy discover the means of extending their utility; and in shortening the journey between europe and india, by the establishment of the overland route, lieutenant waghorn practically achieved as great a triumph over time and space, as if he had invented a machine for the purpose that would have traversed the old route in the same time. it was in that thomas waghorn first promulgated the idea of steam communication between our eastern possessions and the mother country. he was then twenty-seven years of age, and had just returned to calcutta from rough and arduous service in the arracan war. when a midshipman of barely seventeen, he had passed the "navigation" examination for lieutenant,--the youngest, it appears, who ever did so; but although, consequently, eligible for that rank, he had never reached it up to this time, in spite of the distinction he had acquired in various actions. his health had been so much shattered by a fever caught in arracan, that he had to return to england; but he did not leave calcutta without communicating his design to the government there, and obtaining a letter of credence from lord combermere (then vice-president in council) to the east india company, recommending him, in consequence of his meritorious conduct in the recent war, "as a fit and proper person to open steam navigation with india, _via_ the cape of good hope." the idea, however, was just then in advance of the time, and all waghorn's agitation in its favour proved of no avail. in the meantime, the idea of saving the time spent in "doubling the cape," by means of a route through the mediterranean, across the isthmus of suez, and down the red sea, had occurred to him; and in he procured a commission from the east india directory to report on the probability of red sea navigation, and at the same time to convey certain despatches to sir john malcolm, governor of bombay. he got notice of this mission on the th october, and was desired to be at suez by the th december, in order to catch the steamer _enterprise_, and proceed in her to india. he took only four days to make ready for the journey, and on the th left london on the top of the _eagle_ stage-coach from gracechurch street. circumstances were anything but propitious all through this expedition of his; and yet he defied and disregarded them all. bridges broke down at central points, falling avalanches had to be kept clear of, an accident disabled the steamer, and he had to go some hundred and thirty miles out of his way in consequence. in spite of all that, he dashed through five kingdoms, and reached trieste in nine days, or little more than half the time occupied by the post-office mails on the same journey. impatient of delay, he learned that an austrian brig had left for alexandria the night before, but the breeze had fallen, and she was still to be caught a glimpse of from the hill-tops. a fresh posting carriage was got out, and off he went in chase of the vessel, hoping to make up to her at pesano, twenty miles down the gulf of venice. the calm still prevailed; and as he went dashing along he could catch sight, now and then, as the carriage passed some open part of the road and disclosed the sea, of the brig creeping lazily along. every hour he gained on her; instead of a dull, black speck upon the horizon, he began to make out her hull, her sails, and rigging. he urged the post-boys with redoubled vehemence--kept them going at a furious pace. he was within three miles of the vessel--it was crawling, he was flying--another half hour would see him safe on board, and then heigh for india. but stay, surely that was the wind among the trees; could the breeze have risen? it had indeed. a strong northerly wind sprang up; gradually the sails of the brig swelled out before it, and poor waghorn, with his panting, jaded horses, was left far behind. the chase was hopeless now--so he went back mournfully to trieste--"exhausted in body with fatigue, and racked by disappointment after the previous excitement." the next ship, a spanish one, was not to sail for three days. that was more than waghorn could endure; he went to the captain, urged him, bribed him with fifty dollars to make it two days, instead of three, and succeeded. in eight and forty hours he was somewhat consoled for his former discouragement, to find himself at length at sea. in sixteen days he was at alexandria, and after a rest of only five hours there, hired donkeys and was off to rosetta. the donkeys were in the conspiracy against him, as well as the wind and the avalanches. the first day they trotted and walked along as brisk as may be, and our indefatigable traveller worked them well. it is well known that the donkey of the east is a paragon of wisdom, compared with his dunce of a brother in europe; and upon a night's reflection, mr. waghorn's donkeys seem to have clearly perceived that he had no notion of easy stages, and was bent on keeping them going as fast as he could, and as long as daylight suffered. so the second day they managed to stumble, and limp, and fall down intentionally four or five times, and to put on a pitiful affectation of fatigue and weariness,--a common dodge, the drivers said, of those knowing animals. fortunately he was soon able to dispense with the deceitful donkeys; and embarking on the nile, undertook to navigate the boat himself, in order to take soundings and make observations in regard to the route. after brief repose at rosetta, he set out for cairo on a _cangé_, a sort of boat of fifteen tons burthen, with two large latteen sails. the captain undertook to land him at cairo in three days and four nights; but the boat went aground on a shoal, and after tacking for five days and nights, waghorn lost all patience, and proceeded to his destination upon donkeys. he crossed the desert from cairo to suez in four days, on two of which he travelled seventy-four miles. he was thus able to keep his appointment and be at suez by the th december, but there was no sign of the steamer. the wind was blowing right in her teeth; so after waiting two days, with feverish impatience, mr. waghorn determined to sail down the centre of the red sea, in an open boat, in the hope of meeting the steamer somewhere above cossier. all the seamen of the locality held up their hands at the proposal of the mad englishman, and tried to dissuade him. it was the opinion, he knew, of nautical authorities at the time, that the red sea was not navigable. but he could not rest quiet at suez; he had important despatches to deliver; he was commissioned to inquire into the navigability of these waters; and out he would go in an open boat, let folk say what they would, and so he did. "he embarked," says the narrator of his "life and labours," in _household words_,[e] "in an open boat, and without having any personal knowledge of the navigation of this sea, without chart, without compass, or even the encouragement of a single precedent for such an enterprise--his only guide the sun by day, and the north star by night--he sailed down the centre of the red sea. of this most interesting and unprecedented voyage mr. waghorn gives no detailed account. all intermediate things are abruptly cut off with these very characteristic words: '_suffice it_ to say, _i arrived_ at juddah, miles in six and a half days, in that boat!' you get nothing more than the sum total. he kept a sailor's log-journal; but it is only meant for sailors to read, though now and then you obtain a glimpse of the sort of work he went through. thus: '_sunday, th_--strong, n.w. wind, half a gale, but scudding under storm-sail. sunset, anchored for the night. jaffateen islands out of sight to the n. lost two anchors during the night,' &c. the rest is equally nautical and technical. in one of the many scattered papers collected since the death of mr. waghorn, we find a very slight passing allusion to toils, perils, and privations, which, however, he calmly says, were 'inseparable from such a voyage under such circumstances,'--but not one touch of description from first to last. a more extraordinary instance of great practical experience and knowledge, resolutely and fully carrying out a project which must of necessity have appeared little short of madness to almost everybody else, was never recorded. he was perfectly successful, so far as the navigation was concerned, and in the course he adopted, notwithstanding that his crew of six arabs mutinied. it appears (for he tells us only the bare fact) they were only subdued on the principle known to philosophers in theory, and to high-couraged men, accustomed to command, by experience,--namely, that the one man who is braver, stronger, and firmer than any individual of ten or twenty men, is more than a match for the ten or twenty put together. he touched at cossier on the th, not having fallen in with the _enterprise_. there he was told by the governor that the steamer was expected every hour. mr. waghorn was in no state of mind to wait very long; so, finding she did not arrive, he again put to sea in his open boat, resolved, if he did not fall in with her, to proceed the entire distance to juddah--a distance of miles further. of this further voyage he does not leave any record, even in his log, beyond the simple declaration that he 'embarked for juddah--ran the distance in three days and twenty-one hours and a quarter--and on the d anchored his boat close to one of the east india company's cruisers, the _benares_.' but now comes the most trying part of his whole undertaking--the part which a man of his vigorously constituted impulses was least able to bear as the climax of his prolonged and arduous efforts, privations, anxieties, and fatigue. repairing on board the _benares_ to learn the news, the captain informed him that, in consequence of being found in a defective state on her arrival at bombay, 'the _enterprise_ was not coming at all.' this intelligence seems to have felled him like a blow, and he was immediately seized with a delirious fever. the captain and officers of the _benares_ felt great sympathy and interest in this sad result of so many extraordinary efforts, and detaining him on board, bestowed every attention on his malady." it was six weeks before he could proceed by sailing vessel to bombay, where he arrived on the st march, having, in spite of all the drawbacks in his way, accomplished the journey in four months and twenty-one days--quite an extraordinary rapidity at that time. had he escaped the fever at juddah, and fallen in with the _enterprise_ at the right time, nearly two months might have been saved. he had proved the practicability of the overland route, and he now devoted himself to its establishment. in an address to the home government and the east india company, he thus expresses his views:-- "of myself, i trust i may be excused when i say, that the highest object of my ambition has ever been an extensive usefulness; and my line of life--my turn of mind--my disposition, long ago impelled me to give all my leisure, and all my opportunities of observation, to the introduction of steam-vessels, and permanently establishing them as the means of communication between india and england including all the colonies on the route. the vast importance of three months' earlier information to his majesty's government, and to the honourable company,--whether relative to a war or a peace--to abundant or to short crops--to the sickness or convalescence of a colony or district, and oftentimes even of an individual; the advantages to the merchant, by enabling him to regulate his supplies and orders according to circumstances and demands; the anxieties of the thousands of my countrymen in india for accounts, and further accounts, of their parents, children, and friends at home; the corresponding anxieties of those relatives and friends in this country;--in a word, the speediest possible transit of letters to the tens of thousands who at all times in solicitude await them, was, to my mind, a service of the greatest general importance; and it shall not be my fault if i do not, and for ever establish it." the scheme which he thus resolutely and enthusiastically declared his adoption of, he lived to carry out, but at the cost of years of weary advocacy, agitation for help, desperate attempts on his own account, or in conjunction with a few enterprising associates, in the teeth of constant discouragement, official indifference, jealousy, and disguised hostility. the east india company told him there was no need of steam navigation to the east at all, ordered him to mind his own business and return to field service, circulated reports of his insanity through their agents in egypt when waghorn went there to enlist the pasha in his cause. the overland route, however, was no theory, but an undoubted fact. waghorn never for a moment relaxed his grasp of it, or doubted its value; and in the end, after unheard of difficulties, disappointments, and opposition, into the long, painful story of which we need not enter, succeeded in establishing the overland route. when he left egypt in , he had provided english carriages, vans, and horses, for the conveyance of passengers across the desert, placed small steamers on the nile and alexandrian canal, and built the eight halting-places on the desert between cairo and suez. he also set up the three hotels in the same quarter "in which every comfort, and even some luxuries, were provided and stored for the passing traveller,--among which should be mentioned iron tanks with good water, ranged in cellars beneath;--and all this in a region which was previously a waste of arid sands and scorching gravel, beset with wandering robbers and their camels. these wandering robbers he converted into faithful guides, as they are now found to be by every traveller; and even ladies with their infants are enabled to cross and re-cross the desert with as much security as if they were in europe." in acknowledgment of his services, mr. waghorn received the rank of lieutenant in the royal navy, a grant of £ , and an annuity of £ a-year from government, and another annuity of £ from the east india company; but he did not live long to enjoy his well-earned rewards. the care, and anxiety, and fatigue he had undergone had shattered his constitution. through some misunderstanding or mismanagement on the part of the east india company, rivals were allowed to step in and carry off the chief profits of the overland system, and his last years were embittered by various disputes with the authorities. he died in the end of , by years only in the prime of life; but old, and worn by his labours before his time. such was the career of the "pioneer of the overland route." but in connection with england's route to india, the name of monsieur de lesseps must never be forgotten, nor the great enterprise which, at so much cost, and in spite of so many obstacles, he successfully carried out--the suez canal. when he first projected it he met with most of the obstacles which are thrown in the way of great inventions. england, jealous of a scheme which seemed likely to throw into the hands of a foreign power the nearest route to her beloved india, stood sullenly aloof, and refused to contribute moral or pecuniary support; while some of the most eminent english and foreign engineers openly declared that it could never be carried out. m. de lesseps, however, was one of those men who, when they have seized a great idea, can never be thrown off it. it had taken full possession of his imagination, judgment, and intellect! he felt that it _could_, and he determined that it _should_ be realized. he conquered every difficulty: he raised funds; he secured the support of his own government; and in he obtained from the pasha of egypt the exclusive privilege of constructing a ship-canal from tyneh, near the ruins of the ancient pelusium, to suez. m. de lesseps determined that his canal should be cut in a straight line, with an average width of feet, and at an uniform depth of feet under low-water mark, while at each end was to be constructed a sluice-lock, feet long by wide. further, at each end he proposed to execute a magnificent harbour; that at the mediterranean end was to be extended five miles into the sea, so as to obtain a permanent depth of water for a ship drawing twenty-three feet, on account of the enormous quantity of mud annually silted up by the nile; that at the red sea end was to be three miles long. in the great canal was begun. the mediterranean entrance is at port said, about the middle of the narrow neck of land between lake menzaleh and the sea, in the eastern part of the delta. thence it is carried for about twenty miles across menzaleh lake, being yards wide at the surface, yards at the bottom, and feet deep. on each side an artificial bank rises some feet high. the distance thence to abu ballah lake is miles, through ground which varies from to feet above the level of the sea. this lake being traversed, there is land again--a troublesome and shifty soil--to timsah lake, the canal being cut at a depth below the sea-level of to feet. on the shore of timsah lake has risen a new and busy town, the central point of the canal, and named ismailia, in honour of the present pasha of egypt. a space of eight miles intervenes between the timsah lake and the bitter lakes, and in this space the cuttings are very deep and difficult. the soil being almost purely sand, the constant labour of powerful dredging machines is constantly required, to prevent the channel from filling up. the deepest cutting occurs at el guisr, or girsch, and is no less than feet below the surface: at the water-level it is yards wide, at the summit-level yards. in traversing the bitter lakes the course of the canal is marked by embankments. from the southern end of these lakes to suez, a distance of about thirteen miles, the cuttings are heavy and deep. after many discouraging failures, m. de lesseps' great work was completed last year, and the formal opening of the canal took place in the presence of the prince and princess of wales, and a goodly number of princes, potentates, and distinguished personages. it is now open to navigation from end to end, and ships of considerable tonnage have successfully accomplished the passage. whether the canal is a _commercial_ success may still be doubted. the cost of further deepening and enlarging it, and of maintaining its banks and harbours, amounts to a sum which, as yet, the traffic charges are not at all likely to defray. but, in an engineering sense, the suez canal is one of the wonders of this wonderful nineteenth century. footnotes: [e] august , . * * * * * beautifully illustrated works. earth and sea. from the french of louis figuier. translated, edited, and enlarged by w. h. davenport adams, illustrated with two hundred and fifty engravings by freeman, giacomelli, yan d'argent, prior, foulquier, riou, laplante, and other artists. imperial vo. handsomely bound in cloth and gold. price s. this volume is founded upon m. figuier's "_la terre et les mers_," but so many additions have been made to the original, and its aim and scope have been so largely extended, that it may almost be called a new work. these additions and this extension were deemed necessary by the editor, in order to render it more suitable for the british public, and in order to bring it up to the standard of geographical knowledge. the desert world. from the french of arthur mangin. translated, edited, and enlarged by the translator of "the bird," by michelet. with one hundred and sixty illustrations by w. freeman, foulquier, and yan d'argent. imperial vo, full gilt side and gilt edges. price s. d. saturday review.--"_the illustrations are numerous, and extremely well cut. two handsomer and more readable volumes than this and 'the mysteries of the ocean' it would be difficult to produce._" the mysteries of the ocean. from the french of arthur mangin. by the translator of "the bird." with one hundred and thirty illustrations by w. freeman and j. noel. imperial vo, full gilt side and gilt edges. price s. d. pall mall gazette.--"_science walks to-day in her silver slippers. we have here another sumptuously produced popular manual from france. it is an account, complete in extent and tolerably full in detail, of the sea. it is eminently readable.... the illustrations are altogether excellent; and the production of such a book proves at least that there are very many persons who can be calculated on for desiring to know something of physical science._" the bird. by jules michelet, author of "history of france," &c. illustrated by two hundred and ten exquisite engravings by giacomelli. imperial vo, full gilt side and gilt edges. price s. d. westminster review.--"_this work consists of an exposition of various ornithological matters from points of view which could hardly be thought of, except by a writer of michelet's peculiar genius. with his argument in favour of the preservation of our small birds we heartily concur. the translation seems to be generally well executed; and in the matter of paper and printing, the book is almost an _ouvrage de luxe_. the illustrations are generally very beautiful._" the art journal.--"_it is a charming book to read, and a most valuable volume to think over.... it was a wise, and we cannot doubt it will be a profitable, duty to publish it here, where it must take a place second only to that it occupies in the language in which it was written.... certainly natural history has never, in our opinion, been more exquisitely illustrated by wood-engraving than in the whole of these designs by m. giacomelli, who has treated the subject with rare delicacy of pencil and the most charming poetical feeling--a feeling perfectly in harmony with the written descriptions of m. michelet himself._" the "schÖnberg-cotta" series of books. _in cloth binding, s. d. each; 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or, the story of the sisters dolores and costanza cazalla. sketches of christian life in england in the olden time. diary of brother bartholomew, with other tales and sketches of christian life in different lands and ages. wanderings over bible lands and seas. with a photograph, and other illustrations. watchwords for the warfare of life (from the writings of luther). translated and arranged by the author of "the schönberg-cotta family." poems. by the author of "chronicles of the schönberg-cotta family." contents:--the women of the gospels--the three wakings--songs and hymns--memorial verses. crown vo, gilt edges. valuable works. by the rev. j. c. ryle, b.a. the christian leaders of the last century; or, england a hundred years ago. by the rev. j. c. ryle, b.a., christ church, oxford, author of "expository thoughts," &c. crown vo, cloth. price s. d. pall mall gazette.--"_mr. ryle has evidently a complete acquaintance with his subject, such as a mere critical historian would never be likely to acquire; 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[transcriber's note: ligature occurrences of oe have been represented as two separate letters, such as in "koenig" and "phoenicians". the following alterations have been made to the text as originally printed: page : changed quotes from double to single: 'recuyell of the historyes of troye,' page : "reader." changed to "reader," page : "home," changed to "home." page : added closing quote: ... and working efficiency." page : added closing quote: ... of solid masonry." page : "porportion" changed to "proportion" page : "better then an arm" changed to "better than an arm" page : "paddle-wheels through" changed to "paddle-wheels. through" page : "a mortal sickness:" changed to "a mortal sickness;" page : "own, thus" changed to "own. thus" page : "condition only" changed to "condition. only" page : changed double quotes to single quotes: passing the 'carriers' through page : added closing quote: ... under the postal administration." page : added closing quote: ... present day." page : "dore" changed to "doré" ] [illustration] _america's great men and their deeds._ american inventions and inventors by william a. mowry, a.m., ph.d. _and_ arthur may mowry, a.m. authors of "_first steps in the history of our country_," and "_a history of the united states, for schools_." [illustration] silver, burdett and company new york boston chicago for the study of american history _first steps in the history of our country._ by william a. mowry, a.m., ph.d., and arthur may mowry, a.m. pp. , profusely illustrated. the narrative of our country as told in the stories of great americans. introductory price, cents. _a history of the united states, for schools._ by william a. mowry, a.m., ph.d., and arthur may mowry, a.m. pp. , highly illustrated. accurate in statement, clear and graphic in style, patriotic and unpartisan in spirit. introductory price, $ . . _historical geography of the united states._ by townsend maccoun, a.m. pp. , colored maps with text. introductory price, cents. _historical charts of the united states._ by townsend maccoun, a.m. charts, x inches, containing progressive maps, in high colors, for school and lecture-room use. introductory price, with supporter, $ . . both the "historical geography" and the "historical charts" portray the appearance of the map of our country after each of its changes until the present. _copyright, _ by silver, burdett and company preface. a school history should set forth such facts, and in such an order, as to show the progress of civilization. the great lessons of history are found in that line of events in the past which exhibits the progress of mankind--the uplift of humanity. the record of no other country can present a more startling array of forward movements and upward tendencies than that of our own land, and in no one direction does this upward movement appear quite so clearly as in the line of inventions. man's efforts are, first, to overcome nature. food, shelter, and clothing are his primary wants. after these are supplied, he rises to higher realms of thought and action. then he nourishes his intellect, exercises his sensibilities, and provides nutriment for his soul, that it, also, may grow. in this book the above logical order is followed. it is painfully evident that many schoolchildren dislike the study of history. the authors of this book believe that this need not be. it is clear that the study should be undertaken at an earlier age than is usually the case in our public schools. it is not necessary, and oftentimes not desirable, that the books of history should be studied as text-books. frequently they should be used as reading books. such use is more likely to develop in the minds of the younger children a love for history. this book, while adapted to older persons, has been prepared with special reference to the needs and capacities of children from ten to twelve years of age. it is commended to teachers and parents with full confidence that they will find it useful, and that the children will be both interested and profited by its perusal. contents. heat. chapter page i. fire, ii. indian homes, iii. colonial homes, iv. chimneys, v. fuel, vi. coal, vii. matches, light. i. torches, ii. candles, iii. whale oil, iv. kerosene, v. illuminating gas, vi. electric lighting, vii. lighthouses, food. i. uncultivated foods, ii. cultivated foods, iii. implements for planting, iv. implements for harvesting, v. soil, vi. a modern dinner, clothing. i. colonial conditions, ii. the cotton gin, iii. cotton, iv. wool, v. leather, vi. needles, vii. the steam engine, travel. i. by land, ii. by water, iii. stagecoaches, iv. steamboats, v. canals, vi. railroads, vii. modern water travel, viii. modern land travel, letters. i. language, ii. the printing press, iii. the postal system, iv. signaling, v. the telegraph, vi. the atlantic cable, vii. the telephone, viii. conclusion, list of illustrations. frontispiece page count rumford a new england kitchen one hundred years ago a train leaving the station a vestal virgin iroquois long house indian method of broiling plying the axe a colonial fireplace hauling in a backlog cooking in a colonial kitchen a franklin stove in a coal mine blacksmith at his forge thomas carrying fire tinder box, flint, and matches thomas a. edison minot ledge light, massachusetts bay indians traveling at night ancient lamps franklin making candles reading by candlelight whale fishing oil wells a gasometer edison's heroic act grace darling cyrus h. mccormick cutting sugar cane in the hawaiian islands indians hunting game the corn dance captain john smith an ancient plow mowing with scythes a reaper and binder the mccormick reaper threshing with flail colonists in a shallop an irrigating trench a rice field a dinner party loading fish at gloucester a cattle train drying coffee in java eli whitney a quilting bee in the olden time tailor and cobbler flax wheel an old-fashioned loom a cotton field a cotton pod the cotton gin president jackson and mr. slater the interior of a modern cotton mill sheep-shearing dr. whitman starting on his journey sewing by hand an old windmill a corliss engine robert fulton an ocean steamer a man and his wife traveling on horseback the bay-path pilgrim exiles a birch-bark canoe old-style calashes an old-fashioned stagecoach munroe tavern, lexington, mass. fitch's steamboat collision of the _clermont_ and the sloop the erie canal old-style railroad train a river tunnel a pullman sleeper brooklyn bridge the boston subway electric car, new york city samuel f. b. morse modern printing presses ancient implements of writing an ancient scribe a franklin press postage stamps assorting mail on the train signaling by beacon fires electric wires morse hears of his success laying an ocean cable the _great eastern_ a telephone alexander bell using a long-distance telephone [illustration: count rumford.] [illustration: a new england kitchen one hundred years ago.] american inventions and inventors. section i.--heat chapter i. fire. "all aboard!" cries the conductor, and slowly the long train draws out of the san francisco station on its way to chicago and the atlantic coast. three sleepers, two chair coaches, passenger, baggage, and mail cars, loaded with travelers, trunks, and pouches of letters and papers; we are familiar with the sight of these heavy cars and the puffing engine which draws them. but what makes the train move? what power is great enough to do this? it is the power of steam, and steam is made from water by means of fire. [illustration: a train leaving the station.] now the long journey across the continent is over, and we are standing on the dock in new york city. here we see the steamboat _puritan_, thronged with passengers, ready to steam away from the wharf on its regular night trip to fall river. for hours, perhaps, we have been watching the longshoremen as they have rushed back and forth, loading the great vessel with freight for new england. a few minutes later, as we see the majestic steamer, hundreds of feet long--larger than most city business buildings--slowly, but gracefully moving away from the dock, we say to ourselves, "can it be that steam, caused by fire, has power enough to make the steamboat move through the water like this?" while we watch the steamer glide around castle garden into east river, evening begins to come on; we must hasten uptown. as we pass along broadway, lights flash out in the darkness and our thoughts are again turned to fire and steam. we have heard that the source of the electric light is in the dynamo, and that steam power is used to turn that great machine. the enormous engine, the mammoth boat, the brilliant light--all need the power of steam, and nothing but fire will produce this steam. what, then, is fire? and is its only use that of changing quiet, liquid water into powerful steam? let us see. did you notice that machine shop which we passed when we were in cleveland a few days ago? did you see those furnaces with the huge volumes of flame bursting out of the open doors? you know that great heat is necessary to make tools and other implements of iron, and all the instruments of everyday life that are formed out of metals. our pens and needles, our hoes and rakes, our horseshoes, our stoves and furnaces, our registers and the iron of our desks--all depend upon heat for their production. fire can do much for us. to change water into steam is but one of its powers. fire and heat are behind most of the operations of modern life. as we open the door of the house we are met by a current of warm air rushing out into the chilly evening. it is the last of october, and in the middle of the day windows and doors have been left wide open to let in all the light and warmth of the bright sunshine. but it is evening now, and the sun has long since sunk below the horizon; it no longer gives us any of its heat. all night the air will grow colder and colder, and were we unprotected by clothing we should suffer from the chill atmosphere. even coverings are not sufficient to keep the heat of our bodies from passing off into the air, just as the warm air rushed out through the open hall door. it has been found necessary to warm the air in our houses so that the bodily heat, which we need to sustain life, may not so easily be lost. the heat which the sun furnishes us is called natural heat; that which is produced by the skill of man is called artificial heat. this artificial heat is used for a fourth purpose also. as we have seen, it makes steam for the locomotive, the steamboat, and other engines; it is necessary in the manufacture of tools and various utensils out of iron and other metals; and it warms our houses and schools, our offices and stores. it is also used everywhere and by everybody in cooking. had we no fires or artificial heat of some sort we should have to eat our meat and fish raw; we could only mix our meal and flour with cold water, which would not be palatable to most of us; our vegetables, uncooked, would fail to satisfy us; and many of us would find ourselves limited to fruits and nuts, which would be hardly sufficient to keep us in good health, to say the least. have you ever thought that men or human beings are very much like other animals? have you ever tried to find out the important differences between man and what are called the lower animals? one of these differences comes right in the line of our present thought. dogs are fond of meat, and so are most people; but dogs do not need to have their meat cooked as we do. horses whinny for their oats at night and morning; but they would not care for our favorite breakfast dish of cooked oatmeal. bears are partly protected from the cold by their thick, shaggy coverings of fur; but even in very cold regions they have no warm fire around which to gather. man is the "only fire-making animal," and to this fact he owes much of his power. if we read the history of the world, and especially the story of the earlier life of the different nations and peoples, we shall find that fire was considered by them all to be one of the greatest blessings belonging to man. they thought that the gods whom they worshipped also treasured fire. the romans offered sacrifices to vesta, the goddess of the fireplace, and it was the duty of the vestal virgins to keep a fire always burning on her altar. among the greeks the hearth or fireplace itself was an object of worship. [illustration: a vestal virgin.] these early peoples regarded the blessing of fire as so great that they believed it must have originally belonged to the gods alone. many of them had traditions that the gods did not permit men in the earliest ages to have any knowledge or use of fire. myths or stories have been found among the people of australia, asia, europe, and america, telling how fire had been stolen from the gods and brought down to men. the best of these stories is that of the greek, prometheus, whose name means "forethought." this ancient mythical hero was supposed to have been the great friend and benefactor of mankind. but of all his gifts to men the most valuable was the gift of fire. according to the old myth, prometheus went up into olympus, the greek heaven, and was welcomed by the gods. while there he examined the fire of the gods and thought what a blessing it would be to mankind. acting under the advice of athene, the goddess of wisdom, he stole some fire from the sun god, concealed it in a hollow reed, and brought it back with him to earth. in early times there were no matches, and if a fire went out it was not easy to kindle it again. probably the people wondered how the fire was made for the first time. they knew that it must have been obtained somehow, from somewhere; and out of this grew the story of prometheus among the greeks, and of the other fire stealers, the heroes of other peoples in all parts of the globe. but all these stories of the fire of the gods and the way in which human beings were able to get hold of this priceless blessing we now know to be only myths. students of early history are agreed that all men, everywhere, and at all times, have had the knowledge and the use of fire. great differences exist between civilized and uncivilized people; the savages of interior africa seem almost to belong to a different species of being from the cultured people of europe and america; but all are able to warm themselves and to cook their food by means of burning fuel. civilized man has better arrangements for kindling his fire, better means of obtaining more good from it, and better ways for avoiding the smoke and other unpleasant features than has uncivilized man. a savage would not understand the modern chimney nor a kitchen range. he would be utterly at a loss to comprehend our modes of heating by the hot-air furnace or the coils of steam pipes. the forest provides him with all the wood that he needs for his fire, and he has little or no knowledge of coal or oil or gas. thus you and i are far in advance of the poor, half clad, half warmed savage; we are also in far more comfortable circumstances than were our ancestors who came from europe to america two or three hundred years ago. in all the ages of the past until within a few hundred years little advance had been made in the methods of obtaining artificial heat. but since columbus set sail from spain, since john cabot first saw the shores of this continent, since john smith made friends with the indians in virginia, and william bradford guided the lives of the pilgrims at plymouth, discoveries and inventions have changed most of our habits and customs as well as our surroundings. the methods of heating our houses and cooking our food have altered greatly, and we cannot fail to be interested in comparing the simple wood fires of long ago with the complex ways in which heat is now evenly distributed wherever it is wanted. for a little while, then, let us turn our thoughts to the primitive forms of heating and cooking which were common three centuries ago, and see in what ways the modern systems of providing artificial heat have been developed. chapter ii. indian homes. our homes and their surroundings are so familiar to us that it is hard for us to realize that our country was not always as it is now. let us think about it. have you seen any changes near where you live since you can remember? have any new houses been built? do you know of any old buildings that have been torn down in order that larger or better ones might take their places? have you watched men making a new street or road, or, perhaps, working upon an old road to make it better? if you have, then you can think back to a time when some house that you can see to-day was not there; a time when there were not so many roads nor such good streets as now. can you think back still further to a time when the house in which you live had not been built? when the street in front of your house had not been made? can you imagine a time, still further back, when none of the houses in your city or village were standing? when there were no streets at all within sight of the place where you live? then it will not be so very hard to think of the time, four hundred years ago, when there were no houses of wood, brick, or stone, such as we now see, anywhere in this country; when there was not a carriage road nor a street of any kind in the whole united states. we will try to imagine how this country looked before any white people lived in it, and before the cities and towns and villages and farms and ranches, that are so familiar to us, had been begun. four hundred years ago john cabot sailed across the atlantic ocean and saw this country for the first time. as his little vessel moved along the coast, he looked upon bays and mouths of rivers which were very much as they are to-day. the peninsulas, the capes, and the islands were in the same places that they now are. they were, however, almost entirely covered with woods. here and there were fields of grass, through which blue streams were flowing; but the larger part of what is now new england and the other atlantic states was covered with thick forests. the trees were large and close together; their branches had never been cut off, and grew close to the ground. shrubs and bushes filled all the space that was left between the larger trees, and made it almost impossible for any one to pass through. wild animals had made paths for themselves, but if people had attempted to use these paths they would have been obliged to get down on their hands and knees and crawl through them. the rivers and the smaller streams of water were the best roads in those days; for unless they were shallow or flowed too swiftly down the rapids, boats could quite easily be pushed up stream as well as be carried down by the current. in this country, covered with forests, were there only wild animals? were there no human beings: no men, nor women, nor children? no white men lived in new england; the city of new york had not even been thought of; baltimore and savannah were impassable forests; and the great west was only a hunting ground. but the red men or american indians did live in this country and were its only owners. the indians did not live in many roomed houses of wood or brick or stone; they never built roads or streets; nor did they ride in carriages. if they wished to go from one place to another they used canoes on the rivers as far as they could; if they wished to cross the land from one stream to another they made a foot path, called a trail. sometimes a trail was broad enough to permit a canoe to be carried. thus the indians could travel long distances without growing tired from much walking. the indians must have had dwelling places to protect them from the cold and the storms which were as common then as now. many tribes of indians were in the habit of moving frequently from place to place, and for this reason their homes were not built for permanent use, but were made of materials that could be quickly put together. the indians that lived in canada and new england were more roving than those of new york; therefore their houses were very simple. they were long and narrow, with rounded roofs, and covered on the tops and sides with matting that could be readily removed. the iroquois, dwelling south of lake ontario, were a little more civilized than their neighbors, and built more permanent houses. their dwellings were very long, from one to two hundred feet in length, and usually about thirty feet wide. the frames were made of long sticks or poles, set firmly in the ground; other poles formed the roof, with two sloping sides, over which were laid large strips of elm bark. these houses had a door at each end, with no windows, and light entered only through the doors and the large openings in the roof. the openings were made at frequent intervals to allow the escape of the smoke from the fires directly beneath. although the indian dwellings varied greatly among the different tribes, in none of them did a family live by itself usually twenty or more families dwelt together in each of the iroquois "long houses." a building planned for twenty families had ten stalls or open closets as they might be called, arranged along each side. an open passageway ran the entire length of the house from door to door, in which were built five fires at equal distances. each fire belonged to the four families whose stalls--two on each side--opened directly toward it. [illustration: iroquois long house]. now let us imagine ourselves in one of these long houses, and let us try to see just how everything looked. let us suppose that it is a little after sunset on a cold, stormy winter evening. we are glad to get under any covering in order to be somewhat protected from the biting wind and the stinging sleet. we have been welcomed by the indians, have been made the guests of one of the families, and have been given something to eat. supper over, we are able to look about us and to think whether we should consider ourselves cosy and comfortable if this were our own home. the first thing that we observe is the fire, as it snaps and hisses. how warm it is, and how good it feels as we toast our cold hands and feet before it! but somehow we begin to wish that we were back beside our own stove. then our eyes would not ache from the smoke. why does it not go out at the top? it tries to, but the wind blows it back into the house so that, at times, it fills every corner, blinding our eyes, stifling our breath, and covering us with cinders from head to foot. but as we sit, turk fashion, squatted before the fire, we notice that we are being slowly covered up by something else than cinders. although all the smoke does not go out at the opening, it seems as if almost all the snow did come in. at times it falls gently, slowly sifting into every fold in our clothing, into our eyes and ears, and gradually covering everything with its mantle of white. at other times a strong gust of wind sweeps down into the room, almost putting out the fire, and chilling us through and through in spite of the roaring blaze. now cold shivers begin to run down our backs. besides, our limbs are growing tired from sitting so long in the unusual position. so we think that we will try a change, and we decide to lie down at full length with our faces to the fire. it is not easy to move into the new position, because our neighbors are crowded so close to us; but we finally succeed. in a very few minutes our feet begin to ache with the cold and our faces seem burning up with the heat. shall we change again, and for a time let our heads get cool while we warm our feet? we cannot keep this up all night, but we would need to do so if we tried to be really comfortable. in this way the indians lived. they had no beds, no separate chambers, no kitchen, dining room, nor parlor. in this one room, if it can be called a room, all the families ate and slept. around these fires they spent their time while in the house. here they lay stretched out for sleep, with skins of animals under them as a slight protection from the damp ground. they did not spend much time in changing their clothes, for they practically wore the same night and day. they really needed only the roof to cover them and the fire to warm them. though the fire warmed them unevenly, though the smoke was uncomfortable, though the cold, the snow, and the rain came in at the opening and all around the sides of the house, yet the indians had a covering, they had a fire, and they were to a great degree contented and happy. [illustration: indian method of broiling.] they were used to this life; they knew no other. even after the white men came and the indians had seen them in their houses, they had no desire to change their mode of living. "ugh!" grunted an old redskin, as he studied the white man's ways;--"ugh! injun make a little fire and set close to him; white man make a big fire and set way off." the indians needed food as well as covering. their cooking must have been quite different from that which is done on a large modern kitchen range. they had no domestic animals except the dog; no cows nor pigs, no hens nor turkeys. they were compelled to hunt wild animals if they wanted meat. this meat they usually broiled; not on a broiler or a toaster, but upon slats or strips of wood placed above the fire. fish was cooked in the same way. sometimes they boiled the meat. for this they usually had wooden dishes, which could not be put over the fire. these were filled with water, into which red hot stones were placed. when the water had been heated the food was put in it to be cooked. we should now have some idea of the manner of life among the indians. we have learned a little about their houses and their habits; we have seen how they made their fires and did their cooking; we have heard about their trails and their canoes, and the way in which they traveled from place to place. thus lived the american indians or red men three or four hundred years ago, and thus they would probably be living to-day if columbus or some one else had not discovered america; if the english, the french, and the spaniards had not come across the ocean; if farms and villages, towns and cities had not sprung up all over the country; if the white men had not taken much of the land over which the indians had roamed for centuries; and if the indians had not learned much from the white men which has greatly changed their conditions. chapter iii. colonial homes. the indians, seated in their long community houses around their wood fires, ranging over their hunting ground seeking fresh meat, or stealthily creeping through the forest hoping to surprise some human enemy, at last found that they could no longer have this entire continent to themselves. more than four hundred years ago europeans discovered the "new world" and began to explore it. more than three hundred years ago the spaniards conquered the indians in mexico and made a settlement in florida. nearly three hundred years ago the french began to build homes in canada, the dutch in new york, and the english in virginia and new england. these white men, with their wives and children, crossed the atlantic ocean in the small vessels of those days, and built villages and cleared the land for farms. their settlements were generally near the seacoast or the great rivers. the pioneers were thus nearer one another, and could the more readily hasten to each other's assistance in case of need. the newcomers were not alike in appearance or habits. the french had different customs from the spaniards. they not only spoke a different language, but they wore different kinds of clothes, tilled the soil in a different way, and lived in houses of different styles. the dutch were quite unlike the english. then, again, the life of the english in virginia was different from life in new england: in the former colony some of the settlers were wealthy, owned large plantations, and lived at long distances from one another; in the latter the colonists had more nearly equal possessions, occupied smaller farms, and lived close together. although the colonists thus had differing habits and customs, in many respects they were much alike. they had come to a country where everything was new. no mills nor factories were run by the streams; no shops made clothing or farming tools; no stores sold furniture or groceries. everything that the colonists needed must be either brought across the ocean or roughly made by themselves. of course only the rich could afford the expense of bringing heavy articles three thousand miles in sailing vessels; therefore a large part of what the colonists wore or ate or used for furniture or buildings was rude and of home manufacture. a description of the mode of life in one section of the country will give something of an idea of how the colonists lived in other sections. [illustration: plying the axe.] almost the first thing that was necessary for the colonist to do, as soon as he had determined where he was to live, was to build his house; he began at once to fell the trees. the axe was one of the most important of his possessions and he soon learned to use it with great skill. if he needed his house immediately he usually built it of rough, unsplit logs, filling the spaces with clay and covering the roof with thatch. there is a story told of a log house which was built in the early part of one winter. the trees were cut when their trunks were frozen, and were laid in proper position to form the sides of the cabin. the stone chimney was built, and the house was ready. day after day the great fireplace sent out its heat into the single room, until the sap in the logs was melted and little shoots with tender leaves began to form, which in time, at the ends of the logs nearest the fire, grew into long twigs. the logs had remained frozen on the outside, but had thawed within--a pleasant suggestion of the cheer and comfort found in a well warmed house. if the newcomer had neighbors who could shelter his family for a time, he would split the logs and make a house somewhat tighter and better protected from cold and storm. after a time lumber mills were built and the logs were sawed into planks and boards. many of the earliest new england houses contained but one room with an attic. the house was entered directly from out-of-doors, and was lighted by windows set with very small panes of glass or oiled paper. in one corner was the staircase, which sometimes was merely a ladder or perhaps a few cleats nailed on the framework. the furniture was meagre and most of it rudely made. can we see any improvement in this rough cottage over the indian long house? it was more permanent; it was tighter and warmer; it was the abode of one family; it was a real home. in another respect the comfort of the log cabin was greatly increased: it had an enclosed fireplace and a chimney. some years ago fireplaces were seldom seen in our dwellings. in many of the old houses, in which the fireplaces were as old as the houses themselves, they were never used and were either boarded up or carefully screened from view. but more recently they have come into use again, and now seldom is a well arranged house built without one or more open fireplaces. we are then--most of us--acquainted with this small opening in the side or the corner of the room, in which small logs of wood burn upon the andirons or a bed of coals upon the grate. however, this modern grate or hearth is very unlike the huge fireplace of one and two centuries ago. in the houses in which your great-grandmother and her mother and grandmother and great-grandmother lived the fireplace was not confined to a corner of the room, nor did it burn sticks fifteen or eighteen inches long. in the oldest house now standing in rhode island the fireplace was nearly ten feet long and about four feet in depth. its back and sides were of stone, nearly two feet thick, and the chimney, thirteen feet by six, did not begin to narrow, as it went upward, until it reached the roof. this fireplace made an excellent play-house when the fire was out, and children found great delight in watching the stars from their seat in the chimney corner. [illustration: a colonial fireplace.] at first this open fireplace, with the fire burning in the centre, was the only means for cooking which our ancestors possessed. when they were able to build larger houses, with two, four, or eight rooms, even two stories high, they still had the great hearths; not one alone, but one in each of the principal rooms, and sometimes in the chambers. as time went on, stone or brick ovens were built by the side of the fireplaces, and frequently tin or "dutch" ovens were brought across the ocean and used in case of need. let us look into one of these old houses on a saturday, or "baking day," and notice some of the pleasures and inconveniences of cooking in olden time. when mother brown rises at half past four in the morning she dresses quickly, for the coals, which had been carefully covered up, have given out little heat during the bitter, cold night. before she can wash her hands and face she must start up the fire, for all the water in the house is frozen. she carefully rakes off the ashes from the coals which are still "alive," deftly lays on them a few shavings and pieces of bark, and, when they begin to burn brightly, piles upon them small and then larger sticks of wood. now father brown and john, the hired man, who have come in from doing the chores, lift on to the fire one of the six foot logs, three or four feet in circumference, which have been previously brought in. then mother brown calls the children. ruth, the eldest, is already nearly dressed; mehitable, just in her teens, is soon ready; while polly, "the baby," nearly eight years old, finds it hard work to crawl out from between the sheets. the boys are even harder to rouse, for mother has to call nathaniel, aged eleven, three times before he appears, and joseph, two years younger, is slower still. we will not stop to notice the breakfast, which is eaten, and the dishes washed, long before the sun rises. now the outside door opens and in comes the old white horse, hauling a great backlog. john unhitches the chain and rolls the log upon the fire. this done, the horse goes out at the door opposite the one he entered. father brown brings in several armfuls of brush and heavier sticks, and throws them down near the fireplace. as this is baking day, the oven must be made ready the great brick oven, one side of which makes also one side of the fireplace, is filled with the brush and light wood, which is soon burning briskly. for an hour the fire is kept up, new wood being thrown in when necessary; then it is allowed to go out. meanwhile mother brown and ruth are busy--mixing and rolling, sifting rye and indian meal, stirring up eggs, and adding milk and butter. by the time the oven is heated the cooks are ready to use it; and mehitable rakes out the coals and ashes with a long stick, shaped like a shepherd's crook. [illustration: hauling in a backlog.] first the pans of "rye 'n' injun" bread are laid in the oven, away back at the farther end. then the "pandowdy" or great apple pudding and the "injun" pudding are placed in front of the bread. while the bread and the puddings are baking, two tin ovens are brought in and prepared for use. these dutch ovens are mere sheets of metal curved around into more than half a circle, with the opening placed toward the fire. a long iron rod runs through from side to side of the oven on which the meat for roast is to be spitted. mother brown removes one of the spits and thrusts it through a piece of beef, and in the same way spits a fat turkey on the other. here is work for little polly, upon whom rests the task of frequently turning the spit so that the meat is evenly roasted. later in the day, when the bread is baked, the oven is heated again and filled with pies--apple, mince, squash, and pumpkin. by the time these are baked the day is done. the coals on the hearth are covered with ashes and the tired cooks gladly retire for the night. [illustration: cooking in a colonial kitchen.] on other days meat is boiled in pots that are hung from the crane, a long, swinging, iron rod which reaches directly over the fire or may be turned out into the room. upon the hearth potatoes are baked, corn is roasted, and other primitive forms of cooking are used. we have made a long step from the indian's open fire and his simple cooking to the brick and tin ovens and the metal pots and kettles of our ancestors; but is it not a longer step to the coal, oil, and gas ranges of to-day? chapter iv. chimneys. remembering our experience in the indian long house--the discomfort of the smoke and the opening in the roof--we shall understand another great improvement in the colonist's house. even the log cabin had its chimney. the rising column of hot air from the fire, carrying the smoke with it, is confined between walls of stone or brick, and the room is fairly free from smoke. why did not the indian build a chimney? the temporary nature of his dwelling may have been a partial reason; but the red man's lack of civilization was doubtless the most effective cause. even many so-called civilized nations built their houses without chimneys, and in fact this convenience is but a few centuries old. the ancient greeks are praised for their high civilization, and yet they were little better off than the savage indians of the new world in the methods of heating their houses. neither the greeks nor the romans had chimneys for their dwellings. it is true that greece and italy are warmer countries than england or most of the united states, and doors and windows could be left open with less discomfort than with us. much of the smoke might thus escape, but enough doubtless remained to be unpleasant. the greeks refrained from carving the rooms in which fires were built, for they realized that such ornamentation would soon be discolored by soot. after greece had been conquered by the romans and rome had been overthrown by the germanic tribes, much of the ancient civilization was lost and the "dark ages" followed. during this period the people throughout europe made their fires in holes in the centre of the room, under an opening in the roof--just as we have seen that the indians did. when the family went to bed at night they covered the hole in the roof with a board and also threw ashes over the coals, to prevent the wooden house from catching fire while they slept. it was the custom in every town, for many centuries, to ring the curfew or "cover-fire" bell each night, warning the inhabitants to cover their fires, put out their lights, and go to bed. the first chimneys were probably built in northern italy about seven hundred years ago. the story is told that the lord of padua went to rome in and found no chimney in his hotel. the romans still held to the custom of kindling their fires in openings in the ground in the middle of the room. the lord of padua, longing for the comforts to which he was accustomed, sent to padua for carpenters and masons, and had them build two chimneys like those at home. on the top of these he had his coat of arms affixed. gradually chimneys came into use throughout europe, and when the colonists came to america they built them as a matter of course. as we have seen, the fireplaces were mammoth, and the chimneys therefore were also of great size; and for this reason, although the discomfort from the smoke was less than in the indian long houses, it was not wholly avoided. for centuries, however, people had been used to the smoke, which occasionally poured back into the room instead of going up the chimney, and it did not occur to them, any more than to the red men, that it could be avoided. not until a new england boy, who was then living in england, began to study into the cause of smoking chimneys was any relief obtained. benjamin thompson was born in woburn, massachusetts, and had just come to manhood when the american revolution broke out. partly owing to certain family connections, he took the side of king george iii., and went to england. after the war was over he went to bavaria, entered the service of the king, and became his chamberlain. he rose through various positions until he became minister of war, and was made count rumford. he remained in bavaria a few years, then lived for a time in england, and spent his last days in paris. both in bavaria and in england, count rumford devoted himself to science and the improvement of the conditions of his fellow men. it would be interesting to know the steps that he took and the good that he did, but we can here notice only some of his improvements in the methods of heating houses. as a scientist he was asked to "cure" smoking chimneys, and he succeeded so well that he once said he had "cured" more than five hundred in london alone. he found out the simple fact that smoke will readily go up a chimney, unless there is something to stop it. all that was necessary was to discover the trouble and remove it. in nearly all of the five hundred chimneys nothing more was needed than to make the lower part of the chimney and the fireplace of the right form and size. one firm of builders was kept constantly employed carrying out his suggestions. not only did he "cure" the chimneys, but he also prevented the waste of much heat. in accordance with his directions the square fireplace was changed so that the sides made a greater angle with the back and would therefore reflect more heat into the room. he also made the space about the fire smaller, thus rendering the air hotter and therefore more ready to rush up the chimney, carrying more of the smoke with it. count rumford's ideas have been generally followed since his day, and now fireplaces seldom give out smoke into the room while they furnish more heat. count rumford next took up the problem of improving stoves. before we consider his improvements, however, we must note something about the first stoves. another massachusetts boy, born nearly half a century before benjamin thompson, also became a scientist, inventor, and discoverer. benjamin franklin was a traveler and in many other respects was like count rumford. but he chose to go with the colonies when they revolted from great britain, and he gave all his services to his fellow countrymen. a few years before the birth of thompson, franklin made an invention which was the first improved method of heating rooms. there had been so-called german stoves before his day, but they were not much used in this country. [illustration: a franklin stove.] it was in that franklin, while in philadelphia, devised the "franklin stove" or "pennsylvania fireplace." it consisted of iron sides, back and top, and was entirely open in front. a flue was arranged in the back which connected with the chimney to carry off the smoke. this movable fireplace was designed to burn wood, comparatively small logs being used. it had many advantages over the stone fireplace. it was set up nearer the middle of the room, thus sending heat out in all directions and warming the entire room. it saved much of the heat which had previously passed directly up the chimney and been lost. in the pennsylvania fireplace this heat warmed the iron on the top of the stove and at the back, as well as the flue itself, all of which warmed the air in the room. saving the heat saved wood also. franklin himself said: "my common room, i know, is made twice as warm as it used to be, with a quarter of the wood i formerly consumed there." franklin was offered a patent for his device by the governor of pennsylvania, but he declined it. he declared that inasmuch as "we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours." unfortunately, however, the people did not obtain from his generosity all the advantages that franklin expected, for a london iron manufacturer made some slight changes in the pattern, not improving the stove in the least, and obtained a patent. from the sale of these stoves he made what was called "a small fortune." franklin's fireplace was but the first in a long series of inventions that have brought to us the stove of to-day. the great merit in his work was the idea of giving up the stone fireplace for one of iron. changes in the form and shape of the stove have followed as a matter of course. no special credit is due to any one else, unless it be to count rumford, who, after curing the chimneys, made a cook stove with an oven. then, for the first time since men knew how to cook over a fire, cooking could be carried on and the cook be protected from the direct heat of the fire. thus we come to the modern house with its modern stoves. no longer have we but one method of heating a dwelling. sometimes a stove is set up in each of the rooms. sometimes a larger stove is placed in the cellar, and this furnace heats air that is carried by large pipes or flues to the rooms, where the heated air comes out through registers. sometimes a furnace in the cellar heats water, and hot water or steam is sent through small pipes, and passing through coils or radiators gives out heat. besides, the cooking range is found in most kitchens. all these systems of heating houses exist instead of the old-fashioned fireplace. even when the modern grate is built, it is usual to find a register or steam coil on the opposite side of the room, because the open fire is apt to warm one side of the room only. it is pleasant, however, to look into a blazing fire, and we are sometimes almost willing to have the heat unevenly distributed if only we can watch the flames. some form of the stove, however, is our main dependence, and its various developments have been due, generally, to the desire of being freed from the discomforts of the old time methods. perhaps also the growing scarcity of wood and the discovery of coal have had some effect upon the development of the stove; but that we must leave to another chapter. chapter v. fuel. "what do you burn in the stoves in your houses?" was asked of a class of schoolchildren in a small pennsylvania town. hands went up in every direction; one said "kerosene oil"; two others shouted "gas"; a few replied "wood"; most of the class answered "coal." then the teacher made further inquiries to learn why these different substances were used. the three who answered gas and oil agreed that coal was burned in other stoves in their houses, but that oil and gas stoves were used also because they were so convenient. when the question was asked why coal was used, instantly the answer was given that coal was the best thing to burn; everybody burned it. now this was not quite true, but miss turner, the teacher, instead of immediately correcting the error, turned to the pupils who had answered "wood," and inquired why they used wood. one said, "we haven't any coal"; another thought that it was because wood kindled more easily than coal; a third was sure that he was right--"we don't have to buy wood; coal costs money." now this boy had the correct idea. he lived in the country, though near the town. his father owned a large farm, a part of which was still forest land; he could cut his own wood, and therefore did not buy coal. after a few more questions the teacher discovered that all those who burned wood lived some little distance from town. then she turned to the class again and asked them if they could now tell why the town families used coal instead of wood. one said, "we do not own forests." another thought that it was because there were not trees enough. a third shook his hand wildly and shouted, "coal is cheaper than wood!" a shy little girl ventured to suggest, "because coal is better than wood; it lasts longer." "you have each of you given a good reason," miss turner answered. "coal is cheaper than wood here in the town because wood is growing more and more scarce. many of your parents prefer coal because with it the fire needs less attention. but the coal dealers charge more to carry coal out into the country, and those who still own forests find it cheaper to burn their own wood. what sort of replies would i have received if i had asked the same questions of children in pennsylvania colony, or in any of the colonies, one hundred and fifty or two hundred years ago?" the children had studied history somewhat. they knew the story of columbus and his discoveries; they had read of the pilgrims and the puritans; they could have answered questions concerning john smith and henry hudson; and they were especially familiar with william penn and the quakers, with george washington and braddock's defeat. but not one of them remembered that he had ever been told anything about the fires of the colonists. there was a pause for a time; then one boy asked, "didn't they burn just what we burn?" after another pause the shy little girl asked, "didn't they have more forests then than now?" before the teacher could reply, a boy said, "perhaps they did not have any coal." the children had thus thought it out for themselves, and they were right. miss turner then told them that it was many years after the time of columbus or hudson or penn before coal mines were discovered in this country or coal used. she added that almost all the country, from maine to georgia and westward across the alleghany mountains, was covered with thick forests when the colonists crossed the atlantic ocean. "what do you suppose our ancestors thought of these forests? were they glad to see them, or did they wish that they covered less ground?" asked the teacher. most of the children answered that the forests must have been of great value to the colonists; they would not have to pay anything for fuel. "can you raise vegetables or grain in the woods?" was miss turner's next question. then the pupils began to see that the forests were hindrances as well as helps. the teacher told them that they gave the colonists more wood than was needed for fires and for lumber. she added that every acre of ground that they wished to plant with indian corn or rye, with potatoes or squashes, must first be freed from the trees. before the land could be plowed it must be cleared. if, then, the trees furnished more wood than could be used, it was natural for the farmer to burn the trees and stumps in the fields. if there had been but few settlers and if they had been widely scattered over a large territory, no harm would have resulted. but the colonists came over by the thousands and had large families of children. by the time the country had been settled a hundred years, great gaps had been made in the forests. a few of the most foresighted of the colonists began to think about the future and to wonder what they would do for fuel if the wood should give out. in fact, trees began to be scarce in the neighborhood of the larger towns, and firewood as well as lumber became expensive. "suppose that all the forests in this country had been destroyed," the class was asked, "what would the people have done for fuel?" "used coal," replied a boy from a back seat. "yes," said miss turner, "if there were any coal, and if the colonists knew where to find it and how to use it. but what is this coal and where does it come from?" "we owe all our knowledge of the origin of coal to the geologists, who have made a careful study of the surface of the earth," continued miss turner. "they tell us that there was a time when human beings did not live on the earth; when not even animals that need to breathe the air could exist. the atmosphere which surrounded the earth in those days was different from the air which we breathe. we need the oxygen that is in our air to sustain life; poor ventilation in our rooms or halls soon renders them uncomfortable and often causes our heads to ache. the reason for this is the presence in the air of too large a quantity of a gas called carbonic acid gas; an extra amount of it makes the air unfit to breathe, but a certain amount is necessary to sustain plant life. "in the coal-forming or carboniferous age the atmosphere around the earth contained less oxygen than at present and great quantities of carbonic acid gas. for this reason, as i have said, animals did not exist, but plants--large shrubs, great ferns, and huge trees--lived and grew vigorously. if we have ever seen thick woods we need only imagine all the bushes and trees of the forest to be of enormous size in order to have some idea of the vegetable growth of the carboniferous age. the earth was preparing vast quantities of fuel to be ready, thousands of years later, for the millions of men that were to come. "the growth of the forests was but one step in the preparation of coal. the second step was the submerging of the forests, covering them with water as if at the bottom of the sea. then the streams brought gravel, sand, and mud into this ocean, and these were hardened into clay and sandstone by the pressure of the water, perhaps aided by the heat of the earth itself. the trees and ferns were bent down and pressed together and driven into the most compact condition possible. "but again earthquakes came and the water disappeared. the layer of clay and sandstone was covered with soil which became dry enough to produce other forests, growing as rank as the first. these were again overwhelmed and covered first with water, then with rocks and soil, only to be lifted again for another growth. this process was repeated in some cases many times, as we can see with a little study." here miss turner stopped and said: "next saturday, if it is pleasant, we will have our annual spring picnic. we will go to a new place this time. we will try howland's grove, and then in the afternoon we will go down into the jefferson mine and see what it is like." we have not time to read about the picnic, nor of the interest that the class showed before the appointed saturday, as well as all the forenoon of that day. nor can we tell how the children went down the shaft of the mine, and how they were at first so quiet that hardly a word was said. the teacher showed them a layer of coal in the mine which was about three feet thick. just above it was a rock which was different from the coal. this they were told was sandstone, the hardened sand which had been heaped upon the forests so many thousand years before. then below the coal was another rock which was entirely unlike either the coal or the sandstone. this was the seat-stone, the rock made out of the soil in which the forest had grown. then below this they found three more layers, sandstone, coal, and seat-stone, and so on until the bottom of the mine was reached. by this time the children were ready to ask questions. "oh, miss turner, what is this curious-looking thing in this part of the seat-stone?" asked one of the boys. miss turner replied: "that is a fossil. it is part of a root of a tree, and has retained its shape and appearance all these thousands and thousands of years." [illustration: in a coal mine.] one of the miners who had been listening to the conversation said: "if you will step this way, madam, i can show you the whole of a tree-trunk in the coal." the children eagerly crowded around as the miner showed the fossilized trunk of a tree still standing just as it grew, with its roots in the seat-stone and its top in the sandstone above the coal--for here the layer of coal was several feet in thickness. a few minutes afterward, as the children were looking carefully at the sides of the mine to see if they could find more fossils, the shy little girl said quietly to the teacher: "i think that i have found something, miss turner; won't you please see?" she led the way to a trunk which showed the various stages in the process of change. one end was still almost like wood, the middle part was a very soft brown coal, while the other end was true coal. "that helps us to understand more about the way in which the forests were changed to coal," said miss turner. "now here is one more proof that coal was formed out of wood." the teacher picked up a piece of coal and broke it with a hammer. then she showed on the new surface some patches of a black substance. "does not that look like charcoal?" she asked. "you know that charcoal is wood partly burned." thus the class learned how nature, ages and ages ago, began to prepare for the use of man a fuel which seems inexhaustible, is superior to wood in many respects, and is freely distributed in various portions of the world. this coal, which has taken the place of wood to a great extent in furnishing heat for our houses and stores, is found in large quantities in the united states, but was not mined or used here until the middle of the last century. chapter vi. coal. the use of coal for heating purposes is so familiar to every one nowadays that probably few have ever thought about the time when it was unknown. coal was as plentiful three thousand years ago as it is now. layers and beds of the fuel existed just under the surface of the ground, and in many places cropped out through it. but the stones were merely "black rocks," and the idea that rocks would burn was too absurd to occur to any one. we may well wonder how it was first discovered that coal would burn. professor greene suggests a possible explanation of this discovery. "there is in coal a hard, yellow, brassy mineral which flies in the fire and not infrequently startles the circle that has gathered around its cheerful blaze. when exposed to damp air this mineral undergoes chemical change, and during the process heat is given out, sometimes in sufficient quantities to set the coal alight. in this way it occasionally happens that seams of coal, when they lie near the surface, take fire of their own accord. one day a savage on a stroll was startled by finding the ground warm beneath his feet, and by seeing smoke and sulphurous vapors issuing from it. he laid it first to a supernatural cause; but curiosity getting the better of superstition, he scraped away the earth to find whence the reek came. then he saw a bed of black stone, loose blocks of which he had already noticed lying about; parts of this stone were smouldering, and as soon as air was admitted burst into a blaze." whether coal was thus discovered or not, its first discovery must have occurred early in the history of the world. more than twenty centuries ago the greek scholar, theophrastus, wrote of the coals which were used by blacksmiths. there are indications that coal was mined in england before that country was conquered by the romans. but not until the twelfth century was enough of the mineral mined in newcastle, the great coal region of england, to warrant its being carried to london. as this coal was brought in vessels to the metropolis it received the name of "sea-coal," and it was thus called for several centuries. how strange it is that opposition always arises to every new thing! people are always to be found who think that anything with which they are not familiar cannot be good. so it was in london. a cry began to arise that the use of coal was injurious to health. the coal was soft or bituminous, and burned with considerable flame and a dense smoke. this was before the common use of chimneys, and therefore the air in the rooms where it was burned became filled with an unpleasant odor. the belief was general that the use of coal rendered the air unfit to breathe, and parliament was requested to put a stop to it. king edward i. issued a proclamation forbidding any but blacksmiths to burn sea-coals, and directing that buildings from which coal-smoke was seen to come should be torn down. though the law was repealed under a later king, coal was but little used for household purposes until the eighteenth century. most of the coal beds in the united states are situated at some distance from the ocean; therefore the first colonists, settling along the coast, were for a long time ignorant of their existence. the first white man to discover coal was father hennepin, who more than two hundred years ago, while exploring the mississippi river, found it in illinois. the first mines worked were the richmond fields in virginia, where coal was taken out a century and a half ago. there is a tradition that a boy left home one morning to go fishing. after trying his luck for a time he found that his bait was gone. accordingly he began to hunt for crawfish, and while searching stumbled over some black stones which attracted his attention. he had found the "outcrop" of a coal bed, and on his return he made known his discovery. a rich vein of coal was soon disclosed, and mining on a small scale was begun. we must remember that this story is only tradition and may not be true. we might wonder, perhaps, how the boy knew that the stones were any different from other rocks except in being black. the way in which a twelve-foot vein was discovered in pennsylvania is told in _forest and stream_, and is probably quite true. elias blank, living in western pennsylvania in the latter part of the last century, was called to his door one night and found there lewis whetzell, a famous indian fighter, and jonathan gates, commonly called "long arms." "friend lewis," said mr. blank, "where have thee and our friend been, and where bound?" "i want to get out of here at once," said whetzell, "and long arms is of the same opinion. this country's bewitched, and long arms and i are nearly scared to death." "friend lewis, thee must not tell such stories to me," said old elias. "thee knows i am thy friend, and i have saved thee when a price was on thy head. i know thou art a man of courage, and friend jonathan gates, whom some call 'long arms,' fears nothing on earth, and i'm fearful nothing anywhere else; and yet thou tellest me that he and thee are scared even almost to death. shame on thee so to declare before thy friend, who loves ye both as he were thy father!" "no, no, elias," said whetzell, dropping into the quaker speech. "i tell thee no lie. we are scared. yesterday afternoon we were in hiding about a mile from dunkard creek, and in the evening we built a fire under the bank very carefully; and we got some black rocks to prop up a little kettle, and put them beside the fire rather than in it; and the black rocks took fire and burned fiercely, with a filthy smoke and a bright light; and long arms said the devil would come if we stayed; and we grabbed the kettle and poured out the water, and made our way here, leaving the black rocks to burn." elias blank was much interested. he did not tell whetzell what the black rocks were, but he found out exactly where the men had made their fire, and the next day hunted up the camping-ground, found the "black rocks" in one of the river-hills, and opened a coal bank. thus, a little here and a little there, coal was discovered and used. at first it was mingled with wood, and then burned alone on the hearth. this coal was easily kindled, for it was bituminous or soft; it was not necessary to provide an extra draft, or to spend much more time in lighting it than had been customary with wood. not many years passed, however, before a variety of coal was found that was hard and would not kindle easily. accordingly it was thrown aside as useless. this was anthracite coal, and it is now generally preferred to the bituminous because of this very quality. being hard, it does not burn away so rapidly; besides, it needs less attention and gives out much less smoke. just before the revolution, obadiah gore, a blacksmith in the wyoming valley in pennsylvania, tried hard coal in his forge. at first, even with his great bellows, he was unable to make it burn. he continued the experiment, however, and after a time the lumps began to yield and flames darted from them. he thus discovered that pieces of anthracite coal could be kindled and burned if there was a "strong current of air," as he said, "sent through them by the bellows; without that i could do nothing with them." mr. gore thus used anthracite coal in his forge, but even he did not burn it at home. not until the beginning of this century was hard coal used for domestic purposes. oliver evans in successfully burned it in a grate. many years passed, however, before hard coal came into common use. a few people purchased anthracite coal, but they could not burn it; they used it just as they had been accustomed to use soft coal. after that, great difficulty was experienced in persuading any one to try the new coal. nicholas allen in pennsylvania discovered anthracite coal and got out several wagonloads of it. he tried in vain to sell it. "no," said the people, "we have tried that once, and we do not propose to be cheated again." mr. allen became discouraged and sold his interest to his partner, colonel shoemaker, who took the coal to philadelphia. here he praised it so highly that at last a few people bought a little for trial. they continually punched the coal and stirred up the fire, but they did not succeed in making it burn. they became enraged with colonel shoemaker, and procured a warrant for his arrest as a common impostor. the colonel heard of the warrant, quietly left the city, and drove thirty miles out of his route in order to avoid the officer. fortunately a firm of iron factors who had purchased some of the coal succeeded in making it burn. they announced the fact in the philadelphia newspapers, and other iron-workers tried the coal. soon all the furnaces were using it. [illustration: blacksmith at his forge.] both anthracite and bituminous coal are freely mined in various sections of the united states. there is coal enough underground to last for many centuries. it used to be said that england was the great coal-mining country, for her coal fields are nearly as extensive as those of all the rest of europe. but the united states has a supply of coal that will apparently be hardly diminished when that of the british islands is entirely used. the single state of pennsylvania has a greater store of coal than all europe, and her part is less than one-tenth of the stock of coal in the united states. even if the forests of the entire country should be destroyed, we should not want for fuel. but let us remember that not only would the loss of our forests deprive us of wood for other purposes than merely to keep us warm, but it would also cause great injury to the farming interests of the country. if we would have good crops we must have proper rainfalls; without forests the rain would do greater and greater injury and less and less good. we ought to do all in our power to help preserve our forests, and as far as we can to increase the number of trees. chapter vii. matches. "thomas! thomas! the fire is out! get right up and go over to neighbor wallace's and borrow some fire." it was a cold morning, eight degrees below zero, and mr. wallace lived three-quarters of a mile away. the sun would not rise for two hours; but, when mother called, the boys instantly obeyed. thomas hurriedly dressed, snatched a shovel which was standing by the hearth, and hastily shutting the outside door, ran as fast as he could to the nearest neighbor's. of course he hurried, for was not mother all dressed and not a bit of fire in the house? the fire must have died down too much the evening before; and although the coals had been carefully covered with ashes before father and mother went to bed, mother could not find a tiny spark anywhere under the ashes in the morning. thomas kept up his run until he was tired, and then fell into a brisk walk. when he reached neighbor wallace's, he was glad to warm his numbed fingers over the raging fire in the fireplace. but he knew that he must not stop long, so he stated his errand, and mrs. wallace placed some live coals on his shovel and thoroughly covered them with ashes. thomas rested a moment longer and then hastened home; for if those coals should be out when he reached the house he would have to make the trip over again. this disaster did not befall him, however, and soon his mother had placed the coals on the hearth and had laid upon them a few shavings. these kindled at once; small sticks were soon ablaze, and in a very short time the fire was burning as vigorously as the neighbor's had been. [illustration: thomas carrying fire.] the boys of two centuries ago fully realized what it meant to have the fire go out. perhaps the nearest neighbors were not always so far distant, but it was no pleasant task to be sent for coals any distance on a winter morning. if, however, no neighbors were near and coals could not be borrowed, how under circumstances like these could a new fire be kindled? if we wanted a fire nowadays we might say, "strike a light," because we should obtain the light by striking a match; but, before matches were invented, the expression used would probably have been, "rub a light." an early method of producing a light, and from this a fire, was by rubbing two sticks together. if this process be continued long enough the wood will become heated and sparks will fly off. then, in order to start the fire, it is only necessary to catch one of these sparks upon something that will burn easily. this method was used thousands of years ago, and is still common among the savages in various parts of the globe. this seems simple enough, but if you try it you will find that it is no easy task. it requires considerable muscular power to "rub a light" from two sticks of wood, and almost any other process is preferable. the most important thing in this method of kindling a fire is the rapidity with which the sticks are rubbed together. some one of the savages more keen than the others conceived the idea that he could save labor and at the same time increase the rapidity with which the stick moved. he took his bow and twisted the cord once around a stick. then he placed one end on a piece of wood, and by moving the bow back and forth twisted the stick with great rapidity. soon the shavings which he had placed at the point of contact were ablaze. little by little this drill was improved, and now among some of the american indians it furnishes a comparatively easy way of kindling a fire. [illustration: tinder box, flint, and matches.] most children have seen a spark caused by the shoe of a horse striking a stone in the road. sometimes if one stone strikes another a spark is produced. all this was perceived even in the earliest times, and the best substances to be used became well known. the stone called flint was found to be the best for one of the two substances, and steel is usually preferred for the other. when steel and flint strike each other, if a spark falls upon some vegetable matter a fire is soon kindled. perhaps the most common substance used to catch the spark was touchwood, a soft, decayed wood carefully broken into small fragments. after a time, in place of the touchwood, tinder was used, which was made by scorching old linen handkerchiefs. later the tinder box was invented, in which a steel wheel was spun like a top upon a piece of flint set in tinder. after the discovery of gunpowder, flint and steel were used in guns. a hammer of flint struck an anvil of steel, and the spark produced fell into a pan of gunpowder, causing the flash which fired the gun. before the american revolution, and even into the present century, the process of kindling a fire was not a simple one. the most frequent means employed, as has been seen, was the borrowing of coals from a neighbor. less often, recourse was had to the long and difficult process of rubbing a spark from two pieces of wood. sometimes, among the well-to-do, the tinder box was used; but it was seldom satisfactory. for these reasons the fire was always most carefully watched; every precaution was taken to prevent it from going out. seldom could the house be left by the whole family for any length of time, and all because of the lack of a match. matches are a result of the study of chemistry. during the dark ages a few scholars were interested in what they called alchemy; but they spent most of their time and thought in trying to discover two things--how to change iron into gold, and how to keep themselves eternally young. about two hundred years ago these two foolish desires came to be considered unpractical, and since then chemists have been constantly seeking to discover ways of benefiting mankind. for many years students in different countries tried to find certain chemicals that could be so combined as to render the tinder box unnecessary. several of these attempts to make a light seemed successful, but most of them were dangerous and all were expensive. an account of one of these trials may be of interest. about seventy years ago a young man named lauria, in lyons, france, watched his professor pound some sulphur and chlorate of potash together. the resulting flash and sharp crack set him thinking, and he went home and began to experiment. he had a few sticks of pine wood which had been partly dipped in sulphur, and a few glass tubes, and he obtained more sulphur and some chlorate. he tried melting and mixing, only to meet with many accidents. finally he dipped the end of one of the sticks into sulphur and then into the chlorate. he observed that some of the chlorate remained on the stick. then he rubbed this prepared end on the wall where there happened to be a little phosphorus; the stick immediately blazed. he had discovered for himself the principle of the match; all he needed besides was something which would make the chlorate always stick to the sulphured wood. however, this match was not satisfactory and was never manufactured for sale. phosphorus was dangerous, and it was not safe to have it spread upon a wall or any other surface. the first matches of practical use were made in , and were invented by six different men in six different countries. these were the original lucifer matches, which did not require the use of phosphorus. they were made of thin sticks of wood partly covered with sulphur. the ends of these sticks were then dipped into a compound of chlorate of potash, sulphite of antimony, and gum. when used these matches were drawn through a bent piece of sandpaper. they were costly, frequently selling for a cent apiece. a few years later a famous chemist discovered the red form of phosphorus, which is not dangerous to handle. since that time most matches have contained this substance in the mixture, although during the last half century hundreds of different combinations have been invented. to-day hardly any article is manufactured that is so common and inexpensive as the match. without it we should feel almost lost, and surely it would seem to us that the dark ages had returned. we are told that the inhabitants of the united states use on an average more than a thousand matches a year each. there are more than forty manufactories in this country, most of them being in california, connecticut, new york, and pennsylvania, yet the entire business is principally controlled by one great company. during the last two hundred years chimneys have been improved, stoves have been invented and developed, coal has been discovered, and matches have come into universal use. the log cabins of our ancestors have been replaced by the well-built houses of to-day. the mammoth fireplaces, sending much heat up the chimney and much smoke into the room, have given way to the stoves and furnaces that render life comfortable. no longer is it necessary to freeze our backs while roasting our faces. cranes, pot-hooks and trammels, and dutch ovens are chiefly to be seen in museums, and the kitchen range saves the cook much needless labor. nowadays we seldom find the fires out on a winter's morning and the water frozen in the pitcher. instead of hastening through the cold and the snow to a neighbor to borrow fire, we simply "strike a match." we all of us live in comfort that would have seemed luxury to the wealthiest families two centuries ago. can we look forward to the changes that may come in the future in the methods of heating our houses and cooking our food? already railroad cars are being heated by steam from the engines and electric cars are heated by electricity. already oil stoves and gas stoves have come into common use and are found to possess many advantages: no ashes need removal; the fire may be started without delay; the room is less heated than with a coal fire; and the blaze may be turned out when no longer needed. already in some parts of the country natural gas is led by pipes directly from the wells into houses for cooking and for heating purposes. already experiments in heating houses and cooking food by means of electricity are common and to some extent successful. it would seem that the inventions and improvements of the next hundred years may render the homes as much more comfortable than those of to-day as ours surpass those of our ancestors. [illustration: thomas a. edison.] [illustration: minot's ledge light, massachusetts bay.] section ii.--light. chapter i. torches. wood and coal, gas and oil, electricity even, aid us in our demand for warm houses. in winter we should suffer greatly were it not for our fireplaces, our stoves, and our furnaces. the sun then shines but a short time every day, and sends us little heat. in summer "the great orb of day" remains many hours in the heavens, and warms us through and through. we have little desire then for artificial heat; natural heat is sometimes more than sufficient. the sun shines over all the world. "his going forth is from the end of the heaven, and his circuit unto the ends of it: and there is nothing hid from the heat thereof." the sun does much more for us than send us its heat-rays: all day long we rejoice in the bright sunshine. but at night, when the sun has set, we ask for artificial light. how shall we get it? how did our ancestors obtain it? we have in our day the electric light; we can use illuminating gas; kerosene is easily obtained; if necessary, we can resort to candles. yet there was a time when the electric light had not been discovered. earlier still, gas had not been made and kerosene was not known. indeed, long, long ago even candles had not been seen by men. what did the people do for light on a dark night in those times? after the sun had set and night had settled down upon them, what could they do during the long winter evenings without some method of lighting up the darkness? [illustration: indians traveling at night.] as we looked to the american indians for the simplest and rudest methods of obtaining heat, so we can also learn something from them of the primitive modes of lighting. much of the time the red men found sufficient light for all their wants in the wood fire. they needed no candles to read by, for they had no books nor papers. they cared for no lamp to dress by; they sought no illumination for halls or churches or theatres. what little need they had for artificial light was practically satisfied by that which came from the blazing logs. if, however, on any special occasion they wished to light up their long houses more brightly, the indians used pitch-pine knots. in case they were traveling by night and did not care to proceed stealthily or secretly, these fagots of pitch pine gave them all the light they wanted. the light from these sticks was dim; it flickered so as to hurt the eyes; more smoke was given out than light; but the savage was fully content. long before the red men were known, however, the burning fagot was used by the people of europe and asia to lessen the darkness of the night. an interesting story is told of hannibal when he was leading the carthaginian army against rome. in the course of his journey he marched his whole force into a valley which was entirely surrounded by high mountains very difficult to cross. fabius, his roman opponent, placed his own army in the pass and enclosed hannibal in the valley. hannibal was apparently caught in a trap, but he was a shrewd commander, and he quickly devised a trick to make fabius withdraw his legions. early in the day he sent out a large detail from his army to gather fagots. what was he about to do with such great quantities of pine knots? in the afternoon, by hannibal's orders, these fagots were bound to the horns of oxen which had been driven along during the march for food for the army. at nightfall the fagots were lighted and the oxen were driven directly up the steep side of one of the mountains. fabius naturally supposed that the lights moving up the mountain-side must be carried by soldiers, and he thought that hannibal and all his army were trying to escape in that direction. accordingly he quickly withdrew his troops from the pass in order to attack the enemy when they came down the opposite side of the mountain. hannibal then quietly marched his army through the pass, meeting with no opposition. long, long centuries before hannibal the torch was known. in that strange story of gideon and his three hundred men who overcame the midianites, the torch or lamp was one of the weapons used. the vast host of the midianites, fearing no hostile attack, was spread over a great valley. gideon placed his little band of men on the hills around the enemy's camp, each man at a considerable distance from the next, so that they made a line nearly surrounding the entire valley. every man had a trumpet in one hand, and a lamp or torch covered by an upturned pitcher in the other. this arrangement of the lamp and the pitcher allowed a little light to be thrown upon the ground directly beneath. the men could thus avoid stepping upon dry sticks and making a noise which might alarm the guards around the camp of the midianites. at the same time the light was concealed from the eyes of their enemies. when all was ready a shout was raised, "the sword of the lord and of gideon!" and the pitchers were thrown with a great crash upon the ground. the sudden noise of voices and of the breaking pitchers awoke the midianites from a deep sleep; the trumpets and the shouts turned their eyes to the hills. all along the line of the three hundred men spread out in a circle around them blazed the three hundred torches. as it was the custom in those days to have a torch or a lamp indicate the headquarters of a general, the midianites in their sudden terror naturally thought that an immense army was surrounding them. they imagined that gideon had hired vast forces from egypt and elsewhere, for they supposed that each of the several hundred torches indicated a general with all his followers. their only thought, therefore, was to flee as quickly as possible. they ran against each other, and, unable in the darkness to distinguish friend from foe, they killed their own men. the entire army of one hundred and thirty-five thousand men perished. it is not certain whether the lights which were covered by the pitchers came from lamps or torches. gideon lived three thousand years ago, and at that time both torches and lamps were used. he was a general of the israelites, and they certainly had lamps when in egypt many years before the time of gideon. lamps were also used by the greeks and the romans. the lamp of these ancient times was merely a small vessel like a modern cup or bowl, usually having a handle. this was filled with oil, generally olive, or sometimes only with grease. in this cup was placed a small piece of cloth hanging over the side, which when lighted served as a wick. it was the simplest arrangement possible. [illustration: ancient lamps.] the pitch-pine knot and the cup of grease have been more or less used since these early times. when our ancestors came to this country their houses were generally lighted by candles. in many cases, however, the light from the fireplace was all that was used except on rare occasions. the settlers who gradually moved westward to take up new lands retained nearly all the inconvenient methods of the earlier colonists. in the newer settlements of the ohio and mississippi valleys and on the great western plains the logs on the hearth were frequently the only means for lighting the house during the evenings. on knob creek, in the new state of kentucky, a little school was kept nearly eighty-five years ago. among the pupils was a small boy not seven years of age. one of his schoolmates afterward said of him that he was "an unusually bright boy at school, and made splendid progress in his studies. he would get spice-wood brushes, hack them up on a log, and burn two or three together for the purpose of giving light by which he might pursue his studies." it does not surprise us to learn that this boy who thus in his earliest years showed such eagerness to learn as to utilize the light of the kitchen fire was abraham lincoln, afterward the famous president of the united states. many men are now living who do not remember to have seen in their boyhood days any better light than the grease lamp. one of these primitive lamps was easily made. an old button was covered with cloth, which was tied with a string close to the button, the edges of the cloth hanging free. this covered button was placed upon lard in a saucer or other similar vessel, and a light applied. the lard around the cloth melted, the button acted as a wick, and a rude lamp was the result. the hearth fire, the fagot or pitch-pine knot, and the pot of grease or lard with a simple wick were the earliest methods of artificial lighting. these, though still in use in newly settled communities, gave place, in the main, centuries ago to the candle. as this was the first improved method for lighting houses, churches, and other buildings, it should next be considered. chapter ii. candles. nobody can tell when candles were invented. candlesticks are often spoken of in the bible, but those doubtless held oil and burned a wick which hung over the side like the roman lamps of later time. these lamps appear to have been used by the romans in their worship, and after the christian religion was established at rome, candles were introduced into the christian service. during all the centuries since that time the candle has been used in catholic churches and cathedrals. the romans on the second day of february burned candles to the goddess februa, the mother of mars, the roman god of war, and pope sergius adopted the custom and established rites and ceremonies for that day in the offering of candles to the virgin mary. this was called candlemas day. the common people supposed that these candles would frighten away the devil and all evil spirits not only from the persons who burned them, but from the houses in which they were placed. there is an ancient tradition about candlemas day which seems to have traveled all over europe and found its way into this country; if the weather is fine on that day--february d--it indicates a long winter and a late spring. the scotch state the legend in this way: "if candlemas day is fair and clear, there'll be two winters in the year." for several centuries past candles have been used all over the world for lighting purposes. we have a variety of candles even in these days, as they are now made of tallow, stearin, bleached wax, spermaceti, and paraffine. those commonly used by the early colonists were dipped candles, often roughly made at home. for the wicks a loose, soft, fibrous substance was taken, generally cotton. these were hung upon a frame and dipped in melted tallow, taken out, suffered to cool, and dipped again and again until the required thickness was obtained. moulded candles were cast in a series of tubes, the wicks first being adjusted in the middle of the tubes and melted tallow poured in. the best candles were made of wax. these were neither dipped nor moulded. the wicks were warmed, and melted wax poured over them until they acquired the proper thickness, then they were rolled between flat pieces of wet, hard wood. it is related of benjamin franklin that when a young man he received an invitation from gov. william burnet, of new york, to call upon him. the governor was delighted with his conversation, and was surprised to hear him quote from locke on the understanding. the governor asked him at what college he had studied locke. "why, sir," said franklin, "it was my misfortune never to be at any college, or even at a grammar school, except for a year or two when i was a child." here the governor sprang from his seat, and staring at ben, cried out: "well, and where did you get your education, pray?" "at home, sir, in a tallow-chandler's shop." "in a tallow-chandler's shop!" exclaimed the governor. "yes, sir; my father was a poor old tallow chandler with fifteen children, and i the youngest of all. [his father had, later, two other children, both girls.] at eight he put me to school; but finding he could not spare the money from the rest of the children to keep me there, he took me home into the shop, where i assisted him by twisting candlewicks and filling the moulds all day, and at night read by myself." so benjamin franklin spent two years of his life, between the ages of ten and twelve, in making candles for the good people of boston. [illustration: franklin making candles.] the candles gave but a poor light compared with the lights which we have to-day. the combustion was only partial, and there was constant trouble from the necessity of "snuffing the candle," that is, cutting off the burnt wick. in those days, in every well-regulated house, on the little centre-table stood the candlestick, and by its side upon a small tray made for the purpose could always be found the "snuffers"--a singular instrument, something like a pair of scissors, with a small semi-circular pocket in which to hold the snuff taken from the candle. [illustration: reading by candlelight.] let us imagine an early new england family on a winter's evening sitting before the blazing fire of the open fireplace. they are gathered around a small table upon which is a solitary candle, giving a feeble, sickly flame. by its light the mother is sewing and the father is reading from the bible, the pilgrim's progress, or it may be bacon's essays, or locke on the understanding. the children are listening and trying to get interested in what is being read to them, while occasionally one or another of them snuffs the little candle. by and by the candle burns down "to the socket," and goes out. the mother rises and goes to the pantry to get another, but finds to her dismay that she has used her last one. the family must therefore see by the light of the fire or retire for the night, and to-morrow the good wife must dip some more candles. when the children go to bed they have no brightly burning lamp to light them to their several bedrooms, but they climb the ladder to the open, unfinished loft with no light except what comes to them from the embers upon the hearth. then the father covers up the coals with a great body of ashes, hoping to "keep the fire" till morning. what a marked contrast between the life of those people and the customs of to-day in the same country and among the grandchildren and the great-grandchildren of those same pioneer settlers! in the colonial days for an evening service the churches must be lighted with candles. occasionally you will find even now in some ancient church the antique candelabra or chandelier. sometimes in wealthy churches these were made of glass, and were of beautiful construction. in the old meeting-house of the first baptist church in providence, rhode island, which was founded by roger williams and others in , there is one of these ancient glass candelabras. it is of immense proportions, hanging from the ceiling by a long, stout chain, and arranged for a large number of candles. it has not been used for many years, but it is a beautiful ornament and a suggestive reminder of the method by which our ancestors lighted their churches in the early times. in these days of brilliant electric lights, how small appears the light of the ancient candles! have we gained in knowledge and manner of living as greatly as in heating and lighting our houses? chapter iii. whale oil. no one knows when the whale fishery began. eight hundred years ago whales were caught off the coast of france and spain, and before the pilgrim fathers landed at plymouth the whale fishery had been carried on to such an extent on the west coast of europe that the supply of whales had begun to fail. the american whale fishery began with the earliest settlers. they found it profitable to catch whales and try out the oil for use in their lamps. it has been said that one of the arguments for settling on cape cod was the presence along the coast of large whales of the best kind for oil and whalebone. the first whale fishery in america was carried on from cape cod, nantucket, and martha's vineyard by large rowboats. a company of hardy pioneers would row out from the coast into deep water, wait for the appearance of a whale, strike their harpoons into his side, and let him run. sometimes it would be days before death would result. often he would sink and later rise and float upon the surface. the fishermen would then pull him to the shore and try out the oil. many whales thus harpooned would be lost to those who had wounded them. a story is told that in the town of southampton, long island, before the year , the men divided themselves into squads to watch night and day for whales that might come ashore, and this became in a few years a regular industry. after a time whaling vessels were fitted up and sent out for the capture of whales. these vessels cruised in all waters. they coasted along greenland and into the arctic ocean. they traversed the south seas, and sailed upon the pacific through all latitudes from patagonia to bering sea. great vessels--barks, brigs, and full-rigged ships--manned with large crews of stalwart men, with supplies for a three-years' voyage or more, would leave home for a cruise in foreign waters after these monsters of the deep. [illustration: whale fishing.] when the whale is killed its body is towed alongside the vessel and is made fast by the ship's chains. the fat of the whale is cut into slices, and these slices taken in between decks. this cutting up--or, as the sailors call it, "cutting in"--occupies the entire ship's company for hours. the fat or "blubber," as they call it, is cut into smaller cubical pieces, heated in a large pot, and the oil strained off. this is called "trying out." the oil is stored in casks to be conveyed home. a large whale will give two or three tons of blubber. it is estimated that a ton of blubber will yield nearly two hundred gallons of oil. sometimes a single whale will produce oil and whalebone to the value of $ , or $ , . it will readily be seen that whale fishing is both a laborious and a dangerous occupation. the wounded whale is accustomed to strike violently with its tail in the endeavor to destroy its enemies. here is a true story about the experiences of one family engaged in the whale fishery. long before the year and after that date for almost half a century, new bedford, nantucket, martha's vineyard, and provincetown in massachusetts, with warren and bristol in rhode island, engaged very largely in this hazardous but profitable business. in one of these towns an industrious and enterprising man of more than ordinary ability followed this occupation for half a century and amassed a small fortune. he had several sons. when the oldest grew to manhood he very naturally followed in the footsteps of his father. he went to sea on a whaling vessel and was lost during his first voyage. the second son shipped on a whaler. in the arctic waters he was one day pursuing a whale that had already been wounded, rowing with all his might. the whale in his anger struck at the boat with his huge tail, hit the oar with which the young man was rowing, and drove the end of it into his mouth, breaking the bones and crushing in the very interior. still the young man lived. he was tenderly cared for by his shipmates, and finally reached home. then he was turned over to the doctors. skillful surgery supplied him with a false lower jaw, a gold roof to his mouth, and a false palate. he lived many years and was a successful business man. had you met him on the street he would have talked with you like any other man, and you would have observed nothing unusual except the scars of two cuts on the upper lip. the third son when eighteen years of age also left home on a whaling voyage. at the end of three years his ship returned with a full cargo of excellent oil. the heavily freighted vessel anchored in the bay, and the captain went up to the town in a rowboat to announce his arrival, and to tell the people of the success of the voyage and that all were well on board. just as the captain was leaving for the shore some young men in the crew, wishing to celebrate their safe return, proposed firing the ship's swivel-gun. as the captain started over the side of the vessel he cautioned them, saying that the gun was rusty and that it would not be safe to fire it. but it was our young friend's birthday. he would risk the old gun. they ran it out on deck, loaded it up, and touched it off. there was a terrific explosion. the gun burst and blew off both hands of the young man who was celebrating his birthday. another boat was pushed off for the shore and carried the wounded man to his home. nothing could save his hands; they were both amputated at the wrists. through a long life he wore wooden hands covered with kid gloves. he was accustomed frequently to mourn that he had not at least one thumb. if he could have had a single thumb he could have done many things. was it not emerson who said that the thumb is the symbol of civilization? man could never have attained his present position without a thumb. for many years this man, thus maimed for life, kept a store and sold groceries and ship supplies. a visitor one day saw him weigh out for a lady customer a quarter of a pound of pepper. it was at the noon hour, when the clerks were all away at dinner. the customer came and asked for a quarter of a pound of pepper. the storekeeper pulled out the drawer, placed it on the counter, put a piece of paper in the hopper, adjusted the scale to the quarter pound, slipped one of his wooden fingers through the handle of the little tin scoop, and scattered the pepper upon the paper until the full weight was made. he then returned the drawer to its place, took off the hopper and laid it upon the counter, pulled out the paper and the pepper, doubled the paper over on one side and back from the other side, doubled over one end and then the other, picked it up between his two wooden hands, and handed it to the customer. she placed the money on the back of his hand. with the other hand he pulled open the money drawer and tossed the money in. with both hands he took off his hat, picked up the change with his lips, placed the change upon the back of his hand, and passed it to the lady. three unfortunate experiences in one family would seem to have been enough, so the next son never went to sea. we may now ask what was the object of all this whale fishery? man had made a new invention. he had not only discovered the value of whale oil as a material for furnishing artificial light, he had also invented the modern lamp. in the candle the burning material, whether tallow or something else, is solidified around the wick. the heat from the burning wick melts the tallow and the combustion gives light. in the modern lamp the simple device of a tube or two tubes to hold the wick is all that is needed over and above those used in ancient times. tin tubes are placed in the top of the lamp and the wicks run up through the tubes. the lamp then being filled with oil, capillary attraction will bring the oil up to the top of the wick. the lamp when lighted will burn until the supply of oil is exhausted. the invention of this modern lamp, though very simple, has been of great value. at first it was made of metal--lead, block tin, britannia, brass--and finally of glass. lamps of various patterns and different sizes became common. for a long while very little change was made in this new mode of obtaining light. this method continued in common use until about the middle of the nineteenth century. chapter iv. kerosene. it was a long step from the smoky and ill-smelling whale-oil lamp to the clear and brilliant kerosene burner. at the present time the best illumination is furnished by gas and electricity, but in the country and to a large extent in the cities the kerosene lamp is still in common use, and doubtless will remain so for a long time to come. this lamp with its recent important improvements is mainly of american origin and development. kerosene for lighting purposes has some advantages over gas or electricity. the light produced from it is steady; therefore it is less harmful to the eyes than the flickering light of illuminating gas, and even better than the electric light. it is far cheaper than either. it has a third advantage, since it can be used in a hand lamp which can be carried from place to place. a large portion of our population consider it so valuable that they would rather give up the gaslight altogether, or indeed the electric light, than be obliged to lose the kerosene lamp. kerosene is a form of petroleum which is obtained from the earth by deep wells. it is only within the last fifty years that this oil has been pumped in sufficient quantities to make it a valuable industry, though petroleum was obtained here and there in small quantities far back in the early ages. it seems a little singular that the people of japan and persia should have dug oil wells centuries ago. herodotus, who wrote history five hundred years before christ, tells us of the springs of zante, one of the ionian islands in the mediterranean sea, from which oil flowed. it is said that these springs are still flowing. china seems to have been the first country to draw oil from artesian wells. we proud americans are accustomed to think ourselves a little ahead of all other people. when an american boy in san francisco, for instance, meets a chinese lad, he is quite apt to look down upon him and to think that this little chinese boy came from a country hardly civilized and certainly far behind the "universal yankee nation;" yet we are constantly finding traces of a civilization in china much earlier than our own. the first successful oil well in this country was made by col. e. l. drake, near titusville, pennsylvania. in the pennsylvania rock-oil company was organized for the purpose of procuring petroleum in oil creek. four years later this company employed colonel drake to drill an artesian well. on the th of august, , he "struck oil" only sixty-nine feet below the surface of the ground. the next day this well was found to be nearly full of petroleum. oil is now found in large quantities in various sections of pennsylvania, new york, indiana, and kentucky, and it has recently been discovered in california, wyoming, colorado, and other portions of our land. the largest part of the oil used in commerce is from pennsylvania. at the present time more than fifty million barrels of petroleum are produced annually in the united states alone, which is more than half of the entire product of the world. a single well has been known to yield forty thousand gallons a day, flowing freely without the slightest use of pumping apparatus. the product of these wells after a time greatly diminishes and sometimes ceases altogether. in such cases it is customary to explode torpedoes at the bottom of the well. this is done by placing there several gallons of nitroglycerine with a fulminating cap on top. this cap is exploded by dropping a piece of iron upon it. the explosion opens the seams and crevices around the bottom of the well so as to renew the flow of oil. [illustration: oil wells.] it is now about forty years since the first introduction of kerosene as an article of commerce. to-day it is in almost universal use throughout the civilized world. it gives a convenient light at a moderate expense, and has therefore proved a great blessing to mankind. meantime the whale fishery has largely diminished; indeed, it would seem to be almost destroyed. the reasons for this are not difficult to find. in the first place, the number of whales is much less than formerly, so that this business is far less profitable than it used to be. in the second place, the rapid development of the kerosene industry has so cheapened the product that people cannot afford to light their houses with whale oil, especially as they find the kerosene not only cheaper, but more convenient and satisfactory. common whale oil previous to had been furnished at an average cost of perhaps fifty cents a gallon, while the sperm oil, which is of superior quality, cost as much as one dollar a gallon. the people of the whole country east of the rocky mountains feed their lamps to-day with kerosene at a cost of from eight cents to twelve cents a gallon. a few persons have made great fortunes from the oil wells. on the other hand, it should not be forgotten that the modern processes of purifying kerosene could not have been put in operation without the aid of large fortunes. a cheap and satisfactory light has been furnished to all the people of the united states only by means of the great capital employed in its production. so you see civilization is progressing, and we are all enjoying more blessings and conveniences than our fathers had. in the earlier times every one had to labor diligently to secure food, clothing, and shelter. as civilization advances these require less time and expense, and we have greater opportunities to attend to the development of our higher natures, the acquisition of knowledge, the pursuit of science, and the elevation of the race. chapter v. illuminating gas. thus far our various methods of artificial lighting have been very simple. at first men burned the pitch from the pine, and it produced a flame; then they burned olive oil through a wick, and it gave forth a flame. the tallow in the candle was burned through a wick, and it made a light; the whale oil in the lamp was burned by means of a wick, and a light was the result. in the same way refined petroleum, which we call kerosene, was burned by means of a wick, and that gave a strong light. these methods of lighting were all very similar. we come now to a real invention. what would a boy of the year , could he return to the earth, say to see you strike a match, turn a stopcock, and light the gas as you do to-day? he has never seen a match. he is just as ignorant of a stopcock, and surely it would be difficult for him to understand the burning of the gas. many things would need to be explained to this boy of a hundred years ago. he must be told all about the production of illuminating gas, the storing of that gas under pressure, the transportation of it to the place where the light is wanted, and the proper apparatus for turning it on, setting it on fire, and regulating its pressure so as to produce a steady, uniform light. before the year dr. john clayton, an englishman, prepared gas from bituminous coal, collected it, and burned it for the amusement of his friends. an english bishop in showed how gas could be produced from coal and how it might be conveyed in tubes. these were the first two steps toward our present almost universal illumination by gas: making gas and conveying it in tubes. the real inventor of practical gas-lighting was william murdoch, of cornwall, england, who sometime before the year carried pipes through his house and office, and lighted the various rooms with gas which he had made from coal. indeed, murdoch did more than this: he lighted with his new gas a small steam carriage in which he rode to and from his mines. in he first publicly exhibited this gas-lighting in ayrshire, scotland, and showed two immense flames from coal gas. nor did he stop here, for in he succeeded in lighting some cotton mills by the same method. in our country various experiments were made, but without any practical result until , when illuminating gas was successfully manufactured and used in baltimore. in the new york gaslight company introduced this new method into many houses and sold the gas to the people for lighting purposes. that was over seventy years ago. what a change has been made within these seventy years! in cities and large towns almost every new house is piped for gas. gas companies are formed for supplying this illuminating product to the inhabitants. gas meters have been perfected which measure the quantity of gas, so that one pays for no more than he uses. moreover, the towns and cities put up street lights which burn this same gas in the night, making it easy, convenient, and safe to traverse the streets at any hour. bituminous or soft coal is used in the manufacture of illuminating gas, as anthracite contains less of the needed materials. gases are easily driven off from bituminous coal whenever it is heated, if air is kept from it. at the works, therefore, the coal is placed in large closed ovens, called _retorts_. these are directly over furnace fires, which are kept vigorously burning. the gases pass out of the coal and, rising, enter a series of long pipes. the coal which is left in the retorts is called coke. this process is called _distillation_. many substances pass off with the gas, from which it must be cleaned. tar and ammonia become liquids when cooled, and are left behind as the gas passes through cold water. the series of iron pipes in which this process is carried on is called the _condenser_. then the gas is carried through the _purifier_, in which all other impurities are removed. when thoroughly purified the gas passes into the _gasometer_. this usually consists of two round iron cylinders of nearly the same size, one inside of the other. the outside cylinder has no roof; the inside has no floor. the sides of the inner one go down into a trench filled with water. its top is held up by the gas, which comes into it from the purifier. [illustration: a gasometer.] the roof of the inner cylinder presses down heavily upon the gas, pushing it into the large _main pipes_, which run from the gasometer through the principal streets. smaller mains connect with these and the gas is pushed into the _service pipes_, which enter the houses. when a stopcock is opened in any house the pressure of the gasometer pushes the gas through, it may be, miles of pipes, and out through the burner, where it may be lighted. many houses have a simple electric-lighting attachment, so that by merely turning a stopcock the gas is turned on and by pulling a chain an electric spark sets the gas on fire, flooding the room with light. within a few years illuminating gas has greatly diminished in price. it costs a little more than kerosene, but it is more convenient in many ways. the danger of carrying lamps from room to room is avoided, as well as the disagreeable task of filling them. still the gas flame is less steady than that of the kerosene lamp, and is therefore less serviceable for reading. for the poor man the kerosene light is a great blessing, while for all who can afford the extra cost the gaslight is a greater convenience. chapter vi. electric lighting. the electric light differs widely from all modes of artificial light previously invented. it is the latest method that man has discovered for the production of light. in its practical form this invention is quite recent. in england the arc light was produced in lecture-room experiments as early as . prof. michael faraday, a learned englishman and celebrated chemist, experimented many years in electricity and magnetism in the royal institution at london. he continued his studies and experiments in developing the science of electricity through his whole life, but he died, an old man, before a single electric arc was seen in the streets of london. in ancient times an invention was frequently the result of one man's efforts, but at the present time it is often quite otherwise. many men are now engaged in the development of electric lighting. charles francis brush was a farmer's boy in ohio. he pushed himself through the cleveland high school and graduated at the university of michigan. he established a laboratory in cleveland and turned his attention to the invention of apparatus for electric lighting. he was one of three or four great american inventors who successfully put into operation the dynamo and furnished electricity for the electrical lamp. this dynamo is a machine which produces electric currents by mechanical power. brush's dynamo at the outset was so perfect and complete that for many years it has continued in regular use with but very little change. elihu thomson graduated at the central high school in philadelphia and taught chemistry in that school. he studied with great care the subject of electricity, giving special attention to lighting. he organized the thomson-houston electric company, and has patented nearly two hundred inventions relating to electric lighting and other applications of electricity. he was also the inventor of the system of electric welding. among the great american inventors in electrical science is thomas alva edison. he was an ohio boy whose scotch mother taught him to read. when he was twelve years old he was a newsboy on the grand trunk railroad. here he acquired the habit of reading. he studied chemistry and conducted chemical experiments on the train. he learned to set type, and edited and printed a newspaper in the baggage car. he was constantly noticing the telegraph stations along the road, and he soon began to study electricity. [illustration: edison's heroic act.] one day the little child of a station master was playing on the track just as a freight car was moving down toward him. almost as swift as lightning itself young edison dashed out, stepped in front of the coming car, and at the risk of his own life snatched the child from danger. in gratitude the station master, knowing the boy's interest in the telegraph, taught him how to use a machine. after that he acquired great skill in this art and operated in many sections of the country, perfecting himself in the subject. for over twenty years he has had a large establishment, with an immense workshop and many mechanics, at menlo park, n. j., where he has devoted his whole attention to inventing. he has perfected his system of duplex telegraphy and invented the carbon telephone-transmitter, the phonograph, the platinum burner, and the carbon burner for the incandescent light. he has patented very many inventions, and his system of electric lighting for houses is now in general use. edison's whole life is an interesting study for young people. at the present time the two methods of lighting by electricity are the arc light and the incandescent light. the arc light is used for lighting large buildings like churches, halls, and railway stations, and for lighting the streets of a city. the incandescent light, or the glow-lamp as it is called in england, is in general use for lighting dwelling houses. this lamp consists of a glass bulb from which air has been excluded so that it is almost a perfect vacuum and in which is inserted a looped filament of carbon. the electricity is made to pass through this carbon wire, which is thereby heated to a white heat and thus furnishes the light. being in a vacuum, the carbon is but slightly burned. it therefore can be subjected to this heat for a long time without breaking or wearing out. at first edison used a platinum wire in the little electric lamp. he wanted something better. he needed some form of bamboo or other vegetable fibre. he sent a man to explore china and japan for bamboo. he sent another, who traveled twenty-three hundred miles up the amazon river and finally reached the pacific coast, searching for bamboo. he sent a third to ceylon to spend years in a similar search. eighty varieties of bamboo and three thousand specimens of other vegetable fibre were brought him. he tested them all; three or four were found suitable. this system of incandescent lights has been rapidly extended within a few years. there are millions of these lights now in use in this country. they are used not only for lighting the rooms of hotels and private houses, but also for lighting steamships, railway trains, and street cars, and for nearly all indoor illumination. this light is not as cheap as kerosene or gaslight, but it is so convenient and so simple, requiring no daily care, that it is rapidly coming into use in all towns and cities. among its advantages may be named the four following points. matches are not needed in making a light. thus the danger from accidental fires, which have so frequently occurred from the careless use of matches, is avoided. very little heat results from an electric light, while from kerosene lamps and gaslight much heat is produced. in warm weather this freedom from heat is agreeable. the burning lamp and the gas jet make the air of the room impure and unfit for breathing. this is not true of the electric light. in the use of kerosene and of illuminating gas there is frequently danger of explosion. not so with the electric light. it will be seen that we are thus using to-day for lighting purposes occasionally the candle, quite largely the kerosene lamp, and to a great extent in towns and cities the gaslight, and best of all--the cleanest, the neatest, giving the brightest light, requiring the least attention from the consumer, and manifesting the highest development of man's inventive genius thus far--the electric light. here at present man's invention in this direction has stopped. what the next step will be, no one can tell. slowly through the ages man has been developing. gradually he has grown in mental power and advanced morally and spiritually. it is very clear that although he is an animal and has the nature and desires of an animal, he has high mental capacity and is endowed with a spiritual nature, a soul. at the very beginning of creation we are told, "god said, let there be light: and there was light." how and whence it came we cannot tell. it would almost seem that man in his effort to create light has kept step with his own development. the first light was produced from the simplest substances, solids: wood on the hearth, the pitch-pine knot, and the candle. then followed light produced from liquids: olive oil, whale oil, refined petroleum. afterward the inventive genius of man extracted from coal an invisible gas which would burn and give a bright, clear light. rising higher and higher, man soars above all solids, liquids, and gases, and with a sudden bound leaps almost out of the realm of matter and produces the electric light, which is merely a form of motion. how clearly the progress of man, his elevation, his civilization, his increased conveniences and luxuries of life are made to appear in this study of his methods of obtaining artificial light! chapter vii. lighthouses. we have seen that artificial light is needed at night not only in houses, churches, and public halls, but also in the streets of large towns and cities for the benefit of those who have occasion to travel after dark. still further, it has been found necessary to light the shores of the great sea, so that vessels may not run upon the rocks in the darkness and be stove to pieces. the building of lighthouses has chiefly developed during the present century, although a few lighthouses were known to the ancients. the full history of lighthouses, if we could trace it, would be very interesting. if you were asked where the first lighthouse was built you would be quite likely to guess right the first time, because you know that the first ships and the first sailors were around the eastern part of the mediterranean sea. you would certainly say somewhere along the eastern coast of that sea. now as a matter of fact there was a lighthouse on the island of pharos, just in front of the city of alexandria, which was built over three hundred years before christ. this was one of the most celebrated towers of antiquity; in fact, it is classed among the seven wonders of the world. it is quite likely, however, that this was not the first lighthouse. probably there were towers on the dardanelles, the sea of marmora, and the bosphorus which may have preceded the pharos of alexandria. the romans built lighthouses at ostia, ravenna, puteoli, and other ports. all these ancient lighthouses were towers on the top of which wood was burned at night, and the blaze of the burning wood furnished the light which was to guide the mariner. two or three centuries ago many lighthouses were built along the shores of france and england. the first lighthouse on the coast of our country was boston light, at the entrance to boston harbor, which was erected in the year . ever since the united states government has been established, much attention has been paid to our system of lighthouses. in a lighthouse board was established within the department of the united states treasury. great skill and engineering ability are needed in the construction of lighthouses. our country has long atlantic, pacific, and lake coasts to be protected, besides numerous rivers extending over thousands of miles. all along these coasts and rivers our government has established and maintains lighthouses. we have nearly a thousand lights on the atlantic coast, nearly two hundred upon the pacific, and several hundred along the shores of the northern lakes. the united states has also many fog signals and almost innumerable buoys. great sums of money are necessary to build these lighthouses, many of which are now of iron. twelve of our most famous lighthouses have cost a total sum of upward of $ , , for their construction. each year witnesses a steady improvement in the method of construction and of lighting this multitude of lighthouses. at first, fires burning at the tops of lighthouses were the only signals and guides at night. then came the use of oil in lamps, with reflectors constructed for the purpose. at first in this country fish oil was used, and after that sperm oil. within the last ten years refined petroleum has been almost universally adopted for lighthouses in the united states. at present about a million gallons are used in a year. we have only a few electric lights, though two are now in use on the atlantic coast and two or three upon the lakes. in late years commerce has been rapidly extended. the merchant marine of the nations has grown to gigantic proportions. the amount of travel not only coastwise but across the ocean for pleasure and profit has become enormous. the nations are coming closer together and becoming better acquainted with each other. all this promotes civilization, and will ere long, it is to be hoped, operate to prevent international wars. england has many famous lighthouses. great britain is an island and her coast shows a continuous series of indentations. perhaps the most famous of her lighthouses is the eddystone light, a few miles off from plymouth. if you will look on your map of great britain you will find that the county of northumberland is the extreme northern end of england, bordering on the north sea and adjoining the southeast corner of scotland. off that coast you will see a little group of islands called the farne islands. at low tide there are twenty-five of them. on one of these little islands, early in the present century, stood the longstone lighthouse. it was a solitary place, and sometimes weeks would pass without any communication with the mainland. the keeper of this light was william darling, a man of intelligence, who gave a fair education to each of his large family of children. one of these was a daughter whose name was grace. think what the youth of an intelligent girl would be on one of the farne islands. they are extremely desolate, are covered with rocks, and have very little vegetation and very little animal life except sea fowl. through the channels between these islands the sea rushes with great force, and many a brave ship has gone down, dashed to pieces upon the rocks. in a large steamer named the _forfarshire_ struck these rocks and was broken in two within sight of longstone lighthouse. this steamer had on board more than forty passengers and twenty officers and crew. three persons only were in the lighthouse--mr. darling, his wife, and grace. the storm was furious, the sea was running high, and through the mist, with the aid of his glass, mr. darling could make out the figures of the sufferers who were still clinging to the broken vessel. the lighthouse-keeper shrank from attempting their rescue, but grace insisted that they must make the effort to save them from certain death. even the launching of the boat was extremely hazardous. the old lighthouse-keeper thought it impossible, but he could not resist the pleadings of his daughter. the mother helped to launch the boat; the father and daughter entered it and each took an oar. it was a terrible undertaking to row the frail boat, and it required not only great muscular power but the most determined courage. the rescuers succeeded in reaching the rocks, but found great difficulty in steadying the boat to prevent it from being destroyed on the sharp ridges. there were nine persons clinging to the broken vessel. these nine were all rescued. by tremendous energy, great skill, and almost superhuman efforts they were rowed back to the lighthouse in safety. this heroic deed of a young woman scarcely twenty-three years of age was heralded abroad until she became well known all over europe, and the lonely lighthouse was soon the centre of attraction to thousands of curious and sympathizing persons. the humane society sent her a most flattering vote of thanks, and a public subscription was raised amounting to about thirty-five hundred dollars. testimonials of all kinds were showered upon her, which produced in her mind only a sense of wonder and grateful pleasure. [illustration: grace darling.] this brief outline of grace darling is here given because her heroism served to call the attention of the world to the importance of lighthouses and the isolated life of the keepers and their families. you will find a picturesque account of the life of grace darling in the first volume of chambers's "miscellany." this story does not stand alone in lighthouse annals, but again and again has it been matched in later times and in our own country. one of the most famous lighthouse heroines in america was miss ida lewis, whose father kept the limestone lighthouse at the entrance to the harbor of newport, r. i. this lighthouse-keeper's daughter very early in life became skilled in rowing and swimming. one day, when she was eighteen years of age, four young men were upset in a boat in the harbor. ida quickly launched her own skiff, pushed off, rescued them, and brought them safely to shore. at another time three drunken soldiers had stove a hole in their boat not far from the lighthouse. two swam ashore and ida reached their boat in season to save the third. two years afterward a sheep was being driven down the wharf when the animal plunged into the water. three men running along the shore in pursuit found a boat and pushed out after the sheep. a heavy "sou'wester" was blowing and the boat was carried away into deep water. ida lewis, in spite of the high wind, rowed out in her little skiff and brought them safely ashore. one winter a young scapegrace stole a sailboat from the wharf and put out to sea. about midnight the gale drove the boat upon the limestone rocks a mile from the light, but the boy clung to the mast all night. in the morning ida lewis found him, as she said, "shaking and god-blessing me and praying to be set on shore." by these and other instances in which miss lewis rescued those in danger she became famous, and her praises were heralded in the newspapers and spoken at many firesides. the citizens of newport presented her with a boat as a token of their admiration of her bravery. these famous instances and many more that could be added to them would seem to indicate that life in a lighthouse, with the mind constantly running out to the sea, becoming familiar with the storms that rise, and observing the dash of the waves and the roar of the wind--life inured to hardship, but shut up within the safe keeping of the solid walls of the little tower high above the raging waves--it would seem that such a life is calculated to give courage, strength, and fortitude, and to endue the heart with a heroic forgetfulness of self. how important is the position of a lighthouse-keeper! many lives are in his hands, and on his fidelity depends the safety of millions of dollars of property. boats and ships of all kinds, steamers great and small, sail away from one shore of the vast sea to the opposite shore, or along the coast, all in comparative safety because of the various beacon lights. indeed, is not the lighthouse itself a great lesson in morals? every one of us--every one of the seventy million people of the united states has a part in the lighthouse. it is we, the people, who are furnishing the government with its resources, and it is the great government of our country that builds the lighthouses to warn mariners of danger. the modern lighthouse is the symbol of benevolence. it carries with it the lesson of "loving thy neighbor as thyself." this is the lesson of the lighthouse to the people of the land, though its service is performed for the people of the sea. [illustration: cyrus h. mccormick.] [illustration: cutting sugar cane in the hawaiian islands.] section iii.--food. chapter i. uncultivated foods. heat and light--each is necessary for our bodily comfort and well-being. we have seen that much time and thought have been spent during the past three hundred years in providing the most satisfactory methods for heating and lighting our houses. we have found that wood and coal in our fireplaces, stoves, and furnaces have given us the best heat. we have learned that kerosene and gas made from coal are the most common sources of light. even electricity, the latest means for producing light and heat, usually needs the power of steam for its development; and heat is necessary to produce steam. we have a common name for the wood, the coal, the gas, and the oil, from the burning of which heat and light result; this name is fuel. another form of fuel is even more necessary than coal and wood. in the winter we warm our rooms so that we may not suffer from the cold; but the stove does not warm us when out of doors. then we put on our heavy winter wraps, but these give us no warmth: they merely keep in the heat of the body or keep out the cold blasts of the wind. we all know that the body is warm of itself; that there is something within us that produces heat, like a fire. when our fingers become chilled by the frosty air we may warm them with our breath. the temperature of a room may be seventy degrees or less, but if we place the bulb of a thermometer beneath the tongue we shall find that the mercury rises to ninety-eight degrees. the fire in the body and the fire in the stove act very much alike. if the draughts of the stove are closed tight and no air is admitted, the fire dies down and goes out. if the air which enters the body is foul, the fire feels the effect and our health is injured. if the lungs are filled with water or anything else which keeps out the air, the fire goes out and life is lost. the fuel which we call food is just as necessary for the fire in our body as is wood or coal for the fire in the stove. three times a day or oftener we take this food-fuel into our bodies; thus we keep the fire steadily burning which makes us warm and keeps us alive. on the other hand, fuel for the body must be very different from fuel for a stove. in the stove heat alone is wanted; therefore one form of fuel is enough. in the body bones must be enlarged and strengthened, muscles must be developed, fat must be provided in sufficient quantities, and brain-matter must be produced. therefore the food-fuel must provide not only heat but also the different materials of which the body is made. one kind of food is necessary for the bones, another for the blood, another for the flesh, and another for the nerves. thus while in studying common fuel we have only to learn about wood, either in the form of trees or pressed into the form of coal, in studying food-fuel we find that the kinds are almost numberless. meat and vegetables, fish and fruit, roots and nuts, in their infinite varieties, are all included in the word food. we are told that all matter belongs to one of three kingdoms--the animal, the vegetable, and the mineral kingdoms. from two of these three divisions we obtain most of our food. food may be divided into two classes then--animal food and vegetable food. in animal food we have the meat of wild animals and of domestic animals. in early days, when the number of people was small, the supply of wild animals was large. a great part of the food in those days was obtained by hunting and fishing. to-day most of the meat comes from domestic animals, so that the keeping of herds and flocks is one of the great industries of the time. fish are still important in our lists of foods, but the flesh of wild animals is less and less used for meat. three hundred years ago the indians had this country to themselves. they were few in number and were scattered over a vast territory. the forests abounded in wild game and the lakes and rivers were filled with fish. love of hunting and fishing held the first place in the pleasures of the red man. the hunting grounds extended far and wide in every direction. each tribe had its own hunting and fishing grounds, and it was considered an act of war for any tribe of indians to encroach upon the territory of other tribes. "such places as they chose for their abode," says hubbard's history, "were usually at the falls of great rivers, or near the seaside, where was any convenience for catching such fish as every summer and winter used to come up the coast. at such times they used, like good fellows, to make all common, and then those who had entertained their neighbors at the seaside expected the like kindness from them again up higher in the country." the kinds of wild animals that the indians hunted were very numerous. one man describes the appearance of an indian's "room of skins." he says: "there they showed me many hides and horns, both beasts of chase of the stinking foot--such as roes, foxes, jackals, wolves, wildcats, raccoons, porcupines, skunks, muskrats, squirrels, and sables--and beasts of chase of the sweet foot--buck, red deer, reindeer, moose, bear, beaver, otter, hare, and martin." captain john smith tells of the fowl that the red men hunted. he mentions eagles, hawks, cranes, geese, ducks, sheldrakes, teal, gulls, and turkeys. [illustration: indians hunting game.] the variety of fish caught by the indians was also very large. "higher up at the falls of the great rivers they used to take salmon, shad, and alewives, that used in great quantities, more than cartloads, in the spring, to pass up into the fresh-water ponds and lakes." "in march, april, may, and half june," says john smith, "here is cod in abundance; in may, june, july, and august, mullet and sturgeon; herring, if any desire them; i have taken many." again he writes of whales, grampuses, hake, haddock, mackerel, sharks, cunners, bass, perch, eels, crabs, lobsters, mussels, and oysters. we may also divide vegetable food into two classes--that which nature provides without the aid of man, or wild vegetables, and that which requires cultivation, or cultivated vegetables. many forms of nuts, berries and fruits, and some forms of common ground vegetables grow wild. the red men found these in great abundance. john smith found in new england currants, mulberries, gooseberries, plums, walnuts, chestnuts, and strawberries, besides other fruits of which he did not know the names. he made a journey up the potomac river, and reported that the hills yielded no less plenty and variety of fruit than the river furnished abundance of fish. smith also described acorns whose bark was white and sweetish; he added that these acorns, when boiled, afforded a sweet oil that the red men kept in gourds to anoint their heads and joints. the indians also ate the fruit of this acorn, made into bread. there were plums of three kinds and cherries. smith discovered also a great abundance of vines "that climb the tops of the highest trees in some places. where they are not overshadowed from the sun, they are covered with fruit, though never pruned nor manured." hunting and fishing are carried on in much the same way to-day as they were centuries ago. the gun has taken the place of the bow and arrow, and fishing implements have been somewhat improved. but to capture and kill is now, as formerly, all that is needed to obtain this form of food, if the wild animals themselves can be found. wild vegetables may be gathered to-day in just the way that our ancestors gathered them, though they are not found in so great quantities because of the increase of cultivation. in studying the changes in the modes of living that have occurred in this country during the last three hundred years, we find that almost all the improvements in the production of food have been in the planting, cultivating, and harvesting of food, and the bringing it to market. chapter ii. cultivated foods. hunting and fishing did not furnish either sufficient or satisfactory food for the indians. a portion of their time was spent in cultivating certain products of the soil. black hawk, a famous indian chief, writes: "when we returned to our village in the spring from our hunting grounds we would open the caches and take out corn and other provisions which had been put up in the fall, and then commence repairing our lodges. as soon as this is accomplished we repair the fences around our fields and clean them off ready for planting corn. this work is done by our women. the men, during this time, are feasting on dried venison, bear's meat, wild fowl and corn. [illustration: the corn dance.] "our women plant the corn, and as soon as they get done we make a feast and dance the corn dance. at this feast our young braves select the young woman they wish to have for a wife. when this is over we feast again and have our national dance. "when our national dance is over, our corn-fields hoed, and every weed dug up, and our corn about knee high, all our young men would start in a direction toward sundown to hunt deer and buffalo, and the remainder of our people start to fish. every one leaves the village and remains away about forty days. they then return, the hunting party bringing in dried buffalo and deer meat, the others dried fish. "this is a happy season of the year; having plenty of provision, such as beans, squashes, and other produce, with our dried meat and fish, we continue to make feasts and visit each other until our corn is ripe. "when the corn is fit for use another great ceremony takes place, with feasting and returning thanks to the great spirit for giving us corn. we continue our sport and feasting until the corn is all secured. we then prepare to leave our village for our hunting grounds." thus we see that the most important crop among the indians was maize or indian corn. this grain is specially suited to the climate and soil of a large portion of the country; it was wholly unknown to the europeans who first came to america. john smith in virginia and roger williams in new england were much interested in the indian corn. it is from their writings that we learn how the red men cultivated and used this strange product of the new world. as corn was the indians' main dependence, they ate it at all times and in various ways. they roasted the green ears in the ashes; sometimes they cut the kernels from the cob and boiled them with beans, making a kind of succotash. meal was made by pounding the kernels in a wooden mortar; if the corn was old it was soaked over night and pounded in the morning. this meal also was cooked in different ways. sometimes it was wrapped in corn husks and boiled; at other times it was mixed with water and made into cakes, which were baked in the ashes of the fire. often a pudding was made from the meal, in which blackberries were placed. when the indians travelled, they were accustomed to carry enough of this meal to last several days, either in a small basket or a hollow leathern girdle. such was life among the indians. usually food was plenty and feasting was common, but at times food was scarce and fasting was necessary. if the indian had sufficient for to-day, he cared little for to-morrow. if the corn crop failed or if the hunting expedition turned out badly, the red man accepted it as a necessary evil and made no complaint. [illustration: captain john smith. (from the history of virginia, by captain john smith.)] the first englishmen to learn of the foods that could be obtained in the new world were two captains sent out by sir walter raleigh to explore the atlantic coast of america. they returned full of enthusiasm for the fertile soil and the delightful climate of virginia. they praised also the kindness of the indians, who provided them with the best of food--deer, hares, fish, walnuts, melons, cucumbers, peas, and corn. apparently there was an abundance of food in the new world--flesh, fish, fruits, nuts, vegetables, and grain. the sailors were not farmers, however; nor were the colonists who came over the next year. they had no knowledge of the labor necessary to till the soil and raise the food, and after a year on roanoke island they returned to england. twenty years later the colonists at jamestown were no more ready to labor at farming than those at roanoke had been. numbers died from hunger during the first summer, but the leader, john smith, was able, from his own strength of character, to hold survivors to the work until a fair abundance of corn had been obtained. meanwhile smith managed to buy or borrow provisions from the indians. the settlers at plymouth arrived in early winter and found a climate much colder than that of england or holland. they could not hope to harvest a crop before the next autumn, and they also were dependent upon the red men for many months. soon after the _mayflower_ arrived in provincetown harbor an expedition was sent out to search for the best spot to build a village. they followed the tracks of indians, but could not find them nor their dwellings. the first sign of human life was a piece of clear ground which had been planted some years before. going a little farther they found a field in which the stubble was new, showing that the ground had been recently cultivated. finally they came upon "heaps of sand newly paddled with their hands." led by curiosity the pilgrims digged in these places and found several baskets filled with corn. this grain seemed to the pilgrims a "very goodly sight," though they had never seen corn before. they carried the grain back to the ship, and when the indians who owned the corn were found, the pilgrims gladly paid them its full value. when spring came the colonists at plymouth began making preparations for planting. an indian, named squanto, who had previously been carried to england and had learned to speak some english, showed himself very friendly. he taught them how to prepare the fish which must be put in every hill for a fertilizer. he directed the planting and cultivating of the fields. as a result they had "a good increase." they were not so successful in other ways, for their barley crop was very light and their peas dried up with the sun. a curious story is found in some old records. the dogs in a plymouth colony town caused the farmers great trouble by digging up the alewives which they were accustomed to place in the hills. therefore a law was passed that required the owner of every dog either to keep him securely tied for forty days after the fields were prepared, or to tie a forepaw to his head so that it would be impossible for the dog to dig in the newly prepared hill. two years later the pilgrims are said to have had nearly sixty acres of ground well planted with corn, and many gardens filled with fruits and vegetables. however, the crop was light, mainly because the colonists had been too weak, from lack of food, properly to attend to it. a famine would have followed for the third time had not a vessel arrived from england, in august, bringing provisions sufficient for the winter. for several years the pilgrims were compelled to live partly upon wild game and fish. one summer their main support was obtained by the use of the only boat that remained, with which they caught large quantities of bass. they also obtained clams when they could not get fish, used ground-nuts in place of bread, and caught many wild fowl in the creeks and marshes. the colonists had no milk, butter, nor cheese for the first three years in plymouth. there were no domestic animals in new england until, in the spring of , a vessel arrived bringing the first cows. in time beef and veal were added to the list of foods, and soon other domestic animals were brought over. by the middle of the fourth summer the village of new plymouth was reported to have nearly two hundred inhabitants, with some cattle and goats, and many swine and poultry. [illustration: an ancient plow.] the tools used by the early colonists were, like their houses and furniture, of the rudest manufacture. agriculture, such as exists in the united states to-day, was entirely unknown two centuries ago. the plow was little used and the few plows among the colonists were inconvenient, heavy tools. the important planting and cultivating implement used by the farmers was the hoe. the village or plantation blacksmith made the tools for the farmers, and they were rudely formed and shaped. in harvest time the hoe was again called into use, as well as the roughly constructed scythes and pruninghooks. the muscle-developing flail separated the grain from the straw, and the miller ground it into meal, or flour, taking "toll" for his pay--that is, a fixed fraction of the product. how the system of agriculture has changed during these two centuries, or rather during the last century, for few of the improvements are yet a hundred years old! as in the methods of producing heat and light, inventions have done wonders in providing us with a greater amount and a larger variety of food at a reduced cost. formerly all farm-work was done by the use of great muscular power. only a strong man can wield the hoe for hours at a time. to walk behind a plow, guiding the horse and holding the plow in place, is no light task. to swing a scythe from early morning until late in the day severely taxes the strength. to thresh grain upon the barn floor with a flail day after day needs much physical endurance. the labor of many men was required to manage even a comparatively small farm. to-day all these conditions are changed. at the present time "the most desirable farm-hand is the man with the cunning brain who can get the most work out of a machine without breaking it. the farm laborer finds himself advanced to the ranks of skilled labor. the man who plows uses his muscle only in guiding the machine. the man who operates the harrow has half a dozen levers to lighten his labor. the sower walks leisurely behind a drill and works brakes. the reaper needs a quick brain and a quick hand--not necessarily a strong arm nor a powerful back. the threshers are merely assistants to a machine. the men who heave the wheat into the bins only press buttons." chapter iii. implements for planting. george was determined to be a farmer. he was but twelve years of age, yet he felt sure that he knew his own mind. he said to himself and to his friends that life out of doors, life on a farm, was the best and healthiest kind of life. he declared that to raise the food of the world was the most important service that man could do for his fellow-beings. the boy lived in a city. he had always lived in a city and had never seen a farm. he had never been away from home. his home was a flat, or apartment, occupying a portion of one floor of a ten-story block. his knowledge of life was limited entirely to city life. he had been to the park; he had seen there trees and shrubbery, grass and flowers. yet he had never visited the park alone; he had never seen any of the work needed in caring for the trees and flowers. he knew absolutely nothing about gardening or farming; he could not tell the difference between a hoe and a rake; he would not be able to answer the simplest questions about farm life. yet george had decided to be a farmer, and he had made up his mind to study the subject of farming at once. he proposed to ask uncle ben all sorts of questions every chance he could get. he intended to obtain books from the library that would tell him what he needed to know. oh, could he only go into the country, try for himself life upon a farm, and see with his own eyes what a farmer had to do! so george went to work. he did not neglect his school duties, but carefully prepared his daily lessons. when these were done he was ready to study agriculture. he did not know where to begin with books, so he asked questions. "uncle ben," he said one evening as the family was gathered around the library lamp, "how does it happen that a farmer sometimes raises tomatoes and sometimes potatoes? what does he do if he wants one rather than the other?" "well, george," was the laughing reply, "i think that you have much to learn before you make a successful farmer. don't you know that if he wants potatoes he plants potatoes?" "why, i suppose so," said george. "then if he desires apples, does he plant apples?" "hardly," said his uncle. "seeds would be better than entire apples." george was started and for the rest of the evening he asked no more questions, his whole attention being turned to the large encyclopedia on his knee. when next he plied his uncle with questions it was evident that he had already learned something. "when a farmer plants a potato, he puts it in a hole and covers it up. i have read that he plows the ground first. what does he do that for?" "for two reasons, i suppose," replied uncle ben. "the roots and sprouts grow better in a soil that has been softened. when the ground is unplowed, it is baked hard. besides, plowing turns the soil over, brings new dirt to the top, and generally mixes it all together." "oh, yes!" said george. "then i must learn about plowing first." george obtained as good a knowledge of plows and tillage as was possible from books. in order fully to understand the subject, it would be necessary to see the plows and use them. but that could not come yet. the books told him that the earliest and simplest way to till the soil was with a spade. from them george learned, what most boys and girls know, what a spade was, and that a spade was all that was absolutely needed to soften the soil and prepare it for planting. to spade a piece of ground is slow work; it is also hard work. could not some method be devised so that the spading or tilling could be done by horses or oxen? this led to the invention of the plow. this was made thousands of years ago. the kooloo plow, still in use in india, was one of the earliest and was very rude. it was made entirely of wood, the sharp part of the plow being like a thorn in shape, but very thick and strong. as the centuries went on, iron began to be used; and early in the history of iron it was applied to plows. they were still made of wood, but iron plates were placed over the wood, where the instrument tore into the ground. later the plow itself was made of iron, leaving the handles still formed of wood. this iron plow would sometimes become covered with soil and so be almost useless. this was corrected by the use of steel shares instead of iron. this brought george to the modern plow. george was not content with simply obtaining an idea about plows; he wished to know all that he could about them. he obtained books that gave complete accounts of the varieties of plows, the ways in which they were used, and the work which they should do. he learned that a plow should be fitted to its task. it should be as light as possible, easily drawn, and it should run with even steadiness, at a uniform depth. it should not only turn the soil over, but should thoroughly powder it and bury the weeds. to his great surprise george also learned that some of the modern plows were as much superior to the ordinary plow as that was to the spade. the sulky plow is easier for the horses than the common plow; it makes furrows of different depths; and it has a seat for the farmer. sometimes several plowshares are placed side by side and drawn by a large number of horses. this is called a gang plow. steam and wind and water and even electricity are coming into use to furnish power for plows, in place of the animal power of horses. "well, uncle ben," said george one evening, "now i understand something about plowing and tillage. the next thing a farmer does in the spring is to plant his potatoes and corn, is it not?" "yes," was the reply. "well, then," said george, "that will not take me long to learn. all there is to do is to dig a hole, put in the potato, and cover it with earth." "i am afraid that you will find that the job is not quite so simple as that. has the farmer nothing to plant but potatoes?" asked the uncle. "yes," said the boy. "corn and turnips and oats and wheat and pumpkins and lots of other things." "would you plant a kernel of corn in just the same way that you would a potato?" "no, i suppose not," was the reply. "and do you think that every farmer does all his planting by hand? does he not have tools to help him?" thus george was started on a new line of thought. he read of the sower, as he slowly walks the length of the field, throwing the grain right and left. even this work is better and more quickly done by machinery. the hand sower is a little machine which the farmer straps to his shoulders. the hopper of the sower is filled with grain and, as the handle is turned, the grain is scattered broadcast to as great a distance as possible. more saving of labor still is the horse sower, which is simply the hand sower on a larger scale. sometimes the seed is inserted in the ground by means of grain drills, which deposit the grain more evenly and at the same time cover it with earth. after learning how to sow seed, george began to inquire into the subject of planting. many machines have been invented for this purpose which save much labor. the most important are the corn planter and the potato planter. machines for planting other vegetables are much like these. the hand corn planter, which is used on small farms, is carried in the hand of the farmer. at each place where he wishes a hill of corn he strikes into the ground the planter, which leaves the kernels at the proper depth and covers them with soil. the horse corn planter is a form of grain drill, which does the same work as the hand planter. the potato planter is a simple machine, though it does a variety of work. it cuts the potatoes into slices and drops them through a tube into a furrow which the plow-like part of the planter makes. the slices are dropped at regular spaces and are covered with dirt by the machine itself. in other words, the farmer puts potatoes in the hopper and drives the machine the length of the field. the planter does the rest of the work, saving the farmer the labor of slicing the potatoes, digging the hole, dropping the vegetable and covering it with earth. all this and much more george learned during the next two weeks. then he showed that he was ready for a new subject by asking his uncle what the farmer did between seedtime and harvest. "i suppose," said the boy, "that most farmers get their planting done almost before summer begins. then it must be some time before they begin to harvest the grain and dig the potatoes. what do they do all summer?" "i think," replied his uncle, "that you will have to go into the country and see some things for yourself. as the school term is nearly finished, i believe that you must visit a good farmer and spend the summer and autumn with him. then you will know something of a real farmer's life and work. but to answer your question by asking another, did you ever hear of weeds?" after that george asked few questions. he began to think that he was showing too much ignorance. from that evening until the end of june he had no thoughts but of the farm. he read but little and waited to study his subject at close hand. but he did discover that a farmer's life is not too easy in the summer. he learned that the ground must be kept free from weeds and continually loosened. he found that the farmer uses his hoe in deadly hostility to the weeds; that he makes his horse do a part of the work of hoeing; that the harrow and the cultivator keep the soil loose between the rows. when the summer came, george felt that he had some knowledge of tillage, of sowing and planting, and of weeding; this was book knowledge. now he hoped to get into the inside and learn something of the farmer's methods of harvesting. "then," he thought, "i can be a farmer." chapter iv. implements for harvesting. george awoke the first morning at the farm to hear the roosters crowing, the cows mooing, the sheep bleating, and the men cheerily whistling as they hurried about the chores. no thought of turning over for another nap entered his head, but in quick time he was dressed and ready for the morning meal. breakfast over, george hastened out of doors and was soon eagerly watching tom, who had been directed to cut the grass around the edges of one of the fields which had been previously mowed. here for the first time he saw a scythe and learned its use. for a while george watched tom's steady swing of the scythe as he slowly cut a swath the length of the field. then he hastened to another field where the mowing machine was steadily moving across the lot. what an improvement! what a saving of labor! how easily those knives moved through the grass, laying every spire low as soon as it was touched! how much more even the cut, though tom was skilled with the scythe! the horses drew the machine with ease and the driver had a comfortable seat. however, it was plain that he must keep his head clear and his eyes open, to properly attend to every part of the instrument. when noon came george was tired and heated, and he gladly remained in the house after dinner. here he found his favorite encyclopedia and was soon hunting up the history of the invention of the mower. he was surprised to learn how short a time it had been in use. from the beginning of history the crooked sickle and the straighter scythe had been almost the only tools used for cutting grass and grain. not until about the middle of the present century had practical mowing machines come into use. but now, except on very small or rocky farms, the horse mower is an absolute necessity. [illustration: mowing with scythes.] the next day george again visited the fields to see the next step in the process of making hay. first he found tom, with a fork, turning over the grass which he had mowed the day before. then he went to the other field, where he saw the same work being done by a machine. the mower had left the grass in heaps so that the sun could reach only the surface. it is necessary that hay should be thoroughly dried as quickly as possible. across the field and back again went the hay tedder, its forks picking up the grass and tossing it in every direction. one horse only was needed, and the driver was a boy. the third day george was again in the field. once more the grass was turned. then in the late afternoon it was prepared for the barn. tom could only use the small hand rake, for his work was close to the fence; he was simply cleaning up what the machines had failed to reach. but in the field where george had watched the mower and the tedder, machinery and horse power were again in use. a horse went back and forth, drawing a horse rake behind him. now and then, at regular intervals, up came the rake, a pile of hay was left, and on went the horse. then a hay sweep passed along at right angles to the rake and soon the hay was in piles. as the field was very smooth and free from stones, a hay loader was used to place the hay upon the wagon. a boy drove the horses, two men laid the load, and soon the wagon was started for the barn. the old-fashioned, slow, hard work of lifting the hay by the forkful into the barn was no longer necessary. hay forks, run by horse power, grappled the hay, and lifted the load. conveyers carried the hay to the right point and dropped it in the mow. such was the work done during the first three days that george spent on the farm. he saw the old-fashioned hand work and the modern use of labor-saving machinery. then he studied his books. in them he found that the hand labor of cutting, drying, and housing the hay used to cost about five dollars a ton, and that now, with the best of modern machines, it need cost not more than one dollar a ton. this machinery is of great value to the farmer and also to those who buy the hay; for the farmer can sell his hay at a lower price, since it costs him less to make it. this was the last of the haying. for several weeks george watched the hoes and the harrows, as they kept the gardens and fields in good condition. then came harvest-time. potatoes were first in george's thoughts, and when he learned that they were to be dug on the morrow he was thoroughly aroused. but he met with a sore disappointment. the potatoes were not dug by machinery. the common hoe or the specially shaped potato hoe were the only tools. then the back-aching work of picking up potatoes added to his disgust, and he declared that he never would raise many potatoes. he learned that plows sometimes help the hoes, but that potato-digging machines have never come into general use, though good ones have been invented. at last grain harvest-time came. this was the time to which george had long looked forward. now he could see the wheat cut and threshed. this he was sure was the best work of the farmer. but when he saw tom take the short, crooked sickle, cut some grain with that, gather it in his arms, and tie a cord around it, he could scarcely control himself. "is that the way grain is harvested?" he said. then when he saw the grain laid on the barn floor and struck rapidly by flails in the hands of two men, he declared, "if that is what the farmer has to do to get a little grain, then i do not want to be a farmer." "well," said mr. miller, "that is just what all farmers had to do until within fifty years." [illustration: a reaper and binder.] but george soon saw a different method. this first hand-work had been merely to harvest a small amount of early grain; a few days later the machines were brought out. now george was happy. at last he saw a reaping machine and a combined reaper and binder. this interested him the most. he watched the machine as the horses drew it along the edge of the standing grain. he saw the grain cut and laid upon a platform, carried up into the machine, taken by two arms called packers, gathered by them into bundles, bound by cords and thrown to the ground. what more could be asked of any machine? and yet there is a new type of harvester that has been used in san joaquin valley, california. it cuts a swarth fifty-two feet in width. it not only cuts the grain but it threshes it as well. it makes the sacks and fills them as it travels over the field. it is said to cut an area of a hundred acres a day, and at the same time thresh the grain and fill fifteen hundred sacks. [illustration: the mccormick reaper.] later in the autumn came the thresher. that belonging to farmer miller was run by horse power. two horses stood upon a platform, constantly stepping forward but not moving from their position. instead the platform moved backward and this turned the machinery. the men placed the grain stalks in the hopper and the threshed grain came out of the machine, flowing into sacks, which when filled were tied by the men and set aside ready for the market. the reaper and the thresher seemed to george the greatest of inventions. he obtained a book on inventions, and for many days he was buried in it. he read of the englishman, henry ogle, whose reaper, made in , aroused the anger of the working people, who threatened to kill the manufacturers if they continued to make the machines; of patrick bell's invention, which, though successful, was forgotten for twenty or thirty years; of cyrus h. mccormick, the american, whose reaper first obtained a lasting success. most of all he was interested in the account of the first trial of reapers in england, at the time of the world's fair in . what a joke it was for the london _times_ to poke fun at the mccormick machine, as it was exhibited in the crystal palace! how the great newspaper did wish that it had kept quiet when a few days later it was compelled to report the complete success of the ridiculed reaper! the trial took place in essex, about forty-five miles from london. two hundred farmers were present, ready to laugh at failure or to accept any successful machine. the wheat was not ripe; the crop was heavy; and the day was rainy. the hussey reaper was first tried but was soon clogged by the green, wet grain. the judges proposed to discontinue the trial, as the conditions were so unfavorable. but the agent of the mccormick reaper protested. his machine would work under any conditions; he wished that the gentlemen who had taken the pains to come to the trial should have a chance to see the mccormick. accordingly it was brought forward and, in spite of everything, it went steadily forward, cutting all before it. success was evident, and the english farmers gave three hearty cheers for the american reaping-machine. another trial, at which the reaper was timed, showed that it could cut twenty acres a day with ease. even the laboring men realized that the machine would come at once into use; one, who was among the interested spectators, took the sickle, which he happened to have with him, and broke it in two across his knee; he said that he would no longer need that. four years later a trial took place in france also. here three american, two english, and two french machines were tested. mccormick's reaper easily came out ahead, with the other american machines close behind. at the same time four threshing machines were tested. six men with their flails, working as hard as they could, obtained fifty-four quarts of wheat in half an hour; the american thresher gave out six hundred and seventy-three quarts in the same time! [illustration: threshing with flail.] we have spent much time on farming machinery. we must now leave george to a further study of farm life and farm work. so far he has only examined tools and machinery. he has learned from experience, however, that a modern farmer has much more than this to learn, and much work to do that cannot be done by machinery. he realizes that much study is needed to make a successful farmer. he finds that nearly every state in the union has one or more agricultural colleges, and that the united states does its share in giving aid and information to farmers. he still desires to be a farmer, but he is glad that it is a modern farmer that he must be. he goes back to school, eager to prepare himself to enter the best agricultural college that he can find, in order that he may be ready for intelligent farming as soon as opportunity comes. chapter v. soil. a little boat was sailing along the north shore of massachusetts bay. it was a shallop belonging to the fishing hamlet of cape ann. in it were gov. roger conant and a few of his friends. after a sail of a dozen miles the boat was turned to the westward and entered a harbor. on it went until it reached a point of land which separated two little rivers. upon this peninsula, which the indians called naumkeag, conant landed. he walked across from one stream to the other; he carefully examined the trees, the weeds, the grass, and the remains of an indian cornfield. then he sailed back to the cape. [illustration: colonists in a shallop.] a few weeks later governor conant and fourteen companions moved from cape ann to naumkeag, now salem. for three years the hamlet on the cape had been struggling for life. the colonists had at last become disheartened and had abandoned the settlement. but what better fortune could they expect at naumkeag? conant's study of the little peninsula had taught him that here was a fertile soil from which he could raise food enough for the colonists. cape ann had not proved fertile. it was a "stern and rock-bound coast." the entire cape seemed to be one vast ledge of granite rock, and only here and there could grain and vegetables be grown. the settlement of salem was four years earlier than that of boston, and but six years after the pilgrims arrived in plymouth. thus early in the history of the colonies was it found necessary to seek fertile soils for settlements. as these grew and the number of the colonists increased, the need of more land and better soil became apparent. ten years after conant went to naumkeag, the population of three entire towns near boston moved, through woods, over hills and valleys, and across streams, to the fertile valley of the connecticut river. farms spread out in every direction until, before the middle of the eighteenth century, nearly all of southern new england was dotted with them. the french and indian war came, and at its close the valley of the ohio river was placed in the hands of the english. then followed the american revolution, and the northwest territory became a part of the united states. the new england farmers had become crowded by this time, and many were eager for more land. a new migration followed. farmers from new england, new york, and pennsylvania began to journey westward and to settle the northwest territory. ohio soon had sufficient population to be made a state. indiana and illinois followed, then michigan and wisconsin. meanwhile the united states purchased the great province of louisiana, and iowa, minnesota, and nebraska were settled by the eastern farmers and others who had come across the ocean from europe. never in the history of the world had there been such a rapid settlement of new lands. it has continued even up to the present time. a few years ago the new territory of oklahoma was opened to farmers, and its growth has been remarkable. the principal reason for this rapid settlement of western land may be found in the excellent character of the soil. for ages it had lain uncultivated, waiting for the coming of the white man. unlike the rocky portions of new england, the ground seldom contains a large stone. unlike the hills and valleys of the coast states, the interior territory is prairie land, level as far as the eye can see. here the gang plows can be run; here the mowing machines and the mammoth harvesters can be used to great advantage. thus grew the northern part of the united states. in the south the westward movement was not so rapid. the conditions of agriculture were different. the climate of south carolina was unlike that of massachusetts; the cold of new york was unknown in georgia. in new england small farms were the rule; on these the work was done by the owner, with the aid of his sons or perhaps a hired man or two. in virginia large plantations were common; here the proprietor lived at his ease and the land was cultivated by slaves. in connecticut the crops raised were used for the most part by the farmer's family or sold in the immediate neighborhood. in north carolina the products of the plantations were exported in great quantities. in time, however, these southern people became dissatisfied with their early territory, as their northern brothers had been, and gradually new states were formed to the westward. kentucky and tennessee were followed by louisiana; alabama and mississippi were formed on one side of the great river, but a few years before missouri and arkansas were on the other. state after state was admitted to the union as soon as a sufficient number of people had flocked into them, and the number of territories was steadily diminishing. at the farther end of the continent, the oregon country, saved to us by the heroism of dr. marcus whitman, added a large territory of extremely fertile soil. south of oregon the great state of california was added to the union, as a result of marshall's discovery of gold at sutter's fort. yet california to-day is a state for the farmer as well as the miner. thus finally, the atlantic coast, the region of the great lakes, the ohio valley, the gulf states, the valley of the "father of waters," and the pacific slope--in fact, almost all sections of the united states--were well peopled by farmers, drawing from the rich virgin soil immense crops of food, more than sufficient for our own people. but we were not satisfied. in the very heart of the country, between kansas, nebraska, and the dakotas on the east, and california, oregon, and washington on the west, lay a great region which had no attractions for the farmer. let him properly plow and cultivate the soil, let him add to it soil-food or fertilizers as much as he pleases, let the spring and the summer come, and let the hot sun add its part to change the seed into growing grain--in spite of all the farmer's efforts no crop could be obtained. the grain dried up almost as soon as planted. there was no water. for month after month no rain fell upon this region. it was called the "great american desert." the first attempt to make this desert soil yield a suitable return for the labor of the farmer was made at salt lake city. fifty years ago a band of earnest men braved cold and famine, and the even more deadly indians, crossed the great region west of the mississippi river, and made a settlement in the very midst of the desert country. to-day the desert of utah blooms like a garden; the soil is fertile and yields large returns to the industrious inhabitants. what has made the change? nothing but water. if the heavens refuse to send rain to moisten the parched ground, cannot the needed water be obtained in some other way? the pioneer settlers of salt lake led the way in teaching mankind that the ground may be irrigated by human means. water may be carried to the fields where, flowing along the surface of the ground, it soaks in until it reaches the roots of the crops. the water may be pumped out of the ground or it may be brought from the mountains in trenches or pipes. this method of helping nature by providing water where rain is scarce is called irrigation. [illustration: an irrigating trench.] in the same way many other sections of the great west have been reclaimed. southern california, formerly fit only for the raising of vast herds of cattle, is now the great orchard of the country. large portions of new mexico and arizona now add to the general stock of food. irrigation bids fair to be of vast benefit to the country as, little by little, barren lands are rendered fertile. at present the principal grain region of our country is the great northwest, the twelve states west of pennsylvania. the principal grain is corn, and two-thirds of the entire crop of this country is grown in the seven states of ohio, indiana, illinois, iowa, nebraska, kansas, and missouri. the banner corn state is iowa. the wheat crop is more valuable to the world than the corn. the united states raises one-quarter of all the wheat grown in the world, and the great northwest produces two-thirds of that. wheat can be profitably raised in a cooler climate than is suitable for corn; therefore the five northern states michigan, wisconsin, minnesota, north and south dakota add their quota to the wheat grown in the seven great corn states. minnesota leads in the production of wheat. not all the wheat comes from this region, however, for two pacific states, california and oregon, produce one-eighth of the entire crop of our country, and pennsylvania gives a large share. [illustration: a rice field.] iowa leads in the production of oats as well as of corn; more than two-thirds of the oat crop comes from the northwest. new york and pennsylvania add their quota, about one-eighth of the total crop. the northwest thus provides two-thirds of the grain, on much less than one-half of the cultivated land of the united states. though grain is the great agricultural product, it is not the only crop that we raise in large quantities. ten of the southern states furnish each year more than sixty thousand tons of rice, a large portion of which comes from louisiana and south carolina. the united states is just beginning to take rank as a sugar-producing country. we now raise about one-eighth of the sugar that we use each year. at present most of the sugar comes from sugar cane, which is grown mainly in louisiana; but the central states and california have recently begun the manufacture of sugar from beets, and beet-growing is becoming an important industry. the recent annexation of islands in the west indies and the pacific ocean greatly increases our sugar production. two other crops which are obtained from the soil must not be forgotten, although they are neither of them foods. the gulf states furnish nine-elevenths of all the cotton raised in the world, and the states north of them produce a large portion of the world's tobacco. kentucky leads in the production of the latter staple, raising each year nearly one-half of the tobacco grown in the united states. grain, cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar are the main products of the soil in the united states. each of these is produced in its own special region, depending upon the character of the soil and the climate. the value of our agricultural exports is rapidly increasing, and the world is looking more and more to the united states to furnish a large part of the food necessary for all mankind. chapter vi. a modern dinner. george baxter and his wife returned to new york, after a winter spent in california just a week before mrs. baxter's sister and her husband were preparing to start for a second summer in europe. a third sister, alice smith, decided to give the travelers a small dinner, to which only the family should be invited. [illustration: a dinner party.] when the evening arrived, eleven members of the atwood family gathered about the table in mr. smith's capacious dining room, the seat of honor being given to the mother, mrs. atwood. besides the three married couples, frank and alice smith, albert and mary fremont, and george and lucy baxter, there were the four unmarried children. james, the oldest son, was a banker in the city; walter, next younger than lucy, was a student fitting for columbia university; fred and mabel were still classed as school children. after the trim waiter had brought on the soup, the moment's quiet was broken by george baxter, who said to the hostess: "how good to get back to new york once more, if only to get a soup that one can eat without burning the mouth with the sharp condiments. you have no seasoning at all in the soup, have you, alice?" "oh, yes," replied the hostess, "it is a very simple soup, but there is the usual pepper and salt. what have you been in the habit of having?" "i am sure that i could tell what we did not have in some of our mexican soups much easier than what we did have. i should think that there must have been both kinds of pepper, ginger, garlic, mustard, horseradish, worcestershire sauce, and everything else. i cannot understand why people living in the tropics want to season their food with such hot stuff." "what do you mean by two kinds of pepper, brother george?" asked mabel. "cayenne pepper and black pepper," was the reply. "oh, yes, i know!" said fred. "cayenne pepper comes from cayenne in french guiana. but where do we get black pepper?" "nearly all of it comes from sumatra," said mary. "do you know where sumatra is, mabel?" "sumatra is one of the large islands south and southeast of asia, which are called the east indies," replied the schoolgirl. the conversation had now become general, and mr. smith called attention to the distance that these condiments travel in reaching us. "sumatra is almost exactly on the opposite side of the earth from us," said he. "fred, how would the black pepper be brought to new york from sumatra?" "across the indian ocean and the red sea, through the suez canal and the mediterranean sea, i suppose. but i do not know whether it would then come straight across the atlantic ocean, or first go to england." "usually," said mr. smith, "it would go to england first." "alice," broke in mabel, "what else is in the soup beside pepper? oh, i know, salt. is salt also brought half-way round the world?" "i know where salt comes from," said fred; "up state. it is dug out of the ground near syracuse." "that is right, fred," said james. "but new york state does not supply all the salt used in this country. for years many ships and barks have come yearly into gloucester harbor from sicily, bringing salt for the fishing-schooners. steamers even are being used to bring salt from the mediterranean sea, in order that the gloucester fishermen may send salt fish all over our country." "we must not forget," said mrs. smith, "that there is rice in our soup also. that comes from south carolina." just then the plates were removed and the fish was brought on. "this is a rarity," said the hostess. "can you tell us what it is, james?" "i think so. it is halibut, is it not?" "why do you call it a rarity?" asked mary. "this halibut came from the grand banks," said mrs. smith. "i do not understand how they get it here so fresh." james, who seemed to be quite familiar with the gloucester fisheries, said: "the fishermen brought their load of halibut to the gloucester wharves last night and immediately loaded it upon the boston steamer. three o'clock in the morning was its time for sailing, and at six it was being unloaded in boston. the six-hour trains brought some of it to new york in time for our dinner." [illustration: loading fish at gloucester.] "steamers and railroad trains seem necessary for our dinner, do they not?" said albert. "but this fish sauce contains only articles from nearer home, i am sure." "do not be too certain of that," said mr. smith. "alice, what is there in this sauce?" "first, there are eggs." "those came from our long island farm, of course," said her husband. "then there is olive oil." "that comes from italy," said mr. smith. "that is not a home product. the olives that you are eating are, of course, from italy also." "i doubt that," said george. "i was just about to remark that these olives had come from california. i can easily detect the taste." "yes," the hostess added. "these olives i bought just to see if george and lucy would notice that they were not our usual queen olives. they are said to have come from pomona." "that is a great olive center," said george. "what else is there in the sauce, alice?" asked her husband. "pepper and salt, vinegar----" "cider vinegar, i suppose," broke in mrs. baxter. "how much nicer apple vinegar is than grape vinegar! most of the vinegar that we had in california was made from wine. that state is becoming a great grape-producing region. but do you know, frank, where the apples were grown?" "no," said mr. smith, "but probably they were raised either in vermont or new hampshire. last year the new york apple orchards gave but a poor yield, while those of new england did much better. probably this season will prove an off year for vermont apples, but we shall have all that we can use in our own state." "a little lemon ends the list," said the hostess. "lemons from sicily, i suppose," remarked mr. baxter. "have you tried the california lemons yet?" "yes," said mr. smith. "we can sometimes get very fine lemons from california, but not always. if the growers of lemons were more particular about the quality of the fruit that they send out, there would be a better trade in california lemons." while this conversation was going on, the fish was removed and a roast of beef was placed on the table, and with it the vegetables. the different members of the family had become quite interested in the discussion by this time, and it was continued as a matter of course. "this is a good piece of beef," remarked james atwood. "what are we going to do for meat when the natural increase in the amount of land devoted to cultivation uses up all the grazing regions?" "you need not fret about that," said mr. baxter; "that will not come in your day. you ought to take a trip through texas, new mexico, and arizona, through wyoming and montana, or other sections of the rocky mountain region, and you would not fear for our cattle-raising interests." "here, again, the railroads are important," said mr. fremont. "what numbers of long freight trains daily come east, loaded with cattle for new york and boston, and even for great britain and the continent. the european consumption of our cattle is of great and rapidly growing importance." [illustration: a cattle train.] "these new potatoes came from the bermudas," remarked the host. "and the peas from maryland," added the hostess. "do you not think that these are remarkably fresh after having been brought so far?" "how about the lettuce?" asked james. "that must have come from some greenhouse." "without doubt, though i did not inquire," replied mrs. smith. not willing to leave anything out of the conversation, mabel here inquired about the macaroni and tomatoes. "the macaroni comes from italy," replied her sister mary. "much of it is shipped from genoa, the city which claims to have been the birthplace of columbus. you would find it interesting, mabel, to read about the production and preparation of macaroni." "the tomatoes were canned on our farm last autumn," said mrs. smith. "we think them much superior to any that we can buy." after this the conversation turned upon the bread. there were two kinds, white and brown. one of the ladies remarked that she never ate white bread; bread from whole wheat flour was so much more wholesome. another said that graham bread was good enough for her. they talked about the white flour, made in minneapolis, from dakota wheat. they spoke of the indian meal made from corn grown in iowa. they wondered why so little rye was used in this country, since it is the staple grain in russia. they then inquired concerning the other substances used in making the two kinds of bread. "where does the butter come from?" asked mrs. fremont. "this particular box is marked from delaware county, new york," replied the hostess. "most of the creameries that send butter to new york city are located at some distance from the railroads. the farms nearer the railroads send all their milk to the city. but the farmers that are too remote profitably to send in the milk make the cream into butter and cheese. they then feed the buttermilk to the pigs." "that is a new thought to me," said james. "so it seems that some products are made only where there are no railroads." "or where there is no great city within a few hundred miles," added walter. "i suppose there is molasses in this brown bread," said lucy baxter. "molasses comes from porto rico," said mabel, who was studying the west indies just at this time in her geography lessons at school. "some of it," said her oldest sister. "but most of the sugar comes from cuba." "but not all," said james. "this sugar has been traveling for nearly two weeks to reach new york. first a sea voyage of more than two thousand miles, and then a railroad journey of more than three thousand miles, and yet the section where it grew is a part of the united states." "it must have come from honolulu then," said walter. "i wonder whether the sandwich islands, being now a part of the united states, will interfere with the raising of sugar cane in our southern states?" "very little probably, but now that the united states possesses hawaii and porto rico, it will scarcely be necessary for us to import any sugar and molasses," said fred. when the dessert and fruit were brought on, new subjects for conversation were found. "what do you call this pudding, alice?" asked her husband. "it is a peach-tapioca pudding," was the reply. "the peaches are from delaware; canned, of course." "here, again, the west indies are represented," said james; "the tapioca came from hayti." "and the east indies also," added walter, "for i taste nutmeg, which comes from the molucca islands. these islands furnish such an amount of spice that they are commonly called the spice islands." the discussion of foods continued throughout the dinner. the oranges, almost the last of the season, had been brought from california. florida oranges were scarce that year. the bananas were from mexico and almost a luxury. the war with spain had destroyed trade with cuba, from which island the great bulk of bananas had usually come. among the nuts were almonds that had been imported from italy, filberts that had been sent across the ocean from england, and walnuts that had come from california. finally the coffee was from the island of java. [illustration: drying coffee in java.] before the dinner party broke up, mr. smith reviewed the facts which had been learned in the conversation. he especially called attention to the small number of articles that are not profitably raised in the united states. "we should miss our coffee very much," he said, "if our country were blockaded at any time. the loss of the banana would be the loss of a luxury. had we no macaroni or tapioca we should still have enough to eat. perhaps our taste would become more natural were we deprived of pepper. no other of the foods on this table should we be entirely deprived of, even were we separated wholly from the rest of the world. california could furnish us with olives, lemons, and almonds, as well as italy does. we need not go to england for filberts, and even if we had not of late obtained new colonies, we could produce in time all the sugar we needed to supply the entire country. no other nation in the world is so well prepared to furnish its own food." [illustration: eli whitney.] [illustration: a quilting bee in the olden time.] section iv.--clothing. chapter i. colonial conditions. you all know that the united states of america was formed out of thirteen english colonies scattered along the atlantic coast. virginia was the first of these colonies to be founded, dating from . massachusetts was settled in , new york in , and so on until the last of the thirteen, georgia, was established in . from the time of these settlements until the declaration of independence in , these colonies were subject to great britain and under her rule and control. the independence of these american colonies was a great loss to the british government, but it created a new nation of the same race which, together with the mother country, to-day holds the destiny of the world in its hands. great britain for centuries has been largely a manufacturing country. it was the policy of the british government to control so far as possible manufactures and commerce for all her provinces and colonies. hence during our colonial period the home government took every possible measure to prevent the introduction of manufactures into the colonies. we were dependent upon the mother country for cotton and woolen goods, cutlery, iron ware, and, indeed, almost everything that could be profitably manufactured in england and shipped to this country. even after we had secured out independence, the strictest care was taken by the officials of england that drawings and models of machinery should not be brought to america. as late as an american manufacturer of cotton cloth visited england. although he carried letters of introduction which caused him to be treated with great courtesy and attention, he was refused permission to enter any of the cotton mills. the manufacturers suspected his purpose, which was to learn the construction of the "double speeder." nevertheless he persisted, and one day, without permission and in spite of the sign "positively no admittance," he entered the carding-room, accompanied by a skilled mechanic. they proceeded as rapidly as possible to examine the machine, which was in full operation, but were soon ordered out by the overseer. they had, however, seen enough of its construction to enable them to make one. after their return to this country they made a machine and set it up in the gentleman's cotton mill in the state of new york. the news of its successful operation reached england and aroused a jealous feeling among manufacturers. in their anger they planned a wicked scheme to destroy the life of the american manufacturer. a box containing an "infernal machine" was sent as freight on a packet ship bound for new york. fortunately, when the crew was discharging the cargo, the box slipped from the car hook and fell with a crash upon the wharf. this caused it to explode, but without injury to any one. in colonial times the condition of society was such as to make it almost impossible for the people to engage to any great extent in manufactures. the country was new and the principal business must be agriculture. after comfortable shelter for the families had been provided, every exertion must be put forth to secure food. cloth could only be obtained from the mother country. cotton and linen cloth were imported for shirts and sheets, woolen goods for clothing, a few silks for wedding dresses now and then, and leather for the shoes of all the people. [illustration: tailor and cobbler.] in the early times the tailor, with his goose and his shears, plied his trade from house to house, staying with each family long enough to make up the clothes necessary for the season. in like manner the shoemaker traveled about the country, with his kit upon his back, stopping with each household to make the shoes needed for the father, mother, and children. these were the pioneer days, but, before we became a nation, the houses of the people had greatly improved in style of architecture and in comfort. considerable wealth had been secured by many, and but little poverty was found anywhere. the mechanic arts were beginning to improve, and manufacturing, after a long and tedious waiting, was gradually making progress. at an early date sawmills had been established upon the streams, using the water as motive power. gristmills had sprung up for grinding the grain raised by every farmer. the spinning wheel and the hand loom had found their place slowly but steadily in all parts of the country. it is difficult to comprehend the great differences between the industries of those early days and the methods of doing business among us to-day. now almost everything seems to be done by machinery, and the division of labor has been carried to such an extent that each laborer seems only an assistant to a machine. "you press the button, the machine does the rest." in the early days of our country, it was customary for the different members of a family to do almost everything that the necessities or comfort of the household required. everywhere the farmer raised sheep, sheared them, carded the wool, spun it and wove it, all this being done upon the home farm. a well-to-do farmer would produce all the woolen cloth needed for clothing for himself and his family. [illustration: flax wheel.] the sheep grazed upon the hills and their wool was clipped in the spring of the year. this wool was scoured, carded, spun by the family in the farmhouse, and then woven into cloth for the winter's wear. all this was done within the walls of the house, and the cloth was made up into clothing for the different members of the family by the itinerant tailor. what a contrast from the present system, which raises wool upon our western hills and prairies, makes it into cloth in the large factories, and fashions it into trousers, vests, and coats in the great wholesale clothing establishments. in some sections of the country the farmers raised flax, and from it made the purest white linen cloth. the writer of this chapter has in his possession a beautiful piece of white linen, woven upon the farm where he was born, from thread which was spun from flax raised upon the same farm. the flax wheel and the loom were also made by the father of the family. [illustration: an old-fashioned loom.] if you could look into that old kitchen what a sight you would see! how quaint it would appear to each one of you! the kitchen makes an ell to the main house. this ell was an old house, built more than a century and a half ago, and moved up to the new house for a kitchen. in one corner stands the large spinning wheel; near it is the smaller flax wheel; in another corner stands the great wooden loom with its huge beam for the warp and its shuttle which must be thrown back and forth by hand. no carpet, not even an oil-cloth, is upon the floor, which is covered with pure white sand. it would seem very strange to us if we were obliged to live surrounded by these primitive conditions. how much stranger would it appear to those who lived at that day if they could witness the improvements of our time! chapter ii. the cotton gin. in the quiet times that followed the french and indian war, two years after the treaty of , eli whitney was born in worcester county in massachusetts. during the revolutionary war he was busy making nails by hand, the only way in which nails were made in those days. he earned money enough by this industry and by teaching school to pay his way through college. but it was a slow process, and he was nearly twenty-seven years of age when he was graduated at yale. immediately upon his graduation he went to georgia,--a long distance from home in those days,--having made an engagement to become a private tutor in a wealthy family of that state. on his arrival he found that the man who had engaged his services, unmindful of the contract, had filled the position with another tutor. the widow of the famous gen. nathaniel greene had a beautiful home at mulberry grove, on the savannah river. mrs. greene invited young whitney to make her house his home while he studied law. she soon perceived that he had great inventive genius. he devised several articles of convenience which mrs. greene much appreciated. at that time the entire cotton crop of this country might have been produced upon a single field of two hundred acres. cotton then commanded a very high price, because of the labor of separating the cotton fibre from the seed. the cotton clung to the seed with such tenacity that one man could separate the seed from only four or five pounds of cotton in a day. at that rate it would take him three months to make up a bale of clear cotton. already inventions in machinery for the making of cotton cloth had made the production of cotton a necessity. some means must be provided for a more rapid separation of cotton from the seed in order to make manufacturing profitable. [illustration: a cotton field.] one day, one of mrs. greene's friends was regretting, in conversation with her, that there could be no profit in the cultivation of cotton. mrs. greene had great faith in the inventive powers of young whitney, and she suggested that he be asked to make a machine which would separate the seed skillfully and rapidly, "for," said she, "eli whitney can make anything." when the workmen in the deep mines of england needed a safety lamp to shield them from the explosions of the damp, they applied to the great chemist, sir humphrey davy, and he invented one. so, these cotton raisers appealed to mr. whitney to invent for them a cotton engine or "gin." he knew nothing about either raw cotton or cotton seed. could he be expected to invent a machine that would separate the cotton seed which he had never seen from the raw cotton which also he had never seen? but whitney was an inventor. trifles must not stand in his way. he secured samples of the cotton and the seed; even this was not an easy thing to do, for it was not the right season of the year. he began to work out his idea of the cotton gin, but met with many obstacles. there were no wire manufactories in the south and he could not obtain wire even in savannah. therefore he had to make his wire himself. still further, he was obliged to manufacture his own iron tools. step by step he overcame all obstacles, until he had a machine that he thought would answer the purpose. [illustration: a cotton ball.] accordingly, one day, he entered the room where mrs. greene was conversing with friends and exclaimed, "the victory is mine!" all the guests, as well as the hostess, went with the inventor to examine the machine. he set the model in motion. it consisted of a cylinder four feet in length and five inches in diameter. upon this was a series of circular saws half an inch apart and projecting two inches above the surface of the revolving cylinder. the saws passed through narrow slits between bars; these bars might be called the ribs of the hopper. at once the saw teeth caught the cotton which had been placed in the hopper and carried it over between the bars. the seed was left behind, as it was too large to pass through. the saws revolved smoothly and the cotton was thoroughly separated from the seed. but after a few minutes the saws became clogged with the cotton and the wheels stopped. poor whitney was in despair. victory was not yet his. [illustration: the cotton gin.] mrs. greene came to the rescue. her housewifely instincts saw the difficulty at once and the remedy as well. "here's what you want!" she exclaimed. she took a clothes brush hanging near by and held it firmly against the teeth of the saws. the cylinder began again to revolve, for the saws were quickly cleaned of the lint, which no longer clogged the teeth. "madam," said the grateful whitney, "you have perfected my invention." the inventor added a second, larger cylinder, near the first. on this he placed a set of stiff brushes. as the two cylinders revolved, the brushes freed the saw teeth from the cotton and left it in the receiving pan. thus the cotton gin was invented by the yankee schoolmaster, eli whitney. though improved in its workmanship and construction, it is still in use wherever cotton is raised. one man with a whitney cotton gin can clean a thousand pounds of cotton in place of the five pounds formerly cleaned by hand. when a safety lamp was needed, davy invented it. when faster water travel was demanded, fulton constructed the steamboat. when the world needed vast wheat fields, mccormick devised his reaper. when the time had come for the telegraph, morse studied it out. in the fullness of time, bell, edison, and others invented the telephone. when a cotton gin was needed, eli whitney made it. here again the law holds that "necessity is the mother of invention." when a great invention is made, everybody wants the benefit of it, and people seem to think that the inventor "has no rights which they are bound to respect." whitney secured a patent upon his machine, but, unmindful of that, a great many persons began to make cotton gins. he was immediately involved in numerous legal contests. before he secured a single verdict in his favor he had sixty lawsuits pending. after many delays he finally secured the payment of $ , which the legislature of south carolina had voted him. north carolina allowed him a percentage on all cotton gins used in that state for five years. tennessee promised to do the same, but did not keep her promise. mr. whitney struggled along, year after year, until he was convinced that he should never receive a just return for his invention. seeing no way to gain a competence from the cotton gin he determined to continue the contest no longer, removed to new haven and turned his attention to the making of firearms. here he eventually gained a fortune. he made such improvements in the manufacture of firearms as to lay his country under permanent obligation to him for greatly increasing the means of national defense. robert fulton once said: "arkwright, watt, and whitney were the three men that did the most for mankind of any of their contemporaries." macaulay said: "what peter the great did to make russia dominant, eli whitney's invention of the cotton gin has more than equaled in its relation to the power and progress of the united states." chapter iii. cotton. almost exactly in the center of england is the county of derby. a few miles north of the city of derby, on a small river called derwent, a branch of the trent, is the little town of belper. this town was noted for its early manufacture of cotton and silk goods. here, about the time of the american revolution, richard arkwright and jedediah strutt were successfully engaged in cotton spinning. in this town, in , was born samuel slater. as the lad grew up, his father, a well-to-do farmer, sent him to school where he received the advantages of a good english education. his school days, however, ended when he was fourteen years of age. he was greatly interested in machinery. the hum of the spinning frame was music to his ears. therefore, he was apprenticed to mr. strutt to learn the business of cotton spinning, and gained a thorough mastery of the process of carding and spinning cotton, and even while an apprentice he made many improvements in machinery. at the close of the revolutionary war, the constitution of the united states was adopted and george washington became president. we have already seen that england did not permit her american colonies to engage to any great extent in manufacturing. but now, the very first congress under washington passed an act to encourage manufactures, and one or two of the states offered bounties for the introduction of cotton machinery. young slater, now about twenty-one years of age, determined to emigrate to america. since the laws of england did not permit him to take drawings or models with him, he had to trust entirely to his memory to construct new machinery when he should arrive in this country. he landed in new york in november, , and soon after wrote to moses brown, a wealthy merchant of providence, rhode island, telling him what he could do and asking his help. mr. brown immediately replied: "if thou canst do this thing, i invite thee to come to rhode island and have the credit of introducing cotton manufactures into america." so it happened that on the st of december, , samuel slater, representing the business firm of "almy, brown and slater," set up at pawtucket three eighteen-inch carding machines, with the necessary drawing heads, roving cases, winders, and spinning frames, with seventy-two spindles. here, in an old fulling mill, and by water power, was started machinery for the making of cotton yarn. mr. slater had been obliged to prepare all the plans of this machinery, and either to construct it with his own hands or to teach others how to do it. from the first the enterprise was successful. an excellent quality of yarn was manufactured, quite equal to the best quality then made in england. no attempts were made to use water power in weaving the yarn into cloth. this was still done by hand looms in the farmhouses of the country. a second cotton factory was started in the year , and within ten years from that date there were many of them in different parts of the land. when mr. slater came to america, he left at his father's house in belper a little brother. in this brother, now grown to manhood, came to america, and went to pawtucket to find his brother samuel. here he found mr. wilkinson, a brother-in-law of mr. slater. mr. wilkinson took him to his brother's house and said: "i have brought one of your countrymen to see you; can you find anything for him to do?" mr. slater asked from what part of england he came. he replied: "derbyshire." "what part of derbyshire?" said mr. slater. "i came from the town of belper," said john. "belper, the town of belper? well, that is where i came from. what may i call your name?" "john slater." the boy had changed so much that his older brother did not know him. the interview was a delightful one to both; it was like the meeting of joseph and benjamin. questions and answers flew rapidly. "is my mother yet alive? how are my brothers and sisters? how is my old master, mr. strutt? is the old schoolmaster jackson living?" the next year the two brothers built a cotton mill in smithfield, rhode island, and in a large stone mill was erected at blackstone, massachusetts. so the business continued to increase. the power loom was invented, and soon the manufacture of cotton cloth became one of the leading interests of new england. the mills of lowell became famous. manchester, in new hampshire, lawrence and fall river, in massachusetts, were soon dotted with great mills turning out cloth of all varieties by the million yards. the falls upon the rivers of new england were utilized, by means of the water wheel, to furnish power for moving all the machinery used in the making of cotton goods. the song of the picker, the hum of the spinning frame, and the whack, whack of the loom are now heard in a thousand mills in various parts of our country. mr. slater was visited at one time by andrew jackson while he was president. it is related that the following conversation took place between them: "i understand," said the president, "that you have taught us how to spin so as to rival great britain and that it is you who have set all these thousands of spindles at work, which i have been so delighted to see, and which are making so many people happy by giving them employment." "yes sir," said mr. slater, "i suppose that i gave out the psalm, and they have been singing the tune ever since." [illustration: president jackson and mr. slater.] samuel slater died in , leaving a large fortune to his family. john slater died a few years after the death of his brother. it was his son, john f. slater, who in placed $ , , in the hands of a board of trustees, the interest of which was to be used for the education of the freedmen of the south and their descendants. the great rhode island orator, tristam burgess, said in congress on one occasion: "if manufacturing establishments are a benefit and a blessing to the union, the name of slater must ever be held in grateful remembrance by the american people." it would be next to impossible to give any adequate account of the improvements which have been made in american machinery for the manufacture of cotton cloth. beginning with the cotton gin and the introduction of the carding machine and the spinning frame by slater, we should have to record the great success of the double speeder, the modern drawing-frame, the crompton and the whitin looms, and especially the ring traveler spinning frame and the self-operating cotton mule. [illustration: the interior of a modern cotton mill.] in , , pounds of cotton were exported, very little being used in this country. in , the cotton produced in america reached more than , , , pounds. this cotton is now grown in the southern states upon more than , , acres of ground. the mills of america to-day are using more than , , bales of cotton per year. in , samuel slater started seventy-two spindles to spin cotton; in , there were , , spindles. to such great proportions has this industry grown from the small beginnings of samuel slater's bold attempt to bring over from england in his memory the machinery necessary to its manufacture. chapter iv. wool. as civilization has advanced, the clothing of man has improved. to-day a great variety of material is necessary to make up the proper wardrobe for civilized man. our clothing is nearly all fabricated--that is, manufactured from the raw material into what we call fabrics. we have cotton, woolen, silk, and linen fabrics. the two principal articles used for our clothing, however, are wool and cotton. cotton and linen are more largely used in warm weather and in warm climates, while woolen has come into general use for wear in colder climates and in colder seasons. the making of woolen cloth is one of the oldest industries. in the early ages the coarse wool of the sheep was spun into long threads, then woven and made into rude garments for the clothing of man. the dyeing of these cloths, by which brilliant colors were produced, was one of the earliest of the fine arts. many centuries ago the egyptians, the persians, the greeks, and the romans made shawls and robes of beautiful texture and brilliant colors. they also made mats, rugs, tent cloths, curtains, and tapestry hangings. during the last four hundred years steady progress has been made in the construction of woolen fabrics. long ago england became famous for the manufacture of worsted goods, carpets, and broadcloths. machinery for making woolen cloth was introduced into england during the latter half of the last century. the spinning jenny came into use a little after , and the power loom was invented near the close of the century. no machinery for making woolen cloth, except by hand spinning and hand weaving, was introduced into our country until about the year . how do you suppose our forefathers and foremothers managed to make the cloth needed before the introduction of machinery and the building of factories? a single incident may explain how it was done. rev. dr. eliphalet nott was president of union college, schenectady, new york, for more than sixty years. he was born in connecticut just before the american revolution. his father was very poor, but a conscientious, godly man. he lived on a farm four miles from the village and the church. during the early boyhood of eliphalet his father had no horse, and in bad weather, when the family could not walk to church, they were drawn over the rough and hilly roads of that long four miles by their only cow. yet they were always at church. one winter, mr. nott's overcoat had become so shabby that mrs. nott told her husband it was not fit to be worn to church any longer. he had no money to buy a new one. should he stay away from divine service? not he! to this proposition neither he nor his wife would assent. soon, however, the good woman devised a plan to free them from the difficulty. she suggested to her husband that they should shear their only "cosset" lamb, and that the fleece would furnish wool enough for a new overcoat. "what!" said the old man, "shear the cosset in january? it will freeze." "ah, no, it will not," said the wife, "i will see to that; the lamb shall not suffer." she sheared the cosset and then wrapped it in a blanket of burlaps, well sewed on, which kept it warm until its wool had grown again. this fleece mrs. nott carded, spun, and wove into cloth, which she cut and made into a garment for her husband, and he wore it to church on the following sabbath. the first attempt to manufacture woolen cloth other than by hand was made at newburyport, massachusetts, by two englishmen, arthur and john scholfield. they had learned the business in england, and now put in operation the first carding machine for wool made in the united states. upon this they made the first spinning rolls turned out by machinery. the same year they built a factory, three stories high and one hundred feet long, in the byfield district, at newburyport. the two brothers carried on the factory for a company of gentlemen who were the stockholders. arthur was overseer of the carding; john was in charge of the weaving room. this application of machinery to the making of woolen cloth created much interest in the country, and wool was brought from long distances. people visited the factory from far and near. these visitors became so numerous that an admission fee of ten cents was charged. during the first winter after the factory was opened sleighing parties came from all the neighboring towns. some years ago an old lady, ninety years of age, wrote, in "reminiscences of a nonagenarian," that she had seen row after row of sleighs pass over crane-neck hill, enlivening the bright cold days by the joyous tones of their merry bells. she describes the impression made upon her own mind the first time she visited the factory: "never shall i forget the awe with which i entered what then appeared the vast and imposing edifice. the large drums that carried the bands on the lower floor, coupled with the novel noise and hum, increased this awe, but when i reached the second floor where picking, carding, spinning, and weaving were in process, my amazement became complete. the machinery, with the exception of the looms, was driven by water power. the weaving was by hand. most of the operatives were males, a few young girls being employed in splicing rolls." after this john scholfield established a factory in montville, connecticut. subsequently arthur scholfield removed to pittsfield, massachusetts, where he passed the remainder of his life, and not only carried on the woolen manufacture himself, but also built carding machines and set them up for others to operate. within the next twelve years several woolen factories had been built in massachusetts, new hampshire, rhode island, and new york. the new industry had become so firmly established that when president madison was inaugurated, march , , he wore a suit of black broadcloth of american manufacture. but washington irving tells us that washington, our first president, was inaugurated twenty years earlier, dressed in a "suit of dark-brown cloth of american manufacture." from time to time the woolen industry has been protected by various tariff bills passed by congress. this industry to-day is of gigantic proportions. the woolen factories in our country are now using about five hundred million pounds of wool per year. more than half of this is raised in our own country, and nearly all of the cloth produced is retained in the country for home consumption. let us see now if we can understand how woolen cloth is made. the father of dr. nott had in those early days a single sheep. some farmers would have half a dozen, others twenty-five or fifty. now times are changed. we have but few sheep in the older settled country along the atlantic coast. those who raise wool to-day are apt to make it their sole business, doing nothing else. most of the sheep of this country are raised upon the great plains and in the great valleys of the western country. many flocks of sheep, numbering from five hundred to several thousand, may be seen in texas, new mexico, utah, and wyoming. there are to-day in texas more than three million sheep; about an equal number in wyoming; nearly as many in new mexico, oregon, california, and ohio. we have in our country at the present time more than forty million sheep. [illustration: sheep-shearing.] let us visit one of these sheep ranches. it is in the spring of the year. the warm weather has come. the sheep have had their thick fleeces to keep them warm through the cold winter. in the summer these thick, shaggy coats would be as burdensome to them as a winter overcoat would be to us. the ranchmen round up the flock, and taking them one by one, cut off with a huge pair of shears the long wool. the wool is sold to the dealers, and sent away to the market. it finds its way to the woolen mill. it is sorted, washed, and scoured. it is then carded. the cards straighten out the long fibres of wool so that they may be readily spun. the mule or the spinning jenny spins it into yarn, twisting this yarn like a rope or thread so that it will be strong and will hold together. a part of the yarn is then arranged upon a great beam for the warp. the warp is the threads that run lengthwise of the cloth. the rest of it is wound upon little bobbins to be put into shuttles. the shuttle is thrown back and forth across the warp, thus weaving in the filling. this is done by means of what is called a harness. this harness holds up the alternate threads of the warp and presses down the other threads, so that when the shuttle is thrown through it carries the thread of the filling "under and over"; that is, under one-half of the warp threads and over the other half. after the cloth is woven, it is put through the fulling mill, which beats it up thick and firm. after this come the various processes of finishing: shearing the surface so as to leave it smooth; brushing it so as to set the nap all one way and give it a smooth, even, glossy appearance. the quality of the cloth depends upon the quality of the wool used, the quality of the machinery which makes the cloth, and the skill of the workmen. a great deal of experience is necessary in making first-class goods. we are now using the very best machinery in the world in the manufacture of our woolen goods. possibly in the making of broadcloth and a few varieties of the better class of goods we may not yet be quite up to the older manufactories of europe, but in cassimeres, worsted goods, blankets and carpets we are already able to compete with the products of the old world. although the price of labor in european countries is less than in america, our workmen do more work in a day and our machinery is of such improved patterns that we are generally able to compete in price. chapter v. leather. in the colonial days, as we have seen, the traveling shoemaker was abroad in the land. he was accustomed to travel through his section of the country with a kit of tools and bits of leather on his back. he was familiarly called "crispin," from the patron saint of his craft, and ofttimes proved a "character" much appreciated by the farmers and their families. sometimes these traveling mechanics were quiet, silent men, doing their work and going on intent only on obtaining their living; but sometimes they were jolly, social people, facetious, even witty. "good mornin', neighbor heyday," said a crispin to a farmer. "i hope you and the madam and the childers are all very well, the day." "eh, purty fair. the woman is ailin' some. she wants buildin' up, buildin' up." "well, well," said crispin, "the lord has laid his hand of blessing heavily upon ye, so he has that." "what is the meanin' of that speech?" said the farmer. "eh, sorry is it for the joker when he has to explain his own joke. hasn't he filled your quiver full of childers? and isn't that the greatest blessing the almighty can bestow on man that is a sinner?" "but i have only six childers." "yes, yes, i see, but the eldest counts less years than the clock tell hours; and i wish ye had a dozen instead of half as many. are ye givin' 'em all good healthy understandin'?" "well, them that's old enough goes to school, if that's what you mean?" "well, there it is again. a man has to interpret his own wit. i mean, have they all good soles on which to keep their bodies healthy?" "the good lord gives 'em the souls and their parents are responsible only for the bodies." "blunderin' again it is that i am. i mean are ye'r shoes all in a good, healthy condition, so that the brats will not take cold and be carried off by a stout, lung fever, that the doctors call newmony?" "well, they've worn no shoes all summer except what the lord gave 'em, and that's the skin of their feet." "well, now, it's a full twelvemonth since i was around here afore, and do ye want me to make up their winter shoes for 'em?" so the conversation went on until they had struck a bargain, that the crispin should board with the farmer and make up the shoes for himself and the children, the farmer paying for the leather and so much by the week for the man's work. the shoemaker then made a strong pair of cowhide boots for the father of the family; a pair of kid shoes for the good wife; two pairs of calfskin shoes for the two girls; two pairs of ingrain boots for the older boys; and two pairs of kid shoes for the younger boys. the silver jingled in the pocket of the crispin when his task was completed, and he traveled onward to the next farm. he had appropriated to himself a certain section of villages and country, and he would treat the matter as a serious misdemeanor should any other crispin trespass upon his territory. the crispins of those days were honest and faithful in their work. slow they were,--that cannot be denied. even as late as the early half of this century a good shoemaker has been known to labor from morning till night through the six days of the week on one pair of fine, sewed, calfskin boots, and the entire price which the customer paid for them was $ , which included both labor and material. what a contrast from the ancient method the present system furnishes! not long since a wedding was to occur in salem, massachusetts. a telegram was sent at ten o'clock in the morning to lynn, ordering a pair of ladies' slippers made from white kid, to be worn at the ceremony that afternoon. the shoes were cut out and made up complete and forwarded to salem by the two o'clock train. miss sarah e. wiltse in her stories for children tells how little alice was drinking her cup of milk one night when she asked her father to tell her a story about the good cow, for her third finger. she said: "the cow does three things for me now. here is milk for my thumb, butter for the pointer, cheese for mr. tallman, and now my third finger, mr. feebleman, wants something. what can the cow give me for my third finger?" her father then told her the story of a king in the long, long ago,--i think it must have been in the pre-historic times,--a king who put into one pile the things which he knew, and into another pile the things which he did not know. now the pile which this foolish king did not know was a great deal larger than the pile of things which he did know. neither he nor his people knew much about making houses or dishes or even clothes for themselves. they went barefooted and bareheaded all the time. one day the king's horse fell dead and he was obliged to walk a long distance. the sharp stones cut his feet, and the briars and brambles pricked them and tore them. then the king told his people to put down a carpet for him to walk on. so they all went to work to make coarse carpets for the king to walk upon. they had hard work to make carpets enough to lay down in advance of the king, day after day, as he traveled across the country. at length one of his servants went away by himself and worked all night. the next morning he came and knelt before the king and said: "sire, i have a carpet for the whole earth, though none but the king may walk upon it. upon this carpet thou canst climb mountains and thy feet be not bruised; thou canst wander in the valleys and thy feet never be torn by brambles; thou canst tread the burning desert and thy feet remain unscorched." then the king said: "bring me that priceless carpet and half my kingdom shall be thine." the servant brought to the king a pair of shoes which he had made in the night. this was a new carpet for the king; and so this was the fourth good thing which the cow gave to alice; the milk she put down for the thumb, the butter for the first finger, the cheese for the middle finger, and now she put leather for the third finger. what great changes have taken place in the process of making boots and shoes since this witty servant made the carpet for the king's feet! let us trace briefly the history of leather and the evolution of a pair of shoes. in the early colonial days the skins of animals were widely used for clothing. caps were made for the men and boys from bear skins, wolf skins, and the skins of the catamount. overcoats with sleeves and hoods were made of skins of wild animals properly dressed, with the hair on. moccasins for winter service were from the same material. buckskin breeches with fringed edges were in common use. these costumes in the newly settled regions of our western country continued until fifty or sixty years ago. [illustration: dr. whitman starting on his journey.] in the winter of - dr. marcus whitman made his memorable journey from oregon across the country to the states. on a later occasion he described the dress which he wore on that remarkable horseback ride. he said: "i wore buckskin breeches, fur moccasins, a blue duffle coat, a buffalo overcoat with hood, and a bearskin cap. rather a fantastic garb for a missionary, wasn't it?" inventions and machinery have done much to improve the processes of tanning leather. tanning itself is a curious process. it changes raw hides into a condition in which the skins are useful in the arts and manufactures. this process renders the skins nearly impervious to water, and makes them so tough that they can withstand the ravages of time and remain firm and strong even for centuries. it is said that specimens of leather have been discovered in china which are surely three thousand years old. they had been tanned by the process which is called "alum tannage." when columbus discovered america he found, in possession of the indians, skins that had been tanned. their process of tanning, too, was practically the alum method. sir edwin arnold found a pair of slippers in a sarcophagus in india, and nothing else was present except a small heap of dust. in the huts of the rock dwellers in arizona tanned leather has been found. in ancient babylon they had a process of tanning, and nearly two thousand years ago the russians and hungarians were skilled in the art. the ancient romans knew how to tan leather with oil, alum, and bark. most of the early tanning, however, was without bark. the process was accomplished with oil, clay, sour milk, and smoke. later, nutgalls and leaves began to be used. oak bark is the principal material now employed throughout the world in tanning. besides the oak bark, the barks of hemlock, pine, birch, and willow are utilized. when the texture of the skin has been so changed by this tanning process as to become tough and durable, then the name leather is given to it. in the days of the crispins six months was as short a time as the tanner thought needful for the proper curing of the hides. the process was crude, long, and laborious; but the leather, ah! the leather--it was strong and would wear like iron. even the children did not need copper toes. to-day the methods have changed greatly; in no way more noticeably than in the shorter time required. the modern process must be considered an improvement, even though the leather is not as strong as formerly. the skins of most animals may be used to make leather the domestic animals, cows, calves, and sheep, are first called upon to give their skins for leather. glazed kid is made from goat skins. kangaroo leather is much used for shoes. considerable use is made of alligator leather for satchels and bags and even for shoes. skins of lizards, snakes, and seals are used; walrus hides are tanned, and the leather used for polishing knives and tools. "patent leather" is made principally of cowhide, horsehide, and calfskin. horsehide leather is very tough and durable, but is too elastic for some purposes. harness leather is made from steer and cow hides. "russia leather," formerly made only in russia, has been a favorite material for the choicest kinds of pocketbooks and satchels. bookbinders prefer it for binding their most costly volumes. marshall jewell was a new hampshire boy. he learned the trade of tanning and worked at it with his father. while yet a young man, he removed to hartford, connecticut. there, at first with his father and afterward alone, he carried on a large business in manufacturing leather belting. he was three times governor of the state. the year after leaving the governor's chair he was appointed minister to russia. while in that country, through his intimate knowledge of the methods of tanning, he discovered the secret of the russian process. it had never been known before in our country. under his direction it was introduced here, and within the last twenty-five years it has come into very extensive use. the process is quite simple. it is thus described: steep the leather in a solution of fifty pounds each of oak and hemlock bark and sumach, one pound of willow bark and nine hundred gallons of water; heat by steam, and immerse the leather till struck through, and while the material is still damp smear on the outer side a solution of oil of birch bark dissolved in a little alcohol and ether. this imparts to the leather its odor and its pliability. a boot or shoe consists principally of two parts: the sole, made of thick, tough, strong leather, and the uppers, made of a softer, more pliable leather. by the old process the boot or the shoe was made throughout by a single person. by the modern process, one person cuts out the shoe, another binds it, and a third puts it upon the last; still another manages the machine which sews the sole and the upper together, a different person trims the edges, some one else attends to the next process in the division of labor, until, it may be, a dozen persons have done something to the making of one shoe. the modern improved machines for sewing on the soles of shoes are wonderful instruments. upon one machine a good workman will sew eight hundred pairs of women's shoes in ten hours. a great part of the boots and shoes worn by the people of this country are made with this improved machinery in large establishments in new york, philadelphia, baltimore, and other large cities, and particularly in several towns in massachusetts, new hampshire, and maine. the most important seat of this manufacture is lynn, massachusetts, but great quantities of shoes are made in brockton, haverhill, milford, marblehead, danvers, and worcester in massachusetts, portland, auburn, and augusta in maine, and dover and farmington, in new hampshire. chapter vi. needles. in the earlier times what was the mantle that covered the human person? how was it made? how was it held together? with what was the sewing thereof? when was thread first used for the seam? how early in human history was the eye made for the needle? from the beginning of history we find references to sewing, even earlier than to weaving. we might naturally suppose that leather was sewed before cloth, and that stout leathern thongs served for thread. the leather string for thread and the awl for the needle must have been in use long, long ago. the stout moccasin, the wolfskin cap, the buckskin breeches were sewed by punching holes and laboriously pulling a leather string through them. by and by, however, some skillful inventor produced the needle. perhaps the first needles were made of bone or ivory. then metal was used. what a great invention was the eye of the needle! no one knows who was the inventor, but we have reason to bless the unknown personage who first devised this ingenious arrangement. would you not like to see the needles that were in use hundreds of years ago? they were not like the finely finished needles of to-day. crude and coarse were they, and only adapted to the crude and coarse sewing which could then be performed. to-day the needle-woman is often an artist. embroidery is done with the needle. the plain seam, the hem, the gather, the back stitch, are simply so many forms of the work of an artist. century after century our needle-makers have been improving in the manufacture of this simple but effective little machine. in the complicated civilization of the present time we have an almost infinite variety of needles: the ordinary sewing needle for the making of garments; smaller needles for lace work, the hemming of delicate handkerchiefs and the seam of fine silk goods; and coarse and heavy needles for carpet sewing, bagging, and leather work. [illustration: sewing by hand.] all this relates to sewing by hand, with a single needle and one thread. it is stitch by stich, first one, then another; it is like the brook,--"it goes on forever." it is like the clock that repeats its tick tock, tick tock by the hour, by the day, by the week, by the year. perhaps many seamstresses would not recognize the duty of blessing the man who invented the needle. the poet hood has told this side of the story in his famous poem, "the song of the shirt." "with fingers weary and worn. with eyelids heavy and red, a woman sits in unwomanly rags, plying her needle and thread-- stitch! stitch! stitch! in poverty, hunger, and dirt. * * * * * work! work! work! while the cock is crowing aloof! and work--work--work, till the stars shine through the roof! * * * * * band and gusset and seam, seam and gusset and band, till the heart is sick, and the brain benumbed as well as the weary hand." indeed, the time had come long ago when some ingenious device was needed by which the seamstress could sew with less wear and tear of nerve and muscle. efforts were made in england for machine sewing nearly one hundred and fifty years ago, but they were not successful. a sewing machine was invented by thomas saint about one hundred years ago which had some of the features of the sewing machine of to-day. it was left, however, for american inventors to produce machines that would do the work easily and successfully; the machines themselves had such simplicity and were so nicely adapted that they were not likely to get out of repair but would remain serviceable during a long period of years. sewing machines in large numbers were invented during the period from to . as early as a sewing machine was invented by rev. john adams dodge, of vermont. he used a needle pointed at each end with the eye in the middle. this machine would make a good backstitch and sew a seam straight forward. it was not patented and did not get into use to any considerable extent. in walter hunt, of new york, brought out a machine which used two threads, one being carried by a shuttle and the other by a curved needle with the eye in the point. this machine also was not patented. ten years later, j. j. greenough patented a machine for sewing leather and other heavy material, but this also did not acquire any extended use. about the same time george h. corliss invented a strong, heavy machine for sewing leather, using two needles with the eyes near the points; this machine was evidently an improvement on previous attempts. mr. corliss soon turned his attention to improvements of the steam engine and did not continue his efforts to perfect his sewing machine. hence it was that the first really successful sewing machine was that of elias howe, patented in . the first form of howe's machine was far from satisfactory, but it was an improvement on all previous machines. howe could not induce the people to appreciate the value of his invention, and he went to england and there secured patents. but in england also he became discouraged, and sold out his rights for that country and returned home. meantime others had pirated his invention and were making his machines and placing them upon the market. howe immediately asserted his rights and, after a series of suits in court, he succeeded in establishing them, so that finally his machine came into extended use and its inventor reaped a large pecuniary reward from his genius and skill. improvements now came forward rapidly. patents were soon issued to allen b. wilson of pittsfield, massachusetts, isaac m. singer of new york, and william o. grover of boston. later, the weed, the florence, the wilcox & gibbs, the remington, domestic, american, household, and many others were added to the list of successful machines. it is unnecessary to describe the difference in these machines and the various ways in which the stitch is made. some of them make the lock stitch, others the double loop stitch, and still others the single chain stitch. the best machines make also a special buttonhole stitch and have particular devices by which they gather and ruffle, tuck, hem, bind, and whatever else is required to be done with thread. one machine or another can be used for almost any kind of sewing. with them we sew shoes and boots, heavy woolen goods like beaver, several thicknesses of duck, or, on the other hand, the very finest and nicest muslin. sewing machines are used in the making of gloves, pocketbooks, traveling bags, and other articles of this character. special machines sew seams on water hose, leather buckets, bootlegs, and other articles which require the seam to be made in a circle. no other country has so many factories or such large ones for making sewing machines as the united states. the establishments which manufacture sewing machines have a combined capital of more than twenty million dollars, and the value of their annual product aggregates about fifteen million dollars. meanwhile the price of sewing machines has diminished so that they are now sold for less than one-half, and sometimes as low as one-fourth, of the original price. in a frenchman, barthélemy thimmonier, constructed of wood eighty machines which made a chain stitch of great strength. these were used for making clothing for the french army. laborers were so incensed at this invention, which they thought was contrary to their interests, that they raised a riot and destroyed all of the machines. a few years later this inventor made other machines constructed of metal, and these were also destroyed by a mob. many times it has happened that laborers have supposed that they would be great losers from the invention of labor-saving machines. instead of this proving to be true, it would seem that laborers are benefited by the inventions. there is much evidence showing that while inventions greatly diminish the amount of labor necessary to accomplish a certain result, on the other hand they open up new lines of industry which fully compensate laborers for the loss which would otherwise fall upon them. it is to be noted also that, in our country at least, the wages of laborers have increased in the period during which labor-saving machines have been invented. the modern sewing machine is an inestimable blessing to a family. in former days, the mother of half a dozen children would be obliged to ply the needle night after night until the small hours in order to keep her little ones properly clad. now, with the little iron machine standing upon its small table on one side of the room, the good mother can make up the necessary garments for her children in quick time, leaving her far more hours for sleep, recreation, and social life than would be possible under the old method. many a one can now call down blessings not only upon "the man who invented sleep," but upon the man who invented the sewing machine which gives one time to sleep. chapter vii. the steam engine. at the very summit of a mountain near pasadena, california, stands a huge windmill, which may be seen for many miles in all directions. here the wind blows almost constantly, and the great arms of the windmill are employed to lift water from a well in the valley below to irrigate the orange groves on the hillsides. thus the wind has been harnessed by man to serve his purpose. [illustration: an old windmill.] nature has not only furnished wind for a motive force, but it has also provided man with water power. the water wheel, with its accompanying dam across the stream, has been in general use from the time of the earliest settlements. the weight of the water turned a wheel, thus developing a force which was employed for sawing lumber or grinding grain. when cotton and woolen manufactories were first introduced, water power was almost universally used. after wind and water came steam. a very simple steam engine was devised by hero more than two thousand years ago, but it was of little practical value and was soon forgotten. not until the beginning of the eighteenth century was a machine invented which could successfully produce motion by steam. this engine, made by an englishman named newcomen, was very wasteful and was used only to pump water from mines. less than one hundred and fifty years ago a young scotchman named james watt set himself to the task of improving the newcomen engine and of making a steam engine that would furnish power for different purposes. he devoted his whole thought to his work, and after twenty years of study he succeeded. the watt steam engine is the basis of all engines to-day. james watt did not discover steam power, but he made the steam engine of real value. many of the first engines used in this country for manufacturing purposes were made by boulton and watt in birmingham. the first steam engines made in america were rough and crude, but the improvement in their construction was rapid. at the present time engines of the finest construction, with the latest improvements and adapted to all kinds of work, are made in many establishments all over our land. engines are made for marine purposes--steamboats, yachts, and war-vessels,--stationary engines for all sorts of manufactures, and locomotives for the railroads. perhaps the greatest improvements in the manufacture of steam engines have been the result of the talent and genius of george h. corliss. in , when george was only eight years of age, his father moved to greenwich, new york, where the boy grew up to manhood. here he went to school, was clerk in a country store, and was employed in the first cotton factory built in that state. little did the people of that country village think that this quiet boy had in him such wonderful mechanical genius as he afterward displayed. his father's house was situated near the bank of a small stream which was much swollen every springtime by the freshets from the melting snows above. a bridge which spanned this stream was carried away one year by the freshets. young corliss, then twenty-one years of age, proposed to build a cantilever bridge. everybody said that the scheme was impossible; he could not do it, it would be a failure. nevertheless he succeeded, and the bridge was built. it proved entirely successful. it withstood the freshets and was in service, scarcely needing repairs, for many years. he went to providence when he was twenty-seven years of age, and before he was thirty he had established himself as the head of the firm of "corliss, nightingale and company," for the manufacture of steam engines. he was but a little over thirty years old when he patented his great improvements, applied to the steam engine. these improvements were such as to produce uniformity of motion and to prevent the loss of steam. by connecting the valve with an ingenious cut-off, which he invented, he made the engine work with such uniformity that, if all but one of a hundred looms in a factory were suddenly stopped, that one would go on working at the same rate of speed as before. the improvements which mr. corliss effected at once revolutionized the construction of the steam engine. he immediately began the erection of immense buildings for his machine shops, where now are employed more than a thousand men. in the "corliss steam engine company" was incorporated, and mr. corliss, purchasing the interest of his partners, soon owned all the stock of this company and was both president and treasurer. during a long period of more than forty years mr. corliss, who was a large-hearted, benevolent man interested in public affairs relating to city, state, and nation, devoted himself with great industry to the development of his inventions. [illustration: a corliss engine.] perhaps the most conspicuous work which more than anything else carried his name to all the nations of the earth was the construction of the great engine which furnished the motive power for all the machinery in operation in machinery hall, at the centennial exhibition in philadelphia in . of this engine m. bartholdi, in his report to the french government, said: "it belonged to the category of works of art by the general beauty of its effect and its perfect balance to the eye." professor radinger, of the polytechnic school in vienna, pronounced the engine one of the greatest works of the day. this engine stood in the center of machinery hall upon a platform feet in diameter. the two working beams were feet above the platform, and were seen from all parts of the building, being the most conspicuous objects in the hall. the fly-wheel was feet in diameter with a face of inches. this engine carried eight main lines of shafting, each line being feet in length, and the larger part of this shafting was speeded to revolutions a minute, while one line, used principally for wood-working machines, made revolutions per minute. the engine weighed , tons, and its power was equivalent to , horse-power. the entire cost, about $ , , was borne by mr. corliss. the engine is now in active service, furnishing the motive power for the entire works of the pullman car company. during the later years of mr. corliss's life he devoted much time and thought to inventing improved pumps to be used in connection with city waterworks, "for forcing water to higher levels." he made for the city of providence a rotary pump for high service which worked automatically, keeping the pipes in the upper sections of the city full at all times whether much or little water was used. this ingenious pump was visited by mechanics from all parts of the world. only a few years before his death mr. corliss built another pump, an account of which was published some years ago. this account included the following incident: "i went down to pettaconsett, the other day, to see the foundations of the building that mr. corliss is putting up there for the new pumping engine which he has engaged to put in for this city. i found that, in digging for the foundations, they came upon a deep bed of quicksand. mr. corliss, ever fertile in expedients to overcome obstacles, instead of driving down wooden piles, sunk in this quicksand great quantities of large cobblestones. these were driven down into the sand with tremendous force by a huge iron ball weighing four thousand pounds. i said: 'mr. corliss, why did not you drive wooden piles on which to build your foundation?' "'don't you see,' said he, 'that the piles _have no discretion_, and that the cobblestones have?' "'i don't think i understand you, mr. corliss,' was my reply. "'if you drive a pile,' said he, '_it goes where you drive it, and nowhere else_; but a cobblestone will seek the softest place and _go where it is most needed_. it therefore has discretion, and better answers the purpose.' "i went away musing that the wooden 'piles' and the 'cobblestones' represent two classes of boys. 'the piles,' said mr. corliss, 'have _no discretion_, and _go only where they are driven_.' i think i have seen boys who represented this quality. 'but the cobblestones go _where they are the most needed_.' when boys fit themselves to go where they are the most needed, they will be pretty likely to meet with tolerably good success in life." the great service mr. corliss has rendered to the world through his inventions is shown by the awards made to him from the highest scientific authorities. at the paris exposition ( ) he received the highest competitive prize in competition with more than a hundred engines. a great english engineer, one of the british commissioners at the exposition, said: "the american engine of mr. corliss everywhere tells of wise forethought, judicious proportion, sound execution, and exquisite contrivance." the american academy of arts and sciences in awarded to mr. corliss the rumford medal. this medal was presented by dr. asa gray, who said: "no invention since watt's time has so enhanced the efficiency of the steam engine as this." at the vienna exhibition in mr. corliss sent neither engine nor machinery, nor had he any one there to represent him; but the grand diploma of honor was awarded to him. this was done because foreign builders had sent their engines, which they themselves claimed were built on his system, and they had placed his name on their productions. the steam engine to-day is of vastly greater importance than it has ever been before, especially in its use for furnishing the motive power for cotton and woolen factories, and for all kinds of manufacturing establishments. what should we do to-day without the steam engine? long before the beginning of this century erasmus darwin sang as follows: "soon shall thy arm, unconquered steam! afar drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car." all this has long been fulfilled. how long will it be before his next two lines will also prove a reality? "or on wide-waving wings expanded bear the flying chariot through the field of air." [illustration: robert fulton.] [illustration: an ocean steamer. _"i carry the wealth and the lord of earth, the thoughts of his godlike mind; the wind lags after my going forth, the lightning is left behind."_] section v.--travel. chapter i. by land. "well, charles, how do you purpose to go to the city to-day? the paper this morning contains some news that ought to interest you. there was a washout at turk's bridge last evening, and it will be several hours yet before trains can run." this question was asked by mrs. barlow, one morning during the great street-car strike when the motormen and conductors had refused to run cars until their demands were granted. "i see but one way left open for me," replied her husband. "the roads must be very muddy, and i cannot go on my bicycle. i suppose that i shall be compelled to walk. that was the original mode of traveling, and i imagine that in this case of necessity i can try it again. i am not used to so long a walk, but i see no other way. in one respect i am better off than my ancestors were, for i have good level side-walks, most of them paved, instead of rough paths, partly trodden down. i will start to walk, anyway." mr. barlow did not own a horse, and could not drive to the city. he did not feel able to hire a public carriage, as, since the street-car strike began, so many desired to ride that the drivers charged very high prices. but he felt that he must attend to his business in the city that day, and immediately after breakfast he started on his five-mile walk. he was very tired before he reached the office, and the walk home in the afternoon wearied him still more. he was therefore greatly pleased the next morning to find that the strike was over, the railroad bridge repaired, the muddy roads nearly dry, and a choice open to him to travel either by steam cars, electric street cars, or bicycle. mr. barlow learned an interesting lesson by this one day's experience. he obtained something of an idea of the life of his ancestors, who were compelled to walk whenever they had business to transact. he realized more than ever before what improvements had been made in the last three centuries in the means for travel. his thoughts were turned directly to these changes, and for several weeks he studied histories and scientific works to learn the ways in which these improvements came about. let us note some of the results of his study. nearly three hundred years ago, captain newport, with a few small vessels, sailed up the james river, in virginia. after some weeks the fleet returned to england, leaving about one hundred men, the colonists of jamestown, the first permanent english settlement in america. here was a little village, with the atlantic ocean, thousands of miles wide, separating the colonists from all their friends and acquaintances. the great forest which covered the entire atlantic coast contained now this clearing on the banks of the james river. north of the settlement dense woods extended in every direction; no white men lived nearer than the french colonies of quebec and nova scotia. to the south also spread the forest; the nearest european settlement was the spanish colony of saint augustine. westward for hundreds and thousands of miles the almost uninhabited wilderness extended to the pacific ocean, the very existence of which was scarcely suspected by white men. thus was the jamestown colony almost entirely shut off from the world of civilization, a feeble band of europeans surrounded by savage red men. what interest had these colonists in travel? tossed on the ocean as they had been for many weeks, worn with seasickness and lack of nourishing food, few had any desire to see more of the world. besides, if they had wished to travel, where could they have gone? roads through the forests were unknown; rivers were spanned by no bridges; swamps and marshes extended in every direction. the most remote houses were at easy walking distance. the little church was not far even from the last house in the village. if need for firewood or lumber led any one into the forest, he must go afoot. if any necessity arose for communication with the indians, the journey must be made on foot. thus we see that in the early days of virginia what travel there was by land was limited to walking. thirteen years after the building of jamestown a second english colony was planted in america. another band of a hundred persons began a settlement at plymouth in new england. the colony of virginia had become well established by this time, yet it could be of but little help to plymouth. many hundred miles distant, it seemed hardly nearer than old england itself. the pilgrims at plymouth lived by themselves, as had the virginia colonists, and for some years what travel they had was also on foot. time passed on in both colonies. new settlers came over the ocean to virginia, and other villages were built at some distance from jamestown. thus arose reasons for journeys--desire to see friends in other villages--necessities of trade or commerce between the settlements. at first, of course, as travel by foot within a village was common, so journeys between villages were made in the same way. an easier means of communication was provided when horses were brought over from england. these came in small numbers at first; there were but six horses in virginia when the settlers had been there nine years. thousands of years ago wild horses ranged in great numbers over the whole continent of america. but, for some reason or other, these had all perished, and when columbus discovered the new world the red men were wholly unacquainted with these animals or their use. therefore, when the white settlers in america desired horses they found it necessary to bring them in vessels from europe. to the first and most common mode of travel, by foot, was thus added the second method, namely, on horseback. in the old world this use of horses had existed for thousands of years. in fact, three hundred and four hundred years ago, at the time of the discovery and settlement of america, it was almost the universal means for land travel. it was natural then that it should be the first form taken up in america. besides, the making of a bridle path through the woods, that is, a path wide enough for a man on horseback, was a comparatively simple matter. to build a carriage road would have been a much more difficult task. in new england, as well as in virginia, the population rapidly increased. the plymouth colonists began to build other villages. a new colony was founded on the coast of massachusetts bay, but thirty miles from plymouth. here were established the towns of salem, charlestown, roxbury, dorchester, newtown, and boston. other towns were soon built and clearings were made in every direction. travel by horseback became common among those who could afford to keep horses. those who were too poor must still travel on foot. [illustration: a man and his wife traveling on horseback.] most of the traveling was done by men. we read that queen elizabeth was an accomplished horsewoman; but as a rule few women were accustomed to hold the reins, and few side-saddles were in use. the horses of those days were very strong. they were trained to carry heavy burdens on their backs rather than to draw loaded wagons. they frequently carried more than one person; it was not unusual to see a man riding horseback, and behind him his wife, sitting sideways and holding on to her husband to keep from slipping off. for her comfort a pillion was used, which was a pad or cushion fastened to the saddle. not only was massachusetts bay rapidly settled, but villages were built fifty and even a hundred miles from boston. providence, newport, and portsmouth were founded, forming the colony of rhode island and providence plantations. hartford, wethersfield, and windsor were established on the connecticut. dover and portsmouth in new hampshire, new haven and saybrook in connecticut were built, and the village of agawam, now springfield, was founded. all of these new settlements needed some connection with boston, or the old bay colony as it was called. the roads were mere paths, however, and over them carriages could not have passed, if there had been any. in a story written by j. g. holland, called "bay-path," he described life in agawam more than two and a half centuries ago, and his description of the roads and travel in those days is well worth reading. "the principal communication with the eastern settlement was by a path marked by trees a portion of the distance, and by slight clearings of brush and thicket for the remainder. no stream was bridged, no hill graded, and no marsh drained. the path led through woods which bore the marks of centuries, and along the banks of streams that the seine had never dragged. the path was known as 'the bay-path,' or the path to the bay. "it was wonderful what a powerful interest was attached to the bay-path. it was the channel through which laws were communicated, through which flowed news from distant friends, and through which came long, loving letters and messages. that rough thread of soil, chopped by the blades of a hundred streams, was a bond that radiated at each terminus into a thousand fibers of love and interest and hope and memory. "the bay-path was charmed ground--a precious passage--and during the spring, the summer, and the early autumn hardly a settler at agawam went out of doors or changed his position in the fields, or looked up from his labor, or rested his oars upon the bosom of the river, without turning his eyes to the point at which that path opened from the brow of the wooded hill upon the east. and when some worn and wearied man came in sight upon his half-starved horse, or two or three pedestrians, bending beneath their packs and swinging their sturdy staves, were seen approaching, the village was astir from one end to the other. [illustration: the bay-path.] "the bay-path became better marked from year to year as settlements began to string themselves upon it as upon a thread. every year the footsteps of those who trod it hurried more and more until, at last, wheels began to be heard upon it--heavy carts creaking with merchandise. a century passed away and the wilderness had retired. there was a constant roll along the bay-path. the finest of the wheat and the fattest of the flocks and herds were transported to the bay, whose young commerce had already begun to whiten the coast. "the dreamy years passed by, and then came the furious stagecoach, traveling night and day--splashing the mud, brushing up the dust, dashing up to inns, and curving more slowly up to post-offices. the journey was reduced to a day. and then--miracle of miracles--came the railway and the locomotive. the journey of a day is reduced to three hours." chapter ii. by water. when the virginia colonists reached the shores of america, they sailed up the james river until they found a peninsula extending into the river and there they built jamestown. when the pilgrims completed their explorations of the shores of cape cod bay, they chose the harbor of plymouth as the best situation for their colony. lord baltimore established the maryland colony at st. mary's on an arm of the chesapeake bay. the dutch founded new amsterdam on the island of manhattan, at the mouth of the hudson river. the first settlements in each of the colonies were made on the shores of the atlantic ocean, or but a few miles up large rivers. why? the colonists had come to this new world in european vessels which could only bring them to the shore. here they chose the most convenient place and built their town. thus these settlers were in the very beginning familiar with travel by water. but what a poor, inconvenient means of travel it was! the jamestown colonists, one hundred and five in number, were tossed upon the stormy ocean for more than four months, enduring all the hardships of a severe winter in vessels that to-day would seldom venture upon the ocean, even in coastwise trade. compare the two months and more of life on the _mayflower_, where the passengers were crowded into the closest quarters, with the short six or seven days' trip to or from england to-day on the ocean steamers, where travelers find comforts and conveniences almost greater than those they are accustomed to at home. [illustration: pilgrim exiles.] although the emigrants suffered greatly in these voyages across the atlantic ocean, the day of the return of the vessels to england was a sad one. when the last glimpse of the receding ship had vanished, the homesick watchers realized as never before their isolation--their separation from everybody and everything in which they were interested. until vessels should again arrive from across the ocean they would be thrown entirely upon their own resources. the settlers were thus very dependent upon the ships that crossed the atlantic so infrequently and with such difficulty. soon after the settlement, however, some of the colonies began to build vessels of their own. the forests provided lumber in great quantity and of the best quality. the first vessel to be built by the massachusetts bay colony was launched at medford the next year after the settlement of boston. this small vessel was owned by governor winthrop and was appropriately called the _blessing of the bay_. the same year a dutch ship, twenty times as large, was constructed at new amsterdam. a large part of the colonial shipbuilding was confined to new england, the _blessing of the bay_ being but a leader in a long line. within two years a ship as large as the _mayflower_ was built at boston, and another twice as large at salem. within thirty-five years boston had one hundred and thirty sail on the sea. new york built fewer but larger ships. philadelphia was a leading shipbuilding town, and many vessels were constructed in the carolinas. the activity of the colonists in thus providing means for travel by water was not limited to ocean shipbuilding. the rivers, the inland roads, already prepared by nature, were used from the very beginning. as the settlements grew, both in population and in numbers, travel between them became more and more necessary, and the rivers and streams came more and more into use. the settlers were wise enough to follow the example of the indians and to make themselves at once familiar with canoes and small boats of every description. the earliest form of water travel was, perhaps, the raft. it was usually made of floating logs or bundles of brush tied together. to-day, even, rafts of single logs, merely pointed at the ends, are found in australia, as well as rafts of reeds. on the coast of peru rafts seventy feet long and twenty feet broad are common,--large enough to use sails as well as paddles. the next step was to use the single log, made hollow by gradually burning it out or by slowly chipping away pieces with some sharp implement. on the atlantic coast the most common form of canoe was the dugout, made from the cedar log; and singularly enough the same tree was most frequently used on the shores of the pacific ocean, especially near puget sound. these western boats were frequently of great size, some on the alaskan coast being ninety feet in length and propelled by forty paddles. the indians had found these dugouts very serviceable, and as the european colonists began to travel over the same rivers and streams they patterned their river craft after those of the red men. [illustration: a birch-bark canoe.] the lighter form of the canoe was preferred, where serviceable, to the dugout. this was made of a light but strong framework covered by bark or skins. that used by the esquimaux was of sealskin stretched over whalebone. but the more common form was the indian birch-bark canoe, which rapidly became very popular among the colonial hunters and trappers. no better description of the birch canoe can be found than that which the children's poet, longfellow, gives in "hiawatha." "'give me of your bark, o birch tree! of your yellow bark, o birch tree! growing by the rushing river, tall and stately in the valley! i a light canoe will build me, build a swift cheemaun for sailing, that shall float upon the river, like a yellow leaf in autumn, like a yellow water-lily! "'lay aside your cloak, o birch tree! lay aside your white-skin wrapper, for the summer-time is coming, and the sun is warm in heaven, and you need no white-skin wrapper!' "with his knife the tree he girdled; just beneath its lowest branches, just above the roots, he cut it, till the sap came oozing outward; down the trunk, from top to bottom, sheer he cleft the bark asunder, with a wooden wedge he raised it, stripped it from the trunk unbroken. "'give me of your boughs, o cedar! of your strong and pliant branches, my canoe to make more steady, make more strong and firm beneath me!' "down he hewed the boughs of cedar, shaped them straightway to a framework, like two bows he formed and shaped them, like two bended bows together. "'give me of your roots, o tamarack! of your fibrous roots, o larch tree! my canoe to bind together, so to bind the ends together that the water may not enter, that the river may not wet me!' "from the earth he tore the fibres, tore the rough roots of the larch tree, closely sewed the bark together, bound it closely to the framework. "'give me of your balm, o fir tree. of your balsam and your resin, so to close the seams together that the water may not enter, that the river may not wet me!' "and he took the tears of balsam, took the resin of the fir tree, smeared therewith each seam and fissure, made each crevice safe from water. "thus the birch canoe was builded in the valley, by the river, in the bosom of the forest; and the forest's life was in it, all its mystery and its magic, all the lightness of the birch tree, all the toughness of the cedar, all the larch's supple sinews; and it floated on the river like a yellow leaf in autumn, like a yellow water-lily." chapter iii. stagecoaches. both by land and by water the methods of travel among the early colonists were extremely rude. from the early days of the settlements until the independence of the united states the improvement was very slow. during the seventeenth century practically all of the long-distance traveling was by water. schooners made regular trips from new england to virginia, and smaller sloops or "packets" ran to new york from the different towns to the eastward. these vessels were dependent, of course, upon the wind, and the length of the journey varied greatly. perhaps a packet might sail from new haven to new york in two days, but calms or contrary winds might delay the trip, and make it a week in going from port to port. on land, however, the facilities for travel slowly but surely improved. an interesting account of the rudeness and hardships of new england land journeys is furnished by the journal of sarah knight, who went from boston to new york on horseback nearly two hundred years ago. the roads were openings in the forest, made by cutting down trees, and were often blocked by fallen trunks. the streams that must be crossed caused the most trouble. "we came," she wrote, "to a river which they generally ride thro'; but i dare not venture; so the post got a ladd and cannoo to carry me to t'other side, and he rid thro' and led my hors. the cannoo was very small and shallow, so that when we were in she seemed ready to take in water, which greatly terrified mee and caused mee to be very circumspect, sitting with my hands fast on each side, my eyes stedy, not daring so much as to lodg my tongue a hair's breadth more on one side of my mouth than t'other, nor so much as think on lott's wife, for a wry thought would have oversett our wherey." for a woman to undertake such a journey was very unusual, and after her return she wrote with a diamond on the glass of a window these lines: "through many toils and many frights, i have returned, poor sarah knights. over great rocks and many stones god has preserved from fractured bones." about the time that this long journey was made, carriages began to come into use. the most common of these were the large coach, the "calash," and a lighter, two-wheeled vehicle, with a calash top, similar to a chaise. but these carriages were for a time only used within the towns themselves, where the large number of houses required the building of better roads and streets. comparatively few persons could afford to own private carriages, and their use was therefore not general for many years. before the middle of the eighteenth century, however, carriages became more common. broader and better roads had been built, and longer journeys could be made. as early as , carriages had been driven from the connecticut river to boston, and overland travel began to be more customary. the first roads that could be called suitable for carriage travel were for the most part toll roads. instead of being made by the towns or counties, or by the colonies, they were built by corporations. these companies were granted the privilege of charging toll from every traveler over their roads for the purpose of paying a profit to the members of the company, as well as to keep the roads in repair. in the same way corporations built bridges, charging a small toll upon every one who crossed them. thus travel was improved, time was saved, and less discomfort was caused the travelers. [illustration: old-style calashes.] in the eighteenth century public carriages began to come into use. previously if any one wished to travel by land, he found it necessary to own or hire horses. if he made a voyage by sea, he could pay his fare on some vessel that made the trip he wished to take. this means of public transportation, this carrying a person or his goods for pay, had been limited, however, to water travel. there were no regular conveyances running from town to town by land which would carry passengers or freight. the town of plymouth had been settled nearly a hundred years before the first line of stagecoaches in any part of the country was put in operation. this "stage wagon" ran between boston and bristol ferry, where it connected with the packet line to newport and new york. three years later a stage line began to run from boston to newport, making one trip each way every week. the driver advertised to carry "bundles of goods, merchandise, books, men, women, and children." travel was slow, much slower than seems possible to-day. the roads were still very poor, in fact scarcely fit to be called roads. little by little new stage lines were established, nearly always in connection with some packet line. up to the middle of the eighteenth century, however, opportunities to travel by stage were few and the time required great. three weeks were needed to make the trip from boston to philadelphia, even under the most favorable conditions. less than three years before the battle of lexington, the first stage was run between new york and boston. the first trip was begun on monday, july th, and the journey's end was not reached until saturday, july th. thirteen days were thus required for a trip which may now be made in five or six hours. as the amount of travel increased new lines were formed, the roads were improved, and stages were run more frequently and more rapidly. sixty years after the first trip was made between new york and boston the time had been cut down from thirteen days to one day and five hours; more than a hundred lines of coaches were then regularly running out of boston. in spite, however, of every improvement, travel by stage a hundred years ago was no simple or pleasant matter. professor mcmaster says: "the stagecoach was little better than a huge covered box mounted on springs. it had neither glass windows nor door nor steps nor closed sides. the roof was upheld by eight posts which rose from the body of the vehicle, and the body was commonly breast-high. from the top were hung curtains of leather, to be drawn up when the day was fine and let down and buttoned when rainy or cold. within were four seats. without was the baggage. when the baggage had all been weighed and strapped on the coach, when the horses had been attached, the eleven passengers were summoned, and, clambering to their seats through the front of the stage, sat down with their faces toward the driver's seat." [illustration: an old-fashioned stagecoach.] the coach would set out from the inn with the horses on a gallop, which would continue until a steep hill was reached. then would follow the slow pacing up the hill, the gallop down again, the dragging through a stretch of muddy road, the careful fording of a river, the watering of the horses every few miles, and the rapid gallop up to the next inn. here the mail pouches would be taken out and in, perhaps a change of coaches made or more frequently of horses only, a delay for a little gossip, and the stage would be off again. this was all very exhilarating and agreeable in pleasant, warm weather, but how fatiguing in the cold and snows of winter, and even during a chilly summer storm. these public conveyances were used only when necessary. private carriages were much preferred to the stagecoach, as being a more comfortable as well as a safer mode of travel. the story is told of one young lady who was visiting near boston, eighty years ago. she was very anxious to return to her home, but her father was unable to come for her. her mother wrote: "your papa would not trust your life in the stage. it is a very unsafe and improper conveyance for young ladies. many have been the accidents, many the cripples made by accidents in these vehicles. as soon as your papa can, you may be sure he will go or send for you." [illustration: munroe tavern, lexington, mass. (built in .)] whether the traveler went by stage or in his private carriage, it was necessary to stop at the inns. the taverns had a great deal to do with making journeys pleasant or disagreeable. as a general rule, the new england inns were kept by leading men, and in most cases the innkeeper was required to obtain recommendations from the selectmen of the town before he could get a license or a permission to establish and keep the tavern. even the smaller new england villages boasted of inns that compared favorably with the hotels of the large towns. a frenchman, traveling through the united states early in this century, wrote in highest praise of the inns of new england, whose windows were without shutters, and whose doors had neither locks nor keys, and yet where no harm ever came to the traveler. he admired "the great room, with its low ceiling and neatly sanded floor; its bright pewter dishes and stout-backed, slat-bottomed chairs ranged along its walls; its long table; and its huge fireplace, with the benches on either side." he had less praise for the inns of the rest of the country. the buildings were poor, the fare was coarse, and the beds were bad. the roofs leaked, the windows were sometimes mere openings in the wall; the bedding was unclean and extremely uninviting. if a traveler were compelled to stop at the southern inns, he found his journey far from agreeable. fortunately for him the southern planter was the most hospitable of persons. "at his home strangers were heartily welcome and nobly entertained. some bade their slaves ask in any traveler that might be seen passing by. some kept servants on the watch to give notice of every approaching horseman or of the distant rumble of a coming coach and four." on the plantation the traveler was always treated as a most intimate friend, and in the cheery comfort of the mansion he forgot, for the time being, the trials and hardships of travel by land. chapter iv. steamboats. the idea of payment for transportation is very old. thousands of years ago we read of vessels sailing upon the mediterranean sea prepared to transport persons or freight for sums of money. where this idea originated is not known, but it may have occurred to a savage for the first time in some such way as the following: a hunter lived on the banks of a river in asia. one day he shot a duck which fell to the ground on the opposite shore. the hunter needed the bird, for he was hungry, but how was he to obtain it? the river was very deep at this point, and he could not swim. he knew that there was a shallow place five miles up the stream, where he might ford the river, and another ford five miles below. but to cross by either of these would require a journey of ten miles to the bird and ten miles back, just to get across a narrow river. he remembered that a big log lay upon a sand-bar in the river not far from where he was. he took a pole, pried off the log and rolled it into the water. then seating himself on it he poled himself across, obtained the duck, and soon reached his home again. here was the first water travel. a few days later he heard a cry from over the river. looking up, he saw a man who desired to cross. the stranger called to him to get his log and take him over, as he had carried himself. the hunter saw that the stranger had a deer on his shoulder. he was hungry, and therefore called out: "give me the hind leg and half the loin of your deer for my labor, and i will bring you safely over." the stranger promptly agreed, and the hunter poled across the river. in some such way doubtless was the first payment made for transportation, and the idea soon became common that it was just and proper to charge a fare for carrying freight and passengers. what powers have we found used in transportation up to a hundred years ago? first there was human power, either walking or plying oars or paddles. this energy is limited; walking is necessarily a slow process, and rowing is seldom a rapid mode of travel. then came horse power, used first to carry travelers or goods and later to draw carriages and wagons, conveying passengers and freight. horse power is superior to human power both in speed and in endurance, but it also has its limits and often fails at important times. then use was made of the wind, which, blowing against stretches of canvas, propelled vessels. here was no human power to become wearied; no horse power to fail at the wrong time. vessels need not stop at night in order to sleep, nor even at noon in order to take dinner. but the wind is fickle; it does not always blow; it frequently blows from the wrong direction; it often blows too much. human power, horse power, wind power, each was insufficient or unsatisfactory, and the time was ripe for some power stronger and less fickle to produce more rapid transportation. when the necessity of a new power became great, the needed energy and a way to use it were soon found. near the close of the eighteenth century a number of men, unacquainted with each other's ideas, began to experiment with steam as a means for propelling vessels. why had they not begun earlier? for two reasons. the demand for quicker water travel had but just commenced, and the fact that steam could practically be used as a motive power was only beginning to be understood. it so happened that james watt's steam engine was perfected just as the treaty of peace with great britain acknowledged the independence of the united states. now american inventors were able to make use of the steam engine to aid travel and transportation. at once they began work. samuel morey built a steamboat on the upper connecticut river; james rumsey experimented on the potomac; john fitch on the delaware, and william longstreet on the savannah; oliver evans was at work in philadelphia, and john stevens on the hudson. [illustration: fitch's steamboat.] one of these boats used the steam engine to move oars; another pumped water in at the bow and forced it out again at the stern; a third had a wheel in the stern; and a fourth had a paddle wheel on each side. some of the vessels used upright, and some horizontal engines. most of these inventors succeeded in running their boats against the tide or the current of rivers, and proved that steam could be thus used. each may be said to have invented a steamboat. but these men were all without means; they did not succeed in awakening the interest of wealthy men; and the public cared little about such inventions. therefore each of these steamboats was given up in turn and soon forgotten; the eighteenth century passed away, and no practical result had appeared. it is natural to have more interest in the account of an invention which proved of practical value than in the stories of even successful attempts which were given up almost as soon as made. robert fulton was born in pennsylvania just as watt began his study of the steam engine. almost as soon as watt had completed his improvements on the engine, fulton came of age, and went to england to study painting with benjamin west, the famous american artist. in the midst of his art studies he became interested in mechanical pursuits. he attracted the attention of some english scientists, and, by their encouragement, he abandoned painting and devoted himself to inventing. but who knows how much assistance his skill in drawing may have been to him in his preparations of plans and models? joel barlow, a noted american poet, was then living in france, and upon his invitation fulton spent several years in his home in paris. here he devoted his time to boats, as he had already done in london. his schemes were of various kinds. he planned diving boats, steamboats, and canal boats, and was particularly interested in a boat which he called a marine torpedo. this boat he planned to be used to injure vessels in naval warfare. for a time he neglected the steamboat, and bent every energy to persuade the french government to adopt the torpedo. afterward he urged his marine boats upon the english and american governments, but in vain. he did not realize the enormously greater future value of the steamboat. in time, however, fulton finished his plans, and a steamboat was built for him upon the river seine. the next step was to enlist the coöperation of some one with power and means by proving that the invention was valuable. fulton accordingly sought to bring the boat to the attention of the french emperor. he succeeded in awakening napoleon's interest. it was just at the time that the emperor was planning to take his great army across the channel to attack england. he saw that steamboats, if of practical value, would be serviceable to him in these plans. accordingly he directed a scientific committee to attend a public trial of the boat. a day was set for the examination. fulton had worked steadily for weeks, seeking to make every part as perfect as possible. the night before the appointed day, fulton retired for rest, but sleep would not come to his eyes. his thoughts were so completely fixed upon his invention and what the next day meant to him that he could not control them. not until morning began to dawn did he catch a nap, and then only to be immediately awakened by a knock at his door. a messenger had come to tell him that his boat was at the bottom of the river. the iron machinery had proved too heavy for the little sixteen-foot boat, and had broken through. fulton's hopes were at an end. before he could build another boat and make another engine the opportunity would be past. his disappointment was intense. however, he did not despair, but was soon ready to try again. doubtless the failure was a blessing in disguise. the boat was probably too small to make a successful trip. the next time he would have a larger vessel. instead of again trying to arouse french interest, he decided to make the next experiment at home. robert r. livingston, our minister to france, who together with james monroe purchased for the united states the great province of louisiana, had long been interested in the possibilities of steam navigation. he entered into fulton's plans and assisted him in every way. soon after the disaster on the seine both men returned to america, and the next six months were spent in building a boat and in putting into it a steam engine which they had especially ordered in birmingham, england. a grant had been obtained from the new york legislature which gave them the exclusive right to run steam vessels on any of the waters of the state. the new boat was a hundred and thirty feet in length, or eight times as long as that lost in the seine. it was called the _clermont_, after the country home of livingston. it was a side-paddle steamboat, with wheels fifteen feet in diameter and four feet wide. the trial trip was announced for august th, , and at one o'clock in the afternoon the _clermont_ stood at the wharf in new york ready for the journey. was the trial to succeed or fail? to succeed, the _clermont_ must steam up the hudson river at a speed of, at least, four miles an hour. the trip proposed was from new york to albany, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, and return. this trip was regularly made by sailing packets, and the average time was four days. could the _clermont_ reach albany in thirty-seven hours, or a day and a half? unfortunately, a north wind was blowing, which would greatly decrease the speed. fulton and livingston were confident that it could be done. the steamboat left the wharf and slowly sailed up the river. soon the faults natural to a new invention began to show themselves. the rudder did not work as it ought; the wheels were unprotected by a covering; the vessel sank too far in the water. but the trial, in spite of all the odds against it, was successful. the one hundred and fifty miles were made in thirty-two hours, with five hours to spare from the limit set. if we subtract the time spent in stops, but twenty-eight and a half hours were used, making an average of more than five miles an hour. the first long steamboat trip had been accomplished. the indifference of the public at once changed to enthusiasm. fulton was immediately urged to make regular trips, and, although the _clermont_ needed many improvements, he consented. the next winter, however, the boat was removed from the river for repairs; but in the spring regular trips were resumed, and the steamboat became a new and permanent means of transportation. there was abundant opportunity to improve the steamboat and develop its use. at first fulton's _clermont_ alone steamed up and down the hudson river. soon, however, other steamboats were built to run in opposition to the sailing packets. steamers began to ply on lake champlain and on the delaware river. three years after the first voyage of the _clermont_, a steamboat was making three trips a week from new york to new brunswick, new jersey; here the traveler took stage for bordentown on the delaware river, whence another boat carried him to philadelphia. two years later steam ferryboats ran between new york and the jersey shore. the first river steamboat was launched at pittsburg, and was sent down the ohio and the mississippi to new orleans in . three years later the _Ã�tna_ steamed from pittsburg to new orleans, and back to louisville. the same year a steamboat was built on the lakes to run from buffalo to detroit, and a company was organized to start a steamship line from new york to charleston. five years afterward the steamship _savannah_, using both steam and sails, crossed the atlantic ocean. she made but slow time, and the great space required to hold the fuel left little room for freight. year by year, however, improvements were made on the vessels and quicker time was the result. finally, anthracite coal came into general use, and thirty years after the trial trip of the _clermont_, the steamers _sirius_ and the _great western_ began regular trips between liverpool and new york. the day of steam navigation had come, and from that time on the vexatious delays due to fickle winds no longer need be a cause of trouble. chapter v. canals. ninety years ago, two brothers, james and john, found it necessary to make the long journey from their home in new york city to kentucky. they had frequently traveled through the country, and were familiar with stages and packets. this time they proposed to make their first trip on the steamboat, since the _clermont_ was again making its regular runs. it was advertised to leave new york at one o'clock on wednesday. the brothers felt no need of haste in their preparations for the journey, and it was nearly two o'clock before they came in sight of the wharf. just then john made the remark that they were very foolish to arrive so early. "we shall have to wait an hour or two," he said; "the boat won't be ready to start before three o'clock at the earliest." "i am not so sure," was the reply. "perhaps the steamboat will not be as late as the packets." when they reached the wharf, no steamboat was there. far up the river they saw, slowly moving off in the distance, a vessel, which they knew must be the _clermont_, from the line of smoke that lay behind it. immediately they began to inquire what it meant and were told, "oh! that is one of fulton's notions. he has given strict orders that the boat shall always leave the wharf exactly on advertised time." this was a novelty almost as great as the steamboat itself. sailing vessels had been dependent upon the wind, and stages upon the conditions of the roads and the weather; neither made any pretence of running upon schedule time. fulton's idea of punctuality was new and caused much grumbling for a time; but with the coming of the railroads it became an absolute necessity. what were the two men to do? but two things could be done. they might take passage on a packet, or wait for the next trip of the _clermont_. they decided to wait, as they were anxious to try the steamboat; they had had enough experience with the slow sailing vessels, and their poor accommodations. they did not permit themselves to be late a second time. in fact, the clocks had hardly struck twelve when they stepped aboard the _clermont_. the hour before the departure of the boat was spent in examining it from stem to stern. the original _clermont_ had been greatly improved. the wheels were now properly protected; a rudder, specially adapted to the boat and the river, had been constructed. most noticeable were the accommodations for the passengers, which were almost elegant when compared with the poor quarters of the packets. in fact the _clermont_ had become "a floating palace, gay with ornamental painting, gilding, and polished woods." at one o'clock sharp the boat quietly left the wharf. the wind was blowing freshly down the river and the tide was going out. a packet started at the same moment from a neighboring pier. the steamboat at once turned its prow up the stream, but the packet headed for the jersey shore, as it could sail against the wind only by making long tacks. this greatly increased the distance it had to travel, and before sunset the _clermont_ had left the packet many miles behind. the next morning everything was still going smoothly when the two passengers saw a little way ahead another packet, which had left new york before the steamboat. this sloop was making tacks like those they had watched the previous afternoon, and the _clermont_ was rapidly gaining on it. suddenly john exclaimed, "what are they doing? are they trying to run us down?" it was evident that the packet was coming straight for the steamboat; but the captain of the _clermont_ shut off steam at once and the packet passed its bow without doing harm. [illustration: collision of the clermont and the sloop.] soon a sloop was met coming down the river. again came the exclamation from john, "they are surely trying to run into us!" he had hardly spoken when the crash came; the packet struck the wheel box, tore it open, and then, sliding along the side of the steamboat, passed away down the river. on inquiry john ascertained that this was merely an illustration of the envy of the owners of packets, who feared that they would lose all their business. no serious damage was done, however, and the steamboat proceeded on its way. the _clermont_ arrived at albany at seven o'clock thursday evening and the brothers spent the night at an inn. the next morning, after an early breakfast, a stage was taken which in a few hours carried them to schenectady. this part of the journey was quickly made, as the road was one of the best in the country. on reaching schenectady the travelers learned that they must wait till the next noon to take a boat up the mohawk river. the hours slowly dragged along, another night was spent at an inn, and about three o'clock the next afternoon the slow trip up the mohawk began. two days later they reached utica, and another stage took them, the next day, to rome. from this village two days' sail carried them across the oneida lake, and down the oswego river to oswego on the banks of lake ontario. after a delay of thirty-six hours a lake packet was found ready for them, which in time arrived at lewiston at the mouth of the niagara river, and so on they went, by land to buffalo, by water to erie, by land again to one of the branches of the alleghany river, and down this to pittsburg. from pittsburg one of the flat-bottomed western river boats, borne along by the current, conveyed them to louisville, at the falls of the ohio. thus was made, in several weeks, a trip from new york to louisville, which to-day requires scarcely more than twenty-four hours. ten times had changes been made in the conveyances used. a steamboat, river rowboats, lake packets, western flatboats and stages, were all needed, and nights and days even were spent at inns. slow and cumbrous was travel in those days and very expensive. there was little traveling for pleasure, and only the most important business was worth the hardships and discomforts of such travel. if it was costly for passengers to travel, it was even more expensive to carry freight. enormous charges were placed upon all transportation of goods. new and better roads were being built in all directions, but these did little to reduce the cost of transporting goods. the cheapest routes continued to be by the rivers, as the expense of building good roads and keeping them in repair added to freight charges. the charges for freight transportation were so great that it prevented entirely the moving of many goods. the people in pennsylvania desired the salt which was obtained in new york, but it cost $ . a bushel to carry salt three hundred miles. citizens of philadelphia would have purchased flour which was raised about the sources of the susquehanna river had it not cost $ . a barrel to carry it to philadelphia. hundreds of families were weekly moving westward into the new country across the alleghany mountains; they could not afford to take their household goods with them. the freight charges from new york to buffalo were $ a ton; from philadelphia to pittsburg, $ . something new in the line of transportation was needed; some way by which freight could be carried at less expense. private companies were building new toll roads--but these did not accomplish the purpose. different states expended money in improving the highways, and still the expense of transportation was enormous. the national government also took part in the work and constructed a highway from cumberland, maryland, to wheeling, on the ohio river--but this was merely a single road over the mountains, and freight charges were as high as ever. what could be done? of course the roads everywhere must be improved and new ones built--all of which would take many years. but was there not some way to avoid carrying so much freight in wagons drawn by horses? wherever there were rivers these could be used. was it possible to make rivers, or at least to make water-ways, upon which boats might be used? the people of the united states began to talk of canals, and soon enthusiasm for canal building became universal. what is a canal? it is a trench cut in the ground, filled with water deep enough for a well-laden boat, and wide enough for boats to pass each other. on one bank is a path, called the towpath, upon which horses or mules travel, pulling a canal boat behind them by means of a long rope. in most canals it is found necessary to lift the boats over higher land or up to a higher level. this is done by locks, which are built where the two levels of the canal come together. these locks are shut off from each part of the canal by gates. when the lower gates are shut and the upper gates open, water is let into the lock from the upper canal until on a level with it. then a canal boat from the upper canal enters the lock. the upper gates are closed, the lower gates opened, and the water runs out of the lock. the boat, remaining on top of the water, sinks to the lower level and is ready to proceed on its course. in traveling the other way the process is turned about. the boat enters the lock and rises with the water which is let in from above until it is on the upper level. canals, with their locks, are simple and easily built. the expense lies mainly in digging the trench. when the canal is once finished the cost of running is very slight, and freight can be carried much more cheaply than over roads, or even by the natural rivers. canal travel is very slow, however, as the boat is drawn by a horse at a slow walk. therefore a canal is used, for the most part, to carry freight, especially freight not very perishable. garden vegetables, fruit, and meats, for example, are not carried on canals to any great distance; on the other hand, the length of time used in conveying salt, or flour, or household goods, is not of so much importance. plans for canals sprang up all at once throughout the country. the middlesex canal in massachusetts and the blackstone canal between providence and worcester were among the first built. the delaware and hudson canal in new york, and the chesapeake and delaware in maryland were of early importance. in time nearly every atlantic state had one or more canals as aids to transportation. many of them were of additional importance because they connected neighboring bays, and could furnish opportunities for water travel, even when the harbors might be blockaded in time of war. [illustration: the erie canal.] the greatest and by far the most important is the erie canal, which connects buffalo on lake erie with albany on the hudson river. this canal was due to the energy and persistence of governor de witt clinton, who dug the first shovelful of earth in , and made the first trip over the completed canal in . there was great opposition to building this canal at the expense of the state, and the nickname of "clinton's big ditch" was frequently applied to it. governor clinton was wiser, however, than his opponents. every cent spent on this canal, which is miles long, feet wide, and feet deep, was wisely spent. on the day that it was finished the great prosperity of new york city began. a large part of the trade and commerce between the east and the west was carried over the erie canal, because it furnished the cheapest route. freight charges between buffalo and albany fell at once to less than one-quarter their former rates, and continued to decrease until they became less than $ a ton. thus far had travel and transportation improved. from walking, horseback riding, and rowboats, slow changes had led to stages, packets, steamboats, and canals. from the simple indian trail, like the bay path, had grown up the great highways, like the national road. from slow and difficult journeys between neighboring towns, traveling had become easy from maine to florida, and from the atlantic ocean to the mississippi river. was there any chance for further improvement? chapter vi. railroads. up to this time progress had been more marked upon the water than upon the land. on the land travelers were still limited to human power and horse power. on the water, however, not only human power and wind were used, but also horse power and even steam power. the steamboat was thought to be the most rapid means of transit possible. no energy was known greater than that of steam; therefore no new source of power was expected. if steam could aid water navigation, could it not be used in land travel? this question was ever present in the minds of inventors, mechanics, and travelers on both sides of the ocean. little by little an answer was obtained, and the field of steam was enlarged. even before fulton's trial trip, the first step in the direction of the railroad was taken, though steam had nothing to do with this first practical experiment. the city of boston was built upon three hills, two of which have now been almost entirely moved away. upon the third, called beacon hill, was built the state house. early in this century the top of this hill was lowered by carrying away the gravel. for this purpose a tramway was built. this consisted of two sets of rails or tracks from the top to the bottom of the hill, upon which cars were used. the full car on one track ran down of its own weight, pulling up the empty car on the other track. this was the first use of rails in this country. the first permanent tramway was built in pennsylvania. thomas leifer owned a stone quarry about three-quarters of a mile from the nearest wharf on the delaware river. he desired to carry his stone to tide water more easily than by the ordinary methods. accordingly he built a tramway from the quarry to the wharf, and placed upon the tracks an ordinary wagon. to this he attached horses and had what we should call a horse car. the rails made a smooth road over which his horses could draw five tons as easily as one ton over the common roads. this tram was used regularly for eighteen years. one-half of the steam railroad had now been invented. the tramway was the railroad--now steam must be applied. that was all. but that was not so easy as it would seem now. year after year passed and no one attempted it. doubtless many persons felt certain that the steam railroads were coming some time and that they would be of value, just as to-day many people expect that travel through the air is coming some time. at the same time there were many who did not believe that steam could be used for land travel at all; while others did not care to have it come for fear that travel would be made too speedy. one of the leading english magazines took occasion to express its opinion concerning a proposed railway: "what can be more absurd and ridiculous than the prospect held out of locomotives traveling _twice as fast as stage coaches_! we should as soon expect the people of woolwich to suffer themselves to be fired off upon one of congreve's rockets as trust themselves to the mercy of a machine going at such a rate. we trust that parliament will, in all railways it may sanction, limit the speed to _eight or nine miles an hour_, which is as great as can be ventured on with safety." what would this writer say to the safety of the trains of to-day, as they make forty fifty, sixty, and even seventy miles an hour? many of the inventions which have done the most for mankind have been made by americans, but we owe the locomotive to an englishman. george stephenson from early boyhood devoted himself to the study of engines and machinery. when but thirteen years of age he assisted his father in the care of an engine at a coal mine near newcastle. working by day as an engineman, and studying by night in a night school, he prepared himself for his future work. he won the confidence of his employers, especially that of lord ravensworth, who supplied him with funds to build a "traveling engine" to run on the rails of the tramroad between the mines and the shipping port, nine miles distant. july th, , stephenson made a successful trip with his locomotive, "my lord," which pulled the coal cars at the rate of four miles an hour. stephenson felt that this locomotive was but a beginning. he told his friends that "there was no limit to the speed of such an engine, if the works could be made to stand." he was still pursuing his studies and experiments when he was appointed engineer of a proposed railroad between stockton and darlington. the directors of the road had planned to pull their cars by horses, but they were won over by stephenson to agree to try an engine. eleven years after the trial trip of his first engine, stephenson was ready to exhibit a locomotive upon a railroad joining two towns for the purpose of transporting passengers and freight. a short time before the trial trip, stephenson made a prediction concerning the future of his invention. "i venture to tell you," he said, "that i think that you will live to see the day when railways will supersede almost all other methods of conveyance in this country--when mail coaches will go by railway, and railroads will become the great highways for the king and all his subjects. the time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man to travel on a railway than to walk on foot. i know that there are great and almost insurmountable difficulties to be encountered, but what i have said will come to pass as sure as you now hear me." the stockton and darlington railway was three years in process of construction, and the day of its opening, september th, , was an important one in the history of travel. imagine that first train load--the locomotive, guided by stephenson himself, six freight cars, a car carrying "distinguished guests," twenty-one coal cars crammed with passengers, and six more freight cars all loaded. ahead of the train, or procession, as it might be called, rode a man on horseback, carrying a flag bearing the motto, "the private risk is the public benefit." when the train started, crowds of people ran along by its side, for a time easily keeping up with it. finally, however, stephenson called to the horseman to get out of the way and, putting on steam, drove the engine at the rate of fifteen miles an hour. the future of the locomotive was assured. americans were ready for new methods of traveling. three years after the opening of the first passenger steam-railway in england, the baltimore and ohio railroad began to construct a line from baltimore westward, and in two years fourteen miles were opened to travel. for a year, however, horses were used as motive power; in , the road advertised for locomotives. meanwhile an engine, called the "stombridge lion," was brought over from england, in , and used on a line built by the delaware and hudson canal company. it was found to be too heavy and was abandoned. the second locomotive used in this country, "the best friend of charleston," was built in new york city, and was run on the south carolina railroad. [illustration: old-style railroad train.] the locomotive and the railroad had come, such as they were. the locomotive had its boiler and its smokestack, its cylinders and driving wheels; but it had no cab for the engineer and the fireman, and no brake to stop the train. the tender was but a flat car, carrying fuel and water. the cars were merely stagecoaches made to run on rails, and in no way were the passengers protected from the smoke and cinders of the burning wood. yet this poor, inconvenient railroad was a great advance in itself, and it foretold greater advances in the days to come. in , five years after the opening of the first steam railroad in the united states, there were twenty-three roads and over a thousand miles of track. after , an average of nearly four hundred miles was built yearly until . from that time until the beginning of the civil war, railroad construction proceeded with great rapidity, nearly two thousand miles of railroad being built each year. in , a continuous line of railroad was completed between new york and boston. two years later two distinct lines were finished, connecting new york and buffalo. at the end of another two years, through connection was had between new york and chicago. at the same time railroads were being built in all sections east of the mississippi river. after peace was restored in , came a great period of railroad building. during ten years the number of miles of railroad more than doubled, nearly four thousand miles being built each year. this was the period when the continuous lines, which had already reached the missouri river, were continued across the continent. after five years of labor the union pacific railroad, starting at omaha, nebraska, met at ogden, utah, the central pacific, which had been built from sacramento, california. may th, , the last spike was driven and the pacific coast was bound to the atlantic by bands of steel. since the completion of the union and central pacific railroads, four other through lines have been constructed across the rocky mountains, within the territory of the united states, and one in canada. it is now possible to go from ocean to ocean in less than five days, and to have such a choice of routes that neither the cold of winter nor the heat of summer need be troublesome. at last the limit of rapid traveling seems to have been reached. walking and horseback riding are indulged in only for pleasure and health; stagecoaches are used only for short lines where the railroad has not yet come; but all the long-distance traveling is now done behind the locomotive. journeys of weeks have become trips of a few days, days have been lessened to hours, and the country has become knit together by rapid transit. is there a chance for further improvement? chapter vii. modern water travel. james greenleaf arrived in duluth, one bright june day, four hundred and five years after the discovery of america. for nearly forty years he had been a missionary among the indians of the british northwest, but he had finally been persuaded to take a well-earned rest. leaving his little settlement of red men, and taking a canoe, he had paddled up stream, carried his canoe over a portage, and paddled down a river until he reached lake superior, where a small sailboat had taken him to the flourishing city at the western end of the lake. at the hotel he found, as he expected, his nephew, henry towne. mr. towne was a commercial traveler, always "on the road," as he would say, for a large furniture establishment in new york. in a letter to his uncle he had stated that business would call him to minnesota at just that time, and that he would make the journey with his uncle from duluth to new york. the next day the two men started. the nephew had made all the necessary arrangements, having purchased tickets and engaged staterooms on the line of steamboats that connect duluth with buffalo. the first sight of the steamboat caused mr. greenleaf to exclaim at its size. "it is not much like the steamboat that i took on the hudson in the spring of ," he said. "i imagine, however, that i shall see greater differences than this, the further i go." as the two men made a tour through the steamboat, the older gave expression to his thoughts in many ways. "we did not have the saloon in those old days, when i did my traveling. whenever we did not care to remain on the open deck there was no parlor to which we could go. no orchestra helped to while away our hours. no piano or organ added the charm of music to our journey." "but you had a state room to which you could retire," replied his companion, as they came to the rooms numbered and , which numbers were on the keys that they had obtained at the purser's. "yes," said his uncle, "a tiny room, six feet by six, with narrow little berths, and two small stools. i can assure you that it was nothing like these comfortable sleeping rooms, brilliantly lighted, with regulation beds, convenient toilet arrangements, and carpeted floors. however, i do not imagine that the machinery will let me sleep any better now than then." the next morning, as the travelers went down to breakfast, the younger man asked, "well, uncle, how did you sleep?" "never better," was the reply. "i tell you, henry, i want to look at the machinery, after breakfast. it must be somewhat unlike the engine of my day, or the boat, large though it is, would have more of a jar." when the two men stood above the mammoth engine and noted the smooth working parts, the regular and even motion of the great piston rods in and out of the cylinders, the quietness and gentleness with which each movement took place, the uncle said: "more improvements have been made on the engine of forty years ago than had then been made on that of the _clermont_. and we used to think that the steamboats of our day were as much superior to fulton's boat as his was ahead of fitch's steam-moved paddles." we cannot take note of all the novel sensations that came to the old missionary, nor can we pause to relate many of the conversations between the two men. we can record a few only of the greater changes which were discussed as they continued their journey, and mention some of the comments called forth by the scenes through which mr. greenleaf was passing. on the afternoon of the second day the steamboat passed through the locks of the canal at sault ste. marie. "uncle," remarked the drummer, "how does this canal compare with the delaware and hudson canal, with which you were familiar?" "how can they be compared?" replied his uncle. "that was a long trench, hardly more than a scratch on the surface of the ground. this is broad and deep, though not long." "yes," said mr. towne, "but there is no new principle here. this canal is somewhat wider and deeper; its locks and gates are somewhat larger. still it is only a canal." "but we could not make such a hole in our day. we could not afford to hire men enough to dig it; it must have required many years to make this excavation." "oh; this canal was not made as large as this when it was first built. it has been enlarged since. but you know that we do not do all our digging now by hand. steam shovels do the work for us. that gives us a great advantage over the day laborer with his pick and shovel." "what strikes me as most noticeable," said mr. greenleaf, "is the number of vessels waiting on both sides of the lock. what causes such a crowd to-day, particularly?" "this is no unusual number," replied mr. towne. "you do not realize what a traffic there is on the great lakes. it is stated that the tonnage passing through this canal is greater than that through any other strait on the face of the globe. this growth is very recent and very rapid." "but what causes the traffic and where are all the vessels going?" asked the missionary. "the great bulk of the freight," answered the younger man, "is grain from the northwest, and iron, copper, coal, and lumber, now being obtained in vast quantities south of lake superior. so long as the steamboats can carry freight more cheaply than the steam cars, grain and ores will take this route. sometime we shall have canals large enough for ocean steamers, which will connect the great lakes with the atlantic ocean. then we can load our freight at chicago or duluth and not change it until it is unloaded at some english or european port." the next day, as the steamboat was lying at the wharf at detroit, conversation was turned to the great ferryboats plying across the river. "i notice great changes in the steam ferries, since last i crossed the north river at new york," remarked mr. greenleaf. "yes," was the reply, "but you see only improvements. the ferryboats are larger and you might almost say clumsier; that is all." "i do not think so," returned the missionary. "there must be some new invention to enable entire trains, with cars filled with passengers, to be carried across such a river as this." "of course," said his nephew, "the boat must be strong and large. however, the ferry docks have been improved. now, when the boat is fastened, the wharf can be raised and lowered, until it is exactly on the level of the boat. then not only passengers, but wagons and steam cars can pass from one to the other almost without knowledge of the change." "how far have these cars come that i see on the ferry?" "that," said the drummer, "is one of the through trains from montreal to chicago. the ferryboat next beyond, going the other way, bears a train containing cars bound for new york and boston." "well, well! this is convenient," said the missionary. "the passengers are saved much trouble by not being required to gather up all their traveling bundles, leave the cars for the boat, and the boat for a new set of cars. we should have thought this a great gain, forty years ago." "but do you realize what an inconvenience this ferry causes? much time is wasted, not only because of the slow movement of the boats, but also from the necessary delays in embarking and disembarking the cars." "yes, i suppose so. but what would you do? here is the river and it is too wide for a bridge." "oh, no!" replied mr. towne. "the bridge could be built, but it would be expensive and would not pay. but what do you think of a tunnel?" "a tunnel? what do you mean?" said the other man, with a touch of surprise in his voice for the first time. "a tunnel? where? not under the river? "yes," answered his nephew, "a tunnel under the river. there is one, a few miles north, at port huron. there the train, instead of being delayed hours by the ferry, passes at almost full speed directly under the river, proceeding on its way as though the river were not there." "is not that something new?" asked mr. greenleaf. [illustration: a river tunnel.] "yes. it was opened only a half-dozen years ago. it is said to be the greatest river tunnel in the world. it is a little over a mile long and is fifteen feet below the bed of the st. clair river. half a mile of it is directly under the water, yet no one passing through it would realize that it was different from any one of the hundreds of tunnels through which the railroads of this country pass. it is but a natural following out of such tunnels as the five-mile tunnel under the hoosac mountains in massachusetts, or the three-quarter-mile tunnels in jersey city, or the score of tunnels on the line of the southern railway over the blue ridge in north carolina. it is a great tunnel to-day, of course, but when the north river tunnel is finished, from new york to jersey city, this will be of little account in comparison." detroit was soon left, lake erie was reached, and night came on. the next morning the steamboat reached its journey's end at buffalo. our friends hastened across the city and were soon seated in a sleeper, on the train for new york. chapter viii. modern land travel. soon after the train had started from the buffalo station conversation began between mr. greenleaf and his nephew. "the steam is the same as in my day," remarked the former; "the steam pushes the piston in just the same way; there is no change in this direction. but all else is new." "yes," said the drummer, "you must see great changes; tell me some of them." "very well," was the reply. "the most noticeable thing about a railroad train used to be the jerking motion. we seemed to be going 'bump-i-ty-bump' all the time; and starting and stopping a train would often throw us off our feet." "various improvements," said mr. towne, "have helped to produce this easy-riding motion. the roadbeds are laid with much greater care--long experience and numerous experiments have provided us with the best rails; but more especially the absence of jar is due to steel springs, and also to the breaks and couplers. when one car was attached to another by two bolts thrust through a ring, nothing was firm, as the bolts would slide forward and back with every motion of the car. the new automatic couplers hold the two cars more firmly together. again, the old hand brakes have been replaced by the automatic air brake." "yes, i have heard of that, but i do not understand it. can you explain it to me?" "i think so. george westinghouse, jr., about thirty years ago, took out a patent for the air brake. this alone has been enough to make him famous, although he has twelve hundred patents issued in his name. the westinghouse air brake is now almost universally used. some of the surplus steam in the locomotive pumps air into tanks in the cars, which air presses upon a piston, that moves a rod against the brakes. thus the brakes can be held against the wheels with great force at the will of the engineer." "well, the next thing that i notice," said the missionary, "is the improved comfort of the passengers. the cinders filled the cars in the old days; the air within was always bad; the candles gave more smoke than light; and in winter, the stoves at the end of the cars gave no heat in the center." "yes, all that is changed," replied the younger man. "spark arresters keep out the cinders; the overhead ventilators give us good air; bright light, almost like that of day, surrounds us in the evening; and, when wanted, the engine supplies steam in pipes running the entire length of the car, which gives even and ample heat." "this car is wider than ours used to be, is it not?" queried mr. greenleaf. "yes," was the reply. "when the first pullman sleeping car, the 'pioneer,' was run on the chicago and alton railroad, it was wider and higher than the ordinary coaches. several bridges had to be raised to allow the car to pass under; and all the station platforms were altered to permit it to pass. since then, as pullmans and wagners have come into use on so many roads, many changes in bridges have been found necessary, and station platforms have almost universally been cut down to the ground." "did i understand you to say that this is a sleeper?" asked mr. greenleaf. "our sleeping cars, few and far between as they were, had berths or bunks three tiers high, fitted in on each side of the car, making it useless except to sleep in." [illustration: a pullman sleeper.] "that was the great feature of mr. pullman's invention," was the reply. "he saw that few railroad companies would care to go to the expense of running cars which could only be used for sleeping purposes. he was familiar with the 'old-fashioned, stuffy cars, where men sat in stiff-backed seats and dozed and yawned and waited for morning. by putting people to sleep this wide-awake man made a fortune.' you are sitting on the bed now. but here comes the porter to make up the berths next to us. the lady wishes to put her little boy to sleep." with much interest mr. greenleaf watched the porter make a sleeping room out of a sitting room. in a trice the cushions in the seats and backs were twisted about and laid from seat to seat, making a bed. with a jump, the porter stood on the arm of the seat, and turned a knob in the roof. down came another bed, a few feet above the first. from this was pulled a triangular board which was placed between the beds and the next seats. sheets, blankets, and pillows, which had been shut up in the roof, were soon properly spread out, and two good beds were the result. curtains were found above the upper bed, which, hung upon poles, shut the beds off from the car aisle. behind these the mother undressed her child and put him to bed. just at this moment a man went through the car crying "first call for dinner." mr. towne immediately jumped to his feet and said, "let us go and get good seats." "you have forgotten your hat, henry," said his uncle. "i don't need it. come, hurry," said henry. perplexed, the old man followed his nephew through three cars to the dining car, where they were soon seated at a little table, in front of a large window, from which everything they passed could be seen. it is not necessary to describe the dining room, for it was merely a well-furnished restaurant. the men ordered what they desired, and settled back to wait until their dinner was brought on. "how is it, henry, that we did not feel the wind as we passed from car to car? you hurried me so fast that i did not have time to notice." "don't you see," said the drummer, "how attaching a dining car to a train required another change also? there used to be a rule of every railroad company forbidding the passengers to go from car to car while the train was in motion. when the company put on the 'diner,' it invited the people to break its own rule. so vestibule cars came next. side doors are built on the car platforms and with these closed the regular car doors can be left open. thus one can walk the entire length of the train, through sleeper, parlor car, dining car, smoking saloon, library, bath room, barber shop, and writing room, without once going out of doors. this is a modern vestibule train." one more interesting discussion took place the next morning as they were nearing new york city. "tell me something about modern bridges," said mr. greenleaf. [illustration: brooklyn bridge.] "oh! i am afraid that is too long a story to tell during the time that we have left. there seems to be no limit to the engineering skill of to-day. the world-famous structures are being surpassed every little while by new ones. to-morrow you must see the brooklyn bridge. we have supposed that this great suspension bridge with its sixteen hundred feet from tower to tower was about the limit. but the cantilever bridge over the forth in scotland has a span more than a hundred feet longer than the east river bridge. when the north river bridge is built to jersey city, with its proposed span of three thousand feet, these other great bridges will be small in comparison. "our bridges are mostly of steel rather than wood nowadays," he continued. "since the portage viaduct on the erie road, which was eight hundred feet long and two hundred and thirty feet above the river, and contained a million and a half feet of lumber, was wholly burned in , wooden bridges have usually been but temporary affairs. in these days of frequent trains, the engineer's skill is needed on the shorter bridges as well as on these enormous structures. iron towers were put in place of stone towers, and iron beams in place of wooden ones, at the niagara suspension bridge, without interfering with the trains. i read the other day how a new iron bridge took the place of an old wooden one. it was built across the river by the side of the railroad track; during the night, when there was less travel than during the daytime, the old bridge was moved off, the new one took its place, and in a few minutes trains were running over it. whatever engineering work is needed nowadays, some one will soon be found prepared to provide it." at last the train entered the long cut and series of tunnels, which finally brought it to the grand central station on forty-second street, new york city. hurried along by the crowd, the aged sightseer hardly had an opportunity to make a remark about the immensity and grandeur of the brick station. "but this station is poor and far behind the times," said mr. towne. "you should see some of the more modern ones that have recently been erected, or wait for the new new york station, which must soon be built. but let us hasten; i want to get home." the young drummer, accustomed to travel of all kinds, familiar with crowds, and wont to make his way anywhere, did not realize that his companion was having difficulty in keeping up with him as he hastened along the street. receiving no answer to a question that he asked, he glanced around to find that his uncle was not with him. inwardly accusing himself of remissness in forgetting his companion's lack of experience, he turned and rapidly retraced his steps. he found his uncle standing on a corner, not daring to cross the street; to the relief of the latter, he decided to take a horse car across town. leaving the car at sixth avenue, the two men climbed the stairs to the elevated road. they had hardly purchased their tickets when a train drew up at the little station and a minute afterward they were off for harlem. the horse-car ride, followed by that on the elevated road, started a discussion concerning street-car traffic. the horse car was remembered by the old missionary, who remarked that it came before the steam railroad. mr. towne replied, "yes. but its day is nearly over. new york city does not seem to have fully outgrown this slow street travel, but elsewhere more rapid transit is the rule. new york is coming to it, however. the elevated roads cannot carry all the travel--the horse cars are too slow--the size of the city demands something more than we now have." "what do you expect will be done?" asked mr. greenleaf. "we shall have to build a tunnel, an underground railway, a subway. of course our roads must be either above ground, on the ground level, or below ground. the elevated roads have shown themselves to be unpleasant and annoying. it is not agreeable to look into the upper-story windows of dwellings, nor do people enjoy living on streets where the elevated road runs. rapid transit is impossible in the street, where cross streets continually delay the cars, and where wagons and carriages of all sorts are regularly passing. the subway is the best method, the only decent way left open." "would not such a tunnel be dark and damp, dirty and unhealthy in every sense?" asked his uncle. "oh! no," was the reply. "boston has recently completed a subway, something like a mile and a half long, with two branches, which has proved its great advantages. sheltered in winter, cool in summer, never blocked by teams nor interfered with by snow or ice, brilliantly lighted, with air wholesome and dry, and less liable to accidents than any other device yet tested, the boston subway is a great success. [illustration: the boston subway.] "did you say that there was no smoke?" again asked mr. greenleaf. "no smoke at all. the cars are run by electricity, and cinders are therefore entirely absent." "are electric cars coming into general use?" was the next question. "yes; throughout the country," replied mr. towne. "new york even now has its electric roads up town. horse cars have been replaced by electric cars in almost every city. cable cars are used in some places, but the electric is preferred. the last few years have seen a wonderful development in electricity in every way, but in no respect greater than in the increase of electric railways. for shorter lines they are competing with the steam cars, and seem to be winning the day. some steam roads are equipping their lines for electric service, and report successful results so far as tried. whether the electric car will wholly replace the steam car, time only will tell." "what a relief it must be to ride in a street car and not be obliged to pity the poor horses as they tug and strain to pull the heavy loads!" added the old missionary. "you know, i suppose," replied the drummer, "that not only from the street cars, but in other ways the horse is being retired. the bicycle has supplanted the horse and buggy for use in thousands of families, besides being where horses could never be afforded. and now we have automobiles, or horseless carriages, run by gasoline, naphtha, or electric motors. these are expensive, and comparatively few can yet afford them for private use. they are being used to a considerable extent in large cities, especially here in new york, for public service or for the delivery of goods from our large stores. but the expenses will gradually lessen, and perhaps the day when the horse is to rest has begun." [illustration: electric car, new york city.] "all this is wonderful," remarked his uncle. "we may walk still, if we wish. we may ride a horse or drive a carriage. we may take the stagecoach, or a private coach, or tally-ho. we may journey across the continent in palace steam cars. we may ride through a city on horse cars, or cable cars, or electric cars. we may travel on elevated tracks or underground. we may pedal our bicycles or ride in horseless carriages. we find good carriage roads, and excellent roadbeds for our railroads. bridges and tunnels carry us over and under rivers, across ravines and through mountains. on the water, the canoe and the rowboat, the sailing vessel and the steamship, are at our disposal. naphtha launches and electric yachts glide across the water. harbors are dredged, lighthouses are erected, breakwaters are constructed, and canals are built, all for the use of travelers and commerce. the last years of the nineteenth century form an era in travel of which the world never dreamed." [illustration: samuel f. b. morse.] [illustration: modern printing presses.] section vi.--letters. chapter i. language. what is the difference between a dog and a boy, or, rather, what is the difference between the brute creation and mankind? it is as natural for a dog to think as for a boy; he sees and hears and touches, smells and tastes as well as does the boy; he remembers and, in a certain way, he may be said to reason; he loves and hates and fears; he is pleased and frightened; is revengeful; has his likes and dislikes, his tastes and prejudices; indeed, a dog, or a horse, or an elephant has many points of resemblance to a boy or a man. but there are essential points of difference. one of the most important differences is that man has the power of speech which is not possessed by the brute creation. this power of speech is a great boon to mankind, one held in common by all peoples in all ages. talking or conversation suggests at least two persons, the speaker and the hearer, and involves the use of the vocal organs on the part of the talker and the ear, the instrument of hearing, on the part of the listener. this power of communicating thought, as has been said, is universal with the human race. in childhood one learns the language of his parents and of the people where he lives. in this country, great britain, canada, and australia, most of the people speak the english language; in france, the french tongue; in russia, the russian; in germany, the german; in turkey, the arabic; and so on. this common speech forms a great bond of unity between all people of the same race, and by means of it we communicate our ideas one to another. there is another language differing widely from the gift of speech, yet quite as important for the welfare of the human race. barbarous and savage tribes are dependent upon speech alone, but in civilized countries the people have acquired another art, that of writing, or of using a written language. in speech arbitrary sounds represent ideas. in writing arbitrary symbols or characters, called letters and words, are used. they are observed by the eye and not by the ear. this written language is as extended, as sharp, as definite, as full and complete, as is the language of speech. moreover, it has a great advantage over speech. words can be spoken only to a person immediately present, but words can be written and conveyed to one who is absent. no matter how far apart two persons are, each can communicate his ideas to the other just as well as if they were near. this written language has still greater usefulness. by means of it wise men of all countries who have had great thoughts, thoughts of value to the whole human race, have been enabled to put those thoughts into a permanent form. thus they have been preserved and handed down from generation to generation, so that we inherit to-day the wealth of all the ages. we can make ourselves familiar with the great thoughts uttered by jesus, by socrates, aristotle, shakespeare, milton, burke, patrick henry, daniel webster, emerson, longfellow, and countless others, so that they become our own property. moreover, when the eye gathers up these grand truths from the printed page, they are not absorbed, they still remain there. they may be used and transmitted again and again in the same book and upon the same page, even to future generations. on one occasion king solomon said: "of making many books there is no end, and much study is a weariness of the flesh." the second part of this sentence is certainly very true, but that is not saying anything against study, for anything that is worth doing is a cause of weariness. when we get weary the best thing is to get thoroughly rested, and after that to work until we become weary again. it does not injure a strong, well person to get healthily tired; on the contrary, the weariness which comes from normal exercise of the hands or the brain is better than inactive ease. [illustration: ancient implements of writing.] what did solomon mean when he made this sage remark, "of making many books there is no end"? under what circumstances was the remark made? we may not be able to answer the last question literally, but we may be permitted to imagine the circumstances. let us suppose that the queen of sheba had made her famous visit to jerusalem. she had heard in her own country of the acts and the wisdom of solomon, and had come to the kingdom of israel to see, with her own eyes, if these reports were true. she heard his wisdom from his own lips, for he "told her all her questions." then the queen of sheba had said to solomon: "it was a true report which i heard in mine own land of thine acts, and of thy wisdom: howbeit, i believed not their words, until i came, and mine eyes had seen it: and, behold, the one half of the greatness of thy wisdom was not told me; for thou exceedest the fame that i heard. happy are thy men, and happy are these thy servants, which stand continually before thee, and hear thy wisdom. blessed be the lord thy god, which delighted in thee to set thee on his throne, to be king for the lord thy god." the queen had gone home, and early one morning solomon had risen from his couch and gone up to the flat roof of his house on mount zion just as the sun was rising. there in his meditations he thought to himself that the queen of sheba had paid him great honor and that he ought in courtesy to send her a suitable present. what should it be? he was impressed with the idea that he would send her a copy of the sacred books then in the keeping of the high priest. what present could be more appropriate, more honorable to him, more welcome to her, or more acceptable to jehovah, the god of his people israel? if he sent her a copy of these books it surely ought to be a perfect copy. books were not printed in those days; they were written with the pen, or rather with the stylus. solomon called a servant and said to him, "send for the chief of the scribes. bring him here." he came, and the king directed him to select only those scribes that could do perfect work, and to set them at the task of making the finest possible copy of the books of moses and the other sacred books. month after month went by, until finally the work was finished and the scribes were ushered into the royal presence, bearing in their arms the product of their long-continued labor. roll after roll of the finest parchment was submitted to solomon for inspection. each skin began with an illuminated letter, and the whole work was done in the highest style of the art. well pleased was solomon when these rolls were all properly packed, secured from rain, placed upon the backs of camels, and the caravan, with a military escort, had set out for the distant land of sheba. then again in the gray of the morning solomon was at his meditations upon the housetop. again he called a messenger who should summon to his presence the chief of the scribes. [illustration: an ancient scribe.] "what was the cost of making the copy of our sacred writings for the queen of sheba? how many shekels have been paid to the scribes for their work?" when the chief scribe had found out he reported it to the king. "is it indeed so much?" said the king; and when he had thought how many months it had taken for that large number of scribes to make a single copy of the sacred books, then he exclaimed: "of making _many_ books there is no end." chapter ii. the printing press. the times have changed since king solomon's day. the art of printing has been discovered. now it would be possible to make not merely one copy but thousands of copies, not only of the sacred books of the jews in the time of solomon, but of the entire bible as we have it to-day. not in the months required by the jewish scribes, but in a single month, thousands of copies of the whole bible could be printed from the type set in a single establishment in boston, new york, or philadelphia. surely, before the art of printing one might truly say, "of making books there is no end." but to-day our modern press sends out its volumes by millions, so that no longer is there any truth in this apparently wise statement of solomon. it was true in his day, but times have changed. two visitors were wending their way through machinery hall at the centennial exhibition in philadelphia in . clatter, clatter, clatter--clatter, clatter, clatter--jigger, jigger, jigger--jigger, jigger, jigger. what was that great machine that they were approaching? it was the walter press, invented in london for the london _times_,--"the thunderer." well, well! the press does thunder, literally, does it not? it was printing that day's issue of the new york _times_, and there were coming from that press about twelve thousand copies of the double-size sheet in an hour. well might it make a racket if it accomplished such a work as that. after the visitors were done admiring it they passed on, and a little beyond came suddenly upon another printing press which was doing its work in comparative silence. before them stood a double hoe perfecting press, printing the philadelphia _times_, turning off thirty thousand copies per hour. these came out from the machine, folded ready for the wrappers or for the newsboy to take upon his arm and run out into the street to sell! so marvelous was the work of the american press. the original invention was surprising, but the progress that has been made in making type, setting it, electrotyping and inking, and making paper, as well as in the presswork, is beyond the power of description. there are vague, indefinite stories of printing by the chinese a thousand years before christ. the greeks and romans made metal stamps with characters engraved in relief. it was not, however, until about the middle of the fifteenth century that movable types were made with which books could be printed. the period between and witnessed a rapid advance of civilization in europe. it was marked by a great revival of classical learning and art, and announced the dawn of modern civilization. at that time europe began to come out into the light of reason, learning, and both civil and religious liberty. the mariner's compass had been invented; gunpowder had been discovered; and now the art of printing came into use. it would seem that no one man invented this art in the way that stephenson invented the locomotive and whitney the cotton gin. it grew up, one man doing a little, and another something more, until the system was brought to its present wonderful efficiency. it has been said that coster of haarlem, holland, invented wooden types about and metal types a little later. about john faust did a little printing, and others also have claimed the invention. john gutenberg is the only claimant who is known to have received honor during his life time as the true inventor. the evidence would seem to show that he was engaged in his secret process before the year . he certainly had a printing office in at mentz. about this time faust came into possession of this printing office and managed it until his death. among the earliest books printed were, "letters of indulgence," two editions of the bible, and a latin dictionary. john baskerville, an englishman, devoted his life and fortune to the improvement of printing. he was born in and died in . he published an edition of vergil in royal quarto, which was then and is still considered a wonderful specimen of beautiful printing. his english bible, book of common prayer, and editions of various classics are still admired and greatly sought. a baskerville classic is difficult to find in these days and it commands a high price; when one is found it shows great skill, judgment, and taste. baskerville made types much superior in distinctness and elegance to any that had previously been used. he improved greatly the lines of the letters, their style and appearance, making them as artistic as possible. to this end he planned in detail the style of all type which he used. he experimented also in the manufacture of ink to get that which had the most permanent color. he superintended the manufacture of the paper he used in order to obtain a finished surface best adapted to receive the impressions of the type. printing in america during the colonial days was subject to much difficulty. the first printing press in our country was set up at cambridge in the house of the president of harvard college, rev. henry dunster, in . eliot's bible in the indian language was printed upon this press between and . this same printing establishment is still in existence and has been known for many years as the university press. the first bible printed in america in any european language was a german bible issued in by christopher sower in germantown, pennsylvania. this was a wonderful work for those early days. it was a large quarto bible, consisting of , pages, and it took four years to complete the printing of it. [illustration: a franklin press.] how quaint the early printing press would appear to us of to-day! it was used with very little change for one hundred and fifty years. the "forms" of type were placed upon wood or stone beds surrounded by frames called "coffins," moved in and out by hand with great labor, and after each impression the platen which had pressed the paper down upon the type had to be screwed up again with a bar. the presses which benjamin franklin used were made with wooden framework of the simplest possible construction. iron frames were first used in england just one hundred years ago. franklin, in his autobiography, tells the story of his attempt to set up a printing establishment in philadelphia. at first he found it difficult to obtain any work, but finally he was given the job of printing forty sheets of a "history of the friends." the price offered was low, but franklin and his partner, meredith, decided to accept it as a beginning. franklin set up the type for a sheet each day, while meredith "worked it off at the press" the next day. the type had to be distributed every evening in order that it might be ready for the next day's composition. therefore it was often late at night before franklin finished his day's task, perhaps eleven o'clock or even later. other little jobs came in to delay the printers, but franklin was determined to do a sheet a day of the history. one night, just as his work was done, one of the forms was accidentally broken, and two pages "reduced to pi." franklin, late as it was, distributed the pi and composed the form again before going to bed. such industry and perseverance were sure to bring success in the end. though, in the clubs and markets, every one was saying that the establishment must fail, since the two other printers in town had barely enough to do, yet dr. baird was nearer right; he used to say: "the industry of that franklin is superior to any i ever saw of the kind; i see him at work when i go home from the club, and he is at work again before his neighbors are out of bed." to-day we have a great variety of printing presses which embody both science and art in skillful fashion. these range from the smallest size of hand presses, through numberless grades, varying in size, strength, power, rapidity, and ease of running, to the modern newspaper press and folder and the wonderful color printing press. one of the newspaper presses will print at one impression, from a single set of stereotype plates, papers of four, six, eight, ten, twelve, fourteen, or sixteen pages, at the rate of twelve thousand per hour, all cut at the top, pasted, and folded, with the supplement inserted at its proper place. with duplicate sets of plates, it will print sets of four, six, or eight page papers at the rate of twenty-four thousand per hour. let us look for a moment at the method of inking the type. until a comparatively recent date the inking was all done by hand, by means of an inking pad. the ink is now spread over the type with almost perfect regularity by means of flexible rollers. great improvements have been made in typesetting. several late inventions largely take the place of the old-fashioned setting by hand. one of these which is much used in newspaper work, and to some extent upon books and magazines, is called the linotype. by pressing the key of the proper letter upon a keyboard arranged something like a typewriter, the letter is pushed down, and when a line of letters and words has been completed, and the words properly spaced, this matrix is pressed down upon the melted type metal. the line is already stereotyped for use. the recent processes of stereotyping and electrotyping have added greatly to the cheapness, accuracy, and beauty of printing. nearly all books formerly printed from movable type are now either stereotyped or electrotyped, so that edition after edition may be printed from the same plates. the art of printing has been called the "divine art." it is "the art preservative of all arts." to a large extent all civilization depends upon the art of printing. chapter iii. the postal system. we have already seen that letters may be written and sent by mail to distant countries or cities. to send a letter to any place in our own country will cost us but two cents; to any country in europe, but five cents. indeed, we may send a letter to any one of the countries within the postal league,--and this includes most of the countries of asia and south america, some parts of africa and many islands of the sea,--for the same simple postage of five cents. but the time was when nothing of the kind could have been done. in the "long ago" there was no post-office system in any country; no mails, regular or irregular, were sent from one place to another. the modern postal system evidently grew out of the practice among kings of sending couriers to carry messages from one to another. in the early times some powerful rulers organized a staff of government couriers. after a time it came about that these government couriers began to carry letters from private individuals of high rank to their friends. so, in the process of time, this grew into a permanent system; that is, the government couriers were accustomed to carry private correspondence as well as the missives of the king. this transmission of letters by special couriers sent out by the king dates back to very early times. explorations in egypt have brought to light specimens of these letters dating back to a period of two thousand and even three thousand years ago. upon what do you suppose those letters, sent so long ago and preserved to the present time, were written? they could not have been written upon paper, for paper was not known in those days, and could not have been preserved through so many ages; neither were they written upon parchment or upon the skins of animals. these letters which have stood the test of time for twenty or twenty-five centuries were written upon tablets of clay or of stone. the development of the modern postal system seems to have been begun in great britain. some of the account books of the kings of england who lived about six hundred years ago have been preserved to the present time. in these are found records of letter-carrying on regular lines and at stated intervals. from this beginning the english postal system increased in efficiency and importance; when the colonists came to america they early made arrangements for the carrying of letters. the records of the general court of massachusetts show that in it was enacted "that notice be given richard fairbanks that his house in boston is to be the place appointed for all letters which are brought from beyond the seas or are to be sent thither to be left with him, and he is to care for them, that they are to be delivered or sent according to the directions; he is allowed for every letter a penny, and must answer all mistakes from his own neglect of this kind." in the colonial law of virginia required "that every planter was to provide a messenger to convey the dispatches as they arrived, to the next plantation and so on, paying and forfeiting a hogshead of tobacco for default." in it was agreed between some of the colonies along the coast that a post be sent once a month from new york to boston. how should we be able to-day to transact business under such conditions? now we have many mails a day between these two cities. gradually the postal system was extended, and in , colonel spotswood of virginia was made postmaster-general of the colonies by the british government. in , dr. franklin was made postmaster-general. franklin was very efficient in this office; he visited nearly all of the offices in the country in person, and introduced many improvements. in , by his loyalty to the colonies, franklin incurred the enmity of the british government and was dismissed from the office. the next year, however, he was appointed postmaster-general by the continental congress. in , regular rates of letter postage were fixed by congress, based on the distance to be sent. the writer remembers that when he was a boy he received a letter from his mother fifteen miles away for which he had to pay six cents postage. at another time a letter was received from his sister who was a little over thirty miles away, for which he had to pay eight cents; and when a schoolmate who lived more than sixty miles distant sent him a letter, he had to pay the postmaster ten cents in order to get it. these letters were written on coarse, heavy paper with quill pens. the letter was folded, and the fold of one side was tucked into the fold of the other side so as to leave but one thickness of paper outside of that fold. the letter was sealed by a wafer or by sealing wax dropped upon the paper where the two edges came together, and stamped with a seal. on the opposite side the letter was properly addressed. there were no envelopes in those days. see what changes have taken place within the memory of persons still living. to-day we write a letter, fold it, insert it in an envelope, and place on it a two-cent stamp; the carrier comes to the house, puts the letter in his pouch, carries it to the post office, and it is sent to california or any of the united states, mexico or canada, and delivered to the person to whom it is addressed. postage stamps were not used on mail matter by government direction until the year , and it was not until that the government issued the first stamps for general use. prior to that, however, individual postmasters, on their own responsibility, had printed and sold postage stamps. within a few years their use became quite general in many countries. [illustration: postage stamps.] about the year , it was noticed that stamps of different colors and design were received in the mails from various parts of the world. then the idea of collecting stamps came into vogue. after a time children and young people generally began to collect and to study stamps. every minute variation of paper, with style of printing, gum, water mark, and other differences was considered as making a different issue, and in some cases as many as fifty distinct styles of a single stamp have been collected. an extra fee of ten cents secures the immediate special delivery by messenger of any letter thus sent. merchandise parcels can be sent as well as letters and papers. there is a money order system and at the present time a great deal of thought is put upon the question of post-office savings banks, which have already been successfully established in great britain and other countries of europe. by the constitution of the united states, congress has power "to establish post-offices and post-roads." before roads were common between one state and another, the mail was carried on horseback. later, mail wagons were used to convey the mails from one office to another. as stagecoaches multiplied they were used as mail wagons, the government paying the stage company a sum of money for carrying the mail pouches. [illustration: assorting mail on the train.] the general introduction of railroads modified this system of mail carriage. almost every railroad has become a postal road, the mail being carried upon its trains. most of the trains upon the main lines of railroads have each a postal car fitted up with the proper conveniences for receiving and delivering the mail at the various stations and sorting it while the train is moving. suppose a mail pouch to be received at new haven; before reaching bridgeport its contents are sorted; all that is to go to bridgeport is put into a separate pouch and dropped off at that place; that which is to go to greenwich is put into another pouch and left there, and so on. the mail of new york city is put into various pouches according to its destination. the mail matter for the sub-offices, like station a and station b, is put into separate pouches and sent from the railroad station on d street directly to these offices, while that for the central office is so sorted that there is no delay in sending it out after its arrival at the office. the letters for lock boxes are placed together by sections, while those for carriers are put up in divisions so as to be delivered at once to the several carriers. meantime mail matter which is to go beyond new york is put into proper pouches so that one can be dropped off at trenton, another at philadelphia, and so on. it will readily be seen that vast improvements have been made in postal arrangements. the condition of the united states postal system has been greatly improved each year. it seems almost marvelous that the mail service is so reliable and that the transmission of mail matter is so expeditious and satisfactory. if mail matter should happen to be lost, which is very rarely the case, the facilities for finding it are sometimes quite surprising, as the following incident will show. a young lady in iowa sent by mail a piece of crocheted edging to her cousin in dorchester, which is a part of boston, massachusetts. the contents slipped out somewhere and the wrapper was delivered to its proper address, but without the edging. a letter had already been received in which the sending of the article was mentioned, so that the receiver knew from whom the wrapper came. she notified the sub-postmaster in charge of the dorchester office, and he began the system of tracing by means of blanks prepared for that purpose. he wrote out the description of the article and the facts of the case, and sent these blanks to the postmaster at boston. the boston postmaster forwarded them to chicago; from chicago the blanks were sent to the several offices west of chicago until they reached the point of departure, in iowa. no trace was found to answer the description, and the blanks came back to chicago. they were then sent eastward. at cleveland the missing article was found and forwarded to the postmaster at chicago, whence the blanks had last been sent out. the chicago postmaster forwarded the same to boston with the missing article; from boston the description and the merchandise were sent to dorchester. meantime the family had moved to salem, and the dorchester postmaster forwarded them to salem. the receiver secured the missing article and receipted for the same, while the description with its various entries of travel, from dorchester to boston, from boston to chicago, from chicago to the various offices in iowa, then back to chicago, thence to the different offices as far as cleveland, and then from cleveland to chicago, boston, dorchester, and salem, furnished a document of considerable interest. in there were post offices and , miles of post roads. that year the number of letters and papers delivered did not exceed , , . in , one hundred years afterward, there were more than , post offices and more than , mail routes. during that year more than , , , pieces of mail matter were handled. the receipts and expenditures of the post-office department in the united states amount annually to about $ , , . this résumé of the postal service plainly shows the energy, enterprise, and intelligence of our people, the success attained by our government, and the tremendous growth and development of our country. chapter iv. signaling. the transmission of letters from one point to another always requires time. even when a letter is dropped into the post office it will not go until the next regular mail. it was long ago seen that occasions frequently arose when it was necessary to send messages quickly. this was especially important in times of war, when each army desired to know immediately the movements of the enemy. this necessity led to various devices for transmitting messages instantaneously. any form of signaling would be satisfactory if the signals were visible to the eye of the distant observer. the earliest method of signaling was the use of the beacon fire or the sending of messages by light. in the early colonial period in this country, during the anxious times of indian hostilities, beacon poles were here and there set up and from them large kettles were suspended which held combustible matter. the burning of this material conveyed the intelligence that danger was at hand. one of the earliest beacon poles was erected on beacon hill, in boston, about . a watchman was constantly at the place to give the signal on the approach of danger. that beacon pole was a tall mast, firmly supported, about seventy feet in height. tree nails were driven into it to enable the watchman to ascend, and near its top an iron crane projected which supported an iron skeleton frame. in this frame was placed a barrel of tar to be fired when the occasion required the signal. this beacon was more than two hundred feet above the sea level, and the light of it, therefore, could be seen for a great distance inland. many of the early settlements in new england were made upon the tops of hills in order that the people might the more quickly and easily see the approach of indians and signal the news to other settlements by bonfires. [illustration: signaling by beacon fires.] a second method of signaling was by the use of the semaphore. this was invented by claude chappe and was adopted by the french government in . it consists of an upright post, which supports a horizontal bar or arm, which can be put at various angles. in order to carry out this system of signaling, stations must previously be agreed upon and signal officers constantly on duty. if the intelligence was to be conveyed to a considerable distance intermediate stations must be had. the second station received the signal from the first and transmitted it to the third, and so on. this proved to be a very difficult operation and was never extensively used. a third and successful form of signaling was by the motion of flags. during our civil war the army made much use of military signals. the system was devised by major myer and was continued through the war, not only in the army but on naval vessels. when the stations were less than five miles apart signaling was considered to be at very short range. messages have been sent ten miles by means of a pocket handkerchief attached to a twelve-foot rod. with the regular flags and staffs used by the signal corps during the war, signals were often read twenty-five miles away, and it is said that single words have been read at a distance of forty miles. in the early spring of general peck was in command of the union forces at suffolk, virginia. he had under him about ten thousand men and had thoroughly fortified the place by a connected system of forts, redoubts, and breast-works. his outmost signal station was placed on an elevated plateau across the nansemond river. this station was made by sawing off the top of a tall pine tree and placing thereon a small platform surrounded by a railing. the signal officer would tie his horse at the foot of the tree and mount to the platform by a rope ladder. early one morning in march, this signal officer suddenly observed the head of a column of troops emerging from the woods in the rear. this was the advance guard of two confederate corps under general longstreet. instantly he caught up his signal flag and as quickly as possible signaled to the town the approach of the enemy. picking up his signal book he hurried down the ladder, mounted his horse and galloped away. before he could reach his saddle, however, the confederates were within rifle range and fired at him. they did not succeed in hitting him and he escaped safely to his friends. the signal had been seen and was quickly repeated to all parts of the fortified town. the drums instantly beat the long roll and, within five minutes from the time his signal was given, and before general longstreet could swing out his light battery and open fire, the entire federal force was under arms and the artillery in the nearest battery had opened a raking fire. the briskness of this fire from the federal battery soon obliged longstreet to withdraw his forces to the cover of the woods. had it not been for the promptness of the signal officer it is possible that the town might have been captured. a notable use of this system of army signals occurred in the campaign of general miles against the apaches in new mexico and arizona in . he established a system of thirteen signal stations in that country, over which, during a period of four months, more than eighteen hundred messages were sent. the savages were surprised and confounded by the way intelligence of their movements became known hundreds of miles distant. as early as moses g. farmer introduced a successful method of signaling which afterward was employed by the officers of the united states coast survey on lake superior. this system was by means of mirrors which were able to reflect the sunlight between stations ninety miles apart. this method is called the heliographic system. the french have used it among the islands of the indian ocean where the stations are on mountain peaks sometimes miles apart. even this long-range signaling has been surpassed by our own signal corps, which has succeeded in sending messages by our method from mount uncompahgre in colorado to mount ellen in utah, a distance of miles. during the siege of paris, messages by the use of the calcium light, concentrated and directed by lenses, were sent from one point to another. a very unique form of signaling was employed by new york state at the opening of the erie canal, in . the cannon, which had been captured by commodore perry at the time of his famous victory on lake erie, were placed at intervals along the line of the canal. when the first canal boat started from buffalo, the first cannon was fired. when the sound was heard at the second cannon, that was discharged; and so on, the entire length of the canal. two hours after the start at buffalo the news had reached new york. all these various methods of communication at long range have proved more or less objectionable and unsatisfactory. it was natural, therefore, that as soon as it was known that electricity could be conducted by wires from one place to another, experiments should be begun in the hope of finding some possible means of conveying intelligence by it. perhaps the earliest suggestion was in a letter published in _the scots magazine_, of february, . the letter was signed "c. m.", which probably meant charles morrison, a young scotch surgeon. he proposed to use as many insulated conductors as there were letters in the alphabet. each wire was to represent one letter only, and the message would be sent by charging the several wires in succession so that the operator in receiving it would be obliged to notice the order of movement among the wires. from that simple beginning inventors proceeded to suggest first one thing and then another, but they found so many difficulties that it seemed impossible to overcome them all. chapter v. the telegraph. [illustration: electric wires.] on the second day of april, , in the city of new york, the life of a benefactor of his race, an aged man who had seen more than fourscore years of mingled trial and triumph, was ended. that man was prof. samuel finley breese morse, the inventor of the electric telegraph. his name is as widely known the world over as that of washington, or cæsar, or aristotle. his long life had been extremely checkered. he had passed through troubles, trials, anxieties, disappointments, bereavements; he had been subject to persecutions, losses, poverty, toil, discouragements; he had met with successes, gains, wealth, luxury, honors, fame; and finally the homage of republics, kingdoms, empires had been laid at his feet. he was never cast down, never unduly elated. he bore all his poverty and disappointments and wore all his honors and wealth with the "grace of a christian and the calmness of a philosopher." professor morse was born at the foot of breed's hill in charlestown, massachusetts, april th, . he was the oldest of three brothers. his father was a very distinguished man in his day; for more than thirty years the pastor of a church in charlestown, a noted preacher, a good historian, the author of many books, and, particularly, the father of the science of geography in the united states. professor morse inherited from both his father and his mother those traits of character which enabled him to succeed in his great life work, in spite of discouragements, obstacles, and opposition. his ancestors were all noted for their "intelligence, energy, original thinking, perseverance, and integrity." how we would like to step into the little schoolroom and see samuel at his first school. he was four years of age. his teacher was known as "old ma'am rand," an invalid who could not leave her chair. she governed the uneasy little urchins with a long rattan that would reach across the small room where she kept her school. at seven years of age samuel was sent to andover to a preparatory school, kept by mr. foster; here he fitted for phillips academy and, in that famous institution, under the direction of mark newman, he prepared for yale college, where he was graduated in . while in college he was under the instruction of jeremiah day in natural philosophy and paid great attention to the subject of electricity, getting everything that was known about it at that time. professor day said: "morse was often present in my laboratory during my preparatory arrangements and experiments, and thus was made acquainted with them." on leaving college morse had a burning ambition to be a portrait painter. he put himself under the instruction of washington allston, and went with him to england to pursue his favorite study. is it not a little singular that morse, who invented the telegraph, was a student under allston, and that robert fulton, who invented the american steamboat, was a student under west, another famous american painter? one day mr. allston introduced young morse to benjamin west, whose fame at that time was as wide as the world of art. west was in his studio painting his "christ rejected." after a time he began a critical examination of mr. morse's hands and at length said: "let me tie you with this cord, and take that place while i paint the hands of our saviour." morse of course complied; west finished his work and, releasing him, said, "you may say now, if you please, you had a hand in this picture." morse had many interesting experiences in england during his four years' study under allston. he returned to america in , and from that time for about fifteen years devoted himself to painting and inventing. he was for some time professor of the fine arts in the university of the city of new york, and during all these years he paid much attention to the study of electricity. after three years spent in europe, he returned in on the packet ship _sully_. in the early part of the voyage, one day at the dinner table, the conversation turned to the subject of electro-magnetism. professor morse remarked: "if the presence of electricity can be made visible in any part of the circuit, i see no reason why intelligence may not be transmitted by electricity." his mind could think of nothing else; this one idea had taken complete possession of his soul; all that he had learned in former years, his experiments with professor day at yale college, and his later studies, were all revived and drawn upon for ways and means to accomplish the thing he had in mind. he withdrew from the table and went upon deck. he was in mid-ocean, the sky everywhere above him, the sea everywhere below him. as the lightning comes out of the east and shines unto the west, so swift and so far was that instrument to work which was taking shape in his mind. he could not fail, for patience, perseverance, and hope were hereditary traits in his character. he was just at the maturity of manhood, forty-one years of age; from that time this one idea absorbed his mind. all his powers were concentrated upon this one subject, the electric telegraph. now began a series of experiences such as probably no other man ever passed through. scarcely did any one ever suffer so much, endure so much, fail so many times to accomplish his darling object, as did morse. he completed his invention; he perfected it. he devised his alphabet consisting of long and short marks and dots; he obtained a patent for it; but he had not the money to put the invention in operation. years of trouble and even abject poverty followed. he was so reduced at one time that he was without food for twenty-four hours. he applied to congress again and again for a grant to enable him to build and put in operation a trial line between baltimore and washington. on the morning of the th of march, , as professor morse came down to breakfast, at his hotel in washington, a young lady met him and said: "i have come to congratulate you, sir." "for what, my dear friend?" asked the professor. "on the passage of your bill." that bill was for the appropriation by congress of $ , for the purpose of "constructing a line of electric-magnetic telegraph" under the direction of professor morse. the bill had passed the house some days before. it had been favorably reported to the senate, but there were a hundred and forty bills before it upon the calendar which were to be taken up in their regular order. professor morse had remained in the senate chamber till late in the evening. his friends informed him that it was impossible for the bill to be reached, as the senate was to adjourn at midnight. he had, therefore, retired to his hotel thoroughly discouraged. imagine then, if you can, his surprise and his joy when miss ellsworth the daughter of his friend, hon. h. l. ellsworth, of connecticut, the commissioner of patents, told him that in the closing moments of the session the bill had passed without a division. [illustration: morse hears of his success.] he had invented the recording electric telegraph eleven years before on board the packet ship _sully_, upon his return voyage from europe. he had spent eleven years in perfecting his plans, and in striving to secure the means for placing this great invention before the american people. during this time he had converted all his property into money and used all that money in pushing the enterprise. his only hope now was the bill before congress. that bill had passed! with streaming eyes professor morse thanked miss ellsworth for her joyous announcement, and promised her that she should dictate the first message which should be sent over the wires. and so it came to pass that on the th of may, , these words furnished by miss ellsworth were telegraphed by professor morse from the capitol at washington, to his friend and assistant, mr. alfred vail, at baltimore, and immediately repeated back again: "what hath god wrought!" well may we believe that the inventor spoke from the heart when he said years later: "no words could have been selected more expressive of the disposition of my own mind at that time, to ascribe all the honor to him to whom it truly belongs." a singular circumstance brought this invention to the attention of the people of the whole country as hardly anything else could have done. the national democratic convention was in session at baltimore. they had unanimously nominated james k. polk for the presidency. they then nominated silas wright as their candidate for vice-president. this information was immediately telegraphed by mr. vail to professor morse and at once communicated by him to mr. wright, then in the senate chamber. a few minutes later the convention was astonished by receiving a telegram from mr. wright, declining the nomination. the members were incredulous and declared that it was a trick of mr. wright's enemies. they voted to send a committee to washington to interview mr. wright, and adjourned until the next morning. on the return of this committee the truth of the message was corroborated, and thus this new telegraph, just completed, with a line just open for public patronage, was advertised through the delegates of this national convention to the people of every state in the union. astonishment was the sensation of the hour. the work bordered upon the miraculous. ordinarily the motto is true that "to see is to believe," but this result staggered everybody. although the invention was complete and now in practical operation, yet professor morse's trials were not over. he received the congratulations of his friends, but he was also brought to the notice of his enemies. let us pass over these trials and give attention to the more pleasant duty of considering his triumphs. the telegraph rapidly came into general use between the great cities of the country. nor was its use confined to america; almost immediately it was successfully introduced into the various countries of europe. in , the supreme court of the united states decided unanimously in favor of professor morse on all points involving his right to the claim of having been the original inventor of the electro-magnetic telegraph. in , yale college conferred upon him the degree of doctor of laws (ll.d.). he was made a member of various learned societies in france, belgium, and the united states. he received a diamond decoration from the sultan of turkey, a gold snuff box containing the prussian gold medal for scientific merit, the great gold medal of arts and science from würtemberg, and the great gold medal of science and art from the emperor of austria. other honors were conferred upon him by denmark, spain, portugal, italy, and great britain. at the instance of napoleon iii., emperor of the french, representatives from various countries met in paris in and decided upon a collective testimonial to professor morse, and the result of their deliberations was a vote of , francs. no invention in ancient or modern times has wrought such a revolution--a revolution in all business, in commerce, trade, manufacturing and the mechanic arts, in politics, government, and in religious affairs. it is not given to mortal man to comprehend the greatness, to duly appreciate the grandeur, or to measure the utility of this remarkable invention. over the mountains, through the valleys, under the seas flies the electric current, conveying all-important items of news from place to place, from country to country, from continent to continent. "this electric chain from east to west more than mere metal, more than mammon can, binds us together--kinsmen, in the best; brethren as one; and looking far beyond the world in an electric union blest." chapter vi. the atlantic cable. the growth of the telegraph was very much like that of the railroad. in , the first line was opened, as we have seen, between baltimore and washington, a distance of forty miles. within a few years lines were extended to the principal cities of the united states. in , the morse telegraph was introduced into germany and rapidly spread over the entire continent of europe. for the most part the wires were placed by the side of the railroad tracks,--wherever the railroad penetrated the telegraph went also. before many years had passed time was in a sense obliterated. whatever happened in new york might be immediately known in chicago. incidents that took place in new orleans might be narrated in boston almost as soon as they occurred. london and rome, madrid and st. petersburg, were united by the lightning rapidity of the telegraphic current. meanwhile london and new york were as far apart as ever. news could be conveyed between the two hemispheres only by the comparatively slow-moving steamers. the next step in the development of communication must be the connecting of europe with america by a telegraph wire. the year before the passage of the act by which congress provided professor morse with the means for completing the first telegraph line, he had stretched a wire under the water from castle garden, new york city, to governor's island in the harbor. he had thus proved that telegraph messages could be sent under water. ten years later a "submarine telegraph" was constructed, connecting england with the continent of europe. other short submarine cables were laid and successfully operated. to undertake, however, to lay a cable from europe to america, thousands of miles long and hundreds of fathoms below the surface of the ocean, was an entirely different matter. a few enthusiastic men, among them professor morse, believed that it could be done, but the majority of people viewed it as an impossibility. was there any other way to connect the two worlds by an electric wire? might it not be possible to build a telegraph line from europe, starting from some point in russia, across northern asia, to the behring straits? might not a comparatively short cable be laid to russian america (for alaska had not then been sold to the united states), which could connect with a telegraph line to be erected across the continent to new york city? think of the magnitude of this proposition! in place of laying a submarine cable across the atlantic ocean it was proposed to traverse the entire circuit of the earth, except the atlantic, by a telegraph line. it was proposed to construct across the wilds of siberia, where no railroad had been built, a telegraph line thousands of miles in length; and, besides laying a cable, to build another line of great length from the aleutian islands to the pacific coast of the united states, and thence across the rockies, where at that time there was no railroad. the undertaking was a great one, but a company was formed for the purpose of erecting a russian-american telegraph. experienced men were selected from english and american telegraphers and sent to siberia to push the work. the prospects of success for the great enterprise were favorable when the news arrived that the long-talked-of atlantic cable was at last laid and in complete working order. the russian-american telegraph could not hope to compete with the cable, and the project was abandoned. to cyrus w. field belongs the honor of pushing forward to successful completion the atlantic cable. at the early age of fifteen cyrus left the parsonage at stockbridge, connecticut, the home of his father, rev. david dudley field, for new york. on arriving in the city he obtained employment as an errand boy in the dry-goods establishment of a. t. stewart. three years later, when he decided to give up his place as clerk in the store, the proprietor showed his appreciation of the boy's merits by urging him to remain, making him a liberal offer if he would do so. he decided to make a change, however, and was soon engaged with a brother in lee, massachusetts. when young field was twenty years of age he went into business for himself, and for the next thirteen years was known as one of new york's successful merchants. he then retired from active business, but found it a difficult task to do nothing. after a long voyage to south america, he returned to new york, where he gladly welcomed the opportunity that then came to busy himself. the newfoundland electric telegraph company had been engaged for a year in the work of erecting a line on that island, preparatory to connecting it with the mainland by a cable. the company was compelled to stop work, however, for lack of the necessary means to continue. the leading member of the company, frederick n. gisborne, appealed to mr. field for material assistance. after several interviews, in the course of which he became deeply interested in the scheme, mr. field came to the conclusion not only that the plan of connecting newfoundland with the united states was feasible, but also that newfoundland was the best starting point for a cable to ireland. with characteristic energy mr. field went at once to work. he formed a new company and obtained extensive privileges from the governments of newfoundland, prince edwards island, and the state of maine. many months were spent in erecting the land telegraph across newfoundland, over wild marsh and waste moor, rocks, hills, and forests. a cable, obtained in england, was unsuccessfully laid across the gulf of st. lawrence in . the next year a second attempt was successful. the preliminary work was now completed. more means and more influence were needed. mr. field organized in london the atlantic telegraph company, and showed his own faith by personally subscribing for one-quarter of the stock. the governments of great britain and the united states liberally aided the new company and furnished ships for laying down the cable. on the th of august, , the _niagara_ and the _agamemnon_ sailed from ireland, each carrying , miles of cable. the _niagara_ began paying out her line and all went well for three days. at nine o'clock on the evening of the tenth, however, the cable ceased working. three hours later the electric current returned, to the intense relief of all; but before morning came the cry, "stop her! back her! the cable has parted!" with flags at half-mast the ships returned to ireland. half a million dollars had been lost already. disheartened, but not discouraged, the company voted to increase its capital and try again the next year. this time the two steamers sailed directly to mid-ocean, spliced the two parts of the cable, and sailed away from each other, the _agamemnon_ for ireland and the _niagara_ for newfoundland. on the th of august the extremities of the cable were connected with the instruments and the work was done. in the space of thirty-five minutes there was flashed under the ocean the message: "europe and america are united by telegraph. glory to god in the highest; on earth peace; good will toward men." [illustration: laying an ocean cable.] messages and replies from the queen to the president of the united states and from the mayor of london to the mayor of new york followed. the american people were wild with enthusiasm; they declared the atlantic cable to be the greatest achievement of the age, and they heaped boundless praise upon the head of the persistent and courageous field. eighteen days afterward, the signals became unintelligible and the first atlantic cable ceased to work. was all the time and money so far spent thrown away? no! for this first experiment paved the way for another and successful attempt. it is said also that one message, sent during these few days, saved the commercial world no less a sum than two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. for the time being, however, the project of an atlantic cable was allowed to remain quiet. [illustration: the great eastern.] mr. field was financially ruined. the civil war in the united states occupied the thoughts of all for several years. but in time the company was ready to try again. a newly prepared cable was made, the twenty-three hundred miles of which weighed more than four thousand tons. the largest vessel in the world, the _great eastern_, was employed to carry and lay it. on july d, , the steamer started from ireland and continued on its westward course until august d; then the cable parted, more than a thousand miles from the starting point. nine days were spent in attempts to grapple for the cable, but all in vain. the next year the _great eastern_ again set sail, with a new cable and with sufficient wire to complete the cable of the previous year, if possible. in fourteen days the steamer entered the harbor in newfoundland. two months later the same steamer again reached newfoundland, having captured the missing end of the other wire, thereby completing two cables from europe to america. july th, , was a joyous day in the life of cyrus w. field. for thirteen years he had thought of little else but the submarine cable. failure after failure had not discouraged him; loss of property only stimulated him to further efforts. now success had come. the new cable was more substantial than the other of eight years before. that had failed, but this would succeed. it did succeed. from that day to this telegraphic communication between europe and america has been constant. submarine cables are now in extensive operation in all parts of the world. more than half a dozen cross the atlantic, and lines have been constructed from england to india, from india to australia, and from the united states to mexico and south america. at the present time there are perhaps two hundred cables belonging to companies, and about five hundred belonging to government systems. these cables, all told, cover a distance of nearly a hundred thousand miles. a recent incident is told that shows something of the greatness of the telegraph. in june, , a great celebration took place in london, in honor of the sixty years that queen victoria had been upon the british throne. the queen rode in a procession through streets packed with millions of people. just as she left the palace she pressed an electric button. instantly this message was sent to her colonies all over the world: "from my heart i thank my beloved people. may god bless them. victoria, r. i." to forty different points in her empire sped the electric message. in sixteen minutes a reply came from ottawa in canada; then one by one answers came in from more remote provinces; until, before the queen reached london bridge, the cape of good hope, the gold coast of africa, and the great continent of australia had sent responses to her message. chapter vii. the telephone. when the telegraph was invented, years ago, it seemed little less than a miracle that a message could be dictated in one city and received almost instantaneously in another city far distant from the sender. scientists, however, began at once on the invention of something more wonderful. the telegraph lacks in one respect. by it messages must be sent exactly as dictated and cannot be corrected until the reply is received. in a sense, sending and receiving messages by telegraph is a form of conversation, but a conversation at arm's-length. to carry on a real conversation at long distances would be a great advance. an instrument prepared for this purpose would be called a telephone. in alexander graham bell invented the first successful electric telephone. this was exhibited at salem, massachusetts, and at philadelphia at the centennial exhibition, and a patent for it was obtained. the apparatus of bell's telephone is very simple, and practically consists of four parts: the battery, the wire which runs from the speaker to the hearer, a diaphragm against which the vibrations of the air produced by the voice of the speaker strike, and another diaphragm at the other end of the wire which reproduces similar vibrations and sends them to the ear of the listener. elisha gray of boston made a similar invention and applied for a patent two hours after bell's application was filed. the invention of mr. bell has proved a decided success. all telephonic operations, since this invention, have been based upon the instrument which he patented in . mr. bell was the son of a distinguished scotch educator, alexander melville bell. the father is noted for the invention of a new method for improving impediments in speech. this system of instruction is called "bell's visible speech." it is used with great success in teaching deaf-mutes to speak. [illustration: a telephone.] his son alexander was born in edinburgh in and was educated at the university of edinburgh. he removed to london when he was twenty years of age and was for a time in the university there. three years later he went to canada with his father, and at the age of twenty-five took up his residence in the united states, and became professor of vocal physiology in boston university. he had been in this country but three years when he made his great invention, and its complete success gave him immense wealth. later he invented the "photophone," in which a vibratory beam of light is substituted for a wire in conveying speech. this instrument has attracted much attention but has not proved of practical use. professor bell is a member of various learned societies and has published many scientific papers. his present home is in washington. within ten years the art of telephoning has rapidly developed. this has stimulated inventions and brought into use a vast number of special contrivances for local and long-distance transmission. the principal inventors of these new contrivances are bell, berliner, edison, hughes, dolbear, gray, blake, and peirce. nearly all of the telephone business of our country is carried on under licenses from the american bell telephone company. the telephone lines at present in the united states would aggregate a distance of more than six hundred thousand miles, and there are more than half a million instruments in our country alone. the longest telephone line extends from portland, maine, via boston, new york, and chicago, to milwaukee, a distance of more than thirteen hundred miles. [illustration: alexander bell using a long-distance telephone.] let us consider for a moment the wonders of this marvelous invention, as compared with another no less marvelous in its way. in anson burlingame was appointed by the chinese government special envoy to the united states and the great european governments, with power to frame treaties of friendship with those nations. this was an honor never before conferred on a foreigner. mr. burlingame accepted the appointment and, at the head of a large mission of distinguished chinese officials, arrived in this country early in , negotiated with our government the "burlingame treaty," proceeded the same year to england, thence to france, the next year to denmark, sweden, holland, and prussia, and finally reached russia early in . he died in st. petersburg after a few days' illness, on the d of february. now see what the telegraph did. his death occurred about half-past nine in the morning. as soon as possible the fact was telegraphed to our minister in paris. he forwarded the news to our minister in london; by him it was cabled across the atlantic, transmitted from the cable to washington and delivered to nathaniel p. banks, a member of the house of representatives from massachusetts. general banks read the dispatch to the house, and delivered offhand an extended eulogy upon the distinguished son of massachusetts. that speech of general banks was written out, sent to the telegraph office, transmitted by the electric current to the various cities of the country, put into type, printed in the evening newspapers, and the writer of this chapter read it at four o'clock in the afternoon of the same day that mr. burlingame died. this was done as early as . but what is that compared to the greater wonders of the telephone? that a man can "talk into" the little instrument, and his voice be heard and recognized, and his words understood, by his friend in a city five hundred or one thousand miles away, is indeed a miracle. consider for a moment what is done by means of the switchboard in the central telephone office of a great city. every one of the thousands of subscribers has his own instrument for transmitting and receiving messages. one of these subscribers rings a bell in his house or his business office which rings another bell at the central station; the attendant inquires "hello! what number?" and receives a reply, "four, naught, eight, tremont." the attendant by a simple switch, turned by a touch of the hand, makes the connection and rings the bell of that subscriber whose number is " tremont." number " tremont" steps to the instrument and in a quiet voice says "hello! who is it?" thus these two persons are placed in direct communication, and can talk with each other, back and forth, as long as they please. this conversation is carried on between two different sections of the city where these two men live, but the same conversation may with equal ease be carried on between boston and new york, between boston and washington, or between new york and chicago. thus time and distance are annihilated and the whole world stands, as it were, face to face. but the marvel does not end here. the above conversation is carried on by means of a continuous wire which runs from one place to the other. if there are parallel wires, strange to say, the vibrations carried on in the one wire are liable to create, by induction, similar vibrations in the parallel wire. here is an illustration: nearly twenty years ago, soon after the invention came into use, three gentlemen in providence, rhode island, put up a private line between their three houses, making a circuit. upon this line they carried on experiments and made a number of important discoveries. the evening was the time when they principally used their private telephone line. on a certain tuesday evening these three gentlemen, conversing one with another, suddenly found themselves listening to strains of music. all three of them heard the same thing: the sound of a cornet and of one or two other musical instruments; then singing and a soprano voice. they wrote down the names of the pieces that were sung and the tunes that were played upon the instruments. they had no knowledge of the source of these sounds. the next day, and for days following, these gentlemen went about the city inquiring of their friends everywhere if they knew of a concert on that tuesday night where such pieces were sung and such tunes were played. nobody had any knowledge of the affair. at length one of the gentlemen published an article in the providence _journal_, describing what he had heard through his telephone wire on that tuesday evening, giving the date, and asking any one who could inform him what the concert was and where it was, to give him the desired information. then it transpired that this concert was a telephonic experiment. the performers were at saratoga, new york, and they were connected by a telephone wire with friends in new york city. the experiment had plainly demonstrated that the sounds made in singing and in playing numerous instruments could be clearly understood, by means of the telephone, from saratoga to new york city. but it proved more than this. the vibrations in that telephone wire between saratoga and new york induced the same vibrations in the parallel wire of the western union telegraph company. these vibrations were continued through new york city to providence and onward. the private telephone line of these gentlemen was parallel to the wire of the western union company which had been thus affected, and these vibrations were picked off from the telegraph wire and conveyed by this parallel telephone wire to the receivers at these three houses. what will be the next wonderful invention? the telegraph transmits your thoughts and delivers them in writing; the telephone transmits your thoughts and delivers them to the ear by sounds. some day, perhaps, you may step into a cabinet in boston and have your photograph taken in new york city by aid of an electric wire, the telephote. just as the telephone transmits the sounds, the telephote may transmit the light and give not only light and shade, but the colors of the solar spectrum. chapter viii. conclusion. we have now considered six groups of topics connected with the growth and development of our country. we have looked into the houses of the indians and of the settlers in the colonial times, and into the larger and more elaborate homes of to-day. we have considered improved means of heating and better methods of lighting. we have noticed improvements in machinery for planting, cultivating, and harvesting the products of the soil. we have seen the great advance that has been made in the manufacture of our clothing, through improved cotton and woolen machinery and the sewing machine. we have traveled by land and by water, at home and abroad, on foot, on horseback, in stagecoaches, by canals, steamboats, and railroads. finally we have read and thought and studied about language, the printing press, our postal system, the telegraph and the telephone. we have seen our country when it was wholly east of the mississippi river, whereas now it is extended even to the great western ocean. a century ago our territory embraced about eight hundred thousand square miles; now it is nearly five times as great, with large areas of recently acquired spanish islands to be added to that. the population of the united states in was less than four millions; a hundred years later it was sixty-three millions. it is now probably between seventy and seventy-five millions. our exports then were about fifty million dollars in value; this year they are more than one thousand millions. a century since, we imported into this country goods to the value of about seventy million dollars. this was largely in excess of our exports. to-day our exports are of far greater value than our imports. at the beginning of our national government we were almost altogether engaged in the pursuits of agriculture. now our people are largely massed in cities and large towns, while our mechanical and manufacturing interests are of immense proportions. a hundred years ago the people speaking the seven principal languages of europe numbered about one hundred and fifty millions. to-day they number about four hundred millions. the present number is therefore almost three times that of a century ago. at that time the english-speaking people ranked fifth among the seven, and numbered but twenty millions. to-day they lead the list, and number one hundred and twenty millions; there are six times as many people to-day using the english language as there were a century ago. the inhabitants of our country outnumber all other english-speaking people in the whole world. our country occupies, all things considered, the best portion of the world. this includes the atlantic slope, the great mississippi basin, and the pacific slope, and our whole territory, except our new colonial possessions, lies within the north temperate zone. we therefore have a great variety of soil and climate; the soil is the most fertile and the climate the most salubrious of the whole earth. we have an almost infinite variety of productions and our people are engaged in the entire round of human industries. the united states has made vast strides in industry, in wealth, in intelligence, and in the comforts of life. civilization has rapidly advanced during the whole of this century. if the great contest of the future is to be between the anglo-saxon race and the rest of the world, surely this great republic must have the leading position in that contest. the american people to-day form a nation of readers. in newspapers, magazines, and books of all sorts and upon every subject the american press is prolific. we have a system of public schools well established in every state and every territory of our union, and supported by taxation, and very generally the children are obliged by compulsory laws to attend school. we are living in an age of great activity and rapid advancement. the young people of our republic who are attending school to-day are to be congratulated upon their good fortune; and it becomes them to magnify their opportunities, to appreciate their advantages, and to be especially loyal to their country, its government, and its institutions. index. Ã�tna, air brakes, allen, nicholas, allston, washington, ancient writing, arc light, arnold, edwin, atlantic telegraph co., automobile, axe, baltimore and ohio railroad, baskerville, john, bay-path, bell, alexander graham, bicycle, binder, blackstone canal, boulton and watt, brooklyn bridge, brush, charles francis, burlingame, anson, cable, atlantic, cable cars, cables, submarine, cabot, john, calashes, canals, candelabra, candles, canoe, carrying fire, central pacific railroad, chappe, claude, chesapeake and delaware canal, chicago and alton railroad, chimneys, clayton, john, "clermont," , "clinton's big ditch," coal, ; anthracite, ; bituminous, ; sea, coffee, colonial conditions, colonial cooking, , colonial homes, conant, roger, cooking, colonial, , corliss, george h., , corn, indian, cotton, , cotton gin, - darling, grace, - delaware and hudson canal, dinner, a modern, dodge, john adams, drake, e. l., dugout, dunster, rev. henry, dutch ovens, dynamo, edison, thomas a., electric cars, electric lighting, electrotyping, eliot's indian bible, ellsworth, miss, erie canal, evans, oliver, fabius, fairbanks, richard, faraday, michael, farmer, moses g., faust, john, field, cyrus w., fire, fire, carrying, fireplace, pennsylvania, fireplaces, fishing, whale, fitch, john, flail, , , flax, flint, foods, uncultivated, fork, franklin, benjamin, , franklin press, franklin stove, freight, cost of transportation, fuel, fulton, robert, , furnaces, gang plow, gas, illuminating, gasometer, gideon, gin, cotton, - gore, obadiah, greene, nathaniel, greenough, j. j., grist mills, grover, william o., gutenberg, john, hannibal, harvesting, implements for, heat, hennepin, father, hoe, hoe perfecting press, homes, colonial, homes, indian, hood, thomas, horseback, howe, elias, hunt, walter, illuminating gas, implements for harvesting, ; for planting, incandescent light, indian bible, eliot's, indian corn, indian homes, inns, iroquois, irrigation, , jackson, andrew, jewel, marshall, kerosene, kitchen, a new england, knight, sarah, lamp, modern, lamps, ancient, language, leather, leifer, thomas, letters, lewis, ida, light, arc, lighthouses, lighting, electric, linotype, livingston, robert r., log cabin, longstreet, william, loom, lord of padua, mail car, matches, mccormick, cyrus h., menlo park, message, first, across the atlantic, middlesex canal, miles, general, in new mexico, modern land travel, ; water travel, money orders, morey, samuel, morse, samuel f. b., ; his titles and honors, mower, murdoch, william, myer, major, needles, nott, eliphalet, ogle, henry, oil wells, ovens, dutch, padua, lord of, peck, general, at suffolk, pepper, pine knots, planter, planting, implements for, plow, , plow, sulky, postage stamps, postal system, postmaster-general, power of speech, printing press, franklin, ; modern, prometheus, pruning hook, pullman sleeper, queen of sheba, railroad train, old-style, railroads, rake, raleigh, walter, "rand, old ma'am," range, reaper, rumford, count, - rumsey, james, scholfield, arthur, scholfield, john, _scots magazine_, scribe, ancient, scythe, , sea coal, sewing machines, shoemaker, colonel, signal station, suffolk, signaling, singer, isaac m., slater, john f., slater, samuel, soil, solomon, sower, sower, christopher, special delivery, spotswood, colonel, squanto, stagecoaches, steamboats, steam engine, stephenson, george, stereotyping, stevens, john, stockton and darlington railway, stoves, subway, boston, sulky plow, "sully," packet ship, suspension bridge, niagara, taverns, telegraph, telephone, telephone incident, thimmonier, barthÃ�lemy, thompson, benjamin, thompson, elihu, thresher, threshing, tinder box, torches, travel by horseback, ; by land, ; by water, uncultivated foods, union pacific railroad, united states post offices, university press, vestal virgin, victoria jubilee, vinegar, walter press, watt, james, wells, oil, west, benjamin, westinghouse, george, jr., whale fishing, whale oil, whitman, marcus, whitney, eli, wilson, allen b., wool, the arnold primer by sarah louise arnold, supervisor of schools, boston; joint author of "stepping stones to literature." cloth, pages. _artistically illustrated._ introductory price, c. [illustration] _distinguishing features_: ( ) the author's experience and standing. ( ) the book is _made for children_. ( ) it is naturally developed--not machine-made. ( ) the vocabulary is simple, natural, typical. ( ) phonics are treated in proper relations. ( ) attractive illustrations, in harmony with text. ( ) it is a _workable_ primer, in city and country, north and south, east and west. thoughtfully constructed in every detail, mechanical as well as pedagogical, the arnold primer represents the highest achievement in the conception and execution of primary school text-books. it is the exemplification of pronounced progress in education. _for detailed information address the nearest office of_ silver, burdett & company new york boston chicago philadelphia atlanta san francisco historic pilgrimages in new england. by edwin m. bacon. this is the vivid story of early new england, told while standing upon the very spots where the stirring colonial drama was enacted. the famous places where the puritans and pilgrims planted their first homes, the ancient buildings, and the monuments to the wise and dauntless founders of the great commonwealth are visited, and, while in the atmosphere of the associations, the thrilling narrative of the past is recounted. the connecting thread is the summer pilgrimage which a thoughtful young fellow from a western college makes to the country of his ancestors. he is accompanied by his father's friend, who talks entertainingly about the memorable facts which the hallowed soil suggests. the boy's earnest curiosity stands for the interest which some millions of others feel in the same events and personalities and shrines. of all the books which describe that country and set forth the significance of the deeds done there,--from the landing of the pilgrims to the first blow of the revolution,--this new volume combines, perhaps, the most that is of interest to lovers of yankee-land. it is accurate. it abounds in facts hitherto unpublished. it gives snatches from early diaries and documents. disputed stories are sifted until the fabulous elements are cut out. the style is graphic from start to finish--even statistics are made picturesque. _ pages, illustrations. uncut edges. retail price, $ . . (for introductory price of school edition send for circular.)_ _for school libraries and reading circles, this book appeals to a deep and constant taste. for supplementary reading in the higher grades it is a mine of interest and delightful instructiveness._ "'historic pilgrimages' abundantly justifies its double purpose of serving both the student's needs of a graphic summary of the history of massachusetts bay, and the stranger-visitor's need of a preparation for, and a pleasant keepsake of, his journeyings."--_boston journal._ silver, burdett and company, publishers, boston. new york. chicago. stepping stones to literature. a unique series of eight school readers upon an entirely new plan, brilliantly illustrated with masterpieces and original drawings. by sarah louise arnold, supervisor of schools, boston, mass., and charles b. gilbert, superintendent of schools, newark, n. j. [illustration] this series marks a new era in school readers. it combines with the necessary technique of reading, a real course in literature. it has the sincere literary atmosphere. the early volumes create the beginnings of a literary judgment. the advanced volumes comprehend the whole range of the world's best writing. the pupil, at the end of the course, _knows what literature means_. in this achievement these readers stand absolutely alone. they justify the following deliberate characterizations: they are the most interesting readers ever published. they surpass all other readers in wise technique. they are superlative in stimulating thought and creating taste. they are unequaled in attractiveness of illustration. they give a better idea of the world's great literature, and more of it, than can be found anywhere else in the same space. _a mark of their acceptability._ in their first year they were adopted by boston, new york, brooklyn, philadelphia, chicago, st. louis, baltimore, atlanta; by over a thousand smaller towns; by hundreds of counties; and by the state of virginia. _patriotism in these readers._ the entire series is peculiarly rich in selections and pictures closely connected with american history and american greatness, well fitted to stimulate love of country in the pupil. the "reader for seventh grades," is distinctively and wholly american, and its tales, poems, historical extracts, and illustrations are alive with a proud patriotism. _send for descriptive circular._ silver, burdett and company, publishers, new york. boston. chicago. arithmetic in the public schools the normal course in number. by john w. cook, president of northern illinois state normal school, and miss n. cropsey, assistant superintendent city schools, indianapolis, indiana. a course which has deserved its wide acceptance. it has been characterized by a leading educator as "correct in theory, precise in definition, logical in sequence, and excellent in its problems." =the new elementary arithmetic.= (with or without answers.) for the d, th and th grades of school work. pp. c. preëminently practical in the concrete nature of its problems and the exactness of their gradation. it happily combines the oral and the written, and its simplicity makes the first steps in number a delight to the pupils. =abridged elementary arithmetic.= for d and th year work. pp. c. identical with the above save for the omission of fractions, compound numbers, percentage, interest, etc. =the new advanced arithmetic.= (with or without answers.) pp. c. the "new advanced," retaining and accenting all the superiorities of the other edition, has added elementary process in algebra and geometry which bridge to higher mathematics. =answers to the new advanced arithmetic= (separate) c. =key to the new advanced arithmetic.= _for teachers only._ =first steps in arithmetic.= by ella m. pierce, supervisor of primary grades, public schools, providence, r. i. pp. c. for the second school year. accords closely with the methods of the "normal course in number," and is a preparation for "the new elementary arithmetic." in all numbers to . =easy problems in the principles of arithmetic.= by elizabeth t. mills. pp. $ . . furnishes teachers with a complete and carefully graded set of interesting supplementary problems. valuable for auxiliary service. =practical tests in commercial and higher arithmetic.= by ernest l. thurston, c. e., head of department of business arithmetic in washington, d. c., business high school. pp. c. special preparation for the daily demands of business is the aim of this valuable little book; supplementary to the regular course in arithmetic both in public and business high schools. _our text-books cover all the steps of education from the kindergarten to the university. our educational catalogue is mailed free upon application._ silver, burdett & company boston . new york . chicago +----------------------------------------------------------------- + | transcriber's note: | | | | minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. | | | | punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant | | form was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. | | | | ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. | | | | mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs | | and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that | | references them. | | | | italicized words are surrounded by underline characters, | | _like this_. words in bold characters are surrounded by equal | | signs, =like this=. | | | | duplicated section headings have been omitted. | | | | pp. and : marthélemy thimonier changed to barthélemy | | timmonier. | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ don't look now by leonard rubin illustrated by wood [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from galaxy magazine april . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] the royalty party wasn't what you would imagine--it stood for a great deal, but there was as much it wanted no part of! "you're not allowed in the ambulance," miss knox said. they were both typical advertising men, down to the motorskates strapped beneath their shoes. their faces were so utterly undistinctive as to seem fuzzy. each carried a large flat briefcase with a coil antenna sticking out. "watch it!" the attendant growled, and they skated aside with a whir. big carl came driving up the ramp, ducked his head to enter, and brought the bed to a stop in the belly of the ambulance. miss knox pressed the button and the door closed in the admen's faces. when mr. barger was lowered from the hovering ambulance, his swollen, tearful eyes were sun-blind. square hands clenched over and over with pain. above the rotors' _rackety-rackety-rack_, miss knox shouted soothing things. she didn't wait for an answer. he was the worst case of laryngitis she had ever known--the only case, really, in her professional experience. abolished diseases always came back virulently. she and the bed sank between white hospital walls and landed in the room with a bump. the waiting attendant walked around the platform, folding the safety gates. he unhooked the four support cables, each vanishing out of his grasp like spaghetti slurped from a plate. just as the ceiling closed overhead, cutting off sight and sound of the whirlybird against the sun, brooks, the radiologist, came in through the door, shepherding an entire class of medical students. then two nurses seemed to clear an inoffensive path through the chemically tainted air of the corridor--and after them came dr. gesner, the greatest throat man in the country. miss knox knew him from his portrait in the mushroom. brooks winked her an "at ease!" with a shaggy eyebrow and followed the fat man through the crowd. dr. gesner went to the bed and sat down. he was barger's weight, with the same sort of elephantine bones, but he was almost two feet shorter. he stared at the nose and cheeks protruding from the bedclothes, and opened a fat black bag. * * * * * a bell rang three times in the corridor. five interns scurried into the room and stopped still, watching dr. gesner as though he were a golden calf. on each side of the doorway stood a student nurse at attention. mr. barger stopped twitching and opened one eye wide. his chin lifted, and his other chins came out from under the sheet's folded edge. one of dr. gesner's hands felt through the black bag. it emerged dragging a mutape by one wire. brooks leaned forward and took out the rest of the apparatus. shaking the hair off his forehead, he plugged into the bedside computer relay and placed the rubber-rimmed cup against the patient's skull, just over the broca convolution. mr. barger remained staring at the doctor through a gray film. the mutape chattered rapidly. miss knox craned her neck, deciphering the punched tape as it unrolled from the recorder in brooks' hands. sweat popped out on mr. barger's forehead. "help me, damn it," read mr. barger's tape. "i know you. you abolished laryngitis; why should it come to me now? i have a right to stop misuse of my work and to be free from pain--my patent is vital--free from pain. i want to be free...." his face turned pink in a new contortion and the hands folded over. "yes," dr. gesner said as the chatter stopped. "i know it hurts." he smiled gently in the middle of his face. he was writing on an index card, but his main effort was devoted to getting up from the bed with the help of two internes. "it will hurt this badly for twenty-four hours. then the injection will have the upper hand." he turned to brooks. "please pass the tape around, doctor. if any students haven't seen the x-rays yet, they're in my file." mr. barger's face grayed a little; the sweat had turned to patches of crust against his skin. dipping cotton in alcohol, miss knox bathed his forehead. "that's all," said dr. gesner, handing her the card as the students began to vanish. she stalked after him. "no examination, doctor?" she asked, ignoring brooks' horrified expression. "unnecessary, nurse." he backed away from her and the door slid open. "i've already seen the x-rays and charts you phoned from the ambulance. and the patient cannot open his mouth. his intravenous menu is all here...." "yes, doctor." three bells sounded in the corridor. "calling dr. gesner. emergency. please come to the telephone. emergency. calling dr. gesner...." he rolled his eyes at the index card in her hand. "you yourself are to take the shots prescribed for you, to prevent your catching or carrying the disease. in that bed, but for the grace of god...." he was crying softly. "doctor!" said brooks, and the internes and nurses gasped. "after all," said dr. gesner, "i _did_ abolish laryngitis." * * * * * miss knox walked back up the drive and struck a cigarette on one of the stone lions. it glowed in the dark, but the river breeze blew it out before she could draw. she snorted in annoyance. miss erwin looked up sharply. "is there _anywhere_ where you can still buy matches?" asked miss knox. "not in new york city. why?" "we used to just try again when a cigarette didn't light. now we have to throw it away." "of course," said miss erwin. "that's how they train us to be right the first time." "ridiculous. that's how they sell more cigarettes." "why, _miss knox_! you sound like royalty!" miss knox laughed. "i'm not ready to join the british commonwealth yet. no fooling, hilda, you see the silvertongue cigarette factory across the river?" miss erwin twisted white-gloved hands in the dark. "why, no ... mmm, smell that spray." an ocean-breathing tugboat passed, its complicated silhouette blocking the view. "no-oooooo," the whistle blew. "just wait till that tug is gone. there, miss erwin. do you see the silvertongue factory? just before the williamsburg bridge." "is it the one with the new radio--the radio-thing on top?" "radiocompressor. yes." "they used to put _names_ on those factories. all lit up." "well, ladies--ladies," said a gravel voice beyond the entrance lights. "how is life in the toadstool?" "boney!" said miss knox. "the what?" asked miss erwin. "that's what dr. brooks called it. now you tell me what he meant--he wouldn't say. toadstool." "come into the light, boney--you frighten us," said miss erwin. the man appeared, smiling, and climbed the first stone step. resting his elbows on the lion and his chin in his hand, he looked down on them sideways. "not _another_ new suit," said miss knox. it was an archaic double-breasted suit in good condition. where the jacket hiked up in back, a wide expanse of extra trouser seat had been folded over and tucked beneath the belt. "hundred-fifty-dollar suit," he said. "with or without the bottle?" asked miss knox. "what bottle?" "the one that bangs on your ribs when the breeze blows." "now listen here, lady...." he came down the step. "boney, i'm only kidding. you know that." "kidding. _kidding._ and here i was giving you inside information. _inside_ information." "what information?" bringing his drawn face so close that they could smell the wine, he gave both women a look of scorn. then he backed away and leaned his padded shoulder against the lion. "boney, she's sorry," said miss erwin. "i am not," said miss knox. * * * * * he glowered at her and walked away into the dark, his spider legs dissolving sooner than expected. then he marched back. "sorry," he said. "ha. i won't tell you. i'm going to tell it to the director himself." "forget it, boney. he'd throw you out again. you'd better just tell us." his skeleton hand stretched toward the water. "you see that radio presser?" "you mean the new radiocompressor on the silvertongue factory?" "_radio_compressor. all right. do you ladies know what it does?" "anything," miss knox said. "our patient, mr. barger, builds them. he told us all about it the moment he came. in greek." "not--not _all_ about it. _i_ know all about it. i had a big deal going--my armenian partner and me, we were buying up neckties to sell in the hospital...." "_what_ do you know? and will you _stop_ blowing in my face?" he glowered. "i'm sorry, boney." "radiocompressors can do things--any things--without touching. like rolling cigarettes or chopping up tobacco. the radio waves are so small they--push things." he pushed the air with his left hand. "not just go through them." he wiggled the brittle fingers of his right. "everyone knows that," said miss knox. "what you mean is that the supra-short wave has an intense direct effect on matter. it was in all the papers." "oh, is that so? is _that_ so? well, you listen to me. _this_ isn't in all the papers." "all right, go on." miss knox struck a cigarette, which blew out. she threw it down and succeeded in lighting another. "you can fool people, also, with the same radio waves," said boney. "you mean hide behind the door with a wave compressor and push chairs around? like that?" "don't be silly. nothing like _that_. dr. brooks told me today, when i was sweeping his _private_ lab in the toadstool, he told me they make one kind where if you put it on a table, say, no one can see what else is there. you could put--a cat on the table, and anyone would think it was just a table with a radio presser. until the cat jumped off. then you could see it." "can it jump off?" asked miss knox. "can it jump off? did you ever see a cat that couldn't jump? and that's not all--" "quite a trick," she said. "no trick. you could rule the world with that, ladies. think about it. rule the world. got a cigarette? after all, i always get you coffee." she handed him one. miss erwin stared across the river. "i hope it isn't a new kind of bomb," she said. boney pulled out a stick match and struck it on the stone lion. cupping his hands around the flame, he lit up and walked away. * * * * * "but, dr. brooks, when you tell boney things like that," said miss knox, "he believes them, and he quotes you like mad. don't you care about your reputation at all?" "my dear woman," dr. brooks replied, "i've been interested in many things in my years, but getting my portrait in the mushroom has never been one of them--" mr. barger's legs spasmed suddenly and shot straight out, jerking the covers from his fat-layered neck. but the pink shut eyelids hadn't quivered. "--and, anyway, boney is right," dr. brooks finished. "why do you think the royalties want government control of the whole invention?" miss knox was tucking the covers around his warm, sticky jowls. "but he said you said--" "i said she said we said." brooks grabbed her chin between his thumb and forefinger. "did you know that machine on the silvertongue roof could get at us inside our own homes?" she shook her head, swinging his arm from side to side. "if you know nothing about it, girlie, let me explain." he squeezed her chin tighter. "you saw those two men from the christian e. lodge corporation--silvertongue, that is--who came this afternoon to see barger? the ones on motorskates?" "they shouldn't allow those buzzing things in the hospital. they make more noise than a whirlybird." she backed away, tugging at the white-coated arm until her chin was released. "i mean i saw them yesterday. they tried to get in the bird. i don't know why _they_ visit him--he can't say a word. doesn't he have a family?" "no, but the silvertongue men love him like a brother. barger designed their radiocompressor--the one in all the newspapers. here, you can see it from the window if you--" "i know, dr. brooks." "do you know what that machine can really do, girlie?" "when i was your age--" miss knox began. "you are. i just _look_ young. that machine can cure and shred tobacco with supra-short waves on a polished magnesium bowl, just the way the papers say, but they have cheaper ways to process their tobacco. they really use the machine for guided tours of the factory. public relations." "you mean float visitors through the air?" "no. you'd need the power of ten maritime atomic piles in series just to lift dr. gesner to the height of--" "very funny!" "--his own square root. what they can do with that machine is to disguise an object--say the incoming leaf tobacco. they can make it look firm, golden, and so forth. the girls at the sorting tables, wherever the guided tour happens to be, will all look like norma norden. they'll be dressed as angels and work in heaven. then the v.i.p.s can tour the girls' homes and dormitories, and instead of a dirty slum, they'll see--they'll see _mushrooms_, if they like." "how is it done?" "only barger electronics really knows," said dr. brooks, "and the christian e. lodge engineers. it's something to do with compressing the wave length to approximate that of light, so that images are canceled out. this leaves a clear field for subliminal techniques. if there are subvisual images projected on the walls, for instance, that's what the observers will see inside the room." "oh, my god!" exclaimed miss knox. "the only other thing i know is that it has to be done with intersecting spheres. the machine has two portable secondary transmitters--or projectors, or whatever they call them--each emitting in all directions to form a wave-sphere. where the two spheres overlap, you get your possible interference with light." "frankly, i just don't understand it." "any radio waves go out in all directions to form spheres." his voice had become a mutter. "you know that." "no, i didn't." * * * * * he gave a false sigh. "well, take an ordinary weak phone transmitter very high up in a whirlybird. that's the simplest case. you know what sound a whirlybird makes, don't you?" "of course," said miss knox. "what?" dr. brooks challenged, moving at her. "how does it sound?" "oh, clatter-clatter chug-chug," she said, moving back. "no. listen closely and you'll hear any whirlybird--especially hospital ambulances--go _rackety-rackety-rack groundhog_, _rackety-rack groundhog_!--a reminder to people that they belong on the ground, one may assume. picture a microphone attached outside the bird and wired to your transmitter. the radio waves go out in all directions through the air. suppose your air is all of the same density, and so forth--then all the waves peter out at a constant radius and form a perfect sphere going _rackety-rackety-rack groundhog_! "now compressed waves travel a certain number of feet--theoretically, the number of foot-pounds of work the power input could perform modified by a constant value called 'e'--and at that point they revert to ordinary radio waves. this forms a sphere of compressed or supra-short waves. do you understand that?" "no," said miss knox. "well, anyway, where two spheres overlap, you get the barger effect. and they can vary or limit the effect in interesting ways. just move one or both projectors so that the waves intersect each other in different phases--" "that's a fascinating way to back me into a corner of the room, dr. brooks. now will you please let me look at my patient?" mr. barger's body convulsed and twitched, and the disordered bedclothes exposed the pink, swollen layers of his throat. only the face slept. miss knox reduced the feed on the water envelope, and with her palm brushed drops of moisture from the burning, out-of-focus pink skin. the drops were sticky and warm. she wiped her hands on a piece of cotton and started to prepare the blood transfusion. "before you get out of here," she said to dr. brooks, "let me thank you." "for the information? you'll only forget it." "no, for the crack about my age." slumping his eyebrows, he went to the door and stepped through almost before it could slide open. "wait!" she commanded in a stage whisper. he appeared, the door sliding back harmlessly against his shoulder before it changed direction. "what's so terrible?" she asked. "you talk as though that radiocompressor on the silvertongue roof were going to destroy the american home, at the very least." "they don't just have to transmit within the factory," he said. "suppose they wanted you arrested. say they didn't like brunettes. well, first they get some dame to call police and say she's going to do a strip in front of the psychiatric pavilion wall. then they go across first avenue and set up a subliminal movie sequence of some stripper in action and focus it on the wall from their car. they set up two portable wave projectors and adjust their phasing to achieve the barger effect in that one place. then they wait for you to pass that spot on your way to church. very little power is required; the actual radiocompression takes place across the river." brooks raised his pants from the knees and minced across the room, exposing curly hair above his fallen argylls. his white coat twitched from side to side. "now here you come. a man watching the street from the broken stool at the green gables twists one of his cufflinks, or maybe he just whistles. this starts the projectors and you become invisible, or very blurry, while the subliminal film gives the cops what they want. then the whole thing shuts off and the cops can see _you_ again. you're hustled off to jail and they keep you there--along with other enemies--by making a similar visual 'fix' on the results in some polling place and putting in their own judge!" "oh, they'll probably just use it for advertising." "sure," said brooks. "how would you like it if you were watching television with your roommate, and all of a sudden she turned into a giant pack of silvertongue cigarettes?" * * * * * water dripped on her palm, leaving a red stain. a ringing, ringing, and the whir of motorskates receded down the corridor. it rang and rang, her hand sticky and warm against her cheek. it rang. the telephone. trying to recapture something she had known, she let groping fingers stretch toward the instrument. they descended, clenched, lifted. the ringing stopped. she forced her eyes open far enough to see her white arm return. hunching up around her pillow with the receiver, she croaked, "hello." "miss knox?" a high voice. "boney--it's boney--" "you have a nerve, boney, to wake me up at this hour." "this isn't boney--it's hilda erwin. i'm on emergency duty and they've brought in boney. his throat is cut--" "_no!_ is he alive?" "yes, yes. but he may never speak again. he lay there in the street for hours and hours. dr. gesner's internes are here--" "oh, not being able to talk would be worse for him than dying. i'll come! i'll be right there!" miss knox dropped the receiver and swung out of bed, feeling in the darkness for her robe. she pulled it on and opened the door, and found her slippers in the faint yellow light from the hallway. as she ran, knotting the belt of her robe, she looked up and down the ancient residential corridors for a motorbed. she stumbled against a rotten wood molding. she pressed the elevator button and turned, her loose hair swinging heavily, to face the flat eye of a clock. it was five-fifteen. overhead, the floor indicator creaked around its dial--seven, six, five, four--and the doors opened. there was a motorbed on the elevator. she stepped inside and pressed the button for seven, the lowest floor with a bridge to the mushroom. the doors shut and the car moved upward. tripping over the torn linoleum, she managed to fall backward onto the bed's driving seat. she swung her legs around and turned on the switch. as the doors opened, she drove out with a jolt and entered the sparkling newness of a tubular bridge which rose through the night across first avenue. the mushroom towered overhead, its spiral corridors glowing. night traffic vibrated beneath her as she crossed--a crowd of trucks was baying north along the hidden cobblestones, following traffic lights which jumped from red to green, one after another, like an electronic rabbit. the trucks passed out of sight under their own diesel cloud and another pack approached in a higher key.... then a lurch as towing cables grated and took hold in the curve of the many-windowed corridor. whining under glass, the motorbed veered off in a rising circle around the stem of the mushroom. around and around again, faster, while room numbers flashed red one by one on the silver doors, over the river, over the roof garden of the administration wing, over the river, over the garden, around and around and out, out--far out over a city of dark crumbling toys and up and up over the rim.... * * * * * she approached the great transparent dome of the mushroom looking ahead into the sky, as though enemies in immense distance were triangulating upon her. an echo of voices rolled out. far across the marble floor, one of the emergency rooms had its lights on. the door opened and a tiny figure in a motorchair sped out and along the wall, followed by a line of running dolls in white. some of them clustered around the man in the chair, waving their arms. thinning like a comet's tail, the procession vanished down the south escalator. the door of the room slid shut. she hurtled across beneath the stars and drove straight at the room, applying brakes sharply with a tightening in her stomach as the door began to open. her long hair swept forward against her cheeks and shoulders. she jarred to a stop inside and rose, refocusing her senses on the enclosed white space. the bedside table held a pot of paper geraniums. something lay beneath the covers like lumber on edge, the angles of knees projecting sideways. out of the sheets stuck part of a thin white drainpipe neck and a face like a broken roof shingle, over which the weeping miss erwin cast her shadow. brooks sat hunched over the stool, fingers buried in his hair. his lab coat was twisted awry; a bare knee protruded between two buttons. "what happened?" asked miss knox. "he's all right," miss erwin sobbed at her. "delinquents--vandals--they cut his throat by the river, right in front of the hospital. the mutape says--he didn't--see their faces." "don't worry about him," said a low muttered voice. "he's been conscious. the doctors say he'll speak, in time." dr. brooks had raised his head and was trying to cover himself with the lab coat. "river rats," miss knox snapped, peering at boney's wasted face. "what do you mean, in time?" "two or three weeks. an expert job of quick surgery, really." "no! no!" miss erwin broke into a fit of sobbing and blindly rearranged the flowers. "do you mean to say?--" "some medical students on a horror spree. damned age of--what did that washington press secretary say?--'atomic hyper-specialization'! that means young brains growing in channels until they explode through the wall. you remember the physicist who killed his colleagues when the english won the nobel prize." "it can't be," said miss knox. she watched the hurt man grimace somewhere along his razor edge of nightmare. "it's the only likelihood. well, we can't do anything for him now, and you look a little beat. come on, i'll buy you coffee from the vending machine on the administration roof." dr. brooks stood up, lifted miss knox gently beneath the arms and sat her on the motorbed, then swung a hairy shin over the driving seat. they rolled through the doorway. "who was that big shot in the motorchair?" miss knox asked. "dr. gesner?" dawn had just begun to spread. they crossed within a widening circle of mushroom-shaped arches containing portraits which drew farther away until they resembled portal guards, and then converged again in full austerity on the opposite side of the great dome. "director himself--they can't reach gesner anyplace," brooks said. * * * * * they started to descend inward from the mushroom's edge. numbers flashed by as they spiraled down faster along the self-steering guide rail. over the river, over the garden. over the river.... she leaned back against the pillows. "what was himself doing in the hospital at this hour?" she asked. "as a matter of fact"--his shadow crossed her face as he moved the deceleration lever--"he was with me." "with you?" "i was listening to the newscasts in bed. he came to see me because, as resident radiologist, i'm the only person who knows anything at all about electronics. while we listened, his assistant with the high voice called him on my phone and told him about boney." "how did he react?" brooks swung his tiller bar and they veered onto the roof of the administration wing, the door behind them cutting off all light from inside the mushroom. they were in a formal garden filled with scent, and surrounded by distant hedges. the few remaining stars were surprised naked, floating above a monstrous concrete bird-bath. "like a bureaucrat," he muttered as they rolled to a stop. "first he requisitioned flowers. he's probably in here somewhere now, plotting revenge against the commissary clerk who issued the knife they found near boney. i know he'd love to see you rushing in your bathrobe to other people's emergencies." "disgusting. and they call him the father of the mushroom. big shot." "why?" he asked. "after all, he _is_ a bureaucrat. how did you yourself react--like a woman, no?" he helped her down. they walked within a double row of mountain laurels to the coffee machine. "i'd forgotten all about the bathrobe," she said. "black for me." "one day soon," he muttered, "they'll build him a mushroom he'll never see the end of. sandwich? anything?" "no." she took the warm plastic cup and sipped. it was bad coffee. far below, a snort of traffic echoed down first avenue. "i've only been here once before. i'm a bit lower-echelon for the administrative roof." "who isn't?" she looked past the white-on-red emergency exit sign to a wrought-iron gate in the hedge facing the river. "look, the silvertongue factory is all lit up. every single window on the top floor." "i should think so. you mean you don't _know_?" "know what?" "my heavens, the fate of man's grasp on reality is being decided tonight! congress was still in special session at five a.m.--still is, as far as i know." "session over what? don't tell me the bombs have started." "visual interference by radio wave compression. yesterday the royalty called an immediate special session. there is at present _no law_ to prevent the christian e. lodge corporation from buying the right to tamper with light waves in the home, for advertising purposes or--god knows what other kinds of control." "i didn't know. i was on duty with mr. barger and then no one told me." "barger was against it," said dr. brooks. "he sold them the device with a set of conditions on its use, but now they're buying the patent outright." "but--don't they have to wait for him? barger electronics is his company." "no. he's chairman of the board, but any three or more directors can sell the patent. once it's sold, there will be nothing congress can do." "why?" asked miss knox, staring out over the water. some of the silvertongue windows had winked out. the others vanished together, leaving only a pale vertical row to mark the fire stairs. three bells sounded. "your attention please!"--a piping male voice. brooks said, "i'll bet it's the director himself." "in a moment," shrilled the voice, "we will tune in the broadcast direct from washington so that all personnel can hear history in the making. after the congressional vote, dr. hamilton, our director, will honor us with a few words here in the hospital, which he will repeat later for the benefit of the day shift." there was a ringing tone, growling in volume like the approach of motorskates. "i told you," brooks shouted over the noise. "his family has stock in silvertongue." "... been informed that a purchase has been completed of full rights to the barger radiocompressor. i warn you that this device will be used indiscriminately against the public interest." the voice was strong but unsteady. "barger engineers have been withdrawn. there are no controls--" "too late," said brooks. "that's thorpe of louisiana." "bear with me now. i do not doubt that visual interference is already being used to disrupt this session of congress. do you understand? i have a blinding headache, brought about externally, i am quite certain. i can no longer read the notes in front of me. if what i say is still sense, i insist i want a vote, immediate vote, to make this thing illegal--illegal, and let the new york city police or the militia or the army--the army...." * * * * * in sudden silence, she clung to brooks' sleeve. "ladies and gentlemen," said the piping voice from within the hospital, "the house of representatives is still far from approaching a vote. we will tune in debate on the senate floor, being broadcast by another network." "... alleged that patent number , , b has something to do with national safety. i assure you, gentlemen--ladies and gentlemen--that american business ethics will prevent such dangerous use of technology now as in the past, and that any weapons application will be confined strictly to that sphere where weapons are themselves a safety factor--the sphere of national defense against foreign aggressors. "it has further been alleged that there is some connection between patent number , , b and the hospitalization of mr. william barger of barger electronics company, incorporated, who is currently afflicted with"--the senator breathed a chuckle--"laryngitis. "it has even been supposed by certain senators that the non-fatal stabbing of nathan bonaparte, a part-time employee...." silence. "ladies and gentlemen," the voice from within the hospital said, "we will tune in again when the matter is brought to a vote. and now--dr. hamilton." a long pause filled with buzzing. "people," said the director, and the buzzing ended. "there is no war. let me repeat: there is no atomic war going on." he paused. "now there has been a lot of fuss over a steel tower on a factory across the river. i want to make it clear that no advertising gimmicks will change our job here. all hospitals--public, like ours, or even our esteemed allies, the private hospitals--are bound by medical and staff ethics to pay no official attention to the world of advertising. "i am especially amazed by rumors that nat bonaparte, or 'boney,' who does clean-up work here from time to time, was silenced because he 'knew something' about this wonderful advertising gimmick. nothing can be sillier. it just happens that the fellow left _my_ office shortly before he must have been wounded by delinquents from the nearby slums. he was giving me 'inside information,' as he called it, about light-ray guns, and mechanical hypnotism, and plots against the patients. these, apparently, are the things which boney 'knew,' and he has been talking endlessly about them since i first came into office, and presumably before." brooks struck two cigarettes against his pack and handed one to miss knox. their first puff obscured his puzzled frown. "this _fuss_ i am talking about," continued the director, "has been taken as grounds for wild infringement of any and all regulations by personnel of this hospital. i want it made perfectly clear that motorbeds not in official use should be stored in the proper supply rooms, according to the chart in the commissary office. we are setting up a daily check-in system--" "let's get out of here," said miss knox. "--to prevent further misuse of this equipment." "get on the bed," said dr. brooks. "if they saw you go up to boney, we can't leave it here." "_furthermore_, any private or unauthorized use of this or other hospital equipment may be punished by immediate dismissal--" miss knox took a step toward the motorbed. "i'd like to look in on mr. barger." "--with _particular_ application to the young woman who used a motorbed tonight to visit a sick friend." miss knox stood feet apart, hands on hips. "the dirty son of a bitch," she said. * * * * * miss erwin came running across the mushroom, white pumps clacketing half off her feet. "oh!" she said, and stopped, panting. "has the world really been taken over by admen?" brooks stopped the motorbed. "just america," he said, "and only a few admen." he helped miss knox down and they all walked toward the emergency rooms. "boney is fine, dr. brooks," said miss erwin. "he just went back to sleep. but mr. barger is not feeling well." "is mr. barger awake?" "oh, no, doctor, but he was moaning. a sort of breath-moan, with his eyes still shut. dr. feld took a mutape and said he wasn't getting regular delirium patterns at all." "has dr. gesner been here?" "we've tried and tried to reach him, but he left no word with his office or at home. his nurses are terribly worried about him, and his wife--oh, miss knox, do you suppose he drinks?" miss erwin's forehead grew a splotch of pink. "_oh_, i'm sorry, doctor! i'm terribly upset." "go home, hilda," said miss knox. "i can handle things--i go on in less than an hour, anyway. let's foul up hamilton's schedule." "oh, miss _knox_!" "just one more thing--before you go to bed, get a uniform from my room and give it to miss kelly, to bring with her when she comes up for day shift. if my door is open, close it." "here's a key." dr. brooks said. "give it to one of the attendants in the dining room. if no one's eating breakfast yet, leave it with old man mackey. say that i want some linens and a suit--any suit--brought up for me when the shift changes. not before." "what color socks, doctor?" "any color." "thanks so much," said miss erwin, backing toward the escalator. brooks muttered, "the mushroom doesn't suit her looks." "she's too young," said miss knox. "what's-his-name who designed it--you know, the one who did the museums--was ninety-four." "he's still designing," said brooks. "can i do anything for you? preferably against regulations." she watched him lock the door and close the viewplate, and rummage in the manila folder at the foot of the bed. "i don't know what's wrong with these people," dr. brooks muttered. "what is it?" she asked over his shoulder. "they've gotten their tapes crossed! that idiot feld must have had this in his machine when he came. it's some accident victim's tape--one hundred per cent unverbalized pain, and the victim was _wide awake_ when he made it. it might be boney's tape. this man here has been in coma since this--since yesterday morning, thank heaven." "poor boney," said miss knox, adjusting mr. barger's covers and her own loose hair. as though in answer, mr. barger stirred feebly, raising his arm. "honey, there isn't much we can do," said dr. brooks. "you're right." she glanced down and plucked at the bathrobe around her smooth lace-bordered throat. "can't save the world in my old nightgown." he took her by the shoulders and bent his head toward the palpitating muscle in her throat. leaning back against the edge of the bed, she held him at arm's length. she wet her lips and said, "did i tell you i'm supposed to wear glasses?" he sprawled forward into her embrace. her dark mane tumbled thickly over mr. barger. they twisted and pulled each other down to the floor, freeing loose strands of hair from the blanket's electricity. * * * * * she opened her eyes and saw a flat briefcase with a coil antenna sticking out. "what's the matter?" whispered dr. brooks. "on the bottom of the bed!" he pressed his cheek to the floor and examined the under-carriage of mr. barger's motorbed. "projector!" he reached in and tugged at the object, bracing his other hand against the driveshaft. "help me, quick!" she grasped smooth leather and pulled, her nails making scars, as he slid under the bed and hammered with his fist. "it's hooked on the other way," she said. he pulled, and the briefcase fell heavily to the floor. dr. brooks rolled to his feet, kicking the object into the light, and yanked at its buckles and straps. "my bag is somewhere near the chair. get the mutape on him, fast!" she found his black satchel on the floor, plugged into the computer outlet and spread the apparatus over mr. barger's bed. she made a trembling fist around the broca cup, and watched the dormant pink cheeks and eyelids as she lowered the cup toward his skull. the rubber rim thudded against empty air, pleating like a horse's muzzle as she pushed. the sleeping barger face remained a picture glowing out of reach inches beneath her straining fist, behind a smell of blood. a hand from under the covers grasped her wrist.... she struggled. dr. brooks, at the telephone, contorted his face and heaved the briefcase against the wall. it shattered into coils and smashed tubes and pieces of electronic chassis like a shower of silver christmas ornaments, and a moan from the bed faded away. brooks shouted and hung up the phone. the mutape was chattering violently. he unlocked the door, flung himself to the bed and took the recorder between his hands. the grasp on her wrist relaxed, and she leaned over to decipher the punched tape as it unrolled from the machine. its dot patterns were unverbalized bloody agony, cleanly formulated in computer language. "he'll verbalize," brooks said. "just don't look at him--thank god they've found gesner." a red, bloated forehead above eyes fixed on her own through lenses of gray fluid as it writhed and pressed up against the broca cup in her fist. she covered her face, and between her fingers the sleeping barger face still lay on its pillow. * * * * * dr. brooks screwed his own features into a wink, and she turned away to watch the unrolling tape still chattering between his hands: "england is the only hope. we must go through immediately before direct control and defenses build against us--morphine, why did you not give me morphine? pain is intolerable." "analgesics nullify the gesner shots," brooks said. "morphine," chattered the tape, "worth it, worth it, cure me when we have left for england. and hurry, they want me alive, and as soon as they control the police...." turning under dr. brooks' twisted glance as he took the broca cup, she went to the sink and scrubbed her hands. she found the hypodermic and phial in the black satchel and measured two cc of clear tincture of morphine, and turned back to the arm which grasped dr. brooks' wrist, pressing the cup hard against a swollen red mass. she rolled up the sleeve of the hospital gown which led to a raised shoulder (she wouldn't look at the face) and hesitated--another needle was already stuck in the muscle, protruding just above the skin. she found the vein and pushed the plunger in, and withdrew her needle. dr. brooks said, "get that out of there." she took tweezers from her bathrobe pocket and carefully removed an inch of broken hypodermic shaft. the blood spurted. she reached for cotton and alcohol. three bells rang in the corridor as the door slid open, and miss erwin came fluttering in. "don't look, hilda!" warned miss knox. "calling the emergency rooms," said a piping voice. "beware of patient william barger who may attempt to escape. he may be armed...." the mutape chattered. "here, take the cup," said dr. brooks. he picked up the bedside chair and placed it on the foot of the bed. climbing onto the swaying surface like a trained ape, he reached up and loosened the screws which held the light globe in place on the ceiling, and threw it to shatter on the floor. miss erwin stepped backward. then she tiptoed toward the light and steadied the chair, and stared at the patient's face in fascination. dr. brooks was tugging at an object resembling a camera, attached by a spring clamp between the bulbs of the ceiling fixture. "hilda!" miss knox said. "oh, look at his face now!" "subliminal picture slide," said dr. brooks, dropping the object to the floor with a crash. "there goes his sweet sleeping face--an illusion filling in for reality _because there was nothing else for us to see_." mr. barger's face was blotched red and covered with shiny ooze. his throat was swollen as thick as his cheeks, with lumpy rolls of neck stretched taut like strands of pink beads above the bedsheet. his mouth was hidden beneath caked blood. the mutape read, "you are running out of time." three bells in the corridor as the door slid open. "calling dr. gesner," said a cool nurse's voice. "emergency. calling dr. feld. emergency." five internes scurried in, surrounding the figure on the bed. behind them strode rawboned dr. feld in a red hunting jacket. a motorchair rolled after him and stopped in the doorway, and an assistant administrator stood up and piped, "hold him! he may be armed!" * * * * * with the mutape chattering and dr. brooks bent close over the recorder, miss knox stood up and prepared her needle with penicillin from the black satchel. "don't kill him," the administrator whined. three bells in the corridor. "all personnel," said the nurse's voice. "day shift, please take notice. beware of a patient, armed, seeking to escape from the emergency floor. all hospital personnel. beware of a patient...." big carl kicked the motorchair out of the doorway, stepped through and handed dr. brooks a blue serge suit on a hanger. after him came a nurse carrying a white uniform and a paper bag. the room was filled with an echo of voices spreading across the mushroom. "step back," said dr. feld, stumbling over an interne. two student nurses came to the doorway and stood on either side, one with her hand in the photocell beam to keep the door from closing. the noise grew. "calling dr. gesner," said the cool nurse's voice. a group of internes shuffled inside, faces averted, moving sideways in the crowd around the bed. two attendants came striding up and stood on either side of the door, next to the student nurses. a class of medical students filed in and moved along the wall, the taller ones standing on tiptoe to see the patient. a bearded professor in tweeds followed, whispering, "here he comes, here he comes." after a pause, dr. gesner waddled through the doorway between his nurses. three internes came after with white coats flying open, the middle one a hindu in a blue sash, and then a messenger boy calling, "telegram for dr. gesner!" three bells rang in the corridor, and the door slid shut. a path cleared before dr. gesner as he made his way to the bed. helped to a sitting position, he opened the telegram which had been passed from interne to interne. "you don't mind," he said, turning to the patient's bloody face. he read the message and threw it away. "the police have been holding me for two days. here my lawyers have a nice case against city hall, just when this england business comes up--so you're the man who's dangerous and armed! i'm sure hamilton isn't responsible for that story." dr. gesner had removed some of the cake with miss knox's tweezers and was prodding the lipless inflammation. "wash this off as gently as you can," said dr. gesner, and miss knox stepped forward. "and the antiseptic ointment in my bag--it has a purple label." "i had to give him morphine," said dr. brooks. "ah--and some antibiotic?" "penicillin," said miss knox. "ah. now tell me, where is this other man who was put out of commission by these--these throat specialists? i'd like to examine him." * * * * * the mutape chattered suddenly and then stopped. dr. brooks bent and read out loud, "get those two on motorskates! i know them. they appear blond with their projector fields turned on; otherwise they are both narrow-faced and dark." dr. gesner smiled with just the middle of his face. "we caught them in the lobby on our way in. one of my lawyers is coming with us. his son plays right tackle--young lady!" he looked straight at miss knox. "i understand you've been talking about this business for days, along with our friend with the cut throat. you've been in danger--those two men were still in the building on your account, i'm sure. it's a very good thing you weren't alone, you or dr. brooks. i take it you were both on night duty." dr. brooks said, "if any of the nurses or dr. gesner's students don't know what this is all about, i'm sure he'll make an announcement when we're all on the way to england. you must have some idea of what's happened. if anyone doesn't want to come, of course--" "treason and insubordination!" piped a hidden voice. "under the circumstances, dr. hamilton will have you jailed when he finds out what you're up to, dr. brooks." brooks stretched his arm between two students and pulled a switch on the wall. the ceiling began to open, sweeping bright sunshine down the wall and making metal buttons twinkle on dr. feld's jacket. the ceiling slid back on rollers with a rumbling sound, until nothing was overheard but the black dots of aircraft rising toward the sun. nearby, a whirlybird took off with a _rackety-rackety-rackety-rack_! "i phoned the director," dr. brooks told the crowd. "he's not interfering. in fact, i'm pretty sure dr. hamilton will come." "dr. feld," said dr. gesner, "will you show the adman out?" "i'm not--" there was the sound of a blow and the assistant administrator appeared, scrabbling for his motorchair, which was buried among the students. his spindle limbs flailed from one side to the other until he was propelled from the room at a run, screaming, and the messenger boy vanished after him. three bells rang in the corridor as the door closed. dr. gesner raised his hand and voices were stilled, the shuffle of feet ended and the mutape chattered alone in the sunshine. he leaned over and read the tape, and as he straightened his back, even the recorder stopped still. he heaved himself to his feet with the help of two internes. "he says--" puffed dr. gesner--"he says this is no time for sadism." * * * * * "last ones up, girlie," said dr. brooks. she sat on the bed and the mutape spoke to her noisily. big carl had hooked two cables in place, dr. brooks the other two, and the floor platform began to rise through the room toward the maw of the hovering whirlybird. she tucked the covers gently around her patient's distorted throat. the chatter stopped. she read, "this is something the royalty predicted for weeks ahead of time. i thought we could avoid it, but the silvertongue people must have fed me the virus at our last luncheon meeting. then when negotiations remained uncertain--thanks to royalty sentiment on my board--they came visiting while i slept and injected me with a larger dose and planted the projectors. i woke up in awful pain. you were there, young lady--i screamed, silently, with my features. i was unable to raise my head. you wiped blood from my cheeks with your palm and cleaned it on a piece of cotton. you thought it was under water. your eyes turned away before your hand left the projector field--or else you could not see what you could not expect. while i looked on, you treated me like a sleeping baby and asked dr. brooks about radio...." the perforated tape had stopped feeding from the machine. "his tape!" she cried. "don't worry," dr. brooks said. "we're unplugged from the hospital system, but i reserved the only ambulance with its own computer circuit. it conveys limited ideas, but that's better than nothing." big carl had erected the safety gates. "look below," he said. she stood up and pressed her forehead to the latticework of the nearest gate. at first there was only a diamond-shaped patch of sky, with the silvertongue factory in the bottom corner. then, as the platforms swung on its cables, she saw the curved edge of the mushroom, and the administration roof swarming with figures on motorskates. they circled among the squat mountain laurels, pointing upward. the ambulance walls settled around her suddenly blocking the view, and the belly of the vehicle rumbled shut. with a bump, the floor platform was deposited on its girders. dr. brooks said, "we're away--i'll have the pilot phone the others!" "where's the socket?" miss knox asked. "mr. barger and i were talking." dr. brooks plugged into an overhead beam and the mutape immediately began to chatter: "what is your first name, miss knox?" "delia," she said. "pete brooks." "carl," the big man growled as he folded the gates. "call me bill," said mr. barger's tape. mr. barger's square hand motioned her closer beside him. "delia, do you know what we must do when we reach england? we must use the atom bomb first, before the admen have full control. only then may we return to the america we know. the real america." "do the english know?" asked miss knox. "of course," she said. "they heard the broadcasts, and their scientists understood. they have supported our royalty party for years. i think i could increase the range of my device and reach america before they reached england--but there is no time for that. the world must unite against invasion. even the russians know that there is no limit to the scope or methods of greedy marketing specialists"--the machine punched out a pattern of giggles and chuckles--"and i doubt if the russians could ever invent a radiocompressor." "are _all_ the admen part of this?" "absolutely not, young lady! the very great majority has always followed a strict code of ethics that the very small minority has always subverted. many ethical admen are in the birds now, on their way to england--knowing perfectly well that england is poor territory for emotional salesmanship." "but why a royalty party in a democracy?" miss knox asked. "royalty--" the tape showed amusement. "not aristocracy. royalty, as in share of and control over. motto of the royalty party: 'the inventor is worthy of his invention,' meaning the right to say how his discovery shall or shall not be used--or not be used at all, if it can only be destructive--as well as sharing in the proceeds. unreasonable attitudes are not possible; we have an appeals board that can overrule a pig-headed patentee. radiocompressors were intended for beautification of environment, not deception or thought control." "why england?" she persisted. "pretty generally, the royalty code is and has been standard procedure there. like their constitution, it hasn't had to be put in writing." "aren't there slums and unsightly monuments in england, too?" "of course. why do you think they would like to have the invention? but it's safe there; it won't be subverted to thought control and sales engineering.... tell me, delia, is dr. gesner on this ambulance? i would like to meet him." dr. brooks had come back from the control room. he sat beside her on the bed. "dr. gesner went ahead with dr. hamilton," he said, "because you're healthier than either one of them. but, mr. barger--bill--doesn't light-wave interference need two overlapping projectors plus the subliminal image? we only found one." the recorder chattered: "i am sure the other is also somewhere in the bed. it is harmless by itself, and i am glad we have it--it will help me instruct a team of british physicists and engineers. but who is in the other compartment? i hate to play chess with the same people over and over." "i'm afraid he doesn't play," said brooks. "i think it's old boney, who had his throat cut because your friends thought he might get you some help too soon." the recorder punched out, "i would like to meet him," as miss knox jumped from the bed, pulling dr. brooks by the arm. the machine chattered again briefly and she stopped and read, "do not neglect me altogether," and ran on. she opened the door to the other bed compartment. miss erwin fell on her with a cuddly embrace, and then dr. brooks reached over her shoulder to shake miss erwin's hand. "how's the patient?" he asked. across the compartment, boney's face expanded in a three-cornered smile. "at least he slept," said miss erwin. "that poor mr. barger--all the time we thought he was in coma, he was wide awake!" miss knox said, "oh, my god!" * * * * * "i hear more jets!" wailed miss erwin's voice from the other room. "why are they all flying home tonight, and we have to leave? carl, are we--are we a quarter of the way to england?" "no," big carl answered. miss knox called through the doorway, "this one won't let me open the hatch!" hunched across the bed, his hair falling over his forehead, dr. brooks played chess with mr. barger. "not in here," he said. "you can open the emergency hatch in back if you like night air. but don't expect to see the bombers--or anything but our own landing gear." she slid past him and shut herself into the small rear compartment and turned out the light. she felt for the emergency lock and swung her weight backward as the damp black air screamed in and tugged at her face--the whirlybird showed its fat thigh with a _rackety-rackety-rack groundhog_! tears ran down her cheeks, distorting her first view of darkness. beyond the machine's ungainly silhouette she peered and saw flashes of yellow light on water--but nothing, nothing familiar. thus, squinting desperately toward home, she noticed it, marking the horizon. a glowing mushroom. it must have been gigantic. delay in transit by f. l. wallace illustrated by sibley [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from galaxy science fiction september . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] an unprovoked, meaningless night attack is terrifying enough on your own home planet, worse on a world across the galaxy. but the horror is the offer of help that cannot be accepted! "muscles tense," said dimanche. "neural index . , unusually high. adrenalin squirting through his system. in effect, he's stalking you. intent: probably assault with a deadly weapon." "not interested," said cassal firmly, his subvocalization inaudible to anyone but dimanche. "i'm not the victim type. he was standing on the walkway near the brink of the thoroughfare. i'm going back to the habitat hotel and sit tight." "first you have to get there," dimanche pointed out. "i mean, is it safe for a stranger to walk through the city?" "now that you mention it, no," answered cassal. he looked around apprehensively. "where is he?" "behind you. at the moment he's pretending interest in a merchandise display." a native stamped by, eyes brown and incurious. apparently he was accustomed to the sight of an earthman standing alone, adam's apple bobbing up and down silently. it was a godolphian axiom that all travelers were crazy. cassal looked up. not an air taxi in sight; godolph shut down at dusk. it would be pure luck if he found a taxi before morning. of course he _could_ walk back to the hotel, but was that such a good idea? a godolphian city was peculiar. and, though not intended, it was peculiarly suited to certain kinds of violence. a human pedestrian was at a definite disadvantage. "correction," said dimanche. "not simple assault. he has murder in mind." "it still doesn't appeal to me," said cassal. striving to look unconcerned, he strolled toward the building side of the walkway and stared into the interior of a small cafe. warm, bright and dry. inside, he might find safety for a time. damn the man who was following him! it would be easy enough to elude him in a normal city. on godolph, nothing was normal. in an hour the streets would be brightly lighted--for native eyes. a human would consider it dim. "why did he choose me?" asked cassal plaintively. "there must be something he hopes to gain." "i'm working on it," said dimanche. "but remember, i have limitations. at short distances i can scan nervous systems, collect and interpret physiological data. i can't read minds. the best i can do is report what a person says or subvocalizes. if you're really interested in finding out why he wants to kill you, i suggest you turn the problem over to the godawful police." "godolph, not godawful," corrected cassal absently. that was advice he couldn't follow, good as it seemed. he could give the police no evidence save through dimanche. there were various reasons, many of them involving the law, for leaving the device called dimanche out of it. the police would act if they found a body. his own, say, floating face-down on some quiet street. that didn't seem the proper approach, either. "weapons?" "the first thing i searched him for. nothing very dangerous. a long knife, a hard striking object. both concealed on his person." cassal strangled slightly. dimanche needed a good stiff course in semantics. a knife was still the most silent of weapons. a man could die from it. his hand strayed toward his pocket. he had a measure of protection himself. "report," said dimanche. "not necessarily final. based, perhaps, on tenuous evidence." "let's have it anyway." "his motivation is connected somehow with your being marooned here. for some reason you can't get off this planet." that was startling information, though not strictly true. a thousand star systems were waiting for him, and a ship to take him to each one. of course, the one ship he wanted hadn't come in. godolph was a transfer point for stars nearer the center of the galaxy. when he had left earth, he had known he would have to wait a few days here. he hadn't expected a delay of nearly three weeks. still, it wasn't unusual. interstellar schedules over great distances were not as reliable as they might be. was this man, whoever and whatever he might be, connected with that delay? according to dimanche, the man thought he was. he was self-deluded or did he have access to information that cassal didn't? * * * * * denton cassal, sales engineer, paused for a mental survey of himself. he was a good engineer and, because he was exceptionally well matched to his instrument, the best salesman that neuronics, inc., had. on the basis of these qualifications, he had been selected to make a long journey, the first part of which already lay behind him. he had to go to tunney to see a man. that man wasn't important to anyone save the company that employed him, and possibly not even to them. the thug trailing him wouldn't be interested in cassal himself, his mission, which was a commercial one, nor the man on tunney. and money wasn't the objective, if dimanche's analysis was right. what _did_ the thug want? secrets? cassal had none, except, in a sense, dimanche. and that was too well kept on earth, where the instrument was invented and made, for anyone this far away to have learned about it. and yet the thug wanted to kill him. wanted to? regarded him as good as dead. it might pay him to investigate the matter further, if it didn't involve too much risk. "better start moving." that was dimanche. "he's getting suspicious." cassal went slowly along the narrow walkway that bordered each side of that boulevard, the transport tide. it was raining again. it usually was on godolph, which was a weather-controlled planet where the natives like rain. he adjusted the controls of the weak force field that repelled the rain. he widened the angle of the field until water slanted through it unhindered. he narrowed it around him until it approached visibility and the drops bounced away. he swore at the miserable climate and the near amphibians who created it. a few hundred feet away, a godolphian girl waded out of the transport tide and climbed to the walkway. it was this sort of thing that made life dangerous for a human--venice revised, brought up to date in a faster-than-light age. water. it was a perfect engineering material. simple, cheap, infinitely flexible. with a minimum of mechanism and at break-neck speed, the ribbon of the transport tide flowed at different levels throughout the city. the godolphian merely plunged in and was carried swiftly and noiselessly to his destination. whereas a human--cassal shivered. if he were found drowned, it would be considered an accident. no investigation would be made. the thug who was trailing him had certainly picked the right place. the godolphian girl passed. she wore a sleek brown fur, her own. cassal was almost positive she muttered a polite "arf?" as she sloshed by. what she meant by that, he didn't know and didn't intend to find out. "follow her," instructed dimanche. "we've got to investigate our man at closer range." * * * * * obediently, cassal turned and began walking after the girl. attractive in an anthropomorphic, seal-like way, even from behind. not graceful out of her element, though. the would-be assassin was still looking at merchandise as cassal retraced his steps. a man, or at least man type. a big fellow, physically quite capable of violence, if size had anything to do with it. the face, though, was out of character. mild, almost meek. a scientist or scholar. it didn't fit with murder. "nothing," said dimanche disgustedly. "his mind froze when we got close. i could feel his shoulderblades twitching as we passed. anticipated guilt, of course. projecting to you the action he plans. that makes the knife definite." well beyond the window at which the thug watched and waited, cassal stopped. shakily he produced a cigarette and fumbled for a lighter. "excellent thinking," commended dimanche. "he won't attempt anything on this street. too dangerous. turn aside at the next deserted intersection and let him follow the glow of your cigarette." the lighter flared in his hand. "that's one way of finding out," said cassal. "but wouldn't i be a lot safer if i just concentrated on getting back to the hotel?" "i'm curious. turn here." "go to hell," said cassal nervously. nevertheless, when he came to that intersection, he turned there. it was a godolphian equivalent of an alley, narrow and dark, oily slow-moving water gurgling at one side, high cavernous walls looming on the other. he would have to adjust the curiosity factor of dimanche. it was all very well to be interested in the man who trailed him, but there was also the problem of coming out of this adventure alive. dimanche, an electronic instrument, naturally wouldn't consider that. "easy," warned dimanche. "he's at the entrance to the alley, walking fast. he's surprised and pleased that you took this route." "i'm surprised, too," remarked cassal. "but i wouldn't say i'm pleased. not just now." "careful. even subvocalized conversation is distracting." the mechanism concealed within his body was silent for an instant and then continued: "his blood pressure is rising, breathing is faster. at a time like this, he may be ready to verbalize why he wants to murder you. this is critical." "that's no lie," agreed cassal bitterly. the lighter was in his hand. he clutched it grimly. it was difficult not to look back. the darkness assumed an even more sinister quality. "quiet," said dimanche. "he's verbalizing about you." "he's decided i'm a nice fellow after all. he's going to stop and ask me for a light." "i don't think so," answered dimanche. "he's whispering: 'poor devil. i hate to do it. but it's really his life or mine'." "he's more right than he knows. why all this violence, though? isn't there any clue?" "none at all," admitted dimanche. "he's very close. you'd better turn around." * * * * * cassal turned, pressed the stud on the lighter. it should have made him feel more secure, but it didn't. he could see very little. a dim shadow rushed at him. he jumped away from the water side of the alley, barely in time. he could feel the rush of air as the assailant shot by. "hey!" shouted cassal. echoes answered; nothing else did. he had the uncomfortable feeling that no one was going to come to his assistance. "he wasn't expecting that reaction," explained dimanche. "that's why he missed. he's turned around and is coming back." "i'm armed!" shouted cassal. "that won't stop him. he doesn't believe you." cassal grasped the lighter. that is, it had been a lighter a few seconds before. now a needle-thin blade had snapped out and projected stiffly. originally it had been designed as an emergency surgical instrument. a little imagination and a few changes had altered its function, converting it into a compact, efficient stiletto. "twenty feet away," advised dimanche. "he knows you can't see him, but he can see your silhouette by the light from the main thoroughfare. what he doesn't know is that i can detect every move he makes and keep you posted below the level of his hearing." "stay on him," growled cassal nervously. he flattened himself against the wall. "to the right," whispered dimanche. "lunge forward. about five feet. low." sickly, he did so. he didn't care to consider the possible effects of a miscalculation. in the darkness, how far was five feet? fortunately, his estimate was correct. the rapier encountered yielding resistance, the soggy kind: flesh. the tough blade bent, but did not break. his opponent gasped and broke away. "attack!" howled dimanche against the bone behind his ear. "you've got him. he can't imagine how you know where he is in the darkness. he's afraid." attack he did, slicing about wildly. some of the thrusts landed; some didn't. the percentage was low, the total amount high. his opponent fell to the ground, gasped and was silent. cassal fumbled in his pockets and flipped on a light. the man lay near the water side of the alley. one leg was crumpled under him. he didn't move. "heartbeat slow," said dimanche solemnly. "breathing barely perceptible." "then he's not dead," said cassal in relief. foam flecked from the still lips and ran down the chin. blood oozed from cuts on the face. "respiration none, heartbeat absent," stated dimanche. * * * * * horrified, cassal gazed at the body. self-defense, of course, but would the police believe it? assuming they did, they'd still have to investigate. the rapier was an illegal concealed weapon. and they would question him until they discovered dimanche. regrettable, but what could he do about it? suppose he were detained long enough to miss the ship bound for tunney ? grimly, he laid down the rapier. he might as well get to the bottom of this. why had the man attacked? what did he want? "i don't know," replied dimanche irritably. "i can interpret body data--a live body. i can't work on a piece of meat." cassal searched the body thoroughly. miscellaneous personal articles of no value in identifying the man. a clip with a startling amount of money in it. a small white card with something scribbled on it. a picture of a woman and a small child posed against a background which resembled no world cassal had ever seen. that was all. cassal stood up in bewilderment. dimanche to the contrary, there seemed to be no connection between this dead man and his own problem of getting to tunney . right now, though, he had to dispose of the body. he glanced toward the boulevard. so far no one had been attracted by the violence. he bent down to retrieve the lighter-rapier. dimanche shouted at him. before he could react, someone landed on him. he fell forward, vainly trying to grasp the weapon. strong fingers felt for his throat as he was forced to the ground. he threw the attacker off and staggered to his feet. he heard footsteps rushing away. a slight splash followed. whoever it was, he was escaping by way of water. whoever it was. the man he had thought he had slain was no longer in sight. "interpret body data, do you?" muttered cassal. "liveliest dead man i've ever been strangled by." "it's just possible there are some breeds of men who can control the basic functions of their body," said dimanche defensively. "when i checked him, he had no heartbeat." "remind me not to accept your next evaluation so completely," grunted cassal. nevertheless, he was relieved, in a fashion. he hadn't _wanted_ to kill the man. and now there was nothing he'd have to explain to the police. he needed the cigarette he stuck between his lips. for the second time he attempted to pick up the rapier-lighter. this time he was successful. smoke swirled into his lungs and quieted his nerves. he squeezed the weapon into the shape of a lighter and put it away. something, however, was missing--his wallet. the thug had relieved him of it in the second round of the scuffle. persistent fellow. damned persistent. it really didn't matter. he fingered the clip he had taken from the supposedly dead body. he had intended to turn it over to the police. now he might as well keep it to reimburse him for his loss. it contained more money than his wallet had. except for the identification tab he always carried in his wallet, it was more than a fair exchange. the identification, a rectangular piece of plastic, was useful in establishing credit, but with the money he now had, he wouldn't need credit. if he did, he could always send for another tab. a white card fluttered from the clip. he caught it as it fell. curiously he examined it. blank except for one crudely printed word, stab. his unknown assailant certainly had tried. * * * * * the old man stared at the door, an obsolete visual projector wobbling precariously on his head. he closed his eyes and the lettering on the door disappeared. cassal was too far away to see what it had been. the technician opened his eyes and concentrated. slowly a new sign formed on the door. travelers aid bureau murra foray, first counselor it was a drab sign, but, then, it was a dismal, backward planet. the old technician passed on to the next door and closed his eyes again. with a sinking feeling, cassal walked toward the entrance. he needed help and he had to find it in this dingy rathole. inside, though, it wasn't dingy and it wasn't a rathole. more like a maze, an approved scientific one. efficient, though not comfortable. travelers aid was busier than he thought it would be. eventually he managed to squeeze into one of the many small counseling rooms. a woman appeared on the screen, crisp and cool. "please answer everything the machine asks. when the tape is complete, i'll be available for consultation." cassal wasn't sure he was going to like her. "is this necessary?" he asked. "it's merely a matter of information." "we have certain regulations we abide by." the woman smiled frostily. "i can't give you any information until you comply with them." "sometimes regulations are silly," said cassal firmly. "let me speak to the first counselor." "you are speaking to her," she said. her face disappeared from the screen. cassal sighed. so far he hadn't made a good impression. travelers aid bureau, in addition to regulations, was abundantly supplied with official curiosity. when the machine finished with him, cassal had the feeling he could be recreated from the record it had of him. his individuality had been capsuled into a series of questions and answers. one thing he drew the line at--why he wanted to go to tunney was his own business. the first counselor reappeared. age, indeterminate. not, he supposed, that anyone would be curious about it. slightly taller than average, rather on the slender side. face was broad at the brow, narrow at the chin and her eyes were enigmatic. a dangerous woman. * * * * * she glanced down at the data. "denton cassal, native of earth. destination, tunney ." she looked up at him. "occupation, sales engineer. isn't that an odd combination?" her smile was quite superior. "not at all. scientific training as an engineer. special knowledge of customer relations." "special knowledge of a thousand races? how convenient." her eyebrows arched. "i think so," he agreed blandly. "anything else you'd like to know?" "sorry. i didn't mean to offend you." he could believe that or not as he wished. he didn't. "you refused to answer why you were going to tunney . perhaps i can guess. they're the best scientists in the galaxy. you wish to study under them." close--but wrong on two counts. they were good scientists, though not necessarily the best. for instance, it was doubtful that they could build dimanche, even if they had ever thought of it, which was even less likely. there was, however, one relatively obscure research worker on tunney that neuronics wanted on their staff. if the fragments of his studies that had reached earth across the vast distance meant anything, he could help neuronics perfect instantaneous radio. the company that could build a radio to span the reaches of the galaxy with no time lag could set its own price, which could be control of all communications, transport, trade--a galactic monopoly. cassal's share would be a cut of all that. his part was simple, on the surface. he was to persuade that researcher to come to earth, _if he could_. literally, he had to guess the tunnesian's price before the tunnesian himself knew it. in addition, the reputation of tunnesian scientists being exceeded only by their arrogance, cassal had to convince him that he wouldn't be working for ignorant earth savages. the existence of such an instrument as dimanche was a key factor. her voice broke through his thoughts. "now, then, what's your problem?" "i was told on earth i might have to wait a few days on godolph. i've been here three weeks. i want information on the ship bound for tunney ." "just a moment." she glanced at something below the angle of the screen. she looked up and her eyes were grave. "_rickrock c_ arrived yesterday. departed for tunney early this morning." "departed?" he got up and sat down again, swallowing hard. "when will the next ship arrive?" "do you know how many stars there are in the galaxy?" she asked. he didn't answer. * * * * * "that's right," she said. "billions. tunney, according to the notation, is near the center of the galaxy, inside the third ring. you've covered about a third of the distance to it. local traffic, anything within a thousand light-years, is relatively easy to manage. at longer distances, you take a chance. you've had yours and missed it. frankly, cassal, i don't know when another ship bound for tunney will show up on or near godolph. within the next five years--maybe." * * * * * he blanched. "how long would it take to get there using local transportation, star-hopping?" "take my advice: don't try it. five years, if you're lucky." "i don't need that kind of luck." "i suppose not." she hesitated. "you're determined to go on?" at the emphatic nod, she sighed. "if that's your decision, we'll try to help you. to start things moving, we'll need a print of your identification tab." "there's something funny about her," dimanche decided. it was the usual speaking voice of the instrument, no louder than the noise the blood made in coursing through arteries and veins. cassal could hear it plainly, because it was virtually inside his ear. cassal ignored his private voice. "identification tab? i don't have it with me. in fact, i may have lost it." she smiled in instant disbelief. "we're not trying to pry into any part of your past you may wish concealed. however, it's much easier for us to help you if you have your identification. now if you can't _remember_ your real name and where you put your identification--" she arose and left the screen. "just a moment." he glared uneasily at the spot where the first counselor wasn't. his _real_ name! "relax," dimanche suggested. "she didn't mean it as a personal insult." presently she returned. "i have news for you, whoever you are." "cassal," he said firmly. "denton cassal, sales engineer, earth. if you don't believe it, send back to--" he stopped. it had taken him four months to get to godolph, non-stop, plus a six-month wait on earth for a ship to show up that was bound in the right direction. over distances such as these, it just wasn't practical to send back to earth for anything. "i see you understand." she glanced at the card in her hand. "the spaceport records indicate that when _rickrock c_ took off this morning, there was a denton cassal on board, bound for tunney ." "it wasn't i," he said dazedly. he knew who it was, though. the man who had tried to kill him last night. the reason for the attack now became clear. the thug had wanted his identification tab. worse, he had gotten it. "no doubt it wasn't," she said wearily. "outsiders don't seem to understand what galactic travel entails." outsiders? evidently what she called those who lived beyond the second transfer ring. were those who lived at the edge of the galaxy, beyond the first ring, called rimmers? probably. * * * * * she was still speaking: "ten years to cross the galaxy, without stopping. at present, no ship is capable of that. real scheduling is impossible. populations shift and have to be supplied. a ship is taken off a run for repairs and is never put back on. it's more urgently needed elsewhere. the man who depended on it is left waiting; years pass before he learns it's never coming. "if we had instantaneous radio, that would help. confusion wouldn't vanish overnight, but it would diminish. we wouldn't have to depend on ships for all the news. reservations could be made ahead of time, credit established, lost identification replaced--" "i've traveled before," he interrupted stiffly. "i've never had any trouble." she seemed to be exaggerating the difficulties. true, the center was more congested. taking each star as the starting point for a limited number of ships and using statistical probability as a guide--why, no man would arrive at his predetermined destination. but that wasn't the way it worked. manifestly, you couldn't compare galactic transportation to the erratic paths of air molecules in a giant room. or could you? for the average man, anyone who didn't have his own inter-stellar ship, was the comparison too apt? it might be. "you've traveled outside, where there are still free planets waiting to be settled. where a man is welcome, if he's able to work." she paused. "the center is different. populations are excessive. inside the third ring, no man is allowed off a ship without an identification tab. they don't encourage immigration." in effect, that meant no ship bound for the center would take a passenger without identification. no ship owner would run the risk of having a permanent guest on board, someone who couldn't be rid of when his money was gone. cassal held his head in his hands. tunney was inside the third ring. "next time," she said, "don't let anyone take your identification." "i won't," he promised grimly. * * * * * the woman looked directly at him. her eyes were bright. he revised his estimate of her age drastically downward. she couldn't be as old as he. nothing outward had happened, but she no longer seemed dowdy. not that he was interested. still, it might pay him to be friendly to the first counselor. "we're a philanthropic agency," said murra foray. "your case is special, though--" "i understand," he said gruffly. "you accept contributions." she nodded. "if the donor is able to give. we don't ask so much that you'll have to compromise your standard of living." but she named a sum that would force him to do just that if getting to tunney took any appreciable time. he stared at her unhappily. "i suppose it's worth it. i can always work, if i have to." "as a salesman?" she asked. "i'm afraid you'll find it difficult to do business with godolphians." irony wasn't called for at a time like this, he thought reproachfully. "not just another salesman," he answered definitely. "i have special knowledge of customer reactions. i can tell exactly--" he stopped abruptly. was she baiting him? for what reason? the instrument he called dimanche was not known to the galaxy at large. from the business angle, it would be poor policy to hand out that information at random. aside from that, he needed every advantage he could get. dimanche was his special advantage. "anyway," he finished lamely, "i'm a first class engineer. i can always find something in that line." "a scientist, maybe," murmured murra foray. "but in this part of the milky way, an engineer is regarded as merely a technician who hasn't yet gained practical experience." she shook her head. "you'll do better as a salesman." he got up, glowering. "if that's all--" "it is. we'll keep you informed. drop your contribution in the slot provided for that purpose as you leave." a door, which he hadn't noticed in entering the counselling cubicle, swung open. the agency was efficient. "remember," the counselor called out as he left, "identification is hard to work with. don't accept a crude forgery." he didn't answer, but it was an idea worth considering. the agency was also eminently practical. the exit path guided him firmly to an inconspicuous and yet inescapable contribution station. he began to doubt the philanthropic aspect of the bureau. * * * * * "i've got it," said dimanche as cassal gloomily counted out the sum the first counselor had named. "got what?" asked cassal. he rolled the currency into a neat bundle, attached his name, and dropped it into the chute. "the woman, murra foray, the first counselor. she's a huntner." "what's a huntner?" "a sub-race of men on the other side of the galaxy. she was vocalizing about her home planet when i managed to locate her." "any other information?" "none. electronic guards were sliding into place as soon as i reached her. i got out as fast as i could." "i see." the significance of that, if any, escaped him. nevertheless, it sounded depressing. "what i want to know is," said dimanche, "why such precautions as electronic guards? what does travelers aid have that's so secret?" cassal grunted and didn't answer. dimanche could be annoyingly inquisitive at times. cassal had entered one side of a block-square building. he came out on the other side. the agency was larger than he had thought. the old man was staring at a door as cassal came out. he had apparently changed every sign in the building. his work finished, the technician was removing the visual projector from his head as cassal came up to him. he turned and peered. "you stuck here, too?" he asked in the uneven voice of the aged. "stuck?" repeated cassal. "i suppose you can call it that. i'm waiting for my ship." he frowned. he was the one who wanted to ask questions. "why all the redecoration? i thought travelers aid was an old agency. why did you change so many signs? i could understand it if the agency were new." the old man chuckled. "re-organization. the previous first counselor resigned suddenly, in the middle of the night, they say. the new one didn't like the name of the agency, so she ordered it changed." she would do just that, thought cassal. "what about this murra foray?" the old man winked mysteriously. he opened his mouth and then seemed overcome with senile fright. hurriedly he shuffled away. cassal gazed after him, baffled. the old man was afraid for his job, afraid of the first counselor. why he should be, cassal didn't know. he shrugged and went on. the agency was now in motion in his behalf, but he didn't intend to depend on that alone. * * * * * "the girl ahead of you is making unnecessary wriggling motions as she walks," observed dimanche. "several men are looking on with approval. i don't understand." cassal glanced up. they walked that way back in good old l.a. a pang of homesickness swept through him. "shut up," he growled plaintively. "attend to the business at hand." "business? very well," said dimanche. "watch out for the transport tide." cassal swerved back from the edge of the water. murra foray had been right. godolphians didn't want or need his skills, at least not on terms that were acceptable to him. the natives didn't have to exert themselves. they lived off the income provided by travelers, with which the planet was abundantly supplied by ship after ship. still, that didn't alter his need for money. he walked the streets at random while dimanche probed. "ah!" "what is it?" "that man. he crinkles something in his hands. not enough, he is subvocalizing." "i know how he feels," commented cassal. "now his throat tightens. he bunches his muscles. 'i know where i can get more,' he tells himself. he is going there." "a sensible man," declared cassal. "follow him." boldly the man headed toward a section of the city which cassal had not previously entered. he believed opportunity lay there. not for everyone. the shrewd, observant, and the courageous could succeed if--the word that the quarry used was a slang term, unfamiliar to either cassal or dimanche. it didn't matter as long as it led to money. cassal stretched his stride and managed to keep the man in sight. he skipped nimbly over the narrow walkways that curved through the great buildings. the section grew dingier as they proceeded. not slums; not the show-place city frequented by travelers, either. abruptly the man turned into a building. he was out of sight when cassal reached the structure. he stood at the entrance and stared in disappointment. "opportunities inc.," dimanche quoted softly in his ear. "science, thrills, chance. what does that mean?" "it means that we followed a gravity ghost!" "what's a gravity ghost?" "an unexplained phenomena," said cassal nastily. "it affects the instruments of spaceships, giving the illusion of a massive dark body that isn't there." "but you're not a pilot. i don't understand." "you're not a very good pilot yourself. we followed the man to a gambling joint." "gambling," mused dimanche. "well, isn't it an opportunity of a sort? someone inside is thinking of the money he's winning." "the owner, no doubt." dimanche was silent, investigating. "it is the owner," he confirmed finally. "why not go in, anyway. it's raining. and they serve drinks." left unstated was the admission that dimanche was curious, as usual. * * * * * cassal went in and ordered a drink. it was a variable place, depending on the spectator--bright, cheerful, and harmonious if he were winning, garish and depressingly vulgar if he were not. at the moment cassal belonged to neither group. he reserved judgment. an assortment of gaming devices were in operation. one in particular seemed interesting. it involved the counting of electrons passing through an aperture, based on probability. "not that," whispered dimanche. "it's rigged." "but it's not necessary," cassal murmured. "pure chance alone is good enough." "they don't take chances, pure or adulterated. look around. how many godolphians do you see?" cassal looked. natives were not even there as servants. strictly a clip joint, working travelers. unconsciously, he nodded. "that does it. it's not the kind of opportunity i had in mind." "don't be hasty," objected dimanche. "certain devices i can't control. there may be others in which my knowledge will help you. stroll around and sample some games." cassal equipped himself with a supply of coins and sauntered through the establishment, disbursing them so as to give himself the widest possible acquaintance with the layout. "that one," instructed dimanche. it received a coin. in return, it rewarded him with a large shower of change. the money spilled to the floor with a satisfying clatter. an audience gathered rapidly, ostensibly to help him pick up the coins. "there was a circuit in it," explained dimanche. "i gave it a shot of electrons and it paid out." "let's try it again," suggested cassal. "let's not," dimanche said regretfully. "look at the man on your right." cassal did so. he jammed the money back in his pocket and stood up. hastily, he began thrusting the money back into the machine. a large and very unconcerned man watched him. "you get the idea," said dimanche. "it paid off two months ago. it wasn't scheduled for another this year." dimanche scrutinized the man in a multitude of ways while cassal continued play. "he's satisfied," was the report at last. "he doesn't detect any sign of crookedness." "_crookedness?_" "on your part, that is. in the ethics of a gambling house, what's done to insure profit is merely prudence." * * * * * they moved on to other games, though cassal lost his briefly acquired enthusiasm. the possibility of winning seemed to grow more remote. "hold it," said dimanche. "let's look into this." "let me give _you_ some advice," said cassal. "this is one thing we can't win at. every race in the galaxy has a game like this. pieces of plastic with values printed on them are distributed. the trick is to get certain arbitrarily selected sets of values in the plastics dealt to you. it seems simple, but against a skilled player a beginner can't win." "every race in the galaxy," mused dimanche. "what do men call it?" "cards," said cassal, "though there are many varieties within that general classification." he launched into a detailed exposition of the subject. if it were something he was familiar with, all right, but a foreign deck and strange rules-- nevertheless, dimanche was interested. they stayed and observed. the dealer was clumsy. his great hands enfolded the cards. not a godolphian nor quite human, he was an odd type, difficult to place. physically burly, he wore a garment chiefly remarkable for its ill-fitting appearance. a hard round hat jammed closely over his skull completed the outfit. he was dressed in a manner that, somewhere in the universe, was evidently considered the height of fashion. "it doesn't seem bad," commented cassal. "there might be a chance." "look around," said dimanche. "everyone thinks that. it's the classic struggle, person against person and everyone against the house. naturally, the house doesn't lose." "then why are we wasting our time?" "because i've got an idea," said dimanche. "sit down and take a hand." "make up your mind. you said the house doesn't lose." "the house hasn't played against us. sit down. you get eight cards, with the option of two more. i'll tell you what to do." cassal waited until a disconsolate player relinquished his seat and stalked moodily away. he played a few hands and bet small sums in accordance with dimanche's instructions. he held his own and won insignificant amounts while learning. it was simple. nine orders, or suits, of twenty-seven cards each. each suit would build a different equation. the lowest hand was a quadratic. a cubic would beat it. all he had to do was remember his math, guess at what he didn't remember, and draw the right cards. "what's the highest possible hand?" asked dimanche. there was a note of abstraction in his voice, as if he were paying more attention to something else. cassal peeked at the cards that were face-down on the table. he shoved some money into the betting square in front of him and didn't answer. "you had it last time," said dimanche. "a three dimensional encephalocurve. a time modulated brainwave. if you had bet right, you could have owned the house by now." "i did? why didn't you tell me?" "because you had it three successive times. the probabilities against that are astronomical. i've got to find out what's happening before you start betting recklessly." "it's not the dealer," declared cassal. "look at those hands." they were huge hands, more suitable, seemingly, for crushing the life from some alien beast than the delicate manipulation of cards. cassal continued to play, betting brilliantly by the only standard that mattered: he won. * * * * * one player dropped out and was replaced by a recruit from the surrounding crowd. cassal ordered a drink. the waiter was placing it in his hand when dimanche made a discovery. "i've got it!" a shout from dimanche was roughly equivalent to a noiseless kick in the head. cassal dropped the drink. the player next to him scowled but said nothing. the dealer blinked and went on dealing. "what have you got?" asked cassal, wiping up the mess and trying to keep track of the cards. "how he fixes the deck," explained dimanche in a lower and less painful tone. "clever." muttering, cassal shoved a bet in front of him. "look at that hat," said dimanche. "ridiculous, isn't it? but i see no reason to gloat because i have better taste." "that's not what i meant. it's pulled down low over his knobby ears and touches his jacket. his jacket rubs against his trousers, which in turn come in contact with the stool on which he sits." "true," agreed cassal, increasing his wager. "but except for his physique, i don't see anything unusual." "it's a circuit, a visual projector broken down into components. the hat is a command circuit which makes contact, via his clothing, with the broadcasting unit built into the chair. the existence of a visual projector is completely concealed." cassal bit his lip and squinted at his cards. "interesting. what does it have to do with anything?" "the deck," exclaimed dimanche excitedly. "the backs are regular, printed with an intricate design. the front is a special plastic, susceptible to the influence of the visual projector. he doesn't need manual dexterity. he can make any value appear on any card he wants. it will stay there until he changes it." cassal picked up the cards. "i've got a loreenaroo equation. can he change that to anything else?" "he can, but he doesn't work that way. he decides before he deals who's going to get what. he concentrates on each card as he deals it. he can change a hand after a player gets it, but it wouldn't look good." "it wouldn't." cassal wistfully watched the dealer rake in his wager. his winnings were gone, plus. the newcomer to the game won. he started to get up. "sit down," whispered dimanche. "we're just beginning. now that we know what he does and how he does it, we're going to take him." * * * * * the next hand started in the familiar pattern, two cards of fairly good possibilities, a bet, and then another card. cassal watched the dealer closely. his clumsiness was only superficial. at no time were the faces of the cards visible. the real skill was unobservable, of course--the swift bookkeeping that went on in his mind. a duplication in the hands of the players, for instance, would be ruinous. cassal received the last card. "bet high," said dimanche. with trepidation, cassal shoved the money into the betting area. the dealer glanced at his hand and started to sit down. abruptly he stood up again. he scratched his cheek and stared puzzledly at the players around him. gently he lowered himself onto the stool. the contact was even briefer. he stood up in indecision. an impatient murmur arose. he dealt himself a card, looked at it, and paid off all the way around. the players buzzed with curiosity. "what happened?" asked cassal as the next hand started. "i induced a short in the circuit," said dimanche. "he couldn't sit down to change the last card he got. he took a chance, as he had to, and dealt himself a card, anyway." "but he paid off without asking to see what we had." "it was the only thing he could do," explained dimanche. "he had duplicate cards." the dealer was scowling. he didn't seem quite so much at ease. the cards were dealt and the betting proceeded almost as usual. true, the dealer was nervous. he couldn't sit down and stay down. he was sweating. again he paid off. cassal won heavily and he was not the only one. the crowd around them grew almost in a rush. there is an indefinable sense that tells one gambler when another is winning. this time the dealer stood up. his leg contacted the stool occasionally. he jerked it away each time he dealt to himself. at the last card he hesitated. it was amazing how much he could sweat. he lifted a corner of the cards. without indicating what he had drawn, determinedly and deliberately he sat down. the chair broke. the dealer grinned weakly as a waiter brought him another stool. "they still think it may be a defective circuit," whispered dimanche. the dealer sat down and sprang up from the new chair in one motion. he gazed bitterly at the players and paid them. "he had a blank hand," explained dimanche. "he made contact with the broadcasting circuit long enough to erase, but not long enough to put anything in it's place." the dealer adjusted his coat. "i have a nervous disability," he declared thickly. "if you'll pardon me for a few minutes while i take a treatment--" "probably going to consult with the manager," observed cassal. "he is the manager. he's talking with the owner." "keep track of him." * * * * * a blonde, pretty, perhaps even earth-type human, smiled and wriggled closer to cassal. he smiled back. "don't fall for it," warned dimanche. "she's an undercover agent for the house." cassal looked her over carefully. "not much under cover." "but if she should discover--" "don't be stupid. she'll never guess you exist. there's a small lump behind my ear and a small round tube cleverly concealed elsewhere." "all right," sighed dimanche resignedly. "i suppose people will always be a mystery to me." the dealer reappeared, followed by an unobtrusive man who carried a new stool. the dealer looked subtly different, though he was the same person. it took a close inspection to determine what the difference was. his clothing was new, unrumpled, unmarked by perspiration. during his brief absence, he had been furnished with new visual projector equipment, and it had been thoroughly checked out. the house intended to locate the source of the disturbance. mentally, cassal counted his assets. he was solvent again, but in other ways his position was not so good. "maybe," he suggested, "we should leave. with no further interference from us, they might believe defective equipment is the cause of their losses." "maybe," replied dimanche, "you think the crowd around us is composed solely of patrons?" "i see," said cassal soberly. he stretched his legs. the crowd pressed closer, uncommonly aggressive and ill-tempered for mere spectators. he decided against leaving. "let's resume play." the dealer-manager smiled blandly at each player. he didn't suspect any one person--yet. "he might be using an honest deck," said cassal hopefully. "they don't have that kind," answered dimanche. he added absently: "during his conference with the owner, he was given authority to handle the situation in any way he sees fit." bad, but not too bad. at least cassal was opposing someone who had authority to let him keep his winnings, _if he could be convinced_. the dealer deliberately sat down on the stool. testing. he could endure the charge that trickled through him. the bland smile spread into a triumphant one. "while he was gone, he took a sedative," analyzed dimanche. "he also had the strength of the broadcasting circuit reduced. he thinks that will do it." "sedatives wear off," said cassal. "by the time he knows it's me, see that it has worn off. mess him up." * * * * * the game went on. the situation was too much for the others. they played poorly and bet atrociously, on purpose. one by one they lost and dropped out. they wanted badly to win, but they wanted to live even more. the joint was jumping, and so was the dealer again. sweat rolled down his face and there were tears in his eyes. so much liquid began to erode his fixed smile. he kept replenishing it from some inner source of determination. cassal looked up. the crowd had drawn back, or had been forced back by hirelings who mingled with them. he was alone with the dealer at the table. money was piled high around him. it was more than he needed, more than he wanted. "i suggest one last hand," said the dealer-manager, grimacing. it sounded a little stronger than a suggestion. cassal nodded. "for a substantial sum," said the dealer, naming it. miraculously, it was an amount that equaled everything cassal had. again cassal nodded. "pressure," muttered cassal to dimanche. "the sedative has worn off. he's back at the level at which he started. fry him if you have to." the cards came out slowly. the dealer was jittering as he dealt. soft music was lacking, but not the motions that normally accompanied it. cassal couldn't believe that cards could be so bad. somehow the dealer was rising to the occasion. rising and sitting. "there's a nerve in your body," cassal began conversationally, "which, if it were overloaded, would cause you to drop dead." the dealer didn't examine his cards. he didn't have to. "in that event, someone would be arrested for murder," he said. "you." that was the wrong tack; the humanoid had too much courage. cassal passed his hand over his eyes. "you can't do this to men, but, strictly speaking, the dealer's not human. try suggestion on him. make him change the cards. play him like a piano. pizzicato on the nerve strings." dimanche didn't answer; presumably he was busy scrambling the circuits. the dealer stretched out his hand. it never reached the cards. danger: dimanche at work. the smile dropped from his face. what remained was pure anguish. he was too dry for tears. smoke curled up faintly from his jacket. "hot, isn't it?" asked cassal. "it might be cooler if you took off your cap." the cap tinkled to the floor. the mechanism in it was destroyed. what the cards were, they were. now they couldn't be changed. "that's better," said cassal. * * * * * he glanced at his hand. in the interim, it had changed slightly. dimanche had got there. the dealer examined his cards one by one. his face changed color. he sat utterly still on a cool stool. "you win," he said hopelessly. "let's see what you have." the dealer-manager roused himself. "you won. that's good enough for you, isn't it?" cassal shrugged. "you have bank of the galaxy service here. i'll deposit my money with them _before_ you pick up your cards." the dealer nodded unhappily and summoned an assistant. the crowd, which had anticipated violence, slowly began to drift away. "what did you do?" asked cassal silently. "men have no shame," sighed dimanche. "some humanoids do. the dealer was one who did. i forced him to project onto his cards something that wasn't a suit at all." "embarrassing if that got out," agreed cassal. "what did you project?" dimanche told him. cassal blushed, which was unusual for a man. the dealer-manager returned and the transaction was completed. his money was safe in the bank of the galaxy. "hereafter, you're not welcome," said the dealer morosely. "don't come back." cassal picked up the cards without looking at them. "and no accidents after i leave," he said, extending the cards face-down. the manager took them and trembled. "he's an honorable humanoid, in his own way," whispered dimanche. "i think you're safe." it was time to leave. "one question," cassal called back. "what do you call this game?" automatically the dealer started to answer. "why, everyone knows...." he sat down, his mouth open. it was more than time to leave. outside, he hailed an air taxi. no point in tempting the management. "look," said dimanche as the cab rose from the surface of the transport tide. a technician with a visual projector was at work on the sign in front of the gaming house. huge words took shape: warning--no telepaths allowed. there were no such things anywhere, but now there were rumors of them. * * * * * arriving at the habitat wing of the hotel, cassal went directly to his room. he awaited the delivery of the equipment he had ordered and checked through it thoroughly. satisfied that everything was there, he estimated the size of the room. too small for his purpose. he picked up the intercom and dialed services. "put a life stage cordon around my suite," he said briskly. the face opposite his went blank. "but you're an earthman. i thought--" "i know more about my own requirements than your life stage bureau. earthmen do have life stages. you know the penalty if you refuse that service." there were some races who went without sleep for five months and then had to make up for it. others grew vestigial wings for brief periods and had to fly with them or die; reduced gravity would suffice for that. still others-- but the one common feature was always a critical time in which certain conditions were necessary. insofar as there was a universal law, from one end of the galaxy to the other, this was it: the habitat hotel had to furnish appropriate conditions for the maintenance of any life-form that requested it. the godolphian disappeared from the screen. when he came back, he seemed disturbed. "you spoke of a suite. i find that you're listed as occupying one room." "i am. it's too small. convert the rooms around me into a suite." "that's very expensive." "i'm aware of that. check the bank of the galaxy for my credit rating." he watched the process take place. service would be amazingly good from now on. "your suite will be converted in about two hours. the life stage cordon will begin as soon after that as you want. if you tell me how long you'll need it, i can make arrangements now." "about ten hours is all i'll need." cassal rubbed his jaw reflectively. "one more thing. put a perpetual service at the spaceport. if a ship comes in bound for tunney or the vicinity of it, get accommodations on it for me. and hold it until i get ready, no matter what it costs." he flipped off the intercom and promptly went to sleep. hours later, he was awakened by a faint hum. the life stage cordon had just been snapped safely around his newly created suite. "now what?" asked dimanche. "i need an identification tab." "you do. and forgeries are expensive and generally crude, as that huntner woman, murra foray, observed." * * * * * cassal glanced at the equipment. "expensive, yes. not crude when we do it." "_we_ forge it?" dimanche was incredulous. "that's what i said. consider it this way. i've seen my tab a countless number of times. if i tried to draw it as i remember it, it would be inept and wouldn't pass. nevertheless, that memory is in my mind, recorded in neuronic chains, exact and accurate." he paused significantly. "you have access to that memory." "at least partially. but what good does that do?" "visual projector and plastic which will take the imprint. i think hard about the identification as i remember it. you record and feed it back to me while i concentrate on projecting it on the plastic. after we get it down, we change the chemical composition of the plastic. it will then pass everything except destructive analysis, and they don't often do that." dimanche was silent. "ingenious," was its comment. "part of that we can manage, the official engraving, even the electron stamp. that, however, is gross detail. the print of the brain area is beyond our capacity. we can put down what you remember, and you remember what you saw. you didn't see fine enough, though. the general area will be recognizable, but not the fine structure, nor the charges stored there nor their interrelationship." "but we've got to do it," cassal insisted, pacing about nervously. "with more equipment to probe--" "not a chance. i got one life stage cordon on a bluff. if i ask for another, they'll look it up and refuse." "all right," said dimanche, humming. the mechanical attempt at music made cassal's head ache. "i've got an idea. think about the identification tab." cassal thought. "enough," said dimanche. "now poke yourself." "where?" "everywhere," replied dimanche irritably. "one place at a time." cassal did so, though it soon became monotonous. dimanche stopped him. "just above your right knee." "what above my right knee?" "the principal access to that part of your brain we're concerned with," said dimanche. "we can't photomeasure your brain the way it was originally done, but we can investigate it remotely. the results will be simplified, naturally. something like a scale model as compared to the original. a more apt comparison might be that of a relief map to an actual locality." "investigate it remotely?" muttered cassal. a horrible suspicion touched his consciousness. he jerked away from that touch. "what does that mean?" "what it sounds like. stimulus and response. from that i can construct an accurate chart of the proper portion of your brain. our probing instruments will be crude out of necessity, but effective." "i've already visualized those probing instruments," said cassal worriedly. "maybe we'd better work first on the official engraving and the electron stamp, while i'm still fresh. i have a feeling...." "excellent suggestion," said dimanche. cassal gathered the articles slowly. his lighter would burn and it would also cut. he needed a heavy object to pound with. a violent irritant for the nerve endings. something to freeze his flesh.... dimanche interrupted: "there are also a few glands we've got to pick up. see if there's a stimi in the room." "stimi? oh yes, a stimulator. never use the damned things." but he was going to. the next few hours weren't going to be pleasant. nor dull, either. life could be difficult on godolph. * * * * * as soon as the life stage cordon came down, cassal called for a doctor. the native looked at him professionally. "is this a part of the earth life process?" he asked incredulously. gingerly, he touched the swollen and lacerated leg. cassal nodded wearily. "a matter of life and death," he croaked. "if it is, then it is," said the doctor, shaking his head. "i, for one, am glad to be a godolphian." "to each his own habitat," cassal quoted the motto of the hotel. godolphians were clumsy, good-natured caricatures of seals. there was nothing wrong with their medicine, however. in a matter of minutes he was feeling better. by the time the doctor left, the swelling had subsided and the open wounds were fast closing. eagerly, he examined the identification tab. as far as he could tell, it was perfect. what the scanner would reveal was, of course, another matter. he had to check that as best he could without exposing himself. services came up to the suite right after he laid the intercom down. a machine was placed over his head and the identification slipped into the slot. the code on the tab was noted; the machine hunted and found the corresponding brain area. structure was mapped, impulses recorded, scrambled, converted into a ray of light which danced over a film. the identification tab was similarly recorded. there was now a means of comparison. fingerprints could be duplicated--that is, if the race in question had fingers. every intelligence, however much it differed from its neighbors, had a brain, and tampering with that brain was easily detected. each identification tab carried a psychometric number which corresponded to the total personality. alteration of any part of the brain could only subtract from personality index. the technician removed the identification and gave it to cassal. "where shall i send the strips?" "you don't," said cassal. "i have a private message to go with them." "but that will invalidate the process." "i know. this isn't a formal contract." removing the two strips and handing them to cassal, the technician wheeled the machine away. after due thought, cassal composed the message. travelers aid bureau murra foray, first counselor: if you were considering another identification tab for me, don't. as you can see, i've located the missing item. he attached the message to the strips and dropped them into the communication chute. * * * * * he was wiping his whiskers away when the answer came. hastily he finished and wrapped himself, noting but not approving the amused glint in her eyes as she watched. his morals were his own, wherever he went. "denton cassal," she said. "a wonderful job. the two strips were in register within one per cent. the best previous forgery i've seen was six per cent, and that was merely a lucky accident. it couldn't be duplicated. let me congratulate you." his dignity was professional. "i wish you weren't so fond of that word 'forgery.' i told you i mislaid the tab. as soon as i found it, i sent you proof. i want to get to tunney . i'm willing to do anything i can to speed up the process." her laughter tinkled. "you don't _have_ to tell me how you did it or where you got it. i'm inclined to think you made it. you understand that i'm not concerned with legality as such. from time to time the agency has to furnish missing documents. if there's a better way than we have, i'd like to know it." he sighed and shook his head. for some reason, his heart was beating fast. he wanted to say more, but there was nothing to say. when he failed to respond, she leaned toward him. "perhaps you'll discuss this with me. at greater length." "at the agency?" she looked at him in surprise. "have you been sleeping? the agency is closed for the day. the first counselor can't work all the time, you know." sleeping? he grimaced at the remembrance of the self-administered beating. no, he hadn't been sleeping. he brushed the thought aside and boldly named a place. dinner was acceptable. dimanche waited until the screen was dark. the words were carefully chosen. "did you notice," he asked, "that there was no apparent change in clothing and makeup, yet she seemed younger, more attractive?" "i didn't think you could trace her that far." "i can't. i looked at her through your eyes." "don't trust my reaction," advised cassal. "it's likely to be subjective." "i don't," answered dimanche. "it is." * * * * * cassal hummed thoughtfully. dimanche was a business neurological instrument. it didn't follow that it was an expert in human psychology. * * * * * cassal stared at the woman coming toward him. center-of-the-galaxy fashion. decadent, of course, or maybe ultra-civilized. as an outsider, he wasn't sure which. whatever it was, it did to the human body what should have been done long ago. and this body wasn't exactly human. the subtle skirt of proportions betrayed it as an offshoot or deviation from the human race. some of the new sub-races stacked up against the original stock much in the same way cro-magnons did against neanderthals, in beauty, at least. dimanche spoke a single syllable and subsided, an event cassal didn't notice. his consciousness was focused on another discovery: the woman was murra foray. he knew vaguely that the first counselor was not necessarily what she had seemed that first time at the agency. that she was capable of such a metamorphosis was hard to believe, though pleasant to accept. his attitude must have shown on his face. "please," said murra foray. "i'm a huntner. we're adept at camouflage." "huntner," he repeated blankly. "i knew that. but what's a huntner?" she wrinkled her lovely nose at the question. "i didn't expect you to ask that. i won't answer it now." she came closer. "i thought you'd ask which was the camouflage--the person you see here, or the one at the bureau?" he never remembered the reply he made. it must have been satisfactory, for she smiled and drew her fragile wrap closer. the reservations were waiting. dimanche seized the opportunity to speak. "there's something phony about her. i don't understand it and i don't like it." "you," said cassal, "are a machine. you don't have to like it." "that's what i mean. you _have_ to like it. you have no choice." murra foray looked back questioningly. cassal hurried to her side. the evening passed swiftly. food that he ate and didn't taste. music he heard and didn't listen to. geometric light fugues that were seen and not observed. liquor that he drank--and here the sequence ended, in the complicated chemistry of godolphian stimulants. cassal reacted to that smooth liquid, though his physical reactions were not slowed. certain mental centers were depressed, others left wide open, subject to acceleration at whatever speed he demanded. murra foray, in his eyes at least, might look like a dream, the kind men have and never talk about. she was, however, interested solely in her work, or so it seemed. * * * * * "godolph is a nice place," she said, toying with a drink, "if you like rain. the natives seem happy enough. but the galaxy is big and there are lots of strange planets in it, each of which seems ideal to those who are adapted to it. i don't have to tell you what happens when people travel. they get stranded. it's not the time spent in actual flight that's important; it's waiting for the right ship to show up and then having all the necessary documents. believe me, that can be important, as you found out." he nodded. he had. "that's the origin of travelers aid bureau," she continued. "a loose organization, propagated mainly by example. sometimes it's called star travelers aid. it may have other names. the aim, however, is always the same: to see that stranded persons get where they want to go." she looked at him wistfully, appealingly. "that's why i'm interested in your method of creating identification tabs. it's the thing most commonly lost. stolen, if you prefer the truth." she seemed to anticipate his question. "how can anyone use another's identification? it can be done under certain circumstances. by neural lobotomy, a portion of one brain may be made to match, more or less exactly, the code area of another brain. the person operated on suffers a certain loss of function, of course. how great that loss is depends on the degree of similarity between the two brain areas before the operation took place." she ought to know, and he was inclined to believe her. still, it didn't sound feasible. "you haven't accounted for the psychometric index," he said. "i thought you'd see it. that's diminished, too." logical enough, though not a pretty picture. a genius could always be made into an average man or lowered to the level of an idiot. there was no operation, however, that could raise an idiot to the level of a genius. the scramble for the precious identification tabs went on, from the higher to the lower, a game of musical chairs with grim over-tones. she smiled gravely. "you haven't answered my implied question." the company that employed him wasn't anxious to let the secret of dimanche get out. they didn't sell the instrument; they made it for their own use. it was an advantage over their competitors they intended to keep. even on his recommendation, they wouldn't sell to the agency. moreover, it wouldn't help travelers aid bureau if they did. since she was first counselor, it was probable that she'd be the one to use it. she couldn't make identification for anyone except herself, and then only if she developed exceptional skill. the alternative was to surgery it in and out of whoever needed it. when that happened, secrecy was gone. travelers couldn't be trusted. * * * * * he shook his head. "it's an appealing idea, but i'm afraid i can't help you." "meaning you won't." this was intriguing. now it was the agency, not he, who wanted help. "don't overplay it," cautioned dimanche, who had been consistently silent. she leaned forward attentively. he experienced an uneasy moment. was it possible she had noticed his private conversation? of course not. yet-- "please," she said, and the tone allayed his fears. "there's an emergency situation and i've got to attend to it. will you go with me?" she smiled understandingly at his quizzical expression. "travelers aid is always having emergencies." she was rising. "it's too late to go to the bureau. my place has a number of machines with which i keep in touch with the spaceport." "i wonder," said dimanche puzzledly. "she doesn't subvocalize at all. i haven't been able to get a line on her. i'm certain she didn't receive any sort of call. be careful. this might be a trick." "interesting," said cassal. he wasn't in the mood to discuss it. her habitation was luxurious, though cassal wasn't impressed. luxury was found everywhere in the universe. huntner women weren't. he watched as she adjusted the machines grouped at one side of the room. she spoke in a low voice; he couldn't distinguish words. she actuated levers, pressed buttons: impedimenta of communication. at last she finished. "i'm tired. will you wait till i change?" inarticulately, he nodded. "i think her 'emergency' was a fake," said dimanche flatly as soon as she left. "i'm positive she wasn't operating the communicator. she merely went through the motions." "motions," murmured cassal dreamily, leaning back. "and what motions." "i've been watching her," said dimanche. "she frightens me." "i've been watching her, too. maybe in a different way." "get out of here while you can," warned dimanche. "she's dangerous." * * * * * momentarily, cassal considered it. dimanche had never failed him. he ought to follow that advice. and yet there was another explanation. "look," said cassal. "a machine is a machine. but among humans there are men and women. what seems dangerous to you may be merely a pattern of normal behavior...." he broke off. murra foray had entered. strictly from the other side of the galaxy, which she was. a woman can be slender and still be womanly beautiful, without being obvious about it. not that murra disdained the obvious, technically. but he could see through technicalities. the tendons in his hands ached and his mouth was dry, though not with fear. an urgent ringing pounded in his ears. he shook it out of his head and got up. she came to him. the ringing was still in his ears. it wasn't a figment of imagination; it was a real voice--that of dimanche, howling: "huntner! it's a word variant. in their language it means hunter. _she can hear me!_" "hear you?" repeated cassal vacantly. she was kissing him. "a descendant of carnivores. an audio-sensitive. she's been listening to you and me all the time." "of course i have, ever since the first interview at the bureau," said murra. "in the beginning i couldn't see what value it was, but you convinced me." she laid her hand gently over his eyes. "i hate to do this to you, dear, but i've got to have dimanche." she had been smothering him with caresses. now, deliberately, she began smothering him in actuality. cassal had thought he was an athlete. for an earthman, he was. murra foray, however, was a huntner, which meant hunter--a descendant of incredibly strong carnivores. he didn't have a chance. he knew that when he couldn't budge her hands and he fell into the airless blackness of space. * * * * * alone and naked, cassal awakened. he wished he hadn't. he turned over and, though he tried hard not to, promptly woke up again. his body was willing to sleep, but his mind was panicked and disturbed. about what, he wasn't sure. he sat up shakily and held his roaring head in his hands. he ran aching fingers through his hair. he stopped. the lump behind his ear was gone. "dimanche!" he called, and looked at his abdomen. there was a thin scar, healing visibly before his eyes. "dimanche!" he cried again. "dimanche!" there was no answer. dimanche was no longer with him. he staggered to his feet and stared at the wall. she'd been kind enough to return him to his own rooms. at length he gathered enough strength to rummage through his belongings. nothing was missing. money, identification--all were there. he could go to the police. he grimaced as he thought of it. the neighborly godolphian police were hardly a match for the huntner; she'd fake them out of their skins. he couldn't prove she'd taken dimanche. nothing else normally considered valuable was missing. besides, there might even be a local prohibition against dimanche. not by name, of course; but they could dig up an ancient ordinance--invasion of privacy or something like that. anything would do if it gave them an opportunity to confiscate the device for intensive study. for the police to believe his story was the worst that could happen. they might locate dimanche, but he'd never get it. he smiled bitterly and the effort hurt. "dear," she had called him as she had strangled and beaten him into unconsciousness. afterward singing, very likely, as she had sliced the little instrument out of him. he could picture her not very remote ancestors springing from cover and overtaking a fleeing herd-- no use pursuing that line of thought. why did she want dimanche? she had hinted that the agency wasn't always concerned with legality as such. he could believe her. if she wanted it for making identification tabs, she'd soon find that it was useless. not that that was much comfort--she wasn't likely to return dimanche after she'd made that discovery. * * * * * for that matter, what was the purpose of travelers aid bureau? it was a front for another kind of activity. philanthropy had nothing to do with it. if he still had possession of dimanche, he'd be able to find out. everything seemed to hinge on that. with it, he was nearly a superman, able to hold his own in practically all situations--anything that didn't involve a huntner woman, that is. without it--well, tunney was still far away. even if he should manage to get there without it, his mission on the planet was certain to fail. he dismissed the idea of trying to recover it immediately from murra foray. she was an audio-sensitive. at twenty feet, unaided, she could hear a heartbeat, the internal noise muscles made in sliding over each other. with dimanche, she could hear electrons rustling. as an antagonist she was altogether too formidable. * * * * * he began pulling on his clothing, wincing as he did so. the alternative was to make another dimanche. _if_ he could. it would be a tough job even for a neuronic expert familiar with the process. he wasn't that expert, but it still had to be done. the new instrument would have to be better than the original. maybe not such a slick machine, but more comprehensive. more wallop. he grinned as he thought hopefully about giving murra foray a surprise. ignoring his aches and pains, he went right to work. with money not a factor, it was an easy matter to line up the best electronic and neuron concerns on godolph. two were put on a standby basis. when he gave them plans, they were to rush construction at all possible speed. each concern was to build a part of the new instrument. neither part was of value without the other. the slow-thinking godolphians weren't likely to make the necessary mental connection between the seemingly unrelated projects. he retired to his suite and began to draw diagrams. it was harder than he thought. he knew the principles, but the actual details were far more complicated than he remembered. functionally, the dimanche instrument was divided into three main phases. there was a brain and memory unit that operated much as the human counterpart did. unlike the human brain, however, it had no body to control, hence more of it was available for thought processes. entirely neuronic in construction, it was far smaller than an electronic brain of the same capacity. the second function was electronic, akin to radar. instead of material objects, it traced and recorded distant nerve impulses. it could count the heartbeat, measure the rate of respiration, was even capable of approximate analysis of the contents of the bloodstream. properly focused on the nerves of tongue, lips or larynx, it transmitted that data back to the neuronic brain, which then reconstructed it into speech. lip reading, after a fashion, carried to the ultimate. finally, there was the voice of dimanche, a speaker under the control of the neuronic brain. for convenience of installation in the body, dimanche was packaged in two units. the larger package was usually surgeried into the abdomen. the small one, containing the speaker, was attached to the skull just behind the ear. it worked by bone conduction, allowing silent communication between operator and instrument. a real convenience. it wasn't enough to know this, as cassal did. he'd talked to the company experts, had seen the symbolical drawings, the plans for an improved version. he needed something better than the best though, that had been planned. the drawback was this: _dimanche was powered directly by the nervous system of the body in which it was housed_. against murra foray, he'd be over-matched. she was stronger than he physically, probably also in the production of nervous energy. one solution was to make available to the new instrument a larger fraction of the neural currents of the body. that was dangerous--a slight miscalculation and the user was dead. yet he had to have an instrument that would overpower her. cassal rubbed his eyes wearily. how could he find some way of supplying additional power? abruptly, cassal sat up. that was the way, of course--an auxiliary power pack that need not be surgeried into his body, extra power that he would use only in emergencies. neuronics, inc., had never done this, had never thought that such an instrument would ever be necessary. they didn't need to overpower their customers. they merely wanted advance information via subvocalized thoughts. it was easier for cassal to conceive this idea than to engineer it. at the end of the first day, he knew it would be a slow process. twice he postponed deadlines to the manufacturing concerns he'd engaged. he locked himself in his rooms and took anti-sleep against the doctor's vigorous protests. in one week he had the necessary drawings, crude but legible. an expert would have to make innumerable corrections, but the intent was plain. one week. during that time murra foray would be growing hourly more proficient in the use of dimanche. * * * * * cassal followed the neuronics expert groggily, seventy-two hours sleep still clogging his reactions. not that he hadn't needed sleep after that week. the godolphian showed him proudly through the shops, though he wasn't at all interested in their achievements. the only noteworthy aspect was the grand scale of their architecture. "we did it, though i don't think we'd have taken the job if we'd known how hard it was going to be," the neuronics expert chattered. "it works exactly as you specified. we had to make substitutions, of course, but you understand that was inevitable." he glanced anxiously at cassal, who nodded. that was to be expected. components that were common on earth wouldn't necessarily be available here. still, any expert worth his pay could always make the proper combinations and achieve the same results. inside the lab, cassal frowned. "i thought you were keeping my work separate. what is this planetary drive doing here?" the godolphian spread his broad hands and looked hurt. "planetary drive?" he tried to laugh. "this is the instrument you ordered!" cassal started. it was supposed to fit under a flap of skin behind his ear. a three world saurian couldn't carry it. he turned savagely on the expert. "i told you it had to be small." "but it is. i quote your orders exactly: 'i'm not familiar with your system of measurement, but make it tiny, very tiny. figure the size you think it will have to be and cut it in half. and then cut _that_ in half.' this is the fraction remaining." it certainly was. cassal glanced at the godolphian's hands. excellent for swimming. no wonder they built on a grand scale. broad, blunt, webbed hands weren't exactly suited for precision work. valueless. completely valueless. he knew now what he would find at the other lab. he shook his head in dismay, personally saw to it that the instrument was destroyed. he paid for the work and retrieved the plans. back in his rooms again, he sat and thought. it was still the only solution. if the godolphians couldn't do it, he'd have to find some race that could. he grabbed the intercom and jangled it savagely. in half an hour he had a dozen leads. the best seemed to be the spirella. a small, insectlike race, about three feet tall, they were supposed to have excellent manual dexterity, and were technically advanced. they sounded as if they were acquainted with the necessary fields. three light-years away, they could be reached by readily available local transportation within the day. their idea of what was small was likely to coincide with his. he didn't bother to pack. the suite would remain his headquarters. home was where his enemies were. he made a mental correction--enemy. * * * * * he rubbed his sensitive ear, grateful for the discomfort. his stomach was sore, but it wouldn't be for long. the spirella had made the new instrument just as he had wanted it. they had built an even better auxiliary power unit than he had specified. he fingered the flat cases in his pocket. in an emergency, he could draw on these, whereas murra foray would be limited to the energy in her nervous system. what he had now was hardly the same instrument. a military version of it, perhaps. it didn't seem right to use the same name. call it something staunch and crisp, suggestive of raw power. manche. as good a name as any. manche against dimanche. cassal against a queen. he swung confidently along the walkway beside the transport tide. it was raining. he decided to test the new instrument. the godolphian across the way bent double and wondered why his knees wouldn't work. they had suddenly become swollen and painful to move. maybe it was the climate. and maybe it wasn't, thought cassal. eventually the pain would leave, but he hadn't meant to be so rough on the native. he'd have to watch how he used manche. he scouted the vicinity of travelers aid bureau, keeping at least one building between him and possible detection. purely precautionary. there was no indication that murra foray had spotted him. for a huntner, she wasn't very alert, apparently. he sent manche out on exploration at minimum strength. the electronic guards which dimanche had spoken of were still in place. manche went through easily and didn't disturb an electron. behind the guards there was no trace of the first counselor. he went closer. still no warning of danger. the same old technician shuffled in front of the entrance. a horrible thought hit him. it was easy enough to verify. another "reorganization" _had_ taken place. the new sign read: star travelers aid bureau stab _your hour of need_ delly mortinbras, first counselor cassal leaned against the building, unable to understand what it was that frightened and bewildered him. then it gradually became, if not clear, at least not quite so muddy. stab was the word that had been printed on the card in the money clip that his assailant in the alley had left behind. cassal had naturally interpreted it as an order to the thug. it wasn't, of course. the first time cassal had visited the travelers aid bureau, it had been in the process of reorganization. the only purpose of the reorganization, he realized now, had been to change the name so he wouldn't translate the word on the slip into the original initials of the bureau. now it probably didn't matter any more whether or not he knew, so the name had been changed back to star travelers aid bureau--stab. that, he saw bitterly, was why murra foray had been so positive that the identification tab he'd made with the aid of dimanche had been a forgery. _she had known the man who robbed cassal of the original one, perhaps had even helped him plan the theft._ * * * * * that didn't make sense to cassal. yet it had to. he'd suspected the organization of being a racket, but it obviously wasn't. by whatever name it was called, it actually was dedicated to helping the stranded traveler. the question was--which travelers? there must be agency operatives at the spaceport, checking every likely prospect who arrived, finding out where they were going, whether their papers were in order. then, just as had happened to cassal, the prospect was robbed of his papers so somebody stranded here could go on to that destination! the shabby, aging technician finished changing the last door sign and hobbled over to cassal. he peered through the rain and darkness. "you stuck here, too?" he quavered. "no," said cassal with dignity, shaky dignity. "i'm not stuck. i'm here because i want to be." "you're crazy," declared the old man. "i remember--" cassal didn't wait to find out what it was he remembered. an impossible land, perhaps, a planet which swings in perfect orbit around an ideal sun. a continent which reared a purple mountain range to hold up a honey sky. people with whom anyone could relax easily and without worry or anxiety. in short, his own native world from which, at night, all the constellations were familiar. somehow, cassal managed to get back to his suite, tumbled wearily onto his bed. the show-down wasn't going to take place. everyone connected with the agency--including murra foray--had been "stuck here" for one reason or another: no identification tab, no money, whatever it was. that was the staff of the bureau, a pack of desperate castaways. the "philanthropy" extended to them and nobody else. they grabbed their tabs and money from the likeliest travelers, leaving them marooned here--and they in turn had to join the bureau and use the same methods to continue their journeys through the galaxy. it was an endless belt of stranded travelers robbing and stranding other travelers, who then had to rob and strand still others, and so on and on.... * * * * * cassal didn't have a chance of catching up with murra foray. she had used the time--and dimanche--to create her own identification tab and escape. she was going back to kettikat, home of the huntners, must already be light-years away. or was she? the signs on the bureau had just been changed. perhaps the ship was still in the spaceport, or cruising along below the speed of light. he shrugged defeatedly. it would do him no good; he could never get on board. he got up suddenly on one elbow. he couldn't, but manche could! unlike his old instrument, it could operate at tremendous distances, its power no longer dependent only on his limited nervous energy. with calculated fury, he let manche strike out into space. "there you are!" exclaimed murra foray. "i thought you could do it." "did you?" he asked coldly. "where are you now?" "leaving the atmosphere, if you can call the stuff around this planet an atmosphere." "it's not the atmosphere that's bad," he said as nastily as he could. "it's the philanthropy." "please don't feel that way," she appealed. "huntners are rather unusual people, i admit, but sometimes even we need help. i had to have dimanche and i took it." "at the risk of killing me." her amusement was strange; it held a sort of sadness. "i didn't hurt you. i couldn't. you were too cute, like a--well, the animal native to kettikat that would be called a teddy bear on earth. a cute, lovable teddy bear." "teddy bear," he repeated, really stung now. "careful. this one may have claws." "long claws? long enough to reach from here to kettikat?" she was laughing, but it sounded thin and wistful. manche struck out at cassal's unspoken command. the laughter was canceled. "now you've done it," said dimanche. "she's out cold." there was no reason for remorse; it was strange that he felt it. his throat was dry. "so you, too, can communicate with me. through manche, of course. i built a wonderful instrument, didn't i?" "a fearful one," said dimanche sternly. "she's unconscious." "i heard you the first time." cassal hesitated. "is she dead?" dimanche investigated. "of course not. a little thing like that wouldn't hurt her. her nerve system is marvelous. i think it could carry current for a city. beautiful!" "i'm aware of the beauty," said cassal. * * * * * an awkward silence followed. dimanche broke it. "now that i know the facts, i'm proud to be her chosen instrument. her need was greater than yours." cassal growled, "as first counselor, she had access to every--" "don't interrupt with your half truths," said dimanche. "huntners _are_ special; their brain structure, too. not necessarily better, just different. only the auditory and visual centers of their brains resemble that of man. you can guess the results of even superficial tampering with those parts of her mind. and stolen identification would involve lobotomy." he could imagine? cassal shook his head. no, he couldn't. a blinded and deaf murra foray would not go back to the home of the huntners. according to her racial conditioning, a sightless young tiger should creep away and die. again there was silence. "no, she's not pretending unconsciousness," announced dimanche. "for a moment i thought--but never mind." the conversation was lasting longer than he expected. the ship must be obsolete and slow. there were still a few things he wanted to find out, if there was time. "when are you going on drive?" he asked. "we've been on it for some time," answered dimanche. "repeat that!" said cassal, stunned. "i said that we've been on faster-than-light drive for some time. is there anything wrong with that?" nothing wrong with that at all. theoretically, there was only one means of communicating with a ship hurtling along faster than light, and that way hadn't been invented. _hadn't been until he had put together the instrument he called manche._ unwittingly, he had created far more than he intended. he ought to have felt elated. dimanche interrupted his thoughts. "i suppose you know what she thinks of you." "she made it plain enough," said cassal wearily. "a teddy bear. a brainless, childish toy." "among the huntners, women are vigorous and aggressive," said dimanche. the voice grew weaker as the ship, already light-years away, slid into unfathomable distances. "where words are concerned, morals are very strict. for instance, 'dear' is never used unless the person means it. huntner men are weak and not over-burdened with intelligence." the voice was barely audible, but it continued: "the principal romantic figure in the dreams of women...." dimanche failed altogether. "manche!" cried cassal. manche responded with everything it had. "... is the teddy bear." the elation that had been missing, and the triumph, came now. it was no time for hesitation, and cassal didn't hesitate. their actions had been directed against each other, but their emotions, which each had tried to ignore, were real and strong. the gravitor dropped him to the ground floor. in a few minutes, cassal was at the travelers aid bureau. correction. now it was star travelers aid bureau. and, though no one but himself knew it, even that was wrong. quickly he found the old technician. "there's been a reorganization," said cassal bluntly. "i want the signs changed." the old man drew himself up. "who are you?" "i've just elected myself," said cassal. "i'm the new first counselor." he hoped no one would be foolish enough to challenge him. he wanted an organization that could function immediately, not a hospital full of cripples. the old man thought about it. he was merely a menial, but he had been with the bureau for a long time. he was nobody, nothing, but he could recognize power when it was near him. he wiped his eyes and shambled out into the fine cold rain. swiftly the new signs went up. star travelers aid bureau s. t. a. _with us_ denton cassal, first counselor * * * * * cassal sat at the control center. every question cubicle was visible at a glance. in addition there was a special panel, direct from the spaceport, which recorded essential data about every newly arrived traveler. he could think of a few minor improvements, but he wouldn't have time to put them into effect. he'd mention them to his assistant, a man with a fine, logical mind. not really first-rate, of course, but well suited to his secondary position. every member quickly rose or sank to his proper level in this organization, and this one had, without a struggle. business was dull. the last few ships had brought travelers who were bound for unimaginably dreary destinations, nothing he need be concerned with. he thought about the instrument. it was the addition of power that made the difference. dimanche plus power equaled manche, and manche raised the user far above the level of other men. there was little to fear. but essentially the real value of manche lay in this--it was a beginning. through it, he had communicated with a ship traveling far faster than light. the only one instrument capable of that was instantaneous radio. actually it wasn't radio, but the old name had stuck to it. manche was really a very primitive model of instantaneous radio. it was crude; all first steps were. limited in range, it was practically valueless for that purpose now. eventually the range would be extended. hitch a neuronic manufactured brain to human one, add the power of a tiny atomic battery, and manche was created. the last step was his share of the invention. or maybe the credit belonged to murra foray. if she hadn't stolen dimanche, it never would have been necessary to put together the new instrument. the stern lines on his face relaxed. murra foray. he wondered about the marriage customs of the huntners. he hoped marriage was a custom on kettikat. cassal leaned back; officially, his mission was complete. there was no longer any need to go to tunney . the scientist he was sent to bring back might as well remain there in obscure arrogance. cassal knew he should return to earth immediately. but the galaxy was wide and there were lots of places to go. only one he was interested in, though--kettikat, as far from the center of the galaxy as earth, but in the opposite direction, incredibly far away in terms of trouble and transportation. it would be difficult even for a man who had the services of manche. cassal glanced at the board. someone wanted to go to zombo. "delly," he called to his assistant. "try . this may be what you want to get back to your own planet." delly mortinbras nodded gratefully and cut in. cassal continued scanning. there was more to it than he imagined, though he was learning fast. it wasn't enough to have identification, money, and a destination. the right ship might come in with standing room only. someone had to be "persuaded" that godolph was a cozy little place, as good as any for an unscheduled stopover. it wouldn't change appreciably during his lifetime. there were too many billions of stars. first he had to perfect it, isolate from dependence on the human element, and then there would come the installation. a slow process, even with murra to help him. someday he would go back to earth. he should be welcome. the information he was sending back to his former employers, neuronics, inc., would more than compensate them for the loss of dimanche. suddenly he was alert. a report had just come in. once upon a time, he thought tenderly, scanning the report, there was a teddy bear that could reach to kettikat. with claws--but he didn't think they would be needed. [transcriber's note: underscores are used as delimiter for _italics_. small capitals have been transcribed as all capitals.] boys' second book of inventions [illustration: g. marconi] boys' second book of inventions by ray stannard baker _author of boys' book of inventions, seen in germany_ [illustration] fully illustrated [illustration] new york doubleday, page & company mcmix _copyright, , by_ mcclure, phillips & co. published, november, , n table of contents chapter i page the miracle of radium story of the marvels and dangers of the new element discovered by professor and madame curie. chapter ii flying machines santos-dumont's steerable balloons. chapter iii the earthquake measurer professor john milne's seismograph. chapter iv electrical furnaces how the hottest heat is produced--making diamonds. chapter v harnessing the sun the solar motor. chapter vi the inventor and the food problem fixing of nitrogen--experiments of professor nobbe. chapter vii marconi and his great achievements new experiments in wireless telegraphy. chapter viii sea-builders the story of lighthouse building--stone-tower lighthouses, iron pile lighthouses, and steel cylinder lighthouses. chapter ix the newest electric light peter cooper hewitt and his three great inventions --the mercury arc light--the new electrical converter--the hewitt interrupter. list of illustrations page guglielmo marconi _frontispiece_ m. curie explaining the wonders of radium at the sorbonne dr. danlos treating a lupus patient with radium at the st. louis hospital, paris radium as a test for real diamonds _at the approach of radium pure gems are thrown into great brilliancy, while imitations remain dull._ m. and mme. curie finishing the preparation of some radium m. alberto santos-dumont severo's balloon, the "pax," which on its first ascent at a height of about , feet, burst and exploded, sending to a terrible death both m. severo and his assistant the trial of count zeppelin's air-ship, july , m. santos-dumont at nineteen m. santos-dumont's first balloon (spherical) m. santos-dumont's workshop "santos-dumont no.  " basket of "santos-dumont no.  " _showing propeller and motor._ "santos-dumont no.  " _showing how it began to fold up in the middle._ "santos-dumont no.  " rounding eiffel tower, july , the interior of the aërodrome _showing its construction, the inflated balloon, and the pennant with its mystic letters._ the fall into the courtyard of the trocadero hotel "_santos-dumont no.  ._" "santos-dumont no.  "--the prize winner air-ship pointing almost vertically upward falling to the sea just before the air-ship lost all its gas losing its gas and sinking the balloon falling to the waves boats around the ruined air-ship manoeuvring above the bay at monte carlo professor john milne _from a photograph by s. suzuki, kudanzaka, tokio._ professor milne's sensitive pendulum, or seismograph, as it appears enclosed in its protecting box the sensitive pendulum, or seismograph, as it appears with the protecting box removed gifu, japan, after the earthquake of _this and the pictures following on pages , , , are from japanese photographs reproduced in "the great earthquake in japan, ," by john milne and w. k. burton._ the work of the great earthquake of in neo valley, japan diagram showing vertical and horizontal sections of the more sensitive of professor milne's two pendulums, or seismographs seismogram of a borneo earthquake that occurred september , effect of the great earthquake of on the nagara gawa railway bridge, japan pieces of a submarine cable picked up in the gulf of mexico in _the kinks are caused by seismic disturbances, and they show how much distortion a cable can suffer and still remain in good electrical condition, as this was found to be._ record made on a stationary surface by the vibrations of the japanese earthquake of july , _showing the complicated character of the motion (common to most earthquakes), and also the course of a point at the centre of disturbance._ table of temperatures mr. e. g. acheson, one of the pioneers in the investigation of high temperatures the furnace-room, where carborundum is made "_a great, dingy brick building, open at the sides like a shed._" taking off a crust of the furnace at night _the light is so intense that you cannot look at it without hurting the eyes._ the interior of a furnace as it appears after the carborundum has been taken out blowing off "_not infrequently gas collects, forming a miniature mountain, with a crater at its summit, and blowing a magnificent fountain of flame, lava, and dense white vapour high into the air, and roaring all the while in a most terrifying manner._" side view of the solar motor front view of the los angeles solar motor the brilliant steam boiler glistens in the centre the rear machinery for operating the reflector trees growing in water at professor nobbe's laboratory experimenting with nitrogen in professor nobbe's laboratory mr. charles s. bradley mr. d. r. lovejoy eight-inch , -volt arcs burning the air for fixing nitrogen machine for burning the air with electric arcs so as to produce nitrates marconi. the sending of an epoch-making message _january , , marks the beginning of a new era in telegraphic communication. on that day there was sent by marconi himself from the wireless station at south wellfleet, cape cod, mass., to the station at poldhu, cornwall, england, a distance of , miles, the message--destined soon to be historic--from the president of the united states to the king of england._ preparing to fly the kite which supported the receiving wire _marconi on the extreme left._ mr. marconi and his assistants in newfoundland: mr. kemp on the left, mr. paget on the right _they are sitting on a balloon basket, with one of the baden-powell kites in the background._ marconi transatlantic station at wellfleet, cape cod, mass. at poole, england nearer view, south foreland station alum bay station, isle of wight marconi room, s.s. philadelphia transatlantic high power, marconi station at glace bay, nova scotia work on the smith point lighthouse stopped by a violent storm _just after the cylinder had been set in place, and while the workmen were hurrying to stow sufficient ballast to secure it against a heavy sea, a storm forced the attending steamer to draw away. one of the barges was almost overturned, and a lifeboat was driven against the cylinder and crushed to pieces._ robert stevenson, builder of the famous bell rock lighthouse, and author of important inventions and improvements in the system of sea lighting _from a bust by joseph, now in the library of bell rock lighthouse._ the bell rock lighthouse, on the eastern coast of scotland _from the painting by turner. the bell rock lighthouse was built by robert stevenson, grandfather of robert louis stevenson, on the inchcape reef, in the north sea, near dundee, scotland, in - ._ the present lighthouse on minot's ledge, near the entrance of massachusetts bay, fifteen miles southeast of boston "_rising sheer out of the sea, like a huge stone cannon, mouth upward._"--longfellow. the lighthouse on stannard rock, lake superior _this is a stone-tower lighthouse, similar in construction to the one built with such difficulty on spectacle reef, lake huron._ the fowey rocks lighthouse, florida fourteen-foot bank light station, delaware bay, del. the great beds light station, raritan bay, n. j. _a specimen of iron cylinder construction._ a storm at the tillamook lighthouse, in the pacific, one mile out from tillamook head, oregon saving the cylinder of the lighthouse at smith point, chesapeake bay, from being swamped in a high sea _when the builders were towing the unwieldy cylinder out to set it in position, the water became suddenly rough and began to fill it. workmen, at the risk of their lives, boarded the cylinder, and by desperate labours succeeded in spreading sail canvas over it, and so saved a structure that had cost months of labour and thousands of dollars._ great waves dashed entirely over them, so that they had to cling for their lives to the air-pipes _in erecting the smith point lighthouse, after the cylinder was set up, it had to be forced down fifteen and a half feet into the sand. the lives of the men who did this, working in the caisson at the bottom of the sea, were absolutely in the hands of the men who managed the engine and the air-compressor at the surface; and twice these latter were entirely deluged by the sea, but still maintained steam and kept everything running as if no sea was playing over them._ peter cooper hewitt _with his interrupter._ watching a test of the hewitt converter _lord kelvin in the centre._ the hewitt mercury vapour light _the circular piece just above the switch button is one form of "boosting coil" which operates for a fraction of a second when the current is first turned on. the tube shown here is about an inch in diameter and several feet long. various shapes may be used. unless broken, the tubes never need renewal._ testing a hewitt converter _the row of incandescent lights is used, together with a voltmeter and ammeter, to measure strength of current, resistance, and loss in converting._ boys' second book of inventions chapter i the miracle of radium _story of the marvels and dangers of the new element discovered by professor and madame curie_ no substance ever discovered better deserves the term "miracle of science," given it by a famous english experimenter, than radium. here is a little pinch of white powder that looks much like common table salt. it is one of many similar pinches sealed in little glass tubes and owned by professor curie, of paris. if you should find one of these little tubes in the street you would think it hardly worth carrying away, and yet many a one of them could not be bought for a small fortune. for all the radium in the world to-day could be heaped on a single table-spoon; a pound of it would be worth nearly a million dollars, or more than three thousand times its weight in pure gold. professor and madame curie, who discovered radium, now possess the largest amount of any one, but there are small quantities in the hands of english and german scientists, and perhaps a dozen specimens in america, one owned by the american museum of natural history and several by mr. w. j. hammer, of new york, who was the first american to experiment with the rare and precious substance. [illustration: m. curie explaining the wonders of radium at the sorbonne.] and perhaps it is just as well, at first, not to have too much radium, for besides being wonderful it is also dangerous. if a pound or two could be gathered in a mass it would kill every one who came within its influence. people might go up and even handle the white powder without at the moment feeling any ill-effects, but in a week or two the mysterious and dreadful radium influence would begin to take effect. slowly the victim's skin would peel off, his body would become one great sore, he would fall blind, and finally die of paralysis and congestion of the spinal cord. even the small quantities now in hand have severely burned the experimenters. professor curie himself has a number of bad scars on his hands and arms due to ulcers caused by handling radium. and professor becquerel, in journeying to london, carried in his waistcoat pocket a small tube of radium to be used in a lecture there. nothing happened at the time, but about two weeks later professor becquerel observed that the skin under his pocket was beginning to redden and fall away, and finally a deep and painful sore formed there and remained for weeks before healing. it is just as well, therefore, that scientists learn more about radium and how to handle and control it before too much is manufactured. but the cost and danger of radium are only two of its least extraordinary features. seen in the daylight radium is a commonplace white powder, but in the dark it glows like live fire, and the purer it is the more it glows. i held for a moment one of mr. hammer's radium tubes, and, the lights being turned off, it seemed like a live coal burning there in my hand, and yet i felt no sensation of heat. but radium really does give off heat as well as light--and gives it off continually _without losing appreciable weight_. and that is what seems to scientists a miracle. imagine a coal which should burn day in and day out for hundreds of years, always bright, always giving off heat and light, and yet not growing any smaller, not turning to ashes. that is the almost unbelievable property of radium. professor curie has specimens which have thus been radiating light and heat for several years, with practically no loss of weight; and no small amount of light and heat either. professor curie has found that a given quantity of radium will melt its own weight of ice every hour, and continue doing so practically for ever. one of his associates has calculated that a fixed quantity of radium, after throwing out heat for , , , years, would have lost only one-millionth part of its bulk. what is the reason for these extraordinary properties? is it not "perpetual motion"? all the great scientists of the world have been trying in vain to answer these questions. several theories have been advanced, of which i shall speak later, but none seems a satisfactory explanation. when we know more of radium perhaps we shall be better prepared to say what it really is, and we may have to unlearn many of the great principles of physics and chemistry which were seemingly settled for all time. radium would seem, indeed, to defy the very law of the conservation of energy. the practical mind at once sees radium in use as a new source of heat and light for mankind, a furnace that would never have to be fed or cleaned, a lamp that would glow perpetually--and the time may really come, the inventor having taken hold of the wonder that the scientist has produced, when many practical applications of the new element may be devised. at present, however, the scarcity and cost and danger of radium will keep it in the hands of the experimenter. another astonishing property of radium is its power of communicating some of its strange qualities to certain substances brought within its influence. mr. hammer kept his radium tubes for a time in a pasteboard box. this being broken, he removed the tubes and threw the pasteboard aside. several days later, having occasion to turn off the lights in the laboratory, he found that the discarded box was glowing there in the dark. it had taken up some of the rays from the radium. nearly everything that comes in contact with radium thus becomes "radio-active"--even the experimenter's clothes and hands, so that delicate instruments are disturbed by the invisible shine of the experimenter. photographs can be taken with radium; it also makes the air around it a better conductor of electricity. and still more marvellous, besides being an agency for the destruction of life, as i shall show later, it can actually be used in other ways to prolong life, and the future may show many wonderful uses for it in the treatment of disease. already, in paris, several cases of lupus have been cured with it, and there is evidence that it will help to restore sight in certain cases of blindness. i held a tube of radium to my closed eye and was conscious of the sensation of light; the same sensation was present when the tube was held to my temple, thus showing that the radium has an effect on the optic nerve. a little blind girl in new york, who had never had the sensation of light, began to see a little after one treatment with radium, and experiments are still going on, but cautiously, for fear that injuries may result. we now come to the fascinating story of the discovery and manufacture of radium. it has long been known that certain substances are phosphorescent; that is, under the proper conditions they glow without apparent heat. everybody has seen "fox-fire" in the damp and decaying woods--a cold light which scientists have never been able to explain. to m. henri becquerel of the french institute is generally given the credit for having begun the real study of radio-activity, although, as in every great discovery and invention, many other scientists and practical electricians had paved the way by their investigations. in m. becquerel was conducting some experiments with various phosphorescent substances. he exposed some salts of the metal uranium to the sunlight until they became phosphorescent, and then tried their effect upon a photographic plate. it rained, and he put the plate away in a drawer for several days. when he developed it he was surprised to find on it a better image than sunlight would have made. and thus, by a sort of accident, he led up to the discovery of the becquerel rays, so called. uranium is extracted from a metal or ore called uranite by mineralogists, and popularly known as pitch-blende. every young college student who has studied geology or chemistry has heard of pitch-blende. two years after becquerel's discovery of the radio-activity of uranium professor pierre curie and madame curie, of paris, made the discovery that some of the samples of pitch-blende which they had were much more powerful than any uranium that they had used. was there, then, something more powerful than uranium within the pitch-blende? they began to "boil down" the waste rock left at the uranium mines, and found a strange new element, related to uranium but different, to which madame curie gave the name polonium, after her native land, poland. [illustration: dr. danlos treating a lupus patient with radium at the st. louis hospital, paris.] then they did some more boiling down, and succeeded in isolating an entirely new substance, and the most radio-active yet discovered--radium. shortly after that debierne discovered still another radio-active substance, to which he gave the name actinium. thus three new elements were added to the list of the world's substances, and the most wonderful of these is radium. in a day, almost, the curies became famous in the scientific world, and many of the greatest investigators in the world--lord kelvin, sir william crookes, and others--took up the study of radium. very rarely have a man and woman worked together so perfectly as professor curie and his wife. madame curie was a polish girl; she came to paris to study, very poor, but possessed of rare talents. her marriage with m. curie was such a union as _must_ have produced some fine result. without his scientific learning and vivid imagination it is doubtful if radium would ever have been dreamed of, and without her determination and patience against detail it is likely the dream would never have been realised. one of the chief problems to be met in finding the secrets of radium is the great difficulty and expense, in the first place, of getting any of the substance to experiment with. the curies have had to manufacture all they themselves have used. in the first place, pitch-blende, which closely resembles iron in appearance, is not plentiful. the best of it comes from bohemia, but it is also found in saxony, norway, egypt, and in north carolina, colorado, and utah. it appears in small lumps in veins of gold, silver, and mica, and sometimes in granite. comparatively speaking, it is easy to get uranium from pitch-blende. but to get the radium from the residues is a much more complicated task. according to professor curie, it is necessary to refine about , tons of uranium residues to get a kilogramme--or about . pounds--of radium. it is hardly surprising, therefore, considering the enormous amount of raw material which must be handled, that the cost of this rare mineral should be high. it has been said that there is more gold in sea-water than radium in the earth. professor curie has an extensive plant at ivry, near paris, where the refuse dust brought from the uranium mines is treated by complicated processes, which finally yield a powder or crystals containing a small amount of radium. these crystals are sent to the laboratory of the curies where the final delicate processes of extraction are carried on by the professor and his wife. and, after all, pure metallic radium is not obtained. it could be obtained, and professor curie has actually made a very small quantity of it, but it is unstable, immediately oxidised by the air and destroyed. so it is manufactured only in the form of chloride and bromide of radium. the "strength" of radium is measured in radio-activity, in the power of emitting rays. so we hear of radium of an intensity of or , or , . this method of measurement is thus explained. taking the radio-activity of uranium as the unit, as one, then a certain specimen of radium is said to be or , or , times as intense, to have so many times as much radio-activity. the radium of highest intensity in this country now is , , but the curies have succeeded in producing a specimen of , , intensity. this is so powerful and dangerous that it must be kept wrapped in lead, which has the effect of stopping some of the rays. rock-salt is another substance which hinders the passage of the rays. english scientists have devised a curious little instrument, called the spinthariscope, which allows one actually to _see_ the emanations from radium and to realise as never before the extraordinary atomic disintegration that is going on ceaselessly in this strange metal. the spinthariscope is a small microscope that allows one to look at a tiny fragment of radium supported on a little wire over a screen. [illustration: radium as a test for real diamonds. _at the approach of radium pure gems are thrown into great brilliancy, while imitations remain dull._] the experiment must be made in a darkened room after the eye has gradually acquired its greatest sensitiveness to light. looking intently through the lenses the screen appears like a heaven of flashing meteors among which stars shine forth suddenly and die away. near the central radium speck the fire-shower is most brilliant, while toward the rim of the circle it grows fainter. and this goes on continuously as the metal throws off its rays like myriads of bursting, blazing stars. m. curie has spoken of this vision, really contained within the area of a two-cent piece, as one of the most beautiful and impressive he ever witnessed; it was as if he had been allowed to assist at the birth of a universe. radium emits radiations, that is, it shoots off particles of itself into space at such terrific speed that , miles a second is considered a small estimate. yet, in spite of the fact that this waste goes on eternally and at such enormous velocity, the actual loss sustained by the radium is, as i have said, infinitesimal. we now come to one of the most interesting phases of the whole subject of radium--that is, the influence which its strange rays have upon animal life. mr. cleveland moffett, to whom i am indebted for the facts of the following experiments, recently visited m. danysz, of the pasteur institute in paris, who has made some wonderful investigations in this branch of science. m. danysz has tried the effect of radium on mice, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and other animals, and on plants, and he found that if exposed long enough they all died, often first losing their fur and becoming blind. but the most startling experiment performed thus far at the pasteur institute is one undertaken by m. danysz, february , , when he placed three or four dozen little larvæ that live in flour in a glass flask, where they were exposed for a few hours to the rays of radium. he placed a like number of larvæ in a control-flask, where there was no radium, and he left enough flour in each flask for the larvæ to live upon. after several weeks it was found that most of the larvæ in the radium flask had been killed, but that a few of them had escaped the destructive action of the rays by crawling away to distant corners of the flask, where they were still living. but _they were living as larvæ, not as moths_, whereas in the natural course they should have become moths long before, as was seen by the control-flask, where the larvæ had all changed into moths, and these had hatched their eggs into other larvæ, and these had produced other moths. all of which made it clear that the radium rays had arrested the development of these little worms. more weeks passed, and still three or four of the larvæ lived, and four full months after the original exposure one larva was still alive and wriggling, while its contemporary larvæ in the other jar had long since passed away as aged moths, leaving generations of moths' eggs and larvæ to witness this miracle, for here was a larva, venerable among his kind, that had actually lived through _three times the span of life accorded to his fellows_ and that still showed no sign of changing into a moth. it was very much as if a young man of twenty-one should keep the appearance of twenty-one for two hundred and fifty years! not less remarkable than these are some recent experiments made by m. bohn at the biological laboratories of the sorbonne, his conclusions being that radium may so far modify various lower forms of life as to actually produce new species of "monsters," abnormal deviations from the original type of the species. furthermore, he has been able to accomplish with radium what professor loeb did with salt solutions--that is, to cause the growth of unfecundated eggs of the sea-urchin, and to advance these through several stages of their development. in other words, he has used radium _to create life_ where there would have been no life but for this strange stimulation. so much for the wonders of radium. we seem, indeed, to be on the border-land of still more wonderful discoveries. perhaps these radium investigations will lead to some explanation of that great question in science, "what is electricity?"--and that, who can say, may solve that profounder problem, "what is life?" at present there are two theories as to the source of energy in radium, thus stated by professor curie: "where is the source of this energy? both madame curie and myself are unable to go beyond hypotheses; one of these consists in supposing the atoms of radium evolving and transforming into another simple body, and, despite the extreme slowness of that transformation, which cannot be located during a year, the amount of energy involved in that transformation is tremendous. [illustration: m. and mme. curie finishing the preparation of some radium.] "the second hypothesis consists in the supposition that radium is capable of capturing and utilising some radiations of unknown nature which cross space without our knowledge." chapter ii flying machines[a] _santos-dumont's steerable balloons_ among the inventors engaged in building flying machines the most famous, perhaps, is m. santos-dumont, whose thrilling adventures and noteworthy successes have given him world-wide fame. he was the first, indeed, to build a balloon that was really steerable with any degree of certainty, winning a prize of $ , for driving his great air-ship over a certain specified course in paris and bringing it back to the starting-point within a specified time. another experimenter who has had some degree of success is the german, count zeppelin, who guided a huge air-ship over lake geneva, switzerland, in . [a] in the first "boys' book of inventions," the author devoted a chapter entitled "through the air" to the interesting work of the inventors of flying machines who have experimented with aëroplanes; that is, soaring machines modelled after the wings of a bird. the work of professor s. p. langley with his marvellous aërodrome, and that of hiram maxim and of otto lilienthal, were given especial consideration. in the present chapter attention is directed to an entirely different class of flying machines--the steerable balloons. carl e. myers, an american, an expert balloonist, has also built balloons of small size which he has been able to steer. and mention must also be made of m. severo, the frenchman, whose ship, pax, exploded in the air on its first trip, dropping the inventor and his assistant hundreds of feet downward to their death on the pavements of paris. it will be most interesting and instructive to consider especially the work of santos-dumont, for he has been not only the most successful in making actual flights of any of the inventors who have taken up this great problem of air navigation, but his adventures have been most romantic and thrilling. in five years' time he has built and operated no fewer than ten great air-ships which he has sailed in various parts of europe and in america. he has even crowned his experiences with more than one shipwreck in the air, an adventure by the side of which an ordinary sea-wreck is tame indeed, and he has escaped with his life as a result not only of good fortune but of real daring and presence of mind in the face of danger. [illustration: m. alberto santos-dumont.] for an inventor, m. santos-dumont is a rather extraordinary character. the typical inventor--at least so we think--is poor, starts poor at least, and has a struggle to rise. m. santos-dumont has always had plenty of means. the inventor is always first a dreamer, we think. m. santos-dumont is first a thoroughly practical man, an engineer with a good knowledge of science, to which he adds the imagination of the inventor and the keen love and daring of the sportsman and adventurer, without which his experiments could never have been carried through. it would seem, indeed, that nature had especially equipped m. santos-dumont for his work in aërial navigation. supposing an inventor, having all the mental equipment of santos-dumont, the ideas, the energy, the means--supposing such a man had weighed two hundred pounds! he would have had to build a very large ship to carry his own weight, and all his problems would have been more complex, more difficult. nature made santos-dumont a very small, slim, slight man, weighing hardly more than one hundred pounds, but very active and muscular. the first time i ever saw him, in crystal palace, london, where he was setting up one of his air-ships in a huge gallery, i thought him at first glance to be some boy, a possible spectator, who was interested in flying machines. his face, bare and shaven, looked youthful; he wore a narrow-brimmed straw hat and was dressed in the height of fashion. one would not have guessed him to be the inventor. a moment later he had his coat off and was showing his men how to put up the great fan-like rudder of the ship which loomed above us like some enormous rugby football, and then one saw the power that was in him. brazilian by nationality, he has a dark face, large dark eyes, an alertness of step and an energetic way of talking. his boyhood was spent on his father's extensive coffee plantation in brazil; his later years mostly in paris, though he has been a frequent visitor to england and america. he speaks spanish, french, and english with equal fluency. indeed, hearing his english one would say that he must certainly have had his training in an english-speaking country, though no one would mistake him in appearance for either english or american, for he is very much a latin in face and form. one finds him most unpretentious, modest, speaking freely of his inventions, and yet never taking to himself any undue credit. [illustration: severo's balloon, the "pax," which, on its first ascent at a height of about , feet, burst and exploded, sending to a terrible death both m. severo and his assistant.] santos-dumont is still a very young man to have accomplished so much. he was born in brazil, july , . from his earliest boyhood he was interested in kites and dreamed of being able to fly. he says: "i cannot say at what age i made my first kites; but i remember how my comrades used to tease me at our game of 'pigeon flies'! all the children gather round a table, and the leader calls out: 'pigeon flies! hen flies! crow flies! bee flies!' and so on; and at each call we were supposed to raise our fingers. sometimes, however, he would call out: 'dog flies! fox flies!' or some other like impossibility, to catch us. if any one should raise a finger, he was made to pay a forfeit. now my playmates never failed to wink and smile mockingly at me when one of them called 'man flies!' for at the word i would always lift my finger very high, as a sign of absolute conviction; and i refused with energy to pay the forfeit. the more they laughed at me, the happier i was." of course he read jules verne's stories and was carried away in imagination in that author's wonderful balloons and flying machines. he also devoured the history of aërial navigation which he found in the works of camille flammarion and wilfrid de fonvielle. he says, further: "at an early age i was taught the principles of mechanics by my father, an engineer of the École centrale des arts et manufactures of paris. from childhood i had a passion for making calculations and inventing; and from my tenth year i was accustomed to handle the powerful and heavy machines of our factories, and drive the compound locomotives on our plantation railroads. i was constantly taken up with the desire to lighten their parts; and i dreamed of air-ships and flying machines. the fact that up to the end of the nineteenth century those who occupied themselves with aërial navigation passed for crazy, rather pleased than offended me. it is incredible and yet true that in the kingdom of the wise, to which all of us flatter ourselves we belong, it is always the fools who finish by being in the right. i had read that montgolfière was thought a fool until the day when he stopped his insulters' mouths by launching the first spherical balloon into the heavens." [illustration: the trial of count zeppelin's air-ship, july , .] upon going to paris santos-dumont at once took up the work of making himself familiar with ballooning in all of its practical aspects. he saw that if he were ever to build an air-ship he must first know all there was to know about balloon-making, methods of filling with gas, lifting capacities, the action of balloons in the air, and all the thousand and one things connected with ordinary ballooning. and paris has always been the centre of this information. he regards this preliminary knowledge as indispensable to every air-ship builder. he says: "before launching out into the construction of air-ships i took pains to make myself familiar with the handling of spherical balloons. i did not hasten, but took plenty of time. in all, i made something like thirty ascensions; at first as a passenger, then as my own captain, and at last alone. some of these spherical balloons i rented, others i had constructed for me. of such i have owned at least six or eight. and i do not believe that without such previous study and experience a man is capable of succeeding with an elongated balloon, whose handling is so much more delicate. before attempting to direct an air-ship, it is necessary to have learned in an ordinary balloon the conditions of the atmospheric medium; to have become acquainted with the caprices of the wind, now caressing and now brutal, and to have gone thoroughly into the difficulties of the ballast problem, from the triple point of view of starting, of equilibrium in the air, and of landing at the end of the trip. to go up in an ordinary balloon, at least a dozen times, seems to me an indispensable preliminary for acquiring an exact notion of the requisites for the construction and handling of an elongated balloon, furnished with its motor and propeller." [illustration: m. santos-dumont at nineteen.] [illustration: m. santos-dumont's first balloon (spherical).] his first ascent in a balloon was made in , when he was years old, as a passenger with m. machuron, who had then just returned from the arctic regions, where he had helped to start andrée on his ill-fated voyage in search of the north pole. he found the sensations delightful, being so pleased with the experience that he subsequently secured a small balloon of his own, in which he made several ascents. he also climbed the alps in order to learn more of the condition of the air at high altitudes. in he set about experimentation in the building of a real air-ship or steerable balloon. efforts had been made in this direction by former inventors, but with small success. as far back as henri gifford made the first of the familiar cigar-shaped balloons, trying steam as a motive power, but he soon found that an engine strong enough to propel the balloon was too heavy for the balloon to lift. that simple failure discouraged experimenters for a long time. in dupuy de lome tried steering a balloon by man power, but the man was not strong enough. in another frenchman, tissandier, experimented with electricity, but, as his batteries had to be light enough to be taken up in the balloon, they proved effective only in helping to weigh it down to earth again. krebs and renard, military aëronauts, succeeded better with electricity, for they could make a small circuit with their air-ship, provided only that no air was stirring. enthusiasts cried out that the problem was solved, but the two aëronauts themselves, as good mathematicians, figured out that they would have to have a motor eight times more powerful than their own, and that without any increase in weight, which was an impossibility at that time. [illustration: m. santos-dumont's workshop.] santos-dumont saw plainly that none of these methods would work. what then was he to try? why, simple enough: the petroleum motor from his automobile. the recent development of the motor-vehicle had produced a light, strong, durable motor. it was santos-dumont's first great claim to originality that he should have applied this to the balloon. he discovered no new principles, invented nothing that could be patented. the cigar-shaped balloon had long been used, so had the petroleum motor, but he put them together. and he did very much more than that. the very essence of success in aërial navigation is to secure _light weight with great strength and power_. the inventor who can build the lightest machine, which is also strong, will, other things being equal, have the greatest success. it is to santos-dumont's great credit that he was able to build a very light motor, that also gave a good horse-power, and a light balloon that was also very strong. the one great source of danger in using the petroleum motor in connection with a balloon is that the sparking of the motor will set fire to the inflammable hydrogen gas with which the balloon is filled, causing a terrible explosion. this, indeed, is what is thought to have caused the mortal mishap to severo and his balloon. but santos-dumont was able to surmount this and many other difficulties of construction. the inventor finally succeeded in making a motor--remarkable at that time--which, weighing only pounds, would produce - / horse-power. it is easy to understand why a petroleum motor is such a power-producer for its size. the greater part of its fuel is in the air itself, and the air is all around the balloon, ready for use. the aëronaut does not have to take it up with him. that proportion of his fuel that he must carry, the petroleum, is comparatively insignificant in weight. a few figures will prove interesting. two and one-half gallons of gasoline, weighing pounds, will drive a - / horse-power autocycle miles in four hours. santos-dumont's balloon needs less than - / gallons for a three hours' trip. this weighs but pounds, and occupies a small cigar-shaped brass reservoir near the motor of his machine. an electric battery of the same horse-power would weigh , pounds. [illustration: "santos-dumont no.  ."] santos-dumont tested his new motor very thoroughly by attaching it to a tricycle with which he made some record runs in and around paris. having satisfied himself that it was thoroughly serviceable he set about making the balloon, cigar-shaped, feet long. "to keep within the limit of weight," he says, "i first gave up the network and the outer cover of the ordinary balloon. i considered this sort of second envelope, holding the first within it, to be superfluous, and even harmful, if not dangerous. to the envelope proper i attached the suspension-cords of my basket directly, by means of small wooden rods introduced into horizontal hems, sewed on both sides along the stuff of the balloon for a great part of its length. again, in order not to pass the pounds weight, including varnish, i was obliged to choose japan silk that was extremely fine, but fairly resisting. up to this time no one had ever thought of using this for balloons intended to carry up an aëronaut, but only for little balloons carrying light registering apparatus for investigations in the upper air. [illustration: basket of "santos-dumont no.  ." _showing propeller and motor._] "i gave the order for this balloon to m. lachambre. at first he refused to take it, saying that such a thing had never been made, and that he would not be responsible for my rashness. i answered that i would not change a thing in the plan of the balloon, if i had to sew it with my own hands. at last he agreed to sew and varnish the balloon as i desired." after repeated trials of his motor in the basket--which he suspended in his workshop--and the making of a rudder of silk he was able, in september, , to attempt real flying. but, after rising successfully in the air, the weight of the machinery and his own body swung beneath the fragile balloon was so great that while descending from a considerable height the balloon suddenly sagged down in the middle and began to shut up like a portfolio. "at that moment," he said, "i thought that all was over, the more so as the descent, which had already become rapid, could no longer be checked by any of the usual means on board, where nothing worked. [illustration: "santos-dumont no.  ." _showing how it began to fold up in the middle._] "the descent became a rapid fall. luckily, i was falling in the neighborhood of the soft, grassy _pélouse_ of the longchamps race-course, where some big boys were flying kites. a sudden idea struck me. i cried to them to grasp the end of my -meter guide-rope, which had already touched the ground, and to run as fast as they could with it _against the wind_! they were bright young fellows, and they grasped the idea and the guide-rope at the same lucky instant. the effect of this help _in extremis_ was immediate, and such as i had expected. by this manoeuvre we lessened the velocity of the fall, and so avoided what would otherwise have been a terribly rough shaking up, to say the least. i was saved for the first time. thanking the brave boys, who continued to aid me to pack everything into the air-ship's basket, i finally secured a cab and took the relic back to paris." his life was thus saved almost miraculously; but the accident did not deter him from going forward immediately with other experiments. the next year, , he built a new air-ship called santos-dumont ii., and made an ascension with it, but it dissatisfied him and he at once began with santos-dumont iii., with which he made the first trip around the eiffel tower. he now made ready to compete for the deutsch prize of $ , . the winning of this prize demanded that the trip from saint-cloud to the eiffel tower, around it and back to the starting place, a distance of some eight miles, should be made in half an hour. for this purpose he finished a much larger air-ship, santos-dumont v., in . after a trial, made on july , which was attended by several accidents, the inventor decided to make a start early on the following morning, july . as early as four o'clock he was ready, and a crowd had begun to gather in the park. at . the great sliding doors of the balloon-house were pushed open, and the massive inflated occupant was towed out into the open space of the park. the big pointed nose of the balloon and its fish-like belly resembled a shark gliding with lazy craft from a shadow into light waters. in the basket of the car stood the coatless aëronaut, who laughed and chatted like a boy with the crowd around him. [illustration: "santos-dumont no.  " rounding eiffel tower, july , .] from the very first the conditions did not show themselves favourable for the attempt. the wind was blowing at the rate of six or seven yards a second. the change of temperature from the balloon-house to the cool morning air had somewhat condensed the hydrogen gas of the balloon, so that one end flapped about in a flabby manner. air was pumped into the air reservoir, inside the balloon, but still the desired rigidity was not attained. but, more discouraging yet, when the motor was started, its continuous explosions gave to the practised ear signs of mechanical discord. nevertheless, santos-dumont, with his sleeves rolled up, fixed himself in his basket. his eye took a careful survey of the entire air-ship lest some preliminary had been overlooked. he counted the ballast bags under his feet in the basket, he looked to the canvas pocket of loose sand at either hand, then saw to his guide-rope. there is a very great deal to look after in managing such a ship, and it requires a calm head and a steady hand to do it. "near the saddle on which i sat," he writes, "were the ends of the cords and other means for controlling the different parts of the mechanism--the electric sparking of the motor, the regulation of the carburetter, the handling of the rudder, ballast, and the shifting weights (consisting of the guide-rope and bags of sand), the managing of the balloon's valves, and the emergency rope for tearing open the balloon. it may easily be gathered from this enumeration that an air-ship, even as simple as my own, is a very complex organism; and the work incumbent on the aëronaut is no sinecure." several friends shook his hand, among them mr. deutsch. the place was very still as the man holding the guide-rope awaited the signal to let go. then the little man in the basket above them raised his hands and shouted. [illustration: the interior of the aërodrome. _showing its construction, the inflated balloon, and the pennant with its mystic letters._] at first it did not look like a race against time. the balloon rose sluggishly, and santos-dumont had to dump out bag after bag of sand, till finally the guide-rope was clear of the trees. all this gave him no opportunity to think of his direction, and he was drifting toward versailles; but while yet over the seine he pulled his rudder ropes taut. then slowly, gracefully, the enormous spindle veered round and pointed its nose toward the eiffel tower. the fans spun energetically, and the air-ship settled down to business-like travelling. it marked a straight, decided line for its goal, then followed the chosen route with a considerable speed. soon the chug-chugging of the motor could be heard no longer by the spectators, and the balloon and car grew smaller and smaller in its halo of light smoke. those in the park saw only the screw and the rear of the balloon, like the stern of a steamer in dry dock. before long only a dot remained against the sky. gradually he came nearer again, almost returning to the park, but the wind drove him back across the river seine. suddenly the motor stopped, and the whole air-ship was seen to fall heavily toward the earth. the crowd raced away expecting to find santos-dumont dead and his air-ship a wreck. but they found him on his feet, with his hands in his pockets, reflectively looking up at his air-ship among the top branches of some chestnut trees in the grounds of baron edmund de rothschild, boulevard de boulogne. "this," he says, "was near the _hôtel_ of princesse ysabel, comtesse d'eu, who sent up to me in my tree a champagne lunch, with an invitation to come and tell her the story of my trip. "when my story was over, she said to me: "'your evolutions in the air made me think of the flight of our great birds of brazil. i hope that you will succeed for the glory of our common country.'" and an examination showed that the air-ship was practically uninjured. so he escaped death a second time. less than a month later he had a still more terrible mishap, best related in his own words. he says: "and now i come to a terrible day--august , . at . a.m., i started for the eiffel tower again, in the presence of the committee, duly convoked. i turned the goal at the end of nine minutes, and took my way back to saint-cloud; but my balloon was losing hydrogen through the automatic valves, the spring of which had been accidentally weakened; and it shrank visibly. all at once, while over the fortifications of paris, near la muette, the screw-propeller touched and cut the suspension-cords, which were sagging behind. i was obliged to stop the motor instantly; and at once i saw my air-ship drift straight back to the eiffel tower. i had no means of avoiding the terrible danger, except to wreck myself on the roofs of the trocadero quarter. without hesitation i opened the manoeuvre-valve, and sent my balloon downward. [illustration: the fall into the courtyard of the trocadero hotel. "_santos-dumont no.  ._"] "at metres ( feet) above the ground, and with the noise of an explosion, it struck the roof of the trocadero hotels. the balloon-envelope was torn to rags, and fell into the courtyard of the hotels, while i remained hanging metres ( feet) above the ground in my wicker basket, which had been turned almost over, but was supported by the keel. the keel of the santos-dumont v. saved my life that day. "after some minutes a rope was thrown down to me; and, helping myself with feet and hands up the wall (the few narrow windows of which were grated like those of a prison), i was hauled up to the roof. the firemen from passy had watched the fall of the air-ship from their observatory. they, too, hastened to the rescue. it was impossible to disengage the remains of the balloon-envelope and suspension apparatus except in strips and pieces. "my escape was narrow; but it was not from the particular danger always present to my mind during this period of my experiments. the position of the eiffel tower as a central landmark, visible to everybody from considerable distances, makes it a unique winning-post for an aërial race. yet this does not alter the other fact that the feat of rounding the eiffel tower possesses a unique element of danger. what i feared when on the ground--i had no time to fear while in the air--was that, by some mistake of steering, or by the influence of some side-wind, i might be dashed against the tower. the impact would burst my balloon, and i should fall to the ground like a stone. though i never seek to fly at a great height--on the contrary, i hold the record for low altitude in a free balloon--in passing over paris i must necessarily move above all its chimney-pots and steeples. the eiffel tower was my one danger--yet it was my winning-post! [illustration: "santos-dumont no.  "--the prize winner.] "but in the air i have no time to fear. i have always kept a cool head. alone in the air-ship, i am always very busy. i must not let go the rudder for a single instant. then there is the strong joy of commanding. what does it feel like to sail in a dirigible balloon? while the wind was carrying me back to the eiffel tower i realised that i might be killed; but i did not feel fear. i was in no personal inconvenience. i knew my resources. i was excessively occupied. i have felt fear while in the air, yes, miserable fear joined to pain; but never in a dirigible balloon." even this did not daunt him. that very night he ordered a new air-ship, santos-dumont vi., and it was ready in twenty-two days. the new balloon had the shape of an elongated ellipsoid, metres ( feet) on its great axis, and metres ( feet) on its short axis, terminated fore and aft by cones. its capacity was cubic metres ( , cubic feet), giving it a lifting power of kilos ( , pounds). of this, , pounds were represented by keel, machinery, and his own weight, leaving a net lifting-power of kilos ( pounds). on october , , he made another attempt to round the eiffel tower, and was at last successful in winning the $ , prize. following this great feat, santos-dumont continued his experiments at monte carlo, where he was wrecked over the mediterranean sea and escaped only by presence of mind, and he is still continuing his work. the future of the dirigible balloon is open to debate. santos-dumont himself does not think there is much likelihood that it will ever have much commercial use. a balloon to carry many passengers would have to be so enormous that it could not support the machinery necessary to propel it, especially against a strong wind. but he does believe that the steerable balloon will have great importance in war time. he says: "i have often been asked what present utility is to be expected of the dirigible balloon when it becomes thoroughly practicable. i have never pretended that its commercial possibilities could go far. the question of the air-ship in war, however, is otherwise. mr. hiram maxim has declared that a flying machine in south africa would have been worth four times its weight in gold. henri rochefort has said: 'the day when it is established that a man can direct an air-ship in a given direction and cause it to manoeuvre as he wills ... there will remain little for the nations to do but to lay down their arms.'" [illustration: air-ship pointing almost vertically upward.] [illustration: falling to the sea.] [illustration: just before the air-ship lost all its gas.] [illustration: losing its gas and sinking.] [illustration: the balloon falling to the waves.] [illustration: boats around the ruined air-ship.] but such experiments as santos-dumont's, whether they result immediately in producing an air-ship of practical utility in commerce or not, have great value for the facts which they are establishing as to the possibility of balloons, of motors, of light construction, of air currents, and moreover they add to the world's sum total of experiences a fine, clean sport in which men of daring and scientific knowledge show what men can do. [illustration: manoeuvering above the bay at monte carlo.] chapter iii the earthquake measurer _professor john milne's seismograph_ of all strange inventions, the earthquake recorder is certainly one of the most remarkable and interesting. a terrible earthquake shakes down cities in japan, and sixteen minutes later the professor of earthquakes, in his quiet little observatory in england, measures its extent--almost, indeed, takes a picture of it. actual waves, not unlike the waves of the sea blown up by a hurricane, have travelled through or around half the earth in this brief time; vast mountain ranges, cities, plains, and oceans have been heaved to their crests and then allowed to sink back again into their former positions. and some of these earthquake waves which sweep over the solid earth are three feet high, so that the whole of new york, perhaps, rises bodily to that height and then slides over the crest like a skiff on an ocean swell. [illustration: professor john milne. _from a photograph by s. suzuki, kudanzaka, tokio._] at first glance this seems almost too strange and wonderful to believe, and yet this is only the beginning of the wonders which the earthquake camera--or the seismograph (earthquake writer, as the scientists call it)--has been disclosing. [illustration: professor milne's sensitive pendulum, or seismograph, as it appears enclosed in its protecting box.] [illustration: the sensitive pendulum, or seismograph, as it appears with the protecting box removed.] the earthquake professor who has worked such scientific magic is john milne. he lives in a quaint old house in the little isle of wight, not far from osborne castle, where queen victoria made her home part of the year. not long ago he was a resident of japan and professor of seismology (the science of earthquakes) at the university of tokio, where he made his first discoveries about earthquakes, and invented marvellously delicate machines for measuring and photographing them thousands of miles away. professor milne is an englishman by birth, but, like many another of his countrymen, he has visited some of the strangest nooks and corners of the earth. he has looked for coal in newfoundland; he has crossed the rugged hills of iceland; he has been up and down the length of the united states; he has hunted wild pigs in borneo; and he has been in india and china and a hundred other out-of-the-way places, to say nothing of measuring earthquakes in japan. professor milne laid the foundation of his unusual career in a thorough education at king's college, london, and at the school of mines. by fortunate chance, soon after his graduation, he met cyrus field, the famous american, to whom the world owes the beginnings of its present ocean cable system. he was then just twenty-one, young and raw, but plucky. he thought he was prepared for anything the world might bring him; but when field asked him one friday if he could sail for newfoundland the next tuesday, he was so taken with astonishment that he hesitated, whereupon field leaned forward and looked at him in a way that milne has never forgotten. "my young friend, i suppose you have read that the world was made in six days. now, do you mean to tell me that, if this whole world was made in six days, you can't get together the few things you need in four?" [illustration: gifu, japan, after the earthquake of . _this and the pictures following on pages , , , are from japanese photographs reproduced in "the great earthquake in japan, ," by john milne and w. k. burton._] and milne sailed the next tuesday to begin his lifework among the rough hills of newfoundland. then came an offer from the japanese government, and he went to the land of earthquakes, little dreaming that he would one day be the greatest authority in the world on the subject of seismic disturbances. his first experiments--and they were made as a pastime rather than a serious undertaking--were curiously simple. he set up rows of pins in a certain way, so that in falling they would give some indication as to the wave movements in the earth. he also made pendulums made of strings with weights tied at the end, and from his discoveries made with these elementary instruments, he planned earthquake-proof houses, and showed the engineers of japan how to build bridges which would not fall down when they were shaken. so highly was his work regarded that the japanese made him an earthquake professor at tokio and supplied him with the means for making more extended experiments. and presently we find him producing artificial earthquakes by the score. he buried dynamite deep in the ground and exploded it by means of an electric button. the miniature earthquake thus produced was carefully measured with curious instruments of professor milne's invention. at first one earthquake was enough at any one time, but as the experiments continued, professor milne sometimes had five or six earthquakes all quaking together; and once so interested did he become that he forgot all about the destructive nature of earthquakes, and ventured too near. a ton or more of earth came crashing down around him, half burying him and smashing his instruments flat. all this made the japanese rub their eyes with astonishment, and by and by the emperor heard of it. of course he was deeply interested in earthquakes, because there was no telling when one might come along and shake down his palace over his head. so he sent for professor milne, and, after assuring himself that these experimental earthquakes really had no serious intentions, he commanded that one be produced on the spot. so professor milne laid out a number of toy towns and villages and hills in the palace yard with a tremendous toy earthquake underneath. the emperor and his gayly dressed followers stood well off to one side, and when professor milne gave the word the emperor solemnly pressed a button, and watched with the greatest delight the curious way in which the toy cities were quaked to earth. and after that, this surprising englishman, who could make earthquakes as easily as a japanese makes a lacquered basket, was held in high esteem in japan, and for more than twenty years he studied earthquakes and invented machines for recording them. then he returned to his home in england, where he is at work establishing earthquake stations in various parts of the world, by means of which he expects to reduce earthquake measurement to an exact science, an accomplishment which will have the greatest practical value to the commercial interests of the world, as i shall soon explain. [illustration: the work of the great earthquake of in neo valley, japan.] but first for a glimpse at the curious earthquake measurer itself. to begin with, there are two kinds of instruments--one to measure near-by disturbances, and the second to measure waves which come from great distances. the former instrument was used by professor milne in japan, where earthquakes are frequent; the latter is used in england. the technical name for the machine which measures distant disturbances is the horizontal pendulum seismograph, and, like most wonderful inventions, it is exceedingly simple in principle, yet doing its work with marvellous delicacy and accuracy. in brief, the central feature of the seismograph is a very finely poised pendulum, which is jarred by the slightest disturbance of the earth, the end of it being so arranged that a photograph is taken of every quiver. set a pendulum clock on the dining-table, jar the table, and the pendulum will swing, indicating exactly with what force you have disturbed the table. in exactly the same way the delicate pendulum of the earthquake measurer indicates the shaking of the earth. [illustration: diagram showing vertical and horizontal sections of the more sensitive of professor milne's two pendulums, or seismographs.] the accompanying diagram gives a very clear idea of the arrangement of the apparatus. the "boom" is the pendulum. it is customary to think of a pendulum as hanging down like that of a clock, but this is a horizontal pendulum. professor milne has built a very solid masonry column, reaching deep into the earth, and so firmly placed that nothing but a tremor of the hard earth itself will disturb it. upon this is perched a firm metal stand, from the top of which the boom or pendulum, about thirty inches long, is swung by means of a "tie" or stay. the end of the boom rests against a fine, sharp pivot of steel (as shown in the little diagram to the right), so that it will swing back and forth without the least friction. the sensitive end of the pendulum, where all the quakings and quiverings are shown most distinctly, rests exactly over a narrow roll of photographic film, which is constantly turned by clockwork, and above this, on an outside stand, there is a little lamp which is kept burning night and day, year in and year out. the light from this lamp is reflected downward by means of a mirror through a little slit in the metal case which covers the entire apparatus. of course this light affects the sensitive film, and takes a continuous photograph of the end of the boom. if the boom remains perfectly still, the picture will be merely a straight line, as shown at the extreme right and left ends of the earthquake picture on this page. but if an earthquake wave comes along and sets the boom to quivering, the picture becomes at once blurred and full of little loops and indentations, slight at first, but becoming more violent as the greater waves arrive, and then gradually subsiding. in the picture of the borneo earthquake of september , , taken by professor milne in his english laboratory, it will be seen that the quakings were so severe at the height of the disturbance that nothing is left in the photograph but a blur. on the edge of the picture can be seen the markings of the hours, . , . , and . . usually this time is marked automatically on the film by means of the long hand of a watch which crosses the slit beneath the mirror (as shown in the lower diagram with figure ). the borneo earthquake waves lasted in england, as will be seen, two hours fifty-six minutes and fifteen seconds, with about forty minutes of what are known as preliminary tremors. professor milne removes the film from his seismograph once a week--a strip about twenty-six feet long--develops it, and studies the photographs for earthquake signs. [illustration: seismogram of a borneo earthquake that occurred september , .] besides this very sensitive photographic seismograph professor milne has a simpler machine, not covered up and without lamp or mirror. in this instrument a fine silver needle at the end of the boom makes a steady mark on a band of smoked paper, which is kept turning under it by means of clockwork. a glance at this smoked-paper record will tell instantly at any time of day or night whether the earth is behaving itself. if the white line on the dark paper shows disturbances, professor milne at once examines his more sensitive photographic record for the details. it is difficult to realise how very sensitive these earthquake pendulums really are. they will indicate the very minutest changes in the earth's level--as slight as one inch in ten miles. a pair of these pendulums placed on two buildings at opposite sides of a city street would show that the buildings literally lean toward each other during the heavy traffic period of the day, dragged over from their level by the load of vehicles and people pressing down upon the pavement between them. the earth is so elastic that a comparatively small impetus will set it vibrating. why, even two hills tip together when there is a heavy load of moisture in a valley between them. and then when the moisture evaporates in a hot sun they tip away from each other. these pendulums show that. nor are these the most extraordinary things which the pendulums will do. g. k. gilbert, of the united states geological survey, argues that the whole region of the great lakes is being slowly tipped to the southwest, so that some day chicago will sink and the water outlet of the great fresh-water seas will be up the chicago river toward the mississippi, instead of down the st. lawrence. of course this movement is as slow as time itself--thousands of years must elapse before it is hardly appreciable; and yet professor milne's instruments will show the changing balance--a marvel that is almost beyond belief. strangely enough, sensitive as this special instrument is to distant disturbances, it does not swerve nor quiver for near-by shocks. thus, the blasting of powder, the heavy rumbling of wagons, the firing of artillery has little or no effect in producing a movement of the boom. the vibrations are too short; it requires the long, heavy swells of the earth to make a record. professor milne tells some odd stories of his early experiences with the earthquake measurer. at one time his films showed evidences of the most horrible earthquakes, and he was afraid for the moment that all japan had been shaken to pieces and possibly engulfed by the sea. but investigation showed that a little grey spider had been up to pranks in the box. the spider wasn't particularly interested in earthquakes, but he took the greatest pleasure in the swinging of the boom, and soon began to join in the game himself. he would catch the end of the boom with his feelers and tug it over to one side as far as ever he could. then he would anchor himself there and hold on like grim death until the boom slipped away. then he would run after it, and tug it over to the other side, and hold it there until his strength failed again. and so he would keep on for an hour or two until quite exhausted, enjoying the fun immensely, and never dreaming that he was manufacturing wonderful seismograms to upset the scientific world, since they seemed to indicate shocking earthquake disasters in all directions. mr. cleveland moffett, to whom i am indebted for much of the information contained in this chapter, tells how the reporters for the london papers rush off to see professor milne every time there is news of a great earthquake, and how he usually corrects their information. in june, , for instance, the little observatory was fairly besieged with these searchers for news. "this earthquake happened on the th," said they, "and the whole eastern coast of japan was overwhelmed with tidal waves, and , lives were lost." "that last is probable," answered professor milne, "but the earthquake happened on the th, not the th;" and then he gave them the exact hour and minute when the shocks began and ended. "but our cables put it on the th." "your cables are mistaken." and, sure enough, later despatches came with information that the destructive earthquake had occurred on the th, within half a minute of the time professor milne had specified. there had been some error of transmission in the earlier newspaper despatches. again, a few months later, the newspapers published cablegrams to the effect that there had been a severe earthquake at kobe, with great injury to life and property. "that is not true," said professor milne. "there may have been a slight earthquake at kobe, but nothing that need cause alarm." and the mail reports a few weeks later confirmed his reassuring statement, and showed that the previous sensational despatches had been grossly exaggerated. professor milne is also the man to whose words cable companies lend anxious ear, for what he says often means thousands of dollars to them. early in january, , it was officially reported that two west indian cables had broken on december , . "that is very unlikely," said professor milne; "but i have a seismogram showing that these cables may have broken at . a.m. on december , ." and then he located the break at so many miles off the coast of haiti. this sort of thing, which is constantly happening, would look very much like magic if professor milne had kept his secrets to himself; but he has given them freely to all the world. [illustration: effect of the great earthquake of on the nagara gawa railway bridge, japan.] professor milne has learned from his experiments that the solid earth is full of movements, and tremors, and even tides, like the sea. we do not notice them, because they are so slow and because the crests of the waves are so far apart. professor milne likes to tell, fancifully, how the earth "breathes." he has found that nearly all earthquake waves, whether the disturbance is in borneo or south america, reach his laboratory in sixteen minutes, and he thinks that the waves come through the earth instead of around it. if they came around, he says, there would be two records--one from waves coming the short way and one from waves coming the long way round. but there is never more than a single record, so he concludes that the waves quiver straight through the solid earth itself, and he believes that this fact will lead to some important discoveries about the centre of our globe. professor milne was once asked how, if earthquake waves from every part of the earth reached his observatory in the same number of minutes, he could tell where the earthquake really was. "i may say, in a general way," he replied, "that we know them by their signatures, just as you know the handwriting of your friends; that is, an earthquake wave which has travelled , miles makes a different record in the instruments from one that has travelled , miles; and that, again, a different record from one that has travelled , miles, and so on. each one writes its name in its own way. it's a fine thing, isn't it, to have the earth's crust harnessed up so that it is forced to mark down for us on paper a diagram of its own movements?" he took pencil and paper again, and dashed off an earthquake wave like this: [illustration] "there you have the signature of an earthquake wave which has travelled only a short distance, say , miles; but here is the signature of the very same wave after travelling, say, , miles:" [illustration] "you see the difference at a glance; the second seismogram (that is what we call these records) is very much more stretched out than the first, and a seismogram taken at , miles from the start would be more stretched out still. this is because the waves of transmission grow longer and longer, and slower and slower, the farther they spread from the source of disturbance. in both figures the point a, where the straight line begins to waver, marks the beginning of the earthquake; the rippling line ab shows the preliminary tremors which always precede the heavy shocks, marked c; and d shows the dying away of the earthquake in tremors similar to ab. "now, it is chiefly in the preliminary tremors that the various earthquakes reveal their identity. the more slowly the waves come, the longer it takes to record them, and the more stretched out they become in the seismograms. and by carefully noting these differences, especially those in time, we get our information. suppose we have an earthquake in japan. if you were there in person you would feel the preliminary tremors very fast, five or ten in a second, and their whole duration before the heavy shocks would not exceed ten or twenty seconds. but these preliminary tremors, transmitted to england, would keep the pendulums swinging from thirty to thirty-two minutes before the heavy shocks, and each vibration would occupy five seconds. "there would be similar differences in the duration of the heavy vibrations; in japan they would come at the rate of about one a second: here, at the rate of about one in twenty or forty seconds. it is the time, then, occupied by the preliminary tremors that tells us the distance of the earthquake. earthquakes in borneo, for instance, give preliminary tremors occupying about forty-one minutes, in japan about half an hour, in the earthquake region east of newfoundland about eight minutes, in the disturbed region of the west indies about nineteen or twenty minutes, and so on. thus the earthquake is located with absolute precision." most earthquakes occur in the deep bed of the ocean, in the vast valleys between ocean mountains, and the dangerous localities are now almost as well known as the principal mountain ranges of north america. there is one of these valleys, or ocean holes, off the west coast of south america from ecuador down; there is one in the mid-atlantic, about the equator, between twenty degrees and forty degrees west longitude: there is one at the grecian end of the mediterranean; one in the bay of bengal, and one bordering the alps; there is the famous "tuscarora deep," from the philippine islands down to java; and there is the north atlantic region, about miles east of newfoundland. in the "tuscarora deep" the slope increases , fathoms in twenty-five miles, until it reaches a depth of , fathoms. [illustration: pieces of a submarine cable picked up in the gulf of mexico in . _the kinks are caused by seismic disturbances, and they show how much distortion a cable can suffer and still remain in good electrical condition, as this was found to be._] and this brings us to the consideration of one of the greatest practical advantages of the seismograph--in the exact location of cable breaks. indeed, a large proportion of these breaks are the result of earthquakes. in a recent report professor milne says that there are now about twenty-seven breaks a year for , miles of cable in active use. most of these are very costly, fifteen breaks in the atlantic cable between and having cost the companies $ , , , to say nothing of loss of time. and twice it has happened in australia (in and ) that the whole island has been thrown into excitement and alarm, the reserves being called out, and other measures taken, because the sudden breaking of cable connections with the outside world has led to the belief that military operations against the country were preparing by some foreign power. a milne pendulum at sydney or adelaide would have made it plain in a moment that the whole trouble was due to a submarine earthquake occurring at such a time and such a place. as it was, australia had to wait in a fever of suspense (in one case there was a delay of nineteen days) until steamers arriving brought assurances that neither russia nor any other possibly unfriendly power had begun hostilities by tearing up the cables. there have been submarine earthquakes in the tuscarora, like that of june , , that have shaken the earth from pole to pole; and more than once different cables from java have been broken simultaneously, as in , when the three cables to australia snapped in a moment. and the great majority of breaks in the north atlantic cables have occurred in the newfoundland hollow, where there are two slopes, one dropping from to , fathoms in a distance of sixty miles, and the other from to , fathoms within thirty miles. on october , , three cables, lying about ten miles apart, broke simultaneously at the spot. the significance of such breaks is greater when the fact is borne in mind that cables frequently lie uninjured for many years on the great level plains of the ocean bed, where seismic disturbances are infrequent. the two chief causes of submarine earthquakes are landslides, where enormous masses of earth plunge from a higher to a lower level, and in so doing crush down upon the cable, and "faults," that is, subsidences of great areas, which occur on land as well as at the bottom of the sea, and which in the latter case may drag down imbedded cables with them. it is in establishing the place and times of these breaks that professor milne's instruments have their greatest practical value; scientifically no one can yet calculate their value. [illustration: record made on a stationary surface by the vibrations of the japanese earthquake of july , . _showing the complicated character of the motion (common to most earthquakes), and also the course of a point at the centre of disturbance._] in addition to the first instrument set up by professor milne in tokio in , which is still recording earthquakes, there are now in operation about twenty other seismographs in various parts of the world, so that earthquake information is becoming very accurate and complete, and there is even an attempt being made to predict earthquakes just as the weather bureau predicts storms. in any event professor milne's invention must within a few years add greatly to our knowledge of the wonders of the planet on which we live. chapter iv electrical furnaces _how the hottest heat is produced--making diamonds_ no feats of discovery, not even the search for the north pole or stanley's expeditions in the heart of africa, present more points of fascinating interest than the attempts now being made by scientists to explore the extreme limits of temperature. we live in a very narrow zone in what may be called the great world of heat. the cut on the opposite page represents an imaginary thermometer showing a few of the important temperature points between the depths of the coldest cold and the heights of the hottest heat--a stretch of some , degrees. we exist in a narrow space, as you will see, varying from ° or a little more above the zero point to a possible ° below; that is, we can withstand these narrow extremes of temperature. if some terrible world catastrophe should raise the temperature of our summers or lower that of our winters by a very few degrees, human life would perish off the earth. but though we live in such narrow limits, science has found ways of exploring the great heights of heat above us and of reaching and measuring the depths of cold below us, with the result of making many important and interesting discoveries. i have written in the former "boys' book of inventions" of that wonderful product of science, liquid air--air submitted to such a degree of cold that it ceases to be a gas and becomes a liquid. this change occurs at a temperature ° below zero. professor john dewar, of england, who has made some of the most interesting of discoveries in the region of great cold, not only reached a temperature low enough to produce liquid air, but he succeeded in going on down until he could freeze this marvellous liquid into a solid--a sort of air ice. not content even with this astonishing degree of cold, professor dewar continued his experiments until he could reduce hydrogen--that very light gas--to a liquid, at ° below zero, and then, strange as it may seem, he also froze liquid hydrogen into a solid. from his experiments he finally concluded that the "absolute zero"--that is, the place where there is no heat--was at a point ° below zero. and he has been able to produce a temperature, artificially, within a very few degrees of this utmost limit of cold. [illustration: | | degrees | | | | --+ +-- conjectural heat | | of the sun. | | | | | | | | --+ +-- highest heat | | yet obtained | | artificially. | | | | | | | | --+ +-- steel boils. | | | | | | | | | | --+ +-- water boils. --+=+-- zero. --+=+-- prof. dewar's |=| absolute zero. {===} | degrees | | --+-- zero. | --+-- mercury freezes. | | | | | | | --+-- alcohol freezes. | | | | --+-- oxygen boils. --+-- liquid air boils. --+-- nitrogen boils. | | | | | --+-- hydrogen boils. --+-- prof. dewar's absolute zero.] think what this absolute zero means. heat, we know, like electricity and light, is a vibratory or wave motion in the ether. the greater the heat, the faster the vibrations. we think of all the substances around us as solids, liquids, and gases, but these are only comparative terms. a change of temperature changes the solid into the liquid, or the gas into the solid. take water, for instance. in the ordinary temperature of summer it is a liquid, in winter it is a hard crystalline substance called ice; apply the heat of a stove and it becomes steam, a gas. so with all other substances. air to us is an invisible gas, but if the earth should suddenly drop in temperature to ° below zero all the air would fall in liquid drops like rain and fill the valleys of the earth with lakes and oceans. still a little colder and these lakes and oceans would freeze into solids. similarly, steel seems to us a very hard and solid substance, but apply enough heat and it boils like water, and finally, if the heat be increased, it becomes a gas. imagine, if you can, a condition in which all substances are solids; where the vibrations known as heat have been stilled to silence; where nothing lives or moves; where, indeed, there is an awful nothingness; and you can form an idea of the region of the coldest cold--in other words, the region where heat does not exist. our frozen moon gives something of an idea of this condition, though probably, cold and barren as it is, the moon is still a good many degrees in temperature above the absolute zero. some of the methods of exploring these depths of cold are treated in the chapter on liquid air already referred to. our interest here centres in the other extreme of temperature, where the heat vibrations are inconceivably rapid; where nearly all substances known to man become liquids and gases; where, in short, if the experimenter could go high enough, he could reach the awful degree of heat of the burning sun itself, estimated at over , degrees. it is in the work of exploring these regions of great heat that such men as moissan, siemens, faure, and others have made such remarkable discoveries, reaching temperatures as high as , , or over twice the heat of boiling steel. their accomplishments seem the more wonderful when we consider that a temperature of this degree burns up or vaporises every known substance. how, then, could these men have made a furnace in which to produce this heat? iron in such a heat would burn like paper, and so would brick and mortar. it seems inconceivable that even science should be able to produce a degree of heat capable of consuming the tools and everything else with which it is produced. the heat vibrations at , ° are so intense that nickel and platinum, the most refractory, the most unmeltable of metals, burn like so much bee's-wax; the best fire-brick used in lining furnaces is consumed by it like lumps of rosin, leaving no trace behind. it works, in short, the most marvellous, the most incredible transformations in the substances of the earth. indeed, we have to remember that the earth itself was created in a condition of great heat--first a swirling, burning gas, something like the sun of to-day, gradually cooling, contracting, rounding, until we have our beautiful world, with its perfect balance of gases, liquids, solids, its splendid life. a dying volcano here and there gives faint evidence of the heat which once prevailed over all the earth. it was in the time of great heat that the most beautiful and wonderful things in the world were wrought. it was fierce heat that made the diamond, the sapphire, and the ruby; it fashioned all of the most beautiful forms of crystals and spars; and it ran the gold and silver of the earth in veins, and tossed up mountains, and made hollows for the seas. it is, in short, the temperature at which worlds were born. more wonderful, if possible, than the miracles wrought by such heat is the fact that men can now produce it artificially; and not only produce, but confine and direct it, and make it do their daily service. one asks himself, indeed, if this can really be; and it was under the impulse of some such incredulity that i lately made a visit to niagara falls, where the hottest furnaces in the world are operated. here clay is melted in vast quantities to form aluminium, a metal as precious a few years ago as gold. here lime and carbon, the most infusible of all the elements, are joined by intense heat in the curious new compound, calcium carbide, a bit of which dropped in water decomposes almost explosively, producing the new illuminating gas, acetylene. here, also, pure phosphorus and the phosphates are made in large quantities; and here is made carborundum--gem-crystals as hard as the diamond and as beautiful as the ruby. an extensive plant has also been built to produce the heat necessary to make graphite such as is used in your lead-pencils, and for lubricants, stove-blacking, and so on. graphite has been mined from the earth for thousands of years; it is pure carbon, first cousin to the diamond. ten years ago the possibility of its manufacture would have been scouted as ridiculous; and yet in these wonderful furnaces, which repeat so nearly the processes of creation, graphite is as easily made as soap. the marvel-workers at niagara falls have not yet been able to make diamonds--in quantities. the distinguished french chemist moissan has produced them in his laboratory furnaces--small ones, it is true, but diamonds; and one day they may be shipped in peck boxes from the great furnaces at niagara falls. this is no mere dream; the commercial manufacture of diamonds has already had the serious consideration of level-headed, far-seeing business men, and it may be accounted a distinct probability. what revolution the achievement of it would work in the diamond trade as now constituted and conducted no one can say. these marvellous new things in science and invention have been made possible by the chaining of niagara to the wheels of industry. the power of the falling water is transformed into electricity. electricity and heat are both vibratory motions of the ether; science has found that the vibrations known as electricity can be changed into the vibrations known as heat. accordingly, a thousand horse-power from the mighty river is conveyed as electricity over a copper wire, changed into heat and light between the tips of carbon electrodes, and there works its wonders. in principle the electrical furnace is identical with the electric light. it is scarcely twenty years since the first electrical furnaces of real practical utility were constructed; but if the electrical furnaces to-day in operation at niagara falls alone were combined into one, they would, as one scientist speculates, make a glow so bright that it could be seen distinctly from the moon--a hint for the astronomers who are seeking methods for communicating with the inhabitants of mars. one furnace has been built in which an amount of heat energy equivalent to horse-power is produced in an arc cavity not larger than an ordinary water tumbler. on reaching niagara falls, i called on mr. e. g. acheson, whose name stands with that of moissan as a pioneer in the investigation of high temperatures. mr. acheson is still a young man--not more than forty-five at most--and clean-cut, clear-eyed, and genial, with something of the studious air of a college professor. he is pre-eminently a self-made man. at twenty-four he found a place in edison's laboratory--"edison's college of inventions," he calls it--and, at twenty-five, he was one of the seven pioneers in electricity who (in - ) introduced the incandescent lamp in europe. he installed the first electric-light plants in the cities of milan, genoa, venice, and amsterdam, and during this time was one of edison's representatives in paris. [illustration: mr. e. g. acheson, one of the pioneers in the investigation of high temperatures.] "i think the possibility of manufacturing genuine diamonds," he said to me, "has dazzled more than one young experimenter. my first efforts in this direction were made in . it was before we had command of the tremendous electric energy now furnished by the modern dynamo, and when the highest heat attainable for practical purposes was obtained by the oxy-hydrogen flame. even this was at the service of only a few experimenters, and certainly not at mine. my first experiments were made in what i might term the 'wet way'; that is, by the process of chemical decomposition by means of an electric current. very interesting results were obtained, which even now give promise of value; but the diamond did not materialise. "i did not take up the subject again until the dynamo had attained high perfection and i was able to procure currents of great power. calling in the aid of the , degrees fahrenheit or more of temperature produced by these electric currents, i once more set myself to the solution of the problem. i now had, however, two distinct objects in view: first, the making of a diamond; and, second, the production of a hard substance for abrasive purposes. my experiments in had resulted in producing a substance of extreme hardness, hard enough, indeed, to scratch the sapphire--the next hardest thing to the diamond--and i saw that such a material, cheaply made, would have great value. "my first experiment in this new series was of a kind that would have been denounced as absurd by any of the old-school book-chemists, and had i had a similar training, the probability is that i should not have made such an investigation. but 'fools rush in where angels fear to tread,' and the experiment was made." this experiment by mr. acheson, extremely simple in execution, was the first act in rolling the stone from the entrance to a veritable aladdin's cave, into which a multitude of experimenters have passed in their search for nature's secrets; for, while the use of the electrical furnace in the reduction of metals--in the breaking down of nature's compounds--was not new, its use for synthetic chemistry--for the putting together, the building up, the formation of compounds--was entirely new. it has enabled the chemist not only to reproduce the compounds of nature, but to go further and produce valuable compounds that are wholly new and were heretofore unknown to man. mr. acheson conjectured that carbon, if made to combine with clay, would produce an extremely hard substance; and that, having been combined with the clay, if it should in the cooling separate again from the clay, it would issue out of the operation as diamond. he therefore mixed a little clay and coke dust together, placed them in a crucible, inserted the ends of two electric-light carbons into the mixture, and connected the carbons with a dynamo. the fierce heat generated at the points of the carbons fused the clay, and caused portions of the carbon to dissolve. after cooling, a careful examination was made of the mass, and a few small purple crystals were found. they sparkled with something of the brightness of diamonds, and were so hard that they scratched glass. mr. acheson decided at once that they could not be diamonds; but he thought they might be rubies or sapphires. a little later, though, when he had made similar crystals of a larger size, he found that they were harder than rubies, even scratching the diamond itself. he showed them to a number of expert jewellers, chemists, and geologists. they had so much the appearance of natural gems that many experts to whom they were submitted without explanation decided that they must certainly be of natural production. even so eminent an authority as geikie, the scotch geologist, on being told, after he had examined them, that the crystals were manufactured in america, responded testily: "these americans! what won't they claim next? why, man, those crystals have been in the earth a million years." mr. acheson decided at first that his crystals were a combination of carbon and aluminium, and gave them the name carborundum. he at once set to work to manufacture them in large quantities for use in making abrasive wheels, whetstones, and sandpaper, and for other purposes for which emery and corundum were formerly used. he soon found by chemical analysis, however, that carborundum was not composed of carbon and aluminium, but of carbon and silica, or sand, and that he had, in fact, created a new substance; so far as human knowledge now extends, no such combination occurs anywhere in nature. and it was made possible only by the electrical furnace, with its power of producing heat of untold intensity. [illustration: the furnace-room, where carborundum is made. "_a great, dingy brick building, open at the sides like a shed._"] in order to get a clear understanding of the actual workings of the electrical furnace, i visited the plant where mr. acheson makes carborundum. the furnace-room is a great, dingy brick building, open at the sides like a shed. it is located only a few hundred yards from the banks of the niagara river and well within the sound of the great falls. just below it, and nearer the city, stands the handsome building of the power company, in which the mightiest dynamos in the world whir ceaselessly, day and night, while the waters of niagara churn in the water-wheel pits below. heavy copper wires carrying a current of , volts lead from the power-house to mr. acheson's furnaces, where the electrical energy is transformed into heat. there are ten furnaces in all, built loosely of fire-brick, and fitted at each end with electrical connections. and strange they look to one who is familiar with the ordinary fuel furnace, for they have no chimneys, no doors, no drafts, no ash-pits, no blinding glow of heat and light. the room in which they stand is comfortably cool. each time a furnace is charged it is built up anew; for the heat produced is so fierce that it frequently melts the bricks together, and new ones must be supplied. there were furnaces in many stages of development. one had been in full blast for nearly thirty hours, and a weird sight it was. the top gave one the instant impression of the seamy side of a volcano. the heaped coke was cracked in every direction, and from out of the crevices and depressions and from between the joints of the loosely built brick walls gushed flames of pale green and blue, rising upward, and burning now high, now low, but without noise beyond a certain low humming. within the furnace--which was oblong in shape, about the height of a man, and sixteen feet long by six wide--there was a channel, or core, of white-hot carbon in a nearly vaporised state. it represented graphically in its seething activity what the burning surface of the sun might be--and it was almost as hot. yet the heat was scarcely manifest a dozen feet from the furnace, and but for the blue flames rising from the cracks in the envelope, or wall, one might have laid his hand almost anywhere on the bricks without danger of burning it. [illustration: taking off a crust of the furnace at night. _the light is so intense that you cannot look at it without hurting the eyes._] in the best modern blast-furnaces, in which the coal is supplied with special artificial draft to make it burn the more fiercely, the heat may reach , degrees fahrenheit. this is less than half of that produced in the electrical furnace. in porcelain kilns, the potters, after hours of firing, have been able to produce a cumulative temperature of as much as , degrees fahrenheit; and this, with the oxy-hydrogen flame (in which hydrogen gas is spurred to greater heat by an excess of oxygen), is the very extreme of heat obtainable by any artificial means except by the electrical furnace. thus the electrical furnace has fully doubled the practical possibilities in the artificial production of heat. mr. fitzgerald, the chemist of the acheson company, pointed out to me a curious glassy cavity in one of the half-dismantled furnaces. "here the heat was only a fraction of that in the core," he said. but still the fire-brick--and they were the most refractory produced in this country--had been melted down like butter. the floors under the furnace were all made of fire-brick, and yet the brick had run together until they were one solid mass of glassy stone. "we once tried putting a fire-brick in the centre of the core," said mr. fitzgerald, "just to test the heat. later, when we came to open the furnace, we couldn't find a vestige of it. the fire had totally consumed it, actually driving it all off in vapour." indeed, so hot is the core that there is really no accurate means of measuring its temperature, although science has been enabled by various curious devices to form a fairly correct estimate. the furnace has a provoking way of burning up all of the thermometers and heat-measuring devices which are applied to it. a number of years ago a clever german, named segar, invented a series of little cones composed of various infusible earths like clay and feldspar. he so fashioned them that one in the series would melt at , degrees fahrenheit, another at , degrees, and so on up. if the cones are placed in a pottery kiln, the potter can tell just what degree of temperature he has reached by the melting of the cones one after another. but in mr. acheson's electrical furnaces all the cones would burn up and disappear in two minutes. the method employed for coming at the heat of the electrical furnace, in some measure, is this: a thin filament of platinum is heated red hot-- , degrees fahrenheit--by a certain current of electricity. a delicate thermometer is set three feet away, and the reading is taken. then, by a stronger current, the filament is made white hot-- , degrees fahrenheit--and the thermometer moved away until it reads the same as it read before. two points in a distance-scale are thus obtained as a basis of calculation. the thermometer is then tried by an electrical furnace. to be kept at the same marking it must be placed much farther away than in either of the other instances. a simple computation of the comparative distances with relation to the two well-ascertained temperatures gives approximately, at least, the temperature of the electrical furnace. some other methods are also employed. none is regarded as perfectly exact; but they are near enough to have yielded some very interesting and valuable statistics regarding the power of various temperatures. for instance, it has been found that aluminium becomes a limpid liquid at from , to , degrees fahrenheit, and that lime melts at from , to , degrees, and magnesia at , degrees. there are two kinds of electrical furnaces, as there are two kinds of electric lights--arc and incandescent. moissan has used the arc furnace in all of his experiments, but mr. acheson's furnaces follow rather the principle of the incandescent lamp. "the incandescent light," said mr. fitzgerald, "is produced by the resistance of a platinum wire or a carbon filament to the passage of a current of electricity. both light and heat are given off. in our furnace, the heat is produced by the resistance of a solid cylinder or core of pulverised coke to the passage of a strong current of electricity. when the core becomes white hot it causes the materials surrounding it to unite chemically, producing the carborundum crystals." the materials used are of the commonest--pure white sand, coke, sawdust, and salt. the sand and coke are mixed in the proportions of sixty to forty, the sawdust is added to keep the mixture loose and open, and the salt to assist the chemical combination of the ingredients. the furnace is half filled with this mixture, and then the core of coke, twenty-one inches in diameter, is carefully moulded in place. this core is sixteen feet long, reaching the length of the furnace, and connecting at each end with an immense carbon terminal, consisting of no fewer than twenty-five rods of carbon, each four inches square and nearly three feet long. these terminals carry the current into the core from huge insulated copper bars connected from above. when the core is complete, more of the carborundum mixture is shovelled in and tramped down until the furnace is heaping full. everything is now ready for the electric current. the wires from the niagara falls power-plant come through an adjoining building, where one is confronted, upon entering, with this suggestive sign: danger , volts. tesla produces immensely higher voltages than this for laboratory experiments, but there are few more powerful currents in use in this country for practical purposes. only about , volts are required for executing criminals under the electric method employed in new york; volts will run a trolley-car. it is hardly comfortable to know that a single touch of one of the wires or switches in this room means almost certain death. mr. fitzgerald gave me a vivid demonstration of the terrific destructive force of the niagara falls current. he showed me how the circuit was broken. for ordinary currents, the breaking of a circuit simply means a twist of the wrist and the opening of a brass switch. here, however, the current is carried into a huge iron tank full of salt water. the attendant, pulling on a rope, lifts an iron plate from the tank. the moment it leaves the water, there follow a rumbling crash like a thunder-clap, a blinding burst of flame, and thick clouds of steam and spray. the sight and sound of it make you feel delicate about interfering with a , -volt current. [illustration: the interior of a furnace as it appears after the carborundum has been taken out.] this current is, indeed, too strong in voltage for the furnaces, and it is cut down, by means of what were until recently the largest transformers in the world, to about volts, or one-fourth the pressure used on the average trolley line. it is now, however, a current of great intensity-- , ampères, as compared with the one-half ampère used in an incandescent lamp; and it requires eight square inches of copper and square inches of carbon to carry it. within the furnace, when the current is turned on, a thousand horse-power of energy is continuously transformed into heat. think of it! is it any wonder that the temperature goes up? and this is continued for thirty-six hours steadily, until , "horse-power hours" are used up and , pounds of the crystals have been formed. remembering that , horse-power hours, when converted into heat, will raise , gallons of water to the boiling point, or will bring tons of iron up to a red heat, one can at least have a sort of idea of the heat evolved in a carborundum furnace. when the coke core glows white, chemical action begins in the mixture around it. the top of the furnace now slowly settles, and cracks in long, irregular fissures, sending out a pungent gas which, when lighted, burns lambent blue. this gas is carbon monoxide, and during the process nearly six tons of it are thrown off and wasted. it seems, indeed, a somewhat extravagant process, for fifty-six pounds of gas are produced for every forty of carborundum. "it is very distinctly a geological condition," said mr. fitzgerald; "crystals are not only formed exactly as they are in the earth, but we have our own little earthquakes and volcanoes." not infrequently gas collects, forming a miniature mountain, with a crater at its summit, and blowing a magnificent fountain of flame, lava, and dense white vapour high into the air, and roaring all the while in a most terrifying manner. the workmen call it "blowing off." [illustration: blowing off. "_not infrequently gas collects, forming a miniature mountain, with a crater at its summit, and blowing a magnificent fountain of flame, lava, and dense white vapour high into the air, and roaring all the while in a most terrifying manner._"] at the end of thirty-six hours the current is cut off, and the furnace is allowed to cool, the workmen pulling down the brick as rapidly as they dare. at the centre of the furnace, surrounding the core, there remains a solid mass of carborundum as large in diameter as a hogshead. portions of this mass are sometimes found to be composed of pure, beautifully crystalline graphite. this in itself is a surprising and significant product, and it has opened the way directly to graphite-making on a large scale. an important and interesting feature of the new graphite industry is the utilisation it has effected of a product from the coke regions of pennsylvania which was formerly absolute waste. to return to carborundum: when the furnace has been cooled and the walls torn away, the core of carborundum is broken open, and the beautiful purple and blue crystals are laid bare, still hot. the sand and the coke have united in a compound nearly as hard as the diamond and even more indestructible, being less inflammable and wholly indissoluble in even the strongest acids. after being taken out, the crystals are crushed to powder and combined in various forms convenient for the various uses for which it is designed. i asked mr. acheson if he could make diamonds in his furnaces. "possibly," he answered, "with certain modifications." diamonds, as he explained, are formed by great heat and great pressure. the great heat is now easily obtained, but science has not yet learned nature's secret of great pressure. moissan's method of making diamonds is to dissolve coke dust in molten iron, using a carbon crucible into which the electrodes are inserted. when the whole mass is fluid, the crucible and its contents are suddenly dashed into cold water or melted lead. this instantaneous cooling of the iron produces enormous pressure, so that the carbon is crystallised in the form of diamond. but whatever it may or may not yet be able to do in the matter of diamond-making, there can be no doubt that the possibilities of the electrical furnace are beyond all present conjecture. with american inventors busy in its further development, and with electricity as cheap as the mighty power of niagara can make it, there is no telling what new and wonderful products, now perhaps wholly unthought-of by the human race, it may become possible to manufacture, and manufacture cheaply. chapter v harnessing the sun _the solar motor_ it seems daring and wonderful enough, the idea of setting the sun itself to the heavy work of men, producing the power which will help to turn the wheels of this age of machinery. at los angeles, cal., i went out to see the sun at work pumping water. the solar motor, as it is called, was set up at one end of a great enclosure where ostriches are raised. i don't know which interested me more at first, the sight of these tall birds striding with dignity about their roomy pens or sitting on their big yellow eggs--just as we imagine them wild in the desert--or the huge, strange creation of man by which the sun is made to toil. i do not believe i could have guessed the purpose of this unique invention if i had not known what to expect. i might have hazarded the opinion that it was some new and monstrous searchlight: beyond that i think my imagination would have failed me. it resembled a huge inverted lamp-shade, or possibly a tremendous iron-ribbed colander, bottomless, set on its edge and supported by a steel framework. near by there was a little wooden building which served as a shop or engine-house. a trough full of running water led away on one side, and from within came the steady chug-chug, chug-chug of machinery, apparently a pump. so this was the sun-subduer! a little closer inspection, with an audience of ostriches, very sober, looking over the fence behind me and wondering, i suppose, if i had a cracker in my pocket, i made out some other very interesting particulars in regard to this strange invention. the colander-like device was in reality, i discovered, made up of hundreds and hundreds (nearly , in all) of small mirrors, the reflecting side turned inward, set in rows on the strong steel framework which composed the body of the great colander. by looking up through the hole in the bottom of the colander i was astonished by the sight of an object of such brightness that it dazzled my eyes. it looked, indeed, like a miniature sun, or at least like a huge arc light or a white-hot column of metal. and, indeed, it was white hot, glowing, burning hot--a slim cylinder of copper set in the exact centre of the colander. at the top there was a jet of white steam like a plume, for this was the boiler of this extraordinary engine. [illustration: side view of the solar motor.] "it is all very simple when you come to see it," the manager was saying to me. "every boy has tried the experiment of flashing the sunshine into his chum's window with a mirror. well, we simply utilise that principle. by means of these hundreds of mirrors we reflect the light and heat of the sun on a single point at the centre of what you have described as a colander. here we have the cylinder of steel containing the water which we wish heated for steam. this cylinder is thirteen and one-half feet long and will hold one hundred gallons of water. if you could see it cold, instead of glowing with heat, you would find it jet black, for we cover it with a peculiar heat-absorbing substance made partly of lampblack, for if we left it shiny it would re-reflect some of the heat which comes from the mirrors. the cold water runs in at one end through this flexible metallic hose, and the steam goes out at the other through a similar hose to the engine in the house." though this colander, or "reflector," as it is called, is thirty-three and one-half feet in diameter at the outer edge and weighs over four tons, it is yet balanced perfectly on its tall standards. it is, indeed, mounted very much like a telescope, in meridian, and a common little clock in the engine-room operates it so that it always faces the sun, like a sunflower, looking east in the morning and west in the evening, gathering up the burning rays of the sun and throwing them upon the boiler at the centre. in the engine-house i found a pump at work, chug-chugging like any pump run by steam-power, and the water raised by sun-power flowing merrily away. the manager told me that he could easily get ten horse-power; that, if the sun was shining brightly, he could heat cold water in an hour to produce pounds of steam. [illustration: front view of the los angeles solar motor.] the wind sometimes blows a gale in southern california, and i asked the manager what provision had been made for keeping this huge reflector from blowing away. "provision is made for varying wind-pressures," he said, "so that the machine is always locked in any position, and may only be moved by the operating mechanism, unless, indeed, the whole structure should be carried away. it is designed to withstand a wind-pressure of miles an hour. it went through the high gales of the november storm without a particle of damage. one of the peculiar characteristics of its construction is that it avoids wind-pressure as much as possible." the operation of the motor is so simple that it requires very little human labour. when power is desired, the reflector must be swung into focus--that is, pointed exactly toward the sun--which is done by turning a crank. this is not beyond the power of a good-sized boy. there is an indicator which readily shows when a true focus is obtained. this done, the reflector follows the sun closely all day. in about an hour the engine can be started by a turn of the throttle-valve. as the engine is automatic and self-oiling, it runs without further attention. the supply of water to the boiler is also automatic, and is maintained at a constant height without any danger of either too much or too little water. steam-pressure is controlled by means of a safety-valve, so that it may never reach a dangerous point. the steam passes from the engine to the condenser and thence to the boiler, and the process is repeated indefinitely. having now the solar motor, let us see what it is good for, what is expected of it. of course when the sun does not shine the motor does not work, so that its usefulness would be much curtailed in a very cloudy country like england, for instance; but here in southern california and in all the desert region of the united states and mexico, to say nothing of the sahara in africa, where the sun shines almost continuously, the solar motor has its greatest sphere of usefulness, and, indeed, its greatest need; for these lands of long sunshine, the deserts, are also the lands of parched fruitlessness, of little water, so that the invention of a motor which will utilise the abundant sunshine for pumping the much-needed water has a peculiar value here. [illustration: the brilliant steam boiler glistens in the centre.] the solar motor is expected to operate at all seasons of the year, regardless of all climatic conditions, with the single exception of cloudy skies. cold makes no difference whatever. the best results from the first model used in experimental work at denver were obtained at a time when the pond from which the water was pumped was covered with a thick coating of ice. but, of course, the length of the solar day is longer in the summer, giving more heat and more power. the motor may be depended upon for work from about one hour and a half after sunrise to within half an hour of sunset. in the summer time this would mean about twelve hours' constant pumping. think what such an invention means, if practically successful, to the vast stretches of our arid western land, valueless without water. spread all over this country of arizona, new mexico, southern california, and other states are thousands of miles of canals to bring in water from the rivers for irrigating the deserts, and there are untold numbers of wind-mills, steam and gasoline pumps which accomplish the same purpose more laboriously. think what a new source of cheap power will do--making valuable hundreds of acres of desert land, providing homes for thousands of busy americans. indeed, a practical solar motor might make habitable even the sahara desert. and it can be used in many other ways besides for pumping water. threshing machines might be run by this power, and, converted into electricity and saved up in storage batteries, it might be used for lighting houses, even for cooking dinners, or in fact for any purpose requiring power. these solar motors can be built at no great expense. i was told that ten-horse-power plants would cost about $ per horse-power, and one-hundred-horse-power plants about $ per horse-power. this would include the entire plant, with engine and pump complete. when it is considered that the annual rental of electric power is frequently $ per horse-power, whether it is used or not, it will be seen that the solar motor means a great deal, especially in connection with irrigation enterprises. [illustration: the rear machinery for operating the reflector.] and the time is coming--long-headed inventors saw it many years ago--when some device for the direct utilisation of the sun's heat will be a necessity. the world is now using its coal at a very rapid rate; its wood, for fuel purposes, has already nearly disappeared, so that, within a century or two, new ways of furnishing heat and power must be devised or the human race will perish of cold and hunger. fortunately there are other sources of power at hand; the waterfalls, the niagaras, which, converted into electricity, may yet heat our sitting-rooms and cook our dinners. there is also wind-power, now used to a limited extent by means of wind-mills. but greater than either of these sources is the unlimited potentiality of the tides of the sea, which men have sought in vain to harness, and the direct heat of the sun itself. some time in the future these will be subdued to the purpose of men, perhaps our main dependence for heat and power. when we come to think of it, the harnessing of the sun is not so very strange. in fact, we have had the sun harnessed since the dawn of man on the earth, only indirectly. without the sun there would be nothing here--no men, no life. coal is nothing but stored-up, bottled sunshine. the sunlight of a million years ago produced forests, which, falling, were buried in the earth and changed into coal. so when we put coal in the cook-stove we may truthfully say that we are boiling the kettle with million-year-old sunshine. similarly there would be no waterfalls for us to chain and convert into electricity, as we have chained niagara, if the sun did not evaporate the waters of the sea, take it up in clouds, and afterward empty the clouds in rain on the mountain-tops from whence the water tumbles down again to the sea. so no wind would blow without the sun to work changes in the air. in short, therefore, we have been using the sunlight all these years, hardly knowing it, but not directly. and think of the tremendous amount of heat which comes to the earth from the sun. every boy has tried using a burning-glass, which, focusing a few inches of the sun's rays, will set fire to paper or cloth. professor langley says that "the heat which the sun, when near the zenith, radiates upon the deck of a steamship would suffice, could it be turned into work without loss, to drive her at a fair rate of speed." the knowledge of this enormous power going to waste daily and hourly has inspired many inventors to work on the problem of the solar motor. among the greatest of these was the famous swedish engineer, john ericsson, who invented the iron-clad monitor. he constructed a really workable solar motor, different in construction but similar in principle to the one in california which i have described. in ericsson said: "upon one square mile, using only one-half of the surface and devoting the rest to buildings, roads, etc., we can drive , steam-engines, each of horse-power, simply by the heat radiating from the sun. archimedes, having completed his calculation of the force of a lever, said that he could move the earth. i affirm that the concentration of the heat radiated by the sun would produce a force capable of stopping the earth in its course." a firm believer in the truth of his theories, he devoted the last fifteen years of his life and $ , to experimental work on his solar engine. for various reasons ericsson's invention was not a practical success; but now that modern inventors, with their advancing knowledge of mechanics, have turned their attention to the problem, and now that the need of the solar motor is greater than ever before, especially in the world's deserts, we may look to see a practical and successful machine. perhaps the california motor may prove the solution of the problem; perhaps it will need improvements, which use and experience will indicate; perhaps it may be left for a reader of these words to discover the great secret and make his fortune. chapter vi the inventor and the food problem _fixing of nitrogen--experiments of professor nobbe_ no lad of to-day, ambitious to become a scientist or inventor, reading of all the wonderful and revolutionising discoveries and inventions of recent years, need fear for plenty of new problems to solve in the future. no, the great problems have not all been solved. we have the steam-engine, the electric motor, the telegraph, the telephone, the air-ship, but not one of them is perfect, not one that does not bring to the attention of inventors scores of entirely new problems for solution. the further we advance in science and mechanics the further we see into the marvels of our wonderful earth and of our life, and the more there is for us to do. as population increases and people become more intelligent there is a constant demand for new things, new machinery which will enable the human race to move more rapidly and crowd more work and more pleasure into our short human life. one man working to-day with machinery can accomplish as much as many men of a hundred years ago; he can live in a house that would then have been a palace; enjoy advantages of education, amusement, luxury, that would then have been possible only to kings and princes. and the very greatest of all the problems which the inventors and scientists of coming generations must solve is the question--seemingly commonplace--of food. we who live in this age of plenty can hardly realise that food could ever be a problem. but far-sighted scientists have already begun to look forward to the time when there will be so many people on the earth that the farms and fields will not supply food for every one. it is a well-known fact that the population of the world is increasing enormously. think how america has been expanding; a whole continent overrun and settled almost within a century and a half! nearly all the land that can be successfully farmed has already been taken up, and the land in some of the older settled localities, like virginia and the new england states, has been so steadily cropped that it is failing in fertility, so that it will not raise as much as it would years ago. in europe no crop at all can be raised without quantities of fertiliser. while there was yet new country to open up, while america and australia were yet virgin soil, there was no immediate cause for alarm; but, as no less an authority than sir william crookes pointed out a few years ago in a lecture before the british association, the new land has now for the most part been opened and tamed to the plough or utilised for grazing purposes. and already we are hearing of worn-out land in dakota--the paradise of the wheat producer. the problem, therefore, is simple enough: the world is reaching the limits of its capacity for food production, while the population continues to increase enormously: how soon will starvation begin? sir william crookes has prophesied, i believe, that the acute stage of the problem will be reached within the next fifty years, a time when the call of the world for food cannot be supplied. if it were not for our coming inventors and scientists it would certainly be a gloomy outlook for the human race. but science has already foreseen this problem. when sir william crookes gave his address he based his arguments on modern agricultural methods; he did not look forward into the future, he did not show any faith in the scientists and inventors who are to come, who are now boys, perhaps. he did not even take cognisance of the work that had already been done. for inventors and scientists are already grappling with this problem of food. in a nutshell, the question of food production is a question of nitrogen. this must be explained. a crop of wheat, for instance, takes from the soil certain elements to help make up the wheat berry, the straw, the roots. and the most important of all the elements it takes is nitrogen. when we eat bread we take this nitrogen that the wheat has gathered from the soil into our own bodies to build up our bones, muscles, brains. each wheat crop takes more nitrogen from the soil, and finally, if this nitrogen is not given back to the earth in some way, wheat will no longer grow in the fields. in other words, we say the farm is "worn out," "cropped to death." the soil is there, but the precious life-giving nitrogen is gone. and so it becomes necessary every year to put back the nitrogen and the other elements which the crop takes from the soil. this purpose is accomplished by the use of fertilisers. manure, ground bone, nitrates, guano, are put in fields to restore the nitrogen and other plant foods. in short, we are compelled to feed the soil that the soil may feed the wheat, that the wheat may feed us. you will see that it is a complete circle--like all life. now, the trouble, the great problem, lies right here: in the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient amount of fertiliser--in other words, in getting food enough to keep the soil from nitrogen starvation. already we ship guano--the droppings of sea-birds--from south america and the far islands of the sea to put on our lands, and we mine nitrates (which contain nitrogen) at large expense and in great quantities for the same purpose. and while we go to such lengths to get nitrogen we are wasting it every year in enormous quantities. gunpowder and explosives are most made up of nitrogen--saltpetre and nitro-glycerin--so that every war wastes vast quantities of this precious substance. every discharge of a -inch gun liberates enough nitrogen to raise many bushels of wheat. thus we see another reason for the disarmament of the nations. a prediction has been made that barely thirty years hence the wheat required to feed the world will be , , , bushels annually, and that to raise this about , , tons of nitrate of soda yearly for the area under cultivation will be needed over and above the , , tons now used by mankind. but the nitrates now in sight and available are estimated good for only another fifty years, even at the present low rate of consumption. hence, even if famine does not immediately impend, the food problem is far more serious than is generally supposed. now nitrogen, it will be seen, is one of the most precious and necessary of all substances to human life, and it is one of the most common. if the world ever starves for the lack of nitrogen it will starve in a very world of nitrogen. for there is not one of the elements more common than nitrogen, not one present around us in larger quantities. four-fifths of every breath of air we breathe is pure nitrogen--four-fifths of all the earth's atmosphere is nitrogen. but, unfortunately, most plants are unable to take up nitrogen in its gaseous form as it appears in the air. it must be combined with hydrogen in the form of ammonia or in some nitrate. ammonia and the nitrates are, therefore, the basis of all fertilisers. now, the problem for the scientist and inventor takes this form: here is the vast store-house of life-giving nitrogen in the air; how can it be caught, fixed, reduced to the purpose of men, spread on the hungry wheat-fields? the problem, therefore, is that of "fixing" the nitrogen, taking the gas out of the air and reducing it to a form in which it can be handled and used. two principal methods for doing this have already been devised, both of which are of fascinating interest. one of these ways, that of a clever american inventor, is purely a machinery process, the utilisation of power by means of which the nitrogen is literally sucked out of the air and combined with soda so that it produces nitrate of soda, a high-class fertiliser. the water power of niagara falls is used to do this work--it seems odd enough that niagara should be used for food production! the other method, that of a hard-working german professor, is the cunning utilisation of one of nature's marvellous processes of taking the nitrogen from the air and depositing it in the soil--for nature has its own beautiful way of doing it. i will describe the second method first because it will help to clear up the whole subject and lead up to the work of the american inventor and his extraordinary machinery. nearly every farmer, without knowing it, employs nature's method of fixing nitrogen every year. it is a simple process which he has learned from experience. he knows that when land is worn out by overcropping with wheat or other products which draw heavily on the earth's nitrogen supply certain crops will still grow luxuriantly upon the worn-out land, and that if these crops are left and ploughed in, the fertility of the soil will be restored, and it will again produce large yields of wheat and other nitrogen-demanding plants. these restorative crops are clover, lupin, and other leguminous plants, including beans and peas. every one who is at all familiar with farming operations has heard of seeding down an old field to clover and then ploughing in the crop, usually in the second year. the great importance of this bit of the wisdom of experience was not appreciated by science for many years. then several german experimenters began to ask why clover and lupin and beans should flourish on worn-out land when other crops failed. all of these plants are especially rich in nitrogen, and yet they grew well on soil which had been robbed of its nitrogen. why was this so? it was a hard problem to solve, but science was undaunted. botanists had already discovered that the roots of the leguminous plants--that is, clover, lupin, beans, peas, and so on--were usually covered with small round swellings, or tumors, to which were given the name nodules. the exact purpose of these swellings being unknown, they were set down as a condition, possibly, of disease, and no further attention was paid to them until professor hellriegel, of burnburg, in anhalt, germany, took up the work. after much experimenting, he made the important discovery that lupins which had nodules would grow in soil devoid of nitrogen, and that lupins which had no nodules would not grow in the same soil. it was plain, therefore, that the nodules must play an important, though mysterious, part in enabling the plant to utilise the free nitrogen of the air. that was early in the ' s. his discovery at once started other investigators to work, and it was not long before the announcement came--and it came, curiously enough, at a time when dr. koch was making his greatest contributions to the world's knowledge of the germ theory of disease--that these nodules were the result of minute bacteria found in the soil. professor beyerinck, of münster, gave the bacteria the name radiocola. it was at this time that professor nobbe took up the work with vigour. if these nodules were produced by bacteria, he argued that the bacteria must be present in the soil; and if they were not present, would it not be possible to supply them by artificial means? in other words, if soil, say worn-out farm-soil or, indeed, pure sand like that of the sea-shore could thus be inoculated, as a physician inoculates a guinea-pig with diphtheria germs, would not beans and peas planted there form nodules and draw their nourishment from the air? it was a somewhat startling idea, but all radically new ideas are startling; and, after thinking it over, professor nobbe began, in , a series of most remarkable experiments, having as their purpose the discovery of a practical method of soil inoculation. he gathered the nodule-covered roots of beans and peas, dried and crushed them, and made an extract of them in water. then he prepared a gelatine solution with a little sugar, asparagine, and other materials, and added the nodule-extract. in this medium colonies of bacteria at once began to grow--bacteria of many kinds. professor nobbe separated the radiocola--which are oblong in shape--and made what is known as a "clear culture," that is, a culture in gelatine, consisting of billions of these particular germs, and no others. when he had succeeded in producing these clear cultures he was ready for his actual experiments in growing plants. he took a quantity of pure sand, and, in order to be sure that it contained no nitrogen or bacteria in any form, he heated it at a high temperature three different times for six hours, thereby completely sterilising it. this sand he placed in three jars. to each of these he added a small quantity of mineral food--the required phosphorus, potassium, iron, sulphur, and so on. to the first he supplied no nitrogen at all in any form; the second he fertilised with saltpetre, which is largely composed of nitrogen in a form in which plants may readily absorb it through their roots; the third of the jars he inoculated with some of his bacteria culture. then he planted beans in all three jars, and awaited the results, as may be imagined, somewhat anxiously. perfectly pure sterilised water was supplied to each jar in equal amounts and the seeds sprouted, and for a week the young shoots in the three jars were almost identical in appearance. but soon after that there was a gradual but striking change. the beans in the first jar, having no nitrogen and no inoculation, turned pale and refused to grow, finally dying down completely, starved for want of nitrogenous food, exactly as a man would starve for the lack of the same kind of nourishment. the beans in the second jar, with the fertilised soil, grew about as they would in the garden, all of the nourishment having been artificially supplied. but the third jar, which had been jealously watched, showed really a miracle of growth. it must be remembered that the soil in this jar was as absolutely free of nitrogen as the soil in the first jar, and yet the beans flourished greatly, and when some of the plants were analysed they were found to be rich in nitrogen. nodules had formed on the roots of the beans in the third or inoculated jar only, thereby proving beyond the hope of the experimenter that soil inoculation was a possibility, at least in the laboratory. with this favourable beginning professor nobbe went forward with his experiments with renewed vigour. he tried inoculating the soil for peas, clover, lupin, vetch, acacia, robinia, and so on, and in every case the roots formed nodules, and although there was absolutely no nitrogen in the soil, the plants invariably flourished. then professor nobbe tried great numbers of difficult test experiments, such as inoculating the soil with clover bacteria and then planting it with beans or peas, or vice versa, to see whether the bacteria from the nodules of any one leguminous plant could be used for all or any of the others. he also tried successive cultures; that is, bean bacteria for beans for several years, to see if better results could be obtained by continued use. even an outline description of all the experiments which professor nobbe made in the course of these investigations would fill a small volume, and it will be best to set down here only his general conclusions. [illustration: trees growing in water at professor nobbe's laboratory.] these wonderful nitrogen-absorbing bacteria do not appear in all soil, although they are very widely distributed. so far as known they form nodules only on the roots of a few species of plants. in their original form in the soil they are neutral--that is, not especially adapted to beans, or peas, or any one particular kind of crop. but if clover, for instance, is planted, they straightway form nodules and become especially adapted to the clover plant, so that, as every farmer knows, the second crop of clover on worn-out land is much better than the first. and, curiously enough, when once the bacteria have become thoroughly adapted to one of the crops, say beans, they will not affect peas or clover, or only feebly. another strange feature of the life of these little creatures, which has a marvellous suggestion of intelligence, is their activities in various kinds of soil. when the ground is very rich--that is, when it contains plenty of nitrogenous matter--they are what professor nobbe calls "lazy." they do not readily form nodules on the roots of the plants, seeming almost to know that there is no necessity for it. but when once the nitrogenous matter in the soil begins to fail, then they work more sharply, and when it has gone altogether they are at the very height of activity. consequently, unless the soil is really worn out, or very poor to begin with, there is no use in inoculating it--it would be like "taking owls to athens," as professor nobbe says. [illustration: experimenting with nitrogen in professor nobbe's laboratory.] having thus proved the remarkable efficacy of soil inoculation in his laboratory and greenhouses, where i saw great numbers of experiments still going forward, professor nobbe set himself to make his discoveries of practical value. he gave to his bacteria cultures the name "nitragen"--spelled with an "a"--and he produced separate cultures for each of the important crops--peas, beans, vetch, lupin, and clover. in the first of these were placed on the market, and they have had a steadily increasing sale, although such a radical innovation as this, so far out of the ordinary run of agricultural operation, and so almost unbelievably wonderful, cannot be expected to spread very rapidly. the cultures are now manufactured at one of the great commercial chemical laboratories on the river main. i saw some of them in professor nobbe's laboratory. they come in small glass bottles, each marked with the name of the crop for which it is especially adapted. the bottle is partly filled with the yellow gelatinous substance in which the bacteria grow. on the surface of this there is a mossy-like growth, resembling mould. this consists of innumerable millions of the little oblong bacteria. a bottle costs about fifty cents and contains enough bacteria for inoculating half an acre of land. it must be used within a certain number of weeks after it is obtained, while it is still fresh. the method of applying it is very simple. the contents of the bottle are diluted with warm water. then the seeds of the beans, clover, or peas, which have previously been mixed with a little soil, are treated with this solution and thoroughly mixed with the soil. after that the mass is partially dried so that the seeds may be readily sown. the bacteria at once begin to propagate in the soil, which is their natural home, and by the time the beans or peas have put out roots they are present in vast numbers and ready to begin the active work of forming nodules. it is not known exactly how the bacteria absorb the free nitrogen from the air, but they do it successfully, and that is the main thing. many german farmers have tried nitragen. one, who was sceptical of its virtues, wrote to professor nobbe that he sowed the bacteria-inoculated seeds in the form of a huge letter n in the midst of his field, planting the rest in the ordinary way. before a month had passed that n showed up green and big over all the field, the plants composing it being so much larger and healthier than those around it. the united states government has recently been experimenting along the same lines and has produced a new form of dry preparation of the bacteria in some cakes somewhat resembling a yeast-cake. the possibilities of such a discovery as this seem almost limitless. science predicts the exhaustion of nitrogen and consequent failure of the food supply, and science promptly finds a way of making plants draw nitrogen from the boundless supplies of the air. the time may come when every farmer will send for his bottles or cakes of bacteria culture every spring as regularly as he sends for his seed, and when the work of inoculating the soil will be a familiar agricultural process, with discussions in the farmers' papers as to whether two bottles or one is best for a field of sandy loam with a southern exposure. stranger things have happened. but it must be remembered, also, that the work is in its infancy as yet, and that there are vast unexplored fields and innumerable possibilities yet to fathom. wonderful as this discovery is, and much as it promises in the future, its efficacy, as soon as it becomes generally known, is certain to be overestimated, as all new discoveries are. professor nobbe himself says that it has its own limited serviceability. it will produce a bounteous crop of beans in the pure sand of the sea-shore if (and this is an important if) that sand also contains enough of the mineral substances--phosphorus, potassium, and so on--and if it is kept properly watered. a man with a worn-out farm cannot go ahead blindly and inoculate his soil and expect certain results. he must know the exact disease from which his land is suffering before he applies the remedy. if it is deficient in the phosphates, bacteria cultures will not help it, whereas if it is deficient in nitrogen, bacteria are just what it needs. and so agricultural education must go hand in hand with the introduction of these future preservers of the human race. it is safe to say that by the time there is a serious failure of the earth's soil for lack of nitrogen, science, with this wonderful beginning, will have ready a new system of cultivation, which will gradually, easily, and perfectly take the place of the old. before leaving this wonderful subject of soil inoculation, a word about professor nobbe himself will surely be of interest. i visited his laboratory and saw his experiments. tharandt, in saxony, where professor nobbe has carried on his investigations for over thirty years, is a little village set picturesquely among the saxon hills, about half an hour's ride by railroad from the city of dresden. here is located the forest academy of the kingdom, with which professor nobbe is prominently connected, and here also is the agricultural experiment station of which he is director. he has been for more than forty years the editor of one of the most important scientific publications in germany; he is chairman of the imperial society of agricultural station directors, and he has been the recipient of many honours. we now come to a consideration of the other method--the fixing of nitrogen by machinery: a practical problem for the inventor. every one has noticed the peculiar fresh smell of the air which follows a thunderstorm; the same pungent odour appears in the vicinity of a frictional electric machine when in operation. this smell has been attributed to ozone, but it is now thought that it may be due to oxides of nitrogen; in other words, the electric discharges of lightning or of the frictional machine have burned the air--that is, combined the nitrogen and oxygen of the air, forming oxides of nitrogen. [illustration: mr. charles s. bradley.] [illustration: mr. d. r. lovejoy.] the fact that an electric spark will thus form an oxide of nitrogen has long been known, but it remained for two american inventors, mr. charles s. bradley and mr. d. r. lovejoy, of niagara falls, n. y., to work out a way by inventive genius for applying this scientific fact to a practical purpose, thereby originating a great new industry. i shall not attempt here to describe the long process of experimentation which led up to the success of their enterprise. here was their raw material all around them in the air; their problem was to produce a large number of very hot electric flames in a confined space or box so that air could be passed through, rapidly burned, and converted into oxides of nitrogen (nitric oxides and peroxides), which could afterward be collected. they took the power supplied by the great turbine wheels at niagara falls and produced a current of , volts, a pressure far above anything ever used before for practical purposes in this country. this was led into a box or chamber of metal six feet high and three feet in diameter--the box having openings to admit the air. by means of a revolving cylinder the electric current is made to produce a rapid continuance of very brilliant arcs, exactly like the glaring white arc of the arc-lamp, only much more intense, a great deal hotter. the air driven in through and around these hot arcs is at once burned, combining the oxygen and nitrogen of which it is composed and producing the desired oxides of nitrogen. these are led along to a chamber where they are combined with water, producing nitric or nitrous acid; or if the gases are brought into contact with caustic potash, saltpetre is the result; if with caustic soda, nitrate of soda is the product--a very valuable fertiliser. and the inventors have been able to produce these various results at an expense so low that they can sell their output at a profit in competition with nitrates from other sources, thus giving the world a new source of fertiliser at a moderate price. [illustration: eight-inch , -volt arcs burning the air for fixing nitrogen.] [illustration: machine for burning the air with electric arcs so as to produce nitrates.] in this way the power of niagara has become a factor in the food question, a defence against the ultimate hunger of the human race. and when we think of the hundreds of other great waterfalls to be utilised, and with our growing knowledge of electricity this utilisation will become steadily cheaper, easier, it would seem that the inventor had already found a way to help the farmer. then there is the boundless power of the tides going to waste, of the direct rays of the sun utilised by some such sun motor as that described in another chapter of this book, which in time may be called to operate upon the boundless reservoir of nitrogen in the air for helping to produce the future food for the human race. [illustration: marconi. the sending of an epoch-making message. _january , , marks the beginning of a new era in telegraphic communication. on that day there was sent by marconi himself from the wireless station at south wellfleet, cape cod, mass., to the station at poldhu, cornwall, england, a distance of , miles, the message--destined soon to be historic--from the president of the united states to the king of england._] chapter vii marconi and his great achievements _new experiments in wireless telegraphy_ no invention of modern times, perhaps, comes so near to being what we call a miracle as the new system of telegraphy without wires. the very thought of communicating across the hundreds of miles of blue ocean between europe and america with no connection, no wires, nothing but air, sunshine, space, is almost inconceivably wonderful. a few years ago the mere suggestion of such a thing would have been set down as the wildest flight of imagination, unbelievable, perfectly impossible. and yet it has come to pass! think for a moment of sitting here on the shore of america and quietly listening to words sent _through space_ across some , miles of ocean from the edge of europe! a cable, marvellous as it is, maintains a real connection between speaker and hearer. we feel that it is a road along which our speech can travel; we can grasp its meaning. but in telegraphing without wires we have nothing but space, poles with pendent wires on one side of the broad, curving ocean, and similar poles and wires (or perhaps only a kite struggling in the air) on the other--and thought passing between! i have told in the first "boys' book of inventions" of guglielmo marconi's early experiments. that was a chapter of uncertain beginnings, of great hopes, of prophecy. this is the sequel, a chapter of achievement and success. what was only a scientific and inventive novelty a few years ago has become a great practical enterprise, giving promise of changing the whole world of men, drawing nations more closely together, making us near neighbours to the english and the germans and the french--in short, shrinking our earth. there may come a time when we will think no more of sending a marconigram, or an etheragram, or whatever is to be the name of the message by wireless telegraphy, to an acquaintance in england than we now think of calling up our neighbour on the telephone. every one will recall the astonishment that swept over the country in december, , when there came the first meagre reports of marconi's success in telegraphing across the atlantic ocean between england and newfoundland. at first few would believe the reports, but when thomas a. edison, graham bell, and other great inventors and scientists had expressed their confidence in marconi's achievement, the whole country, was ready to hail the young inventor with honours. and his successes since those december days have been so pronounced--for he had now sent messages both ways across the atlantic and at much greater distances--have more than borne out the promise then made. wireless telegrams can now be sent directly from the shore of massachusetts to england, and ocean-going ships are being rapidly equipped with the marconi apparatus so that they can keep in direct communication with both continents during every day of the voyage. on some of the great ships a little newspaper is published, giving the world's news as received from day to day. it was the good fortune of the writer to arrive in st. john's, newfoundland, during mr. marconi's experiments in december, , only a short time after the famous first message across the atlantic had been received. three months later it was also the writer's privilege to visit the marconi station at poldhu, in cornwall, england, from which the message had been sent, mr. marconi being then planning his greater work of placing his invention on a practical basis so that his company could enter the field of commercial telegraphy. it was the writer's fortune to have many talks with mr. marconi, both in america and in england, to see him at his experiments, and to write some of the earliest accounts of his successes. the story here told is the result of these talks. mr. marconi kept his own counsel regarding his plans in coming to newfoundland in december, . he told nobody, except his assistants, that he was going to attempt the great feat of communicating across the atlantic ocean. though feeling very certain of success, he knew that the world would not believe him, would perhaps only laugh at him for his great plans. the project was entirely too daring for public announcement. something might happen, some accident to the apparatus, that would cause a delay; people would call this failure, and it would be more difficult another time to get any one to put confidence in the work. so marconi very wisely held his peace, only announcing what he had done when success was assured. mr. marconi landed at st. john's, newfoundland, on december , , with his two assistants, mr. kemp and mr. paget. he set up his instruments in a low room of the old barracks on signal hill, which stands sentinel at the harbour mouth half a mile from the city of st. john's. so simple and easily arranged is the apparatus that in three days' time the inventor was prepared to begin his experiments. on wednesday, the th, as a preliminary test of the wind velocity, he sent up one of his kites, a huge hexagonal affair of bamboo and silk nine feet high, built on the baden-powell model: the wind promptly snapped the wire and blew the kite out to sea. he then filled a -foot hydrogen balloon, and sent it upward through a thick fog bank. hardly had it reached the limit of its tetherings, however, when the aërial wire on which he had depended for receiving his messages fell to the earth, the balloon broke away, and was never seen again. on thursday, the th, a day destined to be important in the annals of invention, marconi tried another kite, and though the weather was so blustery that it required the combined strength of the inventor and his assistants to manage the tetherings, they succeeded in holding the kite at an elevation of about feet. marconi was now prepared for the crucial test. before leaving england he had given detailed instructions to his assistants for the transmission of a certain signal, the morse telegraphic s, represented by three dots (...), at a fixed time each day, beginning as soon as they received word that everything at st. john's was in readiness. this signal was to be clicked out on the transmitting instruments near poldhu, cornwall, the southwestern tip of england, and radiated from a number of aërial wires pendent from masts feet high. if the inventor could receive on his kite-wire in newfoundland some of the electrical waves thus produced, he knew that he held the solution of the problem of transoceanic wireless telegraphy. he had cabled his assistants to begin sending the signals at three o'clock in the afternoon, english time, continuing until six o'clock; that is, from about . to . o'clock in st. john's. [illustration: preparing to fly the kite which supported the receiving wire. _marconi on the extreme left._] at noon on thursday (december , ) marconi sat waiting, a telephone receiver at his ear, in a room of the old barracks on signal hill. to him it must have been a moment of painful stress and expectation. arranged on the table before him, all its parts within easy reach of his hand, was the delicate receiving instrument, the supreme product of years of the inventor's life, now to be submitted to a decisive test. a wire ran out through the window, thence to a pole, thence upward to the kite which could be seen swaying high overhead. it was a bluff, raw day; at the base of the cliff feet below thundered a cold sea; oceanward through the mist rose dimly the rude outlines of cape spear, the easternmost reach of the north american continent. beyond that rolled the unbroken ocean, nearly , miles to the coast of the british isles. across the harbour the city of st. john's lay on its hillside wrapped in fog: no one had taken enough interest in the experiments to come up here through the snow to signal hill. even the ubiquitous reporter was absent. in cabot tower, near at hand, the old signalman stood looking out to sea, watching for ships, and little dreaming of the mysterious messages coming that way from england. standing on that bleak hill and gazing out over the waste of water to the eastward, one finds it difficult indeed to realise that this wonder could have become a reality. the faith of the inventor in his creation, in the kite-wire, and in the instruments which had grown under his hand, was unshaken. [illustration: mr. marconi and his assistants in newfoundland: mr. kemp on the left, mr. paget on the right. _they are sitting on a balloon basket, with one of the baden-powell kites in the background._] "i believed from the first," he told me, "that i would be successful in getting signals across the atlantic." only two persons were present that thursday noon in the room where the instruments were set up--mr. marconi and mr. kemp. everything had been done that could be done. the receiving apparatus was of unusual sensitiveness, so that it would catch even the faintest evidence of the signals. a telephone receiver, which is no part of the ordinary instrument, had been supplied, so that the slightest clicking of the dots might be conveyed to the inventor's ear. for nearly half an hour not a sound broke the silence of the room. then quite suddenly mr. kemp heard the sharp click of the tapper as it struck against the coherer; this, of course, was not the signal, yet it was an indication that something was coming. the inventor's face showed no evidence of excitement. presently he said: "see if you can hear anything, kemp." mr. kemp took the receiver, and a moment later, faintly and yet distinctly and unmistakably, came the three little clicks--the dots of the letter s, tapped out an instant before in england. at ten minutes past one, more signals came, and both mr. marconi and mr. kemp assured themselves again and again that there could be no mistake. during this time the kite gyrated so wildly in the air that the receiving wire was not maintained at the same height, as it should have been; but again, at twenty minutes after two, other repetitions of the signal were received. thus the problem was solved. one of the great wonders of science had been wrought. but the inventor went down the hill toward the city, now bright with lights, feeling depressed and disheartened--the rebound from the stress of the preceding days. on the following afternoon, friday, he succeeded in getting other repetitions of the signal from england, but on saturday, though he made an effort, he was unable to hear anything. the signals were, of course, sent continuously, but the inventor was unable to obtain continuous results, owing, as he explains, to the fluctuations of the height of the kite as it was blown about by the wind, and to the extreme delicacy of his instruments, which required constant adjustment during the experiments. even now that he had been successful, the inventor hesitated to make his achievement public, lest it seem too extraordinary for belief. finally, after withholding the great news for two days, certainly an evidence of self-restraint, he gave out a statement to the press, and on sunday morning the world knew and doubted; on monday it knew more and believed. many, like mr. edison, awaited the inventor's signed announcement before they would credit the news. sir cavendish boyle, the governor of newfoundland, reported at once to king edward; and the cable company which has exclusive rights in newfoundland, alarmed at an achievement which threatened the very existence of its business, demanded that he desist from further experiments within its territory, truly an evidence of the belief of practical men in the future commercial importance of the invention. it is not a little significant of the increased willingness of the world, born of expanding knowledge, to accept a new scientific wonder, that mr. marconi's announcement should have been so eagerly and so generally believed, and that the popular imagination should have been so fired with its possibilities. one cannot but recall the struggle against doubt, prejudice, and disbelief in which the promoters of the first transatlantic cable were forced to engage. even after the first cable was laid (in ), and messages had actually been transmitted, there were many who denied that it had ever been successfully operated, and would hardly be convinced even by the affidavits of those concerned in the work. but in the years since then, edison, bell, röntgen, and many other famous inventors and scientists have taught the world to be chary of its disbelief. outside of this general disposition to friendliness, however, marconi on his own part had well earned the credit of the careful and conservative scientist; his previous successes made it the more easy to credit his new achievement. for, as an englishman (mr. flood page), in defending mr. marconi's announcement, has pointed out, the inventor has never made any statement in public until he has been absolutely certain of the fact; he has never had to withdraw any statement that he has made as to his progress in the past. and these facts unquestionably carried great weight in convincing mr. edison, mr. graham bell, and others of equal note of the literal truth of his report. it was astonishing how overwhelmingly credit came from every quarter of the world, from high and low alike, from inventors, scientists, statesmen, royalty. before marconi left st. john's he was already in receipt of a large mail--the inevitable letters of those who would offer congratulations, give advice, or ask favours. he received offers to lecture, to write articles, to visit this, that, and the other place--and all within a week after the news of his success. the people of the "ancient colony" of newfoundland, famed for their hospitality, crowned him with every honour in their power. i accompanied mr. marconi across the island on his way to nova scotia, and it seemed as if every fisher and farmer in that wild country had heard of him, for when the train stopped they came crowding to look in at the window. from the comments i heard, they wondered most at the inventor's youthful appearance. though he was only twenty-seven years old, his experience as an inventor covered many years, for he began experimenting in wireless telegraphy before he was twenty. at twenty-two he came to london from his italian home, and convinced the british post-office department that he had an important idea; at twenty-three he was famous the world over. following this epoch-making success mr. marconi returned to england, where he continued most vigorously the work of perfecting his invention, installing more powerful transmitters, devising new receivers, all the time with the intention of following up his newfoundland experiments with the inauguration of a complete system of wireless transmission between america and europe. in the latter part of the year he succeeded in opening regular communication between nova scotia and england, and january , , marked another epoch in his work. on that day there was sent by marconi himself from the wireless station at south wellfleet, cape cod, mass., to the station at poldhu, cornwall, england, a distance of , miles, the message--destined to be historic--from the president of the united states to the king of england. it will be interesting to know something of the inventor himself. he is somewhat above medium height, and, though of a highly strung temperament, he is deliberate in his movements. unlike the inventor of tradition, he dresses with scrupulous neatness, and, in spite of being a prodigious worker, he finds time to enjoy a limited amount of club and social life. the portrait published with this chapter, taken at st. john's a few days after the experiments, gives a very good idea of the inventor's face, though it cannot convey the peculiar lustre of his eyes when he is interested or excited--and perhaps it makes him look older than he really is. one of the first and strongest impressions that the man conveys is that of intense nervous activity and mental absorption; he has a way of pouncing upon a knotty question as if he could not wait to solve it. he talks little, is straightforward and unassuming, submitting good-naturedly, although with evident unwillingness, to being lionised. in his public addresses he has been clear and sensible; he has never written for any publication; nor has he engaged in scientific disputes, and even when violently attacked he has let his work prove his point. and he has accepted his success with calmness, almost unconcern; he certainly expected it. the only elation i saw him express was over the attack of the cable monopoly in newfoundland, which he regarded as the greatest tribute that could have been paid his achievement. during all his life, opposition has been his keenest spur to greater effort. though he was born and educated in italy, his mother was of british birth, and he speaks english as perfectly as he does italian. indeed, his blue eyes, light hair, and fair complexion give him decidedly the appearance of an englishman, so that a stranger meeting him for the first time would never suspect his italian parentage. his parents are still living, spending part of their time on their estate in italy and part of the time in london. one of the first messages conveying the news of his success at st. john's went to them. he embarked in experimental research because he loved it, and no amount of honour or money tempts him from the pursuit of the great things in electricity which he sees before him. besides being an inventor, he is also a shrewd business man, with a clear appreciation of the value of his inventions and of their possibilities when generally introduced. what is more, he knows how to go about the task of introducing them. no sooner had marconi announced the success of his newfoundland experiments than critics began to raise objections. might not the signals which he received have been sent from some passing ship fitted with wireless-telegraphy apparatus? or, might they not have been the result of electrical disturbances in the atmosphere? or, granting his ability to communicate across seas, how could he preserve the secrecy of his messages? if they were transmitted into space, why was it not possible for any one with a receiving instrument to take them? and was not his system of transmission too slow to make it useful, or was it not rendered uncertain by storms? and so on indefinitely. an acquaintance with some of the principles which marconi considers fundamental, and on which his work has been based, will help to clear away these objections and give some conception of the real meaning and importance of the work at st. john's and of the plans for the future development of the inventor's system. in the first place, mr. marconi makes no claim to being the first to experiment along the lines which led to wireless telegraphy, or the first to signal for short distances without wires. he is prompt with his acknowledgment to other workers in his field, and to his assistants. professor s. f. b. morse, the inventor of telegraphy; dr. oliver lodge and sir william preece, of england; edison, tesla, and professors trowbridge and dolbear, of america, and others had experimented along these lines, but it remained for marconi to perfect a system and put it into practical working order. he took the coherer of branley and calzecchi, the oscillator of righi, he used the discoveries of henry and hertz, but his creation, like that of the poet who gathers the words of men in a perfect lyric, was none the less brilliant and original. [illustration: _marconi transatlantic station at south wellfleet, cape cod, mass._] in its bare outlines, marconi's system of telegraphy consists in setting in motion, by means of his transmitter, certain electric waves which, passing through the ether, are received on a distant wire suspended from a kite or mast, and registered on his receiving apparatus. the ether is a mysterious, unseen, colourless, odourless, inconceivably rarefied something which is supposed to fill all space. it has been compared to a jelly in which the stars and planets are set like cherries. about all we know of it is that it has waves--that the jelly may be made to vibrate in various ways. etheric vibrations of certain kinds give light; other kinds give heat; others electricity. experiments have shown that if the ether vibrates at the inconceivable swiftness of billions of waves a second we see the colour red, if twice as fast we see violet, if more slowly--perhaps millions to the second, and less--we have the hertz waves used by marconi in his wireless-telegraphy experiments. ether waves should not be confounded with air waves. sound is a result of the vibration of the air; if we had ether and no air, we should still see light, feel heat, and have electrical phenomena, but no sound would ever come to our ears. air is sluggish beside ether, and sound waves are very slow compared with ether waves. during a storm the ether brings the flash of the lightning before the air brings the sound of thunder, as every one knows. [illustration: at poole, _england_.] electricity is, indeed, only another name for certain vibrations in the ether. we say that electricity "flows" in a wire, but nothing really passes except an etheric wave, for the atoms composing the wire, as well as the air and the earth, and even the hardest substances, are all afloat in ether. vibrations, therefore, started at one end of the wire travel to the other. throw a stone into a quiet pond. instantly waves are formed which spread out in every direction; the water does not move, except up and down, yet the wave passes onward indefinitely. electric waves cannot be seen, but electricians have learned how to incite them, to a certain extent how to control them, and have devised cunning instruments which register their presence. electrical waves have long been harnessed by the use of wires for sending communications; in other words, we have had wire telegraphy. but the ether exists outside of the wire as well as within; therefore, having the ether everywhere, it must be possible to produce waves in it which will pass anywhere, as well through mountains as over seas, and if these waves can be controlled they will evidently convey messages as easily and as certainly as the ether within wires. so argued mr. marconi. the difficulty lay in making an instrument which would produce a peculiar kind of wave, and in receiving and registering this wave in a second apparatus located at a distance from the first. it was, therefore, a practical mechanical problem which marconi had to meet. beginning with crude tin boxes set up on poles on the grounds of his father's estate in italy, he finally devised an apparatus from which a current generated by a battery and passing in brilliant sparks between two brass balls was radiated from a wire suspended on a tall pole. by shutting off and turning on this peculiar current, by means of a device similar to the familiar telegrapher's key, the waves could be so divided as to represent dashes and dots, and spell out letters in the morse alphabet. this was the transmitter. it was, indeed, simple enough to start these waves travelling through space, to jar the etheric jelly, so to speak; but it was far more difficult to devise an apparatus to receive and register them. for this purpose marconi adopted a device invented by an italian, calzecchi, and improved by a frenchman, m. branley, called the coherer, and the very crux of the system, without which there could be no wireless telegraphy. this coherer, which he greatly improved, is merely a little tube of glass as big around as a lead-pencil, and perhaps two inches long. it is plugged at each end with silver, the plugs nearly meeting within the tube. the narrow space between them is filled with finely powdered fragments of nickel and silver, which possess the strange property of being alternately very good and very bad conductors of electrical waves. the waves which come from the transmitter, perhaps , miles away, are received on a suspended kite-wire, exactly similar to the wire used in the transmitter, but they are so weak that they could not of themselves operate an ordinary telegraph instrument. they do, however, possess strength enough to draw the little particles of silver and nickel in the coherer together in a continuous metal path. in other words, they make these particles "cohere," and the moment they cohere they become a good conductor for electricity, and a current from a battery near at hand rushes through, operates the morse instrument, and causes it to print a dot or a dash; then a little tapper, actuated by the same current, strikes against the coherer, the particles of metal are jarred apart or "decohered," becoming instantly a poor conductor, and thus stopping the strong current from the home battery. another wave comes through space, down the suspended kite-wire, into the coherer, there drawing the particles again together, and another dot or dash is printed. all these processes are continued rapidly, until a complete message is ticked out on the tape. thus mr. kemp knew when he heard the tapper strike the coherer that a signal was coming, though he could not hear the click of the receiver itself. and this is in bare outline mr. marconi's invention--this is the combination of devices which has made wireless telegraphy possible, the invention on which he has taken out more than patents in every civilised country of the world. of course his instruments contain much of intricate detail, of marvellously ingenious adaptation to the needs of the work, but these are interesting chiefly to expert technicians. [illustration: nearer view of _south foreland station_.] [illustration: alum bay station _isle of wight_.] in his actual transoceanic experiments of december, , mr. marconi's transmitting station in england was fitted with twenty masts feet high, each with its suspended wire, though not all of them were used. a current of electricity sufficient to operate some incandescent lamps was used, the resulting spark being so brilliant that one could not have looked at it with the unshaded eye. the wave which was thus generated had a length of about a fifth of a mile, and the rate of vibration was about , to the second. following the analogy of the stone cast in the pond with the ripples circling outward, these waves spread from the suspended wires in england in every direction, not only westward toward the cliff where marconi was flying his kite, but eastward, northward, and southward, so that if some of mr. marconi's assistants had been flying kites, say on the shore of africa, or south america, or in st. petersburg, they might possibly, with a corresponding receiver, have heard the identical signals at the same instant. in his early experiments marconi believed that great distances could not be obtained without very high masts and long, suspended wires, the greater the distance the taller the mast, on the theory that the waves were hindered by the curvature of the earth; but his later theory, substantiated by his newfoundland experiments, is that the waves somehow follow around the earth, conforming to its curve, and the next station he establishes in america will not be set high on a cliff, as at st. john's, but down close to the water on level land. his newfoundland experiments have also convinced him that one of the secrets of successful long-distance transmission is the use of a more powerful current in his transmitter, and this he will test in his next trials between the continents. and now we come to the most important part of mr. marconi's work, the part least known even to science, and the field of almost illimitable future development. this is the system of "tuning," as the inventor calls it, the construction of a certain receiver so that it will respond only to the message sent by a certain transmitter. when marconi's discoveries were first announced in , there existed no method of tuning, though the inventor had its necessity clearly in mind. accordingly the public inquired, "how are you going to keep your messages secret? supposing a warship wishes to communicate with another of the fleet, what is to prevent the enemy from reading your message? how are private business despatches to be secured against publicity?" here, indeed, was a problem. without secrecy no system of wireless telegraphy could ever reach great commercial importance, or compete with the present cable communication. the inventor first tried using a parabolic copper reflector, by means of which he could radiate the electric waves exactly as light--which, it will be borne in mind, is only another kind of etheric wave--is reflected by a mirror. this reflector could be faced in any desired direction, and only a receiver located in that direction would respond to the message. but there were grave objections to the reflector; an enemy might still creep in between the sending and receiving stations, and, moreover, it was found that the curvature of the earth interfered with the transmission of reflected messages, thereby limiting their usefulness to short distances. [illustration: marconi room _ss philadelphia_.] in passing, however, it may be interesting to note one extraordinary use for this reflecting system which the inventor now has in mind. this is in connection with lighthouse work. ships are to be provided with reflecting instruments which in dense fog or storms can be used exactly as a searchlight is now employed on a dark night to discover the location of the lighthouses or lightships. for instance, the lighthouse, say, on some rocky point on the new england coast would continually radiate a warning from its suspended wire. these waves pass as readily through fog and darkness and storm as in daylight. a ship out at sea, hidden in fog, has lost its bearings; the sound of the warning horn, if warning there is, seems to come first from one direction, then from another, as sounds do in a fog, luring the ship to destruction. if now the mariner is provided with a wireless reflector, this instrument can be slowly turned until it receives the lighthouse warning, the captain thus learning his exact location; if in distress, he can even communicate with the lighthouse. think also what an advantage such an equipment would be to vessels entering a dangerous harbour in thick weather. this is one of the developments of the near future. the reflector system being impracticable for long-distance work, mr. marconi experimented with tuning. he so constructed a receiver that it responds only to a certain transmitter. that is, if the transmitter is radiating , vibrations a second, the corresponding receiver will take only , vibrations. in exactly the same way a familiar tuning fork will respond only to another tuning fork having exactly the same "tune," or number of vibrations per second. and mr. marconi has now succeeded in bringing this tuning system to some degree of perfection, though very much work yet remains to be done. for instance, in one of his english experiments, at poole in england, he had two receivers connected with the same wire, and tuned to different transmitters located at st. catherine's point. two messages were sent, one in english and one in french. both were received at the same time on the same wire at poole, but one receiver rolled off its message in english, the other in french, without the least interference. and so when critics suggested that the inventor may have been deceived at st. john's by messages transmitted from ocean liners, he was able to respond promptly: "impossible. my instrument was tuned to receive only from my station in cornwall." indeed, the only wireless-telegraph apparatus that could possibly have been within hundreds of miles of newfoundland would be one of the marconi-fitted steamers, and the "call" of a steamer is not the letter "s," but "u." the importance of the new system of tuning can hardly be overestimated. by it all the ships of a fleet can be provided with instruments tuned alike, so that they may communicate freely with one another, and have no fear that the enemy will read the messages. the spy of the future must be an electrical expert who can slip in somehow and steal the secret of the enemy's tunes. great telegraph companies will each have its own tuned instruments, to receive only its own messages, and there may be special tunes for each of the important governments of the world. or perhaps (for the system can be operated very cheaply) the time will even come when the great banking and business houses, or even families and friends, will each have its own wireless system, with its own secret tune. having variations of millions of different vibrations, there will be no lack of tunes. for instance, the british navy may be tuned to receive only messages of , vibrations to the second, the german navy , , , the united states government , , , and so on indefinitely. [illustration: _transatlantic high power marconi station at glace bay, nova scotia_] tuning also makes multiplex wireless telegraphy a possibility; that is, many messages may be sent or received on the same suspended wire. supposing, for instance, the operator was sending a hurry press despatch to a newspaper. he has two transmitters, tuned differently, connected with his wire. he cuts the despatch in two, sends the first half on one transmitter, and the second on the other, thereby reducing by half the time of transmission. a sort of impression prevails that wireless telegraphy is still largely in the uncertain experimental stage; but, as a matter of fact, it has long since passed from the laboratory to a wide commercial use. its development since mr. marconi's first paper was read, in , and especially since the first message was sent from england to france across the channel in march, , has been astonishingly rapid. most of the ships of the great navies of europe and all the important ocean liners are now fitted with the "wireless" instruments. the system has been recently adopted by the lloyds of england, the greatest of shipping exchanges. it is being used on many lightships, and the new york _herald_ receives daily reports from vessels at sea, communicated from a ship station off nantucket. were there space to be spared, many incidents might be told showing in what curious and wonderful ways the use of the "wireless" instruments has saved life and property, to say nothing of facilitating business. and it cannot now be long before a regular telegraph business will be conducted between massachusetts and england, through the new stations. mr. marconi informed me that he would be able to build and equip stations on both sides of the atlantic for less than $ , , the subsequent charge for maintenance being very small. a cable across the atlantic costs between $ , , and $ , , , and it is a constant source of expenditure for repairs. the inventor will be able to transmit with single instruments about twenty words a minute, and at a cost ridiculously small compared with the present cable tolls. he said in a speech delivered at a dinner given him by the governor at st. john's that messages which now go by cable at twenty-five cents a word might be sent profitably at a cent a word or less, which is even much cheaper than the very cheapest present rates in america for messages by land wires. it is estimated that about $ , , is invested in cable systems in various parts of the world. if marconi succeeds as he hopes to succeed, much of the vast network of wires at the bottom of the world's oceans, represented by this investment, will lose its usefulness. it is now the inventor's purpose to push the work of installation between the continents as rapidly as possible, and no one need be surprised if the year sees his system in practical operation. along with this transatlantic work he intends to extend his system of transmission between ships at sea and the ports on land, with a view to enabling the shore stations to maintain constant communication with vessels all the way across the atlantic. if he succeeds in doing this, there will at last be no escape for the weary from the daily news of the world, so long one of the advantages of an ocean voyage. for every morning each ship, though in mid-ocean, will get its bulletin of news, the ship's printing-press will strike it off, and it will be served hot with the coffee. yet think what such a system will mean to ships in distress, and how often it will relieve the anxiety of friends awaiting the delayed voyager. mr. marconi's faith in his invention is boundless. he told me that one of the projects which he hoped soon to attempt was to communicate between england and new zealand. if the electric waves follow the curvature of the earth, as the newfoundland experiments indicate, he sees no reason why he should not send signals , or , miles as easily as , . then there is the whole question of the use of wireless telegraphy on land, a subject hardly studied, though messages have already been sent upward of sixty miles overland. the new system will certainly prove an important adjunct on land in war-time, for it will enable generals to signal, as they have done in south africa, over comparatively long distances in fog and storm, and over stretches where it might be impossible for the telegraph corps to string wires or for couriers to pass on account of the presence of the enemy. [illustration: work on the smith point lighthouse stopped by a violent storm. _just after the cylinder had been set in place, and while the workmen were hurrying to stow sufficient ballast to secure it against a heavy sea, a storm forced the attending steamer to draw away. one of the barges was almost overturned, and a lifeboat was driven against the cylinder and crushed to pieces._] chapter viii sea-builders _the story of lighthouse building--stone-tower lighthouses, iron pile lighthouses, and steel cylinder lighthouses_ a sturdy english oak furnished the model for the first of the great modern lighthouses. a little more than one hundred and forty years ago john smeaton, maker of odd and intricate philosophical instruments and dabbler in mechanical engineering, was called upon to place a light upon the bold and dangerous reefs of eddystone, near plymouth, england. john smeaton never had built a lighthouse; but he was a man of great ingenuity and courage, and he knew the kind of lighthouse _not_ to build; for twice before the rocks of eddystone had been marked, and twice the mighty waves of the atlantic had bowled over the work of the builders as easily as they would have overturned a skiff. winstanley, he of song and story, designed the first of these structures, and he and all his keepers lost their lives when the light went down; the other, the work of john rudyerd, was burned to the water's edge, and one of the keepers, strangely enough, died from the effects of melting lead which fell from the roof and entered his open mouth as he gazed upward. both of these lighthouses were of wood, and both were ornamented with balconies and bay-windows, which furnished ready holds for the rough handling of the wind. [illustration: robert stevenson, builder of the famous bell rock lighthouse, and author of important inventions and improvements in the system of sea lighting. _from a bust by joseph, now in the library of bell rock lighthouse._] [illustration: the bell rock lighthouse, on the eastern coast of scotland. _from the painting by turner. the bell rock lighthouse was built by robert stevenson, grandfather of robert louis stevenson, on the inchcape reef, in the north sea, near dundee, scotland, in - ._] john smeaton walked in the woods and thought of all these problems. he tells quaintly in his memoirs how he observed the strength with which an oak-tree bore its great weight of leaves and branches; and when he built his lighthouse, it was wide and flaring at the base, like the oak, and deeply rooted into the sea-rock with wedges of wood and iron. the waist was tapering and cylindrical, bearing the weight of the keeper's quarters and the lantern as firmly and jauntily as the oak bears its branches. moreover, he built of stone, to avoid the possibility of fire, and he dovetailed each stone into its neighbour, so that the whole tower would face the wind and the waves as if it were one solid mass of granite. for years smeaton's eddystone blinked a friendly warning to english mariners, serving its purpose perfectly, until the brothers of trinity saw fit to build a larger tower in its place. in england the famous lighthouses of bell rock, built by robert stevenson, skerryvore, and wolf rock are all stone towers; and in our own country, minot's ledge, off boston harbour, more difficult of construction than any of them, spectacle reef light in lake huron, and stannard rock light in lake superior are good examples of smeaton's method of building. [illustration: the present lighthouse on minot's ledge, near the entrance of massachusetts bay, fifteen miles southeast of boston. "_rising sheer out of the sea, like a huge stone cannon, mouth upward._"--longfellow.] the mighty stone tower still remains for many purposes the most effective method of lighting the pathways of the sea, but it is both exceedingly difficult to build, and it is very expensive. within comparatively recent years busy inventors have thought out several new plans for lighthouses, which are quite as wonderful and important in their way as wireless telegraphy and the telephone are in the realm of electricity. [illustration: the lighthouse on stannard rock, lake superior. _this is a stone-tower lighthouse, similar in construction to the one built with such difficulty on spectacle reef, lake huron._] one of these inventions is the iron-pile or screw-pile lighthouse, and the other is the iron cylinder lighthouse. i will tell the story of each of them separately. the skeleton-built iron-pile lighthouse bears much the same relation to the heavy stone tower lighthouse that a willow twig bears to a great oak. the latter meets the fury of wind and wave with stern resistance, opposing force to force; the former conquers its difficulties by avoiding them. a completed screw-pile lighthouse has the odd appearance of a huge, ugly spider standing knee-deep in the sea. its squat body is the home of the keeper, with a single bright eye of light at the top, and its long spindly legs are the iron piles on which the structure rests. thirty years ago lighthouse builders were much pleased with the ease and apparent durability of the pile light. an englishman named mitchell had invented an iron pile having at the end a screw not unlike a large auger. by boring a number of these piles deep into the sand of the sea-bottom, and using them as the foundation for a small but durable iron building, he was enabled to construct a lighthouse in a considerable depth of water at small expense. later builders have used ordinary iron piles, which are driven into the sand with heavy sledges. waves and tides pass readily through the open-work of the foundation, the legs of the spider, without disturbing the building overhead. for southern waters, where there is no danger of moving ice-packs, lighthouses of this type have been found very useful, although the action of the salt water on the iron piling necessitates frequent repairs. more than eighty lights of this description dot the shoals of florida and adjoining states. some of the oldest ones still remain in use in the north, notably the one on brandywine shoal in delaware bay; but it has been found necessary to surround them with strongly built ice-breakers. two magnificent iron-pile lights are found on fowey rocks and american shoals, off the coast of florida, the first of which was built with so much difficulty that its story is most interesting. [illustration: the fowey rocks lighthouse, florida.] fowey reef lies five miles from the low coral island of soldier key. northern storms, sweeping down the atlantic, brush in wild breakers over the reef and out upon the little key, often burying it entirely under a torrent of water. even in calm weather the sea is rarely quiet enough to make it safe for a vessel of any size to approach the reef. the builders erected a stout elevated wharf and store-house on the key, and brought their men and tools to await the opportunity to dart out when the sea was at rest and begin the work of marking the reef. before shipment, the lighthouse, which was built in the north, was set up, complete from foundation to pinnacle, and thoroughly tested. at length the workmen were able to remain on the reef long enough to build a strong working platform twelve feet above the surface of the water, and set on iron-shod mangrove piles. having established this base of operations in the enemy's domain, a heavy iron disk was lowered to the reef, and the first pile was driven through the hole at its centre. elaborate tests were made after each blow of the sledge, and the slightest deviation from the vertical was promptly rectified with block and tackle. in two months' time nine piles were driven ten feet into the coral rock, the workmen toiling long hours under a blistering sun. when the time came to erect the superstructure, the sea suddenly awakened and storm followed storm, so that for weeks together no one dared venture out to the reef. the men rusted and grumbled on the narrow docks of the key, and work was finally suspended for an entire winter. at the very first attempt to make a landing in the spring, a tornado drove the vessels far out of their course. but a crew was finally placed on the working platform, with enough food to last them several weeks, and there they stayed, suspended between the sea and the sky, until the structure was complete. this lighthouse cost $ , . the famous bug light of boston and thimble light of hampton roads, va., are both good examples of the iron-pile lighthouse. now we come to a consideration of iron cylinder lighthouses, which are even more wonderful, perhaps, than the screw-piles, and in constructing them the sea-builder touches the pinnacle of his art. imagine a sandy shoal marked only by a white-fringed breaker. the water rushes over it in swift and constantly varying currents, and if there is a capful of wind anywhere on the sea, it becomes an instant menace to the mariner. the shore may be ten or twenty miles away, so far that a land-light would only lure the seaman into peril, instead of guiding him safely on his way. a lightship is always uncertain; the first great storm may drive it from its moorings and leave the coast unprotected when protection is most necessary. upon such a shoal, often covered from ten to twenty feet with water, the builder is called upon to construct a lighthouse, laying his foundation in shifting sand, and placing upon it a building strong enough to withstand any storm or the crushing weight of wrecks or ice-packs. it was less than twenty years ago that sea-builders first ventured to grapple with the difficulties presented by these off-shore shoals. in germany built the first iron cylinder lighthouse at rothersand, near the mouth of the weser river, and three years later the lighthouse establishment of the united states planted a similar tower on fourteen-foot banks, over three miles from the shores of delaware bay, in twenty feet of water. since then many hitherto dangerous shoals have been marked by new lighthouses of this type. [illustration: fourteen-foot bank light station, delaware bay, del.] when a builder begins a stone tower light on some lonely sea-rock, he says to the sea, "do your worst. i'm going to stick right here until this light is built, if it takes a hundred years." and his men are always on hand in fair weather or foul, dropping one stone to-day and another to-morrow, and succeeding by virtue of steady grit and patience. the builder of the iron cylinder light pursues an exactly opposite course. his warfare is more spirited, more modern. he stakes his whole success on a single desperate throw. if he fails, he loses everything: if he wins, he may throw again. his lighthouse is built, from foundation caisson to lantern, a hundred or a thousand miles away from the reef where it is finally to rest. it is simply an enormous cast-iron tube made in sections or courses, each about six feet high, not unlike the standpipe of a village water-works. the builder must set up this tube on the shoal, sink it deep into the sand bottom, and fill it with rocks and concrete mortar, so that it will not tip over. at first such a feat would seem absolutely impossible; but the sea-builder has his own methods of fighting. with all the material necessary to his work, he creeps up on the shoal and lies quietly in some secluded harbour until the sea is calmly at rest, suspecting no attack. then he darts out with his whole fleet, plants his foundation, and before the waves and the wind wake up he has established his outworks on the shoal. the story of the construction of one of these lighthouses will give a good idea of the terrible difficulties which their builders must overcome. not long ago w. h. flaherty, of new york, built such a lighthouse at smith's point, in chesapeake bay. at the mouth of the potomac river the opposing tides and currents have built up shoals of sand extending eight or ten miles out into the bay. here the waves, sweeping in from the open atlantic, sometimes drown the side-lights of the big boston steamers. the point has a grim story of wrecks and loss of life; in alone, four sea-craft were driven in and swamped on the shoals. the lighthouse establishment planned to set up the light just at the edge of the channel, and miles south of baltimore. [illustration: the great beds light station, raritan bay, n. j. _a specimen of iron cylinder construction._] eighty thousand dollars was appropriated for doing the work. in august, , the contractors formally agreed to build the lighthouse for $ , , and, more than that, to have the lantern burning within a single year. by the last of september a huge, unwieldy foundation caisson was framing in a baltimore shipyard. this caisson was a bottomless wooden box, feet square and feet high, with the top nearly as thick as the height of a man, so that it would easily sustain the weight of the great iron cylinder soon to be placed upon it. it was lined and caulked, painted inside and out to make it air-tight and water-tight, and then dragged out into the bay, together with half an acre of mud and dock timbers. here the workmen crowned it with the first two courses of the iron cylinder--a collar feet in diameter and about feet high. inside of this a second cylinder, a steel air-shaft, five feet in diameter, rose from a hole in the centre of the caisson, this providing a means of entrance and exit when the structure should reach the shoal. upon the addition of this vast weight of iron and steel, the wooden caisson, although it weighed nearly a hundred tons, disappeared completely under the water, leaving in view only the great black rim of the iron cylinder and the top of the air-shaft. on april th of the next year the fleet was ready to start on its voyage of conquest. the whole country had contributed to the expedition. cleveland, o., furnished the iron plates for the tower; pittsburg sent steel and machinery; south carolina supplied the enormous yellow-pine timbers for the caisson; washington provided two great barge-loads of stone; and new york city contributed hundreds of tons of portland cement and sand and gravel, it being cheaper to bring even such supplies from the north than to gather them on the shores of the bay. everything necessary to the completion of the lighthouse and the maintenance of the eighty-eight men was loaded aboard ship. and quite a fleet it made as it lay out on the bay in the warm spring sunshine. the flagship was a big, double-deck steamer, feet over all, once used in the coastwise trade. she was loaded close down to her white lines, and men lay over her rails in double rows. she led the fleet down the bay, and two tugs and seven barges followed in her wake like a flock of ducklings. the steamer towed the caisson at the end of a long hawser. in three days the fleet reached the lighthouse site. during all of this time the sea had been calm, with only occasional puffs of wind, and the builders planned, somewhat exultantly, to drop the caisson the moment they arrived. but before they were well in sight of the point, the sea awakened suddenly, as if conscious of the planned surprise. a storm blew up in the north, and at sunset on the tenth of april the waves were washing over the top of the iron cylinder and slapping it about like a boy's raft. a few tons of water inside the structure would sink it entirely, and the builder would lose months of work and thousands of dollars. from a rude platform on top of the cylinder two men were working at the pumps to keep the water out. when the edge of the great iron rim heaved up with the waves, they pumped and shouted; and when it went down, they strangled and clung for their lives. the builder saw the necessity of immediate assistance. twelve men scrambled into a life-boat, and three waves later they were dashed against the rim of the cylinder. here half of the number, clinging like cats to the iron plates, spread out a sail canvas and drew it over the windward half of the cylinder, while the other men pulled it down with their hands and teeth and lashed it firmly into place. in this way the cylinder shed most of the wash, although the larger waves still scuttled down within its iron sides. half of the crew was now hurried down the rope-ladders inside the cylinder, where the water was nearly three feet deep and swashing about like a whirlpool. they all knew that one more than ordinarily large wave would send the whole structure to the bottom; but they dipped swiftly, and passed up the water without a word. it was nothing short of a battle for life. they must keep the water down, or drown like rats in a hole. they began work at sunset, and at sunrise the next morning, when the fury of the storm was somewhat abated, they were still at work, and the cylinder was saved. [illustration: a storm at the tillamook lighthouse, in the pacific, one mile out from tillamook head, oregon.] the swells were now too high to think of planting the caisson, and the fleet ran into the mouth of the great wicomico river to await a more favourable opportunity. here the builders lay for a week. to keep the men busy some of them were employed in mixing concrete, adding another course of iron to the cylinder, and in other tasks of preparation. the crew was composed largely of americans and irishmen, with a few norwegians, the ordinary italian or bohemian labourer not taking kindly to the risks and terrors of such an expedition. their number included carpenters, masons, iron-workers, bricklayers, caisson-men, sailors, and a host of common shovellers. the pay varied from twenty to fifty cents an hour for time actually worked, and the builders furnished meals of unlimited ham, bread, and coffee. on april th, the weather being calmer, the fleet ventured out stealthily. a buoy marked the spot where the lighthouse was to stand. when the cylinder was exactly over the chosen site, the valves of two of the compartments into which it was divided were quickly opened, and the water poured in. the moment the lower edge of the caisson, borne downward by the weight of water, touched the shoal, the men began working with feverish haste. large stones were rolled from the barges around the outside of the caisson to prevent the water from eating away the sand and tipping the structure over. in the meantime a crew of twenty men had taken their places in the compartments of the cylinder still unfilled with water. a chute from the steamer vomited a steady stream of dusty concrete down upon their heads. a pump drenched them with an unceasing cataract of salt water. in this terrible hole they wallowed and struggled, shovelling the concrete mortar into place and ramming it down. every man on the expedition, even the cooks and the stokers, was called upon at this supreme moment to take part in the work. unless the structure could be sufficiently ballasted while the water was calm, the first wave would brush it over and pound it to pieces on the shoals. [illustration: saving the cylinder of the lighthouse at smith point, chesapeake bay, from being swamped in a high sea. _when the builders were towing the unwieldy cylinder out to set it in position, the water became suddenly rough and began to fill it. workmen, at the risk of their lives, boarded the cylinder, and by desperate labours succeeded in spreading sail canvas over it, and so saved a structure that had cost months of labour and thousands of dollars._] after nearly two hours of this exhausting labour the captain of the steamer suddenly shouted the command to cast away. the sky had turned black and the waves ran high. all of the cranes were whipped in, and up from the cylinder poured the shovellers, looking as if they had been freshly rolled in a mortar bed. there was a confused babel of voices and a wild flight for the steamer. in the midst of the excitement one of the barges snapped a hawser, and, being lightened of its load, it all but turned over in a trough of the sea. the men aboard her went down on their faces, clung fast, and shouted for help, and it was only with difficulty that they were rescued. one of the life-boats, venturing too near the iron cylinder, was crushed like an egg-shell, but a tug was ready to pick up the men who manned it. so terrified were the workmen by the dangers and difficulties of the task that twelve of them ran away that night without asking for their pay. on the following morning the builder was appalled to see that the cylinder was inclined more than four feet from the perpendicular. in spite of the stone piled around the caisson, the water had washed the sand from under one edge of it, and it had tipped part way over. now was the pivotal point of the whole enterprise. a little lack of courage or skill, and the work was doomed. the waves still ran high, and the freshet currents from the potomac river poured past the shoals at the rate of six or seven miles an hour. and yet one of the tugs ran out daringly, dragging a barge-load of stone. it was made fast, and although it pitched up and down so that every wave threatened to swamp it and every man aboard was seasick, they managed to throw off tons more of stone around the base of the caisson on the side toward which it was inclined. in this way further tipping in that direction was prevented, and the action of the water on the sand under the opposite side soon righted the structure. beginning on the morning of april st the entire crew worked steadily for forty-eight hours without sleeping or stopping for meals more than fifteen minutes at a time. when at last they were relieved, they came up out of the cylinder shouting and cheering because the foundation was at last secure. the structure was now about thirty feet high, and filled nearly to the top with concrete. the next step was to force it down - / feet into the hard sand at the bottom of the bay, thus securing it for ever against the power of the waves and the tide. an air-lock, which is a strongly built steel chamber about the size of a hogshead, was placed on top of the air-shaft, the water in the big box-like caisson at the bottom of the cylinder was forced out with compressed air, and the men prepared to enter the caisson. no toil can compare in its severity and danger with that of a caisson worker. he is first sent into the air-lock, and the air-pressure is gradually increased around him until it equals that of the caisson below; then he may descend. new men often shout and beg pitifully to be liberated from the torture. frequently the effect of the compressed air is such that they bleed at the ears and nose, and for a time their heads throb as if about to burst open. in a few minutes these pains pass away, the workers crawl down the long ladder of the air-shaft and begin to dig away the sand of the sea-bottom. it is heaped high around the bottom of a four-inch pipe which leads up the air-shaft and reaches out over the sea. a valve in the pipe is opened and the sand and stones are driven upward by the compressed air in the caisson and blown out into the water with tremendous force. as the sand is mined away, the great tower above it slowly sinks downward, while the subterranean toilers grow sallow-faced, yellow-eyed, become half deaf, and lose their appetites. when smith's point light was within two feet of being deep enough the workmen had a strange and terrible adventure. ten men were in the caisson at the time. they noticed that the candles stuck along the wall were burning a lambent green. black streaks, that widened swiftly, formed along the white-painted walls. one man after another began staggering dizzily, with eyes blinded and a sharp burning in the throat. orders were instantly given to ascend, and the crew, with the help of ropes, succeeded in escaping. all that night the men lay moaning and sleepless in their bunks. in the morning only a few of them could open their eyes, and all experienced the keenest torture in the presence of light. bags were fitted over their heads, and they were led out to their meals. [illustration: great waves dashed entirely over them, so that they had to cling for their lives to the air-pipes. _in erecting the smith point lighthouse, after the cylinder was set up, it had to be forced down fifteen and a half feet into the sand. the lives of the men who did this, working in the caisson at the bottom of the sea, were absolutely in the hands of the men who managed the engine and the air-compressor at the surface; and twice these latter were entirely deluged by the sea, but still maintained steam and kept everything running as if no sea was playing over them._] that afternoon major e. h. ruffner, of baltimore, the government engineer for the district, appeared with two physicians. an examination of the caisson showed that the men had struck a vein of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. here was a new difficulty--a difficulty never before encountered in lighthouse construction. for three days the force lay idle. there seemed no way of completing the foundation. on the fourth day, after another flooding of the caisson, mr. flaherty called for volunteers to go down the air-shaft, agreeing to accompany them himself--all this in the face of the spectacle of thirty-five men moaning in their bunks, with their eyes burning and blinded and their throats raw. and yet fourteen men stepped forward and offered to "see the work through." upon reaching the bottom of the tower they found that the flow of gas was less rapid, and they worked with almost frantic energy, expecting every moment to feel the gas griping in their throats. in half an hour another shift came on, and before night the lighthouse was within an inch or two of its final resting-place. the last shift was headed by an old caisson-man named griffin, who bore the record of having stood seventy-five pounds of air-pressure in the famous long island gas tunnel. just as the men were ready to leave the caisson the gas suddenly burst up again with something of explosive violence. instantly the workmen threw down their tools and made a dash for the air-shaft. here a terrible struggle followed. only one man could go up the ladder at a time, and they scrambled and fought, pulling down by main force every man who succeeded in reaching the rounds. then one after another they dropped in the sand, unconscious. griffin, remaining below, had signalled for a rope. when it came down, he groped for the nearest workman, fastened it around his body, and sent him aloft. then he crawled around and pulled the unconscious workmen together under the air-shaft. one by one he sent them up. the last was a powerfully built irishman named howard. griffin's eyes were blinded, and he was so dizzy that he reeled like a drunken man, but he managed to get the rope around howard's body and start him up. at the eighteen-inch door of the lock the unconscious irishman wedged fast, and those outside could not pull him through. griffin climbed painfully up the thirty feet of ladder and pushed and pulled until howard's limp body went through. griffin tried to follow him, but his numbed fingers slipped on the steel rim, and he fell backward into the death-hole below. they dropped the rope again, but there was no response. one of the men called griffin by name. the half-conscious caisson-man aroused himself and managed to tie the rope under his arms. then he, too, was hoisted aloft, and when he was dragged from the caisson, more dead than alive, the half-blinded men on the steamer's deck set up a shout of applause--all the credit that he ever received. two of the men prostrated by the gas were sent to a hospital in new york, where they were months in recovering. another went insane. griffin was blind for three weeks. four other caisson-men came out of the work with the painful malady known as "bends," which attacks those who work long under high air-pressure. a victim of the "bends" cannot straighten his back, and often his legs and arms are cramped and contorted. these terrible results will give a good idea of the heroism required of the sea-builder. having sunk the caisson deep enough the workmen filled it full of concrete and sealed the top of the air-shaft. then they built the light-keeper's home, and the lantern was ready for lighting. three days within the contract year the tower was formally turned over to the government. and thus the builders, besides providing a warning to the hundreds of vessels that yearly pass up the bay, erected a lasting monument to their own skill, courage, and perseverance. as long as the shoal remains the light will stand. in the course of half a century, perhaps less, the sea-water will gnaw away the iron of the cylinder, but there will still remain the core of concrete, as hard and solid as the day on which it was planted. it is fitting that work which has drawn so largely upon the highest intellectual and moral endowments of the engineer and the builder should not serve the selfish interests of any one man, nor of any single corporation, nor even of the government which provided the means, but that it should be a gift to the world at large. other nations, even great britain, which has more at stake upon the seas than any other country, impose regular lighthouse taxes upon vessels entering their harbours; but the lights erected by the united states flash a free warning to any ship of any land. [illustration: peter cooper hewitt. _with his interrupter._] chapter ix the newest electric light _peter cooper hewitt and his three great inventions--the mercury arc light--the new electrical converter--the hewitt interrupter_ it is indeed a great moment when an inventor comes to the announcement of a new and epoch-making achievement. he has been working for years, perhaps, in his laboratory, struggling along unknown, unheard of, often poor, failing a hundred times for every achieved success, but finally, all in a moment, surprising the secret which nature has guarded so long and so faithfully. he has discovered a new principle that no one has known before, he has made a wonderful new machine--and it works! what he has done in his laboratory for himself now becomes of interest to all the world. he has a great message to give. his patience and perseverance through years of hard work have produced something that will make life easier and happier for millions of people, that will open great new avenues for human effort and human achievement, build up new fortunes; often, indeed, change the whole course of business affairs in the world, if not the very channels of human thought. think what the steam-engine has done, and the telegraph, and the sewing-machine! all this wonder lies to-day in the brain of the inventor; to-morrow it is a part of the world's treasure. such a moment came on an evening in january, , when peter cooper hewitt, of new york city--then wholly unknown to the greater world--made the announcement of an invention of such importance that lord kelvin, the greatest of living electricians, afterward said that of all the things he saw in america the work of mr. hewitt attracted him most. on that evening in january, , a curious crowd was gathered about the entrance of the engineers' club in new york city. over the doorway a narrow glass tube gleamed with a strange blue-green light of such intensity that print was easily readable across the street, and yet so softly radiant that one could look directly at it without the sensation of blinding discomfort which accompanies nearly all brilliant artificial lights. the hall within, where mr. hewitt was making the first public announcement of his discovery, was also illuminated by the wonderful new tubes. the light was different from anything ever seen before, grateful to the eyes, much like daylight, only giving the face a curious, pale-green, unearthly appearance. the cause of this phenomenon was soon evident; the tubes were seen to give forth all the rays except red--orange, yellow, green, blue, violet--so that under its illumination the room and the street without, the faces of the spectators, the clothing of the women lost all their shades of red; indeed, changing the very face of the world to a pale green-blue. it was a redless light. the extraordinary appearance of this lamp and its profound significance as a scientific discovery at once awakened a wide public interest, especially among electricians who best understood its importance. here was an entirely new sort of electric light. the familiar incandescent lamp, the invention of thomas a. edison, though the best of all methods of illumination, is also the most expensive. mr. hewitt's lamp, though not yet adapted to all the purposes served by the edison lamp, on account of its peculiar colour, produces eight times as much light with the same amount of power. it is also practically indestructible, there being no filament to burn out; and it requires no special wiring. by means of this invention electricity, instead of being the most costly means of illumination, becomes the cheapest--cheaper even than kerosene. no further explanation than this is necessary to show the enormous importance of this invention. mr. hewitt's announcement at once awakened the interest of the entire scientific world and made the inventor famous, and yet it was only the forerunner of two other inventions equally important. once discover a master-key and it often unlocks many doors. tracing out the principles involved in his new lamp, mr. hewitt invented: a new, cheap, and simple method of converting alternating electrical currents into direct currents. an electrical interrupter or valve, in many respects the most wonderful of the three inventions. before entering upon an explanation of these discoveries, which, though seemingly difficult and technical, are really simple and easily understandable, it will be interesting to know something of mr. hewitt and his methods of work and the genesis of the inventions. mr. hewitt's achievements possess a peculiar interest for the people of this country. the inventor is an american of americans. born to wealth, the grandson of the famous philanthropist, peter cooper, the son of abram s. hewitt, one of the foremost citizens and statesmen of new york, mr. hewitt might have led a life of leisure and ease, but he has preferred to win his successes in the american way, by unflagging industry and perseverance, and has come to his new fortune also like the american, suddenly and brilliantly. as a people we like to see a man deserve his success! the same qualities which made peter cooper one of the first of american millionaires, and abram s. hewitt one of the foremost of the world's steel merchants, mayor of new york, and one of its most trusted citizens, have placed mr. peter cooper hewitt among the greatest of american inventors and scientists. indeed, peter cooper and abram s. hewitt were both inventors; that is, they had the imaginative inventive mind. peter cooper once said: "i was always planning and contriving, and was never satisfied unless i was doing something difficult--something that had never been done before, if possible." the grandfather built the first american locomotive; he was one of the most ardent supporters of cyrus field in the great project of an atlantic cable, and he was for a score of years the president of a cable company. his was the curious, constructive mind. as a boy he built a washing machine to assist his overworked mother; later on he built the first lawnmower and invented a process for rolling iron, the first used in this country; he constructed a torpedo-boat to aid the greeks in their revolt against turkish tyranny in . he dreamed of utilising the current of the east river for manufacturing power; he even experimented with flying machines, becoming so enthusiastic in this labour that he nearly lost the sight of an eye through an explosion which blew the apparatus to pieces. [illustration: watching a test of the hewitt converter. _lord kelvin in the centre._] it will be seen, therefore, that the grandson comes naturally by his inclinations. it was his grandfather who gave him his first chest of tools and taught him to work with his hands, and he has always had a fondness for contriving new machines and of working out difficult scientific problems. until the last few years, however, he has never devoted his whole time to the work which best pleased him. for years he was connected with his father's extensive business enterprise, an active member, in fact, of the firm of cooper, hewitt & co., and he has always been prominent in the social life of new york, a member of no fewer than eight prominent clubs. but never for a moment in his career--he is now forty-two years old, though he looks scarcely thirty-five--has he ceased to be interested in science and mechanics. as a student in stevens institute, and later in columbia college, he gave particular attention to electricity, physics, chemistry, and mechanics. later, when he went into business, his inventive mind turned naturally to the improvement of manufacturing methods, with the result that his name appears in the patent records as the inventor of many useful devices--a vacuum pan, a glue clarifier, a glue cutter and other glue machinery. he worked at many sorts of trades with his own hands--machine-shop practice, blacksmithing, steam-fitting, carpentry, jewelry work, and other work-a-day employments. he was employed in a jeweller's shop, learning how to make rings and to set stones; he managed a steam launch; he was for eight years in his grandfather's glue factory, where he had practical problems in mechanics constantly brought to his attention. and he was able to combine all this hard practical work with a fair amount of shooting, golfing, and automobiling. most of mr. hewitt's scientific work of recent years has been done after business hours--the long, slow, plodding toil of the experimenter. there is surely no royal road to success in invention, no matter how well a man may be equipped, no matter how favourably his means are fitted to his hands. mr. hewitt worked for seven years on the electrical investigations which resulted in his three great inventions; thousands of experiments were performed; thousands of failures paved the way for the first glimmer of success. his laboratory during most of these years was hidden away in the tall tower of madison square garden, overlooking madison square, with the roar of broadway and twenty-third street coming up from the distance. here he has worked, gradually expanding the scope of his experiments, increasing his force of assistants, until he now has an office and two workshops in madison square garden and is building a more extensive laboratory elsewhere. replying to the remark that he was fortunate in having the means to carry forward his experiments in his own way, he said: "the fact is quite the contrary. i have had to make my laboratory pay as i went along." mr. hewitt chose his problem deliberately, and he chose one of the most difficult in all the range of electrical science, but one which, if solved, promised the most flattering rewards. "the essence of modern invention," he said, "is the saving of waste, the increase of efficiency in the various mechanical appliances." this being so, he chose the most wasteful, the least efficient of all widely used electrical devices--the incandescent lamp. of all the power used in producing the glowing filament in the edison bulb, about ninety-seven per cent. is absolutely wasted, only three per cent. appearing in light. this three per cent. efficiency of the incandescent lamp compares very unfavourably, indeed, with the forty per cent. efficiency of the gasoline engine, the twenty-two per cent. efficiency of the marine engine, and the ninety per cent. efficiency of the dynamo. [illustration: the hewitt mercury vapour light. _the circular piece just above the switch button is one form of "boosting coil" which operates for a fraction of a second when the current is first turned on. the tube shown here is about an inch in diameter and several feet long. various shapes may be used. unless broken, the tubes never need renewal._] mr. hewitt first stated his problem very accurately. the waste of power in the incandescent lamp is known to be due largely to the conversion of a considerable part of the electricity used into useless heat. an electric-lamp bulb feels hot to the hand. it was therefore necessary to produce a _cool light_; that is, a light in which the energy was converted wholly or largely into light rays and not into heat rays. this, indeed, has long been one of the chief goals of ambition among inventors. mr. hewitt turned his attention to the gases. why could not some incandescent gas be made to yield the much desired light without heat? this was the germ of the idea. comparatively little was known of the action of electricity in passing through the various gases, though the problem involved had long been the subject of experiment, and mr. hewitt found himself at once in a maze of unsolved problems and difficulties. "i tried many different gases," he said, "and found that some of them gave good results--nitrogen, for instance--but many of them produced too much heat and presented other difficulties." finally, he took up experiments with mercury confined in a tube from which the air had been exhausted. the mercury arc, as it is called, had been experimented with years before, had even been used as a light, although at the time he began his investigations mr. hewitt knew nothing of these earlier investigations. he used ordinary glass vacuum tubes with a little mercury in the bottom which he had reduced to a gas or vapour under the influence of heat or by a strong current of electricity. he found it a rocky experimental road; he has called invention "systematic guessing." "i had an equation with a large number of unknown quantities," he said. "about the only thing known for a certainty was the amount of current passing into the receptacle containing the gas, and its pressure. i had to assume values for these unknown quantities in every experiment, and you can understand what a great number of trials were necessary, using different combinations, before obtaining results. i presume thousands of experiments were made." many other investigators had been on the very edge of the discovery. they had tried sending strong currents through a vacuum tube containing mercury vapour, but had found it impossible to control the resistance. one day, however, in running a current into the tube mr. hewitt suddenly recognised certain flashes; a curious phenomenon. always it is the unexpected thing, the thing unaccounted for, that the mind of the inventor leaps upon. for there, perhaps, is the key he is seeking. mr. hewitt continued his experiments and found that the mercury vapour was conducting. he next discovered that _when once the high resistance of the cold mercury was overcome, a very much less powerful current found ready passage and produced a very brilliant light: the glow of the mercury vapour_. this, mr. hewitt says, was the crucial point, the genesis of his three inventions, for all of them are applications of the mercury arc. thus, in short, he invented the new lamp. by the use of what is known to electricians as a "boosting coil," supplying for an instant a very powerful current, the initial resistance of the cold mercury in the tube is overcome, and then, the booster being automatically shut off, the current ordinarily used in incandescent lighting produces an illumination eight times as intense as the edison bulb of the same candle-power. the mechanism is exceedingly simple and cheap; a button turns the light on or off; the remaining apparatus is not more complex than that of the ordinary incandescent light. the hewitt lamp is best used in the form of a long horizontal tube suspended overhead in a room, the illumination filling all the space below with a radiance much like daylight, not glaring and sharp as with the edison bulb. mr. hewitt has a large room hung with green material and thus illuminated, giving the visitor a very strange impression of a redless world. after a few moments spent here a glance out of the window shows a curiously red landscape, and red buildings, a red madison square, the red coming out more prominently by contrast with the blue-green of the light. "for many purposes," said mr. hewitt, "the light in its present form is already easily adaptable. for shopwork, draughting, reading, and other work, where the eye is called on for continued strain, the absence of red is an advantage, for i have found light without the red much less tiring to the eye. i use it in my own laboratories, and my men prefer it to ordinary daylight." in other respects, however, its colour is objectionable, and mr. hewitt has experimented with a view to obtaining the red rays, thereby producing a pure white light. "why not put a red globe around your lamp?" is a common question put to the inventor. this is an apparently easy solution of the difficulty until one is reminded that red glass does not change light waves, but simply suppresses all the rays that are not red. since there are no red rays in the hewitt lamp, the effect of the red globe would be to cut off all the light. but mr. hewitt showed me a beautiful piece of pink silk, coloured with rhodimin, which, when thrown over the lamp, changes some of the orange rays into red, giving a better balanced illumination, although at some loss of brilliancy. further experiments along this line are now in progress, investigations both with mercury vapour and with other gases. [illustration: testing a hewitt converter. _the row of incandescent lights is used, together with a voltmeter and an ammeter, to measure strength of current, resistance, and loss in converting._] mr. hewitt has found that the rays of his new lamp have a peculiar and stimulating effect on plant growth. a series of experiments, in which seeds of various plants were sown under exactly the same conditions, one set being exposed to daylight and one to the mercury gaslight, showed that the latter grew much more rapidly and luxuriantly. without doubt, also, these new rays will have value in the curing of certain kinds of disease. further experimentation with the mercury arc led to the other two inventions, the converter and the interrupter. and first of the converter: _hewitt's electrical converter._--the converter is simplicity itself. here are two kinds of electrical currents--the alternating and the direct. science has found it much cheaper and easier to produce and transmit the alternating current than the direct current. unfortunately, however, only the direct currents are used for such practical purposes as driving an electric car or automobile, or running an elevator, or operating machine tools or the presses in a printing-office, and they are preferable for electric lighting. the power of niagara falls is changed into an alternating current which can be sent at high pressure (high voltage) over the wires for long distances, but before it can be used it must, for some purposes, be _converted_ into a direct current. the apparatus now in use is cumbersome, expensive, and wasteful. mr. hewitt's new converter is a mere bulb of glass or of steel, which a man can hold in his hand. the inventor found that the mercury bulb, when connected with wires carrying an alternating current, had the curious and wonderful property of permitting the passage of the positive half of the alternating wave when the current has started and maintained in that direction, and of suppressing the other half; in other words, of changing an alternating current into a direct current. in this process there was a loss, the same for currents of all potentials, of only volts. a three-pound hewitt converter will do the work of a seven-hundred-pound apparatus of the old type; it will cost dollars where the other costs hundreds; and it will save a large proportion of the electricity wasted in the old process. by this simple device, therefore, mr. hewitt has in a moment extended the entire range of electrical development. as alternating currents can be carried longer distances by using high pressure, and the pressure or voltage can be changed by the use of a simple transformer and then changed into a direct current by the converter at any convenient point along the line, therefore more waterfalls can be utilised, more of the power of coal can be utilised, more electricity saved after it is generated, rendering the operating of all industries requiring power so much cheaper. every electric railroad, every lighting plant, every factory using electricity, is intimately concerned in mr. hewitt's device, for it will cheapen their power and thereby cheapen their products to you and to me. _hewitt's electrical interrupter._--the third invention is in some respects the most wonderful of the three. technically, it is called an electric interrupter or valve. "if a long list of present-day desiderata were drawn up," says the _electrical world and engineer_, "it would perhaps contain no item of more immediate importance than an interrupter which shall be ... inexpensive and simple of application." this is the view of science; and therefore this device is one upon which a great many inventors, including mr. marconi, have recently been working; and mr. hewitt has been fortunate in producing the much-needed successful apparatus. the chief demand for an interrupter has come from the scores of experimenters who are working with wireless telegraphy. in mr. marconi began communicating through space without wires, and it may be said that wireless telegraphy has ever since been the world's imminent invention. who has not read with profound interest the news of mr. marconi's success, the gradual increases of his distances? who has not sympathised with his effort to perfect his devices, to produce a tuning apparatus by means of which messages flying through space could be kept secret? and here at last has come the invention which science most needed to complete and vitalise marconi's work. by means of mr. hewitt's interrupter, the simplicity of which is as astonishing as its efficiency, the whole problem has been suddenly and easily solved. mr. hewitt's new interrupter may, indeed, be called the enacting clause of wireless telegraphy. by its use the transmission of powerful and persistent electrical waves is reduced to scientific accuracy. the apparatus is not only cheap, light, and simple, but it is also a great saver of electrical power. the interrupter, also, is a simple device. as i have already shown, the mercury vapour opposes a high resistance to the passage of electricity until the current reaches a certain high potential, when it gives way suddenly, allowing a current of low potential to pass through. this property can be applied in breaking a high potential current, such as is used in wireless telegraphy, so that the waves set up are exactly the proper lengths, always accurate, always the same, for sending messages through space. by the present method an ordinary arc or spark gap--that is, a spark passing between two brass balls--is employed in sending messages across the atlantic. marconi uses a spark as large as a man's wrist, and the noise of its passage is so deafening that the operators are compelled to wear cotton in their ears, and often they must shield their eyes from the blinding brilliancy of the discharges. moreover, this open-air arc is subject to variations, to great losses of current, the brass balls become eroded, and the accuracy of the transmission is much impaired. all this is obviated by the cheap, simple, noiseless, sparkless mercury bulb. "what i have done," said mr. hewitt, "is to perfect a device by means of which messages can be sent rapidly and without the loss of current occasioned by the spark gap. in wireless telegraphy the trouble has been that it was difficult to keep the sending and the receiving instruments attuned. by the use of my interrupter this can be accomplished." and the possibilities of the mercury tube--indeed, of incandescent gas tubes in general--have by no means been exhausted. a new door has been opened to investigators, and no one knows what science will find in the treasure-house--perhaps new and more wonderful inventions, perhaps the very secret of electricity itself. mr. hewitt is still busily engaged in experimenting along these lines, both in the realm of abstract science and in that of practical invention. he is too careful a scientist, however, to speak much of the future, but those who are most familiar with his methods of work predict that the three inventions he has already announced are only forerunners of many other discoveries. the chief pursuit of science and invention in this day of wonders is the electrical conquest of the world, the introduction of the electrical age. the electric motor is driving out the steam locomotive, the electric light is superseding gas and kerosene, the waterfall must soon take the place of coal. but certain great problems stand like solid walls in the way of development, part of them problems of science, part of mechanical efficiency. the battle of science is, indeed, not unlike real war, charging its way over one battlement after another, until the very citadel of final secret is captured. mr. hewitt with his three inventions has led the way over some of the most serious present barriers in the progress of technical electricity, enabling the whole industry, in a hundred different phases of its progress, to go forward. the end [transcriber's note: obvious punctuation errors have been silently repaired. the oe-ligatures have been replaced by "oe". all words printed in small capitals have been converted to uppercase characters. inconsistencies, for example in hyphenation and spelling, have been retained. page : "burnburg" is actually called "bernburg".] transcriber's note: for this text version passages in italics are indicated by _underscores_. small caps have been replaced by all caps and subscripts are denoted as _{ }. * * * * * [illustration: cover] [illustration: _by permission of messrs. chance bros, and co., ltd._ a huge lamp the marvellous arrangement of lenses and prisms which enables the lighthouse to send out its guiding flashes, with the mechanism for turning it. made for "chilang" lighthouse, china _frontispiece_] marvels of scientific invention an interesting account in non-technical language of the invention of guns, torpedoes, submarines mines, up-to-date smelting, freezing, colour photography, and many other recent discoveries of science by thomas w. corbin author of "engineering of to-day," "mechanical inventions of to-day," "the romance of submarine engineering," _&c., &c._ with illustrations & diagrams philadelphia j. b. lippincott company london: seeley, service & co. ltd. contents chapter page i. digging with dynamite ii. measuring electricity iii. the fuel of the future iv. some valuable electrical processes v. machine-made cold vi. scientific inventions at sea vii. the gyro-compass viii. torpedoes and submarine mines ix. gold recovery x. intense heat xi. an artificial coal mine xii. the most striking invention of recent times xiii. how pictures can be sent by wire xiv. a wonderful example of science and skill xv. scientific testing and measuring xvi. colour photography xvii. how science aids the stricken collier xviii. how science helps to keep us well xix. modern artillery appendix index list of illustrations a huge lamp _frontispiece_ facing page first effect of the dynamite a fine crop apple-tree planted by spade machine-made ice a cold store dassen island lighthouse measuring heat the telewriter a miners' rescue team pneumatic hammer drill an artificial coal mine sectional view of a -pounder gun rifles of different nations diagrams fig. page . principle of galvanometer . string galvanometer . duddell thermo-galvanometer . construction of a voltmeter . the working of a refrigerating machine . hertz's machine . hertz "detector" . . . wireless waves . a wireless antenna . poulsen's machine . . how pictures are sent by wire . message received by telewriter marvels of scientific invention chapter i digging with dynamite most people are afraid of the word explosion and shudder with apprehension at the mention of dynamite. the latter, particularly, conjures up visions of anarchists, bombs, and all manner of wickedness. yet the time seems to be coming when every farmer will regard explosives, of the general type known to the public as dynamite, as among his most trusty implements. it is so already in some places. in the united states explosives have been used for years, owing to the exertions of the du pont powder company, while messrs curtiss' and harvey, and messrs nobels, the great explosive manufacturers, are busy introducing them in great britain. it will perhaps be interesting first of all to see what this terror-striking compound is. one essential feature is the harmless gas which constitutes the bulk of our atmosphere, nitrogen. ordinarily one of the most lazy, inactive, inert of substances, this gas will, under certain circumstances, enter into combination with others, and when it does so it becomes in some cases the very reverse of its usual peaceful, lethargic self. it is as if it entered reluctantly into these compounds and so introduced an element of instability into them. it is like a dissatisfied partner in a business, ready to break up the whole combination on very slight provocation. and it must be remembered that an explosive is simply some chemical compound which can change _suddenly_ into something else of much larger volume. water, when boiled, increases to about times its own volume of steam, and if it were possible to bring about the change suddenly water would be a fairly powerful explosive. coal burnt in a fire changes, with oxygen from the atmosphere, into carbonic acid gas, and the volume of that latter which is so produced is much more than that of the combined volumes of the oxygen and coal. when the burning takes place in a grate or furnace we see nothing at all like an explosion, for the simple reason that the change takes place gradually. that is necessarily so since the coal and oxygen are only in contact at the surface of the former. if, however, we grind the coal to a very fine powder and mix it well with air, then each fine particle is in contact with oxygen and can burn instantly. hence coal-dust in air is an explosive. it used to be thought that colliery accidents were due entirely to the explosion of methane, a gas which is given off by the coal, but it has of recent years dawned upon people that it is the coal-dust in the mine which really does the damage. the explosion of methane stirs up the dust, which then explodes. the former is comparatively harmless, but it acts as the trigger or detonator which lets loose the force pent up in the innocent-looking coal-dust. hence the greatest efforts in modern collieries are bent towards ridding the workings of dust or else damping it or in some other way preventing it from being stirred up into the dangerous state. so the essential feature of any explosive is oxygen and something which will burn with it. if it be a solid or liquid the oxygen must be a part of the combination or mixture, for it cannot get air from the surrounding atmosphere quickly enough to explode; and, moreover, it is generally necessary that explosives should work in a confined space away from all contact with air. so oxygen, of necessity, must be an integral part of the stuff itself. but when oxygen combines with anything it usually clings rather tenaciously to its place in the compound and is not easily disturbed quickly, and that is where the nitrogen seems to find its part. it supplies the disturbing element in what would otherwise be a harmonious combination, so that the oxygen and the burnable substances readily split up and form a new combination, with the nitrogen left out. of all the harmless things in the world one would think that that sweet, sticky fluid, glycerine, which most of us have used at one time or another to lubricate a sore throat, was the most harmless. as it stands in its bottle upon the domestic medicine shelf, who would suspect that it is the basis of such a thing as dynamite? such is the case, however, for glycerine on being brought into contact with a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids gives birth to nitro-glycerine, an explosive of such sensitivity, of such a furious, violent nature, that it is never allowed to remain long in its primitive condition, but is as quickly as possible changed into something less excitable. glycerine is one of those organic compounds which is obtained from once-living matter. arising as a by-product in the manufacture of soap, it consists, as do so many of the organic substances, of carbon and hydrogen, the atoms of which are peculiarly arranged to form the glycerine molecule. to this the nitric acid adds oxygen and nitrogen, the sulphuric acid simply standing by, as it were, and removing the surplus water which arises during the process. so while glycerine is carbon and hydrogen, nitro-glycerine is carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. in this state they form a compact liquid, which occupies little space. the least thing upsets them, however. the carbon combines with oxygen into carbon dioxide, commonly called carbonic acid gas, the hydrogen and some more oxygen form steam, while the nitrogen is left out in the cold, so to speak. and the total volume of the gases so produced is about times that of the original liquid. it is easy to see that a substance which is liable suddenly to increase its volume by times is an explosive of no mean order. but the fact that it is liable to make this change on a comparatively slight increase in temperature or after a concussion makes it too dangerous for practical use. it needs to be tamed down somewhat. this was first done by the famous nobel, who mixed it with a fine earth known as kieselguhr, whereby its sensitiveness was much decreased. this mixture is dynamite. it will be seen that the function of the "earth" is simply to act as an absorbent of the liquid nitro-glycerine, and several other things can be used for the same purpose. moreover, there are now many explosives of the dynamite nature but differing from it in having an active instead of a passive absorbent, so that the decrease in sensitivity is accompanied by an increase in strength. for example, gelignite, which is being used for agricultural purposes in great britain, consists of nitro-glycerine mixed with nitro-cotton, wood-meal and saltpetre. the wood-meal acts as the absorbent instead of the kieselguhr, while the nitro-cotton is another kind of explosive and the saltpetre, one of the ingredients in the old gunpowder, provides the necessary oxygen for burning up the wood-meal. nitro-cotton is made in much the same way as nitro-glycerine, except that cotton takes the place of the glycerine. cotton is almost pure cellulose, another organic substance, like glycerine insomuch as it is composed of carbon and hydrogen, but, unlike it, containing also oxygen. treated with nitric acid it also forms a combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, which is called nitro-cotton, nitro-cellulose, or gun-cotton. it may be asked, why, if these two substances are thus similar, need they be mixed? the answer is that although alike to a certain degree they are not exactly the same, and the modern manufacturer of explosives in his strife after perfection finds that for certain purposes one is the best, and for others another, while for others again a combination may excel any single one. for some work another kind of explosive altogether is to be preferred. this is based upon chlorate of potash, a compound very rich in oxygen, which it is prepared to give up readily to burn any other suitable element which may be at hand. a well-known explosive of this class is that known as cheddite, since it was first made at a factory at chedde, in savoy. for the sake of simplicity, however, i propose in the following descriptions to refer to all these explosives under the common term "dynamite," since that will probably convey to the general public an idea of their nature better than any other term or terms which i could choose. so now we come to the great question, how can the modern farmer benefit by the use of high explosives such as these? the answer is, in many ways. let us take the most obvious one first. a farmer has been ploughing his land and growing his crops upon it for years. perchance his forefathers have been doing the same for generations. every year, for centuries possibly, a hard steel ploughshare has gone over that ground, turning over and over the top soil to a depth of six to eight inches. each season the plants, whatever they may be, grow mainly in that top layer. they take the goodness or nourishment out of it and it eventually becomes more or less sterile. by properly rotating his crops he mitigates this to a certain extent, in addition to which he restores to the land some of its old nitrogenous constituents by the addition of manure. yet, do what he will, this thin top layer is bound to become exhausted. and all the while a few inches lower down there is almost virgin soil which has scarcely been disturbed since the creation of the world. nay, more, that virgin soil, with all its plant food still in it, is not only doing little for its owner, it is positively doing him harm. for every time his plough goes over it it tends to ram it down flat; every time a man walks over it the result is the same; every horse that passes, everything that happens or has happened for centuries in that field, tends to make that soil just below the reach of the ploughshare a hard, impervious mass, through which only the roots of the most strongly growing plants can find a way, and which tends to make the soil above it wet in wet weather and dry in dry weather. thus roots have to spread sideways instead of downwards; or, growing downwards with difficulty, each plant has to expend vital energy in forcing its roots through the hard ground which it might better employ in producing flowers or fruits. and there is no natural storage of water. a shower drenches the ground. in time it dries, through evaporation into the air, and then when the drought comes all is arid as the sahara. that hard subsoil is known by the term "hard-pan," and, as we have seen, it is produced more or less by all that goes on in the field. even worse is the case--a very frequent one too--wherein there is a natural stratum of clay or equally dense waterproof material lying a few feet down. beyond the reach of any plough, this hard stratum can be broken up by the use of dynamite. the usual method is to drive holes in the ground about fifteen to twenty feet apart and about three or four feet deep, right into the heart of the hard layer. at the bottom of each hole is placed a cartridge of dynamite with a fuse and a detonator. this latter is a small tube containing a small quantity of explosive which, unlike the dynamite, can be easily fired, and initiates the detonation of the cartridge. when these miniature earthquakes have taken place all over a field a very different state of things prevails. the "hard-pan" has been broken. the explosive used for such a purpose has a sudden shattering power, whereby it pulverises the ground in its vicinity rather than making a great upheaval at the surface. the sudden shock makes cracks and fissures in all directions, through which roots can easily make their way. moreover, it permits air to find an entrance, thereby aerating the soil in such a way as to increase its fertility. the heat, or else the chemical products of the explosion, seem to destroy the fungus germs in the ground. finally a natural storage of water is set up. heavy rain, instead of drenching the upper soil, simply moistens it nicely, while the surplus water descends into the newly disturbed layers, there to remain until the roots pump it up in time of drought. it is stated that an acre of hay pumps up out of the soil tons of water per annum, so it is easy to see what an important feature this natural water-storage is. farmers say that their crops have doubled in value after thus dynamiting the subsoil. this operation has been spoken of as a substitute for ploughing, but that may be put down to "journalistic licence," for while it truly conveys the general idea, it is hardly correct. the ordinary plough turns over about eight inches, the special subsoil plough reaches down to about eighteen inches, but the dynamite method loosens the ground to a depth of six or seven feet. corn roots if given a chance will go downwards from four to eight feet. potatoes go down three feet, hops eight to eighteen feet and vines twenty feet, so it is easy to see how restricted the plants are when their natural rooting instincts are restrained by a hard layer at a depth of eighteen inches or so. the holes are made by means of a bar or drill. a great deal depends, of course, upon the hardness of the soil. sometimes a steel bar has to be driven in by a sledge-hammer. at others a pointed bar can be pushed down by hand. in some cases it will be found that the best tool to employ is a "dirt-auger," a tool like a carpenter's auger, which on being turned round and round bores its way into the earth. however it may be done, one or more cartridges of dynamite are lowered into the finished hole, one of them being fitted with the necessary detonator and fuse. then a little loose earth or sand is dropped into the hole until it is filled to a depth of six inches or so above the uppermost cartridge. above that it is quite safe to fill the hole with earth, ramming it in with a wooden rammer. this is called "tamping," and it is necessary in order to prevent the force of the explosion being wasted in simply blowing up the hole. what is wanted is that the explosion shall take place within an enclosed chamber so that its effect may be felt equally in all directions. the holes are generally about an inch and a half or an inch and three-quarters in diameter. there are two ways of firing the charges. one is by means of fuses. the detonator is fastened to one cartridge and a length of fuse is attached to the detonator, which passing up the hole terminates above the ground. the fuse is a tube of cotton filled with gunpowder, and it burns at the rate of about two feet a minute. thus if three feet of fuse be used the man who lights it has a minute and a half in which to find a place of safety from falling stones. the other way is by electricity. in this case an electric fuse is attached to the cartridge and two wires are led up the hole. these are connected to an electrical machine, which causes a current to pass down into the fuse, where, by heating a fine platinum wire, it fires the detonating material with which it is packed. this detonating material in turn fires the dynamite. the advantage of the electrical method is that twenty or thirty holes being simultaneously connected to the same machine can all be fired at once. and now let us think of another kind of farming, in which fruit trees are concerned. with a large tree the need of plenty of underground space for its roots would seem to be more important even than in the case of annual plants like wheat. yet we know very well that the usual procedure is to dig a small hole just about big enough to accommodate the roots of the sapling when it is planted, while the ground all round is left undisturbed. the assumption is that the tree will, in time, be able to push its roots through anything which is not actually solid rock. so much is this the case that one authority has thought fit to warn tree-growers in this picturesque fashion. "when planting a tree," he says, "forget what it is you are doing, and think that you are about to bury the biggest horse you know." how many people when planting any tree dig a hole big enough to bury a horse? it is fairly safe to reply, only those who do it by dynamite. [illustration: _by permission of dupont powder co., wilmington, delaware_ first effect of the dynamite clearing a field of tree stumps by blowing them up with dynamite.--_see_ p. ] the method of working is to bore a hole nearly as deep as the hole you want to blast. at the bottom place a powerful charge, far stronger than you would use for "subsoiling," as just described. that will not only blow a hole big enough for you to put your tree in, but it will loosen the ground all around the hole for yards. the main debris from the hole will fall back into it, but that will not matter much, since, being all loose, it is an easy matter to remove as much as is necessary to plant the young tree. the advantages are the same as those enumerated in the previous case--namely, the loosened ground gives more scope for the roots--apple-tree roots want twenty feet or so--the ground holds moisture better, and the explosion kills the fungus germs. in addition to these there is the advantage that to blast a hole like this is cheaper than digging it. and that the advantages are not merely theoretical is shown by the fact that trees so planted actually do grow stronger, bigger and quicker than precisely similar ones under the same conditions, but set in the ordinary way with a spade. and not only do new trees thus benefit; old trees can be helped by dynamite. many an existing orchard has been improved by exploding dynamite at intervals between the rows of trees. care has to be taken to see that the disturbance is not so violent or so close as to damage the trees, but that can be easily arranged, and then the result is that the soil all around the trees is loosened, the roots are given more freedom and the water-storing properties of the ground are greatly improved. again, how often a farmer is troubled with a pond or a patch of marshy ground right in the midst of his fields. it is of no use, and simply serves to make the field in which it occurs more difficult to plough and to cultivate--besides being so much good land wasted. now the reason for the existence of that pond or marsh is that underneath the surface there is an impervious layer in which, as in a basin, the water can collect. make a hole in that and it will no more hold water than a cracked jug will. and to make that hole with dynamite is the easiest thing in the world. if the pond be merely a collection of water which occurs in wet weather, but which dries up quickly, there simply needs to be drilled a deep hole and a fairly strong explosion caused at the bottom of it. how deep the hole must be depends upon the formation of the earth at that point, and how low down is the stratum which, being waterproof, causes the water to remain. it is that, of course, which must be broken through, and so the explosion must be caused at a point near the under side of that layer. with a little experience the operator can judge the position by the feel of the tool with which he makes the hole. if the pond is permanent but shallow, men can wade to about the centre, there to drill a hole and fire a shot. if it be permanent and deep, then the work must be done from a raft, which, however, can be easily constructed for the purpose. once broken through, the water will quickly pass away below the impervious stratum and useless land will become valuable. the same may be done on a larger scale by blasting ditches with dynamite. this is in many cases much cheaper than digging them. a row of holes is put down, or even two or three rows, according to the width of the proposed ditch. in depth they are made a little less than the depth of the ditch that is to be. and for a reason which will be apparent they are put very close together, say three feet or so apart. preparations may thus be made for blasting a ditch hundreds of feet long and then all are fired together. the earth is thrown up by a mighty upheaval, a ditch being produced of remarkable regularity considering the means by which it is made. the sides, of course, take a nice slope, the debris is thrown away on both sides and spread to a considerable distance, so that, given favourable conditions and a well-arranged explosion, there is constructed a finished ditch which hardly needs touching with spade or other tool. it not being feasible to fire a lot of holes electrically, the limit being about thirty, the simultaneous explosion of perhaps hundreds has to be brought about in some other manner, and usually it is accomplished by the simple device of putting the holes fairly near together and firing one with a fuse. the commotion set up by this one causes the nearest ones to "go off," they in turn detonating those farther on, with the result that explosion follows explosion all along the line so rapidly as to be almost instantaneous. a farmer who is troubled by a winding stream passing through his land, cutting it up into awkward shapes, can straighten it by blasting a ditch across a loop in the manner just described. in the case of low-lying land, however, ditches are obviously no use, since water would not flow away along them. in that case the principle suggested just now for dealing with an inconvenient pond can sometimes be used, for if the subsoil be blasted through at several points it is very likely that water will find a way downwards by some means or other. and the list of possible uses is by no means exhausted yet. a man opening up virgin land often finds old tree stumps his greatest bother. he can dig round them and then pull them out with a team of horses, but by far the simpler way is with a few well-placed dynamite cartridges, for they not only throw up the stump for him, but they break it up, shake the earth from it, and leave it ready for him to cart away or to burn. boulders, too, can be blown to pieces far more easily than one would think. the charges may be put underneath them as with the tree stumps, but in many cases that is not necessary, all that is needed being some dynamite laid upon the top of the rock and covered with a heap of clay. so sudden is the action of the explosive that its shock will break up the stone underneath it. yet another way, perhaps the most effective of all, is to drill a hole into the stone and fire a charge inside it. it behoves the onlooker then to keep away, for the fragments may be thrown three or four hundred feet, a fair proof that the stone will be very thoroughly demolished. even in the digging of wells explosives may be useful. in that case the holes are made in a circle, and they slant downwards and inwards, so that their lower ends tend to meet. the result of simultaneously exploding the charges in these holes is to cut out a conical hole a little larger in size than the ring and a little deeper than the point at which the explosion took place. the bottom of that hole can be levelled a little and the operation repeated, and so stage by stage the well will proceed to grow downwards. the thought that naturally occurs to one is this. all the operations described may be very well, the cost may be low, and the effect good, but are they sufficient to compensate for the risks necessarily dependent upon the use of explosives? the doubt implied in that question, natural though it be, is based upon prejudice, with which we are all more or less afflicted. the art of making these explosive substances has been brought to such a pitch that with reasonable care there is no risk whatever. the greatest possible care is used in the factory to see that all explosives sent out are what they are meant to be, and that they can therefore be relied upon to behave according to programme and not to play any tricks. that is the first step, and what with competition between makers, government inspection, and searching inquiry into the slightest accident, and the desire of each maker to keep up the credit of his name, it is safe to say that modern explosives may be relied upon to do their duty faithfully. the second step in the process of securing safety is that the powerful explosive, the one that does the work, is made very insensitive, so that it is really quite hard to explode it. with reasonable care, then, it will never go off by accident. on the other hand, the sensitive material, which is easy to "let off," is in very small quantities, so small that an accident with it would not, again with reasonable precautions, be a serious matter. fuse, too, is very reliable nowadays. the man who lights the fuse may be absolutely sure that he will have that time to get to a place of safety which corresponds to the length of fuse which he employs. with electrical firing, too, it is quite easy to arrange that the final electrical connection shall not be made until all are at a safe distance, so that a premature explosion is impossible. in many of the cases described, the shock takes place almost entirely within the earth and there is very little debris thrown about. indeed the only danger which is to be feared with these operations is about on a par with that which every farm hand runs from the kick of a horse. any careful, trustworthy man could be quite safely taught to do this work, and with the assistance of a labourer he could do all that is necessary. given a fair amount of intelligence, too, he would take but little teaching. altogether there is no doubt that the use of explosives is going to have a marked effect upon farming operations in the near future. chapter ii measuring electricity there are many people whose acquaintance with electricity consists mainly in paying the electric light bill. to such the instruments whereby electricity is measured will make a specially interesting appeal. current is sold in great britain at so much per board of trade unit. to state what that is needs a preliminary explanation of the other units employed in connection with electric currents. the public electricity supply in any district is announced to be so many volts, it may be , or perhaps , but whatever it be, it is always so many "volts." then the electrician speaks lightly of numbers of "amperes," he may even talk of the number of "watts" used by the lamps, while occasionally the word "ohm" will leak out. among these terms the general reader is apt to become completely fog-bound. but really they are quite simple if once understood, and, as we shall see in a moment, there are some very remarkable instruments for measuring them, some of which exhibit a delicacy truly astonishing. it is well at the outset to try and divest ourselves of the idea that there is anything mysterious or occult about electricity. it is quite true that there are many things about it very little understood even by the most learned, but for ordinary practical purposes it may be regarded as a fluid, which flows along a wire just as water flows along a pipe. the wire is, electrically speaking, a "hole" through the air or other non-conducting substance with which it is surrounded. a water-pipe being a hole through a bar of iron, so the copper core of an electrical wire is, so far as the current is concerned, but a hole through the centre of a tube of silk, cotton, rubber or whatever it be. electricity can flow through certain solids just as water can flow through empty space. water will not flow through a pipe unless a pressure be applied to it somewhere. in a pipe the ends of which are at the same level water will lie inert and motionless. lower one end, however, and the pressure produced by gravity--in other words, the weight of the water--will cause it to move. in like manner pressure produced by the action of a pump will make water flow. on the other hand, when it moves it encounters resistance, through the water rubbing against the walls of the pipe. similarly, an electrical pressure is necessary before a current of electricity will flow. and every conductor offers more or less resistance to the flow of current, thus opposing the action of the pressure. before current will flow through your domestic glow-lamps and cause them to give light there must be a pressure at work, and that pressure is described as so many volts. a battery is really a little automatic electrical pump for producing an electrical pressure. and the volt, which is a legal measure, just as much as a pound or a yard, is a certain fraction of the pressure produced by a certain battery known as clark's cell. it is not necessary here to say exactly what that fraction is, but it will give a general idea to state that the ordinary leclanche or dry cell, such as is used for electric bells, produces a pressure of about one and a half volts. thus we see the volt is the electrical counterpart of the term "pound per square inch" which is used in the case of water pressure. a flow of water is measured in gallons per minute. an electrical current is measured in coulombs per second. thus the coulomb is the electrical counterpart of the gallon. but in this particular we differ slightly in our methods of talking of water and electricity. gallons per minute or per hour is the invariable term in the former case, but in the latter we do not speak of coulombs per second, although that is what we mean, for we have a special name for one coulomb per second, and that same is ampere. one ampere is one coulomb per second, two amperes are two coulombs per second, and so on. there is no recognised term to denote the resistance which a water-pipe offers to the passage of water through it, but in the similar case with electricity there is a term specially invented for the purpose, the ohm. legally it is the resistance of a column of mercury of a certain size and weight. a rough idea of it is given by the fact that a copper wire a sixteenth of an inch thick and feet long has a resistance of about one ohm. the three units--the volt, ampere and ohm--are so related that a pressure of one volt acting upon a circuit with a resistance of one ohm will produce a current of one ampere. a current can do work; when it lights or heats your room or drives a tramcar it is doing work; and the rate at which a current does work is found by multiplying together the number of volts and the number of amperes. the result is in still another unit, the watt. and watts is a kilowatt. finally, to crown the whole story, a kilowatt for one hour is a board of trade unit. so for every unit which you pay for in the quarterly bill you have had a current equal to watts for an hour. to give a concrete example, if the pressure of your supply is volts, and you take a current of five amperes for an hour, you will have consumed one b.t.u. perhaps it will give added clearness to this explanation to tabulate the terms as follow:-- _volt_ = the unit of pressure, analogous to "pounds per square inch" in the case of water. _coulomb_ = the measure of quantity, analogous to the gallon. _ampere_ = the measure of the "strength" of a current, meaning one coulomb per second. _watt_ = the unit denoting the power for work of any current. it is the result of multiplying together volts and amperes. _kilowatt_ = watts. _board of trade unit_ = a current of one kilowatt flowing for one hour. [illustration: _by permission of dupont powder co._ a fine crop celery grown on soil tilled by dynamite.--_see_ p. ] in practice the measurements are generally made by means of the connection between electricity and magnetism. a current of electricity is a magnet. whenever a current is flowing it is surrounded by a region in which magnetism can be felt. this region is called the magnetic field, and the strength of the field varies with the strength that is the number of amperes in the current. if a wire carrying a current be wound up into a coil it is evident that the magnetic field will be more intense than if the wire be straight, for it will be concentrated into a smaller area. iron, with its peculiar magnetic properties, if placed in a magnetic field seems to draw the magnetic forces towards itself, and consequently, if the wire be wound round a core of iron, the magnetism due to the current will be largely concentrated at the ends of the core. but the main principle remains--in any given magnet the magnetic power exhibited will be in proportion to the current flowing. the switchboard at a generating station is always supplied with instruments called ammeters, an abbreviation of amperemeters, for the purpose of measuring the current passing out from the dynamos. each of these consists of a coil of wire through which the current passes. in some there is a piece of iron near by, which is attracted more or less as the current varies, the iron being pulled back by a spring and its movement against the tension of the spring being indicated by a pointer on a dial. in others the coil itself is free to swing in the neighbourhood of a powerful steel magnet, the interaction between the electro-magnet, or coil, and the permanent magnet being such that they approach each other or recede from each other as the current varies. a pointer on a dial records the movements as before. in yet another kind the permanent magnet gives way to a second coil, the current passing through both in succession, the result being very much the same, the two coils attracting each other more or less according to the current. another kind of ammeter known as a thermo-ammeter works on quite a different principle. it consists of a piece of fine platinum wire which is arranged as a "shunt"--that is to say, a certain small but definite proportion of the current to be measured passes through it. now, being fine, the current has considerable difficulty in forcing its way through this wire and the energy so expended becomes turned into heat in the wire. it is indeed a mild form of what we see in the filament of an incandescent lamp, where the energy expended in forcing the current through makes the filament white-hot. the same principle is at work when we rub out a pencil mark with india-rubber, whereby the rubber becomes heated, as most of us have observed. the wire, then, is heated by the current passing through it, and accordingly expands, the amount of expansion forming an indication of the current passing. the elongation of the wire is made to turn a pointer. a simple modification makes any of these instruments into a voltmeter. this instrument is intended to measure the force or pressure in the current as it leaves the dynamo. a short branch circuit is constructed, leading from the positive wire near the dynamo to the negative wire, or to the earth, where the pressure is zero. in this circuit is placed the instrument, together with a coil made of a very long length of fine wire so that it has a very great resistance. very little current will flow through the branch circuit because of the high resistance of the coil, but what there is will be in exact proportion to the pressure. the voltmeter is therefore the same as the ammeter, except that its dial is marked for volts instead of for amperes, and it has to be provided with the resistance coil. instruments of the ammeter type can also be used as ohmmeters. in this case what is wanted is to test the resistance of a circuit, and it is done by applying a battery, the voltage of which is known, and seeing how much current flows. all the voltmeters and ohmmeters mentioned owe their method of working to what is known as ohm's law. one of the greatest steps in the development of electrical science was taken when dr ohm put forward the law which he had discovered whereby pressure, current and resistance are related. the reader will probably have noticed from what has already been said about the units of measurement--the volt, the ampere and the ohm--that the current varies directly as the pressure and inversely as the resistance. that is the famous and important "ohm's law" and anyone who has once grasped that has gone a long way towards understanding many of the principal phenomena of electric currents. but the instruments so far referred to are of the big, clumsy type, suitable for measuring large currents and great pressures. they are like the great railway weigh-bridges, which weigh a whole truck-load at a time and are good enough if they are true to a quarter of a hundredweight. the instruments about to be described are more comparable with the delicate balance of the chemist, which can detect the added weight when a pencil mark is made upon a piece of paper. indeed beside them such a balance is quite crude and clumsy. they may be said to be the most delicate measuring instruments in existence. we will commence with the galvanometer. the simplest form of this is a needle like that of a mariner's compass very delicately suspended by a thin fibre in the neighbourhood of a coil of wire. the magnetic field produced by the current flowing in the wire tends to turn the needle, which movement is resisted by its natural tendency to point north and south. thus the current only turns the needle a certain distance, which distance will be in proportion to its strength. the deflection of the needle, therefore, gives us a measure of the strength of the current. but such an instrument is not delicate enough for the most refined experiments, and the improved form generally used is due to that prince of inventors, the late lord kelvin. he originally devised it, it is interesting to note, not for laboratory experiments, but for practical use as a telegraph instrument in connection with the early atlantic cables. before describing it, it may sharpen the reader's interest to mention a wonderful experiment which was made by varley, the famous electrician, on the first successful atlantic cable. he formed a minute battery of a brass gun-cap, with a scrap of zinc and a single drop of acidulated water. this he connected up to the cable. probably there is not one reader of this book but would have thought, if he had been present, that the man was mad. what conceivable good could come of connecting such a feeble source of electrical pressure to the two thousand miles of wire spanning the great ocean; the very idea seems fantastic in the extreme. yet that tiny battery was able to make its power felt even over that great distance, for the thomson mirror galvanometer was there to detect it. two thousand miles away, the galvanometer felt and was operated by the force generated in a battery about the size of one of the capital letters on this page. this wonderful instrument consisted of a magnet made of a small fragment of watch-spring, suspended in a horizontal position by means of a thread of fine silk, close to a coil of fine wire. when current flowed through the coil the magnetic field caused the watch-spring magnet to swing round, but when the current ceased the untwisting of the silk brought it back to its original position again. so far it seems to differ very little from the ordinary galvanometer previously mentioned, but the stroke of genius was in the method of reading it. with a small current the movement of the magnet was too small to be observed by the unaided eye, so it was attached to a minute mirror made of one of those little circles of glass used for covering microscope slides, silvered on the back. the magnet was cemented to the back of this, yet both were so small that together their weight was supported by a single thread of cocoon silk. light from a lamp was made to fall upon this mirror, thereby throwing a spot of light upon a distant screen. thus the slightest movement of the magnet was magnified into a considerable movement of the spot of light. the beam of light from the mirror to the screen became, in fact, a long lever or pointer, without weight and without friction. the task of watching the rocking to and fro of the spot of light was found to be too nerve-racking for the telegraph operators, and so lord kelvin improved upon his galvanometer in two ways. he first of all managed to give it greater turning-power, so that, actuated by the same current, the new instrument would work much more strongly than the older one. then he utilised this added power to move a pen whereby the signals were recorded automatically upon a piece of paper. the new instrument is known as the siphon recorder. the added power was obtained by turning the instrument inside out, as it were, making the coil the moving part and the permanent magnet the fixed part. this enabled him to employ a very powerful permanent magnet in place of the minute one made of watch-spring. the interaction of two magnets is the result of their combined strength, and that of the coil being limited by the strength of the minute current the only way to increase the combined power of the two was to substitute a large powerful magnet for the small magnetised watch-spring. this large magnet would, of course, have been too heavy to swing easily and therefore the positions had to be reversed. so now we have two types of galvanometer, both due originally to the inventions of lord kelvin. for some purposes the thomson type (his name was thomson before he became lord kelvin) are still used, but in a slightly elaborated form. its sensitiveness is such that a current of a thousandth of a micro-ampere will move the spot of light appreciably. and when one comes to consider that a micro-ampere is a millionth part of an ampere this is perfectly astounding. but there is a more wonderful story still to come, of an instrument which can detect a millionth of a micro-ampere, or one millionth of a millionth of an ampere. it is not generally known that we are all possessors of an electric generator in the form of the human heart, but it is so, and professor einthoven, of leyden, wishing to investigate these currents from the heart, found himself in need of a galvanometer exceeding in sensitiveness anything then known. even the tiny needles or coils with their minute mirrors have some weight and so possess in an appreciable degree the property of inertia, in virtue of which they are loath to start movement and, having started, are reluctant to stop. this inertia, it is easy to see, militates against the accurate recording of rapid variations in minute currents, so the energetic professor set about devising a new galvanometer which should answer his purpose. this is known as the "string galvanometer." [illustration: fig. .-this shows the principle of this wonderful galvanometer invented by lord kelvin in its latest form. current enters at _a_, passes round the coils, as shown by the arrows, and away at _b_. a light rod, _c_, is suspended by the fine fibre, _d_, so that the eight little magnets hang in the centres of the coils--four in each. the current deflects these magnets and so turns the mirror, _m_, at the bottom of the rod. at _e_ are two large magnets which give the little ones the necessary tendency to keep at "zero."] [illustration: fig. .--here we see the working parts of the "string galvanometer," by which the beating of the heart can be registered electrically. the current flows down the fine silvered fibre, between the poles, _a_ and _b_, of a powerful magnet. as the current varies, the fibre bends more or less.] the main body of the instrument is a large, powerful electro-magnet, in shape like a large pair of jaws nearly shut. energised by a strong current, this magnet produces an exceedingly strong magnetic field in the small space between the "teeth" as it were. in this space there is stretched a fine thread of quartz which is almost perfectly elastic. it is a non-conductor, however, so it is covered with a fine coating of silver. silver wire is sometimes used, but no way has yet been found of drawing any metallic wire so thin as the quartz fibre, which is sometimes as thin as two thousandths of a millimetre, or about a twelve-thousandth of an inch. a hundred pages of this book make up a thickness of about an inch, so that one leaf is about a fiftieth of an inch. consequently the fibre in question could be multiplied times before it became as stout as the paper on which these words are printed. the current to be measured, then, is passed through the stretched fibre and the interaction of the magnetic field by which the fibre is then surrounded, with the magnetic field in which it is immersed, causes it to be deflected to one side. of course the deflection is exceedingly small in amount, and as it is undesirable to hamper its movements by the weight of a mirror, no matter how small, some other means of reading the instrument had to be devised. this is a microscope which is fixed to one of the jaws, through a fine hole in which the movements of the fibre can be viewed. or what is often better still, a picture of the wire can be projected through the microscope on to a screen or on to a moving photographic plate or strip of photographic paper. in the latter case a permanent record is made of the changes in the flowing current. an electric picture can thus be made of the working of a man's heart. he holds in his hands two metal handles or is in some other way connected to the two ends of the fibre by wires just as the handles of a shocking coil are connected to the ends of the coil. the faint currents caused by the beating of his heart are thus set down in the form of a wavy line. such a diagram is called a "cardiogram," and it seems that each of us has a particular form of cardiogram peculiar to himself, so that a man could almost be recognised and distinguished from his fellows by the electrical action of his heart. the galvanometer has a near relative, the electrometer, the astounding delicacy of which renders it equally interesting. it is particularly valuable in certain important investigations as to the nature and construction of atoms. the galvanometer, it will be remembered, measures minute currents; the electrometer measures minute pressures, particularly those of small electrically charged bodies. every conductor (and all things are conductors, more or less) can be given a charge of electricity. any insulated wire, for example, if connected to a battery will become charged--current will flow into it and there remain stationary. and that is what we mean by a charge as opposed to a current. air compressed into a closed vessel is a charge. air, however compressed, flowing along a pipe would be better described as a current. imagine one of those cylinders used for the conveyance of gas under pressure and suppose that we desire to find the pressure of the gas with which it is charged. we connect a pressure-gauge to it, and see what the finger of the gauge has to say. what happens is that gas from the cylinder flows into the little vessel which constitutes the gauge and there records its own pressure. and just the same applies with electrometers. precisely as the pressure-gauge measures the pressure of air or gas in some vessel, so the electrometer measures the electrical pressure in a charged body. further, some of the charged bodies with which the student of physics is much concerned are far smaller than can be seen with the most powerful microscope. how wonderfully minute and delicate, therefore, must be the instrument which can be influenced by the tiny charge which so small a body can carry. it will be interesting here to describe an experiment performed with an electrometer by professor rutherford, by which he determined how many molecules there are in a centimetre of gas, a number very important to know but very difficult to ascertain, since molecules are too small to be seen. this number, by the way, is known to science as "avogadro's constant." everyone has heard of radium, and knows that it is in a state which can best be described as a long-drawn-out explosion. it is always shooting off tiny particles. night and day, year in and year out, it is firing off these exceedingly minute projectiles, of which there are two kinds, one of which appears to be atoms of helium. some years ago, when radium was being much talked about and the names of m. and madame curie were in everyone's mouth, little toys were sold, the invention, i believe, of sir william crookes, called spinthariscopes. each of these consisted of a short brass tube with a small lens in one end. looking through the lens in a dark room, one could see little splashes of light on the walls of the tube. those splashes were caused by a tiny speck of radium in the middle of the tube, the helium atoms from which, by bombarding the inner surface of the tube, produced the sparks. now if we can count those splashes we can tell how many atoms of helium are being given off per minute. and if then we reckon how many minutes it takes to accumulate a cubic centimetre of helium we can easily reckon how many atoms go to the cubic centimetre. but the difficulty is to count them. so the learned professor called in the aid of the electrometer. he could not count all the atoms shot off, so he put the piece of radium at one end of a tube and an electrometer at the other. every now and then an atom shot right through the tube and out at the farther end. and since each of these atoms from radium is charged with electricity, each as it emerged operated the electrometer. by simply watching the twitching of the instrument, therefore, it was possible to count how many atoms shot through the tube--one atom one twitch. and from the size and position of the tube it was possible to reckon what proportion of the whole number shot off would pass that way. the result of the experiment showed that there are in a cubic centimetre of helium a number of atoms represented by followed by seventeen noughts. and as helium is one of the few substances in which the molecule is formed of but one atom, that is also the number of molecules. and now consider this, please. a cubic centimetre is about the size of a boy's marble. that contains the vast number of molecules just mentioned. and the electrometer was able to detect the presence of those _one at a time_. need one add another word as to the inconceivable delicacy of the instrument. in its simplest form the electrometer is called the "electroscope." two strips of gold-leaf are suspended by their ends under a glass or metal shade. as they hang normally they are in close proximity. their upper ends are, in fact, in contact and are attached to a small vertical conductor. a charge imparted to the small conductor will pass down into the leaves, and since it will charge them both they will repel each other so that their lower ends will swing apart. such an instrument is very delicate, but because of the extreme thinness of the leaves it is very difficult to read accurately the amount of their movement and so to determine the charge which has been given to them. in a more recent improvement, therefore, only one strip of gold-leaf is used, the place of the other being taken by a copper strip. the whole of the movement is thus in the single gold-leaf, as the copper strip is comparatively stiff, and it is possible to arrange for the movement of this one piece of gold-leaf to be measured by a microscope. the other principal kind of electrometer we owe, as we do the galvanometers, to the wonderful ingenuity of lord kelvin. in this the moving part is a strip of thin aluminium, which is suspended in a horizontal position by means, generally, of a fine quartz fibre. since it is necessary that this fibre should be a conductor, which quartz is not, it is electro-plated with silver. thus a charge communicated to the upper end of the fibre, where it is attached to the case, passes down to the aluminium "needle," as it is called. now the needle is free to swing to and fro, with a rotating motion, between two metal plates carefully insulated. each plate is cut into four quadrants, the opposite ones being electrically connected, while all are insulated from their nearest neighbours. one set of quadrants is charged positively, and one set negatively, by a battery, but these charges have no effect upon the needle until it is itself charged. as soon as that occurs, however, they pull it round, and the amount of its movement indicates the amount of the charge upon the needle, and therefore the pressure existing upon the charged body to which it is connected. the direction of its movement shows, moreover, whether the charge be positive or negative. a little mirror is attached to the needle, so that its slightest motion is revealed by the movement of a spot of light, as in the case of the mirror galvanometers. instruments such as these are called "quadrant electrometers." my readers will remember, too, the "string galvanometer" already mentioned. the same idea has been adapted to this purpose. a fine fibre is stretched between two charged conductors while the fibre is itself connected to the body whose charge is being measured. the charge which it derives from the body causes it to be deflected, which deflection is measured by a microscope. in all cases of transmission of electricity over long distances for lighting or power purposes the currents are "alternating." they flow first one way and then the other, reversing perhaps twenty times a second, or it may be two hundred, or even more times in that short period. some electric railways are worked with alternating current, and it is used for lighting quite as much as direct current and is equally satisfactory. in wireless telegraphy it is essential. in that case, however, the reversals may take place _millions_ of times per second. consequently, to distinguish the comparatively slowly changing currents of a "frequency" or "periodicity" of a few hundreds per second from these much more rapid ones, the latter are more often spoken of as electrical oscillations. and these alternating and oscillating currents need to be measured just as the direct currents do. yet in many cases the same instruments will not answer. there has therefore grown up a class of wonderful measuring instruments specially designed for this purpose, by which not only does the station engineer know what his alternating current dynamos are doing, but the wireless operator can tell what is happening in his apparatus, the investigator can probe the subtleties of the currents which he is working with, and apparatus for all purposes can be designed and worked with a system and reason which would be impossible but for the possibility of being able to measure the behaviour of the subtle current under all conditions. one trouble in connection with measuring these alternating currents is that they are very reluctant to pass through a coil. one method by which this difficulty can be overcome has been mentioned incidentally already. i refer to the heating of a wire through which current is passing. this is just the same whether the current be alternating or direct. one of the simplest instruments of this class has been appropriated by the germans, who have named it the "reiss electrical thermometer," although it was really invented nearly a century ago by sir william snow harris. it consists of a glass bulb on one end of a glass tube. the current is passed through a fine wire inside this bulb, and as the wire becomes heated it expands the air inside the bulb. this expansion moves a little globule of mercury which lies in the tube, and which forms the pointer or indicator by which the instrument is read. as the temperature of the wire rises the mercury is forced away from the bulb, as the temperature falls it returns. and as the temperature is varied by the passage of the current, so the movement of the mercury is a measure of the current. another way is to employ a "rectifier." this is a conductor which has the peculiar property of allowing current to pass one way but not the other. it thus eliminates every alternate current and changes the alternating current into a series of intermittent currents all in the same direction. rectified current is thus hardly described by the term continuous, but still it is "continuous current" in the sense that the flow is always in the same direction, and so it can be measured by the ordinary continuous current instruments. the difficulty about it is that there is some doubt as to the relation between the quantity of rectified current which the galvanometer registers and the quantity of alternating current, which after all is the quantity which is really to be measured. how the rectification is accomplished will be referred to again in the chapter on wireless telegraphy. but to return to the thermo-galvanometers, as those are termed which ascertain the strength of a current by the heat which it produces, the simple little contrivance of sir william snow harris has more elaborate successors, of which perhaps the most interesting are those associated with the name of mr w. duddell, who has made the subject largely his own. besides their interest as wonderfully delicate measuring instruments, these have an added interest, since they introduce us to another strange phenomenon in electricity. we have just noted the fact that electricity causes heat. now we shall see the exact opposite, in which heat produces electrical pressure and current. and the feature of mr duddell's instruments is the way in which these two things are combined. by a roundabout but very effective way he rectifies the current to be measured, for he first converts some of the alternating current into heat and then converts that heat into continuous current. if two pieces of dissimilar metals be connected together by their ends, so as to form a circuit, and one of the joints be heated, an electrical pressure will be generated which will cause a current to flow round the circuit. the direction in which it will flow will depend upon the metals employed. the amount of the pressure will also depend upon the metals used, combined with the temperature of the junctions. with any given pair of metals, however, the force, and therefore the volume of current, will vary as the temperature. really it will be the difference in temperature between the hot junction and the cold junction, but if we so arrange things that the cold junction shall always remain about the same, the current which flows will vary as the temperature of the hot one. the volume of that current will therefore be a measure of the temperature. such an arrangement is known as a thermo-couple, and is becoming of great use in many manufacturing processes as a means of measuring temperatures. in the duddell thermo-galvanometers, therefore, the alternating current is first led to a "heater" consisting of fine platinised quartz fibre or thin metal wires. just above the heater there hangs a thermo-couple, consisting of two little bars, one of bismuth and the other of antimony. these two are connected together at their lower end, where they nearly touch the heater, but their upper ends are kept a little apart, being joined, however, by a loop formed of silver strip. this arrangement will be quite clear from the accompanying sketch, and it will be observed that the loop is so shaped that the whole thing can be easily suspended by a delicate fibre which will permit it to swing easily, like the coil in a mirror galvanometer. it is indeed a swinging coil of a galvanometer formed with a single turn instead of the many turns usual in the ordinary instruments, and it will be noticed from the sketch that there is a mirror fixed just above the top of the loop. this coil, then, with the thermo-couple at its lower extremity, is hung between the ends of a powerful magnet much as the fibre of the einthoven galvanometer is situated. the alternating current to be measured comes along through the heater. the heater rises in temperature. that warms the lower end of the thermo-couple. instantly a steady, continuous current begins to circulate round the silver strip which forms the coil, and that, acting just as the current does in the ordinary galvanometer, causes the coil to swing round more or less, which movement is indicated by the spot of light from the mirror. a current as small as twenty micro-amperes (or twenty millionths of an ampere) can be measured in this way. mr duddell has also perfected a wonderful instrument called an oscillograph, for the strange purpose of making actual pictures of the rise and fall in volume of current in alternating circuits. [illustration: fig. .--the "duddell" thermo-galvanometer. in this remarkable instrument _alternating_ current enters at _a_, passes through the fine wire and leaves at _b_. in doing this it heats the wire, which in turn heats the lower end of the bismuth and antimony bars. this generates _continuous_ current, which circulates through the loop of silver wire, _c_, which, since it hangs between the poles, _d_ and _e_, of a magnet, is thereby turned more or less. the amount of the turning indicates the strength of the _alternating_ current.] to realise the almost miraculous delicacy of these wonderful instruments we need first of all to construct a mental picture of what takes place in a circuit through which alternating current is passing. the current begins to flow: it gradually increases in volume until it reaches its maximum: then it begins to die away until it becomes nil: then it begins to grow in the opposite direction, increases to its maximum and dies away once more. that cycle of events occurs over and over again at the rate it may be of hundreds of times per second. now for the actual efficient operation of electrical machinery working on alternating current it is very necessary to know exactly how those changes take place--do they occur gradually, the current growing and increasing in volume regularly and steadily, or irregularly in a jumpy manner? engineers have a great fancy for setting out such changes in the form of diagrams, in which case the alternations are represented by a wavy line, and it is of much importance to obtain an actual diagram showing not what the changes should be according to theory, but what they really are in practice. it is then possible to see whether the "wave-form" of the current is what it ought to be. once again we must turn our thoughts back to the string galvanometer. in that case, it will be remembered, there is a conducting fibre passing between the ends or poles of a powerful magnet, the result of which arrangement is that as the current passes through the fibre it is bent by the action of the magnetic forces produced around it. if the current pass one way, downwards let us say, the fibre will be bent one way, while if it pass upwards it will be bent the opposite way. suppose then that we have two fibres instead of one, and that we send the current up one and down the other. one will be bent inwards and the other outwards. then suppose that we fix a little mirror to the centre of the fibres, one side of it being attached to one fibre and the other to the other. as one fibre advances and the other recedes the mirror will be turned more or less. consequently, as the current flowing in the fibres increases or decreases, or changes in direction, the mirror will be slewed round more or less in one direction or the other. the spot of light thrown by the mirror will then dance from side to side with every variation, and if it be made to fall upon a rapidly moving strip of photograph paper a wavy line will be drawn upon the paper which will faithfully represent the changes in the current. in its action, of course, it is not unlike an ordinary mirror galvanometer, but its special feature is in the mechanical arrangement of its parts which enable it to move with sufficient rapidity to follow the rapidly succeeding changes which need to be investigated. it is far less sensitive than, say, a thomson galvanometer, but the latter could not respond quickly enough for this particular purpose. chapter iii the fuel of the future we now enter for a while the realm of organic chemistry, a branch of knowledge which is of supreme interest, since it covers the matters of which our own bodies are constructed, the foods which we eat and the beverages which we drink, besides a host of other things of great value to us. although the old division of chemistry into inorganic and organic is still kept up as a matter of convenience, the old boundaries between the two have become largely obliterated. the distinction arose from the fact that there used to be (and are still to a very great extent) a number of highly complex substances the composition of which is known, for they can be analysed, or taken to pieces, but which the wit of man has failed to put together. consequently these substances could only be obtained from organic bodies. the living trees, or animals, could in some mysterious way bring these combinations about, but man could not. the molecules of these substances are much more complicated than those with which the inorganic chemist deals. the important ingredient in them all is carbon, which with hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen almost completes the list of the simple elements of which these marvellous substances are compounded. in some cases there appear to be hundreds of atoms in the molecule. if one takes a glance at a text-book on organic chemistry the pages are seen to be sprinkled all over with c's and o's, n's and h's, with but an occasional symbol for some other element. another feature of this branch which cannot fail to strike the casual observer is the queer names which many of the substances possess. trimethylaniline, triphenylmethane and mononitrophenol are a few examples which happen to occur to the memory, and they are by no means the longest or queerest-sounding. another peculiarity about these organic substances is that a number of them, each quite different from the others, can be formed of the same atoms. certain atoms of hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen form sulphuric acid, and under whatever conditions they combine they never form anything else. on the other hand, there are sixty-six different substances all formed of eight of carbon, twelve of hydrogen and four of oxygen. this can only mean that in such cases as the latter the atoms have different groupings and that when grouped in one way they form one thing, in another way some other thing, and so on. this explains the extreme difficulty which the chemist finds in building up some of these organic substances. every now and again we are startled by some eminent man stating that the time will come when we shall be able to make living things, when the laboratory will turn out living cows and sheep, birds and insects, even man with a mind and soul of his own. yet one cannot but feel that such men, no matter how great their authority, are simply "pulling the public's leg," to use a colloquial expression. for they hopelessly fail to make many of the commonest things. in many cases where they wish to produce an organic substance they have to call in the aid of some living thing to do it for them, even if it be but a humble microbe. for the microbes perform wonderful feats in chemistry, far surpassing those of the most eminent men. hence the latter very sensibly use the microbe, employ it to work for them, just set things in order and then stand by while the microbe does the work. thus most things can be analysed--that is to say, taken to pieces--while many things can now be synthesised--that is to say, built up from their constituent atoms--but still a great many remain, and among them the most important, the synthesis of which completely baffles man. one of the most useful and widespread substances, for example, cellulose, is, at present at least, utterly beyond us. we do not even know how many atoms there are in the cellulose molecule. the molecules may, for all we know, contain thousands of atoms. indeed many of these organic matters have very large molecules. and even if the chemist were able to make all kinds of organic matter, he would still be as far off as ever from making _living_ matter. indigo used to be derived entirely from plants of that name. one of the greatest triumphs of the organic chemist was when he produced artificial or synthetic indigo. but he is as far off as ever from making the indigo plant. it is claimed that "synthetic" rubber is exactly the same as natural rubber, although some users say it is not quite the same. still, if it be so, it is dead rubber, not the living part of the plant. the time, then, is infinitely far distant when the chemist will be able to make anything with the characteristics of life--namely, to grow by accretion from within and to reproduce its kind. the most wonderful product of the laboratory is dead. at most it simply resembles something which _once_ was alive. but that is somewhat of a digression. this dissertation on organic chemistry was simply intended to lead up to the question of liquid fuels, all of which are organic. in the life of to-day one of the most important things is petroleum. this is a kind of liquid coal. just how it was formed down in the depths of the earth is not clear. one idea is that it is due to the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter. another is that certain volcanic rocks which are known to contain carbide of iron might, under the influence of steam, have in bygone ages given off petroleum, or paraffin, to use the other name for the same thing. in many parts of the world these deposits of oil are obtained by sinking wells and pumping up the oil. in others the liquid gushes out without the necessity of pumping at all. this is believed to be due to the fact that water pressure is at work. artesian wells, from which the water rushes of its own accord, are quite familiar, and are due to the fact that some underground reservoir tapped by the well is fed through natural pipes, really fissures in the rock, from some point higher than the mouth of the well. now supposing that a reservoir of oil were also in communication with the upper world in the same way, the descending water would go to the bottom, underneath the lighter oil, and would thus lift it up, so that on being tapped the oil would rush out. another source of mineral oil is shale, such as is to be found in vast deposits in the south-east of scotland. this shale is mined much as coal is: it is then heated in retorts as coal is heated at the gas-works: and the vapour which is given off, on being condensed, forms a liquid like crude petroleum. in all these cases the original oil is a mixture of a great number of grades differing from each other in various ways. they are all "hydro-carbons," which means compounds of carbon and hydrogen, and they extend from cymogene (the molecules of which contain four atoms of carbon and ten of hydrogen) to paraffin wax, which has somewhere about thirty-two of carbon to sixty-six of hydrogen. for practical purposes their most important difference is the temperature at which they boil, or turn quickly into vapour. this forms the means by which they are sorted out. in a huge still, like a steam-boiler, the crude or mixed oil is gradually heated, and the gas given off is led to a cooling vessel where it is chilled back into liquid. the lightest of all, cymogene, is given off even at the freezing-point of water. that is led into one chamber and condensed there. then, as the temperature rises to ° c., rhigolene is given off: that is collected and condensed in another vessel. between ° and ° petroleum ether and petroleum naphtha are produced, and they together constitute what is commonly called petrol. between ° and ° petroleum benzine arises. all the foregoing taken together constitute about to per cent. of the whole crude oil. then between ° and ° there comes off the great bulk of the oil, nearly per cent., the kerosene or paraffin which we burn in lamps. above ° there is obtained another oil, which is used for lubrication, also the invaluable vaseline, and finally, when the still is allowed to cool, there remains a solid residuum known as paraffin wax. this process is known as fractional distillation, and it will be noticed that it consists essentially in collecting and liquefying separately those vapours which are given off at different ranges of temperature. for our purpose in this chapter we are mainly concerned with the petrol and the kerosene. many efforts have been made in times gone by to use kerosene for firing the boilers of steam-engines. in naval vessels a great deal is so used at the present time. but the chief method of employing oil for generating power is to use it in an internal combustion-engine. these machines have been dealt with at length in _engineering of to-day_ and _mechanical inventions of to-day_ and so must be simply mentioned here. they consist of two types. in one, which is exemplified by the ordinary car or bicycle motor, the oil is gasified in a vessel called a carburetter or vaporiser and then led into the cylinder of the engine, together with the necessary air to enable it to burn. at the right moment a spark ignites the mixture, which burns suddenly, causing a sudden expansion, in other words, an explosion. thus the power of the engine is derived from a succession of explosions. if the fuel be petrol it vaporises at the ordinary temperature of the engine and needs no added heat. with kerosene, however, heat has to be employed in the vaporiser to make it turn readily into a gas. the other method is employed in engines of the new "diesel" type, in which the cylinder of the engine, being already filled with hot air, has a jet of oil sprayed into it. the heat of the air causes it to burst into flame, causing an expansion which drives the engine. an important feature in the latter type of engine is that the oil is very completely burnt, so that very heavy oils can be used, oils which, if employed in an engine of the other kind, would choke up the cylinder with soot. in other words, the range of oils which can be used in this new kind of engine is much wider than is possible in the others. the latter may be likened to a fastidious man who is very particular about his food, while the former resembles the man of hearty appetite who can eat anything. and just as a man of the latter sort is more easily provided for by the domestic authorities, so the diesel engine makes the problem of the provision of liquid fuel much simpler. for it must never be forgotten that the provision of liquid fuel for the world is by no means a simple matter, since the supply is by no means adequate. the output runs into thousands of millions of gallons, and the whole world is being searched for new fields of oil, and yet it is all swallowed up as fast as it can be produced, while the coal mines do not feel the competition. a year or so ago the united states and russia between them (and they are the greatest producers) obtained , , , gallons of oil, seemingly an enormous quantity. but, on the other hand, great britain alone produces over , , _tons_ of coal per annum. if, therefore, liquid fuel is to displace coal, as some people lightly think it is going to do, the supply will have to be multiplied many times. in the amount of heat which it is capable of giving the coal of great britain alone beats the oil produced by the whole world. and another thing to be borne in mind is that as the coal miner goes down to the seam and sees for himself what is there, while the oil producer simply stays at the surface and draws it up with a pump, the coal man knows far more as to how much there is still left than the oil man does. we know that the coal deposits will last for many years to come, even if the production go on increasing, whereas the oil supply may fall off in the near future instead of increasing. and in both cases we are using up capital. coal is not being made on the earth now, at any rate in any appreciable quantity. the stage of the earth's history favourable to the formation of coal measures has long gone by. and the same probably applies to oil. it is interesting in this connection to note that coal itself is to a certain extent, or can be at all events, a source of oil. when coal is heated in order to make it give up its gas, or to turn it into coke, vapours are given off which on cooling become coal-tar. at one time regarded only as a crude sort of paint, this is now the source from which many chemical substances are obtained, varying from photographic chemicals to saccharine, a substitute for sugar. so valuable are these products that there is a brisk demand for the tar, in other directions than the manufacture of oils, but oils of various kinds are also obtained from it. the first step in the operations is fractional distillation, after the manner just described for petroleum. the first "fraction" is "coal-tar naphtha." then follows "carbolic oil," after that "heavy" or "creosote oil," anthracene oil, and finally there remains in the still on cooling a solid residue known as coal-pitch. the naphtha, on being distilled again, gives, among other things, benzine, from which the famous aniline dyes are made, and which is useful in many industries. creosote is largely employed as a preservative for wood, being forced into the timber under high pressure, so that it penetrates right into it and tends to prevent rotting, no matter how wet it may be. railway sleepers are thus treated, small truck-loads of them being run into a cast-iron tunnel which is then sealed at both ends, while the creosote is forced in by powerful pumps. after such treatment they can lie nearly buried in the damp ballast for a long time without any deterioration. these coal-tar substances are all very similar to petroleum and its products, hydro-carbons, compounds of hydrogen and carbon in various proportions. many of them could be used for fuel. [illustration: _by permission of dupont powder co._ apple tree planted with a spade this apple tree was planted in the ordinary way with a spade. compare its size with that in following illustration at p. .] but since they are based upon the supply of coal, which is itself limited, they cannot, however they may be used, do more than stave off the evil day when the supply will be exhausted. quite different is it with alcohol, which it seems likely may be the fuel of the future. some people will be inclined to exclaim "what a pity to burn it!" since to many the word conveys ideas of another sort altogether. there are many nowadays, however, who, like the writer, have none but a scientific interest in it. to such whisky, for example, is but "impure" alcohol, and it is without the "impurities" that it may become of vast use to the world, thereby possibly repaying man for some of the harm which in the past it has inflicted upon him. alcohol, again, is a hydrocarbon. it is really more correct to speak of it in the plural, as "alcohols," since there is a large group of substances all of the same name. two of these are of the greatest importance, methyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol. the former is obtained from wood, hence it is sometimes called wood spirit. wood is strongly heated in an iron still, and the methyl alcohol is given off in the form of vapour, which on being collected and cooled condenses into liquid. it is exceedingly unpleasant to the taste: if it were the only kind there would be no consumption of alcohol as a drink. the second kind mentioned is obtained by the agency of germs or microbes, and the story of its production is so interesting as to demand a little space. we will commence with the maltster. he performs the first part of the operation. starting with ordinary barley, by the action of heat, aided by natural growth, he produces the raw material on which the brewer may work. now barley, like all grain, is largely made up of starch, and although starch will not make alcohol, it can be turned into sugar, which will. so the task of the maltster is to commence the change of the starch in the grain into sugar. first of all it is soaked in water and spread upon floors and heated until it begins to sprout. there is a little part in each grain called the endosperm, which is the embryonic plant, and the starch is really the food provided by nature to nourish the growing endosperm until such time as it shall be strong enough to draw its nourishment from the soil. in order that it may not be washed away prematurely, the starch is locked up by nature in closely fastened cells, and, moreover, it is insoluble, so that water cannot carry it away. the endosperm, however, has at its disposal certain substances known as enzymes (and it increases its store of these as it grows), one of which is able to dissolve away the walls of the cells, to unlock the treasures, as it were, while the other turns the insoluble starch into soluble matter, in which state the growing organism is able to make use of it as food. so as the grain sprouts upon the maltster's floor this process is going on--the cells are being opened and their contents converted from starch into soluble matters. then, when the growth has gone far enough, the grain is transferred to a kiln, where it is subjected to heat, by which the growth is stopped. the living part of the grain is, in fact, killed. that is mainly to stop the young plant from eating up the altered starch, which it would do if allowed time, but which the brewer wants to be kept for his own use. the maltster's task is now finished, and we come to the brewer's. the first thing he does with the malt is to crush it between rolls, thereby liberating thoroughly those substances which have been formed from the starch and which he intends to turn into sugar. having crushed it, he places it in the "mash tun," a large tank of wood or iron, in which it is mixed with water and subjected to heat. while in this vessel the enzymes become active again and turn the soluble starch, or a part of it, into a kind of sugar. the liquid drawn off from the mash tun, containing, of course, the sugar, is subsequently boiled, numerous flavouring matters (including hops) are added, and then it is cooled again, ready for the final process--fermentation. this takes place in a large vat or "tun" and is brought about by the agency of yeast which is added to the liquid. now yeast is a multitude of microscopic plants round in shape and about one three-thousandth of an inch in diameter. though so small, this little organism is really quite complicated in its structure, and within its little body there are carried on complicated chemical changes which baffle entirely the most learned chemist to imitate. further, he has yet to find out how the little yeast plant does it. he not only cannot imitate the process, he does not know what the process is. these little organisms multiply mainly by the process of "budding." a new one grows out of the side of each old one, rapidly reaches maturity, breaks away and commences an independent existence. no sooner is it free than it in turn gives birth to another. indeed so great is its hurry to propagate itself that sometimes the new cell begins to throw out a bud before it has itself separated from its parent. it is therefore easy to see that yeast increases in quantity by what some call "leaps and bounds," but which the mathematically minded know as geometrical progression. the particular form of sugar with which we are concerned here is known as "dextro-glucose." this the yeast splits up into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. the latter bubbles up to the surface, and escapes into the air, while the alcohol becomes dissolved in the watery liquid. it is believed that the yeast performs this operation not directly, but by the production of certain enzymes, which in their turn act upon the sugar. the liquid so formed is beer. but since it is alcohol with which we are concerned, and not beer, many details connected with its manufacture have been omitted. enough has been said, however, to show that by comparatively simple processes grain of all sorts, in fact, anything which contains starch, and such things are to be found in worldwide profusion, can be turned into alcohol. all the really intricate chemical functions are performed readily and cheaply by living organisms. all man has to do is to set up the conditions under which the organisms can work. in the process just described only a portion of the starch in the grain is converted into sugar, hence the percentage of alcohol in beer is comparatively small. if all the starch be converted a liquid much stronger in alcohol is produced, and if that be distilled, so as to separate the spirit from the water with which it is mixed, there results whisky. brandy, likewise, is the spirit distilled from wine, rum from molasses, and so on. in all these familiar beverages the essential feature is this same alcohol, of the variety known as ethyl alcohol. it will be noticed that in the making of beer the alcohol is actually formed in water. there is a sugary water which under the action of the yeast becomes an alcoholic water. and this indicates a very useful feature about the liquid when used for industrial purposes. a tank full of petrol is extremely dangerous, so much so that the storage of petrol is hedged about by all manner of precautions. the danger is that it gives off an inflammable vapour and that if it once begin to burn there is practically no possibility of putting it out. being lighter than water, it simply clothes with a layer of fire any water which may be thrown on to it. the water in such circumstances simply serves to spread the naming petrol about and so to make matters worse. now alcohol, with its partiality for the companionship of water, behaves quite differently. true, it also may give off an inflammable vapour, but if a quantity of it catch fire it can be extinguished in the usual way by a fire-engine. the water and alcohol immediately combine--the alcohol becomes dissolved in the water just as sugar may do, and as soon as the percentage of water in the mixture becomes considerable the burning stops. it may be that some readers will have discovered this fact for themselves without knowing precisely what it was. it is a common dodge with amateur photographers if they want to dry a negative quickly to immerse it in methylated spirit. the spirit seems to take the water out of the film and, itself drying quickly, leaves the negative in a perfectly dry condition in a few minutes. now after using spirit in that way it is useless to put it in a spirit stove or lamp. it will not burn. methylated spirit is alcohol, and the reason why it has such a quick drying action is that it and the water in the wet film quickly mix. after immersion the film is wet, not with water merely, but with a mixture of a lot of spirit and a little water. hence the speed with which it evaporates. and the non-inflammability of the mixture is due to the presence of the water. methylated spirit only differs from the alcohol in alcoholic beverages in that something is added to make it undrinkable. owing to the craving for it, which is so widespread, and the doubtful effect which it has on certain citizens, most states regard it as pre-eminently a subject for taxation, thereby on the one hand bringing in a good revenue, and on the other discouraging its too free use. but those considerations apply only to drinkable alcohol. that which is to be used for industrial purposes is not in any way a legitimate object for taxation. hence the problem arises of making a form of alcohol which shall answer all the needs of the industries which use it, and at the same time be so repulsive to the senses that no one can possibly drink it. this result is achieved by adding some of the methyl alcohol derived from the vapour given off by wood when heated. commonly known as "wood spirit," this is so unpleasant that it renders the mixture of no use for drinking, and so it can safely be freed from taxation. unfortunately this spirit has less heating value than petrol. that means that a given quantity of each liquid will produce more heat in the case of petrol than in the case of alcohol. indeed the difference is about two to one. hence an engine to give out a certain horse-power would need to have its cylinders twice as big if it were to use alcohol instead of the other fuel. there is a certain compensation, however, in the fact that alcohol is very easily compressible. in modern internal combustion-engines much of the efficiency is due to the explosive charge which is drawn into the cylinder being compressed into a small space before it is fired. it was the discovery of the value of compressing the gas which made the gas-engine so formidable a rival to the steam-engine, and the wonderful performances of the diesel engines are due very largely to the fact that the air is compressed in the cylinder to a very high pressure. the jet of oil burns in highly compressed air. and because of the facility with which alcohol can be compressed it is said to be more effective as a source of motive power than would be expected from its comparatively feeble heat. thus we may sum up the possibilities of the future. coal, petroleum and their derivatives exist in limited quantities in the world, and so far as we can see the vast drafts which we are taking from them are not being replaced, indeed at this stage of the earth's development cannot be replaced, by any more. sooner or later we must come to an end of them. is it not comforting, therefore, to know that there is another source of fuel at hand, inexhaustible, since it can be produced as needed. we have only to set the sun and the ground to work to produce grain, rice, potatoes, or any of the myriad substances which contain starch, and from that, by simple and well-known processes, we can obtain a cheap, safe and reliable fuel. indeed there seems nothing but the ultimate loss of sunlight, countless millions of years hence, which can ever check the supply of this valuable commodity. what has doubtless, in many cases, been a curse in the past may turn out to be the great boon of the future. chapter iv some valuable electrical processes students of that branch of science known as physics are coming to the conclusion that electricity plays a much more important part in the universe than was supposed. they are led to believe that electrical attraction is the cement which binds together those exceedingly minute particles out of which everything is built up. whether electricity binds them together or not, it is certain that electrical action can in some cases _separate_ those particles, and this process of separation provides a means of carrying on some very remarkable and useful industrial processes. let us imagine a vessel filled with water to which has been added a little sulphuric acid, while suspended in it are two strips of platinum. there is a space between the strips, so that when their upper ends are suitably connected to a source of electric current that current flows from one strip to the other _through the liquid_. that is an example of the apparatus for carrying out this electrical separation in its simplest form, and it will facilitate the further description if the names of various parts are enumerated. the process itself is electrolysis; the liquid is the electrolyte, while the strips are the electrodes. the individual electrodes, again, have special names, that by which the current enters being the anode and that by which it leaves the cathode. it is not difficult to remember which is which if we bear in mind that the current traverses them in alphabetical order. since, however, it may not be easy for the general reader to carry all these terms in his mind, we will, when it is necessary to differentiate between the two electrodes, call one the in-electrode and the other the out-electrode. returning now to our imaginary apparatus, let us turn on the current. at first nothing seems to be happening, although suitable instruments would show that current was flowing. soon, however, little bubbles appear upon the electrodes, and these grow larger and larger, until they detach themselves from the platinum to which they have been adhering, float up to the surface and burst. the question which naturally arises is, what do those bubbles consist of? are they air? if we take means to collect the gases which formed them we get an unmistakable answer. the bubbles which arise from the in-electrode are oxygen, those from the other hydrogen. if we allow our apparatus to work for some time, and collect all the gas which arises, we shall find that there is twice as much hydrogen as oxygen. we shall also find, as the process goes on, that the quantity of water diminishes. perhaps i may be allowed at this point to remind my readers that water is a collection of minute ultra-microscopic particles called "molecules," each of which is formed of three smaller particles still called "atoms." of the three atoms two are hydrogen and one oxygen. water therefore consists of hydrogen and oxygen, there being twice as much of the former as there is of the latter. we see, therefore, that electrolysis gives us hydrogen and oxygen in exactly those proportions in which they occur in water, and since we also see that as these gases appear the water itself disappears, we are led to conclude that the current is splitting up the water into the gases of which it is formed. but the strange thing is that this will not work with pure water. we have to add something to it. in the case of our imaginary experiment it was sulphuric acid. what part does that play? this is not fully understood, but we may be able to form a mental picture of what is believed to happen as follows. the in-electrode is surrounded by a vast assemblage of these tiny molecules, most of them those of water, but a few those of the acid. the latter are more complex in their structure than the former, but they too contain hydrogen. current flows into the electrode and instantly hydrogen atoms from the _acid_ molecules crowd round it, like boatmen at the seaside anxious to secure a passenger. each takes on board a quantity of electricity and with it darts across the intervening space to the other electrode. arrived there, it gives up its load and, its work done, remains lying upon the electrode until enough others like unto itself have gathered there to form a bubble and so escape. these hydrogen atoms are thought to be the _craft which carry the current through the liquid_ and enable it to pose, as it were, as a conductor of electricity, which in reality it is not. but where does the oxygen come from? to find the answer to that we must add a second chapter to our story. when the hydrogen "boats" took on board their load of electricity they left their former associates, and these forthwith "set upon" neighbouring water molecules and with the audacity of highwaymen stole from them enough hydrogen atoms to take the place of those they had lost. thus the acid molecules became complete once more, while the scene of the conflict near the in-electrode was strewn with the remains of the water molecules from which the hydrogen atoms had been stolen. these remains, of course, would be oxygen, and they, collecting together on the electrode, would eventually be in numbers sufficient to form bubbles and so escape. thus it may be the acid which really does the work, yet because of its subsequent raid upon the water it is the latter which disappears, and it is the materials of the latter which are bought to the surface in the bubbles. and there we see the mechanism whereby, so it is believed, electric current can pass through otherwise non-conducting liquids. and the important point, as far as practical utility is concerned, is that the passage of the current is accompanied by a splitting up of something or other, either the water or something in it, the materials of which are deposited, one on one electrode and the other on the other. and now we can proceed to those useful applications of electrolysis, the commonest of which, perhaps, is electro-plating. we have seen how electrolysis causes hydrogen, probably out of the acid, to be deposited upon one electrode. suppose that, instead of an acid, we put in the water one of those substances known to chemists as a "salt," the commonest example of which is ordinary table salt. this well-known condiment is caused by the interaction of hydrochloric acid and the metal sodium and will serve to illustrate what all salts are. all acids are compounds of hydrogen and something else, and their biting action is due to the readiness with which the "something else" evicts the hydrogen and takes in a metal in its place. thus hydrochloric acid, given the opportunity, gets rid of its hydrogen and takes in sodium, thereby forming chloride of soda or common salt. another example is the gold chloride familiar to photographers. this is the result of the action of certain acids upon gold, wherein the acids throw out their hydrogen and take in gold instead. to sum up, then, a salt is just the same sort of thing as an acid, like the sulphuric acid which we used in our "experiment," except that some metal has taken the place of the hydrogen. it is not surprising, then, to find that if we put a salt in the electrolyte instead of an acid we get a similar result. in the one case hydrogen is deposited upon the out-electrode, in the other the metal. in the former case, since hydrogen is a gas, it forms bubbles and floats away, but in the latter the solid metal remains a thin, even coating upon the electrode. that is the principle of electro-plating. the electrolyte consists of a suitable solution containing a salt of the metal to be deposited, and it is placed in an insulating vessel or vat. the articles to be plated form the out-electrode, so that they have to be suspended in some convenient way from a metal conductor by conducting wires. of course they are entirely immersed in the liquid. the in-electrode is sometimes a plate of platinum (the reason that expensive metal is used being that it is unaffected by the chemicals) or else a plate of the metal being deposited. in the former case, the solution becomes weaker as the work proceeds, and more salt has to be added. in the latter, however, the strength of the solution remains unchanged, for by an interesting interchange the in-electrode adds to it just what it loses by deposition upon the other one. the effect is therefore just as if the current tore off particles from the one and placed them upon the other. this is believed to be due to the agency of the oxygen which in the case of the electrolysis of water becomes free, but which in this case forms with the metal electrode a layer of oxide upon its surface, this oxide being then dissolved away by the liquid. thus as fast as the metal is deposited upon the out-electrode its place is taken by more metal from the in-electrode. in some processes it is desired to deposit metal upon a non-conducting surface, and it is evident that such cannot be used as an electrode. nor is it any use to attempt to deposit upon anything except an electrode. the only thing to do, then, is to make the object a conductor by some means. models in clay, wax and plaster, once-living objects like small animals, fruit, flowers or insects, can, however, have a perfect replica made of them by electrical deposition, by the simple method of coating the surface to be plated with a thin layer of plumbago. this skin, although extremely thin, is a sufficiently good conductor to make the process possible. process blocks for printing are copied in this way, so that a particularly delicate example of the blockmaker's art need not be worn down by much pressing, copies or "electros" being made off it for actual use in the press. the original block is a plate of copper on which the picture is represented by minute depressions and prominences. on this a layer of soft wax is pressed, so as to obtain a perfect but reversed copy. having been coated with plumbago, this is then put into a vat containing a solution of copper salts and is used as the out-electrode, the other being a plate of copper. when the current is turned on the copper is thus deposited on the wax until a thin sheet of copper is formed which is an exact but reversed copy of the wax, a direct copy, that is, of the original block. the back of this thin sheet is then covered with molten lead or type metal to fill up any depressions and to give it sufficient strength. anyone who has seen one of these "half-tone" blocks covered with minute depressions so slight that they can scarcely be seen, yet so perfect that a beautiful print can be obtained from them, will realise the wonderful power of this electrolytic process, the marvellous accuracy with which the original is copied, and the unerring way in which the electric current carries the particles of copper into every one of the myriad recesses in the wax. another specimen of the marvellous work of this system is the wax cylinder of the phonograph. the sound is produced by a needle trailing along a groove of varying depth cut in the surface of the cylinder. this groove forms a spiral, passing round and round like the thread of a screw, and it encircles the cylinder one hundred times in every inch of its length. consequently, at any point one may take, there is but one one-hundredth of an inch from the centre of one turn to the centre of the turn on either side of it. and at its deepest the groove is less than one-thousandth of an inch deep. the phonograph itself cuts the first "master" record, as it is termed, and the problem is to take a number of casts off this model of such delicacy and accuracy that every variation in that exceedingly fine groove shall be faithfully reproduced. such a task might well be given up as hopeless, but with the help of electrolysis it is accomplished easily and cheaply. to attempt to press anything upon the surface of the "master" would but smooth out the soft wax and obliterate the groove altogether. to apply anything softened by heating would be to melt it. but electrolysis, without tending in any way to distort or damage the delicately cut surface, deposits upon it a surface of metal from which thousands of casts can be made. the gentle fingers of the electricity overlay the soft wax with the hard, strong metal with a minute perfection almost beyond belief. to commence with, the master record is placed upon a sort of turntable in a vacuum and turned round in the neighbourhood of two strips of gold-leaf strongly electrified. by this means the gold is vaporised and a perfect coating of gold is laid upon the wax. this is far too thin to be of any use, except to render the cylinder a conductor, for the coating is so fragile that it is no stronger than the wax itself. it enables the cylinder, however, to be electro-plated with copper until it is surrounded by a strong metallic shell a sixteenth of an inch thick. it takes about four days to deposit this thickness. the copper shell is then turned smooth in a lathe and fitted tightly into a brass jacket. a little cooling causes the wax record to shrink sufficiently to free it from the copper shell and allow it to be lifted out. a copper mould is thus formed in which any number of additional records can be cast. the molten wax is simply introduced into the inside, and allowed to set; the inside is bored out in a lathe, and then with a little cooling it shrinks and can be withdrawn, a completely finished record, every tiny depression or swelling in the original master being reproduced with an accuracy almost incredible. another valuable use to which this process is put is the purification of metals. the electro-chemical action works with unerring precision: it never mistakes an atom of iron for an atom of copper, for example. passing through a solution of copper salt, the current deposits only copper. for modern electrical machinery and apparatus copper is required of the utmost possible purity, for every impurity adds to its electrical resistance, in other words, diminishes its value as a conductor. consequently thousands of tons of "electrolytic" copper, as it is termed, are produced every year. the electrodes used are plates of ordinary copper. a coating of pure metal is deposited by electrolysis upon the out-electrode from the other one. when the deposit is thick enough the out-electrode is taken out and the deposit torn off it, the union between the two being sufficiently imperfect for this to be done without difficulty. the metal of which the in-electrode is made has already been purified by other processes, until it contains but one per cent. of foreign matter, and by this means even that small percentage is entirely got rid of. the impurities fall to the bottom of the vessel in the form of "slime," which is periodically removed. and not only is electrolysis thus unerring in picking out certain atoms from among a mixture, but there is an exact relation between the work done and the quantity of current used. consequently it forms a very exact method of measuring currents. the method of measuring current by the strength of the magnetic field which it produces has been mentioned already, and such measurements can be checked by electrolysis. thus the practical definition of the ampere is "that current which when passed through a solution of silver nitrate in water will deposit silver at the rate of · gramme per second." the electric accumulator or secondary battery, one of the most useful appliances, is the result of electrolysis reversed. many large electric-lighting plants have in addition to their generating machinery a large battery of secondary cells, which, being kept charged, are able to help the machinery in times of heavy demand, or even to supply the whole current needed for, say, half-an-hour, so that the whole of the machinery could, in the event of an accident, be shut down for that time and the supply maintained from the batteries. this would be sufficient in many cases for fresh machinery to be brought into action or emergency arrangements to be made. it may be that this book is being read by someone seated serenely in his arm-chair while engineers and workmen at the generating station are working in frantic haste to set right some sudden breakdown before the batteries are run down. the batteries may have saved the town half-an-hour's darkness. large telegraph offices are fitted with secondary batteries. many motorists owe the ignition which keeps their engines at work to secondary batteries. it is secondary batteries which keep the wireless apparatus at work on a wrecked vessel after the engines have stopped. indeed secondary batteries are one of the most beneficent inventions. and if only they could be made in a lighter form than is possible at present their value would be infinitely increased. we have seen how the passage of current through acidulated water produces hydrogen and oxygen. if those gases be collected in closed vessels over the water, so that they remain in contact with the water, as soon as the current is stopped a reverse action sets in. the gases tend to recombine with the electrolyte and in so doing to give back a current equal to that which formed them. fig. shows the construction of what is called a voltameter, in which the gases arising from the electrodes are collected in little glass vessels placed just above them. such an apparatus enables us to see easily how the accumulator works. the picture shows the battery which is effecting the separation of the oxygen and hydrogen. if that be disconnected, and the wires joined, as shown by the dotted line, a current will flow back until the oxygen and hydrogen have returned into the solution again. the apparatus will, in fact, work like an ordinary battery, except that instead of a plate or rod of zinc a mass of hydrogen will form the essential part. an appliance such as a voltameter is not of much use for the practical purpose of storing large quantities of electrical energy, because the surfaces of the electrodes are so small and the surfaces where liquid and gases are in contact are small too. it is clear that the larger the electrodes are the wider will be the passage for the current, just as a wide road can accommodate more traffic than a narrow path. we may regard the electrodes as like gateways through which the current passes. by making them large, therefore, we enable a large current to pass, and consequently permit electrolysis to take place with great comparative rapidity. [illustration: fig. .] the "plates," as the electrodes in a secondary battery are termed, are generally large metal plates. experiment has shown that lead is the best for this purpose. it has also been found that it can be improved by making it porous, since the inner surfaces of the pores are so much added surface through which current can pass into the electrolyte. there are various ways of producing this porosity, which need not trouble us here, however. it will suffice for our purpose to understand that an ordinary secondary cell consists of two lead plates, with the largest possible surface, immersed in a liquid, generally a dilute solution of sulphuric acid in water. to charge the battery, current is sent to one plate, through the liquid to the other plate, and so away. a thin film of hydrogen is thus formed upon the outgoing plate, while oxygen is formed at the incoming one. since the hydrogen is spread over such a large area, it does not accumulate sufficiently for much of it to rise to the surface. most of it remains adhering to the plate. the oxygen combines with the lead of its plate and so is safely stored up there in the form of oxide of lead. this storage of hydrogen upon the one plate and oxygen on the other cannot go on indefinitely, and so as soon as the limit is reached the cell is fully charged. passage of further current is then simply waste. the dynamo or primary batteries which are used for charging having been disconnected, the two plates can be connected together through lamps, motors, or in any other desired way, and the current will then flow out again, the opposite way to that in which it entered, just as a stone thrown up in the air returns the opposite way. the current which comes out is, in fact, a sort of reflex action arising from that which went in, the mechanism by which it is produced being the reabsorption of the oxygen and hydrogen into the electrolyte. whether a cell is fully charged or not is ascertained by weighing the electrolyte, an operation which at first sight seems to have nothing whatever to do with the matter. it arises from the difference in weight between water and sulphuric acid, the latter being the heavier. we have seen that while a little acid must be added to water before it can be electrolysed, it is the water which is ultimately resolved into its constituent gases. hence the result of electrolysis is to increase not the amount, but the proportion of acid. therefore it increases the weight of the electrolyte. this weight is ascertained by means of a "hydrometer," a glass tube, stopped, and loaded with some small shot at its lower end. on the upper part is engraved a graduated scale, so that the exact depth to which it sinks can be easily read. this depth will, of course, vary with the specific gravity of the liquid, and so the depth recorded by the scale will be an indication of the proportion of acid, and that in turn will show how far the process of charging has progressed. accumulators are, or have been hitherto at any rate, very troublesome things. they are apt to lose their power. if not properly charged they are easily damaged. too rapid charging or too rapid discharging, standing for a while only partly charged--all these things have a bad effect, in extreme cases even destroying them altogether. because of the use of lead they are terribly heavy too, so much so that for traction purposes they are of very little use, for a large amount of the energy stored in the accumulators is then used up in hauling them about. yet what a field there is for the successful accumulator! take the one instance of the electrification of a railway. if good light and efficient accumulators were to be had, no alteration at all would be necessary to the permanent way. the engines or motor carriages would need to go periodically to a depot to be re-charged, but that could easily be arranged. such things as conductor rails, overhead conductors and so on would be needless. the world has therefore been interested for years in the rumour that t. a. edison was engaged upon this problem, and at last he has produced his accumulator, by which he has removed many of the difficulties, if not all. instead of a case of glass or celluloid, as is usual with the older cells, his cells are enclosed in strong boxes of nickel steel. the positive plate consists of nickel tubes filled with alternate layers of nickel hydroxide, while the negative plate is formed of prepared oxide of iron in a nickel framework. the electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide. the chemical action and the electrical reaction is, of course, on the same principle precisely as in the older cells, but it is claimed that the edison cells are "fool-proof"--that is to say, they cannot be damaged by careless handling, and they appear to be a little lighter. thus the problem is partly solved, and with that as a fresh starting-point someone may sooner or later give us a secondary battery which is light as well as strong. if any would-be scientific inventor reads these words there is a suggestion for a promising line of investigation. chapter v machine-made cold one of the most remarkable adaptations of scientific knowledge is the "manufacture of cold." at first that phrase seems strange, but it is really quite legitimate. there are machines at work at this moment which are turning out cold as if it were any other manufactured article. it is not that they manufacture cold water or cold air, it is the cold itself which they produce. of course, cold has no real existence, since it is simply a negative quantity, an absence of heat, yet its effects are so real that we are in the habit of talking of it as if it were a reality, and in that sense we can regard it as a product of manufacture. moreover, we see in this a conspicuous instance of the interdependence of invention and science, for scientific principles were first adapted to produce cold, and then artificial cold was employed in scientific investigations, whereby the rare gases of the atmosphere have been discovered, as we shall see presently. in _mechanical inventions of to-day_ i have dealt with the uses which can be made of heat as a motive power. here we have in some sense a reversal of the process. in the heat-engine the expenditure of heat produces motion. in the refrigerating machine motion produces heat, on the face of it a strange way of producing cold. yet it is by the production of heat in the first instance that we are ultimately able to obtain the cold. one way to make a thing cold is to place it in contact with ice. but that process suffers from severe limitations. in the first place, we may not be able to procure ice when we want it. and in the second place, we may want to produce a temperature much lower than that of ice. now a machine can produce any degree of coldness, almost down to the "absolute zero," the point at which a body is absolutely devoid of any heat whatever, the condition in which its molecules are absolutely still. that point is ° c. _below_ freezing-point. freezing-point on that scale is "zero," and so this _absolute_ zero is _minus_ °. or, to put it another way, freezing-point is ° _absolute_ temperature. the absolute zero has never been reached, and there is reason to believe that it never can be quite reached, but by methods about to be described a temperature within a few degrees of it has been attained. and all of this can be done without any cooling agent colder than water at an ordinary temperature. there are several systems, but the one which illustrates the principle most simply is that in which carbonic acid gas is the "working fluid." this is a very compressible gas, and so is well fitted for the purpose. first of all a pump or compressor compresses it. that has the effect of heating it. such we might expect from the fact that heat is molecular activity: when by compressing the gas we force the molecules closer together, they naturally hit each other and the sides of the containing vessel harder than they did before, and the increased activity is manifested as increased heat. so the first effect, as was remarked just now, is to produce, apparently, increased heat. but then the hot compressed gas, by being passed through a coil of pipe surrounded by cold water, can be robbed of that heat. according to the speed at which it traverses the coil it will be more or less cooled: by causing it to travel slowly it can be brought down almost to the temperature of the water. so we start with the gas at atmospheric pressure and at somewhere about atmospheric temperature too. this we convert into compressed gas at a high temperature. after cooling it we have compressed gas at a moderate temperature. then, to complete the process, we let the gas expand again. now just as compressing a gas heats it, letting it expand cools it. if we compressed it and then expanded it again we should be just as we were to commence with. but since, in between the two operations we extract a quantity of heat by means of the cooling water, we get at the end a very much lower temperature than that with which we started. we cannot cool the gas without compressing it, because heat will only flow from one body into another when the second is cooler than the first. but by making the gas hot temporarily by compression we enable the water to draw some heat from it, and then, allowing it to sink back to its original state, we get practically the old temperature, less what the water has extracted. the principle is really absurdly simple when one once gets to understand it. the application is not so simple as far as the designer of the machine is concerned, for he has to adjust the various parts to exactly the right shape and dimensions, so that they may work well with one another and produce the desired result with the minimum expenditure of power. to the observer, however, and to the user too, the finished machine is wonderful in its simplicity. the principle is illustrated diagrammatically in fig. . in the centre is the compressor. its action forces the gas along the pipe to the right and down into the condenser. as it flows downwards through the coil there cold water enters at the bottom of the tank, flows upward past the coil and escapes again at the top. thus the coil is kept in contact with _cold_ water. passing then through the bottom of the tank the gas travels from right to left through the "regulating valve" and into an arrangement almost exactly similar to the condenser but called the evaporator. here the gas expands and suffers a great fall in temperature. this cold is communicated to liquid circulating in the tank which forms a part of the evaporator, and this liquid can be circulated through pipes into any rooms to be cooled or around vessels of water which it is desired to freeze. this liquid, which acts as the carrier of the cold, is called "brine," and is water to which is added calcium chloride to keep it from freezing. [illustration: fig. .--this diagram shows the working of the refrigerating machine. the pump compresses the gas and drives it through the coil in the condenser, where it is cooled by water. it passes thence through the coil in the evaporator, where it expands and cools the surrounding brine.] now the observant reader may have noticed that there is no apparent reason for the name of the left-hand vessel. it will be quite clear, however, when i explain that although i have spoken of the working fluid all along as gas, i have only done so to avoid bringing in too many explanations at once. it is actually liquid for a good part of its journey. carbonic acid gas liquefies at a very moderate temperature and pressure, and so while it leaves the compressor as a gas it becomes liquid in the condenser and remains so until it has passed the regulating valve. then it begins to expand into gas once more, and in that state it passes back to the compressor. there is a pressure-gauge on the pipe leaving the compressor and another on the one entering it. a comparison of the readings on these two tells how the apparatus is working. the difference between them indicates how much compression is being given to the gas. assuming that the compressor is working at a constant speed, this compression can be regulated to a nicety by the valve: close it a little and the compression will increase: open it a little and the compression will decrease. by this means the degree of cold produced can be varied at will. this is the way in which many ships are enabled to carry cargoes of frozen meat. the chambers in which the meat is stowed are insulated--that is to say, their walls are made as impervious as possible to heat. then the brine is carried into the chambers in pipes, cooling them much as the hot-water pipes heat an ordinary public building. or another method is to carry the pipe which constitutes the evaporator into the chamber to be cooled. a third way is to dispense with brine and to blow air through the coils of the evaporator, whereby the air is made to carry away the cold to wherever it is needed. ice can be made easily in moulds of metal or wood around which brine circulates. if made of ordinary water the ice is likely to be cloudy and opaque, which is quite good enough for many purposes. in cases where it is desired that it should be clear, the water is agitated during freezing, or else distilled water is used. to enable the blocks to be got out of the moulds it is sometimes arranged to circulate warm brine for a few moments. ice skating rinks are formed by making, first, an insulating layer of sawdust, slag-wool or something of that sort (those by the way, being the materials generally used for insulating cold chambers) underneath the floor. the floor, too, is made waterproof and then upon it is laid as closely as possible a series of iron pipes. water is flooded on to the floor until the pipes are covered to a depth of several inches, and then brine is pumped through the pipes. in time the water freezes, and so long as the brine circulates it remains so. but although the "co_{ } process" described above is the simplest illustration of the principle, there are other systems. in one very popular form ammonia gas is the "working fluid." this is liquefied by pressure and cooling with water, being subsequently expanded just as described above. another much-used system is the "ammonia-absorption" process, in which the ammonia is not liquefied, but when under pressure is absorbed by water, returning to gas again when the pressure is released. but the degree of cold attained in these commercial machines is as nothing to the extremely intense cold generated on the same principles in the liquid-air machine, which is found in every well-equipped physical laboratory. briefly, this consists of a coil of many turns of small tube enclosed in a small double vessel, the space between the inner and outer skins of which is packed with insulating material. a compressor pumps air in at the top of the coil at a pressure of from to atmospheres. an "atmosphere," it may be remarked, is a unit often used in scientific matters, meaning the normal pressure of the atmosphere, which is, roughly speaking, lb. per square inch. hence atmospheres is about lb. per square inch. of course air so highly compressed as that is hot, but after it has passed down the coil and has escaped from the valve which liberates it at the bottom it is much cooler. but that is only the beginning of the operation. the expanded, and therefore cooled, air finds its way upward through the turns of the coil down which the following air is coming. that, expanding in its turn, is colder still, because of the cooling action of the first air, and so the process goes on. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. j. and e. hall, ltd., london and dartford_ machine-made ice here we see a huge block of ice being lifted (it may be on a hot summer day) from the mould in which it has been made] this is perhaps easier to understand if we imagine that the air comes through the coil in gusts and we notice what happens to each succeeding gust. the first comes down, expands, cools and ascends, thereby cooling the second gust as it comes down. the second then, after expansion, will be cooler than the first was. that in its turn will cool the third, and so the third after expansion will be cooler than the second. and that will go on, each succeeding gust being cooler than the one before. and although the flow of air is continuous, and not in gusts, the result is just the same: it goes on getting cooler and cooler until at last the air comes out in its liquid form. this liquid collects in a little chamber formed at the bottom of the vessel which contains the coil and can be drawn off when desired. air in its liquid state looks very much like water. in fact it is difficult to get chance observers to believe that it is not water. it boils at a temperature far below the freezing-point of water, so that liquid air if placed in a cup made of ice will boil furiously. ice is so much the hotter that it behaves towards liquid air as a very hot fire does to water. the feature of the above machine, it will be noticed, is that no cooling water is required, as in the refrigerating machine, although the principle of the two is the same. the coil is the "condenser" and the vessel in which it is enclosed is the "evaporator," and so the cold air produced by the process in the evaporator cools the coil of the condenser. thus it is "self-intensive," as the makers call it. hydrogen can be liquefied in a similar machine, except that it needs a little preliminary cooling with liquid air. liquid hydrogen is the coolest thing known approaching the region of absolute zero. and now we can turn to the wonderful discoveries which have followed upon the manufacture of liquid air. to make the story complete we need to go back to the time of priestly and cavendish, early in last century. they investigated the atmosphere and showed that it consisted of oxygen and nitrogen in certain invariable proportions, with under certain conditions a small proportion of carbonic acid. these facts were so well authenticated, and they seemed to explain everything so satisfactorily, that it was quite thought almost up to the end of the nineteenth century that there was nothing more to learn about the atmosphere. nevertheless there was an idea in the minds of some scientists that there must be another group of elements somewhere, the existence of which was then undiscovered, but it was never dreamed that these were in the air. soon after the weights of the atoms had been found a medical student named prout in an anonymous essay called attention to the fact that there were curious numerical relationships between them. speculation on the subject went on for many years, until in the great russian chemist mendeléeff published his conclusions. he had arranged the elements in the form of a table _in the order of their atomic weights_. the table consisted of twelve rows of names forming eight vertical columns, and the remarkable thing was that all those elements which fell into any particular column, although their atomic weights were very widely different, had similar properties. this enabled him to _predict_ the discovery of certain new elements, for the table contained a number of blank spaces. three elements _have been found_ since, and their atomic weights and properties are just such as to fill three of the blank spaces. one blank space, it is thought, may be filled some day by the gas coronium, which like helium has been discovered in the sun, but unlike it has not yet been detected here. when it is, there is the place in the table which it may fill. the table then commenced with what is still called group , but for reasons too complicated to explain here it appeared as if there must be a group before that, a group the chief characteristic of which would be the inactivity of the elements included in it. these were expected to be of various atomic weights, but these weights, it was anticipated, would so occur in the intervals between the others that they would all fall into a new column to the left of "group ." in the year lord rayleigh was investigating the question of the density of a number of different gases, including, so it happened, nitrogen. now there are several ways of procuring nitrogen. one is to get it from the atmosphere by ridding it of the oxygen with which it is normally mixed. another way is to split up some compound, such as ammonia, of which it forms a part, in such a way as to catch the nitrogen and leave the other elements with which it was combined elsewhere. lord rayleigh tried both ways, and he found that the nitrogen from the atmosphere was denser than that derived from ammonia. sir william ramsey then carried the matter a step further. he heated atmospheric nitrogen in the presence of magnesium, under which conditions some of the nitrogen combines with the latter element to form nitride of magnesium. that, it was found, made the remaining nitrogen denser still. the explanation then seemed obvious. suppose we imagine a mixture of sawdust and iron filings: it will be heavier than an equal quantity of pure sawdust. and if we contrive to take away some of the sawdust from the mixture we shall find that what is left is heavier still, when compared with an equal bulk of pure sawdust. for it is clear that as we take away sawdust we thereby increase the proportion of the heavier iron filings and so we make the mixture heavier. applying a similar process of reasoning to these discoveries, the conviction grew that the nitrogen of the air was not pure, but that it had mixed with it a small proportion of some other gas of greater density. they soon succeeded in isolating this denser gas, to which they gave the name of argon. its atomic weight was found, and, wonderful to relate, it was such that argon fell into a new column to the left of group , as had been anticipated. the discovery of argon was announced in . the next year sir william ramsey, investigating a gas which had been discovered locked up in the interstices of a mineral called clevite, was able to state that it was helium, the element which had been previously noticed by the spectroscope in the sun. like argon, it was found to be extremely inactive, and its atomic weight turned out to be such that it too fell into the "zero group." in professors ramsey and travers found two more gases in the air, krypton and neon, and a little later still, there was found mixed with the krypton a further new gas, xenon. all of these had their atomic weights found, and fell into that new column in the periodic table. but what has all this got to do with liquid air? the two subjects are closely related, for it is by liquid-air machines that these rare gases are now obtained, and it was from liquid air that the last three were first discovered. for air, as we well know, is a mixture of gases, and when extreme cold and pressure are applied these gases liquefy, each behaving according to its own nature. they do not all liquefy at the same time, nor on being relieved from the pressure and heated do all evaporate again at the same temperature. although they emerge from the liquid-air machine in the form of a single liquid, it is really a mixture of liquids, each with its own boiling-point. in an earlier chapter we saw how petroleum can be separated into its various constituents, such as petrol, by fractional distillation, advantage being taken of the difference in the "boiling-point" of the various "fractions." the boiling-point of a liquid is, of course, the temperature at which it turns freely into vapour, and just as petroleum when heated gives off first cymogene, next rhigolene, then petrol, benzine, kerosene and so on, in the order named, so liquid air, when it is evaporated, gives off its different constituents in order. nitrogen, oxygen, argon, helium, krypton, neon and xenon can all be separated each from the others in this way, by "fractional distillation." the heat from the surrounding objects is allowed to get at the liquid, and the gases are then given off in the order of their boiling-points. and thus we see how the mechanical production of cold has assisted in the pursuit of pure science. the newly-found gases are not of any great use at present. they are so inactive that possibly they never will be, with one exception, and that is neon. if an electric discharge be made to pass through a tube filled with this gas, a beautiful glow is the result, and it is just possible that neon tubes may become the electric light of the future. that is only a prediction, however, and a hesitating one at that. the inactive elements may become of value in explosives. we have seen how important nitrogen is in these dangerous substances, the chief feature of which is their instability--their readiness, that is, to change into something else--which instability is due to the reluctance with which nitrogen enters into them. now nitrogen, though inactive, is much less so than these others, and if a way should ever be found of inducing them to enter into a compound, that compound will probably be an extremely powerful explosive. chapter vi scientific inventions at sea the safety of our fellow-creatures has always been a strong stimulus to our inventive faculties. the occurrence of a bad railway accident, and, roughly, its nature, can be inferred from the files of the patent office, for such an event brings men's thoughts to devising ways and means of preventing a recurrence, and an avalanche of such inventions descends upon the patent department in consequence. in like manner a particularly distressing accident to a lifeboat some years ago brought out many inventions for the improvement of those romantic craft. many of the inventions which arise under these conditions are, of course, utterly worthless, but some of them "come to stay." it is not surprising, therefore, when we think of the almost innumerable wrecks which happen, even with modern shipping, that human ingenuity has been extremely busy in devising ways for bringing more of safety and less of risk into the lives of those who go down to the sea in ships. of these perhaps none is more fascinating than the modern lighthouse, with its tall tower, its brightly flashing light, standing undisturbed in the wildest storm, quietly and persistently sending forth its guiding rays, no matter how the elements may be buffeting it. there is something specially attractive in this perfect embodiment of quiet strength and devotion to duty. of course, its origin is very ancient. one of the earliest inventions, no doubt, was the bright thought of a very primitive man who lit a fire on a hill to serve as a guide to some belated friends out in their fishing canoes. from some such beginning the modern lighthouse, a magnificent product of the science of civil engineering and the science of optics, has arisen. of the difficulties encountered in the construction of lighthouse towers on outlying rocks much has been written. the historic eddystone, for example, has quite a voluminous literature of its own. of the light itself, however, much less is known. it will be interesting first to note the different purposes for which a light may be required, and then see how the apparatus of the lighthouse is made to serve these purposes. there is the "making" light, perched, if possible, upon some high eminence, deriving its name from the fact that the sailor sights it as he is "making" the land. vessels approaching england from the south-west by night first see the light at the lizard. the transatlantic vessels know they are approaching land by catching sight of the fastnet rock light off the coast of ireland. cape race light serves in the same way for those about to enter the st lawrence and navesink for the entrance to new york harbour. all such as these have to be of the greatest power practicable, so that they may be visible not only at the longest possible distance, but also under unfavourable conditions, such as haze and slight fog. no light, of course, can penetrate thick fog, but in light fog and haze a powerful light can be seen at considerable distances. for the same reason these lights must be high up, or the curvature of the ocean's surface will limit their range. a light elevated feet above the sea-level will be visible nearly miles away, but if only feet up it will be invisible at miles. to be seen miles away it must be as high as feet. but then again height is in some cases a disadvantage, for sometimes fog hovers a little distance above the sea, while below it the air is clear, and the higher a light may be the more likely is it to have its lantern immersed in a floating cloud of fog. many readers familiar with the south coast of britain will remember that the light which used to show on the summit of beachy head is there no more, but has been replaced by a tower at the foot of the cliffs, the reason being that it may be below the clouds of fog which are prevalent at that point. but the mention of beachy head introduces us to another class of lights, known as "coasting" lights, since they are intended to lead the mariner on from point to point along a coast. it will be seen at once that in many cases they do not need to be visible at such great distances as the making lights. when the mariner has sighted the lizard, for example, he knows where he is. in order that he may learn that important fact as soon as possible it is desirable that that light should have the greatest possible range, but having thus located himself, when he begins to feel his way along the english channel he is guided by the coasting lights, and so long as they are of such range that he will never be out of sight of one or two of them that will be sufficient. thus the beachy head light, in its present low position, has a sufficient range for its purpose, with the added advantage of more freedom from obscuration by fog. thus we see how the local conditions and the purpose of each particular light have to be taken into consideration in determining its position and power. the eddystone, again, is an example of a further class. it simply serves to denote the position of a group of dangerous rocks. its function is not so much guidance, although no doubt it often serves for that, but for warning. the lizard light beckons the on-coming ship to the safety of the english channel; the eddystone warns it away from danger. the latter, therefore, and similar lights are "warning" lights. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. j. and e. hall, ltd._ a cold store interior of a cold store, in which meat and poultry are kept good and fresh by the use of machine-made cold.--_see_ p. ] right at the entrance to the english channel, that greatest of all highways for shipping, there lie the scilly isles. this group comprises some few islands of fair size from which we draw those plentiful supplies of beautiful spring flowers, but it also includes a large number of rocky islets which have sent many a strong ship to its doom. on one of the islets, therefore, the bishop's rock, there now stands a very powerful light which exemplifies many whose purpose is the double one of welcoming the mariner as he approaches our shores and at the same time warning him of a local danger. such are both making and warning lights. of no less importance, though less impressive, are the guiding lights, which guide the ships into and out of harbours and through narrow channels. these are generally arranged in pairs, one of the pair being a little way behind and above the other. thus when the sailor sees them both, one exactly over the other, he knows he is on the right course. sometimes lighthouses have subsidiary lights as well as the main light, to mark a passage between two dangers, or to give warning of some danger. the subsidiary lights are often coloured, and they are generally "sectors" showing not all round a complete circle, or even a considerable portion of one, but just in one certain direction. they are generally shown from a window in the tower lower down below the main light. finally, it is important to remember that every light must be distinguishable from its neighbours. hence every one in any given locality has a different "character" from all the others. this character is given to it by means of flashes. instead of showing, as the primitive lights did, a steady light, the modern lighthouse exhibits a series of flashes, the duration of which, together with the intervals between, give it its distinctive character. this flashing arrangement has a further advantage over the steady light. each flash can be made more powerful than a steady light could be. but of that more later. the actual source of light varies with circumstances. the electric arc is, as we all know, a very powerful light, in fact it can be made the most powerful of all, but its light is decidedly bluish. now the time when a light is most of all needed is when the weather is thick. fogs varying from a slight haze to a thick pall of darkness are of very common occurrence, and the lighthouse light must be able as far as possible to penetrate them. as a matter of fact clean fog, such as one gets at sea, is not by any means opaque. the black fogs of the great cities are another matter, but they are not the sort which afflict the mariner. on a foggy day in the open country or by the sea it is often particularly light; indeed the light is of a peculiarly diffuse nature which gives a nice even illumination to everything. thus we see that fog is really transparent, but it diffuses the light. it does not stop the light rays, but simply bends them about and scatters them in all directions. thus we can see nothing through the fog, yet a flood of light reaches us through it. in its effect it is like that "crinkled" glass which is often used for partitions between rooms, which lets light through, but which cannot be _seen_ through. we see, then, that the effect which a fog produces is mainly to refract the light rays. each little drop of water (for it must be remembered that fog is myriads of tiny drops of liquid; it is not vapour) acts like a minute lens, and bends the rays which pass through it. and the more blue a ray is the more it is bent. on the contrary, the more red it is the less is it bent. when a beam of light is analysed in the spectroscope the red rays are bent least and the blue rays most, so that the red rays fall at one end of the spectrum and the blue at the other. now we only _see_ a thing when light rays proceeding from every part of it fall straight (or nearly so) upon our eyes. consequently, since red rays are bent and scattered by the fog less than blue rays are, a red light will be more easily seen through a fog than a blue one. it might seem from this that a red glass put in front of a light would make it better for this purpose, but that is not the case, for the simple reason that filtering the light through red glass does not really make it any redder than it was before: it simply makes it look redder by extracting from the original light all except the red. but a source of light which is _naturally_ reddish is so because it is more plentifully endowed with red rays, while a bluish light like the electric arc is naturally deficient in red rays. consequently we should be inclined to expect from theory that the electric arc would not be a good light for a lighthouse, since it would lack penetrating power in foggy weather. some readers may have noticed themselves, in towns where electric lights and gas lamps are in use near each other, that the latter, though relatively feebler under normal conditions, seem to give more light in fog. and experiments show that this is really the case. so although there are some lighthouses with electric arc lights, that which is now believed to be the best is an oil lamp of special design, using a mantle of the welsbach type. the oil is stored in strong steel reservoirs into which air is pumped by means of a pump not unlike those used to inflate bicycle tyres. by this means a pressure is maintained upon the oil of about lb. per square inch. this forces the oil up a pipe and drives it in a jet into a vaporiser, a tube heated from the outside so that in it the oil is turned into gas. this gas then rises to the burner and heats the mantle, just as the gas does in the ordinary incandescent gas light. indeed in the case of lights on the mainland near a town the gas from the town main is often utilised. but this simple arrangement for using vaporised oil, as will readily be seen, can be employed anywhere. a little of the gas produced is led through a branch pipe and burnt to heat the vaporiser. to start the apparatus the vaporiser is heated with a little methylated spirit. thus everything is quite self-contained and so simple that there is little to get out of order. the largest size of lamp will give candle-power, with an expenditure of - / pints of oil per hour, just common oil, too, of the kind used with ordinary wick lamps. having got a source of powerful light, the next thing is to collect that light and throw it in the direction required. for the light proceeds from the lamp in all directions (practically), and much of it would be entirely wasted could it not be collected and guided in the required direction. the earliest attempt at this was to use a reflector of bright polished metal. in the most improved form these were made to that peculiar curve known as a parabola. this is a curve obtained by cutting a cone in a certain way, wherefore it is one of the "conic sections," and its particular appropriateness for this work resides in the fact that if a light be placed at a certain point known as the "focus" all the diverging rays which fall upon the reflector will be reflected in the same direction, parallel to each other. an ordinary spherical mirror would reflect them either back to the lamp or in diverging directions. at any distance the beam from the parabolic reflector will be more intense than that from the spherical one, since the rays will be closer together. but even with the parabolic one there is some diffusion, for the simple reason that whereas the focus is a mathematical point (position without magnitude) the most concentrated form of light known has a considerable magnitude. hence the rays proceeding from the centre of the mantle are reflected as per the theory, but those from the outlying parts of it are somewhat diffused. this difficulty cannot possibly be overcome, and hence even in the finest examples of lighthouse architecture the flashes are not quite sharp and clear-cut. there is a central moment, so to speak wherein the flash is almost blinding in its intensity, but it is preceded by a period of growing brightness and succeeded by one of decreasing light. in the modern apparatus, however, metallic mirrors are entirely dispensed with, their place being taken by reflecting prisms of glass. the metallic ones had to be continually rubbed to keep them clean, and this soon dulled their brightness, while the glass prisms need only to be wiped carefully, which operation has little effect upon their surface. it may come as a surprise to some that reflecting prisms are possible. the idea of refraction through a prism is quite familiar. such forms the essential principle of the spectroscope. refraction is explained to every school child in order to account for the rainbow. but _reflection_ by a piece of the clearest glass seems a contradiction in terms almost. yet it is only a question of shape. in some prisms the light is simply bent as it passes through. in others it is bent twice, so that it leaves the prism just as if it had been reflected off a mirror. both devices are used in the lighthouse. let us see how they are combined so as to perform the work to be done. take first of all the case of a light upon an isolated rock where the warning is needed equally all round. all that is necessary here is to pick up those rays which, if left to themselves, would fall upon the water near the foot of the tower, and those which would waste themselves skywards, and then to gather all the rays into several bundles or beams. we will suppose a simple case in which the light is supposed to give flashes at regular intervals. we are in the topmost room of the lighthouse, the lantern, as it is called. in the centre there stands the murette or pedestal. in this several columns support a circular platform on the top of which there moves what we might call a turntable, which in turn bears a frame of gun-metal into which are fitted a maze of glass bars triangular in section and curved to form concentric circles. the whole structure, possibly, is of great size. from the floor to the platform is as high as an ordinary man. indeed around the turntable there is a gallery which forms a roof over our heads, so that it is only after mounting some iron steps on to this gallery that we are able to examine the glass part. as we ascend we notice that the walls of the chamber as far up as the gallery are formed of iron plates, while above that there is a metal framework filled in with glass panes, and above all a dome-shaped roof. having reached the platform we proceed to examine the glass, and we find that the metal framework forms a cage with four sides, each approximately flat, but really slightly spherical. each of these sides is called a "panel." in the centre of each is a lens. peeping through the interstices between the prisms, we perceive that the lamp is inside this structure, exactly in the centre, so that its light shines directly through the central lens or bull's eye. around this bull's-eye are many circles of glass bar, forming refracting prisms. around this again are more bars in the form of segments, which together form circles, some being refracting prisms and others reflecting prisms. all the light rays from the lamp which fall on any one prism are deflected, so that they proceed approximately in the same direction. those prisms in the upper part lay hold of the rays which would otherwise go up into the sky. those at the bottom collect those which would fall near the foot of the tower. so scarcely any are lost. but for the fact that the lamp itself is comparatively large and not a theoretical point, as already explained, the beam from this panel would be perfectly straight, parallel, and of uniform density everywhere. as it is, it widens slightly as it proceeds, but, practically speaking, we might call it a solid beam of light. each of the panels sends forth such a beam, so that they strike out in four directions from the central lamp much as four spokes from the hub of a wheel. then descending once more to the floor from which we started, we see that among the columns there is a large clockwork arrangement, the purpose of which is to drive round the turntable and all that it carries--in the language of the lighthouse engineer the "optical apparatus" or, more briefly, "the apparatus." and as this turns the radiating beams of light sweep round the horizon and in succession strike into the eyes of any mariner who may be within range. each time a beam strikes him he sees a flash. if the apparatus revolve once a minute he will see four flashes every minute, one from each panel. let us consider, then, the advantages of this wonderful mechanism, with its cunning arrangement of prisms. it is these latter, of course, which are the important thing. the rest, the mechanical portion, is simply for the purpose of holding them and turning them at the proper speed. in the first place, the contrivance gives us flashes instead of a steady light; it gives the lighthouse its "character." then again it enhances the brightness of the light. instead of shining all round, the light is concentrated in four special directions, and the light which would be wasted upwards or downwards is saved and brought into use. but suppose that the lighthouse we are considering be near the shore, so that there is no need for it to throw any light in one--the landward--direction. then we should see inside the revolving framework with its prisms a fixed frame with reflecting prisms which would catch any rays going from the lamp in the direction of the land and simply hurl them, as it were, back into the flame. thus the intensity of the flame becomes increased by those rays thrown back which would else have been wasted. or suppose that the character of the light is such that the flashes have to be at irregular intervals. then the framework, instead of being symmetrically four-sided, would be of an irregular shape. and that brings us to a beautiful feature of the mechanism of the apparatus. we have been discussing a four-panel arrangement. suppose that we were to reduce it to three. then, since all the light would be concentrated into three beams instead of four, each beam would be more intense. we should thereby have increased the range of our apparatus without any increase in the cost of oil--for nothing, as it were. but to get the same number of flashes per minute we should have to drive it round so much the faster. but increased speed means increased burden on the keepers who have to wind up the heavy weights which operate the clockwork. so there is a limit to the speed which can be attained. but if friction can be almost eliminated the apparatus can revolve at a high speed without throwing undue burden upon the men. but how can friction thus be got rid of? messrs chance bros., the great lighthouse constructors, of birmingham, have done it, almost entirely, by floating the apparatus on mercury. the turntable has on its under side a large ring which nearly fits a cast-iron trough on the top of the pedestal. in this trough there is mercury, so that upon the liquid metal the apparatus floats as if upon a circular raft. the table with its lenses, prisms and other fittings may weigh six or seven tons, yet it can be pushed round by one finger. the various sizes of optical apparatus are known as "orders." one of the "first order" has a focal distance of millimetres. this means that there is that distance between the centre of the lamp and the bull's-eye. they descend by successive stages down to the sixth order, with a focal distance of millimetres, while the most important lights are of an order superior even to the so-called "first," termed the "hyper-radial," the focal distance of which is millimetres. a recent example of a hyper-radial light is at the well-known cape race in newfoundland. it revolves once every seconds, giving a flash of seconds every - / seconds. the optical apparatus weighs seven tons. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. chance bros. and co., ltd., birmingham_ dassen island lighthouse, cape of good hope this lighthouse, feet high, is built of cast-iron plates, bolted together] most lighthouses are fitted with fog signals of some kind which have a distinctive character the same as the lights. some are horns blown at intervals by compressed air often obtained from a special air-pump driven by an oil-engine. another thing is to let off detonators at stated intervals. but perhaps the most interesting of all is the submarine telephone. the trouble with audible signals is that they are apt to vary as the conditions of the atmosphere change. for, strange though it may appear, the air which is the natural medium by which sounds are carried to our ears is really a very bad substance for the purpose. water is much superior. a swimmer who cares to try the experiment of lying upon the water with his ears immersed while a friend beats a gong under the water some distance off will be astounded at the result. so many modern ships are fitted with under-water ears, waterproof telephone receivers, really. one is fixed each side of the vessel, the wires from them being led to telephone receivers near the bridge. many lighthouses and lightships in like manner are fitted with under-water bells which can be rung at intervals. the sounds so conveyed through the water are always the same. atmospheric or similar changes have no effect upon them. and, moreover, the officer can tell which side of his ship the bell is. if it be on his port-side it sounds louder in his port telephone, and vice versa. by turning his ship until he hears them equally he knows that he is pointing directly to or from the bell. thus if the bell belong to a warning light he can steer confidently right away from the danger even in the thickest fog. but science has not only provided the mariner with lights of marvellous power and of strange distinctive characters, and reliable sound-signals for foggy weather, it has also found him a reliable compass, but that is worthy of a chapter to itself. chapter vii the gyro-compass the magnetic compass has been for ages the mariner's guide over the trackless waters. in cloudy weather it has been his only means of knowing the direction in which his craft was heading. indeed, it is not too much to say that the maritime commerce of the world was based upon the behaviour of that little piece of magnetised steel. it has always, however, been subject to certain faults. to commence with, it points, not to the geographical north, but to the "magnetic pole," a point some distance from the geographical pole, and one, moreover, which is not quite permanent. the fact that the magnetic pole varies its position is impressively shown by the fact that a special department at greenwich observatory is continually employed, by the aid of delicate self-recording instruments, watching and setting down its fluctuations. and the premier observatory of the world, it should be remembered, exists primarily, not in the interests of pure science, but as a department of the british admiralty in order to study matters of interest to navigation. thus we have testimony to the importance of these little vagaries on the part of the magnetic compass. but in addition to these inherent faults there is a new source of error in the magnetic compass which man has introduced himself by making his ships of iron instead of wood. every ship of the present day is a huge magnet. a piece of iron left in the same position for a length of time becomes polarised, which is to say that it acquires the properties of a magnet; and two magnets always exert an influence upon each other. consequently the ship, after lying for perhaps a year in one position, during the period of building, becomes itself magnetic and interferes with its own compass. then, again, our methods of ship construction aggravate this trouble. it is believed that every molecule of iron is itself a minute magnet with a north and south pole of its own. these lying in confusion in the mass of unmagnetised iron neutralise each other, so that the mass, taken as a whole, does not exhibit any magnetic power. but if by some means the whole of the millions of millions of molecules can be set the same way--with all their north poles in one direction, and their south poles in the opposite direction--then they will all act together. instead of neutralising each other they will then help each other, and under those conditions the mass of iron will possess that peculiar power which is distinctive of a magnet. so long as a piece of iron is left in the same position the magnetism of the earth is thus acting upon the molecules. just as it tends to place the compass needle north and south, so it does with every molecule in the iron mass. and if, while lying still, the iron be hammered, the shaking of the molecules due to the hammering loosens them as it were and assists the earth's power in pulling them into position. one has only, then, to watch the riveting up of a ship, and to see the vigorous way in which the riveters wield their hammers, to realise that when the thousands or even millions of rivets have all been finished the material of that ship will have had the very best possible chance of becoming magnetic. to make matters worse still, ships are often loaded with great weights of iron among their cargo. that, too, may affect the compass. on warships there are the heavy guns, each weighing, with its turret, hundreds of tons, and they move, so that their effect upon the compass is not always the same, but may vary from time to time. and finally one may mention the electrical machinery in a modern ship consisting largely of powerful magnets. altogether, then, it is not surprising that the old magnetic compass is somewhat unreliable. it has to be coaxed into doing its duty. pieces of iron and magnets have to be disposed about it to counteract these disturbing influences with which it is surrounded. before a voyage experts have to come on board to adjust the compasses, and even then there is reason to believe that the instrument sometimes plays the ship false. it is not to be wondered at, then, that the naval authorities in particular throughout the world have welcomed the advent of a new compass which appears to possess none of these drawbacks. it points to the geographical north, to the actual pivot, if one may so speak, upon which the earth turns. it is non-magnetic, so that the presence of iron or magnets even in its immediate neighbourhood has little or no effect upon it. on the other hand, it has to be driven by a current of electricity, and it seems just possible that in some great crisis it might fail, although every provision is made for alternative sources of supply in case of one failing, and there is always the possibility of falling back upon the old magnetic compass should the new one go wrong. in principle the improved compass is, like its older brother, simplicity itself. the latter is but a small piece of iron magnetised; the former is nothing more than a spinning-top. it is rather strange that although the spinning object has been a familiar toy for years, and that, moreover, its behaviour has been the subject of investigation by some very eminent scientific men, it is only of recent years that its principles have been put to practical use. everyone is familiar with the fact that a round block of wood will support itself upon a comparatively tall peg so long as it is rapidly rotating. and that is but one of the curious things which a rotating body will do. for example, imagine a wheel mounted upon an axle the ends of which are supported inside a ring, while the ring again is supported on pivots between the two prongs of a fork, the fork being free to swivel round in a socket. the wheel is then free to move in any direction. technically, it is said to have "three degrees of freedom." it can spin round, its axle can turn over and over with the pivoted ring inside which it is fixed, while it can also swing round and round as the fork turns in its socket. assuming that the joints are all perfectly free, that the pivots move in their sockets with perfect freedom--which, of course, they do not--then a wheel so mounted could move in any direction under the influence of any force that might act upon it. now a wheel so mounted if left alone remains in precisely the same position so long as it goes on rotating. if it be turning sufficiently quickly its tendency to remain will be strong enough to overcome the friction of any ordinarily well-made instrument. consequently a wheel of that description has been used to demonstrate the rotation of the earth, it remaining still (except, of course, for its rotating movement) while the earth has moved under it. could we entirely eliminate the effects of friction that might be used as a compass, for it could be set, say with its axle pointing north and south, at the commencement of the voyage, and it would remain so despite all the evolutions through which the ship might go. but there is a better scheme even than that, based upon the peculiar behaviour of a revolving wheel when it has only two degrees of freedom. suppose that we dispense with the ring employed in the previous arrangement, pivoting the ends of the axle between the prongs of the fork. the wheel is then free to rotate, and its axle can slew round through a complete circle by the turning of the fork in its socket, but there can be no tilting of the axle. being thus deprived of one of its movements the gyroscope with three degrees becomes a gyroscope with two degrees of freedom, and in that form it supplies the need for an efficient and reliable compass. the secret of the whole thing is the curious fact that a gyroscope with two degrees of freedom exhibits a keen desire to place its axis parallel with the axis of the earth. owing to the shape of the earth, a device such as has been described, with its fork standing up vertically, cannot possibly have its axis really parallel with that of the earth, except on the equator. still it gets as nearly parallel as possible. to be scientifically accurate, we ought to say that it places it own axis "in the same plane" as that of the earth. to understand this we need to realise that all movement is relative. in ordinary language, when we say a thing is still we mean that it is still in relation to the surface of the earth, but since the earth is moving the stillest thing, apparently, is really travelling at enormous speed. saint paul's cathedral in london, or a tall sky-scraper in new york, would usually be regarded as supreme instances of immobility. it would be hard to find better examples of stationariness, as we ordinarily look at things. each stands, firm and strong, upon a horizontal base. yet each is really turning a somersault every twenty-four hours. the plateau upon which st paul's stands, though it seems still and motionless beneath our feet, is continually tilting; its eastern edge is continually going downwards and its western edge upwards, as the earth performs its daily spin. it is only a north and south line which does not share in some degree this continual tilting action. every plane, large or small, so long as it remains horizontal, is being tilted thus, down at the eastern edge and up at the western. and the plane in which the axle of a gyroscope with "two degrees" is free to move is a horizontal plane. owing to its being held between the prongs of the fork, while it can swing round to point north, south, east or west, or towards any point between them, it cannot deviate from the horizontal plane. therefore such axle is always being tilted by the motion of the earth, _except when it happens to be lying exactly north and south_. now for a reason which is too complex to go into here a gyroscope strongly objects to having its axle tilted in this manner. if it be compelled by superior force to submit to tilting, it tries to wrench itself round sideways. anyone who has a gyroscope top and cares to try the experiment will feel this action quite easily. hold the spinning-top in your hand and turn it over so as to tilt the axle, when it will, if you are not careful, twist itself out of your grasp. so a gyroscope of the kind we are considering, when the motion of the earth tilts its axis, turns itself round in its socket until at last it reaches the north and south position, when the tilting, and therefore the twisting, ceases. hence the axle of the gyroscope if left to itself (the rotation of the wheel being maintained the while) will place itself in a north and south direction. and, moreover, it will keep in that direction. it will take some force to slew it round into any other. and if moved into any other by some extraneous means it will restore itself to the old position again. hence a wheel thus arranged has all the attributes which we need for a mariner's compass. but unfortunately there are mechanical difficulties in the way of using such a simple contrivance for that purpose. chief of all these is the fact that it is not what engineers call "dead-beat." that means that it will not go to the proper position and then remain there quite still. instead, it will first slightly overshoot the mark, which being followed by the reverse action, it will come back and overshoot it just as far in the opposite direction. instead, therefore, of a steady pointing, always in the same direction precisely, it will oscillate more or less, the exact north and south line being the mean or average position, the centre of the oscillations. it would of course be possible to damp this, to apply a break as it were, if the apparatus were to remain stationary. for example, if the whole concern were immersed in water the resistance of the liquid would restrain any quick movement of the axle, yet it would not prevent it from slowly finding its true position. thus the oscillations would be reduced to such a small range as to be for practical purposes negligible. but the drawback to a device of that kind, applied to a gyroscope on board ship, would be that the axle would be carried round to some extent every time the ship turned. as she changed direction it would more or less carry round the water with it; that in turn would carry the gyroscope, and so the direction of the latter would be for a time untrue. it would in course of time regain its accuracy, but in the meantime it would be leading the ship astray. consequently the application of this, in itself wonderfully simple, idea, to this extremely important purpose was accompanied with a difficulty which was for a long time insuperable. but all was overcome at last by the genius of dr anschutz, of hamburg, whose firm were the first to turn out the practicable article. taking advantage of another movement of the gyroscope when arranged as has been described, and using the revolving wheel itself as a centrifugal fan, he was able to make the wheel blow air "against itself," as it were, when in any position other than north and south. thus, if it deviates towards the east, this jet of air tends to blow it back; if it turns westwards the jet again comes into operation, tending to bring the erring gyro back to its proper place; and so the tendency to oscillate is checked. the finished instrument as it is installed on the latest warships is, of course, quite different in detail from the simple contrivance which we have been considering so far, although it is the same precisely in principle. the essential part is a heavy metal wheel combined with which is an electric motor which keeps it rotating at a speed of , or so times per minute. the bearings of the wheel are supported upon a metal ring which floats upon the surface of a trough of mercury. thus friction is brought down almost to the irreducible minimum. the only place where the wheel and its supports touch anything solid is at one delicately made pivot which serves to keep the floating mechanism in the centre of the mercury basin, and to prevent it from rubbing against the side of it. the current which drives the motor reaches it through this pivot and leaves through the mercury. thus arranged, although the floating part is of considerable weight, a very slight force indeed is enough to move it; while, looking at it the other way, we can see that the ship might turn rapidly to right or to left, carrying round the mercury bowl with it, without turning the floating part at all. thus the gyroscopic action is very free indeed to exercise its function of keeping the contrivance pointing always in the one way. the float has mounted upon it a compass card much like that of the ordinary magnetic instrument, and the sailor reads it in precisely the same way. to outward appearance there is little essential difference; in one case there is a magnet under the card to keep it still, in the other there is the float with the revolving wheel mounted upon it. it is customary to have one "master compass" of this kind on a ship, with an electrical repeater in each of the steering positions. as the "master" turns in its casing it sends a rapid series of currents to all the others, causing them to turn in unison with it. the "master" is fitted in some safe part of the ship where it is least likely to be the victim of any accidental damage. chapter viii torpedoes and submarine mines it is sad to think how much scientific skill and learning has, during the great war, been devoted to killing people. it used to be thought that one day a great scientific invention would arise, of such deadly power that for ever afterwards war would be unthinkable; its horrors would be such that all nations would shrink from it. that prophecy, however, has not been fulfilled, nor are there any signs of it. on the contrary, each scientific achievement in the realm of warfare is quickly countered by another: so much so that with all our science in the manufacture of weapons, and our skill in using them, warfare in the twentieth century is if anything less deadly in proportion to the numbers engaged than it used to be. there are, however, two weapons which in this war have reached a deadly efficiency which they did not seem to possess before, and to which satisfactory antidotes have not yet appeared. these two are the submarine mine and the torpedo. the latter, particularly, had been a dismal failure previously, but as the weapon of the submarine it has now established itself. it is, however, only in connection with the submarine that it has achieved any measure of success, and, as there are strong indications that very soon the submarine itself will be robbed of its terrors, it is quite likely that the reign of the torpedo will be brief. although it has only just made itself felt seriously in warfare, the torpedo is a fairly old idea. in fact we can trace the general idea of it back to very ancient times. the modern weapon, however, dates from the year , when an austrian inventor approached an english engineer named whitehead with a request to take up his idea. mr whitehead had at that time a works at fiume, on the adriatic, and it was really his genius that developed the crude idea into a practicable invention. thus there came into existence the whitehead torpedo, now used in a great many navies, and also the schwartzkopff, which may be regarded as the german variety of the same thing. speaking generally, it may be described as a small automatic submarine boat. externally, it naturally follows somewhat the lines of a fish. deriving its name from that curious fish which is able to give electric shocks from its snout, it likewise carries on its nose that appliance whereby it gives a shock, not electric it is true, but equally deadly, to anything which it may touch. since no man-made mechanism can approach the marvellous action of the fish's fins and tail, the propulsion is achieved by a propeller like that of a steamboat, but of course on a very small scale. a single propeller, however, would tend to turn the torpedo over and over in the water, and so it has two, one behind the other, driven in opposite ways, so that the turning tendency of one is neutralised by that of the other. the blades of the propellers are, however, set in opposite ways, so that although rotating in different directions they both push the torpedo along. behind the propellers, again, there are rudders for steering. one steers to right or left, as does that of an ordinary ship, while two others are so placed that they can steer upwards and downwards. so there we have the general picture of the outside: a smooth, fish-like body with a "sting" in its nose, propellers at the rear to drive it along, and rudders to guide it. inside are various chambers. one contains the explosive which blows up when the nose strikes something. this "head," as it is termed, is detachable, so that it can be left off until it is really required for war. the peace-head, which is of the same size, shape and weight as the war-head, is what the torpedo carries during its earlier career. with this it can be tried and tested in safety, the war-head being substituted when the real business of the torpedo begins. another chamber contains the compressed air which furnishes the motive power. this also serves to give buoyancy. another chamber, again, contains the engines, beautiful little things of the finest workmanship almost exactly like the finest steam-engine, but of course very small in comparison. in the early stages the range of the torpedo was limited by the amount of compressed air which it could carry. at first sight there seems no reason why any limit should be placed upon this, but in practice there are often limitations in engineering matters which are not apparent on the surface. for example, to increase the air chamber would mean enlarging the whole torpedo, calling for more propulsive power and larger engines, and these larger engines would call for more air, thus defeating the object in view. forcing more air in by using a higher pressure, in a similar way would necessitate a thicker chamber, to resist the higher pressure. this would add weight, calling for more buoyancy. thus there seemed to be a practical limit beyond which it was impossible to go. the difficulty was overcome, however, in a very cunning way. when the engines have used some of the air, and the store is somewhat exhausted, chemicals come into action which generate heat, which is imparted to the air which is left. this heat expands the air, producing in effect a larger supply of it, and enabling the torpedo to make a longer journey. steering in a horizontal direction--that is to say, to left or right--is done by a gyroscope. the action of a rotating wheel is discussed in the last chapter, and it is not necessary here to say more than this: a rotating wheel always tries to keep its axle pointed in the same direction. just at the moment of starting such a wheel is set going inside the torpedo, and its arrangement is such that, should the torpedo swerve to the left, the gyroscope operates the rudder and steers it back. in the same way, if it tends to turn to the right, the ever-watchful gyroscope brings it to its true course once more. the effect of the gyroscope, therefore, acting upon the rudder, is to keep the torpedo faithfully to the direction upon which it is started. the up and down rudders are likewise controlled quite automatically, but in a different way. their function, clearly, is to keep the thing at a certain uniform level. without such control a torpedo would be equally likely to jump out of the water altogether, or to go downwards vertically and bury its nose in the mud. the depth at which it is to move is determined beforehand, certain necessary adjustments are made, and the torpedo then pursues its even way, neither coming to the surface nor driving beneath its target. for this purpose there is first of all a "hydrostatic valve." this little appliance, which is open to the action of the water, responds to changes in pressure. the pressure at any point under water is exactly proportional to the depth. at ten feet, for example, it is precisely ten times what it is at one foot. so the hydrostatic valve is adjusted to set the rudders straight when the water-pressure upon it is a certain amount. if, then, it dives downwards the pressure increases and the valve operates the rudders so as to bring it upwards, while if it rise too high the decrease of pressure causes it to be guided downwards. this action, however, is too sudden and violent, so that with it alone the torpedo would proceed by leaps and bounds. after being low it would come up too suddenly, overshoot the mark, only to be steered downwards again equally suddenly. the valve, therefore, is combined with a pendulum, whose action tends to restrain these too sudden changes, with the result that under the influence of the two things combined the torpedo keeps fairly well to an even course, only varying upwards or downwards to an extent which is negligible. finally, there is an interesting little feature about the firing mechanism which merits a description. the actual firing is caused by the driving in of a little pin which projects at the nose of the torpedo. suppose that, in the process of pointing the torpedo and launching it upon its course, that pin were to be knocked accidentally, an awful disaster would result. it must be provided against, therefore, and the method adopted is beautiful in its certainty and simplicity. normally, the firing-pin is fixed by a screw so securely that no accidental firing is possible. there is, however, a little propeller-like object associated with it, which is driven round by the water as the torpedo is pushed through it, and this unscrews, and thereby releases the pin. the little "fan" has to rotate a certain number of times before the pin is released, and it is quite impossible for this number to be accomplished before the torpedo has proceeded to a safe distance from the ship which fires it. on board the ship, therefore, and so long as it is near the ship, it is quite safe, but by the time it reaches its target it is ready to explode. as far as is known, the foregoing description gives a true general description of the torpedoes now in use. those of different powers may vary in detail, but, broadly, they are as just described. there are others, however. the brennan, for instance, was once adopted and largely used by the british for harbour defence. this was controlled from the shore by wires. it was driven, so to speak, with wire reins, and thus guided it could fairly hunt down its prey, turning to right and to left as required. of greater scientific interest, perhaps, still, is the "armor " wireless controlled torpedo. this is the invention of two gentlemen, messrs armstrong and orling, whose first syllables combine to form the title of the torpedo. of this, two very interesting features may be mentioned. firstly, the wireless control. in the chapter on wireless telegraphy there is described the coherer, a simple little apparatus which we might describe as a door which is opened by the "waves" which travel through the ether from the sending apparatus. whenever the key of the sending apparatus is depressed these waves travel forth, and when they fall upon the coherer it "opens." normally, the coherer is shut, but when acted upon by the incoming waves it opens and lets through current from a battery, which current can be caused to perform any duty which we may wish. thus, ignoring the intermediate steps, we get this: whenever the sending key is depressed current flows through the coherer and performs whatever duty is set before it. and now picture to yourself a tooth wheel with four teeth. a catch normally holds one of the teeth, but when the catch is lifted for a moment it lets that tooth slip and the next one is caught. at every lifting of the catch the wheel turns a quarter of a turn. then imagine that that catch is operated by an electro-magnet energised by the current which passes through the coherer. we see, then, that every time the sending key is depressed the wheel turns a quarter turn. attached to the wheel is a little crank which turns with it, and the pin of this crank fits in a slot in the end of a bar like the tiller of a boat. suppose that, to commence with, the tiller is straight, so as to steer the boat straight. depress the key, the wheel turns a quarter turn and the tiller is set so as to steer to one side, say the left. another pressure upon the key and a second quarter turn brings the tiller straight again. yet another pressure, another quarter turn, and the tiller is steering to the right. thus by simply pressing the key the correct number of times the torpedo can be made to travel in any desired direction. the second ingenious feature of this weapon is the means by which it is made visible to the man who is controlling it from the shore or ship. probably the reason why these torpedoes are not used more is that the man who guides them is of necessity himself visible. he has to be posted somewhere where he can follow its course, or he has no idea how to steer it. consequently, he would be an object for attack by the enemy. such a torpedo would be useless in a submarine, for the submarine would need to come to the surface in order that the observer might get a sufficiently good view to be able to steer the torpedo, and we all know that when upon the surface a submarine is a very vulnerable craft. but that is by the way. the point is how to make the torpedo very clearly visible while it is still under water. a short mast might be used, but that would be liable to be shot away. the inventor had a happy inspiration when he made it blow up a jet of water, like a whale does. this jet is quite easy to see, yet no shot can destroy it. compressed air blows up this tell-tale jet which the observer can see, and by its means he can guide the torpedo at will. a submarine mine may be regarded as a stationary torpedo. it consists of a metal case filled with a powerful charge of explosive which floats harmlessly in the water until some unfortunate vessel strikes against it, when it blows up with sufficient force to make a hole in the stoutest ship. there are two classes of mine: one which is laid in peace time, to protect harbours and channels; and the other, which is laid during actual warfare. the former are anchored in a more or less permanent way. the services of divers are used to place them in position. in some cases they float well down in the water, out of the way of passing ships, but come up nearer the surface when needed. this result is achieved by having an anchor chain of such a length that when fully extended the mine floats a little way under the surface, just high enough to be struck by a passing ship, together with what is called an "explosive link." the link is used to loop together two parts of the chain, and so, in effect, to reduce its length. wires pass from the link to the shore, and when an electric current is sent along these wires the link bursts asunder, liberates the chain, and the mine floats up to the full length of its chain. another plan is to let the mines float high up always, but to fire them, not by the touch of the ship but by electricity from the shore. in this way a safe channel is kept for friendly vessels, while an enemy can be destroyed. necessarily, those mines which are hurriedly laid in war time are very different from these. to be of much use, a mine must be concealed below the surface. if it floats upon the water it will be visible, and can be avoided, or, at all events, easily picked up. it is practically impossible to set a floating object at a certain depth in the water, except by anchoring it to another, heavier, object, which will lie at the bottom. therefore mines have to be anchored in some way. but the sea varies in depth, so that the length of the anchor chain must be varied, or else some of the mines will be on the surface, thereby advertising the presence of the mine-field, while others will be below the depth of even the biggest ship. in warfare, however, mines need to be laid quickly. there is no time to sound for the depth and then to adjust the length of cable accordingly. hence the mine must be so made as to set itself correctly at a pre-determined depth. possibly some readers may think that such things might be made to float, of themselves, at the right depth. it is a fact, however, that a thing either floats upon the surface of water or falls to the bottom. water is practically incompressible, so that the water at the bottom of the sea is no heavier than that near the surface. the conditions which prevail in air and allow a balloon to float at any desired height do not apply. the only thing, in this case, is to have an anchor chain or rope of the right length. so let us picture a mine-laying ship steaming along, probably in the dead of night, surreptitiously laying mines in the hope that the enemy will run into them on the morrow. along the deck of the ship are small railway lines, and on these lines stand what appear to be trains of small trucks, each truck having small wheels to run on, and each bearing a large round metal ball. as the ship travels along, the crew, handling these deadly things quite freely, as if they were innocent of any danger, propel them along to the stern, and at regular intervals push one overboard. that is all. the freedom with which the men handle them is not folly, for they are then quite harmless. nor need they trouble about the length of rope, for that adjusts itself. just tumble the things overboard, and in due time they anchor themselves at the right depth and set themselves in the right condition for blowing up any ship which may get amongst them. the truck-like object upon wheels is not the mine itself: it is the sinker which lies at the bottom of the sea. the round ball which it bears is the mine, and the two are connected together by a wire rope. to commence with, this rope is coiled upon a drum in the sinker, which drum is either held tightly or is free to revolve according to the position of a catch. that catch is held open, so that the drum is free, by a weight at the end of a short rope. let us assume that that rope is ten feet long. then, when the whole thing is tumbled into the water, the weight sinks first ten feet below the sinker, which, being more bulky in proportion to its weight, follows downwards more slowly. while sinking, the weight is pulling upon its rope and holding open that catch, so that the drum pays out its rope and the mine lies serenely upon the surface. as soon as the weight touches bottom, however, the pull on the short rope ceases, the catch grips the drum, no more rope is paid out, and the sinker, in settling down its last ten feet, has to drag the mine down too. thus, quite automatically, by what is really a beautifully simple arrangement, the mine becomes automatically anchored at a depth below the surface equal to the length of the short rope. by making that rope the desired length, the depth of the mine under the water can be fixed. there are various methods of firing these mines, all of which work perforce by the concussion of the ship itself. in some cases the sudden tilting over causes an electric contact to be made, and permits a battery in the mine to cause the explosion. another way is to furnish the mine with projecting horns of soft metal, inside which are glass vessels containing chemicals. the ship, striking a horn, bends it, breaks the glass, and liberates the chemicals which cause the explosion. in the type of mine largely used by the british navy there is a projecting arm pivoted on the top of the mine and projecting from it horizontally. the mine itself rolls along the side of the passing ship, but the arm simply trails or scrapes along. thus the mine turns in relation to the arm, and a trigger is thereby released, which fires the mine. in this, be it noted, the ship only pulls the trigger, so to speak, and releases a hammer which does the work, just as the trigger of a gun releases the hammer. the motive force which makes the hammer do its work when the trigger is "pulled" is the pull on the anchor rope. that arrangement has a virtue which is not apparent at first sight. since it is the pull on the anchor rope which actually fires the mine, it follows that if such a mine break away from its moorings it instantly becomes harmless. safety for the men who lay the mines is secured in several ways. one is by the use of a hydrostatic valve. the firing mechanism is locked until the pressure of water releases it, and that pressure does not exist until the mine is several feet under water. another way is to seal up the firing mechanism with a soluble seal made of some substance such as sal-ammoniac. the mine cannot then explode until it has been under water long enough for the seal to be melted. it now remains to relate how these mines are swept up and removed, yet there is very little really to tell, for the process is so exceedingly simple. so far as is generally known, no method has been found that is superior to the primitive plan of dragging a rope along between two ships so as to catch the anchor ropes. the vessels employed are usually of very light draft, so that they stand a good chance of passing over the mines themselves, and the rope used is as long as possible, so that a mine, if exploded by being caught in the loop of the rope, explodes so far away as to do no harm. when dragged to the surface the mines are exploded from a distance by shots from a small gun, or even from a rifle. in the case of those mines which have horns, a blow from a bullet is enough to break the glass and cause explosion, and in all cases mines seem sooner or later to succumb to a sharp blow. thus they are destroyed, by their own action, at a safe distance from the sweepers. accidents happen, however, and mine-sweeping is no job for anyone but the bravest. it has been somewhat difficult to crowd a description of torpedoes and mines into the small space of one chapter, and so many details have had to be omitted, but the above descriptions give the broad, general principles underlying practically all forms of these terrible weapons. chapter ix gold recovery there has always been something very fascinating about gold. even in ancient times it was prized above all other things, and apparently it was comparatively plentiful. it is estimated, for example, that king solomon possessed over £ , , worth of it, while the little gift which the queen of sheba brought him was of the handsome value of £ , , so that she too must have been plentifully supplied with it. probably it was more easily come by in those days, owing to the richness of the primitive deposits, the best of which, perchance, have been worked out. in one respect gold differs from all other metals (with the single exception of platinum, which is scarcer still) in that it appears naturally as gold, not as ore. the little pieces of gold lie in the mine ready to be picked out, and so if the deposit in which it occurs be near the surface, and the particles be of any considerable size, they are sure to be found. a savage may be, and often is, very anxious to secure weapons and tools of iron, little knowing that the very ground upon which he stands is possibly of iron ore. he covets the single article of iron, and in some cases is willing to give much gold for it, or ivory, or some such treasure, while thousands or millions of tons of iron lie at his feet, only he does not recognise it, nor would he know how to utilise it if he did. for iron, like all other metals except the two just referred to, is found naturally in combination with something else, generally oxygen, and the combination bears no resemblance at all to the metal. the red rust so familiar to us on iron is a combination of iron and oxygen, and it is fairly typical of the kind of state in which iron is found in the earth. nor would anyone recognise copper ore, lead ore, tin ore, or any of the ores, any better than iron ore. all are difficult to recognise. it is said that the highest compliment that a cornish miner--the finest metalliferous miners in the world come from cornwall, or are the product of cornish influence--the highest compliment that such a man can pay to another is to say that "he knows tin," meaning that he can tell tin ore when he sees it. contrasted with these other metals, gold is easy to find. it does, it is true, under certain conditions, form chemical compounds with other things, as, for instance, in gold chloride, which is present in sea-water, but it does not oxidise as the others do, and so when it is in the earth it is in the bright yellow grains such as (if they be large enough) can easily be recognised at sight. and it is often found in beds of loose gravel, alluvial deposits, as they are termed. in such cases the gold is to be had simply for the picking up. sometimes a lucky find occurs in the form of a big nugget, but more often the metal lies in tiny grains at long distances apart, so that a ton of gravel has to be sorted over to find a paltry ounce or so of gold. yet so desired is it that gold will always fetch its price, and an ounce to the ton (even less) is sometimes worth getting. but in the early history of the world there were possibly particularly generous deposits with plenty of gold in good-sized pieces, and such would be quickly discovered and worked by primitive man. no doubt the chieftains of those days took much, if not all, of the gold that their people found, and more powerful chiefs and kings would, in turn, either by force or in trade, take it from the weaker, so that it is not surprising to learn that some of the mighty kings and potentates of long ago were well supplied with gold. yet there are few things more useless. its value in the first instance was probably entirely due to its beautiful colour, and the fact that it does not easily tarnish. for this reason, coupled with the fact that it was by no means plentiful, men liked to deck themselves with it, not only adding to their "beauty" by so doing, but advertising to their fellows the fact that they were men of wealth, men who possessed what few others had, or at all events possessed it more abundantly. these three basic facts about gold, its beauty, its freedom from deterioration and its comparative scarcity, give it its peculiar status among the commodities of commerce, in that for it, and for it alone, there is a continuous and universal demand. no gold-mining company ever shut down its properties because of the falling off in the demand for gold. no one ever had to hawk gold about to find a purchaser; it is always saleable. and hence its value to humanity as the great medium of exchange. when a tailor wants bread, as has been pointed out by a great political economist, he does not go searching for a baker who happens to need a coat. if he did, he might starve before he found one. instead, he gives his coat to anyone who needs one, no matter what his trade may be, taking gold in exchange. then he goes with confidence to the baker, knowing full well that he, in turn, will be perfectly ready to give bread in exchange for gold. that is the principle upon which gold, and in a few cases silver, has become the foundation of trade. we use it for toning photographs and a few other things, but, practically speaking, it is useless stuff, yet certain special circumstances have given it a special function in civilised society, and so governments now make it up into little flat discs, putting their own special stamp upon them as a guarantee of size and quality, and it is by handing those little discs about that we carry on our trade. or even where we use no actual disc, we pretend that we do, and use a piece of paper the value of which we say is so many discs, but that value depends entirely upon the fact that someone has guaranteed, on demand, to give so many discs for it. and the strange thing about it is that although this usefulness of gold depends upon its rarity, we lose no opportunity of looking for new sources of supply, and so diminishing that rarity. as has been said, gold is present in sea-water, although no one knows how to get it out, except at a cost which makes it not worth while. but suppose that some genius found a way, and gold thus became twice as plentiful as it is now, the world would be no better off. everything would cost twice as much as it does now; that is all. a pound is merely so much gold. if gold be twice as plentiful people will want twice as much of it in exchange for what they have to sell. yet, all the same, the man who could solve that problem of getting gold from sea-water, or from anywhere else, in fact, would be hailed as a benefactor, and for a time at least he would reap a generous harvest. even as it is, science has done much for the production of gold. not, as in other metals, in finding ways for extracting it from its ores, for, strictly speaking, it has none, but in finding ways of catching the tiny particles of metal from the "gangue," as it is called, the rock or earth in which they are embedded. the trouble is that they are so small, so infinitesimally small, almost. there are two great types of place where gold is found. in the alluvial deposits, the beds of old rivers, the gold is quite loose. the convulsions of ages ago have, in many cases, elevated these beds, until now they are on the sides of mountains. in such cases the loose, gravelly stuff of which they are composed is washed down by a powerful stream of water from a huge hose-pipe terminating in a nozzle called a "monitor." this process, called "hydraulicing," brings down everything into a pond formed at the foot of the hill, and in some cases a boat or raft is floated upon the pond with machinery on board for dredging up the material. often a powerful centrifugal pump sucks up the water through a pipe reaching to the bottom of the pond, bringing gravel and gold with it. arrived in this way upon the raft, it all goes on to separating tables, by which the gold, being heavier, is divided from the gravel, which is lighter. these tables will be referred to again later. in non-alluvial workings the gold is embedded in rock of some kind, such as that called quartz. this is hard, somewhat of the nature of granite, and before the gold can be liberated it has to be crushed to the likeness of fine sand, so that the tiny grains of gold can be captured. the quartz is found in veins or lodes, fissures, evidently, in the original crust of the earth, produced probably as the earth cooled. these have been gradually filled up by hot volcanic streams of water, which carried not only the gold in solution but also the materials of which the quartz is formed. it used to be thought that the veins were the result of hot liquids forced up from below by volcanic action, the rock and metal being themselves in the liquid state through intense heat. it is now more generally held that water was the vehicle by which the materials were brought in, and the vein formed. the gold in the alluvial deposits, too, is now thought to have come there in solution in water, and not by the erosion and washing down of rocks higher up the original river. however that may be, and it is the subject of discussion among geologists and metallurgists, there the gold is to-day, firmly fixed in the hard rock, and the problem which confronts the metallurgist is to get it out with the least expense. the old historic way of breaking up the quartz rock is with what are called "stamps," pestles and mortars on a huge scale. there are a number of vertical beams of wood, each shod with iron, fixed in a wooden frame, so that they are free to slide up and down. running along behind these stamps is a horizontal shaft with projections upon it called cams. there is one cam for each stamp, and as the shaft turns slowly round this projection catches under a projection on the stamp, and after lifting it up a short distance drops it suddenly. thus, as the machine works, the stamps are lifted and dropped in rapid succession. the rock is fed into a box into which the feet of the stamps fall, and thus it is pounded until it is quite small. meanwhile a stream of water flows through the box and carries away the finely broken particles through a kind of sieve which forms the front of the box, and which allows the fine, small pieces to escape, while holding back the larger ones and keeping them until they too have been crushed. an average stamp will weigh to lb., and the repeated blows of such a hammer are enough to pulverise the hardest rock. machines such as these have been employed since the sixteenth century, at all events, and the improvements of modern times are only as regards details. it may well be wondered, then, why such an old device is still in use and how it comes about that it has not been displaced by something newer and better. the answer, which is an instructive one, well worth bearing in mind by many inexperienced inventors, is that it is so simple. it can be shipped in comparatively small parts, and so taken cheaply to any outlandish place. a good deal of it can be made roughly of wood, so that if native timber is available it can be made partly at the mine, and carriage costs saved. finally, it is so easy to work and to understand that the most inexperienced workman can handle it, and there is so little that can go wrong that the most careless attendant cannot damage it. in the bottom of the boxes there is placed some mercury, for which gold has a curious affinity. if a particle of gold once gets into contact with the surface of the mercury it will not get away again easily. thus the mercury catches and holds many of the gold particles which are liberated when the rock is broken up. as it reaches the required fineness, then, the crushed rock escapes from the stamp machine and flows away in the stream of water, and although much gold is caught by the mercury, it is by no means all. the stream is therefore directed over tables formed of copper sheets coated with mercury, so that additional opportunities are given to mercury to catch the grains of gold. moreover, the table, which, by the way, is placed at a slight incline, is broken at intervals by little troughs of mercury called riffles, which assist in the depositing and catching of the metal particles. but even then all the gold is not captured. the crushed rock is now like sand, and some of the grains still contain gold, which has not been detached by the crushing. the gold, however, makes such grains slightly heavier than the others, and because of that they can be separated. the old way is to use a blanket table, a table, that is, covered with coarse flannel or baize, the hairs of which catch these heavier particles as the water stream carries them along, the lighter particles escaping. the grains so caught form what are known as "concentrates," since in them the gold is concentrated. the concentrates are subsequently treated as we shall see later. now we can see how modern scientific methods have supplemented the old ways. take first the case of the stamp mill or stamp battery. in spite of that prime virtue of simplicity which has kept it at work almost unchanged for centuries, it has its weaknesses, and no doubt for some purposes crushing mills are better. of these there are a great variety, several of which depend for their action upon centrifugal force, or, as it is more correctly termed, "centrifugal tendency." in these crushing mills there is a ring, generally of steel, inside which are suspended one or more heavy iron rollers. the shafts which carry these rollers are attached by their upper ends to the driving mechanism on the top of the mill, and when that is set in motion the rolls are carried round and round inside the ring. because of the centrifugal tendency, they swing outwards, pressing heavily against the inner surface of the ring. the rock is fed in in such a way that the rollers, as they roll round the inside of the ring, repeatedly travel over it and crush it. in another type of mill, called the ball mill, the principle is different. there you have a cylinder of steel which turns upon a horizontal axis. this cylinder is partly filled with steel balls of various sizes, and as the mill turns, the rock, being mixed with these balls, is pounded and broken up. as the mill turns over and over the balls fall upon the pieces of rock, thus producing a fine powder. other mills, again, are but refined editions of the common mortar mill so often seen where building operations are going on, in which heavy iron rollers travel over the material to be crushed as it lies in a round pan. the blanket table, too, gives place at the modern mine to the "vanner," of which there are several varieties. essentially they are much the same, and a description of two will serve to give an idea of them all. let us take the "record" vanner. imagine a large table formed of wood, the upper surface covered with linoleum. it is fixed on slides so that it can move to and fro endwise. it is given a slight slope in the direction at right angles to its length--that is to say, one edge is a little lower than the other. the material is fed on at one end, at the higher edge, and naturally tends to run down and off at the lower edge. it is restrained somewhat from doing this by the presence of rows of riffles or ridges running lengthwise. nevertheless it does in a short time find its way off the table at the lower end. but all the time that it is at work the table is being slidden backwards and forwards on the slides. by a simple but curious mechanism it is arranged so that it moves quickly in one direction and slowly in the other, with the result that the heavier particles of sand--those which contain gold--are carried to the farther end of the table. thus, as has been said, all the stuff is fed on to the higher edge and carried down by the water, until it falls off at the lower edge, but during the journey from edge to edge the peculiar motion of the table causes the different kinds of sand to separate themselves, so that the concentrates fall off near one end, and the rest near the other end. another interesting example of ingenuity is the well-known "frue" vanner. in this the table is a broad, endless band of india-rubber, extended upon two rollers, one of which is slightly higher than the other. the stream of water and crushed ore flows on at the upper end, and runs down to the lower, the lighter particles being carried down and dropped off at the _lower_ end, while the heavier rest upon the band. meanwhile the turning of the rollers carries the band slowly along, so that the heavier particles gradually ascend and are carried over at the _upper_ end. to assist in the separation, the whole concern is given a side-to-side shaking motion while it is at work. we have seen so far how the ore is crushed, and the coarser grains of gold got out of it by the aid of mercury. the mixture of mercury and gold is termed amalgam, and the process of extracting gold by mercury is called amalgamation. the gold is actually dissolved in the mercury, and so when the amalgam has been (as it is periodically) collected from the plant, it has to be filtered and then evaporated in a retort. the mercury vapour is caught and condensed back into a liquid, while the gold is left in the retort. in fact the amalgam is distilled in order to separate the gold and mercury. but when all that is done we still have the concentrates from the vanners, or whatever be used, to deal with. mercury is useless with them, for the gold is covered probably with a coating of the other substances, whatever they may be, with which it has been associated, or else there is mixed with the gold some substances which make amalgamation impossible, or at least difficult. often roasting is necessary before anything more can be done. if arsenic or sulphur be present, for example, they interfere with the recovery of the gold, and roasting will disperse them. so the concentrates are passed through great furnaces, in which they are heated in contact with air until these objectionable matters have been oxidised or burnt. then finally we come to some process by which the remaining gold is dissolved out from its admixtures in some solvent liquid from which it can be subsequently precipitated. this is rather interesting, because it means that man has adopted, to recover this gold from the ore, the very method which it is believed nature employed to put it there. as already said, the latest idea is that the gold was carried into and deposited in the lodes where it is now to be found by water--that the gold was actually dissolved in water at the time. but, of course, gold in its metallic state will not dissolve in water. salts of gold, however (the meaning of the term salt, as applied to a metal, has been explained earlier), will dissolve in water, as every photographer who makes up his own toning solution knows from experience. gold will not dissolve in water, but chloride of gold will. and so the gold must have been carried to its resting-place as a salt, and converted into the metallic form after arrival. in the same way, to recover these finest particles of all, it has to be converted back into a salt; then that salt must be dissolved and drained away from the other stuff; and, finally, the gold must be thrown out of solution again in some way. the great example of this operation is the familiar "cyanide" process. the word familiar is appropriate to this matter in only one way, however. holders of shares in mining companies, for example, may hear about it repeatedly at shareholders' meetings and in prospectuses, but very few have any clear idea as to what it is. so i cannot be accused of telling an oft-told tale if i devote a short space to its consideration. the combination of one atom of carbon and one atom of nitrogen is called cyanogen. if cyanogen be given the chance it will take unto itself an atom of hydrogen, producing the deadly hydrocyanic or prussic acid. alternatively, if potassium be brought into combination with it, there results potassium cyanide, which, with the assistance of water and oxygen, can dissolve gold. in applying this scientific fact to the purpose of recovering gold from the concentrates, the latter are placed in vats with a weak solution of the cyanide in water. the time during which they are allowed to remain depends upon the size of the gold particles. if they be comparatively large, it stands to reason that it must be longer than if they be small, for they will take longer to dissolve. after the proper time, which is found by experiment, the liquid is drawn off, and in some cases the concentrates are given a second dose to ensure that the gold shall be thoroughly removed and none left undissolved. if the material being operated upon be very fine, as it often is, forming what the mining people call "slimes," then mechanical stirrers have to be used in the vats to keep the stuff moving, as otherwise the cyanide would not get to all the particles and some would not be acted upon. the liquid, having been the appropriate time in the vat, is drawn off, placed in wooden tanks or boxes, and fine shreds of zinc are added to it. discs of sheet zinc are put into a lathe and a fine shaving taken off them, and it is these fine shavings which are used. now zinc, as we know from the fact that it is the essential part in electric batteries, has very pronounced electrical properties, and it is believed that these come into play here. at all events the gold becomes deposited upon the zinc, while the zinc itself is to a certain extent eaten away by the solution. the result is (_a_) a solution weaker than it was before, (_b_) the remains of the shavings, and (_c_), at the bottom of the box in which this process takes place, _a dark mud_. that black mud, on being heated, produces the bright metallic gold, and the object of the whole operation is achieved. the solution is then led to another tank, brought up to its proper strength again and is ready to be used once more, while the remains of the shavings are used for the next batch of material to be treated. in some cases the crushed ore straight from the crushing mill is cyanided, in others it is simply the remains left over from the previous amalgamating process which is thus treated. all depends upon the nature of the material in question. there are other chemical methods besides the cyaniding, but it is the chief. it has been found specially useful with the johannesburg ores, and to it the south african goldfields owe a great deal of their success. there is a more modern form of it, although the whole process is quite novel, having been introduced only in the nineties of last century. this development, it is almost wearying to repeat, is electrical. instead of the zinc shavings being used to precipitate the gold out of the solution, the process is electrolytic. a lead anode is used while the process is carried on in a box the bottom of which is covered with mercury, which forms the cathode. the precipitated gold is thus amalgamated, the amalgam being removed at intervals, retorted, and the gold recovered. the idea of recovering gold from the waters of the sea is certainly a most attractive one. to some, it is true, the suggestion may bring thoughts the reverse of pleasant, for there have been several partially successful attempts to delude the public with specious promises of vast dividends to be gathered in the form of pure gold from the inexhaustible sea. still, there is something in it, and some day the dreams may be realised. the quantity of gold dissolved in sea-water is so small that in cubic centimetres it is impossible to detect it, even by the most delicate tests known. the quantity needs to be multiplied threefold before the quantity of gold becomes even detectable, to say nothing of being recoverable. a writer in _cassier's magazine_, a few years ago, related how he had actually obtained gold from the water of long island sound. but whereas he got two dollars' worth, it cost him over dollars to do it. no company will ever be floated on results such as that. from the mud of a creek near new york, however, he did a little better, for there ten dollars' worth of gold only cost dollars. a company promoter would still look askance at even that comparatively successful undertaking. as usual, authorities differ, but there is a consensus of opinion that in every ton of sea-water there is from one-half to one grain of gold, besides silver and iodine. it seems as if the water were able to dissolve that amount and no more. if, as has been suggested earlier in this chapter, all the gold which is now found in mines and in gravel beds was carried there in water, it is probable that the sea obtains its gold from the same original sources, and that, just as the hot ocean of ages ago carried its burden of gold in solution, so the colder water of to-day has its share, the cold water naturally carrying less than the hot did. it is quite likely, then, that, could we find out how to rob the sea of its precious metal, it could replenish its store from some secret hoard of its own. but even if it could not, it would make little difference to us, since what it holds is far more than we could ever use. put it at half-a-grain per ton: there are million tons in every cubic mile of ocean, and million cubic miles of water in the ocean. if all the gold that man has ever handled were to be dissolved in the sea, no chemist would be able to discover the fact. on the other hand, if that half-grain per ton which we believe to be in the ocean now were to be recovered we should have about , million tons of gold, a prospect which is enough to make the political economist turn pale with apprehension. what is required is some substance which, on being added to sea-water, will combine with the gold, and then be precipitated--that is to say, fall to the bottom. the precipitate--that which falls to the bottom--would need to be heavy, so that it would fall quickly and not necessitate the water being left standing for long periods. it would need to be cheap, too, or easily recoverable, so that it could be used over and over again. and, finally, it would need to be such that the gold, having been captured by it, could be easily obtained from it. given such a precipitant, the process of recovering the gold would be simple and cheap. tanks would be formed in sheltered bays and inlets. at every tide these would be filled, and when full the precipitant would be added. the tide falling, the water would run out again and leave the precipitate on the floor of the tanks, whence it could be removed by scraping. simple treatment would release the gold from its partner, which would then be returned to the tanks to act as the precipitant once more. thus by simple means, the tide itself assisting, the gold could be obtained from the sea. and there is nothing inherently impossible about this suggestion. the necessary precipitant may exist, awaiting discovery. a large works operating in this manner would produce, it is estimated, about thirteen tons of gold per annum. it looks as if it would be a bad day for the rand when that discovery is made. and there is yet another possibility, though less alluring than what has just been described. the american writer mentioned a little while back got a better return from the mud of a creek than from the water itself. in all probability this is due to the action of organic matter carried down by streams, or in some other way introduced into the waters of the creek whence the mud was obtained. this organic matter would possibly have an effect as a precipitant upon the dissolved gold, causing it to be thrown out of solution and deposited in the mud. thus the mud around our shores, and particularly in the creeks and estuaries, may be potential gold mines whence in time to come we may draw supplies of the precious metal. the cyanide or some similar process may be needed in order that we may extract the metal from its enclosing mud, but the time may not be so very far distant when dredging for gold may be a regular occupation at, for example, the mouths of the thames and the hudson. chapter x intense heat many of the useful and interesting manufacturing processes of to-day are based upon the intense heat which science has taught the manufacturer how to produce. tasks which our forefathers dreamed of, but were unable to accomplish, are easy to-day because of the facility with which great heat can be generated. the "burning fiery furnace" "seven times heated" is as nothing to some of the temperatures which are now obtained in the ordinary course of things. the greatest heat of all is that of the electric arc. two conductors, generally rods of carbon, are placed with their ends touching, and the current is turned on so that it passes from one to the other. then they are gradually drawn apart. as the gap widens the current experiences more and more difficulty in passing over this non-conducting gap, and great electrical energy has to be employed to keep it going. now that wonderful law of the conservation of energy decrees that no energy can ever be lost. it can only be changed from one form into another. therefore the energy expended upon the arc is not lost, but is converted into heat. it is that heat, acting upon the small particles of carbon which are torn off the ends of the rods, which gives us the arc light. as a matter of fact nearly all artificial light (and natural light too for that matter[ ]) is due to heat. the heat sets the molecules in violent agitation, which, acting upon the corpuscles in the atoms, sets them in violent motion too, so that light is often the companion of heat. some substances give light more readily than others, under the influence of heat, and we may reasonably believe that they are those whose corpuscular arrangements are such that they can be readily accelerated by the molecular action. [ ] the glow-worm is an example of the few exceptions. to take a familiar instance, coal-gas is mainly "methane," one of the many combinations of carbon and hydrogen, and when it is burnt in air the hydrogen and oxygen combine, liberating heat, which causes the carbon liberated at the same time to glow. as each methane molecule breaks up the carbon atoms are thrown out, forming solid particles of carbon, and it is they really which give the light. it is therefore the combustible gas heating the solid particles of carbon which forms the luminous part of the gas flame. the non-luminous part of the flame, near the burner (i am now speaking of the old-fashioned burner), is the burning gas before the carbon particles have had time to heat up. and the old gas flame, as we know, is now being rapidly displaced by the incandescent mantle, the reason being simply that von welsbach discovered how certain rare minerals gave a more brilliant light when heated than particles of carbon do. in other words, it is easier to accelerate the motion of the corpuscles in ceria, thoria and the other ingredients of the mantle, than it is those of carbon. consequently, they sooner reach that degree of agitation which will send forth electro-magnetic waves of the high frequency necessary to produce the sensation of light. for this reason the mantle heated by gas gives as bright a light as the carbon particles in the electric arc, although the latter are subjected to a much more intense heat. but the arc can be, and often is, used as a source of heat, apart altogether from the light which it gives. in sweden, for example, where coal is rare, but water-power plentiful, the power of the waterfalls is made to smelt iron. hence the waterfalls are sometimes termed the "white coal" of that country. needless to say, it is the ubiquitous electricity which performs the change from the force of falling water into heat. the furnaces are in shape much like those in which iron is smelted with coal--namely, tall chimney-like structures at the bottom of which is the fire. in the "arc furnaces" there are, passing in through the side, near the bottom, a number of electrodes, and between these a series of arcs are formed. coke and ironstone are thrown in from the top into this region of intense heat, and there the iron is liberated from the oxygen with which it is combined in the ore. liberated, it flows out through a spout at one side of the furnace. but the question will arise in the reader's mind: why is coke needed in an electric furnace? it is for metallurgical reasons. the heat of the arc loosens the bonds between the iron and oxygen, but it needs the presence of some carbon to tempt the oxygen atoms away. therefore coke, as the most convenient form of carbon, has to be there. it is there, however, in much smaller quantity than it would be in an ordinary furnace. it is not there as fuel, but simply as the "counter-attraction" to draw the oxygen atoms away from their old love. the arc is also used for welding pieces of iron together, for which purpose it is eminently suitable, since what is wanted is intense heat at a particular point. but perhaps the reader will be wondering by this time what the heat of the arc is. it has been repeatedly referred to as "intense," but something more definite may be demanded. in theory it is unlimited. apply more pressure--more volts, that is--thereby driving more current across, and the temperature will rise. it is only a question of making dynamos large enough, and driving them fast enough, and any temperature is possible. but there are practical difficulties which limit the degree of heat. one is the melting-point of the furnace itself. fire-clay melts at about ° to ° c. so in a furnace which has to be lined with fire-clay that is about the limit. in welding two pieces of iron together, the iron, of course, defines what the limit shall be. it needs to be heated to "welding heat" and no more--that is, a little short of melting--so that the parts to be joined are soft, and, with a little hammering, will join thoroughly together. if too much heat were to be applied the parts would melt away. but the heat of the arc can be controlled by simply varying the current, and so the right heat can be applied at the right place, than which little more is wanted. one very simple way of doing this is for the workman to hold one of the "electrodes"--a rod of carbon suitably insulated--in his hand. the current is led to it through a flexible wire. the iron itself is made the other electrode by being gripped in a vice which is itself insulated but connected to the source of current. thus on bringing the point of his rod near to the part to be heated the man causes an arc to be created there. by moving the rod he can move the arc about, heating one part more than another, distributing his heat if he wants to do so over a larger area, or keeping it to a small one, just as he wills. on reaching the right heat the rod is withdrawn, the arc destroyed, and the iron can be hammered just as if it had been heated in a fire. yet another way still is known as "resistance" welding. in it an enormous current at an extremely low voltage is used. the fundamental principle is the same, since the heat is formed by forcing current past a point over which it is reluctant to pass. that point of poor conductivity is the ends of the two bars to be joined. they are placed just touching, but since an imperfect contact like that always offers considerable resistance to the flow of a current, the passing current needs only to be made large enough for great heat to be generated. this is exceedingly pretty to watch. we will suppose that the article to be operated upon is the tyre of a wheel. the bar of iron has already been bent by rollers into the correct curve and the two ends are touching. brought to the machine, it is gripped, each side of the junction, in the jaws of an insulated vice and the current is turned on. in a few seconds the place where the two ends are just touching begins to glow. rapidly it increases in brightness until in about half-a-minute it is at welding heat. then one vice, which is movable, is forced along a little by a screw, so that the ends are pressed firmly together, a little judicious hammering meanwhile helping to complete the job. then the current is switched off and the complete tyre taken out of the machine. the current used has a force comparable with that which operates domestic electric bells, but in volume it is thousands of amperes. alternating current is used, and it is obtained from a transformer or induction coil. in such a case the primary part of the coil is made of many turns of fine wire, so that little current passes through it, while the secondary part is but one or two turns of thick bar. thus the voltage generated in the secondary is very little, but since the secondary has an almost negligible resistance the current caused by that small voltage is enormous. such an arrangement is in industrial realms generally called a transformer, the term induction coil being employed more for those things of a similar nature intended for the laboratory. the one just described is, moreover, a "step-down" transformer, since it lowers the voltage, to distinguish it from "step-up" transformers, which raise the voltage. and the "resistance" principle is also applied in another way to large furnaces, such as those for refining iron. in these the resistance of the iron itself is utilised to generate the heat. of course, it should be well understood, heat is always generated in everything through which current flows. there is no perfect conductor, and so every conductor is more or less heated by the passage of current through it. some energy needs to be expended to drive current, even along large copper wires, and that energy must be turned into heat in the wires. if the same volume of current be forced along iron wires of the same size, the heat will be greater, since iron is but a poor conductor compared with copper, the relation being about as one to six. and if the iron be hot the resistance will be still more, for it stands to reason that when heated the molecules, being farther apart, will be the less easily able to exchange corpuscles. we have the best reasons for believing, as has been suggested already, that a current of electricity is but a flow of corpuscles, and so we are not surprised to hear that, as a general rule, the hotter a thing is the less does it conduct electricity. [illustration: _by permission of cambridge scientific inst. co., ltd., cambridge, eng._ measuring heat at a distance this wonderful instrument, the fery radiation pyrometer, although itself some distance away from the furnace, is telling the temperature of its hottest part.] so imagine a circular trough of fire-clay or other heat-resisting material filled with fragments of iron, or, it may be, with iron barely above melting-point, which has come from another furnace, where it underwent the previous process. circling inside or outside this trough is an enormous coil of wire through which currents of electricity are alternating. that is the "primary" of a transformer, and the "secondary" is--the iron itself, in the trough. if it be, as it often is, in the form of scrap, or broken pieces, the heat will begin to show itself where the pieces touch each other. the currents generated in the trough, by the coil outside, will, of course, pass from piece to piece and the points of contact, since they offer the greatest resistance, will show signs of heat. this will increase until the pieces begin to melt. as the separate fragments merge into the molten mass the resistance will in one way decrease, for the imperfect contacts between the pieces will give place to the perfect contact throughout the mass of liquid metal. but for another reason--namely, the increase in heat--the resistance will increase. and all the while the alternations in the primary coil will be pumping currents, as it were, round and round the ring of molten iron. whether the resistance increase or decrease, the current will do the opposite, so that heat will be generated whatever happens. for as resistance decreases current increases, and vice versa. and the slightest variation in the strength of the primary current will have its effect upon the secondary, and therefore on the heat generated. so, by simply regulating the primary current, the temperature of the metal can be controlled to a nicety. and such furnaces have the immense advantage that there is no possibility of deleterious substances in the fuel getting into and spoiling the metal, a thing which may very easily happen during the manufacture of high-class steels, alloys of iron in which the exact quantities, purity and proportions of the ingredients are of the utmost importance. hence these "induction furnaces," as they are called, are frequently used quite apart from any question of utilising water-power. and they will probably be used still more as time goes on. for one thing, they may become valuable adjuncts to the older form of iron and steel furnaces, from which they will obtain their power free, gratis and for nothing. in districts such as middlesbrough they could generate more electricity than they have any use for. the ordinary iron furnaces belch forth flames which are really good useful gas (carbon monoxide) burning to waste. many of the furnaces are covered in at the top, and this gas is led away to heat boilers for the steam-engines or to drive large gas-engines, but in a large works there is more of this waste gas than they know what to do with. now that could, and probably will ere long, be turned into electricity by means of gas-engines and the current used for making steel in induction furnaces. it will probably surprise many to know that these enormous currents which can thus heat great masses of metal until they melt are no danger at all to the men who work with them. a man might dip an iron rod into the trough of metal and he would scarcely feel the shock. and the same is true of the welding machine, which can be touched in any part without fear. the reason, of course, is that, broadly speaking, it is volume of current which does harm, and the resistance of the human body is so great that with the small voltages used, the volume which can pass is negligible. it should be mentioned, however, that the volume of current in lightning is also small, but we know that it is capable of inflicting terrible injury. lightning, however, is in a class by itself. our terrestrial voltages are baffled by an air-gap of a few inches, but lightning springs across a gap miles wide. its voltage must, therefore, amount to millions, and the ordinary rules relating to earthly currents do not apply. but other sources of heat besides electricity are at the disposal of our manufacturers nowadays. pre-eminently there is the flame of some gas burning with pure oxygen. the oxyhydrogen jet has been known for many years as the best means of producing the light for a magic lantern. such a jet impinging upon a pencil of lime causes the latter to glow with a dazzling white light. but the oxyhydrogen jet is now employed in many factories for the welding of metals. this is known as fusion welding, since the two parts are actually reduced to liquid. the usual way to go about this work is to bevel off the ends or edges to be joined. suppose, for instance, that we wanted to weld two pieces of brass pipe together. we should first file or otherwise trim the edges to be joined until when put together they form a groove practically as deep as the metal is thick. then with a stick of brass wire in the left hand, and an oxyhydrogen blowpipe in the right, we should direct the flame from the pipe on to the metal until, at one point, the sides of the groove were beginning to melt. then, inserting the point of the wire into the groove, we should melt a little off it. thus we should work all round the joint, melting the sides of the groove and filling in with melted metal from the wire, until the whole groove had been filled up and the metal added had been thoroughly amalgamated with that on either side. as a matter of fact, if it were brass which we were working on we should probably use the cheaper though less pure form of hydrogen--coal-gas--so that it would really be "oxycoal-gas" that we should use and not oxyhydrogen. the latter is used, however, notably for the fusion-welding of lead, or "lead-burning," as it is termed. the blowpipe is a brass tube about a foot or eighteen inches long, with two passages in it, one for the oxygen and the other for the other gas. the gases are brought to one end of it through rubber pipes, while at the other end there is a nozzle in which the gases mingle and from which they emerge in a fine jet. the oxyhydrogen flame has a temperature of about ° c., hot enough to melt fire-clay. that does not matter in the case of welding, however, since the molten metal is very small in quantity at any given moment, and is allowed to cool before it can run away. it would be an awkward temperature to deal with, nevertheless, in a furnace. it seems strange that it does not burn the nozzle of the blowpipe, but the fact that it does not is, it is believed, explained by the fact that the expansion of the gas, as soon as it emerges from the hole out of which it shoots, causes a comparatively cool space just there, shielding it from the intense heat farther on. an exceedingly interesting use of the oxyhydrogen flame is in the manufacture of artificial rubies. these stones are made in paris by a very simple means. the necessary chemicals are prepared and ground to an exceedingly fine powder. this is then allowed to fall through an oxyhydrogen flame. thus there is no need for a crucible capable of withstanding this high temperature, since the melting takes place as the particles are in the act of falling. when they reach the support prepared to catch them they have cooled somewhat. stones so called are real rubies--artificial, but not shams. they possess every property of the ruby from the mine. another product of the oxyhydrogen flame is the quartz fibres which are used for suspending the needles in the finest galvanometers. the quartz is melted, in this case a crucible being employed. an arrow is then dipped in the liquid quartz and immediately "fired" into the air. the thick treacly liquid is thus drawn out into a thread of such fineness that a microscope is necessary to find it with. hotter even than oxyhydrogen is the oxyacetylene flame, which at its hottest point reaches nearly ° c. the gas, which is another of the combinations of carbon and hydrogen (its molecules containing two atoms of each), is easily made by allowing water to come into contact with calcium carbide. the latter, which is cac_{ }, is made by heating coke and lime together in the intense heat of an electric furnace. this accounts largely for the great heating power of acetylene, for since great heat is necessary to cause the elements to combine great heat is given out by them when they ultimately separate. here again is the conservation of energy. the heat energy of the electric furnace is largely expended in forcing these two elements into partnership. they are, as it were, given a large amount of capital in the form of heat. it ceases to be sensible heat, becoming latent in the compound, but still it is there. so a lump of calcium carbide, with which many readers are familiar, has vast stores of heat locked up within it. when water comes into contact with the carbide the partnership is broken, but the heat is not liberated then, since another partnership is formed, which still retains the old heat-capital. the calcium in the carbide is displaced by the hydrogen from the water, and so c_{ }h_{ } comes into being, while the rejected calcium consoles itself by entering into combination with the equally forsaken oxygen from the water, forming cao, which is but another name for lime. then the acetylene (c_{ }h_{ }) is mixed with oxygen in the blowpipe and burnt, under which conditions the pent-up heat, borrowed originally from the electric furnace, is brought into play. with this flame the harder metals can be fused and welded. wrought iron, cast-iron, steel in all its forms, all can be melted by the oxyacetylene flame, almost as easily as snow by a hot iron. the fusion welding of these metals is then carried on just as already described for brass. by means of a special blowpipe, wherein an excess of oxygen is introduced at the hot point, hard steel plates can be cut to pieces almost as easily as a grocer cuts cheese. even thick, hard armour-plate can thus be cut, almost the only way, indeed, in which it can be cut. and for purposes such as welding and cutting this flame has an interesting and peculiar advantage over all other kinds of heat. when a metal is heated in the air there is usually trouble from oxidation. the domestic poker, for example, after it has been left to get red-hot in the fire is seen to be coated, in the part which has been heated, with scales which will flake off if the thing be struck. those scales are oxide of iron, caused by the union of iron and oxygen when the poker was hot. but if the heat be applied by the oxyacetylene flame that will not happen. the oxygen and the carbon from the acetylene will burn, and if the supply of the former be properly regulated it will be entirely used up in the process. the hydrogen from the acetylene is, strange to say, unable to unite with oxygen at such a high temperature as that of the oxygen and carbon, so that it passes on beyond the oxygen-carbon flame and ultimately burns on its own account with the oxygen from the atmosphere in a second flame surrounding the first. thus there is a double flame: inside, a little pointed cone of white flame, that is the oxygen and carbon; and outside that a bluish flame, the hydrogen and the atmospheric oxygen. the latter flame forms a kind of jacket entirely enveloping the former. and so when one melts metal by means of the white cone the hydrogen jacket shields the molten metal from oxygen and prevents the oxidation. only one who knows the bother caused by oxidation whenever metals are heated can realise the wonderful advantage of this. and now we can turn to even another source, also quite modern, of high temperature. if the oft-quoted "man in the street" were asked the two commonest things on earth he might possibly name oxygen as one, and so far he would be right, but the chances are much against his naming aluminium as the second. if he did not, however, he would be wrong. aluminium and oxygen form alumina, of which are constituted the sapphire, the ruby and other precious stones, but alumina is most commonly found in combination with silica, or silicon and oxygen. this compound is called silicate of aluminium, and of it are formed clay and many rocks. the reason why the metal aluminium was until recently rare and expensive was because of the great difficulty of disentangling the metal from this rather complex combination. and these two commonest elements have, under certain conditions, a rare affinity for each other. they join forces with such energy that great heat is given out in the process. this, again, we may regard as an example of the conservation of energy. heat had to be used up, apparently, in separating the aluminium and oxygen as they were found together in the natural state. and that heat reappears when they combine together again. this is a most useful principle, for if heat has disappeared anywhere in the course of some operation, we know that in all probability, if we go about it the right way, we can get that heat back again, perhaps in a more convenient form. that is so in this case at all events. now aluminium will not readily combine with atmospheric oxygen, but it will readily do so with oxygen from the oxide of a metal. so if we put into a vessel some oxide of iron and some finely powdered aluminium, and give it some heat at one point, just to set the process going, the whole mass will burn with intense heat. and when the burning is finished the crucible will be found to contain ( ) some molten iron, the oxide of iron with the oxygen gone, and ( ) some oxide of aluminium or alumina, in the form which we call corundum, a very hard substance which in a powdered form is used for grinding hard metals. we start, you will notice, with a pure metal and an oxide. we finish with a pure metal and an oxide, only the oxygen has changed its quarters, having passed from the iron to the aluminium. and in the course of the change a vast amount of pent-up heat has been liberated. aluminium is thus a fuel, strange though it may seem to say so, just as coal is. coal, however, is willing to pair off with oxygen from the air, while aluminium, more fastidious, will only accept it as partner when it can steal it from another combination. but the practical result is eminently satisfactory, for the action of the aluminium and iron oxide is to leave us with a crucible full of molten iron at a very high temperature. and this can be used in various ways. tramway rails, for example, can be joined together by it. a mould is formed around the ends of two rails, where they "butt" together, and into this mould a quantity of the melted iron can be poured. so hot is it that it partially melts the ends of the rails, and then, amalgamating with them, it forms a perfectly homogeneous connection between them. the same method can be applied to the repair of iron structures of all kinds. the propeller shaft of a ship, for example, sometimes breaks on a voyage. such a catastrophe is fraught with the most serious consequences, unless it can be quickly repaired. thermit, as this process is called, is perhaps the only means whereby, under certain conditions, this can be accomplished. the extraordinary heat of the metal produced in this way is demonstrated by the fact that if it be poured on to an iron plate an inch thick it goes clean through it. it melts its way through instantly. but although such high temperatures are at the command of the modern manufacturer, there are some things--indeed many things--which still baffle him, the diamond, for example. it is true that diamonds of small size have been made, but larger ones have so far defied all efforts. one very interesting fact about this may be mentioned in concluding this chapter. sir andrew noble, a member of the great firm of armstrong, whitworth & co., of elswick, tried the experiment of exploding some cordite, a high explosive, inside a steel vessel of enormous strength. he thus produced what is believed to be the highest temperature ever produced on earth. it is reckoned to have been ° c., and the pressure at the same time was, it is calculated, tons per square inch. his intention was not to make diamonds, but sir william crookes predicted that diamonds would be the result. for the cordite consisted mainly of carbon, which, as is well known, is the material of which the diamond is formed, and the combination of high temperature and high pressure is just what is needed, so it is believed, to bring the carbon into this particular form. and true enough, on the iron being examined after the explosion, there were seen tiny diamonds. for larger ones even higher temperatures and greater pressures are, no doubt, necessary, and as the diamond, like gold, has a peculiar fascination for mankind, so the efforts to manufacture it will continue. in years to come the means may be found of creating these extreme conditions of temperature and pressure, and so another of the problems of the ages will be solved. [illustration: _by permission of the british aluminium co_ a striking feature of modern aluminium works for the production of aluminium water power is required. water is stored at a high level and is then brought down to the factory in pipes. the illustration shows the pipe track recently laid down for this purpose at kinlochleven in argyleshire. the six pipes, each of which is thirty-nine inches in diameter, run down the hillsides for one mile and a quarter] chapter xi an artificial coal mine those countries which are blessed with a plentiful supply of coal are periodically shocked and saddened by a terrible calamity--an explosion in one of the mines, in which often scores of poor fellows lose their lives, and hundreds of widows and orphans find themselves without a breadwinner. one has only to recall that heart-rending calamity of the courrières mines in france, where over a thousand lives were lost, to realise how important is the question of the cause and the cure of the colliery explosion. it used to be thought a settled matter that these were due to the accidental ignition of a gas called, scientifically, "methane," but by the miners "fire-damp." this undoubtedly does collect in many mines, and since it is much the same as the domestic coal-gas (indeed methane forms the bulk of coal-gas) it is not surprising that the explosions were attributed to it. at times shots were fired, to blast down the coal, and although the greatest precautions are taken to prevent any accident resulting, it seems certain that explosions have occasionally followed the firing of shots. but still more dangerous is the adventurous miner who, for some reason, opens his safety lamp. it is lit for him before he enters the workings, and locked up, so that, theoretically, he cannot tamper with it; but it has to be a cleverly devised lock that cannot be picked in some way, and with the carelessness born of long immunity from accident these are got open sometimes, with, it may be, disastrous results. even a spark struck from a miner's pick may ignite the gas; or a spark from some electrical machine used in the mine. that is one of the reasons why electrical apparatus is suspect in colliery matters and machines worked by the less convenient and more costly means of compressed air are preferred. in some such manner the fire-damp is ignited, and then there follows the fiery blast, which, sweeping through the narrow galleries and passages which constitute the workings, simply licks up the life of the men whom it encounters. others, in byways and sheltered corners, escaping the burning cloud of flame, are poisoned by the deadly fumes of carbon monoxide which it leaves when its force is spent. while others, perchance the most unfortunate of all, are saved for a time, but, being imprisoned by falls from the roof and walls, die a lingering death of hunger and slow suffocation. a colliery explosion is one of the ghastliest events imaginable, the only relief from which is the noble heroism with which the survivors, from the mine managers to the humblest workmen, crowd round the pit-mouth, eager to risk their own lives for the faint chance of saving some below. not infrequently these brave volunteers only share the fate of the men they would rescue. now all that, as i have said, used to be put down to the effect of the fire-damp. but it dawned upon men's minds some years ago that the damage seemed to be out of proportion to the power of the gas. modern mines are well ventilated by large fans, which impel great volumes of air through all the workings. the air currents are cunningly guided by partitions or "brattices," so that every nook and corner shall be scoured out by the plentiful draught of pure fresh air. consequently the amount of explosive gas which can collect in any one place is but small. how, then, can so small a volume of gas do so large an amount of damage? coupled with this was the fact that explosions take place in flour mills, where there is no gas, and experimenters had found in their laboratories that almost any burnable substance, _if ground up finely enough_ and blown into a cloud, would explode. coal-dust would naturally do this. indeed anyone throwing the dust from the bottom of the coal-shovel upon a fire will see for himself how, quickly such dust will burn, and, as has been pointed out in an earlier chapter, an explosion is but rapid burning. so the blame was largely transferred from the shoulders of the fire-damp to those of the clouds of coal-dust which collect throughout the workings of a mine. but then a difficulty arose from the fact that there is dust in all mines, yet some districts are quite free from explosions. and such districts are those where there is little or no fire-damp. these two facts seem to be explainable in one way, and in one way only. it must be that the gas first of all explodes feebly, and so, stirring up the dust lying along the roads and passages, prepares the way for the powerful, deadly explosion of coal-dust which follows. but that was only a guess, and the matter was of such importance that it needed something more certain than mere assumption. so the mining association of great britain decided to have a series of experiments which should settle once and for all what part the coal-dust played in these catastrophes, and how best they could be prevented. it was at first thought that an old mine might be utilised for the experiments, but there was the difficulty that such always become wet after work has ceased in them, and so the dust would not behave normally. moreover, the work would be extremely dangerous and the results difficult to observe. then a culvert was suggested built of concrete, partly buried in the ground, but that too was dismissed. finally it was decided to make an imitation mine of steel, using old boiler shells with the ends taken out. the sum of £ , was subscribed for the purpose by the coal-owners of great britain, and the great work was carried out at altofts, in yorkshire, close to a colliery where a terrible disaster occurred in . here the great tube or gallery was built. roughly the shape of a letter l, one leg is over feet long, while the other is feet. the longer leg is - / feet in diameter and the shorter feet. at the end of the shorter part a large fan is installed which can force , to , cubic feet of air per minute through the structure, so producing the conditions of a well-ventilated mine. the shorter length has several sharp turns in it for the purpose of breaking the force of the explosion along that part, and so shielding the fan from damage, while a tall chimney is provided there, so that, the door being shut to cut off the fan, the gases from the explosion can find a harmless way out. inside the tube, shelves are fixed along the sides so as to reproduce the effect of the timbering in a real mine, upon the beams of which the dust finds lodgment. props were put up too, just as they would be in the real mine. everything, in fact, was done to make the place as perfect a replica as possible of actual underground workings. and then, added to this huge and costly structure, was an outfit of scientific instruments worthy of the important investigations which were to be carried on. to grasp the purpose and working of these we need to remind ourselves of the aims and intentions of the experiments. first of all it was desired to find out how various quantities and qualities of coal-dust behaved. the dust was laid along the floor of the tube and along the shelves. a small gun fired at some point in the tube raised a cloud of this dust just as the gas explosion in the real mine would do. then another gun was fired to explode the dust-cloud. so far all is quite simple and easy. but to do that would be of no value without the means of finding out exactly what resulted from the explosion. and that is the function of the instruments. to commence with, there is the great wave or tide of force or pressure which surges along the gallery immediately the cloud bursts into flame. how fast does that wave travel? how long is it after the explosion before the shattering effects of it are felt a hundred yards away? to solve that problem electrical contact-breakers are fixed at intervals of fifty yards along the gallery. each of these consists of a cylinder with a piston inside it something like, shall we say, a cycle pump. the piston, held down normally by a spring, is blown upwards by the force of the explosion. the spring is adjustable, and so it can be arranged that the feeble force of the gun cannot lift the piston, but the more powerful coal-dust explosion which follows can. thus when the explosion takes place these contact-breakers are operated in succession. the one nearest the seat of the disturbance is operated first; next the one fifty yards farther away; then the one a hundred yards away, and so on. the moments when they work will tell the speed at which the blast travels along the gallery. but it travels with great speed, and so to measure and record the exact moment when each contact-breaker is moved is a matter of no little difficulty. electricity, however, makes this, like so many other things, comparatively easy. there is an apparatus used in astronomical observatories called a chronograph, which registers, within a small fraction of a second, the moment when a star seems to pass across a wire in the "transit circle," the telescope by which the positions of stars are determined and the exact time kept. the observer sits with his eye to the telescope, watching the apparent movement of the star. in his hand he holds a small "push," pressure on which by his fingers operates a minute pricker, which acts upon a moving strip of paper. the paper travels along with the utmost steadiness and regularity, while a clock drives a sharply pointed pricker on to it every two seconds. thus the clock marks out the paper into lengths, each of which represents two seconds. but the other pricker, worked electrically by the observer's hand, also makes its mark upon the paper, and so, while the regular marks indicate intervals of two seconds, each irregular one marks the time of a transit or passing of a star across the wire. an examination of the strip subsequently enables the times of a transit to be seen with great accuracy, from the position of the corresponding mark between two of the _regular_ marks. and the same principle was applied to the circuit-breakers of this artificial mine. normally, current flows through the circuit-breaker, but the lifting of the piston breaks the circuit (whence the name of the contrivance), and that breaking of the circuit and consequent cessation of the current operates the chronograph. by a cleverly constructed device, the details of which are too complicated to set out here, each circuit-breaker in turn makes its mark on the same strip, so that the distances apart of these marks show the time taken by the force of the explosion to travel fifty yards. meanwhile the clock goes on making its regular marks (in this case every half-second), so that they form a scale by which the other intervals can be measured very exactly. the chronograph used here is more accurate than that in use at greenwich observatory, the reason being that in this case the recording currents are sent mechanically by the contact-breakers operated by the explosion itself, while in the case of the astronomer the human element comes in. to watch a moving speck of light and to tell exactly when it crosses a fine line is by no means easy, and so to tell the time within a tenth of a second, is about the limit of possible accuracy. the instrument we have been referring to, however, can register the time which a gaseous wave moving feet per second takes to travel fifty feet. in other words, the circuit-breakers can be operated so fast that when only a sixtieth of a second intervenes between the action of one and that of the next the chronograph can duly record the fact. the records of the chronograph can be made in two ways: one by a pen on a piece of paper tape, and the other by a scratch on a piece of smoked paper. so by that means the progress of the "force" of the explosion can be measured. it is necessary also to time the movement of the "heat" of the explosion, for the two may not travel together, and the difference between them may let in some light as to the nature and behaviour of the explosion. so for this second purpose a second set of circuit-breakers are used. each of these consists of a strip of thin tinfoil stretched across the gallery. being placed edgeways to the moving current of gas, the force of the explosion has no effect upon it, but the heat instantly melts it. normally, current flows through the strip, and so the melting is signalised by the cessation of the current, which event is recorded by the chronograph. thus the speeds at which the force and the heat of the explosion travel are ascertained. another important fact which needs to be found is the amount of the force, or the pressure, at different points. for this purpose pressure-gauges can be connected to the gallery at the desired spots by means of flexible tubes. this flexible tube is necessary in order that the vibration of the steel shell, due to the explosion, shall not be communicated to the instrument. the pressure, finding its way along the flexible pipe, raises a piston against the force of a spring, and the distance to which it is raised forms, of course, a measure of the pressure inside the gallery at the point to which the tube is connected. the pressure is recorded by the action of the piston in moving a style which just touches against the surface of a moving paper. there are three styles in all marking this paper. the first is the one just mentioned. the second is held down on to the paper by an electro-magnet energised by current flowing through a fine wire stretched across the gallery just where the explosion originates. this fine wire is broken at the moment of the explosion, whereby the current is cut off and the style raised. it therefore makes its mark until the moment the explosion occurs, and then leaves off. the end of that line, therefore, shows the time of the explosion. meanwhile the first style is drawing a straight line, but as soon as the pressure begins to be felt by the pressure recorder this style moves and the line slopes upward. upward it goes as the pressure increases, until it has reached its height, after which it descends, until the style is drawing a straight line once more. thus the rise and fall of the line represents the rise and fall of the force of the explosion. then comes the matter of time. how soon after the explosion occurred did the pressure begin to be felt? how long did it take to reach its maximum and how long to die out again? these questions need answers which the apparatus so far described does not give. true, the speed of the paper may be known approximately, but all that i have described will occur within the space of a fraction of a second, and it is difficult to tell the speed of the paper with sufficient accuracy. therein we see the purpose of the third style. it is attached electrically to the "tenth-of-a-second time-marker." this consists of a weight suspended at a height. the force of the explosion lets it drop. the moment it starts to fall it causes the style to make a mark on the paper. when it has fallen a certain distance the style makes another mark. and the distance that the weight falls between the making of the two marks is so adjusted that the space between them on the chart represents exactly a tenth of a second. thus a scale is formed upon the chart by which the other times can be measured. there is the line terminating at the moment of explosion; the straight line changing into an up-and-down curve, representing the time and the variation of the pressure; finally there are the two marks representing a tenth of a second by which the other marks recorded upon the chart can be interpreted. but the mere pressure and velocity of the explosion form but a part of the knowledge desired. how the explosion is formed, whether or not the coal-dust is burnt up entirely, whether, indeed, it be the dust itself which burns or coal-gas given off by the dust under the heat of the preliminary explosion, what the gas is which is left by the explosion at various stages--these are important things to be known, and they can only be ascertained by taking samples of the gases in the gallery at different moments during and after the explosion. to obtain these samples bottles are used, but the question is how to get them filled at just the right time. into the shell of the gallery holes are drilled, and to these the metal bottles or flasks are screwed, a pipe leading from the mouth of each bottle well in towards the centre of the gallery. the end of this tube is closed by a cap of glass above which there stands poised a little hammer. controlling the hammer is an electrical device called a "contact-maker," so arranged that just at the desired moment the hammer falls, breaking the glass, and admitting a sample of the gas in the gallery, the bottle and its tube having previously had the air exhausted from them, so that on the glass being broken the gas is sucked in. at the same moment a weight falls, attached to the end of a cord, and this, on reaching the end of its tether, closes the end of the tube, and the sample is imprisoned until such time as the bottle can be disconnected and taken away to the laboratory for its contents to be analysed. the contact-makers are of two kinds. in one the pressure of the explosion raises a piston which completes a circuit allowing current to flow through the very fine wire which prevents the fall of the hammer. this fine wire being fused by the current, the hammer falls and does its work. the other kind, which are used when the force of the explosion is not enough to raise a piston, is operated by one of the tinfoil circuit-breakers. a magnet, being energised by current passing through the foil, holds up a curved bar over two cups of mercury. broken by the heat of the explosion, the foil cuts off this current, de-energises the magnet, and allows the bar to fall with its ends in the mercury. this completes another circuit, permitting current to pass to the fine wire, whereby the hammer is released. by connecting a bottle to a contact-maker at a distance the sample can be obtained at any desired period of the explosion. if, for instance, the sample is to represent the immediate products of combustion, it is placed near to the contact-maker. then the sample is drawn in practically at the moment of explosion. if, on the other hand, it is the after-damp that is to be sampled, then the bottle would be connected to a contact-maker a long way from the seat of the explosion, with the result that its glass cap would not be broken until some considerable time had elapsed after the explosion has passed the bottle. the time also during which the bottle is drawing in its sample can be adjusted by varying the length of the cord to which the weight is attached. and last of all must be mentioned the employment of a kinematograph, capable of taking twenty-two photographs per second, for observing the effects at the ends of the gallery (see illustrations). thus records are obtained of the force and heat of the explosion, its mechanical and thermal effects upon the walls of the gallery, or, if it were in a real pit, the effects which it would have in shaking and in heating the workings, and the men labouring in them. this and the analysis of the gases producing and produced by the explosion, derived from the contents of the bottles, give sound data upon which can be built up reliable theories as to the nature of colliery explosions and the way to prevent them, results which could be obtained in no other way. no one can help being struck with the thoroughness and ingenuity of the means adopted to these ends, and it is no exaggeration to say that it is a splendid example of thoroughly scientific methods applied to an important industrial investigation. it will be interesting to conclude this account with a brief mention of some of the results to which these painstaking efforts have led. first in importance the fact is placed beyond doubt that coal-dust, which in bulk will only burn slowly, will, when well mixed with air, explode. and no combustible gas need be present to aid in the explosion. the dust-raising gun, by blowing some dust into a cloud which was ignited by the second gun, caused an explosion powerful enough to do all the damage experienced in the most disastrous natural explosions. so it is practically certain that the function of the gas is but that of the first gun, to raise the cloud of dust. a typical experimental explosion may be briefly described. on the cloud-raising gun being fired a small cloud of dust was driven out of the ends of the gallery, even that end at which the fan was blowing air _in_. in other words, the current of air was checked, even reversed, by the preliminary shock. this cloud was, of course, shown by the kinematograph. then when the second gun was fired, and the real coal-dust explosion occurred, there was first a cloud of dust shot out larger than the other one, to be followed by a cloud of flame feet long. these also were recorded by the kinematograph. the sound was heard seven miles away. pressures as high as lb. per square inch were recorded, and the force of the blast was found to travel well over feet per second. in many cases, strange to say, the effects were very slight at the seat of the disturbance, the force seeming to increase as the wave travelled along the gallery. probably the dust had not time to burn completely but only partially at the first onset. where props or timbers checked the flow of the flaming gases there the damage was most, for no doubt the eddies caused the air and coal to be particularly well mixed at such points. an encrustation of coke was found on the sides and the timbers after all was over, probably because there was not sufficient air to burn all the dust, and some was only heated into coke to be deposited on the nearest surface, where the tarry matters would make it stick. finally, the most important, perhaps, of all, it was demonstrated that an admixture of stone-dust with the coal-dust made it non-inflammable. if a small zone were treated in this way, stone-dust being mingled with the other, the explosion became stifled at that point. true, the poisonous after-damp swept on beyond, so that men there might have been poisoned by it, but the stone zone would certainly save them from the direct effects of the blast. if, however, stone-dust be mingled with coal-dust all along the gallery, then no explosion at all would occur, again proving that it is the coal-dust which does the damage. in the colliery adjoining the experimental gallery this plan had been in use for years. soft shale is ground to fine powder, and is sprinkled wherever coal-dust has collected. it is just strewn by hand, giving the workings the appearance of having been roughly whitewashed. and since that has been done there has been no explosion in that pit. the experiments showed beyond doubt that that was no chance occurrence. they showed that in some way not thoroughly understood this addition of stone-dust renders the coal-dust harmless. it may be that it merely dilutes it. it may be that in some way it takes some of the heat and so prevents the coal particles becoming hot enough. it may be that, being a little heavier, it checks the formation of the dust-cloud. however that may be, there is no doubt now that stone-dust is the salvation of the miner so far as explosions are concerned. water sprinkled upon the coal-dust, by laying it and keeping it from forming a cloud, has the same effect, but it is less convenient, for the simple reason that water evaporates, while stone-dust stays where it is put. chapter xii the most striking invention of recent times probably no invention has made such a sensation during recent years as wireless telegraphy. and since it is the direct outcome of the most abstruse, purely scientific investigations, there could be no more appropriate subject for a place in this book. for many years there has been a belief in the existence of a mysterious something to which has been given the name of "the ether." totally different, it should be noted, from the chemical of the same name, it is entirely a creature of the intellect. none of our senses give us the slightest direct indication of its existence. no one has either seen, felt, heard, smelt or tasted it. yet we feel that it must exist, for the simple reason that some things which our senses do tell us of are utterly inexplicable without it. it was originally thought of in connection with light. standing at night upon the top of a hill, we see the lights of a town a mile away. how is it that those distant gas or electric lamps affect our eyes? they are a mile away; and the idea that one object can affect another _at a distance_ is one which the human mind refuses to accept. we feel compelled to believe that there is something in contact with the source of light which is affected first, and through which the disturbance, whatever it may be, is conveyed to our eyes, with which it must also be in contact. we feel that there must be a something stretching from our eyes to the distant objects, by which the light is carried. of course the air fills the space referred to, but that cannot be the carrier of light, for if we look through a glass vessel from which the air has been exhausted we see distant objects undimmed. we also have good reason to believe that the air belongs specially to our globe, and does not extend upwards for more than a few miles. consequently it cannot be air which brings sunlight and starlight. we are forced to fall back, therefore, upon the belief in something, of which we have no other knowledge, which must fill all the vacant spaces in the whole universe, passing, even, between the particles of which ordinary matter is composed, reaching as far as the remotest star, able to penetrate everything, and consequently not excludable from the most perfect vacuum. it is something so different from anything of which we have any direct knowledge that one is tempted sometimes to doubt whether there must not be some other explanation of light. in order to transmit light at the speed at which we find that it does in fact travel, the ether must be more rigid than the hardest substance we know of. many, many thousand times more rigid, indeed. yet it seems to offer no resistance to the passage of the planets through it. still, there is no other alternative, so far as men can conceive, and we are compelled, therefore, to believe in the existence of the ether. the first things discovered by the telescope were the larger satellites of jupiter. with that precision for which astronomers are noted, they soon drew up time-tables, showing not only the past movements of these bodies, but also their future ones. they were soon puzzled, however, by the obvious fact that the moons of jupiter were not working according to schedule, to use a railway expression. they got later and later for a time, and then gradually quickened up until they got too fast. then they slowed down again. this repeated itself, and is going on still, with this difference, however, that the cause has been discovered and the schedules amended accordingly. the solution of the puzzle was that when the earth and the great planet are on the same side of the sun they are some millions of miles nearer together than when they are on opposite sides of the sun. the evolutions of the satellites are quite regular, according to the astronomers' calculations, but they seemed to the earthly astronomers to vary, because of the time which light took to traverse that millions of miles. when the two bodies were nearest together the occurrences seemed to happen about seconds ( minutes) earlier than when they were farthest apart. consequently it became evident that light took seconds to travel million miles, or that, in other words, it moved at the prodigious speed of thousand miles per second. that discovery was, of course, many years ago, but experiments since have proved the figure mentioned to be about right. it put beyond question the fact that the action of a distant light upon the eye was not an "action at a distance," for such action, were it possible, would take effect at once. seeing that light passed from the distant satellites at a definite velocity, and took a certain time to reach us, it was evident that it was, during that time, passing through a medium of some sort, and that medium must be the ether, for no alternative explanation will suffice. so it became recognised that light really consists of waves or undulations of some sort in the ether; that a distant, luminous body set these waves going; that they travelled with a definite velocity, and then, striking our eyes, produced the sensation known as light. many things were found out about light in the years which followed the discovery of its velocity. the lengths of the waves were ascertained--that is to say, the distance from the crest of one to the crest of the next. the different lengths were sorted out and found to give rise to different colours, while longer waves, which produced no sensation of light, were found to carry heat, thereby explaining how the heat reaches us from a distant fire, or from the sun. of the actual nature of the waves, however, little was known, although there was a vague idea that they were connected in some way with electricity, at which point in the story there comes in the famous name of james clerk maxwell, a professor of cambridge university, who in produced before the royal society the explanation of the nature of the waves and their connection with electricity and magnetism. that in itself was a wonderful achievement, but far more wonderful still is the fact that he truly predicted the existence of longer waves than any then known, which no one knew how to cause, or how to detect if caused. that prediction has since been fulfilled. the long waves have been found; we know how to make them and how to perceive their presence. they are the messengers which carry our wireless messages. the discovery of these, at that time unknown waves, on paper, by simply calculating and reasoning about them, is more marvellous even than the feat of adams and le verrier in discovering a planet on paper before anyone had seen it. it established maxwell among the heroes of science for all time. a magnet acts upon a piece of iron some distance away. the pull must be transmitted through some kind of ether. a current of electricity behaves in the same way, acting precisely as a magnet, with power to affect things at a distance. again an ether is necessary. a dynamo works by moving a magnet past a wire which it does not touch, thereby generating current in it. there again an ether is necessary to transmit the effect from the one to the other. taking, then, the known magnetic effects of an electric current and the electrifying effects of magnets, he was able to show that the same ether accounted for all, and for the transmission of light as well, that, in fact, there was but one ether which performed all these various duties. he proved from the known facts about electricity and magnetism that waves such as he imagined would, in fact, move with the speed of light. and once knowing the nature of the waves, he asserted that in all probability there were others of which men had then no practical knowledge. maxwell's theory soon set experimenters searching for the means of producing the long waves which he had predicted would be found. several authorities had before then stated their belief that the current derived from a leyden jar was not simply a flow in one direction. they suggested, and gave grounds for the belief, that the current surged to and fro for some time before it settled down; that it swung to and fro, indeed, like a pendulum. there may be some of my readers who are unacquainted with this interesting piece of electrical apparatus the leyden jar. it is a convenient form of what is called an electrostatic condenser. this is two conductors, generally in the form of two plates with an insulator between them. in the leyden jar the insulator is a glass jar, while the "plates" are coatings of tinfoil, one inside and the other outside. on connecting one coating to one pole of a battery, and the other to the other pole, they become charged, one positively and the other negatively. one, that is, acquires an excess of electricity, while the other becomes deficient to an exactly similar extent. when the two are afterwards connected by a wire the surplus on one flashes through it to make good the deficiency on the other. rushing first of all from positive coating to negative, electrical inertia causes it to overshoot the mark and to recharge the jar with the charges reversed. then current begins to flow back again, doing the same several times over, until at last equilibrium is established. the power to absorb and hold a charge of electricity, which is the characteristic of a condenser, is called "capacity." what, then, is "electrical inertia"? i have already referred to the effect which the creation of a magnetic field around a current has upon neighbouring conductors. it also has an effect upon itself. as soon as the current begins to flow it builds up the magnetic field, and in the process some of its energy is exhausted. on the original current ceasing, however, the magnetic field collapses back on to the conductor once more and in so doing restores that energy. this occurs whenever current flows, but it is specially noticeable in long conductors, like submarine cables. in them the battery has to act for a considerable time before any current reaches the farther end. it is in the meantime employed in building up the magnetic field around the wire. then when the battery has ceased to act the current still comes flowing out at the farther end--the magnetic field is giving back the energy expended upon it. thus a current is reluctant to start flowing through a conductor, and, having started, is disinclined to stop. this is called "inductance," and it has exactly the same effect upon the current that inertia has upon a body. what inertia is to a material body inductance is to an electric current. and lastly, the resistance which the conductor offers to the passage of the current is precisely analagous to the friction of the water in a pipe. so, we see, the "capacity" of the two coatings of the jar and the inductance which occurs in the connecting wire cause the current to oscillate to and fro for a while when the jar is discharged, which surging or oscillation is ultimately stopped by the resistance of the wire. the two coatings and the wire form what is called an oscillatory circuit. we can now resume our story. after much experimenting hertz, of carlsruhe, discovered the fact that when a discharge was taking place in an oscillatory circuit tiny sparks passed between the ends of a curved wire held some distance away. his apparatus is illustrated in figs. and . the former, which is termed nowadays a "hertz oscillator," is simply two metal discs almost connected by a thick wire. the wire is broken, however, at the centre, and the two halves terminate in two metal balls. each ball is connected to one terminal of an induction coil. now the current comes from an induction coil in a series of spurts. it is not an alternating current exactly (since every alternate current is so feeble as to be negligible), but is practically an intermittent current always in the same direction. thus we may call one the positive end of the coil and the other the negative. a short current comes along with every backward movement of the little vibrating arm which forms a part of the apparatus. this breaking of the "primary" circuit may take place perhaps fifty times per second, so that the intermittent "secondary" currents will succeed each other at intervals of a fiftieth of a second, or even less. the brain reels at the attempt to think of a fiftieth of a second, but it is really quite a long interval as these things go, and during that interval quite a lot happens. for the current first of all charges the two plates as a condenser. [illustration: fig. .--the apparatus by which hertz made his discoveries, hence called the hertz oscillator. _a a_ are metal plates; _d_ is the spark-gap between the two metal balls; _b_ is the battery, and _c_ the induction coil.] when they are as full as they will hold the current overflows, as it were, across the gap between the two balls. now an air-gap--a gap that is filled with air, between two conductors--is a very strong insulator. but when current has once broken through it it becomes a fairly good conductor. hence as soon as the first spark has passed between the two knobs the plates become connected almost as if a wire were passed from one to the other. and there we have quite a good oscillatory circuit. there is capacity at each end and a fairly long length of wire to provide the inductance. consequently that breakdown of the insulation of the air in the spark-gap is followed by electrical oscillations which take place with inconceivable rapidity. yet because of the resistance of the spark-gap, which is considerable even after it has been broken through, the oscillations do not continue for long. they have died away long before the lapse of a fiftieth of a second, when the next impulse comes along from the coil. in the meantime the air-gap regains its insulating properties, and so, on the arrival of the next impulse, the whole thing occurs once more. thus a little train of oscillations is produced for every impulse from the coil. every train causes a corresponding disturbance in the ether, and sends off a train of electro-magnetic waves, and these, falling upon the distant wire, generate in it a train similar to that which brought them into being. these trains, in hertz' simple apparatus, manifested themselves in the form of minute sparks leaping across the small gap between the ends of the curved wire (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--hertz "detector." it was with this simple apparatus that hertz discovered how to detect the "wireless waves."] it was in that hertz made this discovery of a way to detect long electric waves. he subjected the matter to many more experiments and found that the waves have many points in common with light rays. he found that they were reflected from certain surfaces, just as light is reflected from the surface of a mirror. he made prisms which were able to bend them as light waves are bent by a prism of glass. some things appeared to be transparent to them, as clear glass is to light, while others are opaque. it does not follow that the same things which reflect light waves reflect electric waves, and so on. the latter can pass through a brick wall, for example. but the same divergence is to be observed between light and radiant heat, of which the action of glass is a familiar example. clear glass will let light through almost undimmed, yet we use it for fire-screens to shield us from too much radiant heat. the important fact is that all three--light, radiant heat and hertzian waves--in addition to travelling at the same speed, are reflected, absorbed or refracted, according to precisely the same principles. this is almost perfect testimony to their essential identity. the difference between them, as has been said already, is the distance from crest to crest of the waves--the "wave-length," that is. and the reader will wonder by what manner of means this mysterious dimension can be ascertained. in spite of its seeming mystery the method is very simple. it is based upon the fact that two sets of similar waves travelling at the same speed in opposite directions interfere with one another in a peculiar way. suppose that one set of waves travel along to a reflector and strike it vertically; then another set will travel back from the reflector exactly similar to the first, except that their direction will be opposite. and the result will be that at certain intervals they will exactly neutralise each other, so that at those points there will be no wave-action appreciable at all. those points where no action is to be perceived are called "nodes," and they are exactly half a wave-length apart. this will be quite easily understood from the accompanying diagrams. in each of these diagrams the set of waves marked _a_ are supposed to be moving from left to right, while those denoted by _b_ are reflected back and are moving from right to left. it will be noticed that each wavy line has a straight line drawn through it, dividing it into alternate crests and hollows, which line is known as the axis of the waves. now notice that in fig. there are points marked x, where the _a_ waves are just as much above the axis as the _b_ waves are below it, and vice versa. hence at those points the two sets of waves will neutralise each other. now turn to the next figure, which, be it remembered, shows the same waves a moment later, when they have moved a little farther on in their respective journeys, and it will be seen that there, too, are places marked x where the two sets of waves neutralise each other. and the same with the third diagram. and finally observe that the places marked x are always the same in all the diagrams--that is to say, they are always the same distance from the line on the right-hand side, which denotes the reflector. it will be clear, too, that each node is half a wave-length from the next. thus it can be shown that at every moment, and not merely at the three indicated in the diagrams, the two sets neutralise each other at the nodes, that the nodes are always in the same places and half a wave-length apart. [illustration: figs. , and .--these diagrams help us to see how the "wireless waves" are measured. the _a_ waves are supposed to be moving from left to right and the _b_ waves from right to left. at the points marked x they neutralise each other. it is then easy to discover those points and the distance apart of any two adjacent ones is half the "wave-length." _n.b._--in fig. the _b_ waves fall exactly on top of the _a_ waves.] everywhere else, except at the nodes, there is action more or less energetic, but _there_ is perpetual calm. but how can we tell where the nodes are? when we recollect that they are points at which no wave-motion at all takes place it is easy to see that we shall at those points get no spark in our detector. so what hertz did was to set his oscillator going so that it threw waves upon a reflecting surface and then move his detector to and fro in the neighbourhood until he found the nodes. between the nodes, as will be seen by an inspection of the curves once more, there are other points at which the wave-action will be twice as great as with the single wave, and so at those points the response of the detector would be especially energetic. this mutual action between an incident wave and a reflected wave is termed "interference," and by it the wave-lengths of all the ethereal waves have been measured. the plan used in the case of light waves, although the same in principle, is somewhat different because of the extreme shortness of the waves. so the experiments of hertz not only showed that long electric waves existed, but that they were in all essentials similar to light, and their wave-lengths were ascertained. on that basis has been built up modern wireless telegraphy. it may be interesting to mention at this point a very curious, and in a sense pathetic, incident. professor hughes, whose name is associated with certain well-known instruments for ordinary telegraphy, nine years before hertz' discovery noticed that a microphone was affected by the action of an induction coil some distance away. he himself attached some importance to the matter, but he allowed himself to be dissuaded from following up the discovery by other scientists, more eminent than himself at the time, who thought that it was not a promising field for investigation. but for the influence of these friends he would possibly be the hero of this story in place of hertz. professor silvanus thomson has said that he too noticed the sparks produced at a distance when a leyden jar was discharged, but he makes no claim to precedence over hertz, since, seeing the phenomenon, he did not perceive its real meaning, while hertz, though a little later in time, realised the profound significance of it. hertz himself in his account of his experiments is generous enough to assert that, had he not discovered the waves when he did, he is quite certain that sir oliver lodge would have done so. before proceeding to describe the principal apparatus used in the wireless station i should like to devote a little space to the explanation of a term which will come up again and again, and which represents that which is responsible, in the main, for the marvellous advances which the art of sending wireless messages has achieved in the last few years. i refer to "resonance." it will be a great help if the reader will try for himself a simple, inexpensive little experiment. stretch a string horizontally across a room and on to it tie two other strings so that they hang down vertically a little distance apart. to the ends of the two strings tie some small objects--a cotton reel on each will answer admirably. they will thus form two pendulums, and, to commence with, they should be just the same length. having rigged all this up, give one pendulum a good swing. it will impart motion of a to-and-fro variety to the supporting string, which in its turn will pass that motion on to the other pendulum. in a very short time, then, the second pendulum will be vibrating like the first. indeed the _whole_ motion of the first will shortly become transferred to the second, so that the second will be swinging and the first still. then the second will re-transfer its energy back to the first, and so they will go on until the original energy given to the first pendulum is exhausted. the point to be observed is the quickness with which one pendulum responds to the impulses given it by the other, and the ease with which the energy of the one passes to the other. now reduce the length of one pendulum. on setting the first in motion a certain irregular spasmodic action is to be observed in the second, but it is very different from the "whole-hearted" response in the previous instance. in the former case the second one responded naturally and readily to the first. now its response is reluctant in the extreme. it moves somewhat because it is forced to, but it is apparently unwilling. energy has to be _impressed_ upon it. there is no readiness, because there is no sympathy between them. that sympathy between the two equal pendulums is "resonance." the same occurs between two violin or piano strings when they are "in tune." the explanation is that a pendulum has a certain natural frequency which depends upon its length. another pendulum of the same length, arranged as just described, therefore imparts impulses to it at just the frequency which is natural to it. consequently the effect is a cumulative one, and it responds quickly. impulses at any other frequency tend more or less to neutralise each other. in the same way a string, of a certain length and a certain tension, has a frequency peculiarly its own, and it will respond to another similar string because the other gives its impulses at its own natural frequency. it is on record that an engine in a factory happened to run at precisely the same speed as the natural frequency of the building, with the result that after a little time the structure shook so much that it collapsed. now electrical circuits in which currents oscillate have a natural frequency of their own. that frequency depends upon the two electrical properties of the circuit: capacity and inductance. and if you want to set up an electrical oscillation in any circuit you can best do it by giving it impulses at intervals which agree with its natural frequency. sir oliver lodge seems to have been the first to appreciate fully the effects of resonance in wireless telegraphy. it is strange that in england the work of this eminent man in "wireless" matters is not more fully recognised. when wireless telegraphy reached the point at which the public became interested, marconi was just coming to the front and so, for ever, will his name be foremost in the public estimation. indeed more than foremost, for in the minds of many he monopolises the credit for this invention. many people are under the impression that he is the one and only, or at any rate the original, inventor of wireless telegraphy. now marconi has done exceedingly valuable work in this field. moreover, he has been the means of placing the affair on a good commercial footing. but all the same he is by no means the original or only inventor. while admitting that he is a remarkable man, who has done wonders, it is only common justice to refer to the others whose contributions to the solution of the problem are possibly of equal value. and, of these, few can compare with sir oliver lodge. but to return to the question of resonance. at first the distances over which messages could be sent were but small. now a marconigram can be flung across a hemisphere. at first little could be done by day, work had to be done mainly at night. now communication passes by day and night alike. yet in principle, and in many details, the instruments are unaltered from what they were several years ago. the main source of all this improvement is the use of resonance. to enumerate broadly the apparatus used for the dispatch and receipt of messages the following list will be useful:-- _transmitting end_ ( ) an antenna, consisting of a number of wires raised to a considerable height above the ground. ( ) a spark-gap, consisting of a series of metal balls with gaps between them, the outer ones being connected to the antenna and to the induction coil. ( ) a powerful induction coil with batteries or other source of current to work it. ( ) a telegraph key, by which the induction coil can be started and stopped at will. _receiving end_ ( ) an antenna precisely similar to the other. ( ) a coherer or other "oscillation detector." ( ) a receiving instrument which may be a writing telegraph instrument, a telephone, any of a number of ordinary telegraph instruments, or a galvanometer. transmitting and sending instruments are, of course, installed at both ends and either of them can be connected to the antenna at will by the simple movement of a switch. the antenna plays the part of one of the metal plates in the hertz oscillator. early experiments were made with hertz apparatus, but the range of such a contrivance is very limited. for one thing, it neglects to take advantage of the earth. it is little realised what an important part the earth plays in the carrying of wireless messages. a very great step was taken when marconi dispensed with one of the plates of hertz, and used the earth instead; while the other plate gave place to the elevated wires, the most familiar part of the apparatus to most people. the condenser is thus formed by the earth as one plate, the elevated wires as the other, and the intervening air as the insulator. the "capacity" must be exceedingly small in such an apparatus, but it is sufficient; while the long lines of electrical force stretching from the high antenna to the earth produce waves of great carrying power. lastly, when the earth forms a part of the condenser the waves cling to it, so that instead of being largely dissipated into space, they move along the surface of the earth. the advantage of this is obvious. at first it was customary to place the spark-gap in the wire leading from the antenna to the earth, as in the accompanying sketch. later, however, it was found better to place the coil and spark-gap in a local circuit in which the oscillations are first produced. these oscillations pass through a coil which is interwound with another one connected to the antenna and to earth, and thus the local oscillations, as we might call them, induce similar oscillations in the antenna, just as the fluctuations in one part of an induction coil induce fluctuations in the other. indeed the coil in the local circuit and the one in the antenna circuit actually constitute an induction coil. the advantage of this is that by introducing condensers the capacity of which can be varied, and coils the inductance of which can be varied, into the oscillation circuit it becomes possible to "tune" the circuits effectively. thus resonance comes into play and the power expended can be made to produce the maximum effect. some attempts have been made to displace the induction coil in wireless telegraphy altogether by a specially made dynamo. these machines can produce either alternating or continuous currents, in fact the alternating current dynamo is really simpler than the more familiar continuous-current machine. the difficulty is, however, to run it sufficiently fast to produce sufficiently rapid alternations. nicola tesla made an alternator (to give the alternating current dynamo its short title) which could produce alternations per second, while mr w. duddell made one which produced , , but neither was satisfactory for the work in question. could such a machine be made, it would be invaluable, for it will be apparent that a continuous succession of waves would be formed by it and not a succession of short trains of waves such as is produced by the induction coil and spark-gap. the difficulties are not electrical, but mechanical. it seems doubtful if a machine will ever be made to run with sufficient rapidity which would not knock itself to pieces in a very short time. [illustration: fig. .--the simplest form of wireless antenna.] small alternators are used sometimes, however, to supply alternating current to the primary of an induction coil, or transformer, as it is more often called in its larger sizes. the interrupter is only needed when the primary current is continuous--from batteries, for example. alternating current needs no interrupter, and so that bother is removed. the alternations of a hundred or so per second, which are quite the common thing with alternators, are just what is needed to excite an induction coil. consequently small machines of this kind are to be found in many stations. a danish inventor, valdemar poulsen, has adopted an altogether different method of producing electrical oscillations, which method is the distinctive feature of his mode of telegraphy. he takes advantage of a curious effect of passing current between two rods, one of which is carbon, so as to form an arc such as we see in arc lamps. my readers are already familiar with the term "shunt" in connection with electrical matters, and so will perceive at once what is meant when a second circuit is said to be arranged as a shunt to the arc. the accompanying diagram will in any case make the matter clear. the current comes along from the battery or continuous-current dynamo to a hollow rod of copper which, to prevent it being melted, has cold water continually circulating inside it. thence the current jumps across to a carbon rod, forming an arc between the two rods, and returns whence it came. in its journey it traverses the coils of an electro-magnet, the poles of which are one each side of the arc. this tends to blow the arc out, as a puff of wind blows out a candle, an effect which a magnet always has upon an electric arc. the shunt consists of a wire leading from the copper to the carbon rod with a condenser and an inductance coil inserted in it. the latter coil also forms one part of that coil by which the oscillations in the local circuit are transferred to the antenna. the electrical explanation of what happens when the current is turned on to an arrangement like this is rather too complex to set out here. it depends upon a curious behaviour of the arc. it is really a conductor, yet it does not behave as ordinary conductors do, and the result is that the continuous current flowing through the arc is accompanied by an oscillating current in the shunt circuit. and the important feature of the arrangement is that these oscillations are continuous, in one long train, not in a succession of trains. the advantage of this has already been referred to. one other feature of the apparatus just described should be mentioned, since it will seem curious to the general reader. for it to work properly it is necessary that the arc should be enclosed in a chamber filled with hydrogen or a hydro-carbon gas. coal-gas is generally used. hertz' original discovery was that small sparks could be seen to pass between the ends of a curved wire when the electric waves fell upon it. such "spark detectors," as they are called, are useful in the laboratory, but not for practical telegraphy. [illustration: fig. .--diagram (simplified) showing how poulsen generates oscillations. current from a dynamo flows through the arc, whereupon currents oscillate through the condenser and coil (as described in the text).] several people seem to have noticed in years gone by that a mass of loose metal filings, normally a very bad conductor of electricity, became a much better conductor when an electrical discharge of some sort occurred near by. the demand for a wireless receiver had not then arisen, however, and so the discoveries were not followed up. consequently it remained to be rediscovered by branly, of paris, in . he placed some metal filings in a glass tube, the ends of which he closed with metal plugs. lying loosely together the filings would not conduct the current of a small battery from one plug to the other, but when a spark occurred not far away they suddenly became conductive and allowed it to pass. several years after this sir oliver lodge took up the idea as a receiver for wireless messages, and believing that its action was due to the waves causing the filings to cling together, he christened it "coherer." marconi succeeded in making a very delicate form of this, although working on strictly the same lines. the trouble with a coherer is that when once it becomes conductive it remains so unless the filings be shaken apart. lodge therefore arranged for the tube to be continually struck by clockwork or by a mechanism like that of an electric bell. marconi effected a further improvement by making the current passing through the coherer control the striking mechanism, so that the latter is normally quiet but administers one or two taps at just the right moment. sir oliver lodge and dr muirhead devised another detector which, though quite different in form, is really much the same in principle. a steel disc with a sharp knife-like edge is made to rotate above a vessel of mercury. the edge just touches the mercury but no more. on the top of the mercury there floats a thin layer of oil, a bad conductor. now as the disc revolves it picks up on its edge a film of oil, which it carries down into the mercury. the film adheres so tightly that it prevents the moving disc from actually touching the liquid metal. thus, under normal conditions, the two are electrically insulated from each other by the film of oil and no current can pass from mercury to disc. oscillations, however, caused by incoming electric waves, are able to break through the oil film and so bring disc and mercury into contact, whereupon the current flows. the constant movement of the disc restores the oil-film as soon as the oscillations cease. the reason why these detectors act as they do is not quite understood. one suggested explanation is that the oscillating currents heat the particles and so partially weld them together. another is that adjacent particles become charged as the plates of a minute condenser, and so are drawn tightly together as the plates in an electrostatic voltmeter are drawn towards each other. supposing that the original non-conductivity of the loose filings be due to the film of air which may surround them, either of these things would account for the film being broken or squeezed out, resulting in better contact and improved conducting power. but both suggestions seem to be contradicted by the fact that if the pieces in contact be of certain substances the coherer works the opposite way. under those conditions the conductivity is normally good, but the influence of the incoming waves causes it to become bad. in professor rutherford, now of manchester, described some discoveries which he had made as to the magnetic effects of oscillations. a simple little contrivance which he had constructed was operated by the discharge of a coil half-a-mile away, at that time a great performance. this detector was simply an electro-magnet with a steel core instead of the usual soft iron core. the reason the latter is used in the ordinary magnet is that it loses its magnetism the moment the current ceases to pass through the coil with which it is surrounded, while a steel core retains its magnetism. for most purposes a steel core would render an electro-magnet useless, but in this case it was desired that the core should be permanently magnetised. so a current was first passed through the coil to magnetise the core, and then the coil was connected to a simple form of antenna while a swinging magnet was brought near so that the magnetic power of the core would be indicated and any change made apparent. the effect of the discharge half-a-mile away was to _de_magnetise the core slightly. this was shown by the movement of the swinging magnet, and so the first "magnetic detector" was found. but here, perhaps, i ought to explain the use of the antenna at the receiving station--its function at the sending end has already been made clear. the electro-magnetic waves, coming from the distant transmitter, strike the receiving antenna and in so doing _set up in it oscillations such as those which set them in motion_. for every oscillation in the sending antenna there will be another, similar in every respect except that it will be feebler, in the receiving antenna. and the oscillations are here led to the detector, of whatever form it may be, and in it they make their presence felt. in some few cases a duddell thermo-galvanometer has been employed as the detector, in which the oscillating currents report themselves directly. in coherers the detector works by causing the oscillating currents to control a continuous current from a battery and it is the latter which actually gives the signal, but there are a number of extremely interesting means which have been invented to detect the oscillating currents by their heating effect. r. a. fessenden, for instance, has perfected one which is a marvel of delicate workmanship. he depends upon the heating of a wire by the currents passing through it. such heating is the result of the electrical force acting against resistance, and the difficulty is that if the resistance be great it will almost entirely kill the faint oscillating forces in the receiving antenna, while if, on the other hand, it be small, the rise in temperature will be inappreciable. so he encloses a fine thread of platinum in a glass bulb from which the air is exhausted. the platinum wire is first of all embedded in a wire of silver: the silver wire is given a core of platinum, in fact. then the compound wire is drawn down until it is so thin that the platinum core is only one and a half thousandths of an inch in diameter. a short length of this compound wire is then bent into a u-shaped loop and its ends connected to thicker wires. finally the bottom of the loop is immersed in nitric acid, which eats away the silver at that point and leaves the bare platinum. thus is produced a very short length (a few millimetres) of exceedingly thin platinum wire supported at its ends by comparatively thick wires. being so short, this wire does not offer much resistance, and consequently does not materially check the oscillations. at the same time, since it is so fine, it does offer some resistance, and finally, since what heat is generated will be in an exceedingly small space, it will be appreciable there. a telephone is arranged so that its current also passes through the fine wire, and every slight variation in the temperature of the platinum wire, by varying its resistance, varies the current through the telephone. and exceedingly slight variations can be detected by sound in the telephone. thus the oscillations generated in the antenna affect the heat in the wire; that affects its resistance; and that again affects the telephone, which, finally, affects the ear of anyone who is listening to it. it must be understood, however, that this is not a wireless telephone, for the sounds heard are not articulate but merely long and short sounds, representing the dots and dashes of the "morse code." electrolysis provides us with another form of detector. an exceedingly small platinum wire forms one electrode and a large lead plate the other, and both are immersed in dilute acid. the passage of current from a local battery sets up electrolysis, and so stops itself by forming a film of oxygen on the small electrode. this film, however, is broken by the oscillating currents from the antenna, so that as long as they are coming the battery current can flow, but as soon as they cease the battery current stops itself again. thus the flowing and stopping of the oscillating currents is exactly copied by the current from the battery, which current is led through a telephone or a sensitive galvanometer. it may occur to readers to inquire why the oscillating currents are not passed direct to a galvanometer. the answer is that because they are oscillating a very sensitive galvanometer is not possible. true, the duddell thermo-galvanometer has been mentioned in this connection, but although it is a beautiful instrument it cannot compare for delicacy with the direct-current galvanometers. the latter are easily a _hundred thousand times_ more sensitive. but the trouble can be overcome by "rectifying" the oscillating currents, by passing them through a "unidirectional" conductor--one, that is, which passes current one way only. these remind one of a turnstile as installed at certain public places, which let you out but will not let you in unless you pay. in fact they will not let you _in_ at all. in like manner "rectifiers" will only allow those currents to pass which are flowing in one direction, and so they cut out every alternate oscillation, thus producing something very like continuous current, which can be detected by the very delicate galvanometers which are usable where continuous currents are concerned, or more often by a telephone receiver. the rectifying conductors are in many cases crystals, hence these detectors are called "crystal detectors." carborundum is a favourite for this purpose. and that brings us to the important question of the secrecy of wireless communication, and the measures taken to prevent confusion from the number of independent messages flying through the air at the same time. this can be largely achieved by the aid of resonance. trains of waves flung out by one antenna may strike several other antennæ, but unless the latter are in tune with the sending apparatus they will probably not be affected appreciably. let one of them, however, be in tune, and it will pick up easily the message which is not noticed by the others. it is as if three people watching a distant lamp were affected by a form of colour-blindness which rendered them practically blind to all colours except one. suppose one could see red only, the other blue and the third yellow. a light sent through a blue glass being robbed of all rays except the blue ones would be visible only to the man who could see blue. the man who could see blue would, in like manner, be quite blind to light sent through red or yellow glass. each of them, in fact, could be signalled to quite independently of the others by simply sending him rays of the colour to which his eyes were sensitive. in precisely the same way each wireless receiver is or can be made most sensitive to waves of a particular length and practically blind to all others. the operator can adjust his apparatus for certain prearranged wave-lengths, and so he can communicate with secrecy to stations whose wave-length he knows. the change, of course, is made by altering the capacity, or inductance, or both. the instruments can be so calibrated that it is quite easy to make the alteration. then, antennæ can be so constructed that messages can be received with most readiness from one particular direction. in others, they can be received from any direction, but the direction can be discovered. this, it will be easy to see, is of great value to ships in a fog. antennæ made with a short vertical part and a long horizontal part radiate best in the direction away from which their horizontal part points. this is of great advantage in stations which are built specially to communicate with other particular stations. in such cases the antenna is carefully built, so as to point in the required direction. such antennæ also receive more readily those signals which come from the direction away from which they are pointing. reference has been made already to the interesting fact that wireless communication is easier at night than in the daytime. that is probably because of the "ionisation" of the atmosphere by the action of sunlight. along with the visible sunlight there comes to us from the sun a quantity of light known as "ultra-violet," since it makes its effect known in the spectrum of sunlight beyond the violet, which is the limit of visibility at one end of the spectrum. we cannot see it but it affects photographic plates powerfully. it has energetic chemical powers, and it has the ability to make the air more conductive than it is ordinarily. comparatively little of it penetrates our atmosphere, but it must exercise a good deal of influence a little higher up. now readers will remember that the process by which electro-magnetic waves are propagated is checked when the waves strike a conductor. the energy in the waves is then employed in causing currents in the conductor instead of forming more waves. and so partially conductive air forms a partial barrier to the waves. the effect is not appreciable in the case of the tiny waves of light and heat, but it is in the case of the long "wireless waves." everyone has seen the waves of an advancing tide coming up a sandy beach, and has noticed how the dry sand (a good conductor of water) sucks up and destroys the foremost ripples. in like manner are the wireless waves "sucked up" by the partially conductive atmosphere. but the effect of the ultra-violet light does not last long, and so, at night-time, it disappears. therefore messages can be sent better at night than by day. for wireless _telephony_ what is wanted is a continuous uninterrupted train of waves, such as those from the "poulsen arc," and a receiver of the magnetic type. the coherer is no good for this purpose, since it either stops the current entirely or lets it flow copiously. the magnetic detectors, however, respond to the variations in the strength of the incoming waves. as the latter increase or decrease in strength so does the magnetic detector give out stronger or weaker signals. so a telephone transmitter of the ordinary type is made to vary the strength of the oscillations at the sending end, while an ordinary telephone receiver is placed in series with the detector at the receiving end. thus every slight variation corresponding to sound waves spoken into the transmitter is reproduced in the receiver. it is strange that wireless telephony has not made greater progress, for it may be said, on the word of one of the greatest authorities, that wireless telephony is simpler and easier than telephony through a submarine cable. in the latter there are almost insuperable obstacles caused by the capacity and inductance of the circuit, while in the wireless method there is very little difficulty. there are, of course, several so-called "systems" of wireless telegraphy in use. there is the marconi in great britain; the secret admiralty system in the british navy; the de forest in the united states; the telefunken in germany, not to mention the promising poulsen system. and there are still others. but it would be futile to attempt to explain how they differ from one another in a work like this. in principle they are alike. the precise forms of instrument used may vary, but even there there is much in common between them. as time goes on there will inevitably be a tendency to more and more uniformity. that is always the case, for some things are inherently better than others, and rival systems, although each is working along its own lines, always come to very much the same result in the end. without making any comparisons, it is safe to say that if the telefunken system, for example, has any points of superiority over the marconi, the latter will sooner or later find out the fact, and will modify their apparatus accordingly. in all probability this will operate both ways, and some things which the german system is now using will give place to those which the british have in operation. in another very modern industry this is very apparent. having attended and carefully studied several annual exhibitions of flying machines, i have noticed with great interest how the varying types of a few years ago are merging into the more or less uniform types of to-day. and it has been the same with wireless telegraphy, and will be still more so in the future. the best means of generating the waves and the best means of detecting them at a distance--that is the whole problem, and all the workers in it will sooner or later come to much the same conclusions as to which are the best ways. patents may do a little to delay this, but not much. for one thing, patents only last a few years. for another, a patent only covers a particular way of doing a particular thing. a machine that is termed "patent" is often the subject of a hundred patents, each covering a particular little point. it is well-nigh impossible to patent a whole machine. a general principle cannot be patented, only a particular application of that principle, and so there are in a great many cases little variations of a patented method which are quite as good as the patented one, and which can be used freely. so even patents will not have much effect, in all probability, upon this unification process. but, however that may be, there is no doubt that the whole world owes a deep debt of gratitude to the men who have worked out this most beneficent of inventions. it is difficult to think of a single one which has ever brought such a load of benefits to poor, struggling humanity as this has. the ship in distress, the lighthouse man on his lonely islet, the explorer in the polar regions, the pioneer settler in the new lands--in fact, just those who most need some connecting link with their fellows--are the people to whom the wireless telegraph brings aid and comfort. all honour to the men who have done it. chapter xiii how pictures can be sent by wire the sending of a message by telegraph is easily understandable. various combinations of two simple signs, such as short sounds and long sounds, can readily be made to indicate letters by which the words can be spelt out. nor does the sending of sound over a wire make a very great demand upon the credulity. we all know that sound consists of innumerable little waves in the air, and by the simplest of devices these can be converted into variations in an electric current, which variations, by means equally simple, can be made to re-convert themselves back into sound waves at the other end. but to transmit a picture is another matter altogether. it seems barely possible in the case of a drawing such as a pen-and-ink sketch, which consists of a comparatively small number of definite lines; but with a shaded sketch or a photograph, with its gradations of light and shadow--to transmit such would seem to be beyond the bounds of possibility, did we not know that it has been done. the description of the methods will therefore constitute a not uninteresting subject for a chapter. it is worthy of remark that an attempt along these lines was made many years ago by a man named caselli, and a description of this pioneer apparatus will form a good introduction to the later developments. in fig. we see a square which represents a sheet of tinfoil, upon which is drawn, in non-conductive ink, a simple geometrical figure. the ink may be grease, or shellac varnish, indeed there are many substances which are available for use as an insulating ink. across the square there are a number of parallel dotted lines, but these, it must be understood, are not actually drawn upon the foil--their purpose will be apparent in a moment. suppose that we connect the foil to one pole of a battery, and the other pole by a flexible wire to a metal pen or stylus. if we place the point of the pen in contact with the foil, we make a complete circuit, through which, of course, current will flow. but if, with it, we touch one of the non-conductive lines, there will be no current. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] taking a ruler, then, let us draw the point of the stylus across the foil in a series of parallel straight lines. it is these excursions of the stylus which the dotted lines are intended to represent. for nearly the whole of the time current will be flowing; but whenever the stylus is crossing one of the lines of non-conductive ink there will be a momentary cessation. thus, the reader will begin to perceive, we obtain what we may call an electrical representation of the figure drawn upon the foil. and now let us turn to fig. . there, too, is a square, but in this case it is not foil, but paper which has been soaked in prussiate of potash. the reason for introducing this chemical is that it is susceptible to electrical action. wherever current passes through it, it becomes changed into prussian blue, so that if we place the point of a pen upon the paper, and cause current to flow out of that point through the paper, there we get a blue dot. if, while the current is flowing, we draw the pen along, we get a blue line. fig. therefore represents in principle the sending apparatus of caselli's writing telegraph, while fig. represents the receiving instrument. the two pens are connected together by the main wire, in such a manner that, when the point of the one is in contact with the bare foil current flows out of the other and into the paper; but as the former crosses an ink line all current ceases. if, then, while the sending pen is drawn line by line across the foil, the other is drawn at the same speed, line by line, across the chemically prepared paper, we shall get on the latter a series of lines as shown in fig. almost continuous, but broken here and there. each breakage represents a passage of the sending pen across a line, and taken together, as will be seen, they constitute a reproduction of the geometrical figure drawn upon the foil. as shown, the lines are rather far apart, and so the reproduction is not a very good one. they are only drawn so, however, in order that the principle may be shown the more clearly. they may be drawn so that they overlap, and then the effect is very much better, the received picture being almost an exact reproduction of the other. it will be noticed that an essential to the success of this method is that the two pens should move in perfect unison, and that was the great difficulty. caselli used an arrangement of pendulums, the best thing available at the time. the reproduction is, in photographic language, a negative, a somewhat unsatisfactory feature of the method. a simple modification, however, of the electrical connections will reverse that, so that the reproduction shall be a positive. there are two ways of cutting off a current from any particular circuit. one is to interpose a resistance, through which current cannot pass in an appreciable quantity, and the other is to provide a second path for the current so much easier than the first that practically all the current will pass that way, leaving the first circuit, to all intents and purposes, free. it is as if a farmer wished to stop people passing across a certain field. two methods would be open to him: one to put up a high gate over which no one would dare to climb, and the other to provide a short cut so much more pleasant and convenient than the old path that no one having the choice of the two ways would think of going the old way. what the farmer would call a short cut the electrician calls a short circuit, and a short circuit is often a more convenient way of cutting off a current than a switch which interposes resistance. at all events, in a case like this, a short circuit enables that to be accomplished which would be very difficult by any other means. in the apparatus as already described the battery had to drive the current along a long wire, terminating at the distant receiving instrument, whence the current returned via the earth. the foil and pen, acting as a kind of electrical "tap," controlled this. when foil and pen touched, the tap was open and current flowed. when the line of non-conductive ink interposed itself, the tap was off and the flow ceased. but connect the battery directly to the wire, and place the foil and pen in a short branch circuit, and the whole thing is reversed. then the opening of the "tap" sent current to the other end; now the opening of the tap causes it to flow round the short branch and leave the main wire. then the closing of the tap stopped the current reaching the farther end; now it causes it to do so. in fact, the entire action of the apparatus is completely reversed, and the bare parts of the foil become represented by blank paper, while the insulating lines produce the marks. in short, a positive results instead of a negative. such was the scheme of caselli years ago. it is mentioned here at some length, since the principle of it is largely re-used in an improved form in the most successful of modern apparatus for a like purpose. it undoubtedly was a very excellent scheme, simple and effective, which ought to have succeeded; but it did not do so, for the sufficient reason that at that time knowledge of electricity and skill in constructing delicate mechanism were not so highly developed as they are to-day. for success, as has already been said, one thing was essential, and that thing very difficult to obtain--a perfect synchronism between one stylus and the other. if the one were but the slightest degree "out of step" with the other, failure followed inevitably. so the electrical transmission of sketches dropped for the time being. more recently a perfectly successful solution of the problem has come in another way altogether. this apparatus, at first called the telautograph, but now known as the telewriter, it will be more convenient to refer to later. of modern systems for the transmission of pictures the most successful, probably, are the korn telautograph and the thorn-baker telectrograph. both of these are able to transmit very fair reproductions of photographs besides line drawings. the difficulty with photographs is, of course, that many parts of them are not of equal blackness or whiteness, but shade off gradually from one into the other. take the case of a simple portrait. part of the subject's face will be pure white, while the side in shadow will be comparatively dark. there is no hard and fast line between the two, but by a gradation through an infinite number of shades the one tones into the other. how can it be possible to convey that, more or less mechanically, over a wire? the solution is due to the fact that the eye will blend together a number of distinctly different shades, if properly arranged, into a gradual change. really the change is step by step, but the effect is apparently quite continuous. this can be seen in the "half-tone" illustrations in this book. close examination will show that such a picture is cut up into small squares. in the pure white part the squares are invisible, while in the perfectly black parts, if there be any, they are so merged into one another as to be inseparable. but everywhere else in the picture it will be seen that there are squares each with a dot in the middle. in the darker parts the dots are large; in the lighter ones they are small. we get the effect almost of colour, although the picture is done entirely in black ink. the eye does not see the individual dots when we are just looking at the picture; we have to examine it very closely to find them. yet they are there all the time, and it is simply the peculiar action of the eye which sees beautiful half-tones, shading imperceptibly one into another, whereas in real fact there are only a vast number of equidistant dots, all equally black. we see, therefore, that it is possible to split up a picture of any kind into a number of small squares and to treat each square as being of equal darkness throughout. then, if we can communicate by wire that particular degree of darkness to a distant station, where the small parts can be put together in their proper order and given their correct shade, the picture as constructed at the receiving end will be something like that at the sending end. and we have only to make the size of each separate square small enough to obtain a copy which will resemble the original very closely indeed. in the early days it was actually proposed to telegraph pictures by ordinary telegraphy, using this principle. the suggestion was to agree upon a code of twenty-six shades, each called by a letter of the alphabet. one shade was to be _a_, the next _b_, and so on. then the picture was to be divided up into squares, and the particular shade of each square telegraphed by means of the corresponding letter. the shades thus communicated were to be put together at the receiving end, on a prearranged system, and so the picture was to be built up. given plenty of time, that scheme might be moderately successful, but to get a really good reproduction the subdivision needs to be so minute, and the number of squares, therefore, so immense, that it would be quicker to send the picture by train than to telegraph it by such laborious means. in a fairly coarse half-tone block the squares are, say, to the square inch. that number of letters would therefore have to be telegraphed for every square inch of picture transmitted, to say nothing of the difficulty of building up a picture of such a great number of parts and giving to each the desired shade. that idea, abortive though it is in its crude form, illustrates very clearly the fundamental principle on which this work is done. the problem is really to devise a machine which will do that same thing rapidly and automatically divide up the original into a large number of squares, and then send an electric current to represent each square, such current by its strength to indicate the shade of the square: and finally a similar instrument is needed to act as receiver, and to reproduce those squares in the proper order, giving to each its correct shade. in practically all of them the mechanism is rotatory, the original being placed upon a drum which turns round under a stylus, or its equivalent, while the stylus gradually travels along from end to end after the manner of the needle of a phonograph, or else the same result being achieved by the drum itself having an endwise movement as well as a rotative one. the receiving instrument is of similar form, and both must start together, move at the same speed and indeed preserve a perfect correspondence with each other. if the distance be great between the two there may be difficulties due to the "retardation" of the currents passing between them. electricity does not pass through long wires, particularly if they be under the sea, with anything like the quickness which we are apt to think. over a short line and under favourable circumstances the receipt of a telegraph signal at the farther end is practically instantaneous, but on long lines, and under certain conditions, that is far from being the case. then something has to be done to quicken the action of the current, or else the receiving drum must be made to lag behind the sending drum by the requisite amount. in some cases, too, the transmitting apparatus loses a little time in sending off the currents, and that, too, has to be allowed for, so that, all things considered, the reader will see that the successful solution of this problem is hedged about with many subtle difficulties which are probably only appreciated by those who are well acquainted by sad experience with the little vagaries of both electricity and mechanical devices. neither of them does quite what we want it to do; each suffers from little faults, which in the case of a delicate problem like this, where a difference of a hundredth of a second would be fatal to success, introduce difficulties almost insuperable. to transmit line drawings, professor korn uses a sending instrument very like that of caselli. the picture is placed, either by hand or photographically, upon a sheet of copper foil, which is fixed round the rotating cylinder, the lines being formed of non-conducting material. the foil being electrified and the stylus connected to the "line" or main wire, currents pass to the farther end just as in the old apparatus. at the receiving end the drum is covered with photographic paper and enclosed in a light-tight box. through a hole in this box a fine pencil of light passes from a lamp, suitable lenses being used to ensure that the pencil shall have, as it were, a very fine point, producing a very small spot of light upon the paper. if the light remains quite steady, the drum meanwhile rotating, a line will be drawn by it upon the paper which will be visible when the latter is developed. since the drum not only turns upon its axis, but also moves endwise one hundredth of an inch at every revolution, this line will be a spiral, the turns of which will be one hundredth of an inch apart. thus the paper will be blacked, practically uniformly, all over. should the intensity of the light vary, however, the line will at times be lighter than at others, while, should it be cut off altogether for a moment, then there will be a corresponding gap in the line, and it is easy to see that if these lighter parts or gaps occur in the correct places they will form a picture. in other words, by controlling that light we can build up a picture upon the paper. the question is how to control it. professor korn uses a form of the einthoven galvanometer already described. instead of the silvered fibre generally employed in this instrument, a silver wire is fitted, the movement of which partly or entirely cuts off the pencil of light. the korn transmitter for photographs is quite different, although the receiver is practically the same as what has just been described. the basis of it is a peculiar power possessed by the metal selenium when in a certain state. this, like all metals, is a conductor of electricity, but of course offers resistance in some degree. now the special feature of selenium is that its resistance is reduced if light shine upon it. suppose, then, that current be flowing through a mass of selenium and that the latter be suddenly illuminated brightly, the resistance will at once fall and the current increase. on the other hand, should the light falling upon the selenium diminish, its resistance will increase and the current flowing through it will decrease. in short, given a suitable arrangement, the current flowing in a circuit of which a selenium "cell" forms a part will increase or decrease with the increase or decrease in the light falling upon the cell. a while ago the papers were telling striking stories of a way by which blind people, so it was said, were to be recompensed for the loss of their sight--a new sense, as it were, was to be given them by which they could "hear" light, even if they could not see it. all this had reference to this curious property of selenium, it being, of course, an undoubted fact that it will vary an electric current in accordance with the variations in the light, and if that current be led through a telephone receiver a man, by holding that to his ear, could, in a sense, hear the variations in the light. [illustration: the telewriter this remarkable instrument transmits actual writing and drawings, the receiving pen copying precisely the movements of the sending pen] in the korn transmitter for photographs selenium is employed as follows:--a transparent photograph is made, on a celluloid or gelatine film, and this is fixed upon a glass cylinder mounted as already described. a pencil of light falls upon this in much the same way as in the case of the receiver just described, and, as the cylinder revolves, describes a fine spiral line all round and round it. moreover, the light passes right through the photograph and falls upon a mirror inside, off which it is reflected on to a selenium cell. at every moment, then, the light is falling upon some small part of the photograph, and the amount of it which gets through and ultimately reaches the selenium depends upon the density of that part. current, meanwhile, is flowing from a battery through the selenium, and thence over the main wire to the distant station. as the light pencil traces its spiral path over the rolled up photograph every variation in the density of the picture is reproduced as a variation in the current through the selenium. this, at the remote end, operates the einthoven galvanometer, the movements of which vary the shade of the spiral line being drawn upon the photographic paper. this process takes place with remarkable celerity, so that in a few minutes the innumerable variations constituting a complete photograph can be transmitted and faithfully recorded at the distant end of the wire. but perhaps the most successful of these methods is that known as the telectrograph. it is surprisingly like the scheme of caselli in principle, and forms another example of the fact that good ideas often fail through lack of the proper means to carry them out. mr thorne-baker, the inventor of the telectrograph, has had at his disposal accumulated stores of knowledge and skill which did not exist in caselli's time. consequently the former has made a brilliant success where his predecessor produced only an interesting but somewhat ineffective attempt. reference has been made already to the half-tone blocks wherein a host of small dots of varying sizes make up a picture. now instead of parallel rows of dots parallel lines of varying thickness will give very much the same result. the former are made by photographing the picture through a sheet of glass ruled with two sets of lines at right angles to each other. the latter can be made by using a screen with lines one way only instead of two ways. it is therefore quite easy for a blockmaker to produce a "process block" wherein lines are used instead of dots. for this particular purpose, however, it is not an ordinary block that is needed, although it is in essentials very similar. the picture to be transmitted is photographed through a screen as if a half-tone block were to be made. the negative so obtained is then printed by the gum process on to a sheet of soft lead and, after washing, the picture remains upon the lead in the form of lines of insoluble gum on a background of bare lead. a squeeze in a press drives the gum into the lead, and so gives the whole sheet a smooth surface over which a stylus will ride easily, but which is, nevertheless, made up of conductive parts and non-conductive parts, the latter forming the picture. the lead sheet is then put upon a revolving cylinder and turned under a moving stylus in the manner with which we are now familiar. the sheet is placed with the lines lengthwise of the cylinder so that current passes to the stylus except as it passes over the breadth of the lines, and so similar lines are built up at the distant end. the receiving mechanism is of the electro-chemical type which caselli used. the current passes from the receiving stylus to the paper, and there makes its mark in a way that will be understood from the description of the earlier apparatus. the supreme advantage of this method of working, over that of professor korn, is that the operator can see what he is doing. to obtain good results, a number of electrical adjustments have to be made, and whether he has got them right or wrong can be seen as soon as the picture begins to grow upon the receiving paper. if a little readjustment be needed the operator sees it and can set things right before the really important part of the picture begins to appear, whereas with the korn apparatus he does not know what is happening at all, since he can see nothing until the picture is finished and the photographic paper has been developed. it will be apparent, too, to anyone who has carefully considered the wireless telegraphy chapters, that it ought to be possible to make the sending stylus or its equivalent control a wireless transmitter and a wireless receiver to operate the receiving stylus, so as to be able to send pictures by "wireless." experiments to this end have been made with some measure of success, and sooner or later we are almost sure to hear that the difficulties, which are by no means small, have been overcome. but we cannot conclude this chapter without a fuller reference to that marvellous invention, the telewriter. in this a man makes a sketch with a pen on a piece of paper, or maybe he writes a message, and simultaneously a pen, hundreds of miles away if need be, does precisely the same thing. the receiving instrument draws the sketch line by line, or it transcribes the message in the actual handwriting of the sender. a little touch, almost weird in its naturalness, is that every now and then the receiving pen leaves the paper and dips itself into a bottle of ink, after which it resumes its work at the very spot where it left off. now how the complicated lines and curves, the strokes and dots which make up a written language, even the little shakes and defects which give each man's writing a personality of its own, how all these can be sent over a wire is at first sight very difficult to understand. the inventor of this apparatus has discovered an extremely simple way of doing it. but even he does not attempt to do it with one wire, it should be said, for he uses two. this is no drawback when, as is often the case, it is used in conjunction with a telephone, for the latter, to be effective, also requires two wires. years ago single wires were employed for telephones as for telegraphs, the circuit being completed through the earth. but the difficulty arose that every wire through which currents flow is apt to induce currents in neighbouring wires--the induction coil is based upon that fact--and so messages in one wire were overheard on others, or, what was perhaps more annoying still, the dots and dashes passing in a telegraph wire would produce loud noises in a telephone wire that happened to be near. the use of two wires, however, entirely removes that trouble, for the neighbouring current then induces two currents instead of one, one in each, and it so happens that these are opposed to each other, so that they neutralise each other. so every telephone wire now is double and therefore is ready, as it were, to have the telewriter fitted to it. but even with two wires the difficulty seems insuperable until we remember that the most complex of curves can be resolved into two simple movements. the sending pen, with which the original writing or drawing is done, is attached to the junction of two light rods. the farther end of each rod is attached to the end of a light crank fixed so that it can rotate or oscillate, after the manner of cranks, in the plane of the desk upon which the paper lies. all the joints mentioned are of the hinge nature, so that as the pen is moved about the rods turn, more or less, one way or the other, the two cranks. this simple mechanism, it will be observed, carries out very effectively the principle just mentioned, for it resolves the motion of the pen, no matter how complicated it may be, into a simple rotating motion of the two cranks. so the cranks turn this way or that as the draughtsman makes his picture, and it is very easy to arrange that their movement shall vary the strength of two electric currents, whereby we obtain electric currents varying in accordance with the movement of the cranks. this is done by making each crank operate a variable resistance or rheostat. when in its extreme position on one side the crank permits current to flow freely, but as it moves over to the other extreme position the resistance in the path of the current is increased. such an arrangement is a common feature in electrical apparatus. so current from a battery flows to the two wires leading to the distant station, each passing through the rheostat connected to one of the cranks. we may think of the rheostats as taps which can be turned on or off by the action of the cranks. let us imagine that crank _a_ is in the position when the current flows freely--when the electrical "tap" is fully open; then a strong current will flow along wire _a_, returning to the sending battery via the earth. as that crank is moved the current will gradually be reduced, until, if it be moved right over to the other extreme, the current will be at its feeblest. [illustration: fig. .--a message received by telewriter.] arrived at the other end, this current passes to a device which we may describe simply as a magnet so arranged that its action pulls round a crank against the restraining action of a spring. now the stronger the current the more does that magnet pull and the farther does the receiving crank turn. the sending crank varies the resistance, the resistance varies the current, the current varies the strength of the receiving magnet, and the magnet varies the position of the receiving crank. properly adjusted, then, the motion of the crank at the one end is communicated through that long chain of causes and effects, until at last it is repeated _exactly_ by the movement of the crank at the other end. the same thing occurs simultaneously over each of the two wires, crank _a_ at the sending end communicating over wire _a_ to crank _a_ at the other end, while crank _b_ communicates its motion over wire _b_ to the other crank _b_. each sending crank is closely imitated in its every action by the corresponding one at the distant station. the two receiving cranks are connected by light rods to the receiving pen in precisely the same way that the sending pen is connected. consequently, not only are the separate movements of the two cranks repeated at the remote station but the complex movements of the sending pen, which gave rise to the actions of the cranks, are also conveyed to, and repeated by, the recording pen. the movements of the first pen are resolved into rotating motions by the two cranks, these are transferred to the other cranks, and their movements are in turn converted back into the written curves. thus as the pen in the artist's hand draws his sketch, so does the automatic hand at the other place, it may be at a great distance, repeat faithfully his work, and the sketch grows line by line simultaneously at both ends. there is not space here to detail how, by another current superposed upon those referred to already, the receiving-pen is made to dip itself periodically into the inkwell at the will of the sender. by a cunning use of alternating current this is done without in any way interfering with the action of the cranks as described above. but of course there is a severe limitation to the usefulness of this machine, inasmuch as the drawing has to be made at the time of transmission, and it can only be "put on the wire" by the hand of the artist himself. chapter xiv a wonderful example of science and skill in the preceding chapter reference was made to the fact that for the successful sending of pictures "by wire" one thing was necessary above all others. that one thing consists in making two machines, perhaps hundreds of miles apart, start working together, stop together and, when working, turn at exactly the same speed. let the reader just picture the problem to himself, and ask himself how such an arrangement can be possible. let him think of a town two hundred miles away and then meditate on the possibility of making a machine working in his own room and another in that distant town maintain perfect unanimity in their movements. the result of such reflection will probably be the assertion that such a thing is beyond the bounds of possibility. then he will find the following description of how it is done extremely interesting. in the first place it must be understood that each machine is driven by an electric motor. the motors are designed to run at revolutions per minute, and they drive the cylinders of the machines through gearing so arranged that the latter turn at revolutions per minute. now of all machines perhaps the most docile and easily managed is the direct-current electric motor. each such machine is made with a view to its working at a certain speed, but that can be varied within certain limits, by simply varying the force of the current which drives it. and that force can be very easily varied by the use of an instrument called a "rheostat" or variable resistance. we are all familiar with the way in which the engine-driver regulates the speed of a locomotive, by means of a valve in the steam-pipe. the opening and closing, more or less, of the valve enables the speed to be changed at will and adjusted to a nicety. the rheostat is to the electric current what the valve is to the steam; it can be opened and closed, more or less, as necessary. by it the current driving the motor can be made stronger or weaker, and as that change is made so does the speed of the motor change accordingly. thus we see that there is at hand the means of setting a motor to work at any desired speed. the difficulty, however, is to tell when the desired speed has been attained. one can count the revolutions of a machine at two or three revolutions per minute with a certain amount of accuracy, but fifty revolutions per minute are more than one could count correctly. still less could we count the revolutions every minute of the motors. thus, even if we had the two motors side by side, we should have extreme difficulty in making them work at the same speed exactly. one might be doing while the other did or and we should be none the wiser. and when we separate the two by a distance of many miles, the task of synchronising them is even worse. but fortunately there is a simple contrivance by which we can tell very accurately the speed of a motor. the reader has already been familiarised, in previous chapters, with the difference between direct or continuous electric currents and alternating ones. it is the continuous sort which is used to drive these motors, but a slight addition to the machine will make it so that while direct current is put in, to drive it, alternating current can be drawn out of it. two little insulated metal rings are fitted on to the spindle of the machine, and these are connected in certain ways to the wires of the motor; then against these rings, as they turn, there rub two little metal arms, called, because of their sweeping action, brushes; and from these brushes we can draw the alternating current. for our present purpose the importance of this lies in the fact that the rate at which that current will alternate depends upon the speed of the motor. as the motor increases or decreases in speed, so will the rate of alternation increase or decrease. so that if we can measure the rate at which the current drawn from the motor is alternating, we shall know from that the rate at which the machine is working. this we can do by the aid of a "frequency meter." the working of this is based upon the acting of a tuning-fork. everyone knows that a given tuning-fork always gives out the same note. the note depends upon the rate at which the fork vibrates, and the reason that one fork always gives the same note is because it always vibrates at the same rate. that rate, in turn, depends upon its length. if one were to file a little off the end of a tuning-fork, its note would be raised, because its rate of vibration would become faster. similarly, lengthening the fork would result in a lower note being given. thus, a tuning-fork, or any bar of steel held by one end, and free to vibrate at the other, gives us a standard of speed which is very reliable. and it so happens that we can easily use a set of such forks to test the rate of alternation of an alternating current. generally speaking, alternating current is no use for energising a magnet. the chief reason for that is that the current tends to get choked up, as it were, in the coil. alternating current traverses a coil very reluctantly indeed. it is, however, possible to make an electric magnet of special design which will work sufficiently well with alternating current to answer our present purpose. and it will be clear that just as the alternating current itself consists of a series of short currents, so the force of the magnet will be intermittent; it will give not a steady pull, as is usually the case with magnets, but a succession of little tugs. there will, in fact, be one tug for every alternation of the current. a simple form of motor fitted up as just described, and rotating at revolutions per minute, would give out alternations per second. if, then, such current were employed to energise a magnet, that magnet would give tugs per second. so a small steel bar of the right length to give vibrations per second can be fixed with its free end nearly touching such a magnet, and when the current is turned on it will very soon be vibrating vigorously. for the tugs of the magnet will agree with the natural rate of vibration of the bar. and just as the two pendulums described in chapter xii. responded readily to each other, so the bar responds readily to the pulls of the magnet. but increase or decrease the rate of alternation ever so slightly, and that sympathy between magnet and bar is destroyed. the bar will not then respond. it will only answer when the pulls of the magnet and the natural rate of vibration of the bar exactly correspond. so it is usual to place five or six such bars with their ends near the one magnet. the lengths of the bars vary slightly, so that the rates of vibration are, say, , , , , respectively. let us, in imagination, adjust the speed of a supposititious motor until we get that which corresponds to alternations. we switch on the current and at first, possibly, we get no response from any of the vibrating bars. just a touch to the handle of the rheostat and we notice that bar shows signs of life. we see then that our first speed was much too fast, and that reducing it has brought it down to , which is still a little too fast. just a little more movement of the handle, and begins to relapse into quiet, while shows animation. a little more movement and gives place to , and then we know that our motor is working at the desired speed. if our motor had been too slow to commence with, it would have been which first got into action, but the method of adjustment would have been precisely the same. and thus we see the whole scheme. we regulate the speed by the rheostat, and meanwhile that tell-tale stream of alternating current comes flowing out of the motor to indicate to us what the speed is, while the "frequency meter," with its various vibrating bars, interprets to us the message which the alternating current brings to us. so by watching the meter we know when we have got the speed that we desire. but even that is only half the battle. we have seen how to make a machine turn at any desired speed, and so we can adjust any two, so that they revolve at the same speed, but we have not seen how to start and stop the two machines at the same time. first of all, it must be understood that in the case of the receiving machine there is a friction clutch, as it is termed, between the motor and the cylinder which it is driving. that means that while, under ordinary circumstances, the motor drives the cylinder round, we can, if we like, hold the latter still without stopping the motor. when we do so, the connection between the two simply slips. so if we fit a catch on the cylinder which is capable of holding it from rotating, we can still start the motor, and the latter will work. then, the moment the catch is released the cylinder will begin to turn too. the commonest form of "friction drive" is the flat leather belt upon two pulleys, which everyone has seen at some time or other in a factory. and it will be quite easy to conceive how, if one of the driven machines were to stick, the belt might simply slip upon one of the pulleys, yet, as soon as the machine became free again, it would rotate just as it did before. it is just the same with what we are considering. the motor works continuously at its proper speed, but the cylinder can be stopped when desired by the catch. combined with the catch is an electro-magnet, and through its coils there flows the current of electricity which is engaged in printing the picture on the cylinder. if a magnet be arranged to attract another magnet, it will do so only when the energising current flows one way. when it flows the other way, it does not attract. therefore it is easy to arrange matters so that the printing current, though passing through the coil of the magnet, shall not pull open the catch. but if that current be _reversed_ in direction for a moment the magnet gives a pull, open flies the catch, and away goes the cylinder upon its revolution. thus, we see, all that is necessary to start the receiving cylinder is to reverse the current for a moment. and now let us turn our attention to the sending machine. upon its cylinder there is an arrangement which automatically reverses the current flowing to the main wire once in every revolution. normally the current flows to the wire as described in the last chapter, carrying by means of its variations the details of the picture for reproduction by the receiving machine at the other end. but for an instant once in every revolution that current is interrupted and a current sent in the opposite direction instead. this the sending machine does of itself, quite automatically. and now the reader knows of all the apparatus; it remains only to see how the different parts work in combination. standing by the sending machine we first of all turn on the current, which goes coursing along the wire to the distant station. then we set the motor to work and the cylinder begins to rotate. before it has completed a single revolution the "reverser" is operated, and just for a moment the reverse current goes to the wire. on arrival at the other end that lifts the catch and the receiving cylinder starts. that first partial revolution of the sending cylinder counts for nothing. real business begins when the reverser first acts, and that is the moment when the receiving cylinder also begins to move. similarly, when the sending cylinder stops it sends no more reversed currents, and so the receiving cylinder is caught by the catch and not released. so starting and stopping are quite automatic. the same arrangement enables a continual readjustment of the relative speed of the two cylinders to take place. with all the best devices, the tuning-forks and the rest, it is still impossible to attain perfect unanimity, but the variation in a single revolution cannot be enough to matter; it is only when the error in one revolution goes on multiplying itself that serious difference might arise, and that is prevented in the following beautifully simple way. the motor which drives the receiving drum is so regulated that it travels _slightly faster_ than does the other. thus the receiving cylinder completes every revolution slightly in advance of the other, and consequently it is stopped and held by the catch every time. the catch retains it, of course, until the reverse current arrives and releases it. thus not only does the sending cylinder start the other when the operations first commence, but it does so every revolution. every revolution, therefore, the two cylinders start together. so the two cylinders are set, according to the frequency meter, at as nearly as possible exactly the correct speeds, and the action of the reverser, the reverse current and the catch, ensures quite automatically that at the commencement of every revolution there shall be perfect agreement between the two. no accumulation of errors can possibly occur, and the problem, though apparently so difficult, if not insuperable, at first sight, is surmounted. chapter xv scientific testing and measuring science, whether it be of the pure variety, that which is pursued for its own sake--for the mere greed for knowledge--or applied science, the purpose of which is to assist manufacture, is based entirely upon accurate testing and measuring. it is only by discovering and investigating small differences in size, weight or strength that some of the most important facts can be brought to light. there are some problems, too, that defy theory, since they are too complicated; they involve too many theories all at once, and such can only be solved by accurate tests. and all these necessitate the use of very ingenious and often costly devices. electrical measuring instruments were of sufficient importance and interest to warrant a chapter of their own, but there are many others of great value, and not without interest to the general reader. for example, some years ago there was a collision in the solent, just off cowes, between the cruiser _hawke_ and the giant liner _olympic_. the cause of this was a subject of dispute and of litigation; the theorists theorised; some reached the conclusion that the _hawke_ was to blame, and others the _olympic_; and where doctors disagree who shall decide? it was wisely decreed that tests should be made to settle the question. the main point was this. the officers of the _hawke_, by far the smaller vessel, averred that they were drawn out of their course by suction caused by the movement of so large a ship as the _olympic_ in the comparatively narrow and shallow waters of the solent; in other words, that the _olympic_ in moving through the water caused a swirling, eddying motion in the water, tending to draw a lighter vessel towards itself. and that is just one of those problems with which theory is unable to deal. so it was transferred to the national physical laboratory at teddington, near london, for investigation by experiment. at this institution, which is a semi-national one, there is a tank constructed for purposes such as this. the word tank leads us to underestimate its size somewhat, for it is feet long and feet wide. it is solidly constructed of concrete, with a miniature set of docks at one end, and a sloping beach at the other. on either side are rails upon which run trollys which support the ends of a bridge which spans the whole. this bridge can be propelled along, by means of electric motors operating the wheels of the trollys, from one end of the tank to the other, at any desired speed, within, of course, reasonable limits, and from it may be towed any model which it is desired to test. the models used are usually made of wax, by means of a machine specially designed for the purpose. it should be explained that the plans of a ship consist of a series of curves, each of which represents the contour of the vessel at one particular height. for example, if you can imagine a ship cut horizontally into slices of uniform thickness, then each slice could be shown on the drawing (the "shear plan," as it is termed) by a curved line. near the keel the lines would, of course, be almost straight, but they would bulge more and more as they occur higher up. and what this machine is required to do is to make, quickly and economically, a wax model which shall be an exact reproduction, on a small scale, of the vessel under discussion. it may be--it most often is--a ship as yet unbuilt, the behaviour of which it is desired to test. or it may be an existing vessel, as it was in the case mentioned just now. however that may be, the model is made from the drawings. a block of wax rests upon a table, while the drawing is spread upon a board near by. a pointer is moved by hand along one of the lines, and its movement is repeated by a rapidly revolving cutter which cuts away the wax to a similar curve. by suitable adjustments the cutter can be made to magnify or reduce the size, so as to produce any desired scale. thus every line is gone over and a similar curve cut in the wax at the correct height. of course this only produces a lump of wax shaped _in steps_, as it were, but it is then quite easy to trim it down by hand, so as to produce a smooth model of the ship, perfectly accurate in its shape, and a copy on a small scale of the vessel portrayed on the drawing. it can also be hollowed out, ballasted with weights inside, and so made to sink to any desired level, thereby representing the vessel when fully loaded, half loaded and so on. all sorts of unequal loading can be produced if needed, indeed every condition of the real ship can be imitated in the model. it can then be towed to and fro in the tank by the travelling carriage described above. the speed of towing can be varied by changing the speed of the motors which drive it. the force needed to pull the model through the water is measured by means of a dynamometer which registers the pull on the towing apparatus. a matter very often needing investigation is the shape and size of the wave thrown up by the bow of the vessel, and of that left behind her, known as the "bow wave" and the "stern wave" respectively. these waves represent wasted energy, for they are no use and are produced actually by the power of the engines of the ship as they drive her along. the ideal ship would cause no waves, but since that is a degree of perfection impossible even to hope for, the shipbuilder has to content himself by so designing his ships that these waves shall be as small as possible. the waves are recorded photographically, in some cases by the kinematograph. some of the large shipbuilders have their own tanks, and so have the naval authorities of the great naval powers. the one at teddington was established through the munificence of a famous british shipbuilder, mr yarrow, who not only defrayed the cost of construction, but gave an endowment to assist in its upkeep. it is intended to serve the needs of the smaller builders who have not tanks of their own, and also for the investigation of matters of general interest to shipbuilders, and for such tests as that relating to the _hawke_ and _olympic_. in this last-named case, of course, two models were made, one to represent each ship, and they were towed along in such a way as to imitate very closely the movements of the ships at the time when they collided. it was as the result of these tests that the _olympic_ was ordered to pay damages to the admiralty, it being held that she was the cause of the accident. a very interesting investigation of this kind was recently carried out in the tank at the united states navy yard. the port of new york consists very largely of jetties projecting out from the banks of the river. with the growth of the atlantic liner the old jetties had become too short, and questions arose as to the elongation of them. if it were done, how would it effect the current in the river, and the handling of shipping generally? if, on the other hand, it were not done, what would be the effect of the ships lying with their ends projecting out into the stream unprotected by a jetty. to determine these points the experimental tank was converted into a model of the new york harbour, or at all events of that part in connection with which these questions arose. a false floor was put in, so as to make the depth exactly right in proportion to the width. little model jetties were arranged to represent exactly the real ones, while against them were moored model vessels, so that the effect upon them could be observed as the model of the large vessel was towed past. in addition to this, special appliances were arranged for finding out what the disturbance might be which the movement of a giant liner produces under the surface as well as above it. for this purpose buoyant balls were employed, moored at various distances below the surface, from which thin rods projected upwards, the movement of which rendered visible the movements of the submerged balls and therefore the effects of the under-water currents. all these things had to be observed at one and the same time--the moving model itself, the models alongside the jetties, the commotion on the surface, the swayings to and fro of the rods attached to the submerged floats--all, or most of which, at all events, it was impossible to make self-recording. yet, seeing that it was of the utmost importance that the relations between all these things should be observed, and recorded from time to time as the model was towed along, it is evident that something must be done, and a cunning use of the kinematograph solved the problem quite easily. at various points commanding a good view of the model harbour and its shipping these machines were placed, and so several series of photographs were obtained, by the study of which all the different movements could be seen and compared. a large dial too was rigged up upon the travelling carriage by which the model was towed, a finger on which denoted the distance which the carriage had travelled at any moment. this large dial came into each photograph, of course, and so each picture bore upon itself a clear record of that particular moment in the voyage of the model to which it referred. thus we see an instance of how the very latest and most up-to-date methods of amusement are sometimes applied to serve very practical purposes. akin to the experiments upon ships are aerial experiments to determine matters connected with the navigation of the air. at barrow-in-furness the great firm of vickers, shipbuilders and armament manufacturers, and latterly builders of aerial craft for the british admiralty, have erected a machine for testing the efficiency of aerial propellers and other things of a kindred nature. upon the top of a tall tower there is pivoted a long arm of light iron framework. to the end of this a propeller can be fixed, so that as the arm revolves there is produced almost exactly the same conditions as those which prevail when a propeller drives an aeroplane or steerable balloon. by means of suitable mechanism the propeller can be turned at any desired speed, with the result that it drives the arm round and round upon its pivot on the top of the tower. the force which the propeller thus exerts can easily be measured, and so can be determined such questions as the most efficient speed for each type of propeller, the power which any particular one can develop, the best form for each particular need, and so on. materials, too, require the most careful testing, in order that they may be put to the best possible use in modern machinery and structures. for example, anyone can measure the strength of a spring, but what do we know as to its lasting power? springs often have to form part of a machine in which they are stretched and compressed millions of times, and the question arises as to what is the best shape and material for the purpose. it may be that the spring which works best a few times will be the first to become "weary," for with repeated strain such things as steel get tired, just as the human frame does. now that is a matter which will yield to no calculation, the only way to determine it is actual test. so a mechanism has to be employed which will extend and compress the spring over and over again, just as it will be in actual use, with a counter of the nature of a cyclometer to count how many times it has been subjected to this distortion. then the apparatus is set going and left to itself for hours, or even for days, during which time it may work the spring millions of times. this may go on until it breaks, or else it may be done a prearranged number of times, and then the spring taken out and tested by other means to see how its strength has been affected. metal bars are often subjected to sudden blows, light in themselves but oft repeated. the point to be determined then is how many times the blow may fall before permanent injury is done to the bar. to investigate such matters we have the "repeated-impact" machine. the bar is held in a suitable holder, under a hammer which gives it a blow, the force of which can be easily regulated, at regular intervals, the number of blows being counted by a suitable recording mechanism. ultimately the bar breaks, under a blow the like of which it can endure singly without any apparent strain at all. the machine, by the way, can be caused to turn the bar round to some degree after each blow, so that it is struck from all directions in succession. the microscope, too, has established its place in the testing laboratory. it is a very valuable adjunct to chemical and mechanical tests. suppose, for example, that a bar of steel is being investigated; it can be put into a machine and pulled until it breaks in two. the machine registers the amount of the pull which was applied. or a small piece can be put under a press and compressed to any desired degree. it can also be tested by impact or even pulled apart by a sudden blow, as described in _mechanical inventions of to-day_. the bar can be supported by its ends and loaded or pulled down in the centre, so that its power of resisting bending can be determined. it can be judged, too, from its chemical composition. steel, in particular, depends for its properties very largely upon its chemical composition. the difference between cast-iron, wrought-iron and steel, also the differences between the innumerable varieties of steel, are due almost entirely to the admixture of a certain percentage of carbon with the metal. this can be ascertained by chemical analysis. this form of inquiry has the advantage over the more purely mechanical methods in that the latter, for the most part, have to be applied to the bar as a whole, whereas the quality may vary in different parts, the surface in particular being liable to differ from the interior. in such cases, one analysis can be made of a piece cut from the surface and another of a piece from the centre. and it is here, too, that microscopical analysis comes in. for this purpose a piece is sawn off the bar, and the end ground perfectly smooth. this is then washed in a suitable chemical, such as a mild acid, which acts differently upon the different materials of which the "metal" is built up, thereby rendering them visible one from another. a photograph taken through a microscope then shows the structure of the metal; how the different constituents are built together. this is known as metallographic testing, and its advantage as compared with chemical analysis is that the latter shows, as we might say, what are the bricks of which the thing is built, while the former shows how the bricks are arranged. indeed it is hardly correct to speak of the advantage or superiority of one over the other, since each is the complement of the other, supplying the information which the other fails to give. and there are other mechanical tests which have not yet been mentioned. there are machines which twist a bar so as to discover its power to resist torsion, there are others which apply a downward pressure on one part of the bar and an upward one on an adjacent part, so as to show its capabilities in withstanding shearing strain. moreover, many of these tests are nowadays, in a well-equipped testing-house, carried out in conjunction with the use of heat. it stands to reason that a part of a machine which will have to work under considerable heat may have to be of different material from a part which works under a normal temperature. in some cases the bar is surrounded by a spiral wire through which electric current is passing, and by the regulation of this current any desired temperature can be set up in the bar. or it may be placed in a bath of hot oil in such a way that the bar shall be raised to any temperature required, without interfering with the machinery which exerts the tension or pressure, or whatever it be. years ago such elaborate tests as these were never thought of. there are certain well-known figures, to be found in all engineering text-books, which give what stresses different materials ought to be able to stand, and these were, and are still, to a large extent, relied upon, it being taken for granted that the material used will be up to the average standard. in large and important works, however, the testing has been developed upon scientific lines, so that it is known from actual experiment what each particular thing is capable of. this not only means security but economy, for it is sometimes found that a substance is stronger than it is thought to be, and so things made of it can be designed to give the requisite strength lighter and cheaper than they would have been otherwise. some of the machines employed are of enormous strength, capable of exerting a pull or a compression of, it may be, tons or more. they are often made, too, with self-recording appliances, whereby the course of the test is set down automatically upon a chart. for example, when a bar is being tested for tension, it is desirable to know not only the actual pull under which it came in two, but the behaviour of the test piece during the period before that. it begins to stretch as soon as the tension is applied, theoretically at all events, and if the metal were perfectly ductile it would stretch continuously as the load increases, until at last the breaking stress is reached. but in actual practice it probably stretches somewhat by fits and starts, and a record of that fact will be of great value in estimating the strength of the material in actual work. for such, an automatically made record, which can be studied at leisure, is of the utmost importance. but perhaps the finest instance of scientific methods in manufacture is to be found in the methods by which standard parts of machines are measured, so as to ensure that they shall be interchangeable. it may surprise the casual reader to be told that an absolutely exact measurement is an impossibility. it is safe to say that out of a million similar articles--articles made with the intention that they shall be exactly alike--there are no two which are, in fact, absolutely similar. they may be made with the same machines and the same tools, handled by the same man, but machines and tools wear or get out of adjustment, while man's liability to err is proverbial. astronomers are the greatest experts in the art of measurement, and they recognise the possibility, nay, the probability, of error so frankly as to make every measurement several times over; if it be an important one they make it, if possible, a great many times over, and then take the average of the results. by this means they eliminate, to a certain extent at any rate, the error which cannot be avoided. that process is to allow for errors on the part of their instruments, for the most part. to deal with personal errors another method is used as well, for it is known that some observers have a natural tendency to err on one side more or less, while others tend to make mistakes in some degree on the other side. this tendency to err is known as the "personal equation" of the observer, and there are machines and tests by which the personal equation of each man can be determined, or perhaps it would be more correct to say estimated, so that in all observations made by him the proper allowance can be added or deducted. but of course it would be extremely difficult to apply such methods in a workshop. it would never do to have to measure everything several times over, hoping that the average would come out in such manner as to indicate that the thing being measured was the size required. instead, therefore, of wasting time seeking an accuracy which is known to be unattainable, the manufacturing engineer adopts a scientific system of measurement wherein a certain amount of inaccuracy is determined upon as permissible, and then simple appliances are used to see that it does, in fact, fall within those limits. for instance, a round bar is to be made, say, an inch in diameter. now we know from what has just been said that, when made, we have no means of telling whether the bar is really and truly an inch in diameter or not. we consider, then, what it is for, and decide, say, that it will be near enough so long as we are sure that it is not larger than one inch plus one thousandth, nor less than one inch minus one thousandth. so long as it does not exceed or fall short of its reputed size by more than one thousandth of an inch, then we know that it will answer its purpose. now, having come to that decision, we can build up a system upon which any intelligent workman can proceed, with the result that all the inch bars which he makes will be the same size within the limits of / over or under, so that the greatest possible difference between any two will be / . this system involves the use of two gauges for every size. the man employed upon making one-inch bars has a plate with a hole in it - / inches in diameter and another hole / of an inch in diameter. one of these is the "go in" gauge; the other is the "not go in." so that all he has to do, in order to be quite sure that his work is right, is to see that it can be poked through one of these holes, but not through the other. no trouble at all, it will be observed, adjusting fine measuring appliances, simply a plate with two holes in it, and the workman can be sure that he is turning out articles every one of which is practically correct, with no variation beyond a slight inequality too small to matter. and probably at some other part of the factory there is a man making articles each of which has a hole in it, into which this bar must fit. how does he manage? he is provided with a gauge somewhat the shape of a dumb-bell, one end of which is slightly larger than the other. one is the "go in" end, the other the "not go in" end. if the hole which he makes will permit the former to enter, but will refuse admittance to the latter, then he knows that that hole is sufficiently near its reputed size to answer its purpose. [illustration: _by permission of the mining engineering co., sheffield_ a miners' rescue team these men are equipped with breathing apparatus which enables them to pass safely through the deadly fumes after an explosion, to rescue their unfortunate comrades] in the instances mentioned, a thousandth of an inch either way has been mentioned as the limit of inaccuracy, or the "tolerance," as it is sometimes termed, but often the limits are much narrower than that. the gauges themselves are a case in point, for they must be true within, say, a ten-thousandth, or even less. and they too are checked by master gauges of a finer degree of accuracy still, being made by the most laborious methods, and checked over and over again, so as to reach the utmost limits in the way of correctness. so this methodical "scientific" system of "limit gauges" is based upon the principle of having one gauge limiting the error one way and another defining it in the other. anything simpler or more effective it would be impossible to conceive. it is due very largely to this system that many manufactured articles are now so much cheaper than they used to be. for it enables each individual part to be made wholesale on a large scale, by machines specially adapted to the work, operated by men specially trained to work them, with the practical certainty that these parts when assembled together will fit each other. in conclusion, there is another very interesting instrument which was first made for a purely utilitarian use--namely, the investigation of the methods of making coloured glass--but which has since been applied to some interesting problems in pure science. it is called the "ultra-microscope." it must first be pointed out that there is a limit to the power of the ordinary microscope, beyond which the skill of the optician cannot go. he is baffled at that point not because of any lack of ability on his own part, but because of the nature of light itself. an opaque object, unless it be self-luminous, which few things are, can only be seen by reflected light. generally speaking, we see things because they reflect in some degree the light which falls upon them. but light consists of waves, and when we reach an object so minute that its diameter is about half the wave-length of light, then we cannot see it because it is unable to reflect the light on account of its smallness. we can see this any day by the seaside, or by a river or large pond. there it is evident that the waves and ripples are reflected by such things as large stones, wood posts or anything of any size which come in their way; but when a wave encounters an object much smaller than itself it simply swallows it up, as it were, flows all over it or around it, without being in any way reflected by it. and it is just the same with the waves of light; they are unaffected by obstacles below a certain size, and so are not reflected by them. for this reason things smaller than about a seven-thousandth of a millimetre cannot possibly be seen by a microscope in the ordinary way. but if an object can be made self-luminous, then it can be seen, whatever its size, if the magnifying power of the microscope be great enough. so this ultra-microscope, as it is called, is really an ordinary microscope of the highest power possible, with an added apparatus for making the tiny particles which are being sought for self-luminous. this is done by directing upon them a pencil of light of exceeding intensity. generated by powerful arc lamps, the light is concentrated by a system of lenses until it is of an almost incredible brightness, after which it falls upon the object. now at first sight this seems to be no different from the usual procedure with a microscope, and there appears to be no reason why it should be more successful, but the explanation is this: light is a form of energy, and the waves of this very intense beam, falling upon the object, throw it into a state of violent agitation, by virtue of which it shines, not with reflected light, but with light of its own. it is not that the waves are reflected, but that they so shake up the particle that it gives off light waves itself. and thus it comes within the range of human vision. in this way, not only have the very small particles of colouring matter in glass been seen individually, but it is thought that the actual molecules of matter have been seen, or if not the molecules individually, little groups of molecules, dancing and capering about, just as scientific people for years have believed them to be doing, although they could not see them. so here we have an instance in which manufacture has aided science--an inversion of the usual order of things. chapter xvi colour photography photography has introduced many of the general public to a branch of practical science which otherwise they would never have cared much about. the action of light upon certain chemicals, the subsequent action upon the same of other chemicals, such as developers, toning solutions and so on, form a very well-known region of the domain of science. and this is, too, a branch of chemistry in which the practical inventor has been very busy. the efforts, therefore, which have been made to invent ways of producing photographic pictures which shall give to the objects their natural colours, will probably be of special interest in a book like this. of these there are two very well-known systems, and to them we will mainly confine our attention. it should first be pointed out, however, that what we are discussing is quite different from the simple "orthochromatic" plates which are used by many photographers. these latter are coated somewhat differently from other plates, with a view to their giving a more realistic picture, but the result is still in one colour. they are, in fact, a little more sensitive to differences in colour than ordinary plates, so that colours which appear, when the latter are used, very much the same, appear, when orthochromatic plates are employed, a little different. but the difference in colour in the object photographed is only, even then, represented by a difference in shade in the picture. the object is, it may be, in many colours, in all the colours, very likely, but the picture is only in one. and the step from that to a coloured picture is a very long one. true, the solution of the problem is very simple in principle, yet the practical difficulties are so great that even now they have not been entirely overcome. let us first of all examine the principle. sunlight, by which photographs are usually taken, appears to the eye white and colourless. it is not really so, however, as can be proved by analysing it with the spectroscope. in this instrument a flat beam of light, having passed through a narrow slit, falls upon a prism of glass, from which it emerges as a broad band, known as the "spectrum." this band can be seen upon a screen, or can be examined through a telescope. so far from being white and colourless, it consists of the most lovely colours. at one end of the spectrum is a beautiful red, which, as the eye travels along, imperceptibly merges into orange, which in turn merges into yellow, after which we find green, blue, indigo and violet, in the order named. these seven are known as the "primary colours," but it is quite a mistake to suppose that there are seven clearly defined and distinct colours. the colours so change, one into another, that their number is really infinite. the seven names indicate seven points in the spectrum, whereat the colours are sufficiently distinct from others to warrant a separate name being given to them. we call the starting colour red, for example, and as we pass our eyes along we perceive a constant change, and when that change has become sufficiently pronounced to justify our doing so, we call the new colour "orange." continuing, we find the orange changing into something else, and when it has gone far enough, we bring in a third name, yellow, and so on to the violet. thus we see the division into seven colours is arbitrary, and only for our own convenience, since the whole number of colours is innumerable. passing through a prism is not, however, the only means by which white light can be split up. when the sun shines upon a blue flower, for instance, the blue petals perform a partial separation; they reflect the blue part of the sunlight, and absorb all the rest. a red flower likewise reflects the red part of the sunlight and absorbs the rest. it is because things can thus discriminate, reflecting some kinds of light and absorbing the remainder, that we perceive things in different colours. it follows, therefore, that when we look upon a landscape, or a field of flowers, we receive into our eyes an enormous variety of coloured lights. the white sunlight furnishes each thing we see with a flood of white light, and each thing according to its nature, reflects more or less. a white flower reflects the whole, a pure black object reflects none, but the great majority of things reflect some part or other of that infinite variety of which white light really consists. so a view at all varied sends to our eyes a variety of colours, almost as manifold as the colours of the spectrum, which, as has been said, are infinite. and the task of reproducing them, or even of producing a similar general effect, upon a piece of paper seems at first sight beyond the bounds of possibility. but fortunately there is a way by which we can produce, approximately at all events, the intermediate colours by mixtures of the others. the second colour of the spectrum, for example, orange, can be obtained by mixing its neighbours on either hand--namely, red and yellow. we can, indeed, imitate very closely the imperceptible change from red to yellow through orange, by skilful mixture of red and yellow pigments. first there is the pure red, then just a suggestion of yellow is added; more and more yellow brings us to orange; after which by gradually diminishing the amount of red we reach the pure yellow. next, by introducing blue pigment, we can gradually change the yellow into green, and further manipulation of the same two colours will lead us on to pure blue. indeed by mixtures of red, yellow and blue we can obtain almost all the perceptible varieties of colour. and it must be remembered that when, by mixing blue and yellow pigments, we get the effect of green, that is only the result of an optical illusion. the particles of which the yellow pigment is made remain yellow, and the particles of blue remain blue. the one sort reflect yellow light to our eyes, the other sort reflect blue light, and owing to what in one sense may be called a defect in our vision, these two mingling together look as if the whole were green. in the spectrum we see real green light; from green paint made by mixing yellow and blue, we only see an imitation or artificial green. if the particles were large enough, we should see the yellow and the blue ones quite separate, but since they are too small for us to see at all, except in the mass, our eyes blend the whole together into the intermediate colour. thus we see that, although the variety of colours is infinite, we can for practical purposes reproduce as much difference as our eyes can perceive by the judicious blending of three--namely, red, yellow and blue. and there is a further fortunate fact--we can filter light. the red glass with which the photographer covers his dark-room lamp looks red, and throws a red light into the room, because it is acting as a filter to the light proceeding from the lamp behind it. the lamp is sending out light of many colours, but the glass is only transparent to the red. it holds up all the others but lets the red pass freely. so if we were to take a photograph through a red screen, we should get on the plate only those parts which were more or less red in colour. for example, if we thus photographed a group of three flowers, one red, one orange and one yellow, the red one would come out prominently, the orange one would come out faintly, and the yellow one not at all. then suppose we took the same picture again through a yellow screen. in that case the yellow flower would be prominent, the orange would again be faint, but the red would be absent. having got, in imagination, two such negatives, let us make two carbon prints, one off each. and let the print off the first negative be red, while that off the second is yellow. let each be, in fact, of the same colour as the screen through which the picture was taken. finally, let the two films be placed in contact one upon the other. on holding the two up to the light, what should we see? we should see a red flower, for there would be a red flower clearly defined upon one film coinciding with a blank transparent space upon the other film. we should see, too, a yellow flower, for a clearly defined yellow flower on the second film would coincide with a clear space upon the first. we should see also an orange-coloured flower, for there would be a faint red image of it, and a faint yellow image of it, one on each film, lying one over the other, producing the same effect as a mixture of yellow and red pigments. thus by taking two negatives through two coloured screens, and then colouring the prints to correspond, we can obtain three colours in the finished picture. by taking a third negative, through a blue screen, we could add immensely to the range of colours obtainable. indeed, with three films, red, yellow and blue respectively, made through three screens of the same colour, a variety of colours practically infinite can be obtained. so the principle is quite simple; the difficulty is in carrying it out. for the three kinds of light have not the same photographic power, and so to avoid upsetting the "balance" of the colours different exposures would be required for each. then there is the difficulty of so manipulating the films as to get them one over another exactly. anyone who has tried the handling of carbon prints will readily realise how difficult this would be. it is possible and has been done, but the process is too uncertain and too laborious to be of general use. but the same result can be attained more or less automatically, as the following descriptions will show. let us turn to the lumière autochrome process, by which the results desired can be in a large measure attained by methods of manipulation comparatively simple. [illustration: _by permission of the mining engineering co., ltd., sheffield_ pneumatic hammer drill this tool is used by miners for making holes in hard rock, preliminary to blasting. note the spray of water, which prevents the stone dust rising and getting into the miner's lungs.--_see_ p. ] the plates used for this are of a very special nature. in the first place, there is the basis of glass, but upon that there is laid what we might term the selective screen. this is a layer of starch grains, of exceeding smallness. the size of them is as little as a half a thousandth of an inch and there are about four millions of them on every square inch of plate. next, upon the screen of starch grains is a layer of waterproof varnish, while over that is the ordinary sensitive emulsion such as forms the essential part of the usual non-colour plate. now the starch grains which form the screen are, before they are laid on, stained in three colours. some are blue, some red, and some a yellowish-green, which experience shows is preferable to pure yellow. the differently coloured grains are well mixed, and when the screen is held to the light and looked through the effect is almost that of clear glass. that is because red rays from the red grains, and green and blue rays from the grains of those colours, all proceed to the eye mingled together. this plate is placed in the camera differently from the usual way, since the glass side is turned towards the lens. the light, therefore, after entering the camera, passes through the glass, then through the screen, and finally falls upon the sensitive film. suppose, then, that the camera were pointed to a red wall; red light would fall upon the plate and, passing through the red grains, would act upon the sensitive film behind them. the blue and green grains, on the other hand, would stop those rays which fell upon them, and so those parts of the sensitive film which they cover would remain unaffected by light. then, if that plate were to be developed, a dark, opaque spot would be produced upon the film under each red grain, the film under the other grains remaining transparent. hence, when held up to the light and looked through, the plate would appear a greenish-blue, for all the red grains would be covered up. in like manner, if the wall were blue instead of red, a greenish-red plate would result, while if it were green, the plate would be a purple, the result of the combination of red and blue. but this, it will be seen, is a topsy-turvy effect, the exact opposite of what we want, so that it is fortunate that by a simple chemical method we can set it right. after a first development in the ordinary way the plate is placed in another bath and exposed to strong daylight, with the result that those parts which were darkened by the first development become clear and the parts which were clear become opaque. thus, after this twofold development of the photograph of the red wall, we find ourselves in possession of a red plate, in which only the red grains are visible, since all the others are covered up by opaque parts of the sensitive film. the photograph of the blue wall will also, after it has been subjected to the double development, show blue only, and the same with the green. but suppose that instead of a red wall or a blue wall we focus our camera upon one which is half red and half blue. then it is easy to perceive that we shall get a plate which is half one colour and half the other. moreover, it follows that a wall covered with a mosaic of red, blue and green would give us a plate duly coloured in the same way. but when we go a step further and photograph, say, a landscape, which may contain a vast range of colours, we find a difficulty in believing that they can all be rendered by the simple process of covering or leaving uncovered grains either blue, red or green. it can be done, however, since the other colours may be made up of two or more of these three in varying proportions. for example, should there be something in the landscape of a darker, more blue, shade of green than the green grains, then the light proceeding from that object, while passing freely through the green grains upon which it falls, will slightly penetrate the neighbouring blue ones as well, and so at that point on the plate there will be not only green grains visible, but some of the blue grains partly visible also. the light from the blue grains will enter the eye along with that from the green grains, and by so doing will add just that amount of blue to the green as to give it the right shade. after this manner is the whole picture built up. it is, of course, really a mosaic, consisting entirely of little coloured patches, but since they are so small none can be seen individually, all merging together in the eye so as to form a picture in which colours change imperceptibly from one into another. to sum up, then, what happens is this. we start with a layer of coloured grains; the action of taking and developing the photograph covers up some of these grains and leaves others exposed, and the action of the light is such that those which are left visible produce a picture closely resembling the original, not only in form but in colour. but there is one other interesting point about this process which deserves mention. the differently coloured lights are not of the same power photographically. red light, as we know well, is very weak in this respect, wherefore, we use it in the dark-room. a faint red light will have no perceptible effect upon a plate unless it be exposed to it for some time. blue light, on the other hand, is very active, and were the blue and red lights to be allowed to act equally on the autochrome plate, the result would be much too blue. it is therefore necessary to handicap the blue light, as it were, by placing a "reddish-yellowish" screen either just in front of, or just behind, the lens to cut off a proportion of the blue rays. the other very successful process is known as the dufay dioptichrome process. it differs very little from the lumière except in detail, the selective screen being formed of small coloured squares instead of by a mass of little grains. in both, it will be noticed, the result is a single positive. it is not, as in ordinary photography, a negative off which any desired number of positive prints can be made. and, moreover, it is a transparency: it cannot be viewed except by light shining through it. the results are, however, extremely beautiful, when well done, and anyone who cares to try either of these methods of working will be well repaid for the trouble involved. chapter xvii how science aids the stricken collier nothing is more characteristic of the present age than the care which is, quite rightly, expended upon the comfort and safety of those who do the manual labour of the community. the stores of scientific knowledge and skill are drawn upon freely for this end, and some very interesting examples can be given of the truly scientific methods which have been evolved, not only for preventing injuries of any kind, but for succouring those who may, despite those precautions, fall victims to disease or accident. an example has already been given of the scientific investigation into the nature of colliery explosions and the best means of preventing them. we have seen there how expense has been poured out lavishly in fitting up the experimental gallery or artificial pit, and how the most cunning mechanical and electrical devices have been pressed into the service in order to find out just what happens when an explosion occurs. it has been related how these investigations have revealed with certainty the true cause of the explosions and thereby led the way to their prevention. but with it all there is still an occasional disaster, occurring, sometimes, at the best and most carefully managed collieries. and therefore it is still necessary to provide for rescuing the unfortunate men who are affected. it is worth remark, here, that colliery explosions are, all things considered, a very rare occurrence. because of their dramatic suddenness, and the number of lives which are commonly lost in a single disaster, we are apt to magnify their severity in our minds and to picture the life of the miner as a very hazardous one. in point of fact, the expectation of life, as the insurance people call it, is quite as great among the coal-miners as among any class of manual labour. and of those who do meet an untimely end there are more lost through isolated accidents, involving one or two men, than in the great disasters. to meet these isolated cases science is almost powerless. for the most part, they are due to falls of material from the roof of the mine, or some simple accident of that kind, caused by an error of judgment or lack of care on the part of fellow-workmen, and the only safeguard against such is the most careful and systematic supervision, which, in great britain at all events, is rigidly applied. the underground staff are very carefully organised with this end in view, and the whole is supervised by government inspectors. no amount of scientific investigation or invention will help much in these matters. with the explosion or fire, however, it is different, for there subtle forces and strange chemical influences come into play with which science is specially well fitted to deal. to a great many people the first news of organised, trained and scientifically equipped rescue parties came at the time of the terrible courrières disaster in france, when over men lost their lives. for then a party with apparatus hurried from germany and played a prominent part in the rescue operations. but unfortunately the glamour of their performance was somewhat dimmed by the fact that after they had done all they could, and had gone home again, more men were rescued. many, reading of that fact, were inclined to scoff at the "new-fangled" ideas, thinking that after all the old way of working with a party of brave but untrained and often ignorant volunteers was better than the new way of working with equipped and trained men. it certainly did seem as if the former had succeeded where the latter had failed. but that was quite a mistake, as subsequent events have shown, and in all probability it was due to the fact that the uninstructed party were local men, thoroughly familiar with the mine in which they were working, its geography and its special local conditions, whereas the trained men came from far away. at all events the pioneer work of the germans in the matter of rescue teams has been amply justified by the fact that other people have copied them, and none more thoroughly than the mining authorities of great britain. indeed we see here another instance of the remarkable way in which the british people, though a little slow to take up a new idea, do take it up when it has once been established, and in such a way that they are soon among the foremost in its use. the germans, all honour to them, started the rescue teams, but at this moment there are rescue teams and stations for their training in britain second to none in the world. of these there is a splendid example in the rhondda valley, in south wales, supported and worked by the owners of the pits in that district, besides others at aberdare, in the same neighbourhood, at mansfield, to serve the collieries in derbyshire and nottinghamshire; indeed rescue stations are now dotted throughout the mining districts. the general idea of these stations is as follows. the building is centrally situated in the district which it is intended to serve, and in it are kept an ample supply of the necessary appliances, in the shape of breathing apparatus, which enables men to walk unhurt through poisonous gas, reviving apparatus, by which partially suffocated men can be brought round again by the administration of oxygen, together with quantities of that valuable gas in suitable portable cylinders. everything which forethought can suggest as even possibly useful in an emergency is kept in a constant state of readiness. and all the while a swift motor car stands ready to carry them to the scene of operations. but the appliances are of little use without men to work them, who know them and can trust them. the case of david, who felt able to do better work with his sling and stone than in all the panoply of saul's armour, because he "had not proved it," is typical of a universal human instinct. a man feels safer unarmed, or simply armed, than he does with the most elaborate weapons in which he has not learned to have confidence. and therefore the men who may be called upon to work this apparatus are first taught to have confidence in it. each station has its instructor, who is usually also the general superintendent of the station, and "galleries" in which the instruction can be carried out. volunteers are called for in each colliery and a number of the most suitable men are chosen to undergo training, preference being given, very naturally, to those who are already trained, as fortunately so many workmen are nowadays, in ambulance work. these chosen men then repair at intervals to the station to undergo a proper course of instruction. the instructor, often an ex-non-commissioned officer in the royal engineers, accustomed, therefore, to engineering matters, and also to systematic discipline, there puts them through a course of drill the object of which is to teach them to work together as a squad under the orders of a properly constituted chief. thus when called upon in some emergency there will be no confusion, but each man will know what to do, and a few short words of command from the chief will serve better than the long explanations which would be necessary with an undisciplined body. it welds the individual men, as it were, into a smoothly working machine, thereby increasing the efficiency of the whole. and arrangements are made whereby, should the leader fail, another man steps into his place of authority at once and without question. then, having thus brought them under a suitable discipline, the instructor takes his men into the experimental gallery. this may be described as a long, low, narrow shed, in which are timber props and beams, rails on the floor, heaps of coal, all things, in fact, which may tend to make it closely resemble the actual workings of a coal-mine after they have been shaken and shattered by the force of an explosion. the great difficulty, in a real disaster, arises from what are known as "falls." the roof of the mine is normally supported by timbers, and these the explosion moves, so that in places many tons of the earth of which the roof of the mine consists will fall and block completely the "roads" or tunnels which communicate from the shaft to the places where the men are at work. these, of course, have to be removed or burrowed through before the men imprisoned in the distant workings can be reached. the rescue party do not, of course, wait to clear away the whole of this debris, only just enough to enable them to crawl through or over it, but even then it often represents the waste of precious hours, and the expenditure of great exertions, to get past a "fall." so at intervals "falls" are made in the gallery, in order that men may be practised in dealing with them. [illustration: _by permission of w. e. garforth, esq., pontefract_ an artificial coal mine these two photographs show the clouds of flame and smoke issuing from the mouth of the "artificial coal mine" during the experiments described in the text] it may be interesting to give a brief statement of the training undergone by the men at the mansfield rescue station. in that case, it should be stated, the gallery is made double, so that men can go one way and return the other back to their starting-point. having donned their breathing apparatus, they enter the gallery, which, by the way, is filled with smoke and foul gas. passing along it, they encounter two falls, which they must get over or through; then they have to set twelve timber props as might be necessary to maintain the safety of a damaged road in the mine; all that they do three times over. then they are required to bring up and lay bricks, a thing which might also be necessary in an actual emergency, after which they have to fix up "brattice cloth" in a part of the gallery. one of the first duties, of course, for a rescue party is to restore the circulation of air in the mine, and brattice cloth is a rough kind of cloth which is put to guide the air currents. that done, they have to take a dummy representing a man of stone, put it on a stretcher, and carry it round the gallery and over the falls. finally, they restore the timber, bricks and cloth, and their turn of work is done. the total time required for this is two hours, and during the whole of that period they are, of course, breathing not the natural air, but the artificial atmosphere provided for them by the apparatus with which each man is provided. the chief point of this part of the training, as has been remarked already, is to accustom the men to the wearing of the apparatus and to doing work in it. by this means they gain confidence in it, and get to know that it will not fail them in the time of trial. the course of instruction consists of ten drills such as has been described, after which the men are called up twice a year, just to refresh their memories. one side of the gallery is glazed, so that the instructor can watch his men at work without of necessity being inside himself, and there are emergency doors as well, which can be opened to let a man out should the ordeal be too much for him. the necessary "fumes" are generated in a stove and driven into the gallery by a fan. the stations are beautifully fitted up, with baths for the men to wash after their somewhat dirty experience in the gallery, and everything is done for their convenience and welfare. the advantage of this systematic training of a great number of men is that there are men at each colliery who can be called upon when needed. the team of strangers, as has been remarked, partially failed at courrières, largely because they were strangers, but when every colliery has a team ready, composed of its own men, then clearly there is the greatest chance of success. the central station of the district is the training-ground where the men go from all the collieries to get the experience and instruction, and where a reserve store of appliances is kept. in many cases, of course, the collieries have their own appliances, so that work can be begun at once, without having to wait for that from the rescue station, but the latter forms a reserve in case of need, and, being kept under the care of an expert, it is naturally always in the best possible working order. to give an idea of the cost of these stations, it may be stated that the one at porth, in the rhondda valley, cost, including equipment, £ , while the one at mansfield cost £ . this first cost and the expense of maintenance is borne by the collieries of the district in proportion to the quantity of coal which they raise. and now we can turn to the apparatus itself, without which the organisation already described would be of little value. there are several makes of these, but a description of the particular apparatus used at the two stations mentioned will serve as an illustration. the purpose, of course, is to give the wearer an atmosphere of his own, which he can carry about with him, and which will render him quite independent of the ordinary atmosphere and quite indifferent to the poisonous nature of the gases around him. to this end his mouth and nostrils must be cut off from the outer world altogether. there are two ways of doing this. in the one there is used a helmet, or perhaps mask would be the better term. this fits right over the man's face, an air-tight joint being made between the helmet and his head by means of a rubber washer which can be inflated with air. the inflation is accomplished by squeezing a rubber ball on the right-hand side of the helmet. in the centre is a glass window through which he can see easily, and since this is apt to become clouded by the dampness of his breath there is a wiper inside, which can be turned by a knob on the outside, so that by simply turning his knob with his hand he can clean the window at any time that may be necessary. two soft pads inside the helmet bear one on the man's forehead and the other on his chin, and these, working in conjunction with a strap which passes right round the back of his head, keep the thing firmly in position. in addition there is combined with the helmet a leather skull-cap which, being continued down behind, gives good protection to the head and neck. the other form of apparatus consists of a mouth-piece and nose-clip. the mouth-piece, as its name implies, fits in the man's mouth, being supported and kept in position by a strap passing behind the back of his head. combined with it is a little screw clip which closes his nostrils. the man also wears a leather skull-cap, from which straps depend to bear the weight of the mouth-piece and its attached tubes, so that the weight does not fall upon his mouth. either of these arrangements, it is clear, cuts him off from communication with the outer air, but that is only half the problem, for he must be given a substitute or he will be suffocated. this part of the appliance he carries, knapsack fashion, upon his back. first there is a rectangular case, called the regenerator, with, below it, two small cylinders of compressed oxygen. a suitable arrangement of pipes connects these together, and to the helmet or mouth-piece as the case may be. when the man exhales, as we all know, the air which he then discharges from his lungs is deficient in oxygen and instead contains carbonic acid gas. the latter must be got rid of and replaced by pure oxygen. the exhaled air is therefore led down a pipe to the regenerator, where it comes into contact with several trays of caustic soda, a chemical which has a great affinity for carbonic acid. the result is that the latter gas is extracted from the impure air, finding a more congenial home in the caustic soda. it is then necessary to restore the normal quantity of oxygen, and so, as the air passes on, it meets, in a little apparatus known as an injector, a spray of pure oxygen from the cylinders. thus, after being purified and re-oxygenated, the air passes on through more pipes to the helmet or mouth-piece, to be breathed once more. the apparatus contains sufficient oxygen and caustic soda for this to go on for a space of two hours. but during times of extra exertion a man needs more air than at others, for which provision has to be made, and so on his chest the rescuer carries a flexible bag divided into two compartments. through one of these the exhaled air passes on its way to the regenerator, while through the other the oxygenated air flows on its way to the man's mouth. when he is breathing hard, then, during a moment of extra exertion, and when, therefore, he is turning out bad air faster than it can be purified, and drawing in pure air faster than it can be produced, this bag comes to his aid. from the store of oxygenated air in one side of it he draws the extra which he requires, while the other side stores up temporarily the excess of vitiated air, until the regenerator is able to overtake its work. thus at all times, whether breathing ordinarily or heavily, the apparatus can respond to his demands. the spray of oxygen as it escapes from the cylinders into the injector has the effect of driving the air along, so that the circulation through the tubes and the regenerator is automatic, and the foul air flows away from the man's mouth and the new air comes back to him quite without effort on his part. as time goes on, of course, and the stored oxygen becomes used up, the pressure in the cylinders falls, which fall, shown upon a little pressure-gauge, tells the man how much longer time he has before he must return for fresh supplies of oxygen and soda. fresh cylinders of oxygen can be connected up very quickly in place of the empty ones, while a fresh regenerator can be put in, or new caustic soda supplied, in a very short time. the superintendent of the mansfield station has invented what is termed a "self-rescue" apparatus, to be used in conjunction with that which has been described above. it is simpler and lighter than the rescue apparatus, and will not keep a man supplied with air for more than an hour or an hour and a quarter. moreover, it is not automatic, since the flow of oxygen has to be controlled by the man himself. since, however, it consists only of a mouth-piece, a breathing-bag and a cylinder of oxygen, it is very portable, and may well be carried by a rescue party for the use of any men who may be discovered alive beyond the danger zone. it may well happen, indeed it often has happened, that a remote part of a mine, although cut off from the shaft by passages full of "after-damp," as the foul gases caused by the explosion are termed, may itself contain fairly pure air in which men can live for a long time. if such men be reached, the difficulty is to get them through the passages containing the bad air. consequently a rescue party which carried one or two of these light forms of apparatus could equip such men with them and then they could pass out with safety. another use, the one, in fact, from which the appliance draws its name, is the facility with which, by its aid, a man could set right a chance defect in his ordinary rescue apparatus. suppose, for example, that a fully equipped man found something wrong, whereby he was prevented from getting his proper supply of purified air. then, if the party had one of the self-rescue sets with them, he could slip off his helmet or mouth-piece, quickly replacing it, for a time, with the self-rescue mouth-piece. this might enable him to reach safety, or even to put the other apparatus right and then don it once more. the whole thing can be packed up into a small tin case which can be slung over one shoulder, and with the oxygen cylinder slung over the other one the complete outfit can be carried quite easily by a man in addition to what he is wearing himself. still another form of breathing appliance may well be taken on these rescue expeditions, and that is the reviving apparatus, for use upon those who have apparently ceased to breathe. in this case a mask is put over the sufferer's mouth and nose, and then the turning of a lever into a certain position causes oxygen to escape from a cylinder in such a way as to cause a suction which empties the man's lungs of the bad gases which have laid him low. that done, another movement of the lever and a deep breath of oxygen flows into his lungs in their place. thus by alternating the positions of the lever an artificial respiration is set up far more effective than can possibly be attained by the ordinary method of moving the man's arms and pressing his chest. indeed there are cases, such as when his arms or ribs are injured, when the ordinary method is impossible, but it is hard to imagine an instance when this beneficent apparatus could not be used, and so long as there be any spark of life left in the poor fellow there seems to be every reason to expect a complete revival as the result of its use. of course there are many other places where poisonous gases are likely to be met with, such as gas-works, chemical-works, limeworks, and so on, where this apparatus may be kept with advantage, in case of accident. indeed all that has been described above has its use apart from colliery explosions, although they are the outstanding opportunities for its employment. old workings, tunnels which have been empty for a time, sewers--all these have, on occasion, to be entered, not to mention houses full of smoke, or factories full of chemical fumes, all of which form cases in which the rescue apparatus would find useful employment. chapter xix how science helps to keep us well one branch of science--medical science--concerns itself almost entirely with health, but it would be out of place to refer to such matters here, even if the present writer were capable of doing justice to the subject. a new medicine or a new method of operating upon a suffering patient would be quite correctly described as a scientific marvel, but it is not of such that this chapter deals, but rather with those great works by which the engineer, often taught by the medical man, promotes the health of a whole community. most important of these, perhaps, is the provision of pure water. some places are more fortunately situated than others in this respect, being near streams flowing down from mountains clear and unpolluted, which can be drunk after the minimum of purification. others have to make use of the waters of a moderately clean river, as london does those of the thames and lea, in which cases the greatest care has to be exercised in the filtration of the liquid before it can be sent out through the mains for domestic consumption. in this particular domain invention has been comparatively slow. there are novel pumps, it is true, for handling the water, such as the humphrey gas pump, which the metropolitan water board (london) have installed for filling their great reservoirs at chingford. in these an explosion of gas is the motive force. water flows by gravitation into a huge iron pipe closed at the top but open at the bottom. it is so arranged that a quantity of gas shall be entrapped in the upper end, which, being exploded by an electric spark, drives the mass of water out. some of it, together with a quantity of fresh water, presently comes surging back, entrapping a fresh supply of gas and causing a new explosion; and so it goes on over and over again. the particular pumps at the waterworks referred to discharge about fourteen tons of water at each explosion, of which there are nine every minute. the special effect of these machines, however, is not to improve the public health so much as to relieve the public pocket, for their chief feature is that they work more economically than any other kind of pump. the filters, by which the water is purified, are simply layers of sand, much the same as have been in use for many years, although in some cases chemistry is brought in and the work of the filters aided by the action of precipitants. these are substances which combine in some way with the impurities in the water, and carry them to the bottom of the tank or reservoir, while the pure water remains to be drawn off from the top. this is also the most usual method by which water is softened. hardness in water is due to the presence of certain salts which are dissolved out of the ground as the water percolates through it, and which are absent from rain-water. to get rid of these the hard water has chemicals mixed with it in a tank, from which it flows slowly through another tank. the effect of the added chemicals is to convert the soluble salts in the water into insoluble particles, which then tend to fall down to the bottom of the containing vessel. the slow passage through the second tank is intended to give the particles time to settle. [illustration: sectional view of hydraulic buffer and running-out presses of a -pounder gun] finally, to make sure that these have been all got rid of, the water traverses a filter, and then it is for all practical purposes as soft as rain-water. some people are frightened of this artificially softened water, on the ground that chemicals have been added to it, supposing, apparently, that when they use such water they are really employing a chemical solution. that is quite wrong, however, for the added chemicals, combining with the "hardness," form substances which are quite easily extracted from the water altogether. if we liken the hardness to a number of pickpockets in a crowd, and the added chemicals to a number of policemen who come in to arrest the said pickpockets, finally leaving the crowd free from both pickpockets and policemen, we get a simple illustration of what takes place. but almost equally important as the provision of pure water is the effective dealing with the drainage of a large town. much offensive matter flows under the streets of our towns and cities, and if it is not to become a nuisance it must be scientifically dealt with. years ago the drains of london simply emptied themselves into the thames, until, in , two large drains were constructed, one on each side of, and approximately parallel with, the river, to intercept the old drains and to carry their contents to points many miles down towards the sea. even that, however, by no means abated the evil, for it simply transferred it to a new place. the river was as foul as ever. william morris, in _news from nowhere_, pictures the catching of salmon in the thames off chelsea, while one of london's prominent citizens, referring to what was being done in the direction of purifying the river, jocosely promised the members of parliament a little fly-fishing at westminster. equally remote, it is to be feared, from actual accomplishment, these two prophecies do certainly indicate the tendency of events, for science has enabled the authorities to relieve the long-suffering river of much of the pollution which they used to thrust into it. the first great step was the introduction, in , of a treatment in principle very like that just described for softening water. the liquid from the drains is gathered into large reservoirs, where chemicals are added to it, causing the heavier matter to be precipitated in the form known as "sludge." the liquid portion, or "effluent," as it is called, which is left is discharged into the river just as the tide is ebbing, so that it is carried right away, and, being comparatively inoffensive, it pollutes the river very little indeed. the sludge, on the other hand, is pumped into special steamers, which carry it down to a certain spot off the thames estuary, where they drop it into the sea. the currents at the particular spot chosen are such that none of it returns to the river. for a similar purpose electrolysis has been employed. in this process the sewage is made to flow between two iron plates which are connected up to a source of electric current so that they form electrodes, while the sewage is the electrolyte. the current decomposes the liquid sewage, causing chlorine and oxygen to be deposited upon that plate which forms the anode. this deodorises and purifies the sewage, in addition to which iron salts are formed on the iron plates, the effect of which is to precipitate the solid particles. thus the same result is achieved as when chemicals are used, the main difference being that instead of chemicals being added, they are produced by the passage of the current. but, from the scientific point of view, the most interesting process of all is that in which bacteria or microbes are brought into the service. the fact is familiar to most people that there are certain minute organisms which cause terrible diseases. it is not so well known that there are still more of them whose action is extremely beneficent. the writer has seen these minute living things described in a popular book as "insects," but they really belong to a low order of plant life, and, as has been said in an earlier chapter, in spite of the lowliness of their status in the order of creation, they are able to accomplish certain chemical processes which baffle the cleverest men. they are particularly good, or some of them are at any rate, at forming compounds in which nitrogen forms a part. further, they can be divided into two classes, the aerobic and the anaerobic. the former work best in air, while the latter need an absence of air while they perform their functions. after which preliminary explanation we can proceed to describe how they are induced to carry on this valuable work for mankind. the sewage flows first of all into a tank from which light and air are excluded as far as possible. there the anaerobic microbes flourish and multiply, and in the course of their life work they convert the sewage into an inoffensive liquid. after an appropriate interval the liquid passes to filter-beds, where it trickles over and through beds of coke, the effect of which is to aerate it very thoroughly, whereby the aerobic microbes come into action, completing the good work, so that nothing is left except a clean, colourless and odourless liquid. indeed it is more than that, for the microbes have turned the offensive matter into nitrogenous compounds which, as we have seen in a previous chapter, are the best fertilisers. hence this effluent, if placed upon the soil, is of great value. the advantage of this to towns which are not blessed, like london, with a broad river and the sea near at hand needs no explanation. the bacteria necessary to carry on the process are always present in sewage, and after any particular plant has been in operation for a little while there results an accumulation of them, so that the process becomes more and more active as time goes on. mechanical ingenuity has so arranged matters that a sewage disposal plant on this system can be made quite automatic, requiring little or no attention for months together, the raw sewage flowing in at one end, while the odourless, harmless effluent pours out at the other. and, moreover, so powerful is the action of these beneficent bacteria that should disease germs come down in the sewage they soon destroy them. no chemicals are needed, for the bacteria replenish themselves. no sludge is left, everything being turned into the harmless effluent. and, it may be said once more, disease germs are destroyed. of all the valuable inventions of modern times this is surely not one of the least. chapter xix modern artillery even as late as the time of the crimean war guns, even the largest, were made of that extremely common material, cast-iron. in fact, so far as material went, there was no difference between a gun and a water-pipe. it was the need for some material possessing strength comparable with that of steel combined with the ease of production of cast-iron which led sir henry bessemer to experiment in the manufacture of steel. out of those experiments came bessemer steel and its near relative, siemens steel, two materials of universal application at the present time, so that to the needs of the artilleryman we owe two inventions which have proved of infinite value in peace as well as in war. if any particular piece of ordnance can be said to be the prime favourite with the english-speaking peoples, it is the big naval gun. with both british and americans the navy takes pride of place; both nations are given to contemplating with pleasure the number of dreadnoughts which they possess, and the distinguishing feature of a dreadnought is the large number of big guns which it carries. of the latest of these gigantic weapons one may not speak, but much is already public property concerning the -inch gun which the original _dreadnought_ carried, and which is probably followed in its general features by the still greater guns of the most recent ships. a gun is spoken of by its "calibre," which means the inside diameter, or, to use another expression, the size of the "bore." so the " -inch" naval gun is inches in the bore. its length is in some cases calibres and in others calibres. in other words, some are feet long and others feet. why the difference? someone may ask. the answer is that the longer ones are an improved type. the extra length gives longer range and harder hits, as is quite apparent after a little thought. the explosive "goes off" and forthwith commences to drive the shell towards the muzzle. so long as it is in the gun the shell is being pushed faster and faster, but so soon as it leaves the muzzle the pushing ceases and the shell is left to pursue its course with its own momentum. therefore, generally speaking, one may say that the longer the gun the faster will be the speed of the shell as it leaves the muzzle, the farther will it go and the harder will be the blow at a given range. incidentally this explanation reveals the need for different kinds of explosive. the propellant whose function it is to drive the shell out of the gun is different from that with which the shell is itself filled. the former needs to act comparatively slowly, so that it may continue its pushing action during the whole time that the shell is travelling along the gun. it might be ever so powerful, but were its action too sudden it would simply tend to burst the gun, without imparting very much speed to the shell. on arrival at its destination, however, the shell needs to burst suddenly and violently. another interesting question arises at this point. seeing how fast is even the slowest speed at which a projectile travels, how can it be possible to measure the rate at which a shell issues from one of these monster guns. needless to say, it is electricity which makes a thing apparently so difficult really quite easy. near the gun is set up a frame with a wire zigzagging to and fro across it, in such a manner that when the gun is fired the shell is bound to cut the wire. electric current is made to pass through this wire on its way to a suitable house in which are recording instruments, where it energises a magnet and so holds something up. now it is easy to see that as soon as the shell cuts the wire the current will stop, the magnet will "let go" and the "something" will drop. at a certain distance farther on there is a second frame with wires upon it, through which passes a second current, which is also led to the instrument house, where it again operates a second magnet. when the first magnet releases its hold it drops something, to wit, a long lead weight. when the second magnet lets go it permits a second weight to fall against the first and make a dent or scratch upon it. the longer the interval between the action of the two magnets the higher up upon the lead weight will the scratch be. the apparatus, in short, will register the distance fallen through by the lead weight between the breaking of the wire in the first frame and the breaking of the wire in the second frame. now a falling object, if only it has such weight that the resistance of the air is negligible, falls according to a well-understood law, which law it obeys with the utmost accuracy. therefore the distance fallen by the weight between the passage of the shell through two points gives a very accurate record of the time taken to travel from one to the other. of course several such frames can be used if desired in the same way. but to return to the gun itself. it is not merely one piece of metal but several tubes beautifully fitted one inside another. moreover, in the british gun at all events, between two of the tubes there is a space filled with "wire." this wire is perhaps better described as steel tape, and is of the finest material for the purpose, flexible and tremendously strong. it is wound round and round one of the tubes until there are many miles of it on a single gun. it is wound tightly, too, by means of special machinery. the purpose of the wire is to resist cracking. the solid steel tubes may crack, and, as is the way with all cracks, these will tend to grow longer and longer. the many turns of wire, however, will not crack. even if a few turns should break, the damage will not spread, and the gun can probably go on as if nothing had happened. the material of which these guns are made is nickel chrome gun steel. steel is ordinarily an alloy of iron and carbon, but this metal also contains traces of nickel and chromium, which make it specially suitable for its special purpose. each of the tubes of which the gun is formed start as an ingot, a mere lump of metal, but roughly shaped. the requisite mixture is obtained in a furnace and the molten metal is run out into a mould. the ingot is heated again and pressed under enormous hydraulic presses until it is approximately the shape required. this pressing not only produces the desired shape, it also improves the quality of the metal. the rough forging is then bored out, to make it into a tube. one is inclined to wonder why the ingot is not cast hollow to commence with, and so save the labour of boring it all out later. the explanation of this is that certain impurities are always present in the metal and these always gather together in the part which sets last. now in a solid block or ingot it is clear that the centre is the part which will set last, and hence that is the part where the impurities will congregate. then, when the centre part is all bored out the impurities are entirely removed. the tube is shaped externally by being turned in a lathe. the innermost tube is not simply smooth. there is a spiral groove, called the "rifling," running round and round, screw fashion, inside it. the purpose of this is to give the shell a spinning action which causes it to keep point foremost throughout its flight. but for this the shell would tend to turn over and over, resulting in uncertain and inaccurate flight. the shell is a little smaller than the bore of the gun, but near its base it has an encircling band of soft copper, which band is a tight fit in the gun. the soft copper crushes into the "rifling," whereby the shell obtains its spinning action. the large guns are mounted in pairs, each pair on a turntable, by the movement of which to right or left they are trained upon the distant target. the turntable is surrounded by a wall of thick armour and is covered by an iron hood or roof. in addition to being turnable to right or left, there is, of course, provision for raising or depressing the direction in which each gun is pointing. they need always to point more or less upwards, and the particular angle depends upon the range or distance of the object aimed at. this is ascertained by range-finding instruments and communicated to the officers in the turrets, as the covered turntables are called. the guns are then elevated or depressed to suit the range. each gun rests upon a cradle which is itself fitted upon a slide. when it is fired it "kicks" backwards, against the force of a buffer of springs, or a hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder. thus after each shot the gun moves backwards upon the slide, but the hydraulic apparatus brings it back again into position for firing almost instantaneously. in naval guns all the movements, including that of the turntable, are by power, either hydraulic or electric, or a combination of the two. the loading is also by power. the shells and ammunition are kept well down towards the bottom of the ship, under each turret. lifts bring them up from there to a chamber just beneath the turntable, known as the working chamber. here a small quantity only is kept, and that for as short a time as possible before it is sent up by other hoists straight to the guns themselves. the hoists are so arranged that, no matter how they may be elevated or depressed, the ammunition is delivered exactly opposite the breech, as the rear end of a gun is termed. then a mechanical rammer pushes it straight in. [illustration: rifles of different nations (_see_ appendix)] the breech of the gun is closed by a beautiful piece of mechanism called the breech-block. it is really a huge plug which securely closes the end of the gun, a partial turn after it is in place fixing it firmly enough to resist all the force of the explosion. yet it can be freed and swung back upon hinges in a few seconds. at the same moment that it is opened a jet of air blows into the gun, clearing out all effects of the recent explosion. the process of firing one of these guns may thus be summarised. the turntable is swivelled to right or left until the gunners, looking through the sights, which are really telescopes, see the object straight in front of them. meanwhile the sights have been set according to the range--that is to say, they have been so set in relation to the gun itself that when they point directly at the target the gun will be pointed upwards at exactly the right angle for that range. the whole thing, therefore, gun and sights combined, is tilted upwards or downwards as may be necessary until the sights point directly at the object aimed at. then at a signal the gun is fired by electricity. the shock causes the gun to slide backwards upon its supporting slide, but the buffers, having taken the shock automatically, return it to its position again; the aim is thus undisturbed and it is ready for the next shot. these enormous guns can be fired at the rate of one shot every fifteen seconds. field guns are in principle very similar to these, only, of course, they are much smaller and are mounted upon carriages, so that they can be quickly moved from place to place. it must be borne in mind, however, that there are in the case of land guns two distinct types. field guns, like naval guns, fire straight at their target; howitzers or mortars fire upwards with a view to letting the shell fall on the target from above. the latter are, generally speaking, short, fat, stumpy guns, as compared with the long, slender field guns. in the field all guns have to be loaded by hand. the elaborate system of hoists which enables the great naval guns to be loaded with such rapidity is obviously impossible. that has to be compensated for by the skill and quickness of the gunners themselves, and it is indeed astonishing to see with what deftness they can handle the heavy and dangerous projectiles. with all guns, of whatever kind, range-finding is of the utmost importance. no projectile, however fast it may travel, really moves in a straight line. it must be fired more or less upwards in order to compensate for the downward pull of gravity. if the elevation be insufficient the shell will fall short; if it be too much it may go beyond the mark, or it may fall short, according to circumstances. just the right elevation is absolutely essential for good shooting. and for that to be achieved the range must be known with the utmost possible accuracy. there are various systems and instruments used for this purpose, but all depend upon the same principle. it is the principle underlying all surveying and all astronomy; indeed it is the only possible principle for measuring a distance when you cannot actually go and lay a measure upon it or by it. it is based upon a peculiar property of a triangle. in the case of every triangle which has straight sides, if we know the size of two of the angles and the length of one of the sides we can easily calculate all that there is to be known about that triangle. we unconsciously use the principle when we judge a distance with our eyes. we focus each eye separately upon the object which we are looking at. in other words, each of our eyes looks along a straight line terminating in the object. those two lines, together with a line joining our two eyes, form a triangle. the line between our eyes is the "base," the line of which we know the length, while the directions in which we point our eyes give us the angles at each end of the base. from this we are able to judge the distance of the object. of course there is probably not one of us who knows the length of that natural "base" in inches, but that does not matter in this case, since it is always the same whatever we may look at, and so the mere inclination of the eyes gives us a means of comparing distances. when we judge by the eye alone, what we really do is to draw upon our experience and consciously or unconsciously compare the distance which we are estimating with some others which we already know. in surveying, a telescope is set up at one end of a base-line and pointed first at the other end of the base-line and then at the distant object. a scale with which the instrument is provided gives us the size of the angle between the two. then the same thing is done at the other end of the "base" and the similar angle there is obtained. the length of the base being known, the distance of the remote object can then be calculated. in the same way two observations can be made, one at each end of a ship, the length of the ship forming the base-line. or an instrument can be made by which two observations can be made simultaneously by the same man. this is done by means of mirrors which are turned so that the same object is seen in both of them, apparently in a straight line. the extent to which one of them has to be turned gives the angle, and the instrument forms the base. anyone with the slightest geometrical experience will perceive at once that the best results are obtained when the base-line is of considerable length, and hence small portable range-finding instruments such as can be easily carried and used by one man are necessarily less accurate than an arrangement such as has been suggested above, where two observers work simultaneously from the two ends of a ship. in many cases, however, the self-contained instrument is the only one which it is possible to use, and when the instrument is well made and in experienced hands the results are surprisingly good. as used in surveying, for example, where the base-line may be anything, according to circumstances, and the angles may likewise vary at both ends, elaborate trigonometrical calculations have to be performed to arrive at the desired result. if, however, the base-line be always the same, and one of the angles be always a right angle, the distance of the distant object will vary with the remaining angle. indeed the scale by which that angle is measured can be made to give not degrees, but the distance of the object. portable range-finders, therefore, in many cases have one reflector set for a right angle and only one of the reflectors movable. the instrument then shows the distance of the object at a glance. this is impossible in the case of two separate observations on a ship. in that case the base is always the same, but since the ship cannot be set at right angles to the object whenever a range has to be found, both angles have to be measured. there is, however, a beautifully simple little mechanism in which two pointers are set one to each of the two angles, and the distance is then shown instantly. appendix a description of the rifles shown at page the german mauser can fire forty rounds a minute--more than any other rifle used in the war. the rifle is of the pattern, weighs lb. oz. with bayonet fixed, and is sighted from to yards. the magazine holds five cartridges, packed in chargers. as the rifle is not provided with a cut-off, it cannot be used as a single-loader. with its long barrel and long bayonet it gives a stabbing length of ft. in.-- in. longer than the british. the austrian rifle is the mannlicher. this rifle is very fast in action as a snap back and forth of the wrist is sufficient to operate it. it is, however, more trying for prolonged work, owing to the throwing of the strain only on the wrist. without the bayonet the rifle weighs only lb. oz., the lightest of all, yet the bullet-- grains--is the heaviest used by any of the belligerents. the rifle is sighted from to yards, and the barrel has a four-groove rifling. the british lee-enfield--mark iii--is the outcome of the south african war. it is not too long for horseback and is yet quite efficient for infantry. the barrel is in. long and has five grooves in the rifling. it is sighted from to yards. the rifle is fitted with a magazine which holds ten cartridges packed in chargers, each of which contains five rounds, so that the magazine is filled with ten rounds in two motions. the rifle is also fitted with a cut-off, which enables it to be used as a single-loader. it is altogether a most efficient weapon. the french lebel is of the - pattern, and with bayonet fixed is longer than any other rifle. it weighs, without bayonet, lb. - / oz. the tube magazine under the barrel contains eight cartridges; it takes, of course, longer to charge than a magazine loaded with a charger. it does not fire as many shots a minute as some of the other rifles in the field. the position of the magazine is indicated by the crosses. the rifle is sighted from to yards, and the bullet weighs grains. the belgian army uses the pattern mauser, which weighs just over lb. and is sighted from to yards. the magazine holds five cartridges carried in clips; not having a cut-off, the rifle cannot be used as a single-loader. it has four grooves in its rifling and measures ft. - / in., or, with the bayonet, ft. - / in. the bayonet is short and flat. the " line" nagant of russia is / lb. heavier than the british rifle and is over in. longer. the triangular bayonet is always fixed and never removed from the rifle. the magazine of the rifle is of the box type and holds five cartridges. the rifle is capable of discharging twenty-four bullets to the minute. a useful feature is the interrupter, which prevents jamming of two cartridges. the italian mannlicher-carcano is of the pattern. it weighs, without bayonet, just over lb. oz. and measures - / in. the barrel, - / in. long, has a four-groove rifling. the box magazine, fixed under receiver without cut-off, holds six cartridges. the magazine holds six rounds, and the rifle is capable of discharging fifteen rounds a minute. index a accumulators or secondary batteries, aerial craft experiments, aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, afterdamp, alcohol as a fuel, alternating current, , altofts, artificial coal mine at, aluminium, amalgam, ammeters, ammonia in making ice, ammunition for big guns, amperes, , analysis and synthesis, anode, anschutz, dr, antennæ, , anthracene oil, arc, the, in wireless, argon, the gas, artesian wells, "atmosphere," a unit of measure, atoms, "avogadro's constant," b bacteria, beneficent, ball mill, the, battery, electrical, benzine, , bessemer, sir h., blowpipe, oxyhydrogen, board of trade unit, the, boiling water, , bore of a gun, boulders, blasting, branly, "brattice cloth," breech of a big gun, brennan torpedo, the, brewing, "brine" in machine-made cold, "budding" of yeast, the, c calibre of a gun, "capacity," capacity and inductance, electrical properties, carbolic oil, carbon, carbonic acid gas, carburetter, the, cardiograms, caselli, cathode, cavendish, investigations of, cellulose, , centrifugal tendency, "character" of a lighthouse, charge and current, cheddite, chemicals in waterworks, chemistry, organic and inorganic, chlorate of potash, chloride of soda, chronograph, the, clark's cell, coal and oil, coal, burnt, coal-dust an explosive, coal-dust, explosions from, coal-pitch, coal-tar, "coasting" lights, coherer, the, , , coke in smelting, colliery explosions, colliery explosions, rescue apparatus, colours of the spectrum, colours of flowers, compass, a ship's, compressed air in torpedoes, "concentrates," condensers in wireless, conservation of energy, contact makers, coronium, the gas, corundum, coulombs, courrières colliery disaster, creosote, creosote oil, crooks, sir w., crushing mills, crystal detectors, curie, m. and mme., curtis and harvey, cyanide process, the, cyanogen, cymogene, d detectors, detonator, the, dextro-glucose, diamonds, diesel engines, direct-current electric motor, "dirt-auger," the, ditches, blasting, drainage, du pont powder company, duddell, w. h., dufay dioptichrome process, dynamite, what it is, , ; in agriculture, ; firing a charge, ; fruit trees, ; marshy ponds, ; ditches, ; tree stumps, ; boulders, ; wells, dynamo, the, e eddystone lighthouse, edison's accumulator, einthoven, prof., electric arc, the, electric furnace, electric fuse, the, "electrical inertia," electrical battery, ; pressure, ; cells, ; measure, ; magnetism, electricity, ; the current, ; electro-plating, ; purification of metals, ; secondary batteries, electrode, electrolysis, , ; in drainage, electrolyte, electrometer, the, , electro-plating, electros, electroscope, the, endosperm, the, engines driven by oil fuel, enzymes, ether, , ethyl alcohol, explosions, ; in mines, explosive link, the, explosives for guns, f "falls" in a coal mine, fermentation, fessenden, r. a., field guns, filters in waterworks, fire-damp, firing-pin of torpedo, flashing lights, fog, effects of, fog signals, "fractional distillation," "frequency," frequency meter, friction clutch, "frue" vanner, the, fruit trees and dynamite, fuses, firing, g galvanometer, the, , "gangue," the, gauges, gelignite, glycerine in explosives, gold, guiding lights, gyroscope, the, , h half-tone illustrations, "hard-pan," harris, sir w. s., _hawke_ and _olympic_, collision between, "head" of the torpedo, heat and electricity, heat of the electric arc, heat, testing by, helium, , hertz, howitzers, hughes, prof., humphrey gas pump, hydraulicing, "hydro-carbons," hydrogen, liquid, hydrometer, the, hydrostatic valve of torpedo, "hyper-radial" apparatus, i ice, machine-made, indigo, synthetic, inductance, induction coil for wireless, induction furnaces, insulating ink, "interference" of light waves, ionisation of the atmosphere, iron, j jupiter's moons, k kelvin, lord, kerosene, kieselguhr, kilowatt, the, kinematograph in coal mine experiments, korn, prof., krypton, the gas, l leclanche cell, the, leyden jar, the, light, speed of, light waves, lighthouse, the, lighthouse lamp, the, limit gauges, liquid air, lodge, sir o., , lumière autochrome process, m magnetic detector, the first, magnetic pole, the, magnetism, magnets, "making" light, the, maltster, the, mansfield rescue station, the, marconi, marshy ponds, to remove by dynamite, mash tun, the, "master compass," the, "master" records, maxwell, j. c., measuring by electrolysis, mendeluff's table, mercury, metallographic testing, metals, testing, methane gas, , methyl alcohol, , microbes, their use, mine-laying, mine-sweeping, molecules, morris, william, mud, gold from, muirhead, dr, murette or pedestal of lighthouse lamp, n naphtha, national physical laboratory, natural frequency, neon, the gas, nickel chrome gun steel, nitric acid, nitro-cotton, nitro-glycerine, nitrogen gas, nobel, inventor of dynamite, , nodes, o ohm, the, , ohmmeter, the, ohm's law, oil, mineral, oil-producing countries, optical apparatus of lighthouse, "orders" of lighthouse apparatus, ores, orthochromatic plates, oscillations, electrical, oscillatory circuit, oscillograph, duddell's, oxide of iron, oxyacetylene flame, the, oxygen gas, oxyhydrogen jet, p paraffin wax, patents, "periodicity," "personal equation," the, petrol, , petroleum, phonograph, the, plans of a ship, plates of the secondary battery, platinum, plumbago in plating, poulsen arc, the, poulsen, valdemar, pressure gauges, priestly, investigations of, primary colours, prisms, reflection of, process blocks, projectiles, velocity of, propellers of the torpedo, propellers, testing aerial, prout's anonymous essay, prussiate of potash, purification of metals, q quadrant electrometer, the, quartz, ; fibre, , r radium, ramsey, sir w., range-finding, , rayleigh, lord, receiving instruments for wireless, "record" vanner, the, "rectifier," the, , red rays of light, reflection by prisms, reflectors, lighthouse, reiss electrical thermometer, repeated-impact testing machine, rescue teams for colliery accidents, , resistance welding, "resonance," an experiment, reviving apparatus for coal mines, rheostat, the, , rhigolene, rifling of a gun, rubber, synthetic, rubies, artificial, rudders of a torpedo, rutherford, prof., , s saccharine, saltpetre, schwartzkopff torpedo, the, scilly island lighthouse, sea, gold in the, secondary battery, the, "sectors," selenium, "self-rescue" apparatus, a, shale, oil from, shells for guns, ships, testing by models, short circuit, "shunt," the, sighting a big gun, silica, skating rinks, ice in, "sludge" and "effluent" of drainage, spark detectors, spark-gap, spectrum, the, spinthariscopes, spirits, springs, testing, stamps for crushing quartz, starch grains in colour photography, "step-down" and "step-up" transformers, "string galvanometer," the, submarine mines, submarine telephone, sulphuric acid, , sunlight, composition of, synchronism, difficulties of, , synthetic substances, t "tamping," tank for testing at teddington, ; new york harbour, telautograph, the, telectograph, the, , telegraph key for wireless, telewriter, the, temperature, measuring, tesla, nicola, testing by heat, testing machines, thermit, thermo-couple, the, thermo-galvanometer, the, thomson mirror galvanometer, the, thomson, prof., s., torpedo, the, training station at porth, transformer, the, transmitting instruments, travers, prof., tree stumps, blasting, tuning-fork a standard of speed, turret of a battleship, u ultra-microscope, the, ultra-violet rays, v varley and the atlantic cable, vaseline, veins or lodes, vickers, voltmeter, the, volts, , w water a source of heat, water, soft and hard, watt, the, waves caused by ships, recording, wax models of ships, welding by electricity, wells, blasting, welsbach mantle, the, whitehead, wire guns, wireless telegraphy, , wireless torpedo, the, wood-meal in explosives, wood spirit, "working fluid," the, y yeast, z zero, zinc in gold recovery, * * * * * the riverside press limited, edinburgh generously made available by internet archive (https://archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see https://archive.org/details/inventionsofgrea bondrich [illustration: oil-tempering the lining of a big gun (see page )] inventions of the great war by a. russell bond managing editor of "scientific american," author of "on the battle-front of engineering," etc. with many illustrations [illustration] new york the century co. copyright, , , by the century co. published, june, preface the great world war was more than two-thirds over when america entered the struggle, and yet in a sense this country was in the war from its very beginning. three great inventions controlled the character of the fighting and made it different from any other the world has ever seen. these three inventions were american. the submarine was our invention; it carried the war into the sea. the airplane was an american invention; it carried the war into the sky. we invented the machine-gun; it drove the war into the ground. it is not my purpose to boast of american genius but, rather, to show that we entered the war with heavy responsibilities. the inventions we had given to the world had been developed marvelously in other lands. furthermore they were in the hands of a determined and unscrupulous foe, and we found before us the task of overcoming the very machines that we had created. yankee ingenuity was faced with a real test. the only way of overcoming the airplane was to build more and better machines than the enemy possessed. this we tried to do, but first we had to be taught by our allies the latest refinements of this machine, and the war was over before we had more than started our aërial program. the machine-gun and its accessory, barbed wire (also an american invention), were overcome by the tank; and we may find what little comfort we can in the fact that its invention was inspired by the sight of an american farm tractor. but the tank was a british creation and was undoubtedly the most important invention of the war. on the sea we were faced with a most baffling problem. the u-boat could not be coped with by the building of swarms of submarines. the essential here was a means of locating the enemy and destroying him even while he lurked under the surface. two american inventions, the hydrophone and the depth bomb, made the lot of the u-boat decidedly unenviable and they hastened if they did not actually end german frightfulness on the sea. but these were by no means the only inventions of the war. great britain showed wonderful ingenuity and resourcefulness in many directions; france did marvels with the airplane and showed great cleverness in her development of the tank and there was a host of minor inventions to her credit; while italy showed marked skill in the creation of large airplanes and small seacraft. the central powers, on the other hand, were less originative but showed marked resourcefulness in developing the inventions of others. forts were made valueless by the large portable austrian guns. the long range gun that shelled paris was a sensational achievement, but it cannot be called a great invention because it was of little military value. the great german zeppelins were far from a success because they depended for their buoyancy on a highly inflammable gas. it is interesting to note that while the germans were acknowledging the failure of their dirigibles the british were launching an airship program, and here in america we had found an economical way of producing a non-inflammable balloon gas which promises a great future for aërial navigation. the most important german contribution to the war--it cannot be classed as an invention--was poison gas, and it was not long ere they regretted this infraction of the rules of civilized warfare adopted at the hague conference; for the allies soon gave them a big dose of their own medicine and before the war was over, fairly deluged them with lethal gases of every variety. many inventions of our own and of our allies were not fully developed when the war ended, and there were some which, although primarily intended for purposes of war, will be most serviceable in time of peace. for this war was not one of mere destruction. it set men to thinking as they had never thought before. it intensified their inventive faculties, and as a result, the world is richer in many ways. lessons of thrift and economy have been taught us. manufacturers have learned the value of standardization. the business man has gained an appreciation of scientific research. the whole story is too big to be contained within the covers of a single book, but i have selected the more important and interesting inventions and have endeavored to describe them in simple language for the benefit of the reader who is not technically trained. a. russell bond new york, may, contents chapter page i the war in and under the ground ii hand-grenades and trench mortars iii guns that fire themselves iv guns and super-guns v the battle of the chemists vi tanks vii the war in the air viii ships that sail the skies ix getting the range x talking in the sky xi warriors of the paint-brush xii submarines xiii getting the best of the u-boat xiv "devil's eggs" xv surface boats xvi reclaiming the victims of the submarines index list of illustrations oil-tempering the lining of a big gun _frontispiece_ facing page lines of zig-zag trenches as viewed from an aëroplane french sappers using stethoscopes to detect the mining operations of the enemy a -inch stokes mortar and two of its shells dropping a shell into a -inch trench mortar the maxim machine-gun operated by the energy of the recoil colt machine-gun partly broken away to show the operating mechanism the lewis gun which produces its own cooling current the benèt-mercié gun operated by gas browning machine-gun, weighing - / pounds browning machine-rifle, weight only pounds lewis machine-guns in action at the front an elaborate german machine-gun fort comparative diagram of the path of a projectile from the german super-gun one of our -inch coast defence guns on a disappearing mount height of gun as compared with the new york city hall the -mile gun designed by american ordnance officer american -inch rifle on a railway mount a long-distance sub-calibered french gun on a railway mount inside of a shrapnel shell and details of the fuse cap search-light shell and one of its candles putting on the gas-masks to meet a gas cloud attack even the horses had to be masked portable flame-throwing apparatus liquid fire streaming from fixed flame-throwing apparatus cleaning up a dugout with the "fire-broom" british tank climbing out of a trench at cambrai even trees were no barrier to the british tank the german tank was very heavy and cumbersome the speedy british "whippet" tank that can travel at a speed of twelve miles per hour the french high-speed "baby" tank section through our mark viii tank showing the layout of the interior a handley-page bombing plane with one of its wings folded back how an object dropped from the woolworth building would increase its speed in falling machine-gun mounted to fire over the blades of the propeller mechanism for firing between the blades of the propeller it would take a hundred horses to supply the power for a small airplane the flying-tank an n-c (navy-curtiss) seaplane of the type that made the first flight across the atlantic a big german zeppelin that was forced to come down on french soil observation car lowered from a zeppelin sailing above the clouds giant british dirigible built along the lines of a zeppelin one of the engine cars or "power eggs" of a british dirigible crew of the c- (american coastal dirigible) starting for newfoundland to make a transatlantic flight the curious tail of a kite balloon observers in the basket of an observation balloon enormous range-finders mounted on a gun turret of an american warship british anti-aircraft section getting the range of an enemy aviator a british aviator making observations over the german lines radio headgear of an airman carrying on conversation by radio with an aviator miles away long distance radio apparatus at the arlington (va.) station a giant gun concealed among trees behind the french lines observing the enemy from a papier-mâché replica of a dead horse camouflaged headquarters of the american th division in france a camouflaged ship in the hudson river on victory day complex mass of wheels and dials inside a german submarine surrendered german submarines, showing the net cutters at the bow forward end of a u-boat a depth bomb mortar and a set of "ash cans" at the stern of an american destroyer a depth bomb mortar in action and a depth bomb snapped as it is being hurled through the air airplane stunning a u-boat with a depth bomb the false hatch of a mystery ship the same hatch opened to disclose the -inch gun and crew a french hydrophone installation with which the presence of submarines was detected section of a captured mine-laying u-boat a paravane hauled up with a shark caught in its jaws a dutch mine-sweeper engaged in clearing the north sea of german mines hooking up enemy anchored mines an italian "sea tank" climbing over a harbor boom deck of a british aircraft mothership or "hush ship" electrically propelled boat or surface torpedo, attacking a warship hauling a seaplane up on a barge so that it may be towed climbing into an armored diving suit lowering an armored diver into the water a diver's sea sled ready to be towed along the bed of the sea the sea sled on land showing the forward horizontal and after vertical rudders the diving sphere built for deep sea salvage operations the pneumatic breakwater inventions of the great war chapter i the war in and under the ground for years the germans had been preparing for war. the whole world knew this, but it had no idea how elaborate were their preparations, and how these were carried out to the very minutest detail. when the call to arms was sounded, it was a matter of only a few hours before a vast army had been assembled--fully armed, completely equipped, ready to swarm over the frontiers into belgium and thence into france. it took much longer for the french to raise their armies of defense, and still longer for the british to furnish france with any adequate help. despite the heroic resistance of belgium, the entente allies were unprepared to stem the tide of german soldiers who poured into the northern part of france. so easy did the march to paris seem, that the germans grew careless in their advance and then suddenly they met with a reverse that sent them back in full retreat. however, the military authorities of germany had studied not only how to attack but also how to retreat and how to stand on the defensive. in this, as in every other phase of the conflict, they were far in advance of the rest of the world, and after their defeat in the first battle of the marne, they retired to a strong position and hastily prepared to stand on the defensive. when the allies tried to drive them farther back, they found that the german army had simply sunk into the ground. the war of manoeuver had given way to trench warfare, which lasted through long, tedious months nearly to the end of the great conflict. the germans found it necessary to make the stand because the russians were putting up such a strong fight on germany's eastern frontier. men had to be withdrawn from the western front to stem the russian tide, which meant that the western armies of the kaiser had to cease their offensive activities for the time being. the delay was fatal to the germans, for they had opposed to them not only brave men but intelligent men who were quick to learn. and when the germans were ready to resume operations in the west, they found that the allies also had sunk into the ground and had learned all their tricks of trench warfare, adding a number of new ones of their own. the whole character of the war was changed. the opposing forces were dead-locked and neither could break through the other's lines. the idea of digging into the ground did not originate with this war, but never before had it been carried out on so extensive a scale. the inventive faculties of both sides were vainly exercised to find some way of breaking the dead-lock. hundreds of new inventions were developed. the history of war from the days of the ancient romans up to the present time was searched for some means of breaking down the opposing lines. however, the dead-lock was not broken until a special machine had been invented, a traveling fort. but the story of that machine is told in another chapter. at the outset the allies dug very shallow ditches, such as had been used in previous wars. when it was found that these burrows would have to be occupied for weeks and months, the french and british imitated the germans and dug their trenches so deep that men could walk through them freely, without danger of exposing their heads above ground; and as the ditches grew deeper, they had to be provided with a firing-step on which the riflemen could stand to fire over the top of the trenches. the trenches were zig-zagged so that they could not be flanked, otherwise they would have made dangerous traps for the defenders; for had the enemy gained one end of the trench, he could have fired down the full length of it, killing or wounding every man it contained. but zig-zagging made it necessary to capture each turn separately. there were lines upon lines of these trenches. ordinarily there were but three lines, several hundred feet apart, with communicating trenches connecting them, and then several kilometers[ ] farther back were reserve trenches, also connected by communicating trenches with the front lines. [ ] a kilometer is, roughly, six tenths of a mile; or six miles would equal ten kilometers. men did not dare to show themselves out in the open near the battle-front for a mile or more behind the front-line trenches, for the enemy's sharp-shooters were always on the watch for a target. the men had to stay in the trenches day and night for two or more weeks at a time, and sleeping-accommodations of a very rough sort were provided for them in dugouts which opened into the trenches. the dugouts of the allies were comparatively crude affairs, but the germans spent a great deal of time upon their burrows. underground villages when the french first swept the germans back out of their trenches along the aisne, they were astonished to find how elaborate were these underground dwellings. they found that the ground was literally honeycombed with rooms and passageways. often the dugouts were two stories in depth and extended as much as sixty feet below the level of the ground. in fact, all along this part of the front, the germans had a continuous underground village in which thousands of men were maintained. the officers' quarters were particularly well fitted up, and every attention was given to the comfort of their occupants. there were steel door-mats at the entrances of the quarters. the walls were boarded and even papered. the bedrooms were fitted with spring beds, chiffoniers, and wash-stands, and all the rooms were lighted with electric lamps. there were spacious quarters for the men, with regular underground mess halls and elaborate kitchens. there were power-plants to furnish steam for the operation of pumps and for the lighting-plants and for other purposes. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood lines of zig-zag trenches as viewed from an airplane] there was a chalk formation here in which were many large natural caves. one enormous cave was said to have held thirty thousand soldiers, and in this section the germans kept large reserve forces. by digging far into the ground, the german troops secured protection from shell-fire; in fact, the horrible noise of battle was heard only as a murmur, down in these depths. with characteristic thoroughness, the germans built their trench system for a long stay; while the allies, on the other hand, looked upon _their_ trenches as merely temporary quarters, which would hold the enemy at bay until they could build up armies large enough to drive the invaders out of the country. the construction of the trenches along some parts of the battle-line was particularly difficult, because of the problem of drainage. this was especially true in flanders, where the trenches in many cases were below water-level, and elaborate pumping-systems had to be installed to keep them dry. some of them were concrete-lined to make them waterproof. in the early stages of the war, before the trenches were drained, the men had to stand in water for a good part of the time, and the only way they could get about at all in the miry trenches was by having "duck-boards" in them. duck-boards are sections of wooden sidewalk such as we find in small villages in this country, consisting of a couple of rails on which crosspieces of wood are nailed. these duck-boards fairly floated in the mud. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" french sappers using stethoscopes to detect the mining operations of the enemy] some of the trenches were provided with barbed wire barriers or gates calculated to halt a raiding-party if it succeeded in getting into the trench. these gates were swung up out of the way, but when lowered they were kept closed with a rather complicated system of bolts which the enemy would be unable to unfasten without some delay; and while he was struggling to get through the gate, he would be a target for the bullets of the defenders. hiding railroads in ditches because of the elaborate system of trenches, and the distance from the front line to that part of the country where it was safe to operate in the open, it was necessary to build railways which would travel through tunnels and communicating trenches to the front lines. these were narrow-gage railroads and a special standard form of track section was designed, which was entirely of metal, something like the track sections of toy railroads. the tracks were very quickly laid and taken up at need. the locomotives had to be silent and smokeless and so a special form of gasolene locomotive was invented to haul the little cars along these miniature railroads to the front lines. usually the trench railroads did not come to the very front of the battle-line, but their principal use was to carry shell to the guns which were located in concealed positions. railroad or tramway trenches could not be sharply zig-zagged but had to have easy curves, which were apt to be recognized by enemy airplanes, and so they were often concealed under a covering of wire strewn with leaves. periscopes and "sniperscopes" but while the armies were buried underground, it was necessary for them to keep their eyes upon each other so that each might be ready for any sudden onslaught of the other. snipers were always ready to fire at any head that showed itself above the parapet of the trench and so the soldiers had to steal an idea from the submarines and build them periscopes with which they could look over the top of their trenches without exposing themselves. a trench periscope was a very simple affair, consisting of a tube with two mirrors, one at the top and one at the bottom, set at such an angle that a person looking into the side of the tube at the bottom could see out of the opposite side of the tube at the top. observation posts were established wherever there was a slight rise in the ground. sometimes these posts were placed far in advance of the trenches and sometimes even behind the trenches where it was possible to obtain a good view of the opposing lines. sometimes a tunnel would be dug forward, leading to an outlet close to the enemy's lines, and here an observer would take his position at night to spy with his ears upon the activities of the enemy. observers who watched the enemy by day would often not dare to use periscopes, which might be seen by the enemy and draw a concentrated fire of rifles and even shell. so that every manner of concealment was employed to make the observation posts invisible and to have them blend with their surroundings. observers even wore veils so that the white of their skin would not betray them. [illustration: redrawn from military map reading by permission of e. c. mckay fig. . a "sniperscope" with which a sharpshooter could take aim without showing his head above the parapet] snipers were equally ingenious in concealing themselves. they frequently used rifles which were connected with a dummy butt and had a periscope sighting-attachment. this attachment was called a "sniperscope." the rifle-barrel could be pushed through a loophole in the parapet and the sniper standing safely below the parapet could hold the dummy butt to his shoulder and aim his rifle with perfect accuracy by means of the periscope. it was next to impossible to locate a sniper hidden in this way. one method of doing it was to examine rubbish, tin cans, or any object that had been penetrated by a bullet and note the direction taken by the bullet. this would give a line leading toward the source of the shot, and when a number of such lines were traced, they would cross at a spot where the sniper or his gun was stationed, and a few shell would put the man out of business. dummy heads of papier mâché were sometimes stuck above the parapet to draw the fire of enemy snipers and the bullet-holes which quickly appeared in them were studied to discover the location of the snipers. [illustration: redrawn from military map reading by permission of e. c. mckay fig. . a fixed rifle stand arranged to be fired after dark] sometimes fixed rifles were used. these were set on stands so that they could be very accurately trained upon some important enemy post. then they could be fired in the dark, without aiming, to disturb night operations of the enemy. often a brace of rifles, as many as six, would be coupled up to be fired simultaneously, and by operating a single lever each gun would throw out the empty cartridge shell and bring a fresh one into position. steel brier patches the most important defense of a trench system consisted in the barbed wire entanglements placed before it. barbed wire, by the way, is an american invention, but it was originally intended for the very peaceful purpose for keeping cattle within bounds. long ago it was used in war, but never to the extent to which it was employed in this world struggle. the entanglements were usually set up at night and were merely fences consisting of stout posts driven into the ground and strung with barbed wire running in all directions, so as to make an impenetrable tangle. where it was possible to prepare the entanglements without disturbance and the position was an important one, the mass of barbed wire often extended for a hundred yards or more in depth. just beyond the entanglements trip-wires were sometimes used. a trip-wire was a slack wire which was laid on the ground. before being laid, the wire was tightly coiled so that it would not lie flat, but would catch the feet of raiders and trip them up. each side had "gates" in the line through which this wire could quickly be removed to let its own raiding-parties through. sometimes raiders used tunnels, with outlets beyond the barbed wire, but they had to cut their way through the metal brier patches of their opponents. early in the war, various schemes were devised for destroying the entanglements. there were bombs in the form of a rod about twelve feet long, which could be pushed under the wire and upon exploding would tear it apart. another scheme was to fire a projectile formed like a grapnel. the projectile was attached to the end of a cable and was fired from a small gun in the same way that life-lines are thrown out to wrecks near shore. then the cable would be wound up on a winch and the grapnel hooks would tear the wire from its fastenings. such schemes, however, did not prove very practicable, and it was eventually found that a much better way of destroying barbed wire was to bombard it with high-explosive shell, which would literally blow the wire apart. but it required a great deal of shelling to destroy these entanglements, and it was really not until the tank was invented that such obstructions could be flattened out so that they formed no bar to the passage of the soldiers. the germans not only used fixed entanglements, but they had large standard sections of barbed wire arranged in the form of big cylindrical frames which would be carried easily by a couple of men and could be placed in position at a moment's notice to close a gap in the line or even to build up new lines of wire obstruction. mines and counter-mines in the earlier stages of the war it proved so impossible to capture a trench when it was well defended by machine-guns that efforts were made to blow up the enemy by means of mines. tunnels were dug reaching out under the enemy's lines and large quantities of explosives were stored in them. at the moment when it was intended to make an assault, there would be a heavy cannonading to disconcert the enemy, and then the mine would be touched off. in the demoralizing confusion that resulted, the storming-party would sweep over the enemy. such mines were tried on both sides, and the only protection against them was to out-guess the other side and build counter-mines. if it were suspected, from the importance of a certain position and the nature of the ground, that the enemy would probably try to undermine it, the defenders would dig tunnels of their own toward the enemy at a safe distance beyond their own lines and establish listeners there to see if they could hear the mining-operations of their opponents. very delicate microphones were used, which the listeners would place on the ground or against the walls of their tunnel. then they would listen for the faintest sound of digging, just as a doctor listens through a stethoscope to the beating of a patient's heart or the rush of air through his lungs. when these listening-instruments picked up the noise of digging, the general direction of the digging could be followed out by placing the instrument at different positions and noting where the noise was loudest. then a counter-mine would be extended in that direction, far enough down to pass under the enemy's tunnel, and at the right moment, a charge of tnt (trinitrotoluol) would be exploded, which would destroy the enemy's sappers and put an end to their ambitious plans. a very interesting case of mining was furnished by the british when they blew up the important post of messines ridge. this was strongly held by the germans and the only way of dislodging the enemy was to blow off the top of the ridge. before work was started, geologists were called upon to determine whether or not the ground were suitable for mining-operations. they picked out a spot where the digging was good from the british side, but where, if counter-mines were attempted from the german side, quicksands would be encountered and tunneling of any sort would be difficult. the british sappers could, therefore, proceed with comparative safety. the germans suspected that something of the sort was being undertaken, but they found it very difficult to dig counter-mines. however, one day their suspicions were confirmed, when the whole top of the hill was blown off, with a big loss of german lives. in the assault that followed the british captured the position and it was annexed to the british lines. chapter ii hand-grenades and trench mortars in primitive times battles were fought hand-to-hand. the first implements of war were clubs and spears and battle-axes, all intended for fighting at close quarters. the bow and arrow enabled men to fight at a distance, but shields and armor were so effective a defense that it was only by hand-to-hand fighting that a brave enemy could be defeated. even the invention of gunpowder did not separate the combatants permanently, for although it was possible to hurl missiles at a great distance, cannon were so slow in their action that the enemy could rush them between shots. shoulder firearms also were comparatively slow in the early days, and liable to miss fire, and it was not until the automatic rifle of recent years was fully developed that soldiers learned to keep their distance. when the great european war started, military authorities had come to look upon war at close quarters as something relegated to bygone days. even the bayonet was beginning to be thought of little use. rifles could be charged and fired so rapidly and machine-guns could play such a rapid tattoo of bullets, that it seemed impossible for men to come near enough for hand-to-hand fighting, except at a fearful cost of life. in developing the rifle, every effort was made to increase its range so that it could be used with accuracy at a distance of a thousand yards and more. but when the germans, after their retreat in the first battle of the marne, dug themselves in behind the aisne, and the french and british too found it necessary to seek shelter from machine-gun and rifle fire by burrowing into the ground, it became apparent that while rifles and machine-guns could drive the fighting into the ground, they were of little value in continuing the fight after the opposing sides had buried themselves. the trenches were carried close to one another, in some instances being so close that the soldiers could actually hear the conversation of their opponents across the intervening gap. under such conditions long-distance firearms were of very little practical value. what was needed was a short-distance gun which would get down into the enemy trenches. to be sure, the trenches could be shelled, but the shelling had to be conducted from a considerable distance, where the artillery would be immune to attack, and it was impossible to give a trench the particular and individual attention which it would receive at the hands of men attacking it at close quarters. before we go any farther we must learn the meaning of the word "trajectory." no bullet or shell travels in a straight line. as soon as it leaves the muzzle of the gun, it begins to fall, and its course through the air is a vertical curve that brings it eventually down to the ground. this curve is called the "trajectory." no gun is pointed directly at a target, but above it, so as to allow for the pull of gravity. the faster the bullet travels, the flatter is this curve or trajectory, because there is less time for it to fall before it reaches its target. modern rifles fire their missiles at so high a speed that the bullets have a very flat trajectory. but in trench warfare a flat trajectory was not desired. what was the use of a missile that traveled in a nearly straight line, when the object to be hit was hiding in the ground? trench fighting called for a missile that had a very high trajectory, so that it would drop right into the enemy trench. hand-artillery trench warfare is really a close-quarters fight of fort against fort, and the soldiers who manned the forts had to revert to the ancient methods of fighting an enemy intrenched behind fortifications. centuries ago, not long after the first use of gunpowder in war, small explosive missiles were invented which could be thrown by hand. these were originally known as "flying mortars." the missile was about the size of an orange or a pomegranate, and it was filled with powder and slugs. a small fuse, which was ignited just before the device was thrown, was timed to explode the missile when it reached the enemy. because of its size and shape, and because the slugs it contained corresponded, in a manner, to the pulp-covered seeds with which a pomegranate is filled, the missile was called a "grenade." grenades had fallen out of use in modern warfare, although they had been revived to a small extent in the russo-japanese war, and had been used with some success by the bulgarians and the turks in the balkan wars. and yet they had not been taken very seriously by the military powers of europe, except germany. germany was always on the lookout for any device that might prove useful in war, and when the germans dug themselves in after the first battle of the marne, they had large quantities of hand-grenades for their men to toss over into the trenches of the allies. these missiles proved very destructive indeed. they took the place of artillery, and were virtually hand-thrown shrapnel. the french and british were entirely unprepared for this kind of fighting, and they had hastily to improvise offensive and defensive weapons for trench warfare. their hand-grenades were at first merely tin cans filled with bits of iron and a high explosive in which a fuse-cord was inserted. the cord was lighted by means of a cigarette and then the can with its spluttering fuse was thrown into the enemy lines. as time went on and the art of grenade fighting was learned, the first crude missiles were greatly improved upon and grenades were made in many forms for special service. there was a difference between grenades hurled from sheltered positions and those used in open fighting. when the throwers were sheltered behind their own breastworks, it mattered not how powerful was the explosion of the grenade. we must remember that in "hand-artillery" the shell is far more powerful in proportion to the distance it is thrown than the shell fired from a gun, and many grenades were so heavily charged with explosives that they would scatter death and destruction farther than they could be thrown by hand. the grenadier who cast one of these grenades had to duck under cover or hide under the walls of his trench, else the fragments scattered by the exploding missile might fly back and injure him. some grenades would spread destruction to a distance of over three hundred feet from the point of explosion. for close work, grenades of smaller radius were used. these were employed to fight off a raiding-party after it had invaded a trench, and the destructive range of these grenades was usually about twenty-five feet. hand-grenades came to be used in all the different ways that artillery was used. there were grenades which were filled with gas, not only of the suffocating and tear-producing types, but also of the deadly poisonous variety. there were incendiary grenades which would set fire to enemy stores, and smoke grenades which would produce a dense black screen behind which operations could be concealed from the enemy. grenades were used in the same way that shrapnel was used to produce a barrage or curtain of fire, through which the enemy could not pass without facing almost certain death. curtains of fire were used not only for defensive purposes when the enemy was attacking, but also to cut off a part of the enemy so that it could not receive assistance and would be obliged to surrender. in attacks upon the enemy lines, grenades were used to throw a barrage in advance of the attacking soldiers so as to sweep the ground ahead clear of the enemy. the french paid particular attention to the training of grenadiers. a man had to be a good, cool-headed pitcher before he could be classed as a grenadier. he must be able to throw his grenade with perfect accuracy up to a distance of seventy yards, and to maintain an effective barrage. the grenadier carried his grenades in large pockets attached to his belt, and he was attended by a carrier who brought up grenades to him in baskets, so that he was served with a continuous supply. long-distance grenade-throwing all this relates to short-distance fighting, but grenades were also used for ranges beyond the reach of the pitcher's arm. even back in the sixteenth century, the range of the human arm was not great enough to satisfy the combatants and grenadiers used a throwing-implement, something like a shovel, with which the grenade was slung to a greater distance, in much the same way as a lacrosse ball is thrown. later, grenades were fitted with light, flexible wooden handles and were thrown, handle and all, at the enemy. by this means they could be slung to a considerable distance. such grenades were used in the recent war, particularly by the germans. the handle was provided with streamers so as to keep the grenade head-on to the enemy, and it was usually exploded by percussion on striking its target. these long-handled grenades, however, were clumsy and bulky, and the grenadier required a good deal of elbow-room when throwing them. [illustration: fig. . a rifle grenade fitted to the muzzle of a rifle] a much better plan was to hurl them with the aid of a gun. a rifle made an excellent short-distance mortar. with it grenades could be thrown from three to four hundred yards. the grenade was fastened on a rod which was inserted in the barrel of the rifle and then it was fired out of the gun by the explosion of a blank cartridge. the butt of the rifle was rested on the ground and the rifle was tilted so as to throw the grenade up into the air in the way that a mortar projects its shell. striking a light the lighting of the grenade fuses with a cigarette did very well for the early tin-can grenades, but the cigarettes were not always handy, particularly in the heat of battle, and something better had to be devised. one scheme was to use a safety-match composition on the end of a fuse. this was covered with waxed paper to protect it from the weather. the grenadier wore an armlet covered with a friction composition such as is used on a safety-match box. before the grenade was thrown, the waxed paper was stripped off and the fuse was lighted by being scratched on the armlet. in another type the fuse was lighted by the twisting of a cap which scratched a match composition on a friction surface. a safety-pin kept the cap from turning until the grenadier was ready to throw the grenade. the mills hand-grenade, which proved to be the most popular type used by the british army, was provided with a lever which was normally strapped down and held by means of a safety-pin. fig. shows a sectional view of this grenade. just before the missile was thrown, it was seized in the hand so that the lever was held down. then the safety-pin was removed and when the grenade was thrown, the lever would spring up under pull of the spring _a_. this would cause the pin _b_ to strike the percussion cap _c_, which would light the fuse _d_. the burning fuse would eventually carry the fire to the detonator _e_, which would touch off the main explosive, shattering the shell of the grenade and scattering its fragments in all directions. the shell of the grenade was indented so that it would break easily into a great many small pieces. [illustration: fig. . details of the mills hand grenade] there were some advantages in using grenades lighted by fuse instead of percussion, and also there were many disadvantages. if too long a time-fuse were used, the enemy might catch the grenade, as you would a baseball and hurl it back before it exploded. this was a hazardous game, but it was often done. [illustration: fig. . a german parachute grenade] among the different types of grenades which the germans used was one provided with a parachute as shown in fig. . the object of the parachute was to keep the head of the grenade toward the enemy, so that when it exploded it would expend its energies forward and would not cast fragments back toward the man who had thrown it. this was a very sensitive grenade, arranged to be fired by percussion, but it was so easily exploded that the firing-mechanism was not released until after the grenade had been thrown. in the handle of this grenade there was a bit of cord about twenty feet long. one end of this was attached to a safety-needle, _a_, while the other end, formed into a loop, was held by the grenadier when he threw the grenade. not until the missile had reached a height of twelve or thirteen feet would the pull of the string withdraw the needle _a_. this would permit a safety-hook, _b_, to drop out of a ring, _c_, on the end of a striker pellet, _d_. when the grenade struck, the pellet _d_ would move forward and a pin, _e_, would strike a cap on the detonator _f_, exploding the missile. this form of safety-device was used on a number of german grenades. [illustration: fig. . british rifle grenade with a safety-device which is unlocked by the rush of air against a set of inclined vanes, _d_, when the missile is in flight] the british had another scheme for locking the mechanism until after the grenade had traveled some distance through the air. details of this grenade, which was of the type adopted to be fired from a rifle, are shown in fig. . the striker _a_ is retained by a couple of bolts, _b_, which in turn are held in place by a sleeve, _c_. on the sleeve is a set of wind-vanes, _d_. as the grenade travels through the air, the wind-vanes cause the sleeve _c_ to revolve, screwing it down clear of the bolts _b_, which then drop out, permitting the pin _a_ to strike the detonator _e_ upon impact of the grenade with its target. [illustration: fig. . front, side, and sectional views of a disk-shaped german grenade] [illustration: fig. . a curious german hand grenade shaped like a hair brush] the germans had one peculiar type which was in the shape of a disk. in the disk were six tubes, four of which carried percussion caps so that the grenade was sure to explode no matter on which tube it fell. the disk was thrown with the edge up, and it would roll through the air. another type of grenade was known as the hair-brush grenade because it had a rectangular body of tin about six inches long and two and three quarter inches wide and deep, which was nailed to a wooden handle. miniature artillery hand-artillery was very effective as far as it went, but it had its limitations. grenades could not be made heavier than two pounds in weight if they were to be thrown by hand; in fact, most of them were much lighter than that. if they were fired from a rifle, the range was increased but the missile could not be made very much heavier. tnt is a very powerful explosive, but there is not room for much of it in a grenade the size of a large lemon. trench fighting was a duel between forts, and while the hand-artillery provided a means of attacking the defenders of a fort, it made no impression on the walls of the fort. it corresponded to shrapnel fire on a miniature scale, and something corresponding to high-explosive fire on a small scale was necessary if the opposing fortifications were to be destroyed. to meet this problem, men cast their thoughts back to the primitive artillery of the romans, who used to hurl great rocks at the enemy with catapults. and the trench fighters actually rigged up catapults with which they hurled heavy bombs at the enemy lines. all sorts of ingenious catapults were built, some modeled after the old roman machines. in some of these stout timbers were used as springs, in others there were powerful coil springs. it was not necessary to cast the bombs far. for distant work the regular artillery could be used. what was needed was a short-distance gun for heavy missiles and that is what the catapult was. [illustration: press illustrating service a -inch stokes mortar and two of its shells] [illustration: press illustrating service dropping a shell into a -inch trench mortar] but the work of the catapult was not really satisfactory. the machine was clumsy; it occupied too much space, and it could not be aimed very accurately. it soon gave way to a more modern apparatus, fashioned after the old smooth-bore mortars. this was a miniature mortar, short and wide-mouthed. a rifled barrel was not required, because, since the missile was not to be hurled far, it was not necessary to set it spinning by means of rifling so as to hold it head-on to the wind. giant pea-shooters better aim was secured when a longer-barreled trench mortar came to be used. in the trench, weight was an important item. there was no room in which to handle heavy guns, and the mortar had to be portable so that it could be carried forward by the infantry in a charge. as the walls of a light barrel might be burst by the shock of exploding powder, compressed air was used instead. the shell was virtually blown out of the gun in the same way that a boy blows missiles out of a pea-shooter. that the shell might be kept from tumbling, it was fitted with vanes at the rear. these acted like the feathers of an arrow to hold the missile head-on to its course. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" the maxim machine-gun operated by the energy of the recoil] [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" colt machine-gun partly broken away to show the operating mechanism gas from port _a_ pushes down piston _b_, rocking lever _c_, which compresses coil-spring _d_. the cartridge fed into the gun by wheel _e_, is extracted by _f_, raised by _g_ to breech _h_, and rammed in by bolt _i_. _j_, piston firing-hammer.] the french in particular used this type of mortar and the air-pump was used to compress the air that propelled the shell or aërial torpedo, or else the propelling charge was taken from a compressed-air tank. carbon-dioxide, the gas used in soda-water, is commonly stored in tanks under high pressure and this gas was sometimes used in place of compressed air. when the gas in the tank was exhausted the latter could be recharged with air by using a hand-pump. two or three hundred strokes of the pump would give a pressure of one hundred and twenty to one hundred and fifty pounds per inch, and would supply enough air to discharge a number of shell. the air was let into the barrel of the mortar in a single puff sufficient to launch the shell; then the tank was cut off at once, so that the air it contained would not escape and go to waste. the stokes mortar however, the most useful trench mortar developed during the war was invented by wilfred stokes, a british inventor. in this a comparatively slow-acting powder was used to propel the missile, and so a thin-walled barrel could be used. the light stokes mortar can easily be carried over the shoulder by one man. it has two legs and the barrel itself serves as a third leg, and the mortar stands like a tripod. the two legs are adjustable, so that the barrel can be inclined to any desired angle. it took but a moment to set up the mortar for action in a trench or shell-hole. [illustration: fig. . sectional view of a -inch stokes mortar showing a shell at the instant of striking the anvil] [illustration: fig. . a -inch trench mortar shell fitted with tail-vanes] curiously enough, there is no breech-block, trigger or fire-hole in this mortar. it is fired merely by the dropping of the missile into the mouth of the barrel. the shell carries its own propelling charge, as shown in fig. . this is in the form of rings, _a_, which are fitted on a stem, _b_. at the end of the stem are a detonating cap and a cartridge, to ignite the propellant, _a_. at the bottom of the mortar barrel, there is a steel point, _e_, known as the "anvil." when the shell is dropped into the mortar, the cap strikes the anvil, exploding the cartridge and touching off the propelling charge, _a_. the gases formed by the burning charge hurl the shell out of the barrel to a distance of several hundred yards. the first stokes mortar was made to fire a -inch shell, but the mortar grew in size until it could hurl shell of -inch and even - / -inch size. of course, the larger mortars had to have a very substantial base. they were not so readily portable as the smaller ones and they could not be carried by one man; but compared with ordinary artillery of the same bore they were immeasurably lighter and could be brought to advanced positions and set up in a very short time. the larger shell have tail-vanes, as shown in fig. , to keep them from tumbling when in flight. chapter iii guns that fire themselves many years ago a boy tried his hand at firing a united states army service rifle. it was a heavy rifle of the civil war period, and the lad did not know just how to hold it. he let the butt of the gun rest uncertainly against him, instead of pressing it firmly to his shoulder, and, in consequence, when the gun went off he received a powerful kick. that kick made a deep impression on the lad, not only on his flesh but on his mind as well. it gave him a good conception of the power of a rifle cartridge. years afterward, when he had moved to england, the memory of that kick was still with him. it was a useless prank of the gun, he thought, a waste of good energy. why could not the energy be put to use? and so he set himself the task of harnessing the kick of the gun. a very busy program he worked out for that kick to perform. he planned to have the gun use up its exuberant energy in loading and firing itself. so he arranged the cartridges on a belt and fed the belt into the gun. when the gun was fired, the recoil would unlock the breech, take out the empty case of the cartridge just fired, select a fresh cartridge from the belt, and cock the main spring; then the mechanism would return, throwing the empty cartridge-case out of the gun, pushing the new cartridge into the barrel, closing the breech, and finally pulling the trigger. all this was to be done by the energy of a single kick, in about one tenth of a second, and the gun would keep on repeating the operation as long as the supply of cartridges was fed to it. the new gun proved so successful that the inventor was knighted, and became sir hiram maxim. a doctor's ten-barreled gun but maxim's was by no means the first machine-gun. during the civil war a chicago physician brought out a very ingenious ten-barreled gun, the barrels of which were fired one after the other by the turning of a hand-crank. although dr. gatling was a graduate of a medical school, he was far more fond of tinkering with machinery than of doling out pills. he invented a number of clever mechanisms, but the one that made him really famous was that machine-gun. at first our government did not take the invention seriously. the gun was tried out in the war, but whenever it went into battle it was fired not by soldiers but by a representative of dr. gatling's company, who went into the army to demonstrate the worth of the invention. not until long after was the gatling gun officially adopted by our army. then it was taken up by many of the european armies as well. although many other machine-guns were invented, the gatling was easily the best and most serviceable, until the maxim invention made its appearance, and even then it held its own for many years; but eventually it had to succumb. the maxim did not have to be cranked: it fired itself, which was a distinct advantage; and then, instead of being a bundle of guns all bound up into a single machine, maxim's was a single-barreled gun and hence was much lighter and could be handled much more easily. a gun as a gas-engine another big advance was made by a third american, mr. john m. browning, who is responsible for the colt gun. it was not a kick that set browning to thinking. he looked upon a gun as an engine of the same order as an automobile engine, and really the resemblance is very close. the barrel of the gun is the cylinder of the engine; the bullet is the piston; and for fuel gunpowder is used in place of gasolene. as in the automobile engine, the charge is fired by a spark; but in the case of the gun the spark is produced by a blow of the trigger upon a bit of fulminate of mercury in the end of the cartridge. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" the lewis gun which produces its own cooling current] [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" the benèt-mercié gun operated by gas] explosion is the same thing as burning. the only way that the explosion of gunpowder differs from the burning of a stick of wood is that the latter is very slow, while the former goes like a flash. in both cases the fuel turns into great volumes of gas. in the case of the gun the gas is formed almost instantly and in such quantity that it has to drive the bullet out of the barrel to make room for itself. in the cartridge that our army uses, only about a tenth of an ounce of smokeless powder is used, but this builds up so heavy a pressure of gas that the bullet is sent speeding out of the gun at a rate of half a mile a second. it travels so fast that it will plow through four feet of solid wood before coming to a stop. [illustration: (c) committee on public information browning machine rifle, weight only pounds] [illustration: (c) committee on public information browning machine-gun, weighing - / pounds] now it occurred to browning that it wouldn't really be stealing to take a little of that gas-power and use it to work the mechanism of his machine-gun. it was ever so little he wanted, and the bullet would never miss it. the danger was not that he might take too much. his problem was to take any power at all without getting more than his mechanism could stand. what he did was to bore a hole through the side of the gun-barrel. when the gun was fired, nothing happened until the bullet passed this hole; then some of the gas that was pushing the bullet before it would blow out through the hole. but this would be a very small amount indeed, for the instant that the bullet passed out of the barrel the gases would rush out after it, the pressure in the gun would drop, and the gas would stop blowing through the hole. with the bullet traveling at the rate of about half a mile in a second, imagine how short a space of time elapses after it passes the hole before it emerges from the muzzle, and what a small amount of gas can pass through the hole in that brief interval! the gas that browning got in this way he led into a second cylinder, fitted with a piston. this piston was given a shove, and that gave a lever a kick which set going the mechanism that extracted the empty cartridge-case, inserted a fresh cartridge, and fired it. getting rid of heat the resemblance of a machine-gun to a gasolene-engine can be demonstrated still further. one of the most important parts of an automobile engine is the cooling-system. the gasolene burning in the cylinders would soon make them red-hot, were not some means provided to carry off the heat. the same is true of a machine-gun. in fact, the heat is one of the biggest problems that has to be dealt with. in a gasolene-engine the heat is carried off in one of three ways: ( ) by passing water around the cylinders; ( ) by building flanges around the cylinders to carry the heat off into the air; and ( ) by using a fan to blow cool air against the cylinders. all of these schemes are used in the machine-gun. in dr. gatling's gun the cooling-problem was very simple. as there were ten barrels, one barrel could be cooling while the rest were taking their turn in the firing. in other words, each barrel received only a tenth of the heat that the whole gun was producing; and yet gatling found it advisable to surround the barrels for about half their length with a water-jacket. in the maxim gun a water-jacket is used that extends the full length of the barrel, and into this water-jacket seven and a half pints of water are poured. yet in a minute and a half of steady firing at a moderate rate, or before six hundred rounds are discharged, the water will be boiling. after that, with every thousand rounds of continuous fire a pint and a half of water will be evaporated. now the water and the water-jacket add a great deal of weight to the gun, and this browning decided to do away with in his machine-gun. instead of water he used air to carry off the heat. the more surface the air touches, the more heat will it carry away; and so the colt gun was at first made with a very thick-walled barrel. but later the colt was formed with flanges, like the flanges on a motor-cycle engine, so as to increase the surface of the barrel. of course, air-cooling is not so effective as water-cooling, but it is claimed for this gun, and for other machine-guns of the same class, that the barrel is sufficiently cooled for ordinary service. although a machine-gun may be capable of firing many hundred shots per minute, it is seldom that such a rate is kept up very long in battle. usually, only a few rounds are fired at a time and then there is a pause, and there is plenty of time for the barrel to cool. once in a while, however, the gun has to be fired continuously for several minutes, and then the barrel grows exceedingly hot. effect of overheating but what if the gun-barrel does become hot? the real trouble is not that the cartridge will explode prematurely, but that the barrel will expand as it grows hot, so that the bullet will fit too loosely in the bore. inside the barrel the bore is rifled; that is, there are spiral grooves in it which give a twist to the bullet as it passes through, setting it spinning like a top. the spin of the bullet keeps its nose pointing forward. if it were not for the rifling, the bullet would tumble over and over, every which way, and it could not go very far through the air, to say nothing of penetrating steel armor. to gain the spinning-motion the bullet must fit into the barrel snugly enough to squeeze into the spiral grooves. now there is another american machine-gun known as the hotchkiss, which was used to a considerable extent by the french army. it is a gas-operated gun, something like the colt, and it is air-cooled. it was found in tests of the hotchkiss gun that in from three to four minutes of firing the barrel was expanded so much that the shots began to be a little uncertain. in seven minutes of continuous firing the barrel had grown so large that the rifling failed to grip the bullet at all. the gun was no better than an old-fashioned smooth-bore. the bullets would not travel more than three hundred yards. it is because of this danger of overheating that the colt and the hotchkiss guns are always furnished with a spare barrel. as soon as a barrel gets hot it is uncoupled and the spare one is inserted in its place. our men are trained to change the barrel of a colt in the dark in a quarter of a minute. but a gun that has to have a spare barrel and that has to have its barrel changed in the midst of a hot engagement is not an ideal weapon, by any means. and this brings us to still another invention--that, too, by an american. colonel i. n. lewis, of the united states army, conceived of a machine-gun that would be cooled not by still air but by air in motion. this would do away with all the bother of water-jackets. it would keep the gun light so that it could be operated by one man, and yet it would not have to be supplied with a spare barrel. like the colt and the hotchkiss, the lewis gun takes its power from the gas that comes through a small port in the barrel, near the muzzle. in the plate facing page the port may be seen leading into a cylinder that lies under the barrel. it takes about one ten-thousandth part of a second for a bullet to pass out of the barrel after clearing the port, but in that brief interval there is a puff of gas in the cylinder which drives back a piston. this piston has teeth on it which engage a small gear connected with a main-spring. when the piston moves back, it winds the spring, and it is this spring that operates the mechanism of the gun. the cartridges, instead of being taken from a belt or a clip, are taken from a magazine that is round and flat. there are forty-seven cartridges in the magazine and they are arranged like the spokes of a wheel, but in two layers. as soon as forty-seven rounds have been fired, the shooting must stop while a new magazine is inserted. but to insert it takes only a couple of seconds. using the bullet to fan the gun the most ingenious part of the lewis gun is the cooling-system. on the barrel of the gun are sixteen flanges or fins. these, instead of running around the gun, run lengthwise of the barrel. they are very light fins, being made of aluminum, and are surrounded by a casing of the same metal. the casing is open at each end so that the air can flow through it, but it extends beyond the muzzle of the barrel, and there it is narrowed down. at the end of the barrel there is a mouthpiece so shaped that the bullet, as it flies through, sucks a lot of air in its wake, making a strong current flow through the sixteen channels formed between the fins inside the casing. this air flows at the rate of about seventy miles per hour, which is enough to carry off all the heat that is generated by the firing of the cartridges. the gun may be regulated to fire between and rounds per minute, and its total weight is only - / pounds. [illustration: lewis machine-guns in action at the front] america can justly claim the honor of inventing and developing the machine-gun, although hiram maxim did give up his american citizenship and become a british subject. by the way, he is not to be confused with his younger brother, hudson maxim, the inventor of high explosives, who has always been an american to the core. of course we must not get the impression that only americans have invented machine-guns. there have been inventors of such weapons in various countries of europe, and even in japan. our own army for a while used a gun known as the benèt-mercié, which is something like the hotchkiss. this was invented by l. v. benèt, an american, and h. a. mercié, a frenchman, both living in st. denis, france. the browning machine-gun when we entered the war, it was expected that we would immediately equip our forces with the lewis gun, because the british and the belgians had found it an excellent weapon and also because it was invented by an american officer, who very patriotically offered it to our government without charging patent royalties. but the army officials would not accept it, although many lewis guns were bought by the navy. this raised a storm of protest throughout the country until finally it was learned that there was another gun for which the army was waiting, which it was said would be the very best yet. the public was skeptical and finally a test was arranged in washington at which the worth of the new gun was demonstrated. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" an elaborate german machine-gun fort] it was a new browning model; or, rather, there were two distinct models. one of them, known as the heavy model, weighed only - / pounds, this with its water-jacket filled; for it was a water-cooled gun. without its charge of water the machine weighed but - / pounds and could be rated as a very light machine-gun. however, it was classed as a heavy gun and was operated from a tripod. the new machine used recoil to operate its mechanism. the construction was simple, there were few parts, and the gun could very quickly be taken apart in case of breakage or disarrangement of the mechanism. but the greatest care was exercised to prevent jamming of cartridges, which was one of the principal defects in the other types of machine-guns. in the test this new weapon fired twenty thousand shots at the rate of six hundred per minute, with interruptions of only four and a half seconds, due partly to defective cartridges. there was no doubt that the new browning was a remarkable weapon. but if that could be said of the heavy gun, the light gun was a marvel. it weighed only fifteen pounds and was light enough to be fired from the shoulder or from the hip, while the operator was walking or running. in fact, it was really a machine-rifle. the regular . -caliber service cartridges were used, and these were stored in a clip holding twenty cartridges. the cartridges could be fired one at a time, or the entire clip could be fired in two and a half seconds. it took but a second to drop an empty clip out of the gun and replace it with a fresh one. the rifle was gas-operated and air-cooled, but no special cooling-device was supplied because it would seldom be necessary to fire a shoulder rifle fast enough and long enough for the barrel to become overheated. after the browning machine-rifle was demonstrated it was realized that the army had been perfectly justified in waiting for the new weapon. like the heavy browning, the new rifle was a very simple mechanism, with few parts which needed no special tools to take them apart or reassemble them; a single small wrench served this purpose. both the heavy and the light gun were proof against mud, sand, and dust of the battle-field. but best of all, a man did not have to have highly specialized training before he could use the browning rifle. it did not require a crew to operate one of these guns. each soldier could have his own machine-gun and carry it in a charge as he would a rifle. the advantage of the machine-rifle was that the operator could fire as he ran, watching where the bullets struck the ground by noting the dust they kicked up and in that way correcting his aim until he was on the target. very accurate shooting was thus made possible, and the machine-rifle proved invaluable in the closing months of the war. browning is unquestionably the foremost inventor of firearms in the world. he was born of mormon parents, in ogden, utah, in , and his father had a gun shop. as a boy browning became familiar with the use of firearms and when he was but fourteen years of age he invented an improved breech mechanism which was later used in the winchester repeater. curiously enough, it was a browning pistol that was used by the assassin at serajevo who killed the archduke of austria and precipitated the great european war, and it was with the browning machine-gun and rifle that our boys swept the germans back through the argonne forest and helped to bring the war to a successful end. the machine-gun in service although the machine-gun has been used ever since the civil war, it was not a vital factor in warfare until the recent great conflict. army officials were very slow to take it up, because they did not understand it. they used to think of it as an inferior piece of light artillery, instead of a superior rifle. the gatling was so heavy that it had to be mounted on wheels, and naturally it was thought of as a cannon. in the franco-prussian war the french had a machine-gun by which they set great store. it was called a _mitrailleuse_, or a gun for firing grape-shot. it was something like the gatling. the french counted on this machine to surprise and overwhelm the germans. but they made the mistake of considering it a piece of artillery and fired it from long range, so that it did not have a chance to show its worth. only on one or two occasions was it used at close range, and then it did frightful execution. however, it was a very unsatisfactory machine, and kept getting out of order. it earned the contempt of the germans, and later when the maxim gun was offered to the german army they would have none of it. they did not want to bother with "a toy cannon." it really was not until the war between russia and japan that military men began to realize the value of the machine-gun. as the war went on, both the russians and the japanese bought up all the machine-guns they could secure. they learned what could be done with the aid of barbed wire to retard the enemy while the machine-guns mowed them down as they were trying to get through. a man with a machine-gun is worth a hundred men with rifles; such is the military estimate of the weapon. the gun fires so fast that after hitting a man it will hit him again ten times while he is falling to the ground. and so it does not pay to fire the gun continuously in one direction, unless there is a dense mass of troops charging upon it. usually the machine-gun is swept from side to side so as to cover as wide a range as possible. it is played upon the enemy as you would play the hose upon the lawn, scattering a shower of lead among the advancing hosts. machine-gun forts it used to be thought that the belgian forts of armored steel and concrete, almost completely buried in the ground, would hold out against any artillery. but when the germans brought up their great howitzers and hurled undreamed-of quantities of high explosives on these forts, they broke and crumbled to pieces. then it was predicted that the day of the fort was over. but the machine-gun developed a new type of warfare. instead of great forts, mounting huge guns, little machine-gun forts were built, and, they were far more troublesome than the big fellows. to the germans belongs the credit for the new type of fort, which consisted of a small concrete structure, hidden from view as far as possible, but commanding some important part of the front. "pill-boxes," the british call them, because the first ones they ran across were round in shape and something like a pill-box in appearance. these pill-boxes were just large enough to house a few men and a couple of machine-guns. concealment was of the utmost importance; safety depended upon it. airplanes were particularly feared, because a machine-gun emplacement was recognized to be so important that a whole battery of artillery would be turned upon a suspected pill-box. some of the german machine-gun forts were very elaborate, consisting of spacious underground chambers where a large garrison of gunners could live. these forts were known as _mebus_, a word made from the initials of "_maschinengewehr eisen-bettungs unterstand_," meaning a machine-gun iron-bedded foundation. it was the machine-gun that was responsible for the enormous expenditure of ammunition in the war. before a body of troops dared to make a charge, the ground had to be thoroughly searched by the big guns for any machine-gun nests. unless these were found and destroyed by shell-fire, the only way that remained to get the best of them was to crush them down with tanks. it was really the machine-gun that drove the armies into trenches and under the ground. [illustration: comparative diagram of the path of a projectile from the german super-gun] but a machine-gun did not have to be housed in a fort, particularly a light gun of the lewis type. to be sure, the lewis gun is a little heavy to be used as a rifle, but it could easily be managed with a rest for the muzzle in the crotch of a tree, and a strong man could actually fire the piece from the shoulder. the light machine-gun could go right along with a charging body of troops and do very efficient service, particularly in fighting in a town or village, but it had to be kept moving or it would be a target for the artillery. in a certain village fight a machine-gunner kept changing his position. he would fire for a few minutes from one building and then shift over to some other. he did this no less than six times, never staying more than five minutes at a time in the same spot. but each one of the houses was shelled within fifteen minutes of the time he opened fire from it, which shows the importance that the germans attached to machine-gun fire. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" one of our -inch coast defence guns on a disappearing mount] [illustration: height of gun as compared with the new york city hall] chapter iv guns and super-guns when the news came that big shells were dropping into paris from a gun which must be at least seventy miles away, the world at first refused to believe; then it imagined that some brand-new form of gun or shell or powder had been invented by the germans. however, while the public marveled, ordnance experts were interested but not astonished. they knew that it was perfectly feasible to build a gun that would hurl a shell fifty, or seventy-five, or even a hundred miles, without involving anything new in the science of gunnery. shooting around the edge of the earth but if such ranges were known to be possible, why was no such long-distance gun built before? simply because none but the germans would ever think of shooting around the edge of the earth at a target so far away that it would have to be as big as a whole city to be hit at all. in a distance of seventy miles, the curve of the earth is considerable. paris is far below the horizon of a man standing at st. gobain, where the big german gun was located. and if a hole were bored from st. gobain straight to paris, so that you could see the city from the gun, it would pass, midway of its course, three thousand, seven hundred and fifty feet below the surface of the earth. with the target so far off, it was impossible to aim at any particular fort, ammunition depot, or other point of military importance. there is always some uncertainty as to just where a shell will fall, due to slight differences in quality and quantity of the powder used, in the density of the air, the direction of the wind, etc. this variation is bad enough when a shell is to be fired ten miles, but when the missile has to travel seventy miles, it is out of the question to try to hit a target that is not miles in extent. twenty years before the war our ordnance department had designed a fifty-mile gun, but it was not built, because we could see no possible use for it. our big guns were built for fighting naval battles or for the defense of our coasts from naval attacks, and there is certainly no use in firing at a ship that is so far below the horizon that we cannot even see the tips of its masts; and so our big guns, though they were capable of firing a shell twenty-seven miles, if aimed high enough, were usually mounted in carriages that would not let them shoot more than twelve or fifteen miles. the distance to which a shell can be hurled depends to a large extent upon the angle of the gun. if the gun is tilted up to an angle of degrees, the shell will go only about half as far as if it were tilted up to - / degrees, which is the angle that will carry a shell to its greatest distance. if the long-range german gun was fired at that angle, the shell must have risen to a height of about twenty-four miles. beyond the earth's atmosphere most of the air that surrounds our globe lies within four miles of the surface. few airplanes can rise to a greater height than this, because the air is so thin that it gives no support to the wings of the machine. the greatest height to which a man has ever ascended is seven miles. a balloon once carried two men to such a height. one of them lost consciousness, and the other, who was nearly paralyzed, succeeded in pulling the safety-valve rope, with his teeth. that brought the balloon down, and their instruments showed that they had gone up thirty-six thousand feet. what the ocean of air contains above that elevation, we do not know, but judging by the way the atmosphere thins out as we rise from the surface of the earth, we reckon that nine tenths of the air lies within ten miles of the surface of the earth. at twenty-four miles, or the top of the curve described by the shell of the german long-range guns, there must be an almost complete vacuum. if only we could accompany a shell on its course, we should find a strange condition of affairs. the higher we rose, the darker would the heavens become, until the sun would shine like a fiery ball in a black sky. all around, the stars would twinkle, and below would be the glare of light reflected from the earth's surface and its atmosphere, while the cold would be far more intense than anything suffered on earth. up at that height, there would be nothing to indicate that the shell was moving--no rush of air against the ears. we should seem detached from earth and out in the endless reaches of space. it seems absurd to think that a shell weighing close to a quarter of a ton could be retarded appreciably by mere air. but when we realize that the shell left the gun at the rate of over half a mile a second--traveling about thirty times faster than an express-train--we know that the air-pressure mounts up to a respectable figure. the pressure is the same whether a shell is moving through the air or the air is blowing against the shell. when the wind blows at the rate of to miles per hour, it is strong enough to lift houses off their foundations, to wrench trees out of the ground, to pick up cattle and carry them sailing through the air. imagine what it would do if its velocity were increased to , miles per hour. that is what the shell of a big gun has to contend with. as most of the air lies near the earth, the shell of long-range guns meet with less and less resistance the higher they rise, until they get up into such thin air that there is virtually no obstruction. the main trouble is to pierce the blanket of heavy air that lies near the earth. ways of increasing the range the big -inch guns that protect our coasts fire a shell that weighs , pounds. nine hundred pounds of smokeless powder is used to propel the shell, which leaves the muzzle of the gun with a speed of , feet per second. now, the larger the diameter of the shell, the greater will be its speed at the muzzle of the gun, because there will be a greater surface for the powder gases to press against. on the other hand, the larger the shell, the more will it be retarded by the air, because there will be a larger surface for the air to press against. it has been proposed by some ordnance experts that a shell might be provided with a disk at each end, which would make it fit a gun of larger caliber. a -inch shell, for instance, could then be fired from a -inch gun. being lighter than the -inch shell, it would leave the muzzle of the gun at a higher speed. the disks could be so arranged that as soon as the shell left the gun they would be thrown off, and then the -inch shell, although starting with a higher velocity than a -inch shell, would offer less resistance to the air. in that way it could be made to cover a much greater range. by the way, the shell of the german long-range gun was of but . -inch caliber. another way of increasing the range is to lengthen the gun. right here we must become acquainted with the word "caliber." caliber means the diameter of the shell. a -inch gun, for instance, fires a shell of -inch caliber; but when we read that the gun is a -or -caliber gun, it means that the length of the gun is forty or fifty times the diameter of the shell. our biggest coast-defense guns are -caliber -inch guns, which means that they are fifty times inches long, or - / feet in length. when a gun is as long as that, care has to be taken to prevent it from sagging at the muzzle of its own weight. these guns actually do sag a little, and when the shell is fired through the long barrel it straightens up the gun, making the muzzle "whip" upward, just as a drooping garden hose does when the water shoots through it. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" the -mile gun designed by american ordnance officers] now the longer the caliber length of a gun, the farther it will send a shell, because the powder gases will have a longer time to push the shell. but we cannot lengthen our big guns much more without using some special support for the muzzle end of the gun, to keep it from "whipping" too much. it is likely that the long-range german gun was provided with a substantial support at the muzzle to keep it from sagging. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood american -inch rifle on a railway mount] every once in a while a man comes forth with a "new idea" for increasing the range. one plan is to increase the powder-pressure. we have powders that will produce far more pressure than an ordinary gun can stand. but we have to use powders that will burn comparatively slowly. we do not want too sudden a shock to start with, but we wish the powder to give off an enormous quantity of gas which will keep on pushing and speeding up the shell until the latter emerges from the muzzle. the fifty-mile gun that was proposed twenty years ago was designed to stand a much higher pressure than is commonly used, and it would have fired a -inch shell weighing pounds with a velocity of , feet per second at the muzzle. the allies built no "super-guns," because they knew that they could drop a far greater quantity of explosives with much greater accuracy from airplanes, and at a much lower cost. the german gun at st. gobain was spectacular and it did some damage, but it had no military value and it did not intimidate the french as the germans had hoped it would. a gun with a range of a hundred and twenty miles but although we built no such gun, after the germans began shelling paris our ordnance department designed a gun that would fire a shell to a distance of over miles! there was no intention of constructing the gun, but the design was worked out just as if it were actually to be built. it was to fire a shell of -inch caliber, weighing pounds. now, an elswick standard -inch gun is feet long and its shell weighs pounds. two hundred pounds of powder are used to propel the shell, which leaves the muzzle with a velocity of , feet per second. if the gun is elevated to the proper angle, it will send the shell miles, and it will take the shell a minute and thirty-seven seconds to cover that distance. but the long-range gun our ordnance experts designed would have to be charged with , pounds of powder and the shell would leave the muzzle of the gun with a velocity of , feet per second. it would be in the air four minutes and nine seconds and would travel . miles. were the gun fired from the aberdeen proving grounds, near baltimore, maryland, its shell would travel across three states and fall into new york bay at perth amboy. at the top of its trajectory it would rise miles above the earth. but the most astonishing part of the design was the length of the gun, which worked out to feet. an enormous powder-chamber would have to be used, so that the powder gases would keep speeding up the shell until it reached the required velocity at the muzzle. the weight of the barrel alone was estimated at tons. it would have to be built up in four sections screwed together and because of its great length and weight it would have to be supported on a steel truss. the gun would be mounted like a roller lift-bridge with a heavy counter-weight at its lower end so that it could be elevated or depressed at will and a powerful hydraulic jack would be required to raise it. the recoil of a big gun is always a most important matter. unless a gun can recoil, it will be smashed by the shock of the powder explosion. usually, heavy springs are used to take up the shock, or cylinders filled with oil in which pistons slide. the pistons have small holes in them through which the oil is forced as the piston moves and this retards the gun in its recoil. but this "super-gun" was designed to be mounted on a carriage running on a set of tracks laid in a long concrete pit. on the recoil the gun would run back along the tracks, and its motion would be retarded by friction blocks between the carriage and the tracks and also by a steel cable attached to the forward end of the carriage and running over a pulley on the front wall of the pit, to a friction drum. the engraving facing page gives some idea of the enormous size of the gun. note the man at the breech of the gun. the hydraulic jack is collapsible, so that the gun may be brought to the horizontal position for loading, as shown by the dotted lines. the cost of building this gun is estimated at two and a half million dollars and its -pound shell would land only about sixty pounds of high explosives on the target. a bombing-plane costing but thirty thousand dollars could land twenty-five times as big a charge of high explosives with far greater accuracy. aside from this, the gun lining would soon wear out because of the tremendous erosion of the powder gases. the three-second life of a gun powder gases are very hot indeed--hot enough to melt steel. the greater the pressure in the gun, the hotter they are. it is only because they pass through the gun so quickly, that they do not melt it. as a matter of fact, they do wear it out rapidly because of their heat and velocity. they say that the life of a big gun is only three seconds. of course, a shell passes through the gun in a very minute part of a second, but if we add up these tiny periods until we have a total of three seconds, during which the gun may have fired two hundred rounds, we shall find that the lining of the barrel is so badly eroded that the gun is unfit for accurate shooting, and it must go back to the shops for a new inner tube. elastic guns we had better go back with it and learn something about the manufacture of a big gun. guns used to be cast as a solid chunk of metal. now they are built up in layers. to understand why this is necessary, we must realize that steel is not a dead mass, but is highly elastic--far more elastic than rubber, although, of course, it does not stretch nor compress so far. when a charge of powder is exploded in the barrel of a gun, it expands in all directions. of course, the projectile yields to the pressure of the powder gases and is sent kiting out of the muzzle of the gun. but for an instant before the shell starts to move, an enormous force is exerted against the walls of the bore of the gun, and, because steel is elastic, the barrel is expanded by this pressure, and the bore is actually made larger for a moment, only to spring back in the next instant. you can picture this action if you imagine a gun made of rubber; as soon as the powder was fired, the rubber gun would bulge out around the powder-chamber, only to collapse to its normal size when the pressure was relieved by the discharge of the bullet. now, every elastic body has what is called its elastic limit. if you take a coil spring, you can pull it out or you can compress it, and it will always return to its original shape, unless you pull it out or compress it beyond a certain point; that point is its elastic limit. the same is true of a piece of steel: if you stretch it beyond a certain point, it will not return to its original shape. when the charge of powder in a cannon exceeds a certain amount, it stretches the steel beyond its elastic limit, so that the bore becomes permanently larger. making the walls of the gun heavier would not prevent this, because steel is so elastic that the inside of the walls expands beyond its elastic limit before the outside is affected at all. years ago an american inventor named treadwell worked out a scheme for allowing the bore to expand more without exceeding its elastic limit. he built up his gun in layers, and shrunk the outer layers upon the inner layers, just as a blacksmith shrinks a tire on a wheel, so that the inner tube of the gun would be squeezed, or compressed. when the powder was fired, this inner layer could expand farther without danger, because it was compressed to start with. the built-up gun was also independently invented by a british inventor. all modern big guns are built up. how big guns are made the inside tube, known as the lining, is cast roughly to shape, then it is bored out, after which it is forged by the blows of a powerful steam-hammer. of course, while under the hammer, the tube is mounted on a mandrel, or bar, that just fits the bore. the metal is then softened in an annealing furnace, after which it is turned down to the proper diameter and re-bored to the exact caliber. the diameter of the lining is made three ten-thousandths of an inch larger than the inside of the hoop or sleeve that fits over it. this sleeve, which is formed in the same way, is heated up to degrees, or until its inside diameter is eight tenths of an inch larger than the outside diameter of the lining. the lining is stood up on end and the sleeve is fitted over it. then it is cooled by means of water, so that it grips the lining and compresses it. in this way, layer after layer is added until the gun is built up to the proper size. [illustration: photograph from underwood & underwood a long-distance sub-calibered french gun on a railway mount] instead of having a lining that is compressed by means of sleeves or jackets, many big guns are wound with wire which is pulled so tight as to compress the lining. the gun-tube is placed in a lathe, and is turned so as to wind up the wire upon it. a heavy brake on the wire keeps it drawn very tight. this wire, also, is put on in layers, so that each layer can expand considerably without exceeding its elastic limit. our big -inch coast-defense guns are wound with wire that is one tenth of an inch square. the length of wire on one gun is sufficient to reach all the way from new york to boston with fifty or sixty miles of wire left over. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" inside of a shrapnel shell and details of the fuse cap search-light shell and one of its candles] guns that play hide-and-seek a very ingenious invention is the disappearing-mount which is used on our coast fortifications. by means of this a gun is hidden beyond its breastworks so that it is absolutely invisible to the enemy. in this sheltered position it is loaded and aimed. it is not necessary to sight the gun on the target as you would sight a rifle. the aiming is done mathematically. off at some convenient observation post, an observer gets the range of the target and telephones this range to the plotting-room, where a rapid calculation is made as to how much the gun should be elevated and swung to the right or the left. this calculation is then sent on to the gunners, who adjust the gun accordingly. when all is ready, the gun is raised by hydraulic pressure, and just as it rises above the parapet it is automatically fired. the recoil throws the gun back to its crouching position behind the breastworks. all that the enemy sees, if anything, is the flash of the discharge. now that airplanes have been invented, the disappearing-mount has lost much of its usefulness. big guns have to be hidden from above. they are usually located behind a hill, five or six miles back of the trenches, where the enemy cannot see them from the ground, and they are carefully hidden under trees or a canopy of foliage or are disguised with paint. the huge guns recently built to defend our coasts are intended to fire a shell that will pierce the heavy armor of a modern dreadnought. the shell is arranged to explode after it has penetrated the armor, and the penetrating-power is a very important matter. about thirty years ago the british built three battle-ships, each fitted with two guns of - / -inch caliber and -caliber length. in order to test the penetrating-power of this gun a target was built, consisting first of twenty inches of steel armor and eight inches of wrought-iron; this was backed by twenty feet of oak, five feet of granite, eleven feet of concrete, and six feet of brick. when the shell struck this target it passed through the steel, the iron, the oak, the granite, and the concrete, and did not stop until it had penetrated three feet of the brick. we have not subjected our -inch gun to such a test, but we know that it would go through two such targets and still have plenty of energy left. incidentally, it costs us $ , each time the big gun is fired. the famous forty-two-centimeter gun one of the early surprises of the war was the huge gun used by the germans to destroy the powerful belgian forts. properly speaking, this was not a gun, but a howitzer; and right here we must learn the difference between mortars, howitzers, and guns. what we usually mean by "gun" is a piece of long caliber which is designed to hurl its shell with a flat trajectory. but long ago it was found advantageous to throw a projectile not at but upon a fortification, and for this purpose short pieces of large bore were built. these would fire at a high angle, so that the projectile would fall almost vertically on the target. as we have said, the bore of a gun is rifled; that is, it is provided with spiral grooves that will set the shell spinning, so as to keep its nose pointing in the direction of its flight. mortars, on the other hand, were originally intended for short-range firing, and their bore was not rifled. in recent years, however, mortars have been made longer and with rifled bores, so as to increase their range, and such long mortars are called "howitzers." the german -centimeter howitzer fired a shell that was , pounds in weight and was about - / yards long. the diameter of the shell was centimeters, which is about - / inches. it carried an enormous amount of high explosive, which was designed to go off after the shell had penetrated its target. the marvel of this howitzer was not that it could fire so big a shell but that so large a piece of artillery could be transported over the highroads and be set for use in battle. but although the -centimeter gun was widely advertised, the real work of smashing the belgian forts was done by the austrian "skoda" howitzers, which fired a shell of . -centimeter ( -inch) caliber, and not by the -centimeter gun. the skoda howitzer could be taken apart and transported by three motor-cars of horse-power each. the cars traveled at a rate of about twelve miles per hour. it is claimed the gun could be put together in twenty-four minutes, and would fire at the rate of one shot per minute. field-guns so far, we have talked only of the big guns, but in a modern battle the field-gun plays a very important part. this fires a shell that weighs between fourteen and eighteen pounds and is about three inches in diameter. the shell and the powder that fires it are contained in a cartridge that is just like the cartridge of a shoulder rifle. these field-pieces are built to be fired rapidly. the french -millimeter gun, which is considered one of the best, will fire at the rate of twenty shots per minute, and its effective range is considerably over three miles. the french supplied us with all -millimeter guns we needed in the war, while we concentrated our efforts on the manufacture of ammunition. guns that fire guns during the war of the revolution, cannon were fired at short range, and it was the custom to load them with grape-shot, or small iron balls, when firing against a charging enemy, because the grape would scatter like the shot of a shot-gun and tear a bigger gap in the ranks of the enemy than would a single solid cannon-ball. in modern warfare, guns are fired from a greater distance, so that there will be little danger of their capture. it is impossible for them to fire grape, because the ranges are far too great; besides, it would be impossible to aim a charge of grape-shot over any considerable distance, because the shot would start spreading as soon as they left the muzzle of the gun and would scatter too far and wide to be of much service. but this difficulty has been overcome by the making of a shell which is really a gun in itself. within this shell is the grape-shot, which consists of two hundred and fifty half-inch balls of lead. the shell is fired over the lines of the enemy, and just at the right moment it explodes and scatters a hail of leaden balls over a fairly wide area. it is not a simple matter to time a shrapnel shell so that it will explode at just the right moment. spring-driven clockwork has been tried, which would explode a cap after the lapse of a certain amount of time; but this way of timing shells has not proved satisfactory. nowadays a train of gunpowder is used. when the shell is fired, the shock makes a cap (see drawing facing page ) strike a pin, _e_, which ignites the train of powder, _a_. the head of the shell is made of two parts, in each of which there is a powder-fuse. there is a vent, or short cut, leading from one fuse to the other, and, by the turning of one part of the fuse-head with respect to the other, this short cut is made to carry the train of fire from the upper to the lower fuse sooner or later, according to the adjustment. the fire burns along one powder-train _a_, and then jumps through the short cut _b_ to the other, or movable train, as it is called, until it finally reaches, through hole _c_, the main charge _f_, in the shell. the movable part of the fuse-head is graduated so that the fuse may be set to explode the shell at any desired distance. in the fuse-head there is also a detonating-pin _k_, which will strike the primer _l_ and explode the shell when the latter strikes the ground, if the time-fuse has failed to act. when attacking airplanes, it is important to be able to follow the flight of the shell, so some shrapnel shell are provided with a smoke-producing mixture, which is set on fire when the shell is discharged, so as to produce a trail of smoke. [illustration: (c) committee on public information putting on the gas masks to meet a gas cloud attack] in meeting the attack of any enemy at night, search-light shell are sometimes used. on exploding they discharge a number of "candles," each provided with a tiny parachute that lets the candle drop slowly to the ground. their brilliant light lasts fifteen or twenty minutes. obviously, ordinary search-lights could not be used on the battle-field, because the lamp would at once be a target for enemy batteries, but with search-light shell the gun that fires them can remain hidden and one's own lines be shrouded in darkness while the enemy lines are brilliantly illuminated. chapter v the battle of the chemists some years ago the nations of the world gathered at the city of the hague, in holland, to see what could be done to put an end to war. they did not accomplish much in that direction, but they did draw up certain rules of warfare which they agreed to abide by. there were some practices which were considered too horrible for any civilized nation to indulge in. among these was the use of poisonous gases, and germany was one of the nations that took a solemn pledge not to use gas in war. [illustration: (c) kadel & herbert even the horses had to be masked] [illustration: photograph by kadel & herbert portable flame-throwing apparatus] eighteen years later the german army had dug itself into a line of trenches reaching from the english channel to switzerland, and facing them in another line of trenches were the armies of france and england, determined to hold back the invaders. neither side could make an advance without frightful loss of life. but a german scientist came forth with a scheme for breaking the dead-lock. this was professor nernst, the inventor of a well-known electric lamp and a man who had always violently hated the british. his plan was to drown out the british with a flood of poisonous gas. to be sure, there was the pledge taken at the hague conference, but why should that stand in germany's way? what cared the germans for promises now? already they had broken a pledge in their violation of belgium. already they had rained explosives from the sky on unfortified british cities (thus violating another pledge of the hague conference); already they had determined to war on defenseless merchantmen. to them promises meant nothing, if such promises interfered with the success of german arms. they led the world in the field of chemistry; why, they reasoned, shouldn't they make use of this advantage? pouring gas like water it was really a new mode of warfare that the germans were about to launch and it called for much study. in the first place, they had to decide what sort of gas to use. it must be a gas that could be obtained in large quantities. it must be a very poisonous gas, that would act quickly on the enemy; it must be easily compressed and liquefied so that it could be carried in containers that were not too bulky; it must vaporize when the pressure was released; and it must be heavier than air, so that it would not be diluted by the atmosphere but would hug the ground. you can pour gas just as you pour water, if it is heavier than air. a heavy gas will stay in the bottom of an unstoppered bottle and can be poured from one bottle into another like water. if the gas is colored, you can see it flowing just as if it were a liquid. on the other hand, a gas which is much lighter than air can also be kept in unstoppered bottles if the bottles are turned upside down, and the gas can be poured from one bottle into another; but it flows up instead of down. chlorine gas was selected because it seemed to meet all requirements. for the gas attack a point was chosen where the ground sloped gently toward the opposing lines, so that the gas would actually flow down hill into them. preparations were carried out with the utmost secrecy. just under the parapet of the trenches deep pits were dug, about a yard apart on a front of fifteen miles, or over twenty-five thousand pits. in these pits were placed the chlorine tanks, each weighing about ninety pounds. each pit was then closed with a plank and this was covered with a quilt filled with peat moss soaked in potash, so that in case of any leakage the chlorine would be taken up by the potash and rendered harmless. over the quilts sandbags were piled to a considerable height, to protect the tanks from shell-fragments. liquid chlorine will boil even in a temperature of degrees below zero fahrenheit, but in tanks it cannot boil because there is no room for it to turn into a gas. upon release of the pressure at ordinary temperatures, the liquid boils violently and big clouds of gas are produced. if the gas were tapped off from the top of the cylinder, it would freeze on pouring out, because any liquid that turns into a gas has to draw heat from its surroundings. the greater the expansion, the more heat the gas absorbs, and in the case of the chlorine tanks, had the nozzles been set in the top of the tank they would very quickly have been crusted with frost and choked, stopping the flow. but the germans had anticipated this difficulty, and instead of drawing off the gas from the top of the tank, they drew off the liquid from the bottom in small leaden tubes which passed up through the liquid in the tank and were kept as warm as the surrounding liquid. in fact, it was not gas from the top of the tank, but liquid from the bottom, that was streamed out and this did not turn into gas until it had left the nozzle. waiting for the wind everything was ready for the attack on the british in april, . a point had been chosen where the british lines made a juncture with the french. the germans reckoned that a joint of this sort in the opponent's lines would be a spot of weakness. also, they had very craftily picked out this particular spot because the french portion of the line was manned by turcos, or algerians, who would be likely to think there was something supernatural about a death-dealing cloud. on the left of the africans was a division of canadians, but the main brunt of the gas was designed to fall upon the turcos. several times the attack was about to be made, but was abandoned because the wind was not just right. the germans wished to pick out a time when the breeze was blowing steadily--not so fast as to scatter the gas, but yet so fast that it would overtake men who attempted to run away from it. it was not until april that conditions were ideal, and then the new mode of warfare was launched. just as had been expected, the turcos were awe-struck when they saw, coming out of the german trenches, volumes of greenish-yellow gas, which rolled toward them, pouring down into shell-holes and flowing over into the trenches as if it were a liquid. they were seized with superstitious fear, particularly when the gas overcame numbers of them, stifling them and leaving them gasping for breath. immediately there was a panic and they raced back, striving to out-speed the pursuing cloud. for a stretch of fifteen miles the allied trenches were emptied, and the germans, who followed in the wake of the gas, met with no opposition except in the sector held by the canadians. here, on the fringe of the gas cloud, so determined a fight was put up that the germans faltered, and the brave canadians held them until reinforcements arrived and the gap in the line was closed. the germans themselves were new at the game or they could have made a complete success of this surprise attack. had they made the attack on a broader front, nothing could have kept them from breaking through to calais. the valiant canadians who struggled and fought without protection in the stifling clouds of chlorine, were almost wiped out. but many of them who were on the fringe of the cloud escaped by wetting handkerchiefs, socks, or other pieces of cloth, and wrapping them around their mouths and noses. the world was horrified when it read of this german gas attack, but there was no time to be lost. immediately orders went out for gas-masks, and in all parts of england, and of france as well, women were busy sewing the masks. these were very simple affairs--merely a pad of cotton soaked in washing-soda and arranged to be tied over the mouth and nose. but when the next attack came, not long after the first, the men were prepared in some measure for it, and again it failed to bring the germans the success they had counted upon. one thing that the germans had not counted upon was the fact that the prevailing winds in flanders blow from west to east. during the entire summer and autumn of , the winds refused to favor them, and no gas attacks were staged from june to december. this gave the british a long respite and enabled them not only to prepare better gas-masks, but also to make plans to give the hun a dose of his own medicine. [illustration: (c) kadel & herbert liquid fire streaming from fixed flame-throwing apparatus] when the wind played a trick on the germans there were many disadvantages in the use of gas clouds, which developed as the germans gathered experience. the gas started from their own lines in a very dense cloud, but the cloud grew thinner and thinner as it traveled toward the enemy, and lost a great deal of its strength. if the wind were higher than fifteen miles an hour, it would swirl the gas around and dissipate it before it did much harm to the opposing fighters. if the wind were light, there were other dangers. on one occasion in a cloud of gas was released upon an irish regiment. the wind was rather fickle. it carried the gas toward the british trenches, but before reaching them the cloud hesitated, the wind veered around, and soon the gas began to pour back upon the german lines. the germans were entirely unprepared for this boomerang attack. many of the huns had no gas-masks on, and those who had, found that the masks were not in proper working-order. as a result of this whim of the winds, eleven thousand germans were killed. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" cleaning up a dugout with the "fire broom"] while chlorine was the first gas used, it was evident that it was not the only one that could be employed. british chemists had suspected that the germans would use phosgene, which was a much more deadly gas, and in the long interval between june and december, , masks were constructed which would keep out not only the fumes of chlorine but also the more poisonous phosgene. in one of their sorties the british succeeded in capturing some valuable notes on gas attacks, belonging to a german general, which showed that the germans were actually preparing to use phosgene. this deadly gas is more insidious in its action than chlorine. the man who inhales phosgene may not know that he is gassed. he may experience no ill effects, but hours afterward, particularly if he has exercised in the meantime, he may suddenly fall dead, owing to its paralyzing action on the heart. freeing the british trenches of rats phosgene was not used alone, but had to be mixed with chlorine, and the deadly combination of the two destroyed all life for miles behind the trenches. however, the british were ready for it. they had been drilled to put on their masks in a few seconds' time, on the first warning of a gas attack. when the clouds of chlorine and phosgene came over no man's land, they were prepared, and, except for casualties among men whose masks proved defective, the soldiers in the trenches came through with very few losses. all animal life, however, was destroyed. this was a blessing to the british tommy, whose trenches had been overrun with rats. the british had tried every known method to get rid of these pests, and now, thanks to the germans, their quarters were most effectively fumigated with phosgene and every rat was killed. if only the "cooties" could have been destroyed in the same way, the germans might have been forgiven many of their offenses. the disadvantages in the use of gas clouds became increasingly apparent. what was wanted was some method of placing the gas among the opponents in concentrated form, without wasting any of it on its way across from one line to the other. this led to the use of shell filled with materials which would produce gas. there were many advantages in these shell. they could be thrown exactly where it was desired that they should fall, without the help of the fickle winds. when the shell landed and burst, the full effect of its contents was expended upon the enemy. a gas cloud would rise over a wood, but with shell the wood could be filled with gas, which, once there, would lurk among the trees for days. chemicals could be used in shell which could not be used in a cloud attack. the shell could be filled with a liquid, or even with a solid, because when it burst the filling would be minutely pulverized. and so german chemists were set to work devising all sorts of fiendish schemes for poisoning, choking, or merely annoying their opponents. gas that made one weep one of the novel shell the germans used was known as the "tear-gas" shell. this was filled with a liquid, the vapor of which was very irritating to the eyes. the liquid vaporized very slowly and so its effect would last a long time. however, the vapor did not permanently injure the eyes; it merely filled them with tears to such an extent that a soldier was unable to see and consequently was confused and retarded in his work. the "tear-gas" shell were marked with a "t" by the germans and were known as "t-shell." another type of shell, known as the "k-shell," contained a very poisonous liquid, the object of which was to destroy the enemy quickly. the effect of this shell was felt at once, but it left no slow vapors on the ground, and so it could be followed up almost immediately by an attack. later on, the germans developed three types of gas shell--one known as the "green cross," another as the "yellow cross," and the third as the "blue cross." the green cross shell was filled with diphosgene, or a particularly dangerous combination of phosgene in liquid form, which would remain in pools on the ground or soak into the ground and would vaporize when it became warm. its vapors were deadly. one had always to be on his guard against them. in the morning, when the sun warmed the earth and vapors were seen to rise from the damp soil, tests were made of the vapors to see whether it was mere water vapor or diphosgene, before men were allowed to walk through it. these vapors were heavier than air and would flow down into a trench, filling every nook and cranny. if phosgene entered a trench by a direct hit, the liquid would remain there for days, rendering that part of the trench uninhabitable except by men in gas-masks. the infected part of the trench, however, was cut off from the rest of the trench by means of gas-locks. in other words, blankets were used to keep the gas out, and usually two blankets were hung so that a man in passing from one part of the trench to another could lift up the first blanket, pass under it, and close it carefully behind him before opening the second blanket which led into the portion of the trench that was not infected. the germans had all sorts of fiendish schemes for increasing the discomfort of the allies. for instance, to some of their diphosgene shell they added a gas which caused intense vomiting. the yellow cross shell was another fiendish invention of the huns. it was popularly known as "mustard gas" and was intended not to kill but merely to discomfort the enemy. the gas had a peculiar penetrating smell, something like garlic, and its fumes would burn the flesh wherever it was exposed to them, producing great blisters and sores that were most distressing. the material in the shell was a liquid which was very hard to get rid of because it would vaporize so slowly. on account of the persistence of this vapor, lasting as it did for days, these gas shell were usually not fired by the germans on lines that they expected to attack immediately. the sneezing-shell the blue cross shell was comparatively harmless, although very annoying. it contained a solid which was atomized by the explosion of the shell, and which, after it got into the nostrils, caused a violent sneezing. the material, however, was not poisonous and did not produce any casualties to speak of, although it was most unpleasant. a storm of blue cross shell could be followed almost immediately by an attack, because the effect of the shell would have been dissipated before the attackers reached the enemy who were still suffering from the irritation of their nostrils. gas-masks as the different kinds of gas shell were developed, the gas-masks were improved to meet them. in every attack there were "duds" or unexploded shell, which the chemists of the allies analyzed. also, they were constantly experimenting with new gases, themselves, and often could anticipate the germans. the allies were better able to protect themselves against gas attacks than the germans, because there was a scarcity of rubber in germany for the manufacture of masks. when it was found that phosgene was going to be used, the simple cotton-wad masks had to give way to more elaborate affairs with chemicals that would neutralize this deadly gas. and later when the mustard gas was used which attacked the eyes, and the sneezing-gas that attacked the nose, it was found necessary to cover the face completely, particularly the eyes; and so helmets of rubber were constructed which were tightly fitted around the neck under the coat collar. the inhaled air was purified by passage through a box or can filled with chemicals and charcoal made of various materials, such as cocoanut shells, peach pits, horse-chestnuts, and the like. because the germans had no rubber to spare, they were obliged to use leather, which made their masks stiff and heavy. glass that will not shatter one of the greatest difficulties that had to be contended with was the covering of the eyes. there was danger in the use of glass, because it was liable to be cracked or broken, letting in the deadly fumes and gassing the wearer. experiments were made with celluloid and similar materials, but the finest gas-masks produced in the war were those made for our own soldiers, in which the goggles were of glass, built up in layers, with a celluloid-like material between, which makes a tough composition that will stand up against a very hard blow. even if it cracks, this glass will not shatter. the glasses were apt to become coated on the inside with moisture coming from the perspiration of the face, and some means had to be provided for wiping them off. the french hit upon a clever scheme of having the inhaled air strike the glasses in a jet which would dry off the moisture and keep the glasses clear. before this was done, the masks were provided with little sponges on the end of a finger-piece, with which the glasses could be wiped dry without taking the masks off. but all this time, the allies were not merely standing on the defensive. no sooner had the germans launched their first attack than the british and french chemists began to pay back the hun in kind. more attention was paid to the shell than the cloud attack, and soon gas shell began to rain upon the germans. not only were the german shell copied, but new gases were tried. gas shell were manufactured in immense quantities. then america took a hand in the war and our chemists added their help, while our factories turned out steady streams of shell. if germany wanted gas warfare, the allies were determined that she should have it. our chemists were not afraid to be pitted against the german chemists and the factories of the allies were more than a match for those of the central powers. when the germans first started the use of gas, apparently they counted only their own success, which they thought would be immediate and overwhelming. they soon learned that they must take what they gave. the allies set them a pace that they could not keep up with. when the armistice brought the war to a sudden stop, the united states alone was making each day two tons of gas for every mile of the western front. if the war had continued, the germans would have been simply deluged. as it was, they were getting far more gas than they could possibly produce in their own factories and they had plenty of reason to regret their rash disregard of their contract at the hague conference. one gas we were making was of the same order as mustard gas but far more volatile, and had we had a chance to use it against the germans they would have found it very difficult to protect themselves against its penetrating fumes. battling with liquid fire somewhat associated with gas warfare was another form of offensive which was introduced with the purpose of breaking up the dead-lock of trench warfare. a man could protect himself against gas by using a suitable mask and clothing, but what could he do against fire? it looked as if trench defenders would have to give up if attacked with fire, and so, early in the war, the germans devised apparatus for shooting forth streams of liquid fire, and the allies were not slow to copy the idea. the apparatus was either fixed or portable, but it was not often that the fixed apparatus could be used to advantage, because at best the range of the flame-thrower was limited and in few places were the trenches near enough for flaming oil to be thrown across the intervening gap. for this reason portable apparatus was chiefly used, with which a man could send out a stream for from a hundred to a hundred and fifty feet. on his back he carried the oil-tank, in the upper part of which there was a charge of compressed air. a pipe led from the tank to a nozzle which the man held in his hand, using it to direct the spray. there was some danger to the operator in handling a highly inflammable oil. the blaze might flare back and burn him, particularly when he was lighting the stream, and so a special way of setting fire to the spray had to be devised. of course, the value of the apparatus lay in its power to shoot the stream as far as possible. the compressed air would send the stream to a good distance, but after lighting, the oil might be consumed before it reached the desired range. some way had to be found of igniting the oil stream far from the nozzle or as near the limit of its range as possible. and so two nozzles were used, one with a small opening so that it would send out a fine jet of long range, while the main stream of oil issued from the second nozzle. the first nozzle was movable with respect to the second and the two streams could be regulated to come together at any desired distance from the operator within the range of the apparatus. the fine stream was ignited and carried the flame out to the main stream, setting fire to it near the limit of its range. in this way a flare-back was avoided and the oil blazed where the flame was needed. the same sort of double nozzle was used on the stationary apparatus and because weight was not a consideration, heavier apparatus was used which shot the stream to a greater distance. but flame-throwing apparatus had its drawbacks: there was always the danger that the tank of highly inflammable oil might be burst open by a shell or hand-grenade and its contents set on fire. the fixed apparatus was buried under bags of sand, but the man who carried flame-throwing apparatus on his back had to take his chances, not knowing at what instant the oil he carried might be set ablaze, turning him into a living, writhing, human torch. because of this hazard, liquid fire did not play a very important part in trench warfare; to set fire to the spray at its source with a well directed hand-grenade was too easy. the "fire broom" there were certain situations, however, in which liquid fire played a very important part. after a line of trenches had been captured it was difficult to clear out the enemy who lurked in dugouts and underground passages. they would not surrender, and from their hidden recesses they could pour out a deadly machine-gun fire. the only way of dislodging them was to use the "fire broom." in other words, a stream of liquid fire was poured into the dugout, burning out the men trapped in it. if there were a second exit, they would come tumbling out in a hurry. if not, they would be burned to death. after the first sweep of the "broom," if there were any survivors, there would not be any fight left in them, and they would be quick to surrender before being subjected to a second dose of fire. chapter vi tanks there is no race-horse that can keep up with an automobile, no deer that can out-run a locomotive. a bicyclist can soon tire out the hardiest of hounds. why? because animals run on legs, while machines run on wheels. as wheels are so much more speedy than legs, it seems odd that we do not find this form of locomotion in nature. there are many animals that owe their very existence to the fact that they can run fast. why hasn't nature put them on wheels so that when their enemy appears they can roll away, sedately, instead of having to jerk their legs frantically back and forth at the rate of a hundred strokes a minute? but one thing we must not overlook. our wheeled machines must have a special road prepared for them, either a macadam highway or a steel track. they are absolutely helpless when they are obliged to travel over rough country. no wheeled vehicle can run through fields broken by ditches and swampy spots, or over ground obstructed with boulders and tree-stumps. but it is not always possible or practicable to build a road for the machines to travel upon, and it is necessary to have some sort of self-propelled vehicle that can travel over all kinds of ground. some time ago a british inventor developed a machine with large wheels on which were mounted the equivalent of feet. as the wheels revolved, these feet would be planted firmly on the ground, one after the other, and the machine would proceed step by step. it could travel over comparatively rough ground, and could actually walk up a flight of stairs. we have a very curious walking-machine in this country. it is a big dredge provided with two broad feet and a "swivel chair." the machine makes progress by alternately planting its feet on the ground, lifting itself up, chair and all, pushing itself forward, and sitting down again. although many other types of walking-machines have been patented, none of them has amounted to very much. clearly, nature hopelessly outclasses us in this form of propulsion. years ago it occured to one ingenious man that if wheeled machines must have tracks or roads for their wheels to run on, they might be allowed to lay their own tracks. and so he arranged his track in the form of an endless chain of plates that ran around the wheels of his machine. the wheels merely rolled on this chain, and as they progressed, new links of the track were laid down before them and the links they had passed over were picked up behind them. a number of inventors worked on this idea, but one man in particular, benjamin holt, of peoria, illinois, brought the invention to a high state of perfection. he arranged a series of wheels along the chain track, each carrying a share of the load of the machine, and each mounted on springs so that it would yield to any unevenness of the ground, just as a caterpillar conforms itself to the hills and dales of the surface it creeps over. in fact, the machine was called a "caterpillar" tractor because of its crawling locomotion. but it was no worm of a machine. in power it was a very elephant. it could haul loads that would tax the strength of scores of horses. stumps and boulders were no obstacles in its path. even ditches could not bar its progress. the machine would waddle down one bank and up the other without the slightest difficulty. it was easily steered; in fact, it could turn around in its own length by traveling forward on one of its chains, or traction-belts, and backward on the other. the machine was particularly adapted to travel on soft or plowed ground, because the broad traction-belts gave it a very wide bearing and spread its weight over a large surface. it was set to work on large farms, hauling gangs of plows and cultivators. little did mr. holt think, as he watched his powerful mechanical elephants at work on the vast western wheat-fields, that they, or rather their offspring, would some day play a leading role in a war that would rack the whole world. * * * * * but we are getting ahead of our story. to start at the very beginning, we must go back to the time when the first savage warrior used a plank of wood to protect himself from the rocks hurled by his enemy. this was the start of the never-ending competition between arms and armor. as the weapons of offense developed from stone to spear, to arrow, to arquebus, the wooden plank developed into a shield of brass and then of steel; and then, since a separate shield became too bothersome to carry, it was converted into armor that the warrior could wear and so have both hands free for battle. for every improvement in arms there was a corresponding improvement in armor. after gunpowder was invented, the idea of armor for men began to wane, because no armor could be built strong enough to ward off the rifle-bullet and at the same time light enough for a man to wear. the struggle between arms and armor was then confined to the big guns and the steel protection of forts and war-ships. but not so long ago the machine-gun was invented, and this introduced a new phase of warfare. not more than one rifle-bullet in a thousand finds its mark on the battle-field. the boers in the battle of colenso established a record with one hit in six hundred shots. in the excitement of battle men are too nervous to take careful aim and they are apt to fire either too high or too low, so that the mortality is not nearly so great as some would expect. but with the machine-gun there is not this waste of ammunition, because it fires a stream of bullets, the effect of which can readily be determined by the man who operates the volley. the difference between the machine-gun fire and rifle fire is something like the difference between hitting a tin can with a stone or with a stream of water. it is no easy matter to score a hit with the stone; but any one can train a garden hose on the can, because he can see where the water is striking and move his hose accordingly until he covers the desired spot. in the same way, with the machine-gun, it is much easier to train the stream of bullets upon the mark, and, having once found the mark, to hold the aim. that is one reason why the destruction of a machine-gun is so tremendous; another, of course, being that it will discharge so many more shots per minute than the common rifle. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood british tank climbing out of a trench at cambrai] in the russo-japanese war, the russians played havoc with the attacking japanese at port arthur by using carefully concealed machine-guns, and the german military attachés were quick to note the value of the machine-gun. secretely they manufactured large numbers of machine-guns and established a special branch of service to handle the guns, and they developed the science of using them with telling effect. and so, when the recent great war suddenly broke out, they surprised the world with the countless number of machine-guns they possessed and the efficient use to which they put them. thousands of british soldiers in the early days of the war fell victims to these death-dealing machines. two or three men with a machine-gun could defy several companies of soldiers, especially when the attackers had to cut their way through barbed wire entanglements. it was clearly evident that something must be done to defend the men against the machine-gun; for to charge against it meant, simply, wholesale slaughter. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood even trees were no barrier to the british tank] [illustration: press illustrating service the german tank was very heavy and cumbersome] at first the only means of combating the machine-guns seemed to be to destroy them with shell-fire; but they were carefully concealed, and it was difficult to search them out. only by long-continued bombardment was it possible to destroy them and tear away the barbed wire sufficiently to permit of a charge. before an enemy position was stormed it was subjected to the fire of thousands of guns of all calibers for hours and even days. but this resulted in notifying the enemy that a charge was ere long to be attempted at a certain place, and he could assemble his reserves for a counter-attack. furthermore, the germans learned to conceal their machine-guns in dugouts twenty or thirty feet underground, where they were safe from the fire of the big guns, and then, when the fire let up, the weapons would be dragged up to the surface in time to mow down the approaching infantry. it was very clear that something would have to be done to combat the machine-gun. if the necessary armor was too heavy for the men to carry, it must carry itself. armored automobiles were of no service at all, because they could not possibly travel over the shell-pitted ground of no man's land. the russians tried a big steel shield mounted on wheels, which a squad of soldiers would push ahead of them, but their plan failed because the wheels would get stuck in shell-holes. a one-man shield on wheels was tried by the british. under its shelter a man could steal up to the barbed wire and cut it and even crawl up to a machine-gun emplacement and destroy it with a hand-grenade. but this did not prove very successful, either, because the wheels did not take kindly to the rough ground of the battle-field. * * * * * and here is where we come back to mr. holt's mechanical elephants. just before the great war broke out, belgium--poor unsuspecting belgium--was holding an agricultural exhibit. an american tractor was on exhibition. it was the one developed by mr. holt, and its remarkable performances gained for it a reputation that spread far and wide. colonel e. d. swinton of the british army heard of the peculiar machine, and immediately realized the advantages of an armored tractor for battle over torn ground. but in the first few months of the war that ensued, this idea was forgotten, until the effectiveness of the machine-gun and the necessity for overcoming it recalled the matter to his mind. at his suggestion a caterpillar tractor was procured, and the military engineers set themselves to the task of designing an armored body to ride on the caterpillar-tractor belts. of course the machine had to be entirely re-designed. the tractor was built for hauling loads, and not to climb out of deep shell-holes; but by running the traction-belts over the entire body of the car, and running the forward part of the tractor up at a sharp angle the engineers overcame that difficulty. in war, absolute secrecy is essential to the success of any invention, and the british engineers were determined to let no inkling of the new armored automobiles reach the enemy. different parts of the machines were made in different factories, so that no one would have an idea of what the whole would look like. at first the new machine was known as a "land-cruiser" or "land-ship"; but it was feared that this very name would give a clue to spies, and so any descriptive name was forbidden. many of the parts consisted of rolled steel plates which might readily be used in building up vessels to hold water or gasolene; and to give the impression that such vessels were being constructed the name "tank" was adopted. the necessity of guarding even the name of the machines was shown later, when rumors leaked out that the tanks were being built to carry water over the desert regions of mesopotamia and egypt. another curious rumor was that the machines were snow-plows for use in russia. to give some semblance of truth to this story, the parts were carefully labeled, "for petrograd." probably never was a military secret so well guarded as this one, and when, on september , , the waddling steel tractors loomed up out of the morning mists, the german fighters were taken completely by surprise. two days before, their airmen had noticed some peculiar machines which they supposed were armored automobiles. they had no idea, however, that such formidable monsters were about to descend upon them. the tanks proceeded leisurely over the shell-torn regions of no man's land, wallowing down into shell-holes and clambering up out of them with perfect ease. they straddled the trenches and paused to pour down them streams of machine-gun bullets. wire entanglements were nothing to them; under their weight steel wire snapped like thread. the big brutes marched up and down the lines of wire, treading them down into the ground and clearing the way for the infantry. even trees were no barrier to these tanks. of course they did not attack large ones, but the smallish trees were simply broken down before their onslaughts. as for concrete emplacements for machine-guns, the tanks merely rode over them and crushed them. those who attempted to defend themselves in the ruins of buildings found that the tanks could plow right through walls and bring them down in a shower of bricks and stone. there was no stopping these monsters, and the germans fled in consternation before them. there were two sizes of tanks. the larger ones aimed to destroy the machine-gun emplacements, and they were fitted up with guns for firing a shell. the smaller tanks, armed with machine-guns, devoted themselves to fighting the infantry. british soldiers following in the wake of the bullet-proof tank were protected from the shots of the enemy and were ready to attack him with bayonets when the time was ripe. but the tanks also furnished an indirect protection for the troops. it was not necessary for the men to conceal themselves behind the big tractors. naturally, every hun who stood his ground and fought, directed all his fire upon the tanks, leaving the british infantry free to charge virtually unmolested. the success of the tank was most pronounced. in the meantime the french had been informed of the plans of their allies, and they set to work on a different design of tractor. it was not until six months later that their machines saw service. the french design differed from the british mainly in having the tractor belt confined to the wheels instead of running over the entire body of the tank. it was more blunt than the british and was provided at the forward end with a steel cutting-edge, which adapted it to break its way through wire entanglements. at each end there are two upward-turning skids which helped the tank to lift itself out of a hole. the larger machines carried a regular -millimeter ( -inch) field-gun, which is a very formidable weapon. they carried a crew of one officer and seven men. life in a tank is far from pleasant. the heat and the noise of machinery and guns are terrific. naturally, ventilation is poor and the fumes and gases that accumulate are most annoying, to say the least. sometimes the men were overcome by them. but war is war, and such discomforts had to be endured. but the tank possessed one serious defect which the germans were not slow to discover. its armor was proof against machine-gun fire, but it could not ward off the shells of field-guns, and it was such a slow traveler that the enemy did not find it a very difficult task to hit it with a rapid-fire gun if the gunner could see his target. and so the germans ordered up their guns to the front lines, where they could score direct hits. only light guns were used for this purpose, especially those whose rifling was worn down by long service, because long range was not necessary for tank fighting. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood the speedy british "whippet" tank that can travel at a speed of twelve miles per hour] [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood the french high-speed "baby" tank] when the germans began their final great drive, it was rumored that they had built some monster tanks that were far more formidable than anything the allies had produced. unlike the british, they used the tanks not to lead the army but to follow and destroy small nests of french and british that were left behind. when the french finally did capture one of the german tanks, which had fallen into a quarry, it proved to be a poor imitation. it was an ugly-looking affair, very heavy and cumbersome. owing to the scarcity of materials for producing high-grade armor, it had to make up in thickness of plating what it lacked in quality of steel. the tank was intended to carry a crew of eighteen men and it fairly bristled with guns, but it could not manoeuver as well as the british tank; for when some weeks later a fleet of german tanks encountered a fleet of heavy british tanks, the hun machines were completely routed. [illustration: courtesy of "automotive industries" section through our mark viii tank showing the layout of the interior with the locations of the most important parts in the fighting compartment in the engine room] it was then that the british sprang another surprise upon the germans. after the big fellows had done their work, a lot of baby tanks appeared on the scene and chased the german infantry. these little tanks could travel at a speed of twelve miles an hour, which is about as fast as an ordinary man can run. "whippets," the british called them, because they were like the speedy little dogs of that name. they carried but two men, one to guide the tank and the other to operate the machine-gun. the french, too, built a light "mosquito" tank, which was even smaller than the british tank, and fully as fast. it was with these machines, which could dart about quickly on the battle-field and dodge the shell of the field-guns, and which were immune to the fire of the machine-gun, that the allies were able to make progress against the germans. when the germans retired, they left behind them nests of machine-guns to cover the withdrawal of their armies. these gunners were ordered to fight to the very end. they looked for no mercy and expected no help. had it not been for the light tanks, it would have been well nigh impossible to overcome these determined bodies of men without frightful losses. since america invented the machine-gun and also barbed wire, and since america furnished the inspiration for the tank with which to trample down the wire entanglements and stamp out the machine-guns, naturally people expected our army to come out with something better than anything produced by our allies. we did turn out a number of heavy machines patterned after the original british tank, with armor that could stand up against heavy fire, and we also produced a small and very speedy tank similar to the french "baby" tank, but before we could put these into service the war ended. the tanks we did use so effectively at st.-mihiel and in the argonne forest were supplied by the french. chapter vii the war in the air we americans are a peace-loving people, which is the very reason why we went into the war. we had to help down the power that was disturbing the peace of the world. we do not believe in conquests--at least of the type that germany tried to force--and yet there are certain conquests that we do indulge in once in a while. eleven years before germany undertook to conquer europe two young americans made the greatest conquest that the world has ever seen. the wright brothers sailed up into the heavens and gained the mastery of the air. they offered their conquest to the united states; but while we accepted their offering with enthusiasm at first, we did not know what to do with the new realm after we got it. there seemed to be no particular use in flying. it was just a bit too risky to be pleasant sport, and about all we could see in it was an exhibition for the circus or the county fair. not so in europe, however. flying meant something over there--there where the frontiers have ever bristled with big guns and strong fortifications, and where huge military forces have slept on their arms, never knowing what dreadful war the morning would bring forth. the war-lovers hailed the airplane as a new instrument with which to terrorize their neighbors; the peace-lovers saw in it another menace to their homes; it gave them a new frontier to defend. and so the military powers of europe took up the airplane seriously and earnestly and developed it. at first military authorities had rated the airplane chiefly as a flying scout. some bomb-dropping experiments had been made with it, but it proved very difficult to land the bombs near the target, and, besides, machines of those days were not built to carry very heavy loads, so that it did not seem especially profitable to attack the enemy from the skies. as for actual battles up among the clouds, they were dreamed of only by the writers of fiction. but wild dreams became stern realities in the mighty struggle between the great powers of the world. eyes in the sky as a scouting-machine the airplane did prove to be far superior to mounted patrols which used to perform scout-work. in fact, it changed completely the character of modern warfare. from his position high up in the heavens the flying scout had an unobstructed view of the country for miles and he could see just what the enemy was doing. he could see whether large forces of men were collecting for an attack. he could watch the course of supply-trains, and judge of their size. he could locate the artillery of the enemy and come back with information which in former times a scout posted in a tall tree or even in a captive balloon could not begin to acquire. surprise attacks were impossible, with eyes in the sky. the aviator could help his own batteries by signaling to them where to send their shell, and when the firing began he would spot the shots as they landed and signal back to the battery how to correct its aim so as to drop the shell squarely on the target. the french sprang a surprise on the germans by actually attacking the infantry from the sky. the idea of attack from overhead was so novel that armies did not realize the danger of exposing themselves behind the battle-front. long convoys of trucks and masses of infantry moved freely over the roads behind the lines and they were taken by surprise when the french began dropping steel darts upon them. these were about the size of a pencil, with pointed end and fluted tail, so that they would travel through the air like an arrow. the darts were dropped by the hundred wherever the airmen saw a large group of the enemy, and they struck with sufficient velocity to pierce a man from head to foot. but steel darts were not used very long. the enemy took to cover and then the only way to attack him was to drop explosives which would blow up his shelter. at the outset, air scouts were more afraid of the enemy on the ground than in the sky. the germans had anti-aircraft guns that were fired with accuracy and accounted for many allied planes. in those days, airplanes flew at comparatively low altitudes and they were well within the reach of the enemy's guns. but it was not long before the airplanes began to fight one another. each side was very much annoyed by the flying scouts of its opponents and after a number of pistol duels in the sky the french began to arm their planes with machine-guns. two months after the war started the first airplane was sent crashing to earth after a battle in the sky. the fight took place five thousand feet above the earth, between a french and a german machine. the german pilot was killed and the plane fell behind the french lines, carrying with it a prussian nobleman who died before he could be pulled out of the wreckage. the war had been carried into the skies. but if scouts were to fight one another, they could not pay much attention to scouting and spotting and it began to be realized that there were four distinct classes of work for the airplane to do--scouting, artillery-spotting, battling, and bombing. each called for special training and its own type of machine. as air fighting grew more specialized these classes were further subdivided, but we need not go into such refinements. air scouts and their dangers the scouting-airplane usually carried two men, one to drive the machine and the other to make observations. the observer had to carry a camera, to take photographs of what lay below, and he was usually equipped with a wireless outfit, with which he could send important information back to his own base. the camera was sometimes fitted with a stock like that of a gun, so that it could be aimed from the shoulder. some small cameras were shaped so that they could be held in the hand like a pistol and aimed over the side of the fuselage, or body, of the airplane; but the best work was done with large cameras fitted with telescopic lenses, or "telephoto" lenses, as they are called. some of these were built into the airplane, with the lens opening down through the bottom of the fuselage. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood a handley-page bombing plane with one of its wings folded back] the scouting-airplane carried a machine-gun, not for attack, but for defense. it had to be a quick climber and a good dodger, so that it could escape from an attacking plane. usually it did not have to go very far into the enemy country, and it was provided with a large wing-spread, so that if anything happened to the engine, it could _volplane_, or glide back, to its own lines. as the scouting-planes were large, they offered a big target to anti-aircraft guns, and so the work of the air scout was to swoop down upon the enemy, when, of course, the machine would be traveling at high velocity, because it would have all the speed of falling added to that which its own propeller gave it. [illustration: how an object dropped from the woolworth building would increase its speed in falling] it was really a very difficult matter to hit a rapidly moving airplane; and even if it were hit, there were few spots in which it could be mortally wounded. hundreds of shots could go through the wings of an airplane without impairing its flying in the least. the engine, too, could be pretty well peppered with ordinary bullets without being disabled. as for the men in the machine, they furnished small targets, and even they could be hit in many places without being put entirely out of business. and so the dangers of air scouting were not so great as might at first be supposed. one of the most vulnerable spots in the airplane was the gasolene-tank. if that were punctured so that the fuel would run out, the airplane would have to come to the ground. worse still, the gasolene might take fire and there was nothing the aviator dreaded more than fire. there were occasions in which he had to choose between leaping to earth and burning to death, and the former was usually preferred as a quicker and less painful death. in some of the later machines the gasolene-tank could be pitched overboard if it took fire, by the throwing of a lever, and then the aviator could glide to earth in safety. the self-healing gasolene-tank one of the contributions which we made to military aëronautics was a gasolene-tank that was puncture-proof. it was made of soft rubber with a thin lining of copper. there are some very soft erasers on the market through which you can pass a lead pencil and never find the hole after it has passed through, because the rubber has closed in and healed the wound. such was the rubber used in the gasolene-tank. it could be peppered with bullets and yet would not leak a drop of gasolene, unless the bullet chanced to plow along the edge of the tank and open a long gash. the germans used four different kinds of cartridges in their aircraft guns. the first carried the ordinary bullet, a second type had for its bullet a shell of german silver filled with a phosphor compound. this was automatically ignited through a small opening in the base of the shell when it was fired from the gun and it left a trail of smoke by which the gunner could trace its course through the air and correct his aim. at night the bright spot of light made by the burning compound would serve the same purpose. such a bullet, if it hit an ordinary gasolene-tank, would set fire to its contents. the bullet would plow through the tank and out at the opposite side and there, at its point of exit, is where the gasolene would be set on fire. such incendiary bullets were repeatedly fired into or through the rubber tanks and the hole would close behind the bullet, preventing the contents from taking fire. the two other types of bullets referred to were an explosive bullet or tiny shell which would explode on striking the target and a perforating steel bullet which was intended to pierce armor or penetrate into vital parts of an airplane engine. machines with which artillery-spotting was done were usually manned by a pilot and an observer, so that the latter could devote his entire attention to noting the fire of the guns and signaling ranges without being hampered by having to drive the machine. these machines were usually of the pusher type, so that the observer could have an unobstructed view. they did not have to be fast machines. it was really better for them to move slowly. had it been possible for them to stop altogether and hover over the spot that was being shelled, it would have been a distinct advantage. that would have given the observer a chance to note with better accuracy the fall of the shell. like the scout, the spotter had to be a fast climber, so that it could get out of the range of enemy guns and run away from attacking planes. giants of the sky the largest war-planes were the bomb-dropping machines. they had to be capable of carrying heavy loads of explosives. they were usually slow machines, speed being sacrificed in carrying-capacity. the germans paid a great deal of attention to big bomb-dropping machines, particularly after their zeppelins proved a failure. their huge gothas were built to make night raids on undefended cities. the italians and the british retaliated with machines that were even larger. at first the french were inclined to let giant planes alone. they did not care to conduct long-distance bombing-raids on german cities because their own important cities were so near the battle-front that the germans could have done those places more harm than the french could have inflicted. later they built some giant machines, although not so large as those of the italians and the british. the large triplane capronis built by the italians held a crew of three men. they were armed with three guns and carried pounds of explosives. that made a useful load of pounds. the machine was driven by three engines with a total of horse-power. the big british plane was the handley-page, which had a wing-spread of feet and could carry a useful load of three tons. these enormous machines conducted their raids at night because they were comparatively slow and could not defend themselves against speedy battle-planes. the big italian machines used "search-light" bombs to help them locate important points on the ground beneath. these were brilliant magnesium torches suspended from parachutes so that they would fall slowly and give a broad illumination, while the airplane itself was shielded from the light by the parachute. but these giants were not the only bombing-machines. there were smaller machines that operated over the enemy's battle-line and dropped bombs on any suspicious object behind the enemy lines. these machines had to be convoyed by fast battle-planes which fought off hostile airmen. how fast is a hundred and fifty miles per hour? in naval warfare the battle-ship is the biggest and heaviest ship of the fleet, but in the air the battle-planes are the lightest and the smallest of the lot. they are one-man machines, as a rule, little fellows, but enormously speedy. speed is such an important factor in aërial warfare that there was a continuous struggle between the opposing forces to produce the faster machine. airplanes were constantly growing speedier, until a speed of miles per hour was not an uncommon rate of travel. it is hard to imagine such a speed as that, but we may gain some idea if we consider a falling object. the observation platform of the woolworth building, in new york, is about feet above the ground. if you should drop an object from this platform you would start it on a journey that would grow increasingly speedy, particularly as it neared the ground. by the time it had dropped from the sixtieth story to the fifty-ninth it would have attained a speed of nearly miles per hour. (we are not making any allowances for the resistance of the air and what it would do to check the speed.) as it passed the fiftieth story it would be traveling as fast as an express-train, or miles per hour. it would finally reach the ground with a speed equal to that of a fast battle-plane-- miles per hour. the battle-plane was usually fitted with a single machine-gun that was fixed to the airplane, so that it was brought to bear on the target by aiming the entire machine. in this the plane was something like a submarine, which must point its bow at its intended victim in order to aim its torpedo. the operator of the battle-plane simply drove his machine at the enemy and touched a button on his steering-lever to start his machine-gun going. shooting through the propeller now, the fleetest machines and the most easily manoeuvered are those of the tractor type, that is, the ones which have the propeller in front; but having the propeller in front is a handicap for a single-seater machine, for the gun has to be fired through the propeller and the bullets are sure to hit the propeller-blades. nevertheless the french did fire right through the propeller, regardless of whether or not the blades were hit; but at the point where they came in line with the fire of the gun they were armored with steel, so that there was no danger of their being cut by the bullets. it was calculated that not more than one bullet in eighteen would strike the propeller-blade and be deflected from its course, which was a very trifling loss; nevertheless, it was a loss, and on this account a mechanism was devised which would time the operations of the machine-gun so that the shots would come only when the propeller-blades were clear of the line of fire. [illustration: machine-gun mounted to fire over the blades of the propeller] [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" mechanism for firing between the blades of the propeller the cam _b_ on the propeller shaft lifts the rod _c_, rocking the angle lever _d_ which moves the rod _e_ and operates the firing-piece _f_. firing may be stopped by means of lever _h_ and bowden wire _g_. _i_ is the ejection-tube for empty cartridges.] [illustration: it would take a hundred horses to supply the power for a small airplane] a cam placed on the propeller-shaft worked the trigger of the machine-gun. this did not slow up the fire of the machine-gun. quite the contrary. we are apt to think of the fire of the machine-guns as very rapid, but they usually fire only about five hundred rounds per minute, while an airplane propeller will make something like twelve hundred revolutions per minute. and so the mechanism was arranged to pull the trigger only once for every two revolutions of the propeller. fighting among the clouds there was no service of the war that began to compare with that of the sky fighter. he had to climb to enormous heights. air battles took place at elevations of twenty thousand feet. the higher the battle-plane could climb, the better, because the man above had a tremendous advantage. clouds were both a haven and a menace to him. at any moment an enemy plane might burst out of the clouds upon him. he had to be ready to go through all the thrilling tricks of a circus performer so as to dodge the other fellow and get a commanding position. if he were getting the worst of it, he might feign death and let his machine go tumbling and fluttering down for a thousand feet or so, only to recover his equilibrium suddenly and dart away when the enemy was thrown off his guard. he might escape into some friendly cloud, but he dared not hide in it very long, lest he get lost. it is a peculiar sensation that comes over an aviator when he is flying through a thick mass of clouds. he is cut off from the rest of the world. he can hear nothing but the terrific roar of his own motor and the hurricane rush of the wind against his ears. he can see nothing but the bluish fog of the clouds. he begins to lose all sense of direction. his compass appears to swing violently to and fro, when really it is his machine that is zig-zagging under his unsteady guidance. the more he tries to steady it, the worse becomes the swing of the compass. as he turns he banks his machine automatically, just as a bicyclist does when rounding a corner. he does this unconsciously, and he may get to spinning round and round, with his machine standing on its side. in some cases aviators actually emerged from the clouds with their machines upside down. to be sure, this was not an alarming position for an experienced aviator; at the same time, it was not altogether a safe one. a machine was sometimes broken by its operator's effort to right it suddenly. and so while the clouds made handy shelters, they were not always safe harbors. to the battle-plane fell the task of clearing the air of the enemy. if the enemy's battle-planes were disposed of, his bombing-planes, his spotters, and his scouts could not operate, and he would be blind. and so each side tried to beat out the other with speedier, more powerful, and more numerous battle-planes. fast double-seaters were built with guns mounted so that they could turn in any direction. the flying tank the germans actually built an armored battle-plane known as the flying tank. it was a two-seater intended mainly for attacking infantry and was provided with two machine-guns that pointed down through the floor of the fuselage. a third gun mounted on a revolving wooden ring could be used to fight off hostile planes. the bottom and sides of the fuselage or body of the airplane from the gunner's cockpit forward were sheathed with plates of steel armor. the machine was a rather cumbersome craft and did not prove very successful. a flying tank was brought down within the american lines just before the signing of the armistice. america's help our own contribution to the war in the air was considerable, but we had hardly started before the armistice brought the fighting to an end. before we entered the war we did not give the airplane any very serious consideration. to be sure, we built a large number of airplanes for the british, but they were not good enough to be sent to the front; they were used merely as practice planes in the british training-schools. we knew that we were hopelessly outclassed, but we did not care very much. then we stepped into the conflict. "what can we do to help?" we asked our allies, and their answer gave us a shock. "airplanes!" they cried. "build us airplanes--thousands of them--so that we can drive the enemy out of the air and blind his armies!" it took us a while to recover from our surprise, and then we realized why we had been asked to build airplanes. the reputation of the united states as a manufacturer of machinery had spread throughout the world. we americans love to take hold of a machine and turn it out in big quantities. our allies were sure that we could turn out first-class airplanes, and many of them, if we tried. congress made an appropriation of six hundred and forty million dollars for aëronautics, and then things began to hum. a birthday present to the nation the heart of an airplane is its engine. we know a great deal about gasolene-engines, especially automobile engines; but an airplane engine is a very different thing. it must be tremendously powerful, and at the same time extremely light. every ounce of unnecessary weight must be shaved off. it must be built with the precision of a watch; its vital parts must be true to a ten-thousandth part of an inch. it takes a very powerful horse to develop one horse-power for a considerable length of time. it would take a hundred horses to supply the power for even a small airplane, and they would weigh a hundred and twenty thousand pounds. an airplane motor of the same power would weigh less than three hundred pounds, which is a quarter of the weight of a single horse. it was this powerful, yet most delicate, machine that we were called upon to turn out by the thousand. there was no time to waste; a motor must be designed that could be built in the american way, without any tinkering or fussy hand-work. two of our best engineers met in a hotel in washington on june , , and worked for five days without once leaving their rooms. they had before them all the airplane knowledge of our allies. american engine-builders offered up their trade secrets. everything was done to make this motor worthy of america's reputation. there was a race to have the motor finished by the fourth of july. sure enough, on independence day the finished motor was there in washington--the "liberty motor," a birthday present to the nation. of course that did not mean that we were ready at once to turn out liberty motors by the thousand. the engine had to undergo many tests and a large number of alterations before it was perfectly satisfactory and then special machinery had to be constructed before it could be manufactured in quantity. it was thanksgiving day before the first manufactured liberty was turned out and even after that change upon change was made in this little detail and that. it was not until a year after we went to war that the engine began to be turned out in quantity. there was nothing startlingly new about the engine. it was a composite of a number of other engines, but it was designed to be turned out in enormous quantities, and it was remarkably efficient. it weighed only pounds and it developed over horse-power. some machines went up as high as horse-power. an airplane engine weighing less than pounds per horse-power is wonderfully efficient. of course the liberty was too heavy for a light battle-plane (a heavy machine, no matter how powerful, cannot make sharp turns), but it was excellent for other types of airplanes and large orders for liberty engines were made by our allies. of course we made other engines as well, and the planes to carry them. we built large caproni and handley-page machines, and we were developing some remarkably swift and powerful planes of our own when the germans thought it about time to stop fighting. flying boats so far we have said nothing about the seaplanes which were used in large numbers to watch for submarines. these were big flying boats in which speed was not a very important matter. one of the really big machines we developed, but which was not finished until after the war, was a giant with a -foot span and a body or hull feet long. during the war seaplanes carried wireless telephone apparatus with which they could call to destroyers and submarine-chasers when they spotted a submarine. they also carried bombs which they could drop on u-boats, and even heavy guns with which they could fire shell. a still later development are the giant planes of the n. c. type with a wing-spread of feet and driven by four liberty motors. they carry a useful load of four and a half tons. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood the flying-tank--an armored german airplane designed for firing on troops on the march] early in the war, large guns were mounted on airplanes, but the shock of the recoil proved too much for the airplane to stand. however, an american inventor produced a gun which had no recoil. this he accomplished by using a double-end gun, which was fired from the middle. the bullet or shell was shot out at the forward end of the gun and a dummy charge of sand was shot out at the rear end. the sand spread out and did no damage at a short distance from the gun, but care had to be taken not to come too close. these non-recoil guns were made in different sizes, to fire - / -inch to -inch shell. the automatic seaplane another interesting development was the target airplane used for the training of aërial gunners. this was a small seaplane with a span of only - / feet, driven by a -horse-power motor, the whole machine weighing but pounds. this was sent up without a pilot and it would fly at the rate of forty to fifty miles per hour until its supply of gasolene gave out, when it would drop down into the sea. it afforded a real target for gunners in practice machines. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood an n-c (navy-curtiss) seaplane of the type that made the first flight across the atlantic] early in the war an american inventor proposed that seaplanes be provided with torpedoes which they could launch at an enemy ship. the seaplane would swoop down out of the sky to within a short distance of the ship, drop its projectile, and fly off again, and the torpedo would continue on its course until it blew up the vessel. it was urged that a fleet of such seaplanes protected by a convoy of fast battle-planes could invade the enemy harbors and destroys its powerful fleet. it seemed like a rather wild idea, but the british actually built such torpedo-planes and tested them. however, the german fleet surrendered before it was necessary to blow it up in such fashion. airplanes after the war with the war ended, all the allied powers have large numbers of airplanes on their hands and also large numbers of trained aviators. undoubtedly airplanes will continue to fill the skies in europe and we shall see more and more of them in this country. even during the war they were used for other purposes than fighting. there were ambulances on wings--machines with the top of the fuselage removable so that a patient on a stretcher could be placed inside. a french machine was furnished with a complete hospital equipment for emergency treatment and even for performing an operation in case of necessity. the flying hospital could carry the patient back to the field or base hospital after treatment. mail-carrying airplanes are already an old story. in europe the big bombing-machines are being used for passenger service between cities. there is an air line between paris and london. the airplanes carry from a dozen to as many as fifty passengers on a single trip. in some cities here, as well as abroad, the police are being trained to fly, so that they can police the heavens when the public takes to wings. evidently the flying-era is here. chapter viii ships that sail the skies shortly after the civil war broke out, thaddeus s. c. lowe, an enthusiastic american aëronaut, conceived the idea of sending up scout balloons to reconnoiter the position of the enemy. these balloons were to be connected by telegraph wires with the ground, so that they could direct the artillery fire. the idea was so novel to the military authorities of that day that it was not received with favor. balloons were looked upon as freak inventions, entirely impracticable for the stern realities of war; and as for telegraphing from a balloon, no one had ever done that before. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood a big german zeppelin that was forced to come down on french soil] but this enthusiast was not to be daunted, and he made a direct appeal to president lincoln, offering to prove the practicability of this means of scouting. so he took his balloon to washington and made an ascent from the grounds of the smithsonian institution, while the president came out on the lawn south of the white house to watch the demonstration. in order to test him, mr. lincoln took off his hat, waved his handkerchief, and made other signals. lowe observed each act through his field-glasses and reported it to the president by telegraph. mr. lincoln was so impressed by the demonstration that he ordered the army to use the observation balloon, and so with some reluctance the gas-bag was introduced into military service, professor lowe being made chief aëronautic engineer. under lowe's direction the observation balloons played an important part in the operations of the union army. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" observation car lowered from a zeppelin sailing above the clouds] on one occasion a young german military attaché begged the privilege of making an ascent in the balloon. permission was given and when the german officer returned to earth he was wildly enthusiastic in praise of this aërial observation post. he had had a splendid view of the enemy and could watch operations through his field-glasses which were of utmost importance. realizing the military value of the aircraft, he returned to germany and urged military authorities to provide themselves with captive balloons. this young officer was count ferdinand von zeppelin, who was destined later to become the most famous aëronautic authority in the world and who lived to see germany equipped with a fleet of balloons which were self-propelling and could travel over land and sea to spread german frightfulness into england. he also lived to see the virtual failure of this type of war-machine in the recent great conflict, and it was possibly because of his deep disappointment at having his huge expensive airships bested by cheap little airplanes that count von zeppelin died in march, . however, he was spared the humiliation of seeing a fleet of zeppelins lose their way in a fog and fall into france, one of them being captured before it could be destroyed, so that all its secrets of construction were learned by the french. the weight of hydrogen before we describe the zeppelin airships and the means by which they were eventually overcome, we must know something about the principles of balloons. every one knows that balloons are kept up in the air by means of a very light gas, but somehow the general public fails to understand why the gas should hold it up. some people have a notion that there is something mysterious about hydrogen gas which makes it resist the pull of gravity, and that the more hydrogen you crowd into the balloon the more weight it will lift. but hydrogen has weight and feels the pull of gravity just as air does, or water, or lead. the only reason the balloon rises is because it weighs less than the air it displaces. it is hard to think of air as having weight, but if we weigh air, hydrogen, coal-gas, or any other gas, in a vacuum, it will tip the scales just as a solid would. a thousand cubic feet of air weighs pounds. in other words, the air in a room ten feet square with a ceiling ten feet high, weighs just about pounds. the same amount of coal-gas weighed in a vacuum would register only pounds; while an equal volume of hydrogen would weigh only - / pounds. but when we speak of volumes of gas we must remember that gas, unlike a liquid or a solid, can be compressed or expanded to almost any dimensions. for instance, we could easily fill our room with a ton of air if the walls would stand the pressure; or we could pump out the air, until there were but a few ounces of air left. but in one case the air would be so highly compressed that it would exert a pressure of about pounds on every square inch of the wall of the room, while in the other case its pressure would be almost infinitesimal. but pounds of air in a room of a thousand cubic feet would exert the same pressure as the atmosphere, or pounds on every square inch. and when we say that a thousand cubic feet of hydrogen weighs only a little over pounds, we are talking about hydrogen at the same pressure as the atmosphere. since the hydrogen is sixteen times lighter than air, naturally it will float in the air, just as a piece of wood will float in water because it is lighter than the same volume of water. if we surrounded the thousand cubic feet of hydrogen with a bag so that the gas will not diffuse into the air and mix with it, we shall have a balloon which would float in air provided the bag and the hydrogen it contains do not weigh more than eighty pounds. as we rise from the surface of the earth, the air becomes less and less dense, or, in other words, it becomes lighter, and the balloon will keep on rising through the atmosphere until it reaches a point at which its weight, gas-bag and all, is exactly the same as that of an equal volume of air. but there are many conditions that affect the height to which the balloon will ascend. the higher we rise, the colder it is apt to become, and cold has a tendency to compress the hydrogen, collapsing the balloon and making it relatively heavier. when the sun beats upon a balloon, it heats the hydrogen, expanding it and making it relatively lighter, and if there is no room for this expansion to take place in the bag, the bag will burst. for this reason, a big safety-valve must be provided and the ordinary round balloon is open at the bottom so that the hydrogen can escape when it expands too much and the balloonist carries ballast in the form of sand which he can throw over to lighten the balloon when the gas is contracted by a sudden draft of cold air. although a round balloon carries no engine and no propeller, it can be guided through the air to some degree. when an aëronaut wishes to go in any particular direction, he sends up his balloon by throwing out ballast or lowers it by letting out a certain amount of gas, until he reaches a level at which he finds a breeze blowing in the desired direction. such was the airship of civil war times, but for military purposes it was not advisable to use free balloons, because of the difficulty of controlling them. they were too liable to fall into the hands of the enemy. all that was needed was a high observation post from which the enemy could be watched, and from which observations could be reported by telegraph. the balloon was not looked upon as a fighting-machine. zeppelin's failures and successes but count zeppelin was a man of vision. he dreamed of a real ship of the air--a machine that would sail wherever the helmsman chose, regardless of wind and weather. many years elapsed before he actually began to work out his dreams, and then he met with failure after failure. he believed in big machines and the loss of one of his airships meant the waste of a large sum of money, but he persisted, even though he spent all his fortune, and had to go heavily in debt. every one thought him a crank until he built his third airship and proved its worth by making a trip of miles. at once the german government was interested and saw wonderful military possibilities in the new craft. the zeppelin was purchased by the government and money was given the inventor to further his experiments. that was not the end of his failures. before the war broke out, thirteen zeppelins had been destroyed by one accident or another. evidently the building of zeppelin airships was not a paying undertaking, although they were used to carry passengers on short aërial voyages. but the government made up money losses and zeppelin went on developing his airships. of course, he was not the only one to build airships, nor even the first to build a dirigible. the french built some large dirigibles, but they failed to see any great military advantage in ships that could sail through the air, particularly after the airplane was invented, and so it happened that when the war started the french were devoting virtually all their energies to the construction of speedy, powerful airplanes. as for the british, they did not pay much attention to airships. the idea that their isles might be attacked from the sky seemed an exceedingly remote possibility. rigid, semi-rigid, and flexible balloons count zeppelin always held that the dirigible balloons must be rigid, so that they could be driven through the air readily and would hold their shape despite variations in the pressure of the hydrogen. the french, on the other hand, used a semi-rigid airship; that is, one in which a flexible balloon is attached to a rigid keel or body. the british clung to the idea of an entirely flexible balloon and they suspended their car from the gas-bag without any rigid framework to hold the gas-bag in shape. in every case, the balloons were kept taut or distended by means of air-bags or ballonets. these air-bags were placed inside the gas-bags and as the hydrogen expanded it would force the air out through valves, but the hydrogen itself would not escape. when the hydrogen contracted, the air-bags were pumped full of air so as to maintain the balloon in its fully distended condition. additional supplies of compressed hydrogen were kept in metal tanks. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood giant british dirigible built along the lines of a zeppelin] [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood one of the engine cars or "power eggs" of a british dirigible] in the zeppelin balloon, however, the gas was contained in separate bags which were placed in a framework of aluminum covered over with fabric. count zeppelin did not believe in placing all his eggs in one basket. if one of these balloons burst or was injured in any way, there was enough buoyancy in the rest of the gas-bags to hold up the airship. as the zeppelins were enormous structures, the framework had to be made strong and light, and it was built up of a latticework of aluminum alloy. aluminum itself was not strong enough for the purpose, but a mixture of aluminum and zinc and later another alloy known as duralumin, consisting of aluminum with three per cent of copper and one per cent of nickel, provided a very rigid framework that was exceedingly light. duralumin is four or five times as strong as aluminum and yet weighs but little more. [illustration: photograph by international film service crew of the c- (american coastal dirigible) starting for newfoundland to make a transatlantic flight] the body of the zeppelin is not a perfect circle in section, but is made up in the form of a polygon with sixteen sides, and the largest of the zeppelins used during the war contained sixteen compartments, in each of which was placed a large hydrogen gas-bag. a super-zeppelin, as the latest type is called, was about seventy-five feet in diameter and seven hundred and sixty feet long, or almost as long as three new york street blocks. in its gas-bags it carried two million cubic feet of hydrogen and although the whole machine with its fuel, stores, and passengers weighed close to fifty tons, it was so much lighter than the air it displaced that it had a reserve buoyancy of over ten tons. keeping engines clear of the inflammable hydrogen as hydrogen is a very inflammable gas, it is extremely dangerous to have an internal-combustion engine operating very near the gas-bags. in the super-zeppelins the engines were placed in four cars suspended from the balloon. there was one of these cars forward, and one at the stern, while near the center were two cars side by side. in the rear car there were two engines, either of which could be used to drive the propeller. by means of large steering rudders and horizontal rudders, the machine could be forced to dive or rise or turn in either direction laterally. the pilot of the zeppelin had an elaborate operating-compartment from which he could control the rudders, and he also had control of the valves in the ballonets so that by the touch of a button he could regulate the pressure of gas in any part of the dirigible. there were nineteen men in the crew of the zeppelin--two in the operating-compartment, and two in each of the cars containing engines, except for the one at the stern in which there were three men. the other men were placed in what was known as the "cat walk" or passageway running inside the framework under the gas-bags. these men were given various tasks and were supposed to get as much sleep as they could, so as to be ready to replace the other men at need. the engine cars at each side of the balloon were known as power eggs because of their general egg shape. at the center of the zeppelin the bombs were stored, and there were electro-magnetic releasing-devices operated from the pilot's room by which the pilot could drop the bombs whenever he chose. the zeppelin also carried machine-guns to fight off airplanes. gasolene was stored in tanks which were placed in various parts of the machine, any one of which could feed one or all of the engines, and they were so arranged that they could be thrown overboard when the gasolene was used up, so as to lighten the load of the zeppelin. water ballast was used instead of sand, and alcohol was mixed with the water to keep it from freezing. the machine which came down in french territory and was captured before it could be destroyed by the pilot, found itself unable to rise because in the intense cold of the upper air the water ballast had frozen, and it could not be let out to lighten the load of the zeppelin. [illustration: photograph from kadel & herbert the curious tail of a kite balloon] [illustration: british official photograph from kadel & herbert observers in the basket of an observation-balloon] the zeppelin's tiny antagonists the one thing above all others that the zeppelin commander feared was the attack of airplanes. in the early stages of the war, it was considered unsafe for airplanes to fly by night because of the difficulty of making a landing in the dark. later this difficulty was overcome by the use of search-lights at the landing-fields. the airplane would signal its desire to land and the search-lights would point out the proper landing-field for it. so that after the first few months of the war zeppelins were subjected to the danger of airplane attack. of course, on a dark night it was very difficult for an airplane to locate a zeppelin, because the huge machine could not be seen and the throb of its engines was drowned out by the engines of the airplane itself. nevertheless, zeppelins were occasionally located and destroyed by airplanes. [illustration: photograph by kadel & herbert enormous range-finders mounted on a gun turret of an american warship] the danger of the zeppelin lay in the fact that it was supported by an enormous volume of very inflammable gas and the airplane needed but to set fire to this gas to cause the destruction of the giant of the air. and so the machine-guns carried by airplanes were provided with explosive, flaming bullets. a burst of flame within the gas-bag would not set the gas on fire, because there would be no air inside to feed the fire, but surrounding the gas-bag there was always a certain leakage of hydrogen which would mix with the air in the compartment and this would produce an explosive mixture which needed but the touch of fire to set it off. the zeppelin was provided with a ventilating-system to carry off these explosive gases, but they could never be disposed of very effectively, and, as a consequence, a number of zeppelins were destroyed by the tiny antagonists that were sent up by the british and the french. to fight off these assailants the germans provided their zeppelins with guns which would fire shrapnel shell. it is difficult for a zeppelin to use machine-guns against an airplane because the latter would merely climb above the zeppelin and would be shielded by the balloon itself. and so the germans put a gun emplacement on top of the balloon both forward and aft. there was a deck extending along the top of the balloon which was reached by a ladder running up through the center of the airship. but it was impossible to ward off the fleet little antagonists, once the dirigible was discovered. true, a zeppelin could make as much as seventy miles per hour, but the fastest airplanes could travel twice as fast as that. suspending an observer below the zeppelin one ingenious scheme that was tried was to suspend an observation car under the zeppelin. the car was about fourteen feet long and five feet in diameter, fitted with a tail to keep it headed in the direction it was towed. it had glass windows forward and there was plenty of room in it for a man to lie at full length and make observations of things below. the car with its observer could be lowered a few thousand feet below the zeppelin, so that the observer could watch proceedings below, while the airship remained hidden among the clouds. the observer was connected by telephone with the chart-room of the zeppelin and could report his discoveries or even act as a pilot to direct the course of the ship. but despite everything that could be done, the zeppelin eventually proved a failure as a war-vessel because it was so very costly to construct and operate and could so easily be destroyed, and the germans began to build huge airplanes with which bombing-raids could be continued. strange to say, however, although the germans were ready to admit the failure of their big airship, when the war stopped the allies were actually building machines patterned after the zeppelin, but even larger, and expected to use them for bombing-excursions over germany. this astonishing turn of the tables was due to the fact that america had made a contribution to aëronautics that solved the one chief drawback of the zeppelin. a balloon gas that will not burn when we entered the war against germany, our allies placed before us all their problems and among them was this one of the highly inflammable airship. could we not furnish a substitute for hydrogen that would not burn? it was suggested to us that helium would do if we could produce that gas cheaply and in sufficient quantity. now, helium has a history of its own that is exceedingly interesting. every now and then the moon bobs its head into our light and we have a solar eclipse. but our satellite is not big enough to cut off all the light of the big luminary and the fiery atmosphere of the sun shows us a brilliant halo all around the black disk of the moon. long ago, astronomers analyzed this flaming atmosphere with the spectroscope, and by the different bands of light that appeared they were able to determine what gases were present in the sun's atmosphere. but there was one band of bright yellow which they could not identify. evidently this was produced by a gas unknown on earth, and they called it "helium" or "sun" gas. for a quarter of a century this sun gas remained a mystery; then one day, in , sir william ramsay discovered the same band of light when studying the spectrum of the mineral cleveite. the fact that astronomers had been able to single out an element on the sun ninety million miles away before our chemists could find it right here on earth, produced a mild sensation, but the general public attached no special importance to the gas itself. it proved to be a very light substance, next to hydrogen the lightest of gases, and for years it resisted all attempts at liquefaction. only when onnes, the dutch scientist, succeeded in getting it down to a temperature of degrees below zero, fahrenheit, did the gas yield to the chill and condense into a liquid. the gas would not burn; it would not combine with any other elements, and apparently it had no use on earth, and it might have remained indefinitely a lazy member of the chemical fraternity had not the great world conflict stirred us into frenzied activity in all branches of science in our effort to beat the hun. because the gas had no commercial value, there was only a small amount of helium to be found in the whole world. not a single laboratory in the united states had more than five cubic feet of it and its price ranged from $ , to $ , per cubic foot. at the lowest price it would cost $ , , , to provide gas enough for one airship of zeppelin dimensions and it seemed absurd even to think of a helium airship. american chemists to the rescue just before the war it was discovered that there is a considerable amount of helium in the natural gas of oklahoma, texas, and kansas, and sir william ramsey suggested that our chemists might study some method of getting helium from this source. the only way of separating it out was to liquefy the gases by subjecting them to extreme cold. all gases turn to liquid if they are cooled sufficiently, and then further cold will freeze them solid. but helium can stand more cold than any other and this fact gave the clue to its recovery from natural gas. the latter was frozen and one after another the different elements condensed into liquid, until finally only helium was left. this sounds simple, but it is a difficult matter to get such low temperature as that on a large scale and do it economically. to be of any real service in aëronautics helium would have to be reduced in cost from fifteen hundred dollars to less than ten cents per cubic foot. several different kinds of refrigerating-machinery were tried and finally just before the war was brought to a close by the armistice we had succeeded in producing helium at the rate of eight cents per cubic foot, with the prospect of reducing its cost still further. a large plant for recovering helium was being built. the plant will have been completed before this book is published, and it will be turning out helium for peaceful instead of military airships. the reduction in the cost of helium is really one of the most important developments of this war. by removing the fire risk from airships we can safely use these craft for aërial cruises or for quick long-distance travel over land and sea. for, even in time of peace, sailing under millions of cubic feet of hydrogen is a serious matter. although no incendiary bullets are to be feared, there is always the danger of setting fire to the gas within the exhaust of the engines. engines have had to be hung in cars well below the balloon proper. but with helium in the gas-bags the engines can be placed inside the balloon envelop and the propellers can operate on the center line of the car. in the case of one zeppelin, the hydrogen was set on fire by an electric spark produced by friction on the fabric of one of the gas-bags, and so even with the engine exhausts properly screened there is danger. the helium airship, however, would be perfectly safe from fire and passengers could smoke on deck or in their cabins within the balloon itself without any more fear of fire than they would have on shipboard. wonderful possibilities have been opened by the production of helium on a large and economical scale, and the airship seems destined to play an important part in transportation very soon. as this book is going to press, we learn of enormous dirigibles about to be built in england for passenger service, which will have half again as great a lifting-power as the largest zeppelins. the final chapter of the story of dirigibles is yet to be written, but in concluding this chapter it is interesting to note that the world's greatest aëronautic expert got his first inspiration from america and finally that america has now furnished the one element which was lacking to make the dirigible balloon a real success. chapter ix getting the range every person with a good pair of eyes in his head is a range-finder. he may not know it, but he is, just the same, and the way to prove it is to try a little range-finding on a small scale. use the top of a table for your field of operations, and pick out some spot within easy reach of your hand for the target whose range you wish to find. the target may be a penny or a small circle drawn on a piece of white paper. take a pencil in your hand and imagine it is a shell which you are going to land on the target. it is not quite fair to have a bird's-eye view of the field, so get down on your knees and bring your eyes within a few inches of the top of the table. now close one eye and making your hand describe an arc through the air, like the arc that a shell would describe, see how nearly you can bring the pencil-point down on the center of the target. do it slowly, so that your eye may guide the hand throughout its course. you will be surprised to find out how far you come short, or overreach the mark. you will have actually to grope for the target. if by any chance you should score a hit on the first try, you may be sure that it is an accident. have a friend move the target around to a different position, and try again. evidently, with one eye you are not a good range-finder; but now use two eyes and you will score a hit every time. not only can you land the pencil on the penny, but you will be able to bring it down on the very center of the target. the explanation of this is that when you bring your eyes to bear upon any object that is near by, they have to be turned in slightly, so that both of them shall be aimed directly at that object. the nearer the object, the more they are turned in, and the farther the object, the more nearly parallel are the eyes. long experience has taught you to gage the distance of an object by the feel of the eyes--that is, by the effort your muscles have to make to pull the eyes to a focus--and in this way the eyes give you the range of an object. you do not know what the distance is in feet or inches, but you can tell when the pencil-point has moved out until it is at the same focus as the target. the experiment can be tried on a larger scale with the end of a fishing-rod, but here you will probably have to use a larger target. however, there is a limit to which you can gage the range. at a distance of, say, fifteen or twenty feet, a variation of a few inches beyond or this side of the target makes scarcely any change in the focus of the eyes. that is because the eyes are so close together. if they were farther apart, they could tell the range at much greater distances. spreading the eyes far apart now the ordinary range-finder, used in the army and in the navy, is an arrangement for spreading the eyes apart to a considerable distance. of course the eyes are not actually spread, but their vision is. the range-finder is really a double telescope. the barrel is not pointed at an object, but it is held at right angles to it. you look into the instrument at the middle of the barrel and out of it at the two ends. a system of mirrors or prisms makes this possible. the range-finder may be a yard or more in length, which is equivalent to spreading your eyes a yard or more apart. now, the prisms or object-glasses at the ends of the tube are adjustable, so that they will turn in until they focus directly on the target whose range you wish to find, and the angle through which these glasses are turned gives a measure of the distance of the target. the whole thing is calculated out so that the distance in feet, yards, or meters, or whatever the measure may be, is registered on a scale in the range-finder. ordinarily only one eye is used to look through the range-finder, because the system of mirrors is set to divide the sight of that one eye and make it serve the purposes of two. that leaves the other eye free to read the scale, which comes automatically into view as the range-finder is adjusted for the different ranges. on the battle-ships enormous range-finders are used. some of them are twenty feet long. with the eyes spread as far apart as that and with a microscope to read the scale, you can imagine how accurately the range can be found, even when the target is miles away. but on land such big range-finders cannot conveniently be used; they are too bulky. when it is necessary to get the range of a very distant object, two observers are used who are stationed several hundred yards apart. these observers have telescopes which they bear upon the object, and the angle through which they have to turn the telescope is reported by telephone to the battery, where, by a rapid calculation, it is possible to estimate the exact position of the target. then the gun is moved up or down, to the right or to the left, according to the calculation. the observers have to creep as near to the enemy as possible and they must be up high enough to command a good view of the target. sometimes they are placed on top of telegraph poles or hidden up a tall tree, or in a church steeple. getting the observer off the ground this was the method of getting the range in previous wars and it was used to a considerable extent in the war we have just been through. but the great european conflict brought out wonderful improvements in all branches of fighting; and range-finding was absolutely revolutionized, because shelling was done at greater ranges than ever before, but chiefly because the war was carried up into the sky. a bird's-eye observation is much more accurate than any that can be obtained from the ground. even before this war, some observations were taken by sending a man up in a kite, particularly a kite towed from a ship, and even as far back as the civil war captive balloons were used to raise an observer to a good height above the ground. they were the ordinary round balloons, but the observation balloon of to-day is a very different-looking object. it is a sausage-shaped gas-bag that is held on a slant to the wind like a kite, so that the wind helps to hold it up. to keep it head-on to the wind, there is a big air-bag that curls around the lower end of the sausage. this acts like a rudder, and steadies the balloon. some balloons have a tail consisting of a series of cone-shaped cups strung on a cable. a kite balloon will ride steadily in a wind that would dash a common round balloon in all directions. observers in these kite balloons are provided with telephone instruments by which they can communicate instantly with the battery whose fire they are directing. but a kite balloon is a helpless object; it cannot fight the enemy. the hydrogen gas that holds it up will burn furiously if set on fire. in the war an enemy airplane had merely to drop a bomb upon it or fire an incendiary bullet into it, and the balloon would go up in smoke. nothing could save it, once it took fire, and all the observers could do was to jump for their lives as soon as they saw the enemy close by. they always had parachutes strapped to them, so they could leap without an instant's delay in case of sudden danger. at the very first approach of an enemy airplane, the kite balloon had to be hauled down or it would surely be destroyed, and so kite balloons were not very dependable observation stations for the side which did not control the air. as stated in the preceding chapter, just before the fighting came to an end, our army was preparing to use balloons that were not afraid of flaming bullets, because they were to be filled with a gas that would not burn. making maps with a camera because airplanes filled the sky with eyes, everything that the army did near the front had to be carefully hidden from the winged scouts. batteries were concealed in the woods, or under canopies where the woods were shot to pieces, or they were placed in dugouts so that they could not be located. such targets could seldom be found with a kite balloon. it was the task of airplane observers to search out these hidden batteries. the eye alone was not depended upon to find them. large cameras were used with telescopic lenses which would bring the surface of the earth near while the airplane flew at a safe height. these were often motion-picture cameras which would automatically make an exposure every second, or every few seconds. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood british anti-aircraft section getting the range of an enemy aviator] when the machine returned from a photographing-expedition, the films were developed and printed, and then pieced together to form a photographic map. the map was scrutinized very carefully for any evidence of a hidden battery or for any suspicious enemy object. as the enemy was always careful to disguise its work, the camera had to be fitted with color-screens which would enable it to pick out details that would not be evident to the eye. as new photographic maps were made from day to day, they were carefully compared one with the other so that it might be seen if there was the slightest change in them which would indicate some enemy activity. as soon as a suspicious spot was discovered, its position was noted on a large-scale military map and the guns were trained upon it. [illustration: (c) kadel & herbert a british aviator making observations over the german lines] correcting the aim it is one thing to know where the target is and another to get the shell to drop upon it. in the firing of a shell a distance of ten or twenty miles, the slightest variation in the gun will make a difference of many yards in the point where the shell lands. not only that, but the direction of the wind and the density of the air have a part to play in the journey of the shell. if the shell traveled through a vacuum, it would be a much simpler matter to score a hit by the map alone. but even then there would be some differences, because a gun has to be "warmed up" before it will fire according to calculation. that is why it is necessary to have observers, or "spotters" as they are called, to see where the shell actually do land and tell the gun-pointers whether to elevate or depress the gun, and how much to "traverse" it--that is, move it sideways. this would not be a very difficult matter if there were only one gun firing, but when a large number of guns are being used, as was almost invariably the case in the war, the spotter had to know which shell belonged to the gun he was directing. one of the most important inventions of the war was the wireless telephone, which airplanes used and which were brought to such perfection that the pilot of an airplane could talk to a station on the earth without any difficulty, from a distance of ten miles; and in some cases he could reach a range of fifty miles. with the wireless telephone, the observer could communicate instantly with the gun-pointer, and tell him when to fire. usually thirty seconds were allowed after the signal sent by the observer before the gun was fired, and on the instant of firing, a signal was sent to the man in the airplane to be on the lookout for the shell. knowing the position of the target, the gun-pointer would know how long it would take the shell to travel through the air, and he would keep the man in the airplane posted, warning him at ten seconds, five seconds, and so forth, before the shell was due to land. in order to keep the eyes fresh for observation and not to have them distracted by other sights, the observer usually gazed into space until just before the instant the shell was to land. then he would look for the column of smoke produced by the explosion of the shell and report back to the battery how far wide of the mark the shell had landed. a number of shell would be fired at regular intervals, say four or five per minute, so that the observer would know which shell belonged to the gun in question. there are different kinds of shell. some will explode on the instant of contact with the earth. these are meant to spread destruction over the surface. there are other shell which will explode a little more slowly and these penetrate the ground to some extent before going off; while a third type has a delayed action and is intended to be buried deep in the ground before exploding, so as to destroy dugouts and underground positions. the bursts of smoke from the delayed-action shell and the semi-delayed-action shell rise in a slender vertical column and are not so easily seen from the sky. the instantaneous shell, however, produces a broad burst of smoke which can be spotted much more readily, and this enables the man in the airplane to determine the position of the shell with greater accuracy. for this reason, instantaneous shell were usually used for spotting-purposes, and after the gun had found its target, other shell were used suited to the character of the work that was to be done. miniature battle-fields observation of shell-fire from an airplane called for a great deal of experience, and our spotters were given training on a miniature scale before they undertook to do spotting from the air. a scaffolding was erected in the training-quarters over a large picture of a typical bit of enemy territory. men were posted at the top of this scaffolding so that they could get a bird's-eye view of the territory represented on the map, and they were connected by telephone or telegraph with men below who represented the batteries. the instructor would flash a little electric light here and there on the miniature battle-field, and the observers had to locate these flashes and tell instantly how far they were from certain targets. this taught them to be keen and quick and to judge distance accurately. airplane observing was difficult and dangerous, and often impossible. on cloudy days the observer might be unable to fly at a safe height without being lost in the clouds. then dependence had to be placed upon observers stationed at vantage-points near the enemy, or in kite balloons. spotting by sound when there is no way of seeing the work of a gun, it is still possible to correct the aim, because the shell can be made to do its own spotting. every time a shell lands, it immediately announces the fact with a loud report. that report is really a message which the shell sends out in all directions with a speed of nearly miles per hour-- , feet per second, to be exact. this sound-message is picked up by a recorder at several different receiving-stations. of course it reaches the nearest station a fraction of a second before it arrives at the next nearest one. the distance of each station from the target is known by careful measurement on the map, and the time it takes for sound to travel from the target to each station is accurately worked out. if the sound arrives at each station on schedule time, the shell has scored a hit; but if it reaches one station a trifle ahead of time and lags behind at another, that is evidence that the shell has missed the target and a careful measure of the distance in time shows how far and in what direction it is wide of the mark. in this way it was possible to come within fifty or even twenty-five yards of the target. this sound-method was also used to locate an enemy battery. it was often well nigh impossible to locate a battery in any other way. with the use of smokeless powder, there is nothing to betray the position of the gun, except the flash at the instant of discharge, and even the flash was hidden by screens from the view of an airplane. aside from this, when an airplane came near enough actually to see one of these guns, the gun would stop firing until the airplane had been driven off. but a big gun has a big voice, and it is impossible to silence it. often a gun whose position has remained a secret for a long time was discovered because the gun itself "peached." the main trouble with sound-spotting was that there were usually so many shell and guns going off at the same time that it was difficult if not impossible to distinguish one from another. sometimes the voice of a hidden gun was purposely drowned by the noise of a lot of other guns. after all, the main responsibility for good shooting had to fall on observers who could actually see the target, and when we think of the splendid work of our soldiers in the war, we must not forget to give full credit to the tireless men whose duty it was to watch, to the men on wings who dared the fierce battle-planes of the enemy, to the men afloat high in the sky who must leap at a moment's notice from under a blazing mass of hydrogen, and finally to the men who crept out to perilous vantage-points at risk of instant death, in order to make the fire of their batteries tell. chapter x talking in the sky in one field of war invention the united states held almost a monopoly and the progress americans achieved was epoch-making. before the war, an aviator when on the wing was both deaf and dumb. he could communicate with other airplanes or with the ground only by signal or, for short distances, by radiotelegraphy, but he could not even carry on conversation with a fellow passenger in the machine without a speaking-tube fitted to mouth and ears so as to cut out the terrific roar of his own engine. now the range of his voice has been so extended that he can chat with fellow aviators miles away. this remarkable achievement and many others in the field of radio-communication hinge upon a delicate electrical device invented by deforest in and known as the "audion." for years this instrument was used by radiotelegraphers without a real appreciation of its marvelous possibilities, and, as a matter of fact, in its earlier crude form it was not capable of performing the wonders it has achieved since it was taken over and developed by the engineers of the bell telephone system. the audion although the audion is familiar to all amateur radio-operators, we shall have to give a brief outline of its construction and operation for the benefit of those who have not had the opportunity to dabble in wireless telegraphy. the audion is a small glass bulb from which the air is exhausted to a high degree of vacuum. the bulb contains three elements. one is a tiny filament which is heated to incandescence by a battery, so that it emits negatively charged electrons. the filament is at one side of the bulb and at the opposite side there is a metal plate. when the plate and the filament are connected with opposite poles of a battery, there is a flow of current between them, but because only negative electrons are emitted by the filament, the current will flow only in one direction--that is, from the plate to the filament. if the audion be placed in the circuit of an alternating-current generator, it will let through only the current running in one direction. thus it will "rectify" the current or convert alternating current into direct current. but the most important part of the audion, the part for which deforest is responsible, is the third element, which is a grid or flat coil of platinum wire placed between the filament and the plate. this grid furnishes a very delicate control of the strength of the electric current between plate and filament. the slightest change in electric power in the grid will produce large changes of power in the current flowing through the audion. this makes it possible to magnify or amplify very feeble electric waves, and the extent to which the amplifying can be carried is virtually limitless, because a series of audions can be used, the current passing through the first being connected with the grid of the next, and so on. talking from new york to san francisco there is a limit to which telephone conversations can be carried on over a wire, unless there is some way of adding fresh energy along the line. for years all sorts of experiments were tried with mechanical devices which would receive a telephone message and send it on with a fresh relay of current. but these devices distorted the message so that it was unintelligible. the range of wire telephony was greatly increased by the use of certain coils invented by pupin, which were placed in the line at intervals; but still there was a limit to which conversation could be carried on by wire and it looked as if it would never be possible to telephone from one end of this big country of ours to the other. but the audion supplied a wonderfully efficient relay and one day we awoke to hear san francisco calling, "hello," to new york. used as a relay, the improved audion made it possible to pick up very faint wireless-telegraph messages and in that way increased the range of radio outfits. messages could be received from great distances without any extensive or elaborate aërials, and the audion could be used at the sending-station to magnify the signals transmitted and send them forth with far greater power. having improved the audion and used it successfully for long-distance telephone conversation over wires, the telephone company began to experiment with wireless telephony. they believed that it might be possible to use radiotelephony in places where wires could not be laid. for instance, it might be possible to talk across the atlantic. but before we go farther, just a word of explanation concerning radiotelegraphy and radiotelephony for the benefit of those who have not even an elementary knowledge of the subject. simple explanation of radiotelegraphy suppose we should set up two stakes in a pond of water, at some distance from each other, and around each we set a ring-shaped cork float. if we should move one of these floats up and down on its stake, it would produce ripples in the water which would spread out in all directions and finally would reach the opposite stake and cause the float there to bob up and down in exactly the same way as did the float moved by hand. in wireless telegraphy the two stakes are represented by antennæ or aërials and the cork floats are electric charges which are sent oscillating up and down the antennæ. the oscillations produced at one aërial will set up electro-magnetic waves which will spread out in all directions in the ether until they reach a receiving-aërial, and there they will produce electric oscillations similar to the ones at the transmitting-antenna. telegraph signals are sent by the breaking up of the oscillations at the transmitting-station into long and short trains of oscillations corresponding to the dots and dashes of ordinary wire telegraphy. in other words, while the sending-key is held down for a dash, there will be a long series of oscillations in the antenna, and for the dot a short series, and these short and long trains of waves will spread out to the receiving-aërial where they will reproduce the same series of oscillations. but only a small part of the energy will act on the receiving-aërial because the waves like those on the pond spread in all directions and grow rapidly weaker. hence the advantage of an extremely delicate instrument like the audion to amplify the signals received. the oscillations used in wireless telegraphy these days are very rapid, usually entirely too rapid, to affect an ordinary telephone receiver, and if they did they would produce a note of such high pitch that it could not be heard. so it is customary to interrupt the oscillations, breaking them up into short trains of waves, and these successive trains produce a note of low enough pitch to be heard in the telephone receiver. of course the interruptions are of such high frequency that in the sending of a dot-and-dash message each dot is made up of a great many of the short trains of waves. now in radiotelephony it is not necessary to break up the oscillations, but they are allowed to run continuously at very high speed and act as carriers for other waves produced by speaking into the transmitter; that is, a single speech-wave would be made up of a large number of smaller waves. to make wireless telephony a success it was necessary to find some way of making perfectly uniform carrier-waves, and then of loading on them waves of speech. of course, the latter are not sound-waves, because they are not waves of air, but they are electro-magnetic waves corresponding exactly to the sound-waves of air and at the receiving-end they affect the telephone receiver in the same way that it is affected by the electric waves which are sent over telephone wires. the telephone engineers found that the audion could be used to regulate the carrier-waves and also to superpose the speech-waves upon them, and at the receiving-station the audion was used to pick up these waves, no matter how feeble they might be, and amplify them so that they could be heard in a telephone receiver. talking without wires attempts at long-distance talking without wires were made from montauk point, on the tip of long island, to wilmington, delaware, and they were successful. this was in . the apparatus was still further improved and then the experiment was tried of talking from the big arlington station near washington to darien, on the isthmus of panama. this was a distance of twenty-one hundred miles, and speech was actually transmitted through space over that great distance. that having proved successful, the next attempt was to talk from arlington to mare island and san diego, on the pacific coast, a distance of over twenty-five hundred miles. this proved a success, too, and it was found possible even to talk as far as honolulu. [illustration: (c) g. v. buck radio head-gear of an airman] [illustration: (c) g. v. buck carrying on conversation by radio with an aviator miles away] the engineers now felt confident that they could talk across the atlantic to europe, and so in october of arrangements were made to conduct experiments between arlington and the eiffel tower in paris. although the war was at its height, and the french were straining every effort to hold back the germans at that time, and although there were constant demands for the use of radiotelegraphy, the french showed such an appreciation of science that they were willing to lend their aid to these experiments. the eiffel tower could be used only for short periods of time, and there was much interference from other high-powered stations. nevertheless, the experiment proved perfectly successful, and conversation was carried on between our capital and that of france, a distance of thirty-six hundred miles. at the same time, an operator in honolulu, forty-five hundred miles away, heard the messages, and so the voice at arlington carried virtually one third of the way around the globe. after that achievement, there was a lull in the wireless-telephone experiments because of the war. but there soon came an opportunity to make very practical use of all the experimental work. as soon as there seemed to be a possibility that we might be drawn into the war, the secretary of the navy asked for the design of apparatus that would make it possible for ships to converse with one another and with shore stations. of course all vessels are equipped with wireless-telegraph apparatus, but there is a decided advantage in having the captain of one ship talk directly with the captain of another ship, or take his orders from headquarters, with an ordinary telephone receiver and transmitter. a special equipment was designed for battle-ships and on test it was found that ships could easily converse with one another over a distance of thirty-five miles and to shore stations from a distance of a hundred and seventy-five miles. the apparatus was so improved that nine conversations could be carried on at the same time without any interference of one by the others. [illustration: (c) american institute of electrical engineers long distance radio apparatus at the arlington (va.) station, with enlarged view of the type of vacuum tube used] when it became certain that we should have to enter the war, there came a call for radiotelephone apparatus for submarine-chasers, and work was started on small, compact outfits for these little vessels. radiotelephones for airplanes then there was a demand for radiotelephone apparatus to be used on airplanes. this was a much more complicated matter and called for a great deal of study. the way in which problem after problem arose and was solved makes an exceedingly interesting narrative. it seemed almost absurd to think that a delicate radiotelegraph apparatus could be made to work in the terrific noise and jarring of an airplane. the first task was to make the apparatus noise-proof. a special sound-proof room was constructed in which a noise was produced exactly imitating that of the engine exhaust of an airplane engine. in this room, various helmets were tried in order to see whether they would be proof against the noise, and finally a very suitable helmet was designed, in which the telephone receiver and transmitter were installed. by summer-time the work had proceeded so far that an airplane equipped with transmitting-apparatus could send spoken messages to an operator on the ground from a distance of two miles. the antenna of the airplane consisted of a wire with a weight on the lower end, which hung down about one hundred yards from the body of the machine. but a trailing antenna was a nuisance in airplane manoeuvers, and it was also found that the helmet which was so satisfactory in the laboratory was not just the thing for actual service in an airplane. it had to fit very tightly around the ears and the mouth, and as the airplane went to high altitudes where the air-pressure was much lower than at the ground level, painful pressures were produced in the ears which were most annoying. aside from that, in actual warfare airplanes have to operate at extreme heights, where the air is so rare that oxygen must be supplied to the aviators, and it was difficult to provide this supply of oxygen with the radio helmet tightly strapped to the head of the operator. but after considerable experiment, this difficulty was overcome and also that of the varying pressures on the ears. another great difficulty was to obtain a steady supply of power on the airplane to operate the transmitting-apparatus. it has been the practice to supply current on airplanes for wireless-telegraph apparatus by means of a small electric generator which is revolved by a little propeller. the propeller in turn is revolved by the rush of air as it is carried along by the plane. but the speed of the airplane varies considerably. at times, it may be traveling at only forty miles per hour, and at other times as high as one hundred and sixty miles per hour, so that the little generator is subjected to great variations of speed and consequent variations of voltage. this made it impossible to produce the steady oscillations that are required in wireless telephony. after considerable experiment, a generator was produced with two windings, one of which operated through a vacuum tube, somewhat like an audion, and to resist the increase of voltage produced by the other winding. then another trouble developed. the sparks produced by the magneto in the airplane motor set up electro-magnetic waves which seriously affected the receiving-instrument. there was no way of getting rid of the magneto, but the wires leading from it to the engine were incased in metal tubes which were grounded at frequent intervals, and in that way the trouble was overcome to a large extent. the magnetos themselves were also incased in such a way that electro-magnetic waves would not be radiated from them. instead of using trailing wires which were liable to become entangled in the propeller, the antenna was extended from the upper plane to the tail of the machine, and later it was found that by using two short trailing antennæ one from each tip of the wings, the very best results could be obtained. still another development was to embed the antenna wires in the wings of the plane. it was considered necessary, if the apparatus was to be practicable, to be able to use it over a distance of two thousand yards, but in experiments conducted in october, , a couple of airplanes were able to talk to each other when twenty-three miles apart, and conversations were carried on with the ground from a distance of forty-five miles. the conditions under which these distances were attained were unusual, and a distance of three miles was accepted as a standard for communication between airplanes. the apparatus weighed only fifty-eight pounds and it was connected with both the pilot and the observer so that they could carry on conversations with each other and could both hear the conversation with other airplanes or the ground. as a matter of fact, airplanes with standard apparatus are able to talk clearly to a distance of five miles and even to a distance of ten miles when conditions are favorable, and they can receive messages from the ground over almost any distance. a similar apparatus was constructed for submarine-chasers with a standard range of conversation of over five miles. apparatus was manufactured in large quantities in this country and all our submarine-chasers were equipped with it, as well as a great many of our airplanes and seaplanes, and we furnished radio-apparatus sets to our allies which proved of immense value in the war. this was particularly so in the case of submarine detection, when it was possible for a seaplane or a balloon to report its findings at once to submarine-chasers and destroyers, and to guide them in pursuit of submarines. the improved audion holds out a wonderful future for radiotelephony. for receiving, at least, no elaborate aërial will be needed, and with a small loop of wire, an audion or two, and simple tuning-apparatus any one can hear the radio gossip of the whole world. telegraphing twelve hundred words per minute some remarkable advances were made in telegraphy also. during the war and since, messages have been sent direct from washington to all parts of the world. in the telegraph room operators are connected by wire with the different radio stations along the coast and they can control the radio transmitters, sending their messages without any repeating at the radio stations. long messages are copied off on a machine something like a type-writer, which, however, does not make type impressions, but cuts perforations in a long sheet of paper. the paper is then run through a transmitter at a high speed and the message is sent out at a rate of as much as twelve hundred words a minute. at the receiving-station, the message is received photographically on a strip of paper. the receiving-instrument has a fine quartz thread in it, which carries a tiny mirror. a beam of light is reflected from the mirror upon the strip of sensitized paper. the radio waves twist the quartz thread ever so slightly, which makes the beam of light play back and forth, but of course the motion is greatly magnified. in this way a perfect record is made of the message in dots and dashes, which are translated into the corresponding letters of the alphabet. detecting radio spies there is another radio invention which we contributed during the war, that proved of utmost service in thwarting german spies and which is going to prove equally valuable in time of peace. although a war invention, its peacetime service will be to save lives. it is a very simple matter to rig up a wireless-telegraph system that will send messages to a considerable distance, and simpler still to rig up a receiving-set. european governments have always discouraged amateur radiotelegraphy, but in this country restrictions used to be so slight that almost any one could set up and use a radio set, both for receiving and for transmitting. when we entered the war we were glad that amateurs had been encouraged to play with wireless, because we had hundreds of good radio operators ready to work the sets which the army and the navy needed. but this was a disadvantage, too. many operators were either germans or pro-germans and were only too willing to use their radio experience in the interest of our enemies. it was a simple matter to obtain the necessary apparatus, because there was plenty of it to be had everywhere. they could send orders to fellow workers and receive messages from them, or they could listen to dispatches sent out by the government and glean information of great military and naval importance. the apparatus could easily be concealed: a wire hung inside a chimney, a water-pipe, even a brass bedstead could be used for the receiving-aërial. it was highly important that these concealed stations be located, but how were they to be discovered? the wireless compass this problem was solved very nicely. the audion had made it possible to receive radio signals on a very small aërial. in place of the ordinary stationary aërial a frame five feet square was set up so that it could be turned to any point of the compass. a few turns of copper-bronze wire were wound round it. this was called the "wireless compass." it was set up on the roof of the radio station and concealed within a cupola. the shaft on which it was mounted extended down into the operating-room and carried a wheel by which it could be turned. on the shaft was a circular band of aluminum engraved with the degrees of the circle, and a couple of fixed pointers indicated true north and south. now when a signal was received by the aërial, if it struck the frame edgewise the radio waves would reach one side before they would the other. taking a single wave, as shown by the drawing, fig. , we see that while the crest of the wave is sweeping over one side of the frame, the trough of the wave is passing the other side. two currents are set up in the radio compass, one in the wires at the near side of the compass, and another in the wires at the far side of the compass. as these currents are of the same direction, they oppose each other and tend to kill each other off, but one of the currents is stronger than the other because the crest of the wave is sweeping over that side, while the trough of the wave is passing over the other. the length of the wave may be anything, but always one side will be stronger than the other, and a current equal in strength to the difference between the two currents goes down into the operating-room and affects the receiver. now when the compass is set at right angles to the oncoming wave, both sides are affected simultaneously and with the same strength, so that they kill each other off completely, and no current goes down to the receiver. thus the strength of the signal received can be varied from a maximum, when the compass is parallel to the oncoming waves, to zero, when it is at right angles to them. [illustration: courtesy of the "scientific american" fig. . the radio compass turned parallel to an oncoming electro-magnetic wave] to find out where a sending-station is, the compass is turned until the loudest sound is heard in the receiver and then the compass dial shows from what direction the signals are coming. at the same time, another line on the signals will be found by a second station with another compass. these directions are traced on a map; and where they meet, the sending-station must be located. with this apparatus it was possible to locate the direction of the station within a degree. after the station had been located as closely as possible in this way, a motor-truck was sent out in which there was a concealed radio compass. the truck would patrol the region located by the fixed compasses, and with it the position of the concealed station could be determined with perfect accuracy. the building would be raided and its occupants jailed and the radio equipment confiscated. even receiving-sets were discovered with the portable compass, but to find them was a far more difficult task. for the receiving of messages from distant points without a conspicuous aërial an audion would have to be used and this would set up feeble oscillations which could be picked up under favorable conditions by the portable compass. piloting ships into port and now for the peace-time application of all this. if the compass could be used to find those who tried to hide, why could it not also be used to find those who wished to be found? every now and then a ship runs upon the rocks because it has lost its bearings in the fog. but there will be no excuse for such accidents now. a number of radio-compass stations have been located around the entrance and approach to new york harbor. similar stations have been, or soon will be, established at other ports. as soon as a ship arrives within fifty or a hundred miles of port she is required to call for her bearings. the operator of the control station instructs the ship to send her call letters for thirty seconds, and at the same time notifies each compass station to get a bearing on the ship. this each does, reporting back to the control station. the bearings are plotted on a chart and inside of two minutes from the time the ship gives her call letters, her bearing is flashed to her by radio from the control station. [illustration: courtesy of the "scientific american" fig. . approaches to new york harbor showing location of three radio compass stations and how position of a ship sending signals from a may be determined] the chart on which the plotting is done is covered with a sheet of glass. holes are pierced through the glass at the location of each compass station. see fig. . on the chart, around each station, there is a dial marked off in the degrees of the circle. a thread passes through the chart and the hole in the glass at each station. these threads are attached to weights under the chart. when a compass station reports a bearing, the thread of that station is pulled out and extended across the corresponding degree on the dial. the same is done as each station reports and where the threads cross, the ship must be located. not only can the direction-finder be used to pilot a ship into a harbor, but it will also serve to prevent collisions at sea, because a ship equipped with a radio compass can tell whether another ship is coming directly toward her. and so as one of the happy outcomes of the dreadful war, we have an apparatus that will rob sea-fogs of their terrors to navigation. chapter xi warriors of the paint-brush when the great european war broke out, it was very evident that the entente allies would have to exercise every resource to beat the foe which had been preparing for years to conquer the world. but who ever imagined that geologists would be called in to choose the best places for boring mines under the enemy: that meteorologists would be summoned to forecast the weather and determine the best time to launch an offensive; that psycologists would be employed to pick out the men with the best nerves to man the machine-guns and pilot the battle-planes? certainly no one guessed that artists and the makers of stage scenery would play an important part in the conflict. but the airplane filled the sky with eyes that at first made it impossible for an army to conceal its plans from the enemy. and then there were eyes that swam in the sea--cruel eyes that belonged to deadly submarine monsters, eyes that could see without being seen, eyes that could pop up out of the water at unexpected moments, eyes that directed deadly missiles at inoffensive merchantmen. they were cowardly eyes, too, which gave the ship no opportunity to strike back at the unseen enemy. a vessel's only safety lay in the chance that out in the broad reaches of the ocean it might pass beyond the range of those lurking eyes. it was a game of hide-and-seek in which the pursuer and not the pursued was hidden. something had to be done to conceal the pursued as well, but in the open sea there was nothing to hide behind. hiding in plain sight there is such a thing as hiding in plain sight. you can look right at a tree-toad without seeing him, because his colors blend perfectly with the tree to which he is clinging. you can watch a green leaf curl up and shrivel without realizing that the curled edge is really a caterpillar, cunningly veined and colored to look just like a dying leaf; and out in the woods a speckled bird or striped animal will escape observation just because it matches the spotted light that comes through the underbrush. nature is constantly protecting its helpless animals with colored coats that blend with the surroundings. long ago clumsy attempts at concealment were made when war-vessels were given a coat of dark-gray paint which was supposed to make them invisible at a distance. actually the paint made them more conspicuous; but, then, concealment did not count for very much before the present war. it was the eyes of the submarines that brought a hurry call for the artists, and up to them was put the problem of hiding ships in plain sight. a new name was coined for these warriors of the paint-brush: _camoufleurs_ they were called, and their work was known as _camouflage_. matching the sky of course, no paint will make a ship absolutely invisible at a short distance, but a large vessel may be made to disappear completely from view at a distance of six or seven miles if it is properly painted. to be invisible, a ship must reflect as much light and the same shade of light as do its surroundings. if it is seen against the background of the sea, it must be of a bluish or a greenish tint, but a submarine lies so low in the water that any object seen at a distance is silhouetted against the sky, and so the ship must have a coat of paint that will reflect the same colors as does the sky. now, the sky may be of almost any color of the rainbow, depending upon the position of the sun and the amount of vapor or dust in the air. fortunately in the north sea and the waters about the british isles, where most of the submarine attacks took place, the weather is hazy most of the time, and the ship had to be painted of such a color that it would reflect the same light as that reflected by a hazy sky. with a background of haze and more or less haze between the ship and the periscope of the u-boat, it was not a very difficult matter to paint a ship so that it would be invisible six or seven miles away. one shade of gray was used to conceal a ship in the north sea and an entirely different shade was used for the brighter skies of the mediterranean. [illustration: (c) international film a giant gun concealed among trees behind the french lines] in this way, the artists made it possible for ships to sail in safety much nearer the pursuer who was trying to find them, and by just so much they reduced his powers of destruction. but still the odds were too heavy against the merchantman. something must be done for him when he found himself within the seven-mile danger-zone. here again the artists came to the rescue. [illustration: (c) committee on public information observing the enemy from a papier-mâché replica of a dead horse] before merchant ships were armed, a submarine would not waste a torpedo on them, but would pound them into submission with shell. even after ships were provided with guns, submarines mounted heavier guns and unless a ship was speedy enough to show a clean pair of heels, the pursuing u-boat would stand off out of range of the ship's guns and pour a deadly fire into it. but the ships, too, mounted larger guns and the submarines had to fall back upon their torpedoes. getting the range for the torpedo in order to fire its torpedo with any certainty, the u-boat had to get within a thousand yards of its victim. a torpedo travels at from thirty to forty miles per hour. it takes time for it to reach its target and a target which is moving at, say, fifteen knots, will travel five hundred yards while a thirty-knot torpedo is making one hundred yards. and so before the u-boat commander could discharge his torpedo, he had to know how fast the ship was traveling and how far away it was from him. he could not come to the surface and make deliberate observations, but had to stay under cover, not daring even to keep his eye out of water, for fear that the long wake of foam trailing behind the periscope would give him away. all he could do, then, was to throw his periscope up for a momentary glimpse and make his calculations very quickly; then he could move to the position he figured that he should occupy and shoot up his periscope for another glimpse to check up his calculations. on the glass of this periscope, there were a number of graduations running vertically and horizontally. if he knew his victim and happened to know the height of its smoke-stacks or the length of the boat, he noted how many graduations they covered, and then by a set formula he could tell how far he was from the boat. at the same time he had to work out its rate of travel and note carefully the course it was holding before he could figure where his torpedo must be aimed. there was always more or less uncertainty about such observations, because they had to be taken hastily, and the camoufleurs were not slow to take advantage of this weakness. they increased the enemy's confusion by painting high bow-waves which made the ship look as if it were traveling at high speed. they painted the bow to look like the stern, and the stern to look like the bow, and the stacks were painted so that they appeared to slant in the opposite direction, so that it would look as if the vessel were headed the other way. u-boats came to have a very wholesome respect for destroyers and would seldom attack a ship if one of these fast fighting-craft was about, and so destroyers were painted on the sides of ships as scarecrows to frighten off the enemy. making straight lines look crooked we say that "seeing is believing," but it is not very hard to deceive the eye. the lines in fig. look absolutely parallel, and they are; but cross-hatch the spaces between them, with the hatching reversed in alternate spaces, as in fig. , and they no longer look straight. take the letters on the left, fig. . they look all higgledy-piggledy, but they are really straight and parallel, as one can prove by laying a straight-edge against them, or by drawing a straight line through each letter, as shown at the right, fig. . such illusions were used on ships. stripes were painted on the hull that tapered slightly, from bow to stern, so that the vessel appeared to be headed off at an angle, when it was really broadside to the watcher at the other end of the periscope. [illustration: fig. . parallel lines that look straight] [illustration: fig. . parallel lines that do not look straight] [illustration: courtesy of the submarine defense association fig. . letters that look all higgledy-piggledy, but are really straight] there are color illusions, too, that were tried. if you draw a red chalk-mark and a blue one on a perfectly clean blackboard, the red line will seem to stand out and the blue one to sink into the black surface of the board, because your eye has to focus differently for the two colors, and a very dazzling effect can be had with alternating squares of blue and red. other colors give even more dazzling effects, and some of them, when viewed at a distance, will blend into the very shade of gray that will make a boat invisible at six miles. when u-boat commanders took observations on a ship painted with a "dazzle" camouflage, they saw a shimmering image which it was hard for them to measure on the fine graduations of their periscopes. some ships were painted with heavy blotches of black and white, and the enemy making a hasty observation would be apt to focus his attention on the dark masses and overlook the white parts. so he was likely to make a mistake in estimating the height of the smoke-stack or in measuring the apparent length of a vessel. a joke on the photographer early in the submarine campaign one of our boats was given a coat of camouflage, and when the vessel sailed from its pier in the north river, new york, the owners sent a photographer two or three piers down the river to photograph the ship as she went by. he took the picture, but when the negative was developed, much to his astonishment he found that the boat was not all on the plate. in the finder of his camera, he had mistaken a heavy band of black paint for the stern of the ship, quite overlooking the real stern, which was painted a grayish white. the artist had fooled the photographer and at a distance of not more than two or three hundred yards! seeing beyond the horizon the periscope of a submarine that is running awash can be raised about fifteen feet above the water, which means that the horizon as viewed from that elevation is about six miles away, and if you draw a circle with a six-mile radius on the map of the atlantic, you will find that it is a mere speck in the ocean; but a u-boat commander could see objects that lay far beyond his horizon because he was searching for objects which towered many feet above the water. the smoke-stacks of some vessels rise a hundred feet above the water-line, and the masts reach up to much greater altitudes. aside from this, in the early days of the war steamers burned soft coal and their funnels belched forth huge columns of smoke which was visible from twenty to thirty miles away. when this was realized, efforts were made to cut down the superstructure of a ship as much as possible. some vessels had their stacks cut down almost to the deck-line, and air-pumps were installed to furnish the draft necessary to keep their furnaces going. they had no masts except for slender iron pipes which could be folded down against the deck and could be erected at a moment's notice, to carry the aërials of the wireless system. over the ship from stem to stern was stretched, a cable, familiarly known as a "clothes-line," upon which were laid strips of canvas that completely covered the superstructure of the ship. these boats lay so low that they could not be seen at any great distance, and it was difficult for the u-boats to find them. they were slow boats; too slow to run away from a modern submarine, but because of their lowly structure, they managed to elude the german u-boats. when they were seen, the u-boat commanders were afraid of them. they were suspicious of anything that looked out of the ordinary, and preferred to let the "clothes-line ships" go. [illustration: (c) committee on public information from western newspaper union camouflaged headquarters of the american th division in france] the british mystery ships the germans had some very unhealthy experiences with the "q-boats" or "mystery ships" of the british. these were vessels rigged up much like ordinary tramp steamers, but they were loaded with wood, so that they would not sink, and their hatches were arranged to fall open at the touch of a button, exposing powerful guns. they also were equipped with torpedo-tubes, so that they could give the u-boat a dose of its own medicine. these ships would travel along the lanes frequented by submarines, and invite attack. they would limp along as if they had been injured by a storm or a u-boat attack, and looked like easy prey. when a submarine did attack them, they would send out frantic calls for help, and they had so-called "panic" parties which took to the boats. meantime, a picked crew remained aboard, carefully concealed from view, and the captain kept his eye upon the enemy through a periscope disguised as a small ventilator, waiting for the u-boat to come within range of certain destruction. sometimes the panic party would lure the submarine into a favorable position by rowing under the stern as if to hide around the other side of the ship. at the proper moment, up would go the white ensign--the british man-of-war flag--the batteries would be unmasked, and a hail of shell would break loose over the hun. many a german submarine was accounted for by such traps. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood a camouflaged ship in the hudson river on victory day] submarines themselves used all sorts of camouflage. they were frequently equipped with sails which they would raise to disguise themselves as peaceful sloops, and in this way they were able to steal up on a victim without discovery. sometimes they would seize a ship and hide behind it in order to get near their prey. camouflage on land but the call for the wielders of the paintbrush came not only from the sea. their services were needed fully as much on land, and the making of land camouflage was far more interesting because it was more varied and more successful. besides, it called for more than mere paint; all sorts of tricks with canvas, grass, and branches were used. of course, the soldiers were garbed in dust-colored clothing and shiny armor was discarded. the helmets they wore were covered with a material that cast no gleam of light. in every respect, they tried to make themselves of the same shade as their surroundings. like the indians, they painted their faces. this was done when they made their raids at night. they painted their faces black so that they would not show the faintest reflection of light. a paper horse the most interesting camouflage work was done for the benefit of snipers or for observers at listening-posts close to the enemy trenches. it was very important to spy on the enemy and discover his plans, and so men were sent out as near his lines as possible, to listen to the conversation and to note any signs of unusual activity which would be likely to precede a raid. these men were supplied with telephone wires which they dragged over no man's land, and by which they could communicate their discoveries to headquarters. some very ingenious listening-posts were established. in one case a papier-mâché duplicate of a dead horse was made, which was an exact facsimile of an animal that had been shot and lay between the two lines. one night, the carcass of the horse was removed and the papier-mâché replica took its place. in the latter a man was stationed with telephone connection back to his own lines. here he had an excellent chance to watch the enemy. on another occasion a standing tree, whose branches had been shot away, was carefully photographed and an exact copy of it made, but with a chamber inside in which an observer could be concealed. one night while the noise of the workmen was drowned by heavy cannonading, this tree was removed and its facsimile was set up instead, and it remained for many a day before the enemy discovered that it was a fake tree-trunk. it provided a tall observation post from which an observer could direct the fire of his own artillery. fooling the watchers in the sky in the early stages of the war, it seemed impossible to hide anything from the germans. they had eyes everywhere and were able to anticipate everything the allies did. but the spies that infested the sky were the worst handicap. even when the allies gained control of the air, the control was more or less nominal because every now and then an enemy observer would slip over or under the patrolling aëroplanes and make photographs of the allies' lines. the photographs were carefully compared with others previously taken, that the slightest change in detail might be discovered. airplane observers not only would be ready to drop bombs on any suspicious object or upon masses of troops moving along the roads, but would telephone back to their artillery to direct its fire upon these targets. of course, the enemy knew where the roads were located and a careful watch was kept of them. the french did not try to hide the roads, but they concealed the traffic on the roads by hanging rows of curtains over them. as these curtains hung vertically and were spaced apart, one would suppose that they would furnish little concealment, but they prevented an observer in an aëroplane from looking down the length of a road. all the road he could see was that which lay directly under his machine, because there he could look between the curtains; if he looked obliquely at the road, the curtains would appear to overlap one another and would conceal operations going on under them. in one case, the germans completely covered a sunken road with canvas painted to represent a road surface. under this canvas canopy, troops were moved to an important strategic point without the slightest indication of such a movement. hiding big guns nature's tricks of camouflage were freely used in the hiding of the implements of war on land. our big guns were concealed by being painted with leopard spots and tiger stripes, the color and nature of the camouflage depending upon the station they were to occupy. in many cases, they were covered with branches of trees or with rope netting overspread with leaves. so careful was the observation of the air scouts that even the grass scorched by the fire of the gun had to be covered with green canvas to prevent betrayal of the position of the gun. roads that led nowhere in the making of an emplacement for a gun it was of the utmost importance that no fresh upturned earth be disclosed to the aërial observers. even foot-paths leading to it had to be concealed. plans were carefully made to cover up all traces of the work before the work was begun. where it was impossible to conceal the paths, they were purposely made to lead well beyond the point where the emplacement was building, and, still further to deceive the enemy, a show of work was sometimes undertaken at the end of the path. wherever the sod had to be upturned, it was covered over with green canvas. the earth that was removed had to be concealed somewhere and the best place of concealment was found to be some old shell-hole which would hold a great deal of earth without any evidence that would be apparent to an observer in an aëroplane. if no shell-hole were handy, the excavated material had to be hauled for miles before a safe dumping-ground could be found. as far as possible everything was sunk below the earth level. big pits were dug in which the mortars were placed, or if a shell-hole were empty, this was used instead. shadowless buildings any projection above the ground was apt to cast a shadow which would show up on the observer's photographs. this was a difficulty that was experienced in building the hangars for airplanes. the roofs of these sheds were painted green so as to match the sod around them, but as they projected above their surroundings, they cast shadows which made them clearly evident to the enemy. this was overcome by the building of shadowless hangars; that is, hangars with roofs that extended all the way to the ground at such an angle that they would cause no shadow except when the sun was low. in some cases, aëroplanes were housed in underground hangars, the approach to which was concealed by a canvas covering. as for the machines themselves, they scorned the use of camouflage. paint was little protection to them. some attempt was made to use transparent wings of _cellon_, a material similar to celluloid, but this did not prove a success. the photographic eye although camoufleurs made perfect imitations of natural objects and surroundings, they were greatly concerned to find that the flying observers could see through their disguises. to the naked eye the landscape would not show the slightest trace of any suspicions object, but by the use of a color-screen to cut out certain rays of light, a big difference would be shown between the real colors of nature and the artist's copies of them. for instance, if a roof painted to look like green grass were viewed through a red color-screen, it would look brown; while the real grass, which apparently was of exactly the same shade as the roof, would look red. it had not been realized by the artists who had never studied the composition of light, that there is a great deal of red in the green light reflected by grass, and that if they were to duplicate this shade of green, they must put a certain amount of red paint in their imitation grass roofs. air scouts did not depend upon their eyes alone, but used cameras so that they could study their photographs at their leisure and by fitting the cameras with different color-screens, they could analyze the camouflage and undo the patient work of the artist. a call for the physicist to meet this situation, another man was summoned to help--the physicist, who looks upon color merely as waves of ether; who can pick a ray of light to pieces just as a chemist can analyze a lump of sugar. under his expert guidance, colors of nature were imitated so that they would defy detection. aside from this, the physicist helped to solve the tricks of the enemy's camoufleurs. but the physicist had barely rolled up his sleeves and got into the fray when the armistice was signed which put an end to the shams as well as to the realities of the great war. while the work of camouflage was not completed, we owe an inestimable debt to the men who knew how to fake scenery and to their learned associates who count the wave lengths of light, and although their trade was a trade of deception and shams, there was no sham about the service they rendered. making ships visible while in war safety lies in invisibility, in peace the reverse is true. now that the war is over, it may seem that the work of the camoufleurs can find no useful application; but it was impossible to learn how to make objects invisible without also learning how to make them conspicuously visible. as a consequence, we know now how to paint a ship so that it will show up more clearly in foggy weather, thereby reducing the danger of collision. we know, too, how to paint light-ships, buoys, etc., so that they will be much more conspicuous and better guides to mariners, and how to color railroad signals and road signs so that they will be more easily seen by locomotive engineers and automobile drivers. chapter xii submarines it was an american invention that dragged america into the war--an american invention in the hands of barbarians and put to unspeakably barbarous use. after seeing how the huns used the submarine we are not so sure that we can take much pride in its invention. but if any blame attaches to us for developing the submarine, we made amends by the way in which we fought the german u-boat and put an end to german frightfulness on the sea. of course, the credit for germany's defeat is not for a moment claimed by americans alone, but it must be admitted that we played an important part in overcoming the menace of the u-boat. there is no question that the submarine was an american invention. to be sure, we can look into ancient books and find suggestions for navigating under the surface of the sea, but the first man who did actually build a successful submarine was david bushnell, back in the revolutionary war. after him came robert fulton, who carried the invention farther. he built and operated a submarine for the french government, and, in more recent years, the submarine became a practical vessel of war in the hands of john p. holland and simon lake, both americans. however, we are not interested, just now, in the history of the submarine, but rather in the development of this craft during the recent war. with great britain as an enemy, germany knew that she was hopelessly outclassed on the sea; but while "britannia ruled the waves," she did not rule the depths of the sea, and so germany decided to claim this realm for her own. little attention did she pay to surface vessels. except in the dogger bank engagement and the battle of jutland, the german first-class vessels did not venture out upon the open sea, and even the lighter craft merely made occasional raids under cover of fog or darkness, only to cut and run as soon as the british vessels appeared. the submarine boat, or _unterseeboot_ as the germans called it, was virtually the only boat that dared go out into the high seas; consequently, the germans specialized upon that type of craft and under their close attention it grew into a highly perfected war-vessel. but the germans were not the only ones to develop the submarine, as we shall see. construction of the u-boats when the great war broke out, the german u-boat was a comparatively small craft, less than feet long, with its main hull only feet in diameter. it could make a speed of knots on the surface and only when submerged. but as the war progressed, it grew larger and larger, until it attained a length of over feet and its speed was increased to knots when submerged and knots on the surface. figs. to show the construction of one of the early u-boats. the later boats were built after the same general plan, but on a bigger scale. [illustration: courtesy of the "scientific american" fig. . sectional view of one of the earlier german u-boats] [illustration: courtesy of the "scientific american" fig. . sectional plan view of a german u-boat of the type used at the beginning of the war] it is not always safe to judge a thing by its name; to do so is apt to lead to sad mistakes. one would naturally suppose, from its name, that a submarine is a boat that lives under water, like a fish. but it is not a fish; it is an air-breathing animal that prefers to stay on the surface, only occasionally diving under to hide from danger or to steal upon its prey. during the war, the german u-boats did not average three hours per day under the surface! because they were intended to run on the surface they had to be built in the form of a surface vessel, so as to throw off the waves and keep from rolling and pitching too much in a seaway. but they also had to be built to withstand the crushing weight of deep water, and as a cylinder is much stronger than a structure of ordinary boat shape, the main hull was made circular in section and of heavy plating, strongly framed, while around this was an outer hull of boat shape, as shown in fig. . putting holes in a tank to keep it full the space between the inner and outer hulls was used for water ballast and for reservoirs of oil to drive the engines; and, strange as it may seem, the oil-tanks were always kept full by means of holes in the bottom of them. as the oil was consumed by the engines, water would flow into the reservoir to take its place, and the oil, being lighter than water, would float on top. the false hull was of light metal, because as it was open to the sea, the pressure on the inside was always the same as that on the outside. the reservoirs of oil and the water-ballast tanks protected the inner hull of the vessel from accidental damage and from hostile shell and bombs. there were water-ballast tanks inside the inner hull as well, as shown in the cross-sectional view, fig. . the water in the ballast-tanks was blown out by compressed air to lighten the u-boat and the boat was kept on an even keel by the blowing out or the letting in of water in the forward and after tanks. [illustration: courtesy of the "scientific american" fig. . transverse section through conning-tower, showing the interior (circular) pressure-resisting hull and the lighter exterior hull, which is open to the sea] a heavy lead keel was attached to the bottom of the boat, to keep it from rolling too much. in case of accident, if there were no other way of bringing the boat to the surface, this keel could be cast loose. at the forward end, where the torpedo-tubes were located, there was a torpedo-trimming tank. torpedoes are heavy missiles and every time one was discharged the boat was lightened, and the balance of the submarine was upset. to make up for the loss of weight, water had to be let into the torpedo-trimming tank. a submarine cannot float under-water without swimming; in other words, it must keep its propellers going to avoid either sinking to the bottom of the sea or bobbing up to the surface. to be sure, it can make itself heavier or lighter by letting water into or blowing water out of its ballast-tanks, but it is impossible to regulate the water ballast so delicately that the submarine will float submerged; and should the boat sink to a depth of two hundred feet or so, the weight of water above it would be sufficient to crush the hull, so it is a case of sink or swim. usually enough ballast is taken on to make the submarine only a little lighter than the water it displaces; and then to remain under, the vessel must keep moving, with its horizontal rudders tilted to hold it down. the horizontal rudders or hydroplanes of the u-boat are shown in fig. , both at the bow and at the stern. the main hull of the vessel was literally filled with machinery. in the after part of the boat were the diesel oil-engines with which the u-boat was propelled when on the surface. there were two engines, each driving a propeller-shaft. it was impossible to use the engines when the vessel was submerged, not because of the gases they produced--these could easily have been carried out of the boat--but because every internal-combustion engine consumes enormous quantities of air. in a few minutes the engines would devour all the air in the hull of the submarine and would then die of suffocation. and so the engines were used only when the submarine was running awash or on the surface, and then the air consumed by them would rush down the hatchway like a hurricane to supply their mighty lungs. engines that burn heavy oil the oil-engines were strictly a german invention. in the earlier days of the submarine gasolene-engines were used, but despite every precaution, gasolene vapors occasionally would leak out of the reservoirs and accumulate in pockets or along the floors of the hull, and it needed but a spark to produce an explosion that would blow up the submarine. but rudolph diesel, a german, invented an engine which would burn heavy oils. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood complex mass of wheels and dials inside a german submarine] in the diesel engine there are no spark-plugs and no magneto: the engine fires itself without electrical help. air is let into the cylinder at ordinary atmospheric pressure, or fifteen pounds per square inch. but it is compressed by the upward stroke of the piston to about five hundred pounds per square inch. when air is compressed it develops heat and the sudden high compression to over thirty times its normal pressure raises the temperature to something like degrees fahrenheit. just as this temperature is reached, a jet of oil is blown into the cylinder by air under still higher pressure. immediately the spray of oil bursts into flame and the hot gases of combustion drive the piston down. because of the intense heat almost any oil, from light gasolene to heavy, almost tarlike oils, can be used. as heavy oils do not throw off any explosive vapors unless they are heated, they make a very safe fuel for submarines. [illustration: photograph by international film service surrendered german submarines, showing the net cutters at the bow] to drive the u-boat when no air was to be had for the engines, electric motors were used. there was one on each propeller-shaft and the shafts could be disconnected from the oil-engines when the motors were driving. the motors got their power from storage batteries in the stern of the submarine and under the floors forward. the motors when coupled to and driven by the engines generated current which was stored in the storage batteries. the submarine could not run on indefinitely underwater. when its batteries were exhausted it would have to come to the surface and run its engines to store up a fresh charge of electricity. the electric motors gave the boat a speed of about nine knots. in addition to the main engines and motors, there was a mass of auxiliary machinery. there were pumps for compressing air to blow the ballast-tanks and to discharge the torpedoes. there was a special mechanism for operating the rudder and hydroplanes, and all sorts of valves, indicators, speaking-tubes, signal lines, etc. the tiny hull was simply crammed with mechanism of all kinds and particularly in the early boats there was little room for the accommodation of the officers and crew. the officers' quarters were located amidships, and forward there were the folding berths of the crews. in the later boats more space was given the men. the large u-boats carried a crew of forty and as the hazards of submarine warfare increased, more attention had to be paid to the men. fat men not wanted oddly enough, small, slender men were preferred for submarine duty, not because of lack of space, but because it was apt to be very cold in a submarine, particularly in the winter-time. the water cooled off the boat when the submarine was traveling submerged, and the motors gave off little heat; while when the vessel was running on the surface the rush of wind to supply the engines kept the thermometer low. this meant that the men had to pile on much clothing to keep warm, which made them very bulky. the hatchway was none too large and a fat man, were he bundled up with enough clothing to keep him warm, would have a hard time squeezing through. in the center of the vessel was the main hatchway, leading up to the conning-tower, which was large enough to hold from three to five men. this was the navigating-room when the vessel was running submerged, and above it was the navigating-bridge, used when the submarine was on the surface. in the conning-tower there was a gyroscopic compass; a magnetic compass would not work at all inside the steel hull of the u-boat. and here were the periscopes or eyes of the submarine, rising from fifteen to twenty feet above the roof of the conning-tower. there were usually two periscopes. they could be turned around to give the man at the wheel a view in any direction and they were used sometimes even when the vessel was running on the surface, to give a longer range of vision. the blindness of the submarine now, a submarine cannot see anything underwater. the commander cannot even see the bow of his boat from the conning-tower, and until he gets near enough to the surface to poke his periscope out of water he is absolutely blind and must feel his way about with compass and depth-gage. it was always an anxious moment for the u-boat commander, when he was coming up, until his periscope broke out of the water and he could get his bearings; and even that was attended with danger, for his periscope might be seen. of course a periscope is a very insignificant object on the broad sea, but when a submarine is moving its periscope is followed by a wake which is very conspicuous, and so the u-boat ran a chance of being discovered and destroyed before it could dive again to a safe depth. later, telescoping periscopes were used, which could be raised by means of a hand-lever. the submarine would run along just under the surface and every now and then it would suddenly raise its periscope for an observation and drop it down again under cover if there was danger nigh. this was much simpler and quicker than having a six-or eight-hundred-ton boat come up to the surface and dive to safety. he might even collide with a vessel floating on the surface, but to lessen this danger submarines were furnished with ears or big microphone diaphragms at each side of the hull by which a ship could be located by the noise of its propellers. in the bow were the torpedo-tubes and the magazine of torpedoes. at first there were only two torpedo-tubes, but later the number was increased to four. these were kept constantly loaded, so that the projectiles could be launched in rapid succession, if necessary, without a pause for the insertion of a fresh torpedo. in some submarines tubes were provided in the stern also so that the boat could discharge a torpedo at its enemy while running away from him. each tube was closed at the outer end by a cap and at the inside end by a breech-block. the tube was blown clear of water by means of compressed air, and of course the outer cap was closed when the breech was open to let in a torpedo. then the breech was closed, the cap opened, and the torpedo was discharged from the tube by a blast of air. the torpedo a torpedo is really a motor-boat, a wonderfully constructed boat, fitted with an engine of its own that is driven by compressed air and which drives the torpedo through the water at about forty miles per hour. the motor-boat is shaped like a cigar and that used by the germans was about fifteen feet long and fourteen inches in diameter. we used much larger torpedoes, some of them being twenty-two feet long. ours have a large compressed-air reservoir and will travel for miles; but the germans used their torpedoes at short ranges of a thousand yards and under, cutting down the air-reservoir as much as possible and loading the torpedo with an extra large explosive charge. we found in the diesel engine that when air is highly compressed it becomes very hot. when compressed air is expanded, the reverse takes place, the air becomes very cold. the air that drives the motor of the torpedo grows so cold that were no precautions taken it would freeze any moisture that might be present and would choke up the engine with the frost. and so an alcohol flame is used to heat the air. the air-motor is started automatically by release of a trigger as the torpedo is blown out of the torpedo-tube. by means of gearing, the motor drives two propellers. these run in opposite directions, so as to balance each other and prevent any tendency for the torpedo to swerve from its course. the torpedo is steered by a rudder which is controlled by a gyroscope, and it is kept at the proper depth under water by diving-rudders which are controlled by a very sensitive valve worked by the weight of the water above it. the deeper the water, the greater the weight or pressure; and the valve is so arranged that, should the torpedo run too far under, the pressure will cause the diving-rudders to tilt until the torpedo comes up again; then if the torpedo rises too high, the valve will feel the reduction of pressure and turn the rudders in the other direction. the business end of a torpedo is a "war-head" packed with about four hundred pounds of tnt. at the nose of the torpedo is a firing-pin, with which the war-head is exploded. ordinarily, the firing-pin does not project from the torpedo, but there is a little propeller at the forward end which is turned by the rush of water as the torpedo is driven on its course. this draws out the firing-pin and gets everything ready for the tnt to explode as soon as the firing-pin is struck. but the firing-pin is not the only means of exploding the torpedo. inside there is a very delicate mechanism that will set off the charge at the least provocation. in one type of torpedo a steel ball is provided which rests in a shallow depression and the slightest shock, the sudden stopping or even a sudden swerve of the torpedo, would dislodge the ball and set off the charge. hence various schemes, proposed by inventors, for deflecting a torpedo without touching the firing-pin, would have been of no value at all. guns on submarines as torpedoes are expensive things, the u-boats were supplied with other means of destroying their victims. the germans sprang a surprise by mounting guns on the decks of their submarines. at first these were arranged to be lowered into a hatch when the boat was running submerged, but later they were permanently mounted on the decks so that they would be ready for instant use. they were heavily coated with grease and the bore was swabbed out immediately when the boat came to the surface, so that there was no danger of serious rust and corrosion. the -inch gun of the early months of the war soon gave way to heavier pieces and the latest u-boats were supplied with guns of almost -inch caliber and there was a gun on the after deck as well as forward. the u-boats depended upon radiotelegraphy to get their orders and although they did not have a very wide sending-range, they could receive messages from the powerful german station near berlin. the masts which carried the radio aërials could be folded down into pockets in the deck. from stem to stern over the entire boat a cable was stretched which was intended to permit the u-boat to slide under nets protecting harbor entrances, and in later boats there were keen-toothed knives at the bow which would cut through a steel net. during the war german and austrian u-boats occupied so much attention that the public did not realize the part that the entente allies were playing under the sea. america, great britain, france, and italy made good use of submarines, operating them against enemy vessels, blockading enemy ports, and actually fighting enemy submarines. a steam-driven submarine the british in particular did splendid work with the submarine and developed boats that were superior to anything turned out by the germans. for instance, they developed a submarine which is virtually a submersible destroyer. it is feet long and it can make a speed of knots on the surface. the most remarkable part of this boat is that its engines are driven by steam. its boilers are fired with oil fuel. there are two smoke-stacks which fold down when it submerges. of course when running under-water the vessel is driven by electricity and it makes a speed of knots. it carries three -inch guns, two forward and one aft, and its displacement submerged is tons as against tons for the largest german submarines. a submarine that mounts a twelve-inch gun still more remarkable is the big "super-submarine" designed by the british to bombard the forts of the dardanelles, but unfortunately it was built too late to be used there. this submarine carries a gun big enough for a battle-ship. it is of -inch caliber and weighs tons. of course a big gun like that could not be fired athwart the submarine. it might bowl the little vessel over, even though it was a -ton submarine. the gun is mounted to fire fore and aft, with a deviation of only a few degrees to one side or the other, so that the shock of the recoil is taken by the length instead of the beam of the submarine. it fires a shell weighing pounds and a full charge is not used, so that the extreme range is only about , yards. this submarine monitor would have been a very difficult target for the turkish gunners to hit. when the war came to an end and the german submarines surrendered to the entente allies at harwich, there was considerable public curiosity as to whether or not an examination of the u-boats would disclose any wonderful secrets. but they contained nothing that the allies did not already know, and one british officer stated that the plans of the german submarines had often fallen into their hands long before a u-boat of the same type was captured! chapter xiii getting the best of the u-boat the u-boat commander who sallied forth from the harbor of wilhelmshaven in the early days of the war had nothing to fear. he was out to murder, not to fight. his prey was always out in the open, while he could kill without exposing more than his eye above water. not even a sporting chance was allowed his victims, particularly when he chose unarmed merchantmen for his targets. he could come up boldly to the surface and shell a ship into submission. this was cheaper than torpedoing the vessel, because torpedoes are expensive. if the ship were speedy it might run away; or if the u-boat came up too close to its intended prey, the latter might run it down. that happened occasionally and it was the only danger that the _herr kommandant_ had to fear. if a destroyer suddenly appeared, the u-boat could dive into the shelter of the sea. if the water were not too deep, it could lie on the bottom for two or more days if need be. there was plenty of air in the hull to sustain life for many hours, and then the compressed air used for blowing the ballast-tanks could be drawn upon. in the u-boat there were potash cartridges to take up the carbon-dioxide, and tanks of pure oxygen to revitalize the air. if the submarine were damaged, it was not necessary for it to come to the surface to effect repairs. there were air-locks through which a diver could be let out of the boat. he was fitted with oxygen and potash cartridges, so that he did not need to be connected by an air-hose with the boat, but could walk around it freely to mend injured rudders or to clear the propeller of entanglements. even the small submarines of those early days were capable of taking long voyages. setting his course at a comfortable pace of knots, the u-boat commander could count on enough fuel to carry him miles, and if need be he could slow down to knots and by using certain of his water-ballast tanks for additional oil-reservoirs, extend his cruising-radius to nearly miles. the big -ton u-boats that were built later had a radius of miles at an -knot speed. and so when the british closed the english channel with nets and mines, _herr kommandant_ was not at all perturbed; he could sail around the british isles if he chose and make war upon transatlantic shipping. when harbors were walled off with nets, he could remain outside and sink vessels that were leaving or entering them. submarine-chasers a real menace came when the u-boat commander popped his periscope out of the sea and saw several little motor-boats bearing down upon him. they seemed harmless enough, but a moment's inspection showed them to be armed with guns fully as powerful as those he carried. it was useless to discharge a torpedo at so speedy and small a foe. a torpedo has to have a fairly deep covering of water, else its course will be disturbed by surface waves; and the submarine-chasers drew so little water that a torpedo would pass harmlessly under them. it was useless for the u-boat commander to come up and fight them with his guns. they would have been upon him before he could do that, and their speed and diminutive size made them very difficult targets to hit. besides, he dared not risk a duel of shell, for he knew that if the precious inner hull of his boat were punctured, he could not seek refuge under water; and if he could not hide, he was lost. the little armed mosquito craft swarmed about the harbor entrances, ready to dash at any submarine that showed itself. they could travel twice as fast as the submarine when it was submerged and half again as fast as when it was running on the surface. submarines had to take to cover when these chasers were about. _herr kommandant_ did not even dare to take a look around through his periscope, because the streak of foam that trailed in its wake would betray him and immediately the speedy motor-boats would take up the chase; and they had a disagreeable way of dropping bombs which, even if they did not sink the submarine, might produce such a concussion as to spring its seams. his foes had discovered one of his most serious defects. he was blind under-water and they were making the most of this handicap. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood forward end of a u-boat. note the four torpedo tubes behind the officer] groping along under-water by dead-reckoning was not any too safe a procedure near land, because he was liable at any moment to crash into an uncharted rock or maybe into the wreck of some submarine victim. he could not correct his bearings without coming to the surface, and, in the black depths of the sea, a slight miscalculation might send him to his doom. as was explained in the previous chapter, he had to keep moving, because he could not remain suspended under water. [illustration: (c) press illustrating service a depth-bomb mortar and a set of "ash cans" at the stern of an american destroyer] he was more helpless than a ship sailing in the densest of fogs. a ship can stop and listen to sound-signals, or even to the beating of the surf on the shore, or it can take soundings to locate its position; and yet it is no uncommon occurrence for a ship to run ashore in a fog. how much easier it is for a submarine to lose its bearings when obliged to travel by dead-reckoning, particularly in the disconcerting excitement of the chase! to avoid the danger of collision with surface vessels, the commander chose to run at a depth of sixty-five feet. that was the upper limit of his safety-zone. a depth of over two hundred feet was his lower limit, because, as stated before, the water-pressure at that depth would crush in his hull or at least start its seams. if the bottom were smooth and sandy, and not too deep, he could settle gently upon it and wait for darkness, to make his escape. but while he lay on a sandy bottom, he was still in danger. trawlers were sweeping the bottom with nets. he might be discovered; and then if he did not come up and surrender, a bomb would let in the sea upon him. a hint from nature while he could not see under water, his adversaries could. they had taken a hint from nature. the fish-hawk has no difficulty in spying his submarine prey. flying high above the water, he can see his victims at a considerable depth, and wait his chance to pounce upon an unwary fish that comes too near the surface. it is said that the british trained sea-gulls to hunt submarines. sea-gulls will follow a ship far out to sea for the sake of feeding on refuse that is thrown overboard. british submarines encouraged the birds to follow them, by throwing out bait whenever they came to the surface. of course the birds could see the submarine even when it was submerged, and if they pursued it, they were always rewarded with plenty of food. the gulls drew no fine distinction between hun and briton, and so it came that _herr kommandant_ often groped his way along in the dark sea, totally oblivious of the fact that he was attended by an escort of feathered folk who kept the british chasers informed of his presence. in this connection it is interesting to note that the british trained sea lions to hunt submarines. the animals were taught at first to swim to a friendly submarine, locating it by the sound of its propellers. they were always rewarded with fish. these sea lions were muzzled so that they could not go fishing on their own account. then they learned to locate enemy submarines and pointed them out by swimming directly toward them and diving down to them. but there were human eyes, as well, that spied upon the u-boat. fast seaplanes patrolled the waters, searching constantly for any trace of submarine. its form could be vaguely outlined to a depth of from fifty to seventy-five feet, unless the sea were choppy, and once it was discovered, chasers or trawlers were signaled to destroy it with bombs or to entangle it in nets. often a submarine would be discovered by a leak in its oil-tank which would leave a tell-tale trail. sometimes when the u-boat itself could not be discerned, there would be slight shimmer, such as may be seen above a hot stove, caused by refraction of light in its wake. this was easily recognized by trained observers. [illustration: (c) press illustrating service a depth-bomb mortar in action and a depth-bomb snapped as it is being hurled through the air] even better aërial patrols were the small dirigibles known as blimps. they are a cross between a balloon and an airplane, for they have the body and the power-plant of an airplane, but the planes are replaced by a gas-bag. blimps could cruise leisurely and search the sea thoroughly. they could stop and hover directly over a submarine and drop explosives upon it with great accuracy. and so _herr kommandant_ could take no comfort in hiding under a blanket of waves unless the blanket were so thick as to conceal his form completely from the eyes overhead. this made it imperative to leave the shallower waters near shore and push out into the deep sea, where the small chasers could not pursue him. but he could not shake off his pursuers. stream-trawlers are built to ride the heaviest gales and they took up the chase out into the ocean. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" airplane stunning a u-boat with a depth-bomb] there was a decided advantage for the u-boat in moving out to sea. it had a wider field of activity and could more easily escape from its pursuers. but on the other hand, its prey also had an advantage. out in the open ocean they were not obliged to follow the usual ship lanes and it was more difficult for a submarine to intercept them. there it took more u-boats to blockade a given area. a game of hide-and-seek then, it ceased to be quite so one-sided a game when merchantmen began to carry guns. that made it necessary for the submarine commander to creep up on his victims stealthily, and depend upon his torpedoes. he had to get within a thousand yards of the ship and preferably within five hundred yards, in order to be sure of hitting it. if the ship could travel faster than he could, he had to do this without betraying his presence. but ship-captains soon learned that their safety lay in zig-zagging. when _herr kommandant_ reached the point from which he had planned to attack, he would raise his telescopic periscope out of the water, expecting to see his victim within good torpedo range, only to find it sailing safely on another tack. again, he would have to take observations and make another try, probably with no better luck. it was a game of hide-and-seek in which the merchant ship had a good chance of making its escape, particularly when blotches of camouflage paint made it difficult for him to get the range, as described in chapter xi. [illustration: courtesy of the submarine defense association fig. . how a ship hid behind smoke produced on its own stern, with different directions of wind] slower ships could be attacked without all this manoeuvering, provided the submarine's guns outranged those of the ship. and so u-boats were provided with larger and larger guns, which made it possible for them to stand off and pound the merchantmen while out of reach of the vessel's guns. but ships found a way of hiding on the surface of the sea. a vessel would spout forth volumes of dense black smoke which would obliterate it from view. (see fig. .) if the wind was quartering, the ship would change its course and dodge behind the sheltering pall of smoke. not only was the smoke produced on the vessel itself, but smoke-boxes were cast overboard to form a screen behind the vessel. these smoke-boxes contained a mixture of coal-tar and phosphorus and other chemicals which would produce incomplete combustion. they were ignited by the rubbing of a phosphorus compound on a priming-composition, and then cast adrift to pour out dense volumes of heavy smoke. (see fig. .) behind this screen, the ship could dodge and zig-zag and if her speed were greater than that of the submarine, her chances of escape were very good. [illustration: courtesy of the submarine defense association fig. . how a ship hid behind a screen of smoke produced by throwing smoke-boxes overboard] another annoyance that _herr kommandant_ experienced was, when he lifted his periscopic eye above water, to find it so smeared with a sticky substance that he could not see. his foes had strewn the water with tar-oil that had spread in a thin film over a surface miles in extent. this blinded him at first, but before long he was equipped with a jet for washing off the periscope glass and that little annoyance was overcome. but the craft most dreaded by the u-boat commander were the destroyers. these light, high-powered, heavily armed vessels could travel twice as fast as he could on the surface and three times as fast as he could submerged. shells were invented which would not ricochet from the surface of the sea, but would plow right through the water, where they struck and hit the submarine below water-level. death-dealing "ash cans" however, it was not shell-fire that he dreaded, but the big "ash cans" loaded with tnt which were timed to explode far under water, and which would crush his boat or start its seams. it was not necessary for these bombs to hit the u-boat. when they went off they would send out a wave of pressure that would crush the boat or start its seams even if it were a hundred feet and more from the point of the explosion. within limits, the deeper the explosion the wider would its destructive area be. the timing-mechanism of some depth bombs consisted merely of a float on the end of a cord. when the bomb was thrown overboard this float remained on the surface until the cord was pulled out to its full length, when there would be a yank on the firing-trigger and the charge would explode. in other depth bombs there was a valve operated by the pressure of the water. when the bomb sank to the depth for which the valve was set, the pressure of the water would force the valve in, exploding a cartridge which set off the charge. so powerful were these depth bombs that the destroyer had to travel at high speed to get out of range of the explosion. depth bombs were rolled off the stern of the destroyer and also thrown out from the sides of the vessel by means of mortars. some of the mortars were y-shaped and held a depth bomb in each arm of the y. when a blank -inch shell was exploded at the base of the gun, both bombs would be hurled from the ship, one to port and the other to starboard. in this way the destroyer could drop the bombs in a "pattern" of wide area. _herr kommandant_ gained a wholesome respect for these terriers of the sea. it was suicide to show himself anywhere near a destroyer. in a moment the speedy boat would be upon him, sowing depth bombs along his course. his chances of escaping through this hail of high explosives were remote indeed. the ships that he was most eager to destroy were either too speedy for him to catch, unless they happened to come his way, or else they were herded in large convoys protected by these dreaded destroyers. the convoy proved a most baffling problem for _herr kommandant_. he dared not attack the convoy by daylight. in a fog he might take a chance at picking off one of the ships, but even that was very risky. he could trail the convoy until dusk and then under cover of darkness draw near enough to discharge a torpedo, but in the daytime he must keep his distance because there were eyes in the sky watching for him. at the van and rear of the convoy there were kite balloons high in the sky, with observers constantly watching for periscopes, and for u-boats that might be lurking under the surface. as the destroyers gained in experience, the difficulties of the u-boat attack grew greater and its work grew more and more perilous. the crew grumbled and grew mutinous. the morale of the men was shaken. we can imagine the horror of plunging hurriedly into the depths of the sea, and rushing along blindly under the surface, dodging this way and that, while terrific explosions of depth bombs stagger the submarine and threaten to crush it, and there is the constant expectation that the next explosion will tear the thin shell of the u-boat and let in the black hungry water. the tables were turned. now, if never before, _herr kommandant_, the hunter, knew what it felt like to be hunted. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood the false hatch of a mystery ship and--] [illustration: the same hatch opened to disclose the -inch gun and crew] it takes an exceptional man to go through such a harrowing experience with unshattered nerves. on at least one occasion, a submarine that was being depth-bombed came suddenly to the surface. the hatch flew open and the crew rushed out, holding up their hands and crying, "_kamerad_." the u-boat was uninjured, but the shock of a depth bomb explosion had put the electric-lighting system out of commission, and the crew, unnerved by the explosion and terrified by the darkness, had overpowered their officers and brought the boat to the surface. [illustration: a french hydrophone installation with which the presence of submarines was detected] eyes in the sea there were other craft that _herr kommandant_ had to look out for. his were not the only submarines in the sea. his foes also were possessed of submarines. they could not see under water any better than he could, but they could fight on the surface as well as he, and they could creep up on him even as he crept up on his prey. as a french submarine commander puts it: "the u-boats used to enjoy the advantage of remaining themselves invisible while all the surface and aërial craft which were sent in pursuit of them were boldly outlined against the sky and visible to them. this is one of the reasons we used submarines to ambush u-boats." submarines were also used to accompany the convoys, so that the u-boat commander had to watch not only for the eyes of the ship's lookouts and the eyes in the kite balloons, but also for the periscope eyes that swam in the sea. trailing u-boats by sound the troubles of the submarine-commander were multiplying. all over the world inventors were plotting his destruction. as long as we depended upon our eyes to ferret him out, the sea was a safe refuge, provided he dived deep enough, but when we began to use our ears as well, he found himself in a very serious predicament. although light is badly broken up in its passage through water, sound-waves will travel through water much better than in air. the first listening-devices used were crude affairs and did not amount to much, particularly when the u-boats muffled their motors and engines so that they were virtually noiseless. but the french invented a very sensitive sound-detector. it consisted of a lot of tiny diaphragms set in a big hemisphere. there were two of these hemispheres, one at each side of the boat. when sound-waves struck these hemispheres, the diaphragms would respond. at the focus of each hemisphere there was a megaphone receiver; one of these carried the sound to the operator's right ear and the other to his left. he would turn a megaphone around until he found the diaphragm that produced the loudest sound. this gave him the direction of the sound-wave. then the boat would be steered in that direction. he knew that it was aimed properly when the sound coming to his right ear was just as loud as that which came into his left ear. a still better hydrophone was developed by a group of american inventors. the details of this cannot yet be disclosed, but we know that it was adopted at once by our allies. a very sensitive receiver was used which could detect a u-boat miles away and determine its direction accurately. under ideal conditions the range of the device was from fifteen to twenty-five miles, but the average was from three to eight miles. if two or more boats fitted with sound-detectors were used, they could determine the position of the u-boat perfectly. one drawback was that the vessel would have to stop so that the noise of its own engines would not disturb the listener, but this was largely overcome by trailing the detector a hundred feet or more from the stem of the ship. the sounds were then brought in by an electric cable to the listener in the ship. these sound-detectors were placed on allied submarines as well as surface vessels and they were actually tried out on balloons and dirigibles, so that they could follow a u-boat after it had submerged too deeply to be followed by sight. [illustration: courtesy of the "scientific american" fig. . chart of an actual pursuit of a u-boat which ended in the destruction of the submarine] [illustration: section of a captured mine-laying u-boat, showing how the mines were laid] many u-boats were chased to their doom by the aid of the american hydrophone. fig. illustrates a very dramatic chase. the full line shows the course of the u-boat as plotted out by hydrophones and the broken line the course of the submarine-chasers. the dots represent patterns of depth bombs dropped upon the u-boat. try as he would, the _herr kommandant_ could not shake off his pursuers. at one time, as the listeners stopped to take observations, they heard hammering in the u-boat as if repairs were being made. the motors of the submarine would start and stop, showing clearly that it was disabled. more depth bombs were dropped and then there was perfect silence, which was soon broken by twenty-five revolver-shots. evidently the crew, unable to come to the surface, had given up in despair and committed suicide. [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood a paravane hauled up with a shark caught in its jaws] the adriatic sea was an ideal place for the use of the hydrophone. the water there is so deep that submarines dared not rest on the bottom, but had to keep moving, and so they could easily be followed. across the sea, at the heel of the boot of italy, a barrage of boats was established. u-boats would come down to this barrage at night and, when within two or three miles of the boats, dive and pass under them. but when hydrophones were used that game proved very hazardous. our listeners would hear them coming when they were miles away. then they would hear them shift from oil-to electric-drive and plunge under the surface. darkness was no protection to the u-boats. the sound-detector worked just as well at night as in the daytime and a group of three boats would drop a pattern of bombs that would send the u-boat to the bottom. on one occasion after an attack it was evident that the submarine had been seriously injured. its motors were operating, but something must have gone wrong with its steering-gear, or its ballast-chambers may have been flooded, because it kept going down and soon the listeners heard a crunching noise as it was crushed by the tremendous pressure of the water. and so u-boat warfare grew more and more terrible for _herr kommandant_. the depths of the sea were growing even more dangerous than the surface. on every hand he was losing out. he had tried to master the sea without mastering the surface of the sea. but he can never really master who dares not fight out in the open. for a time, the german did prevail, but his adversaries were quick to see his deficiencies and, by playing upon these, to rob the terror of the sea of his powers. and as _herr kommandant_ looks back at the time when he stepped into the lime-light as the most brutal destroyer the world has ever seen, he cannot take much satisfaction in reflecting that the sum total of his efforts was to spread hatred of germany throughout the world, to summon into the conflict a great nation whose armies turned the tide of victory against his soldiers, and finally to subject his navy, second only to that of great britain, to the most humiliating surrender the world has ever seen. chapter xiv "devil's eggs" in modern warfare a duel between fixed forts and floating forts is almost certain to end in a draw. because the former are fixed they make good targets, while the war-ship, being able to move about, can dodge the shell that are fired against it. on the other hand, a fort on land can stand a great deal of pounding and each of its guns must be put out of action individually, before it is subdued, while the fort that is afloat runs the risk of being sunk with a few well-directed shots. but fortifications alone will not protect a harbor from a determined enemy. they cannot prevent hostile ships from creeping by them under cover of darkness or a heavy fog. to prevent this, the harbor must be mined, and this must be done in such a way that friendly shipping can be piloted through the mine-field, while hostile craft will be sure to strike the mines and be destroyed. the mines may be arranged to be fired by electricity from shore stations, in which case they are anchored at such a depth that ships can sail over them without touching them. if a hostile vessel tried to dash into the harbor, the touch of a button on shore would sink it when it passed over one of the mines. but the success of electrically fired mines would depend upon the "seeing." in a heavy fog they would prove no protection. another way of using electric mines is to have telltale devices which a ship would strike and which would indicate to the operator on shore that a vessel was riding over the mines and would also let him know over which particular mines it was at the moment passing. no friendly vessel would undertake to enter the harbor in a fog or after dark and the operator would not hesitate to blow up the invader even if he could not see him. however, the ordinary method of mining a harbor is to lay fields of anchored mines across the channels and entrances to the harbor--sensitive mines that will blow up at the slightest touch of a ship's hull--and leave tortuous passages through the fields for friendly shipping. of course pilots have to guide the ships through the passages and lest enemy spies learn just where the openings are the mine-fields must be shifted now and then. the mines are, therefore, made so that they can be taken up by friendly mine-sweepers who know just how to handle them, and planted elsewhere. these are defensive mines, but there are other mines that are not intended to be moved. they are planted in front of enemy harbors to block enemy shipping and they are made so sensitive or of such design that they will surely explode if tampered with. the mine that does its own sounding a favorite type of mine used during the war was one which automatically adjusted itself to sink to the desired depth. submerged mines are more dangerous to the enemy because they cannot be seen and avoided. they should float far enough under the surface to remain hidden and yet not so deep that a shallow-draft ship can pass over them without hitting them. as the sea bottom may be very irregular, it is impossible to tell how long the anchor cable should be without sounding the depth of the water at every point at which a mine is planted. but the automatic anchor takes care of this. very ingeniously it does its own sounding and holds the mine down to the depth for which it is set. the mine cable is wound up on a reel in the anchor and the mine is held fast to the anchor by a latch. the anchor is of box-shape or cylindrical form, with perforations in it. at first it sinks comparatively slowly, but as it fills with water it goes down faster. attached to the anchor is a plummet or weight, connected by a cord to the latch. the length of this cord determines the depth at which the mine will float. [illustration: courtesy of the "scientific american" fig. . how the mine automatically adjusts itself to various depths of water] the operation of the mine is shown in fig. . when it is thrown overboard ( ) it immediately turns over so that the buoyant mine _a_ floats on the surface ( ). while the anchor is slowly filling and sinking, the plummet _b_ runs out ( ). if the mines are to float at a depth of, say, ten feet, this cord must be ten feet long. as soon as it runs out to its full length ( ) it springs a latch, _c_, releasing the mine _a_. then the mine cable _d_ pays out, as the anchor _e_ sinks, until the plummet _b_ strikes bottom ( ). as soon as the plummet cord slackens a spring-pressed pawl is released and locks the mine-cable reel, so that as the anchor continues to sink it draws the mine down with it, until it touches bottom ( ), and as the anchor was ten feet from the bottom when the plummet touched bottom and locked the reel, the mine must necessarily be dragged down to a depth of ten feet below the surface. the mine itself, or the "devil's egg" as it is called, is usually a big buoyant sphere of metal filled with tnt or some other powerful explosive; and projecting from it are a number of very fragile prongs which if broken or even cracked will set off the mine. there is a safety-lever or pin that makes the mine harmless when it is being handled, and this must be withdrawn just before the mine is to be launched. in some mines the prongs are little plungers that are withdrawn into the mine-shell and held by a cement which softens after the mine is submerged and lets the plungers spring out. when the plungers are broken, water enters and, coming in contact with certain chemicals, produces enough heat to set off a cartridge which fires the mine. picking infernal machines out of the sea the enemy mine-fields were often located by seaplanes and then mine-sweepers had to undertake the extremely hazardous task of raising the mines or destroying them. if they were of the offensive type, it was much better to destroy them. but occasionally, when conditions permitted, mine-sweepers undertook to raise the mines and reclaim them for future use against the enemy. the work of seizing a mine and making it fast to the hoisting-cable of the mine-sweeper was usually done from a small rowboat. raising the first mine was always the most perilous undertaking, because no one knew just what type of mine it was and how to handle it with safety, or whether there was any way in which it _could_ be made harmless. there were some mines, for instance, that contained within them a small vial partly filled with sulphuric acid. the mine carried no prongs, but if it were tilted more than twenty degrees the acid would spill out and blow up the mine. such a mine would be exceedingly difficult if not impossible to handle from a boat that was rocked about by the waves. after the first mine of the field was raised and its safety-mechanism studied, the task of raising the rest was not so dangerous. a water telescope was used to locate the mine and to aid in hooking the hoisting-cable into the shackle on the mine. the hook was screwed to the end of a pole and after the mine was hooked, the pole was unscrewed and the cable hauled in, bringing up the "devil's egg" bristling with death. care had to be taken to keep the bobbing boat from touching the delicate prongs until the safety-device could be set. however, this painstaking and careful method of raising mines was not often employed. shallow-draft mine-sweepers would run over the mine-field, dragging a cable between them. the cable would be kept down by means of hydrovanes or "water kites" deep enough to foul the anchor cables of the mines. the "water kites" were v-shaped structures that were connected to the cable in such a way that they would nose down as they were dragged through the water and carry the cable under. the action is just the reverse of a kite, which is set to nose up into the wind and carry the kite up when it is dragged through the air. by means of the cable the anchor chain of the mine was caught and then the mine with its anchor was dragged up. if the mine broke loose from its anchor it could be exploded with a rifle-shot if it did not automatically explode on fouling the cable. floating mines when england entered the war she mined her harbors because, although she had the mastery of the sea, she had to guard against raids of enemy ships carried out in foggy and dark weather. but the mines were no protection against submarines. they would creep along the bottom under the mines. then cable nets were stretched across the harbor channels to bar the submarines, but the u-boats were fitted with cutters which would tear through the nets, and it became necessary to use mines set at lower depths so that the submarines could not pass under them; and nets were furnished with bombs which would explode when fouled by submarines. in fact, mines were set adrift with nets stretched between them, to trap submarines. floating mines were also used by the germans for the destruction of surface vessels and these were usually set adrift in pairs, with a long cable connecting them, so that if a vessel ran into the cable the mines would be dragged in against its hull and blow it up. the laws of war require that floating mines be of such a design that they will become inoperative in a few hours; otherwise they might drift about for weeks or months or years and be a constant menace to shipping. sometimes anchored mines break away from their moorings and are carried around by ocean currents or are blown about by the winds. a year after the russo-japanese war a ship was blown up by striking a mine that had been torn from its anchorage and had drifted far from the field in which it was planted. no doubt there are hundreds of mines afloat in the atlantic ocean which for many years to come will hold out the threat of sudden destruction to ocean vessels; for the germans knew no laws of war and had no scruples against setting adrift mines that would remain alive until they were eaten up with rust. [illustration: courtesy of the "scientific american" fig. . ocean currents of the north atlantic showing the probable path of drifting mines] the chart on the next page shows the course of ocean currents in the north atlantic as plotted out by the prince of monaco, from which it may be seen that german mines will probably make a complete circuit of the north atlantic, drifting down the western coast of europe, across the atlantic, around the azores, and into the gulf stream, which will carry them back to the north sea, only to start all over. (see fig. .) some of them will run up into the arctic ocean, where they will be blown up by striking icebergs and many will be trapped in the mass of floating seaweed in the sargasso sea. but many years will pass before all danger of mines will be removed. in the meantime, the war has left a tremendous amount of work to be done in raising anchored mines and destroying them. egg-laying submarines early in the war the british were astonished to find enemy mine-fields in their own waters, far from any german ports. they could not have been planted by surface mine-layers, unless these had managed to creep up disguised as peaceful trawlers. this seemed hardly likely, because these fields appeared in places that were well guarded. then it was discovered that german u-boats were doing this work. special mine-laying u-boats had been built and one of them was captured with its cargo of "devil's eggs." a sectional view of the mine-laying u-boat is shown opposite page . in the after part of the boat were mine-chutes in each of which three mines were stored. a mine-laying submarine would carry about a score of mines. these could be released one at a time. the mine with its anchor would drop to the bottom. as soon as it struck, anchor-arms would be tripped and spread out to catch in the sand or mud, while the mine cable would be released and the mine would rise as far as the cable would allow it. the u-boat commander would have to know the depth of water in which the mines were to be laid and adjust the cables to this depth in advance. this could not be done while the u-boat was submerged. with the mines all set for the depth at a certain spot, the u-boat commander had to find that very spot to lay his "eggs," otherwise they would either lie too deep to do any harm to shipping, or else they would reach up to the surface, where they might be discovered by the allied patrols. as he had to do his navigating blindly, by dead-reckoning, it was very difficult for him to locate his mine-fields properly. but the germans did not have a monopoly on submarine mine-laying. the british also laid mines by submarine within german harbors and channels, right under the guns of heligoland, and many a u-boat was destroyed by such mines within its home waters. [illustration: (c) press illustrating service a dutch mine-sweeper engaged in clearing the north sea of german mines] paravanes on the other hand, the allies had a way of sailing right through fields of enemy mines with little danger. our ships were equipped with "paravanes" which are something like the "water kites" used by mine-sweepers, and they are still used in the waters of the war zone. paravanes are steel floats with torpedo-shaped bodies and a horizontal plane near the forward end. at the tail of the paravane, there are horizontal and vertical rudders which can be set to make the device run out from the side of the vessel that is towing it, and at the desired depth below the surface. two paravanes are used, one at each side of the ship, and the towing-cables lead from the bow of the vessel. thus there are two taut cables that run out from the ship in the form of a v and at such a depth that they will foul the mooring-cable of any mine that might be encountered. the mine cable slides along the paravane cable and in this way is carried clear of the ship's hull. when it reaches the paravane it is caught in a sharp-toothed jaw which cuts the mine cable and lets the mine bob up to the surface. the mine is then exploded by rifle or machine-gun fire. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" hooking up enemy anchored mines] in some forms of paravane there is a hinged jaw which is operated from the ship to shear the cable. the jaw is repeatedly opened and closed by a line that runs to a winch on the ship. this winch winds up the line until it is taut and then the line is permitted to slip, letting the jaw open, only to close again as the winch keeps on turning and winding up the line. guarded by steel sharks on each side, their jaws constantly working, a ship can plow right through a field of anchored mines with little danger. to be sure, the bow might chance to hit a mine, when, of course, there would be an explosion; but the ship could stand damage here better than anywhere else and unless the bow actually hit the mine, one or other of the paravanes would take care of it and keep it from being dragged in against the hull of the vessel. penning in the u-boats according to german testimony, mines were responsible for the failure of the u-boat. however, it was not merely the scattered mine-fields sown in german waters that brought the u-boat to terms, but an enormous mine-field stretching across the north sea from the orkney islands to the coast of norway. early in the war, u-boats had been prevented from entering the english channel by nets and mines stretched across the straits of dover. as the submarine menace grew, it was urged that a similar net be stretched across the north sea to pen the u-boats in. but it seemed like a stupendous task. the distance across at the narrowest point is nearly two hundred and fifty miles. it would not have been necessary to have the net come to the surface. it could just as well have been anchored so that its upper edge would be covered with thirty feet of water. surface vessels could then have sailed over it without trouble and submarines could not have passed over it without showing themselves to patrolling destroyers. it would not have been necessary to carry the net to the bottom of the sea. a belt of netting a hundred and fifty feet wide would have made an effective bar to the passage of u-boats. as u-boats might cut their way through the net, it was proposed to mount bombs or mines on them which would explode on contact and destroy any submarine that tried to pass. however, laying a net two hundred feet long even when it is laid in sections, is no small job, but when the net is loaded with contact mines, the difficulty of the work may be well imagined. and yet had it been thought that the net would be a success it would have been laid anyhow, but it was argued that seaweed would clog the meshes of the net and ocean currents would tear gaps in it. even if it had not been torn away, the tidal currents would have swept it down and borne it under so far that u-boats could have passed over it in safety without coming to the surface. a wall of mines when america entered the war, we were very insistent that something must be done to block the north sea, and we proposed that a barrage of anchored mines be stretched across the sea and that these mines be set at different levels so as to make a "wall" that submarines could not dive under. this would do away with all the drawbacks of a net. ocean currents and masses of seaweed could not affect individual mines as they would a net. furthermore, an american inventor had devised a new type of mine which was peculiarly adapted to the proposed mine barrage. it had a firing-mechanism that was very sensitive and the mine had twice the reach of any other. at length the british mine-laying forces were prevailed upon to join with us in laying this enormous mine. it was one of the biggest and most successful undertakings of the war. it was to be two hundred and thirty miles long and twelve miles wide on the average, reaching from the rocky shores of the orkney islands to norway. there was plenty of deep water close to the coast of norway and it was against international law to lay mines within three miles of the shores of a neutral nation, so that the u-boats might have had a clear passage around the end of the barrage. but as it was also against the law for the u-boats to sail through neutral waters, norway laid a mine-field off its coast to enforce neutrality, and this was to join with that which the british and we were to lay. most of the mine-laying was to be done by the united states and we were to furnish the mines. the order to proceed with the work was given in october, , and it was a big order. a hundred thousand mines were to be made and to preserve secrecy, as well as to hurry the work as much as possible, it was divided among five hundred contractors and subcontractors. the parts were put together in one plant and then sent to another, where each mine was filled with three hundred pounds of molten tnt. to carry them across the ocean small steamers were used, so that if one should be blown up by a submarine the loss of mines would not be very great. there were twenty-four of these steamers, each carrying from twelve hundred to eighteen hundred mines and only one of them was destroyed by a submarine. the steamers delivered their loads on the west coast of scotland and the mines were taken across to the east coast by rail and motor canal-boats. here the mines were finally assembled, ready for planting. seventy thousand mines were planted, four fifths of them by american mine-layers and the rest by the british. mine railroads on ships to handle the mines the ships were specially fitted with miniature railroads for transporting the mines to the launching-point, so that they could be dropped at regular intervals without interruption. each anchor mine was provided with flanged wheels that ran on rails. the mines were carried on three decks and each deck was covered with a network of rails, switches, and turn-tables, while elevators were provided to carry the mines from one deck to another. the mines, like miniature railroad cars, were coupled up in trains of thirty or forty and as each mine weighed fourteen hundred pounds, steam winches had to be used to haul them. at the launching-point the tracks ran out over the stern of the boat and here a trap was provided which would hold only one mine at a time. by the pulling of a lever the jaws of the trap would open and the mine would slide off the rails and plunge into the sea. the mines were dropped every three hundred feet in lines five hundred feet apart, as it was unsafe for the mine-layers to steam any closer to one another than that. the mines were of the type shown in fig. and automatically adjusted themselves to various depths. the depth of the water ran down to twelve hundred feet near the norwegian coast. never before had mines been planted at anywhere near that depth. it was dangerous work, because the enemy knew where the mines were being planted, as neutral shipping had to be warned months in advance. the mine-layers were in constant danger of submarine attack, although they were convoyed by destroyers to take care of the u-boats. there was even danger of a surface attack and so battle-cruisers were assigned the job of guarding the mine-layers. the mine-layers steamed in line abreast, and had one of them been blown up, the shock would probably have been enough to blow up the others as well. enemy mines were sown in the path of the mine-layers, so the latter had to be preceded by mine-sweepers. navigation buoys had to be planted at the ends of the lines of mines and the enemy had a habit of planting mines near the buoys or of moving the buoys whenever he had a chance. but despite all risks the work was carried through. the barrier was not an impassable one. with the mines three hundred feet apart, a submarine might get through, even though the field was twenty-five miles broad, but the hazards were serious. before the first lines of mines had been extended half-way across, its value was demonstrated by the destruction of several u-boats, and as the safety-lane was narrowed down the losses increased. it is said that altogether twenty-three german submarines met their doom in the great mine barrage. u-boat commanders balked at running through it, and u-boat warfare virtually came to a standstill. according to captain bartenbach, commander of submarine bases in flanders, three u-boats were sunk by anchored mines for every one that was destroyed by a depth bomb. chapter xv surface boats the war on the submarine was fought mainly from the surface of the sea and from the air above the sea, and naturally it resulted in many interesting naval developments. as described in chapter xiii, the first offensive measure against the u-boat was the building of swarms of speedy motor-boats which drove the invaders away from harbors and into the open sea. to follow the u-boats out into rough water larger submarine-chasers were built, but even they could not cope with the enemy far from the harbors. motor torpedo-boats the italians made excellent use of speedy motor-boats in the protected waters of the adriatic sea. one type of motor-boat was equipped with two torpedo-tubes in the bow. small -inch torpedoes were used, but as each torpedo carried two hundred pounds of high explosive, the motor-boat was a formidable vessel if it crept in close enough to discharge one of these missiles at its foe. on one occasion, a patrol of these little boats sighted a couple of austrian dreadnoughts headed down the coast, surrounded by a screen of ten destroyers. favored by the mist, two of the motor-boats crept through the screen of destroyers, and torpedoed the battle-ships. then they made good their escape. a destroyer that pursued one of the boats decided that the game was not worth while when it was suddenly shaken up by the explosion of a depth bomb dropped from the motor-boat. the sea tank the italians showed a great deal of naval initiative. they were forever trying to trap the austrian fleet or to invade its harbors. like all other naval powers, the austrians protected their harbors with nets and mines. it was impossible for submarines to make an entrance and the ports were too well fortified to permit an open attack on the surface. nevertheless, the italians did break through the harbor defenses on one or two occasions and sank austrian war-vessels. again it was with a small boat that they did the trick. the nets which the austrians stretched across their harbor entrance were supported on wooden booms or logs which served as floats. these booms offered an effective bar to small boats which might attempt to enter the harbor under cover of darkness. but the italians found a way to overcome this obstruction. they built a flat-bottomed motor-boat which drew very little water. running under the boat were two endless chains, like the treads of a tank. in fact, the boat came to be known as a "sea tank." the chains were motor-driven and had spiked sprockets, so that when a boom was encountered they would bite into the wood and pull the boat up over the log, or maybe they would drag the log down under the boat. at any rate, with this arrangement it was not very difficult to pass the boom and enter the harbor. at the rear the chains were carried back far enough to prevent the propeller from striking when the boat had passed over the log. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" an italian "sea-tank" climbing over a harbor boom] [illustration: (c) underwood & underwood deck of a british aircraft mothership or "hush ship"] the awkward "eagles" a curious boat that we undertook to furnish during the war was a cross between a destroyer and a submarine-chaser. after the submarine had been driven out to sea its greatest foe was undoubtedly the destroyer, and frantic efforts were made to turn out as many destroyers as possible. but it takes time to build destroyers and so a new type of boat was designed, to be turned out quickly in large numbers. a hundred and ten "eagles" (as these boats are called) were ordered, but the armistice was signed before any of them were put into service; and it is just as well that such was the case, for in their construction everything was sacrificed to speed of production. as a consequence they are very ugly boats, with none of the fine lines of a destroyer, and they roll badly, even when the sea is comparatively peaceful. they are five-hundred-ton boats designed to make eighteen knots, which would not have been fast enough to cope with u-boats, because the latter could make as high a speed as that themselves, when traveling on the surface, and the two -inch guns of the eagles would have been far outranged by the . -inch guns of the larger u-boats. seaplane towing-barges when the war on the u-boat was carried up into the sky, many new naval problems cropped up, particularly when german submarines chose to work far out at sea. big seaplanes were used, but they consumed a great deal of fuel in flying out and back, cutting down by just so much their flying-radius at the scene of activities. a special towing-barge was used. these barges had trimming-tanks aft, which could be flooded so that the stern of the barge would submerge. a cradle was mounted to run on a pair of rails on the barge. the body of the seaplane was lashed to this cradle and then drawn up on the barge by means of a windlass. this done, the water was blown out of the trimming-tanks by means of compressed air and the barge was brought up to an even keel. the barge with its load was now ready to be towed by a destroyer or other fast boat to the scene of operations. there water was again let into the trimming-tanks and the seaplane was let back into the water. from the water the seaplane arose into the air in the usual way. unfortunately, when the sea is at all rough it is exceedingly difficult for a seaplane to take wing, particularly a large seaplane. a better starting-platform than the sea had to be furnished. at first some seaplanes were furnished with wheels, so that they could be launched from platforms on large ships; and then, to increase the flying-radius, seaplanes were discarded in favor of airplanes. once these machines were launched, there was no way for them to get back to the ship. they had to get back to land before their fuel was exhausted. on the large war-vessels a starting-platform was built on a pair of long guns. then the war-ship would head into the wind and the combined travel of the ship and of the airplane along the platform gave speed enough to raise the plane off the platform before it had run the full length of the guns. but as long as aviators had no haven until they got back to land, there were many casualties. eager to continue their patrol as long as possible, they would sometimes linger too long before heading for home and then they would not have enough fuel left to reach land. many an aviator was lost in this way, and finally mother-ships for airplanes had to be built. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" electrically propelled boat or surface torpedo, attacking a warship, under guidance of an airplane scout] the "hush ships" the british navy had constructed a number of very fast cruisers to deal with any raiders the germans might send out. these cruisers were light vessels capable of such high speeds that they could even overtake a destroyer. they were feet long and their turbines developed , horse-power. the construction of these vessels was for a long time kept a profound secret and it was not until the german fleet surrendered that photographs of them were allowed to be published. because of this secrecy the boats were popularly known as "hush ships." they were not armored; it was not necessary to load them down with armor plate, because their protection lay in speed and they were designed to fight at very long range. in fact, they were to carry guns that would outrange those of the most powerful dreadnoughts. our largest naval guns are of -inch caliber, but the "hush ships" were each to carry two _ -inch guns_. the guns were monsters weighing tons each and they fired a shell inches in diameter and feet long to a distance of miles when elevated to an angle of degrees. the weight of the shell was pounds and it carried pounds of high explosive or more than is carried in the largest torpedoes. at the -mile range the shell would pass through inches of face-hardened armor and at half that range it would pass through armor inches thick, and there is no armor afloat any heavier than this. [illustration: courtesy of "scientific american" hauling a seaplane up on a barge so that it may be towed at high speed by a destroyer] mother-boats for airplanes armed with such powerful guns as these, the "hush ships" would have been very formidable indeed; but when the guns were mounted on one of the cruisers, the _furious_, they were found too powerful for the vessel. it was evident that the monsters would very seriously rack their own ship. so the guns were taken off the cruiser and it was turned into a mother-ship for airplanes. a broad, unobstructed deck was built on the ship which provided a runway from which airplanes could be launched, and this runway was actually broad enough to permit airplanes to land upon it. under the runway were the hangars in which the airplanes were housed. other "hush ships" were also converted into airplane mother-boats and there were special boats built for this very purpose, although they were not able to make the speed of the "hush ships." one of these special boats had funnels that turned horizontally to carry off the furnace smoke over the stern and leave a perfectly clear flying-deck, feet long. torpedo-proof monsters as for the -inch guns, they were put to another use. early in the war the british had need for powerful shallow-draft vessels which could operate off the flanders coast and attack the coast fortifications that were being built by the germans. the ships that were built to meet this demand were known as monitors, because like the famous "monitor" of our civil war they carried a single turret. these monitors were very broad for their length and were very slow. at best they could make only seven knots and in heavy weather they could not make more than two or three knots. to be made proof against torpedoes these boats were formed with "blisters" or hollow rounded swells in the hull at each side which extended out to a distance of twelve to fifteen feet. the blisters were subdivided into compartments, so that if a torpedo struck the ship it would explode against a blister at a considerable distance from the real hull of the ship and the force of the explosion would be expended in the compartments. the blisters were the salvation of the monitors. often were the boats struck by torpedoes without being sunk. unfortunately, this form of protection could not be applied to ordinary vessels, because it would have interfered seriously with navigation. the blisters made the monitors very difficult to steer and hampered the progress of a ship, particularly in a seaway. with ships such as these the british bombarded zeebrugge from a distance of twenty to twenty-five miles. of course, the range had to be plotted out mathematically, as the target was far beyond the horizon of the ship, and the firing had to be directed by spotters in airplanes. at first guns from antiquated battle-ships were used in the monitors; then larger guns were used, until finally two of the monitors inherited the -inch guns of the _furious_. a single gun was mounted on the after deck of each vessel and the gun was arranged to fire only on the starboard side. no heavily armored turret was provided, but merely a light housing to shelter the gun. an electrically steered motor-boat the british war-vessels that operated in the shallow waters off the coast of flanders were a constant source of annoyance to the germans. because of the shallow water it was seldom possible for a submarine to creep up on them. a u-boat required at least thirty-five feet of water for complete submergence and it did not dare to attack in the open. this led the germans to launch a motor-boat loaded with high explosive, which was steered from shore. the motor-boat carried a reel of wire which connected it with an operator on shore. there was no pilot in the boat, but the helm was controlled electrically by the man at the shore station. as it was difficult for the helmsman to see just what his boat was doing, or just how to steer it when it was several miles off, an airplane flew high above it and directed the helmsman, by radiotelegraphy, how to steer his boat. of course, radiotelegraphy might have been used to operate the steering-mechanism of the boat, but there was the danger that the radio operators of the british might send out disturbing waves that would upset the control of the motor-boat, and so direct wire transmission was used instead. fortunately, when the germans tried this form of attack, an alert british lookout discovered the tiny motor-boat. the alarm was given and a lucky shot blew up the boat with its charge before it came near the british vessel. chapter xvi reclaiming the victims of the submarine nearly fifteen million tons of shipping lie at the bottom of the sea, sunk by german u-boats, and the value of these ships with their cargo is estimated at over seven billion dollars. in one year, , the loss was nearly a million dollars a day. of course these wrecks would not be worth anything like that now, if they were raised and floated. much of the cargo would be so damaged by its long immersion in salt water that it would be absolutely valueless, but there are many kinds of merchandise that are not injured in the least by water. every ship carries a certain amount of gold and silver; and then the ship's hull itself is well worth salving, provided it was not too badly damaged by the torpedo that sank it. altogether, there is plenty of rich treasure in the sea awaiting the salvor who is bold enough to go after it. to be sure, not all of the u-boat's victims were sunk in deep water. many torpedoed vessels were beached or succeeded in reaching shallow water before they foundered. some were sunk in harbors while they lay at anchor, before the precaution was taken of protecting the harbors with nets. the allies did not wait for the war to end before trying to refloat these vessels. in fact, during the war several hundred ships were raised and put back into service. a special form of patch was invented to close holes torn by torpedoes. electric pumps were built which would work under water and these were lowered into the holds of ships to pump them out. the salvors were provided with special gas-masks to protect them from poisonous fumes of decayed matter in the wrecks. our own navy has played an important part in salvage. shortly after we entered the war, all the wrecking-equipment in this country was commandeered by the government and we sent over to the other side experienced american salvors, provided with complete equipment of apparatus and machinery. the majority of wrecks, however, are found in the open sea, where it would have been foolish to attempt any salvage-operations because of the menace of submarine attack. on at least one occasion a salvage vessel, while attempting to raise the victims of a submarine, fell, itself, a prey to a hun torpedo. now that this menace has been removed, such vessels as lie in comparatively shallow water, and in positions not subject to sudden tempests, can be raised by the ordinary methods; or if it is impracticable to raise them, much of their cargo can be reclaimed. however, most of the torpedoed ships lie at such depths that their salvage would ordinarily be despaired of. in the depths of the sea it will be interesting to look into conditions that exist in deep water. somehow the notion has gone forth that a ship will not surely sink to the very bottom of the deep sea, but on reaching a certain level will find the water so dense that even solid iron will float, as if in a sea of mercury, and that here the ship will be maintained in suspension, to be carried hither and yon by every chance current. indeed, it makes a rather fantastic picture to think of these lost ships drifting in endless procession, far down beneath the cold green waves, and destined to roam forever like doomed spirits in a circle of dante's inferno. but the laws of physics shatter any such illusion and bid us paint a very different picture. liquids are almost incompressible. the difference in density between the water at the surface of the sea and that at a depth of a mile is almost insignificant. as a matter of fact, at that depth the water would support only about half a pound more per cubic foot than at the surface. the pressure, however, would be enormous. take the _titanic_, for instance, which lies on the bed of the ocean in water two miles deep. it must endure a pressure of about two long tons on every square inch of its surface. long before the vessel reached the bottom her hull must have been crushed in. every stick of wood, every compressible part of her structure and of her cargo, must have been staved in or flattened. as a ship sinks it is not the water but the ship that grows progressively denser. the _titanic_ must have actually gained in weight as she went down, and so she must have gathered speed as she sank. we may be certain, therefore, that every victim of germany's ruthless u-boats that sank in deep water lies prone upon the floor of the sea. it matters not how or where it was sunk, whether it was staggered by the unexpected blow of the torpedo and then plunged headlong into the depths of the sea, or whether it lingered, mortally wounded, on the surface, quietly settling down until the waves closed over it. theoretically, of course, a perfect balance might be reached which would keep a submerged vessel in suspension, but practically such a condition is next to impossible. once a ship has started down, she will keep on until she reaches the very bottom, whether it be ten fathoms or ten hundred. a submarine graveyard instead of the line of wandering specters, then, we must conjure up a different picture, equally weird--an under-world shrouded in darkness; for little light penetrates the deep sea. here in the cold blackness, on the bed of the ocean, the wrecks of vessels that once sailed proudly overhead lie still and deathly silent--some keeled over on their sides, some turned turtle, and most of them probably on even keel. here and there may be one with its nose buried deep in the mud; and in the shallower waters we may come across one pinned down by the stern, but with its head buoyed by a pocket of air, straining upward and swaying slightly with every gentle movement of the sea, as if still alive. this submarine graveyard offers wonderful opportunities for the engineer, because the raising of wrecked vessels is really a branch of engineering. it is a very special branch, to be sure, and one that has not begun to receive the highly concentrated study that have such other branches as tunneling, bridge-construction, etc. nevertheless it is engineering, and it has been said of the engineer that his abilities are limited only by the funds at his disposal. now he has a chance to show what he can do, for there are hundreds of vessels to be salved where before there was but one. the vast number of wrecks in deep water will make it pay to do the work on a larger and grander scale than has been possible heretofore. special apparatus that could not be built economically for a single wreck may be constructed with profit if a number of vessels demanding similar treatment are to be salved. the principal fields of german activities were the mediterranean sea and the waters surrounding the british isles. although the submarine zone covered some very deep water, where the sounding-lead runs down two miles without touching bottom, obviously more havoc could be wrought near ports where vessels were obliged to follow a prescribed course, and so most of the u-boat victims were stricken when almost in sight of land. in fact, as was pointed out in a previous chapter, it was not until efficient patrol measures made it uncomfortable for the submarines that they pushed out into the open ocean to pursue their nefarious work. the _lusitania_ went down only eight miles from old head of kinsale, in fifty fathoms of water. if we draw a line from fastnet rock to the scilly islands and from there to the westernmost extremity of france, we enclose an area in which the german submarines were particularly active. the soundings here run up to about sixty fathoms in some places, but the prevailing depth is less than fifty fathoms. in the north sea, too, except for a comparatively narrow lane along the norwegian coast--which, by the way, marked the safety lane of the german blockade zone--the chart shows fifty fathoms or under. if our salvors could reach down as far as that, most of the submarine victims could be reclaimed. but fifty fathoms means feet, which is a formidable depth for salvage work. only one vessel has ever been brought up from such a depth and that was a small craft, one of our submarines, the _f- _, which sank off the coast of hawaii four years ago. different ways of salving a wreck there are four well-known methods of raising a vessel that is completely submerged. of course, if the ship is not completely submerged, the holes in her hull may be patched up, and then when her hull is pumped out, the sea itself will raise the ship, unless it be deeply embedded in sand or mud. if the vessel is completely submerged, the same process may be resorted to, but first the sides of the hull must be extended to the surface to keep the water from flowing in as fast as it is pumped out. it is not usual to build up the entire length of the ship. if the deck is in good condition, it may suffice to construct coffer-dams or walls around several of the hatches. but building up the sides of a ship, or constructing coffer-dams on the ship's deck is a difficult task, at best, because it must be done under water by divers. a record for this type of salvage work was established by the japanese when they raised the battle-ship _mikasa_ that lay in some eighty feet of water. her decks were submerged to a depth of forty feet. it is doubtful that this salvage work could be duplicated by any other people of the world. the wonderful patriotism and loyalty of the japanese race were called forth. it is no small task to build a large coffer-dam strong enough to withstand the weight of forty feet of water, or a pressure of a ton and a quarter per square foot, even when the work is done on the surface. perfect discipline and organized effort of the highest sort were required. labor is cheap in japan and there was no dearth of men for the work. over one hundred divers were employed. in addition to the coffer-dam construction much repair work was necessary. marvelous acts of devotion and heroism were performed. it is rumored that in some places it was necessary for divers to close themselves in, cut their air supply-pipes and seal themselves off from the slightest chance of escape; and that there were men who actually volunteered to sacrifice their lives in this way for their beloved country and its young navy. where, indeed, outside of the land of the rising sun could we find such patriotic devotion! a second salvage method consists in building a coffer-dam not on the ship but around it, and then pumping this out so as to expose the ship as in a dry-dock. such was the plan followed out in recovering the _maine_. obviously, it is a very expensive method and is used only in exceptional cases, such as this, in which it was necessary to make a post-mortem examination to determine what caused the destruction of the vessel. neither of these methods of salvage will serve for raising a ship sunk in deep water. raising a ship on air a salvage system that has come into prominence within recent years consists in pumping air into the vessel to drive the water out, thus making the boat light enough to float. this scheme can be used only when the deck and bulkheads of the boat are strongly built and able to stand the strain of lifting the wreck, and when the hole that sank the vessel is in or near the bottom, so as to allow enough airspace above it to lift the boat. the work of the diver in this case consists of closing hatches and bulkhead doors, repairing holes in the upper part of the hull, and generally strengthening the deck. it must be remembered that a deck is built to take the strain of heavy weights bearing down upon it. it is not built to be pushed up from beneath, so that frequently this method of salving is rendered impracticable because the deck itself cannot stand the strain. [illustration: climbing into an armored diving suit] [illustration: lowering an armored diver into the water] a more common salvage method consists in passing cables or chains under the wreck and attaching them to large floats or pontoons. the slack in the chains is taken up when the tide is low, so that on the turn of the tide the wreck will be lifted off the bottom. the partially raised wreck is then towed into shallower water, until it grounds. at the next low tide, the slack of the chains is again taken in, and at flood-tide the wreck is towed nearer land. the work proceeds step by step, until the vessel is moved inshore far enough to bring its decks awash; when it may be patched up and pumped out. where the rise of the tide is not sufficient to be of much assistance, hydraulic jacks or other lifting-apparatus are used. [illustration: a diver's sea sled ready to be towed along the bed of the sea] [illustration: the sea sled on land showing the forward horizontal and after vertical rudders] salving the u. s. submarine f- if the salvor could always be assured of clear weather, his troubles would be reduced a hundredfold, but at best it takes a long time to perform any work dependent upon divers, and the chances are very good when they are operating in an unsheltered spot, that a storm may come up at any time and undo the result of weeks and months of labor. this is what happened when the submarine _f- _ was salved. after a month of trying effort the submarine was caught in slings hung from barges, lifted two hundred and twenty-five feet, and dragged within a short distance of the channel entrance of the harbor, where the water was but fifty feet deep. but just then a violent storm arose, which made the barges surge back and forth and plunge so violently that the forward sling cut into the plating of the submarine and crushed it. the wreck had to be lowered to the bottom and the barges cut free to save them from being smashed. at the next attempt to raise the _f- _ pontoons were again used, but instead of being arranged to float on the surface, they were hauled down to the wreck and made fast directly to the hull of the submarine. then when the water was forced out of the pontoons with compressed air, they came up to the surface, bringing the submarine with them. in this way all danger of damage due to sudden storms was avoided because water under the surface is not disturbed by storms overhead; and when the wreck was floated, the pontoons and submarine formed a compact unit. while this method of salvage seems like a very logical one for work in the open sea, one is apt to forget how large the pontoons must be to lift a vessel of any appreciable size. not only must they support their own dead weight, together with that of the sunken vessel, but some allowance must usually be made for dragging the wreck out of the clutches of a sandy or muddy bottom. imagine the work of building pontoons large enough to raise the _lusitania_. they would have to have a combined displacement greater than that of the vessel itself, and they would have to be so large that they would be very unwieldy things to handle in a seaway. it is for this reason that submarine pontoons are not often used to take the entire weight of the vessel. so far they have been employed mainly to salve small ships and then only to take a portion of the weight, the principal work being done by large wrecking-cranes. instead of horizontal pontoons it has been suggested that vertical pontoons be employed, so as to provide a greater lifting-power without involving the use of enormous unwieldy units. ships are not built so that they can be picked up by the ends. such treatment would be liable to break their backs in the middle. were they built more like a bridge truss, the salvor's difficulties would be materially lessened. it would be a much simpler matter to raise a vessel with pontoons were it so constructed that the chains of the pontoon could be attached to each end of the hull. but because a ship is built to be supported by the water uniformly throughout its length, the salvor must use a large number of chains, properly spaced along the hull, so as to distribute the load uniformly and see that too much weight does not fall on this or that pontoon. the main problem, however, is to get hold of the wreck and this requires the services of divers, so that if there were no other limiting factor, the depth to which a diver may penetrate and perform his duties sets the mark beyond which salvage as now conducted is impossible. [illustration: (c) international film service the diving sphere built for deep sea salvage operations] a common diver's suit does not protect the diver from hydraulic pressure. only a flexible suit and a thin layer of air separates him from the surrounding water. this air must necessarily be of the same pressure as the surrounding water. the air that is pumped down to the diver not only serves to supply his lungs, but by entering his blood transmits its pressure to every part of his anatomy. as long as the external pressure is equalized by a corresponding pressure within him, the diver experiences no serious discomfort. in fact, when the pressure is not excessively high he finds it rather exhilarating to work under such conditions; for, with every breath, he takes in an abnormal amount of oxygen. when he returns to the surface he realizes that he has been working under forced draft. he is very much exhausted and he is very hungry. it takes a comparatively short time to build up the high internal pressure, which the diver must have in order to withstand the pressure of the water outside, but it is the decompression when he returns to the surface that is attended with great discomfort and positive danger. if the decompression is not properly effected, the diver will suffer agonies and even death from the so-called "caisson disease." [illustration: the pneumatic breakwater--submerged air tubes protecting a california pier from ocean storms] a human soda-water bottle we know now a great deal more than we used to know about the effect of compressed air on the human system, and because of this knowledge divers have recently descended to depths undreamed of a few years ago. when a diver breathes compressed air, the oxygen is largely consumed and exhaled from the lungs in the form of carbon-dioxide, but much of the nitrogen is dissolved in the blood and does not escape. however, like a bottle of soda-water, the blood shows no sign of the presence of the gas as long as the pressure is maintained. but on a sudden removal of the pressure, the blood turns into a froth of nitrogen bubbles, just as the soda-water froths when the stopper of the bottle is removed. this froth interrupts the circulation. the release of pressure is felt first in the arteries and large veins. it takes some time to reach all the tiny veins, and serious differences of pressure are apt to occur that often result in the rupture of blood-vessels. the griping pains that accompany the "caisson disease" are excruciating. the only cure is to restore the blood to its original pressure by placing the patient in a hospital lock, or boiler-like affair, where compressed air may be admitted; and then to decompress the air very slowly. it is possible to relieve the pressure in a bottle of soda-water so gradually that the gas will pass off without the formation of visible bubbles, and that is what is sought in decompressing a diver. after careful research it has been found that the pressure may be cut down very quickly to half or even less of the original amount, but then the diver must wait for the decompression to extend to the innermost recesses of his being and to all the tiny capillaries of his venous system. in the salvage of the _f- _ a diver went down feet, and remained on the bottom half an hour. the pressure upon him was pounds per square inch, or about tons on the surface of his entire body. some idea of what this means may be gained if we consider that the tallest office building in the world does not bear on its foundations with a greater weight than pounds to the square inch or only about per cent more than the crushing pressure this diver had to endure. it took the diver a very short time to go down. on coming up he proceeded comparatively rapidly until he reached a depth of feet. there he found the bottom rung of a rope ladder. on it he was obliged to rest for several minutes before proceeding to the next rung. the rungs of this ladder were feet apart, and on each rung the diver had to rest a certain length of time, according to a schedule that had been carefully worked out. at the top rung, for instance, only feet from the surface, he was obliged to wait forty minutes. in all, it took him an hour and forty-five minutes to come up to the surface. the decompression was complete and he suffered no symptoms of the "caisson disease." but he was so exhausted from his efforts that he was unfit for work for several days. yet the operations that he performed at the depth of feet would not have taken more than a few minutes on the surface. a submarine rest-chamber the germans have paid a great deal of attention to deep-diving operations, and no doubt while their u-boats were sinking merchant ships german salvors were anticipating rich harvests after hostilities ended. one scheme they developed was a submarine rest-chamber which could be permanently located on the bottom of the sea close to the point where the salvage operations were to take place. this chamber consists of a large steel box which is supplied with air from the surface and in which divers may make themselves comfortable when they need a rest after arduous work. entrance to the chamber is effected through a door in the floor. the pressure of the air inside prevents the water from rising into the chamber and flooding it. from this submarine base the divers may go out to the wreck, either equipped with the ordinary air-tube helmets or with self-regenerating apparatus which makes them independent of an air-supply for a considerable period of time. when the diver has worked for an hour or two, or when he is tired, he may return to this chamber, remove his helmet, eat a hearty meal, take a nap if he needs it, and then return to the salvage work without going through the exhausting operation of decompressing. cutting metal under water with a torch the work of the diver usually consists of far more than merely passing lines under a sunken hull. it is constantly necessary for him to cut away obstructing parts. he must sometimes use blasting-power. pneumatic cutting-tools frequently come into play, but the germans have lately devised an oxy-hydrogen torch for underwater use, with which the diver can cut metal by burning through it. this is accomplished by using a cup-shaped nozzle through which a blast of air is projected under such pressure that it blows away the water over the part to be cut. the oxygen and hydrogen jets are then ignited electrically, and the work of cutting the metal proceeds in the hole in the water made by the air-blast. a similar submarine torch has recently been developed by an american salvage company. it was employed successfully in cutting drainage-holes in the bulkheads of the _st. paul_, which was raised in new york harbor in the summer of . exploring the sea bottom in a diver's sled the diver's sled is still another interesting german invention. it is a sled provided with vertical and horizontal rudders, which is towed by means of a motor-boat at the surface. the diver, seated on the sled, and provided with a self-contained diving-suit, can direct the motor-boat by telephone and steer his sled up and down and wherever he chooses. and so without any physical exertion, he can explore the bottom of the sea and hunt for wrecks. armored diving-suits from time to time attempts have been made to construct a diver's suit that will not yield to the pressure of the sea, so that the diver will not be subjected to the weight of the water about him, but can breathe air at ordinary atmospheric pressure. curious armor of steel has been devised, with articulated arms and legs, in which the diver is completely encased. with the ordinary rubber suit, the diver usually has his hands bare, because he is almost as dependent upon the sense of touch as a blind man. but where the pressure mounts up to such a high degree that a metal suit must be used, no part of the body may be exposed. if a bare hand were extended out of the protecting armor it would immediately be mashed into a pulp and forced back through the opening in the arms of the suit. the best that can be done, then, is to furnish the arms of the suit with hooks or tongs or other mechanical substitutes for hands which will enable the diver to make fast to the wreck or various parts of it. but if a diver feels helpless in the bag of a suit now commonly worn, what would he do when encased in a steel boiler; for that is virtually what the armored suit is! a common mistake that inventors of armor units have made is to fail to consider the effects of the enormous hydraulic pressure on the joints of the suit. in order to make them perfectly tight, packings must be employed, and these are liable to be so jammed by the hydraulic pressure that it is well nigh impossible to articulate the limbs. again, the construction of the suit should be such that when a limb is flexed it would not displace any more water than when in an extended position, and vice versa. a diver may find that he cannot bend his arm, because in doing so he would expand the cubical content of his armor by a few cubic inches, and to make room for this increment of volume it would be necessary for him to lift several hundred pounds of water. the hydraulic pressure will reduce the steel suit to its smallest possible dimensions, which may result either in doubling up the members or extending them rigidly. but these difficulties are not insuperable. there is no reason why a steel manikin cannot be constructed with a man inside to direct its movements. the salvor's submarine other schemes have been devised to relieve the diver of abnormally high air-pressure. one plan is to construct a large spherical working-chamber strong enough to withstand any hydraulic pressure that might be encountered. this working-chamber is equipped with heavy glass ports through which the workers can observe their surroundings in the light of an electric search-light controlled from within the chamber. the sphere is to be lowered to the wreck from a barge, with which it will be in telephonic communication and from which it will be supplied with electric current to operate various electrically driven mechanisms. by means of electromagnets this sphere may be made fast to the steel hull of the vessel and thereupon an electric drill is operated to bore a hole in the ship and insert the hook of a hoisting-chain. this done, the sphere would be moved to another position, as directed by telephone and another chain made fast. the hoisting-chains are secured to sunken pontoons and after enough of the chains have been attached to the wreck the pontoons are pumped out and the wreck is raised. it is a pity that ship-builders have not had the forethought to provide substantial shackles at frequent intervals firmly secured to the framing. a sunken vessel is really a very difficult object to make fast to and the patent office has recorded many very fantastic schemes for getting hold of a ship's hull without the use of divers. one man proposes the use of a gigantic pair of ice-tongs; and there have been no end of suggestions that lifting-magnets be employed, but no one who has any idea of how large and how heavy such magnets must be would give these suggestions any serious consideration. but, after all, the chief obstacle to salvage in the open sea is the danger of storms; months of preparation and thousands of dollars' worth of equipment may be wiped out in a moment. fighting the waves with air however, there has been another recent development which may have a very important bearing on this problem of deep-sea salvage work. it has often been observed that a submerged reef, twenty or thirty feet below the surface, may act as a breakwater to stop the storming waves. an inventor who studied this phenomenon arrived at the theory that the reefs set up eddies in the water which break up the rhythm of the waves and convert them into a smother of foam just above the reef. thereupon he conceived the idea of performing the same work by means of compressed air. he laid a pipe on the sea bottom, forty or fifty feet below the surface, and pumped air through it. just as he had expected, the line of air bubbles produced exactly the same effect as the submerged reef. they set up a vertical current of water which broke up the waves as soon as they struck this barrier of air. the "pneumatic breakwater," as it is called, has been tried out on an exposed part of the california coast, to protect a long pier used by an oil company. it has proved so satisfactory that the same company has now constructed a second breakwater about another pier near by. there is no reason why a breakwater of this sort should not be made about a wreck to protect the workers from storms. where the water is very deep, it would not be necessary to lay the compressed-air pipe on the bottom, but it could be carried by buoys at a convenient depth. summing up the situation, then, there are two serious bars to the successful salvage of ships sunk in the open sea--the wild fury of the waves on the surface; and the silent, remorseless pressure of the deep. the former is the more to be feared; and if the waves really can be calmed, considerably more than half the problem is solved. as for the pressure of the sea, it can be overcome, as we have seen, either by the use of special submarine mechanisms, or of man-operated manikins or even of unarmored divers. we have reached a very interesting stage in the science of salvage, with the promise of important developments. fifty fathoms no longer seems a hopeless depth. even in times of peace the sea exacts a dreadful toll of lives and property. before the war the annual loss by shipwreck around the british isles alone was estimated at forty-five million dollars. but the war, although it was frightfully destructive to shipping, may in the long run save more vessels than it sank; for it has given us sound-detectors which should remove the danger of collisions in foggy weather, and the wireless compass, which should keep ships from running off the course and on the rocks. and now, if salvage engineering develops as it should, the sea will be made to give up not only much of the wealth it swallowed during the war, but also many of the rich cargoes of gold and silver it has been hoarding since the days of the spanish galleon. index air, fighting waves, raising ship, on, war in, airplane, ambulance, armored, artillery-spotting, camera, cartridges, classes of work, fighting among clouds, flying boats, gasolene tank, giant, hospital, launching from ship, liberty motor, scouting, scouts, speed of, spotting, training spotters, wireless telephone, see also seaplane ambulance airplane, armored diving-suit, arms and armor, artillery, hand, atmosphere, shooting beyond, audion, balloon, blimp, helium, historical, hydrogen, balloon, kite, principles, record flight, barbed wire, cylinders, gate, trench, gates through, shelling, barge for towing seaplanes, barrage, grenade, mine, battle-fields, miniature, blimp, blisters on ships, boats, electric, eagle, flying, surface, bombs to destroy barbed wire, breakwater, pneumatic, browning, john m., buildings, shadowless, caisson disease, caliber, camera, airplane, camouflage and camoufleurs, buildings, grass, horse, land, roads, camouflage, ships, cartridges, aircraft guns, catapults, caterpillar tractor, caves, coffer-dam, salvage, color, analyzing, screens, compass, wireless, convoy, countermines, deep sea, conditions in, deep water diving, depth bombs, devil's eggs, diesel engine, direction-finder, dirigible, see balloon disease, caisson, diver, armored suit, caisson disease, rest chamber, sled, submarine torch, suit, diving, deep, record depth, duck-boards, dugouts, dummy heads of papier mâché, eagle boats, egg-laying submarines, eggs, devil's, electric motor-boat, engine, diesel, field-guns, fire broom, liquid, forts, machine-gun, fuse, grenade, gas, american, gas attack, boomerang, first, gas, chlorine, diphosgene, exterminating rats, grenades, helium, hydrogen, lock, masks, mustard, phosgene, pouring like water, shell, sneezing, tear, vomiting, gasolene-tank, airplane, gate, barbed wire, trench, gates through barbed wire, gatling gun, geologists, messines ridge, glass, non-shattering, grapnel shell, graveyard, submarine, grenade, disk-shaped, fuse, gas, hair brush, history of, mills, parachute, range of, rifle, throwing implement, grenade, wind-vane safety device, gun, aircraft, american, -mile, big, hiding, caliber, disappearing, double-end, -inch, monitors, elastic, field, -centimeter, how made, -mile, long range, german, non-recoil, on submarine, -inch, coast defense, skoda, spotting by sound, three-second life, -inch, submarine, ways of increasing range, wire-wound, hand-grenade, see grenade helium, hospital, airplane, horizon, seeing beyond, howitzer, hush ships, hydroaëroplanes, see seaplanes hydrogen, weight of, hydrophone, illusions, optical, kilometer, length in miles, kite balloons, kite, water, liberty motor, liquid-fire, locomotives, gasolene, _lusitania_, machine-gun, airplane, benèt-mercié, browning, colt, forts, gatling, history, hotchkiss, lewis, maxim, water-jacket, worth in rifles, machine-rifle, magnets, lifting, salvage, maps, making with camera, marne, first battle of, messines ridge, mine, metal-cutting under water, microphone detectors, mines, mine-field, north sea, mine laying, north sea, mine-laying submarine, mine railroad, mine-sweeping, mines, anchored, and counter-mines, automatic sounding, drift of, electric, floating, messines ridge, mines, paravanes, monitors, mortars, depth bomb, flying, mortars, see also trench mortars mother-ships for airplanes, motor-boat, electric, sea tank, motor torpedo-boats, mystery ships, net, north sea, ocean currents, optical illusions, oxy-hydrogen torch, submarine, paint in war, papier mâché heads, papier mâché horse, parachute, grenade, search-light shell, paravanes, periscope, submarine, trench, pill-boxes, pneumatic breakwater, pontoons, salvage, propeller, shooting through, radio, see wireless railroad, mine, railways, trench, range-finder, range, getting the, range of guns, increasing, range, torpedo, rats, freeing trenches of, rifle grenade, safety device, rifle, machine, rifle stand, fixed, roads, camouflage, salvage, diving, ice-tongs, lifting-magnets, methods, pneumatic, pontoons, shackles on ships, submarine f- , submarine sphere, scouts, airplane, sea, deep, conditions, sea gulls finding submarines, sea lions locating submarines, sea tank, seaplane, automatic, submarine patrol, torpedo, towing-barges, search-light shell, shackles, salvage, shadowless buildings, shell, gas, grapnel, search-light, shrapnel, stokes mortar, shield on wheels, ships, airplane, ships, blisters, camouflage, "clothes-line," convoy, hush, making visible, monitors, mystery, railroads on, sunk by submarines, ships, see also salvage shrapnel shell, sled, submarine, smoke screen, sniper, locating, sniperscopes, sound, detecting submarines, sound detectors, mines, sound, spotting by, sphere, salvor's submarine, spotting by sound, spotting gun-fire, submarine, blindness, chasers, construction, depth bombs, egg-laying, engines, f- , salving, getting best of, graveyard, guns on, history, hydrophone, mine-field, mine-laying, net, oil-tank, periscope, reclaiming victims of, rest chamber, salvage vessel, sea-gulls, sea-lions, seaplanes, ships sunk, sled, steam-driven, torch, torpedo, -inch gun, vs. submarine, super-guns, tank, american, flying, french, german, one-man, sea, small, telegraphy, rapid, telephone, new york to san francisco, wireless, _titanic_, tnt (trinitrotoluol), torch, submarine, torpedo, boats, motor, electrically steered, construction, getting range, proof ships, seaplane, towing-barge, seaplane, trajectory, trench, gas-lock, trench mortar, pneumatic, stokes, trench railways, trench warfare, trenches, barbed wire gates, duck-boards, tunnels, mines, to observation posts, u-boats, see submarines villages, underground, walking-machine, war, paint, water kites, waves, fighting with air, wireless compass, spy detector, wireless telegraph, rapid, wireless telegraphy explained, wireless telephone, airplane, wireless telephony across atlantic, woolworth building, falling from, wrecks, see salvage zeppelin and lowe's balloon, zeppelin balloon, construction, zeppelin, suspended observer, zeppelin's failures and successes, * * * * * * transcribers' note: punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained. ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. some illustrations have been slightly repositioned to improve their appearance in ebooks. page : "eight tenths of an inch" may be a misprint for "eight ten-thousandths of an inch". page : "inhaled air" was misprinted as "inhaled aid". page : "would send the stream" was misprinted as "sent". page : "secretely" was printed that way. page : "psycologists" was printed that way. transcribers note: an effort has been made to keep the project as authentic as possible. two printers errors have been corrected: "toothach" has been changed to "toothache", and "recals" has been changed to "recalls". hyphenated words have been standardized as well. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ [illustration] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ [illustration] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ invention and discovery: curious facts and characteristic sketches. [illustration] w^m. w. swayne, brooklyn and new york. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ murray and gibb, edinburgh, printers to her majesty's stationery office. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ contents. -------------- page alchemists, the last of the alpine perils--professor forbes on amber an article of international trade amsterdam pile, the antiquity of lightning conductors antiquity of refined sugar arkwright's spinning frame art of stereotype, the artesian well of grenelle, the ascent of the jungfrau alp, by forbes, &c. astronomical shoemaker, an babbage's calculating machine balloon travelling, rate of balloon voyage from london to nassau banks', sir joseph, balance benefit of a wife to an author black, dr., the death of brindley the engineer brongniart's early life brougham's, lord, scientific blunders buckingham palace gates burning mirrors of archimedes, the carnot when a child catching electric eels character of engineers in their works clearness of the sky at the cape of good hope coal gas in balloons, use of cocoa-nut crab, the coffee-tree, transportation of the columbus' own ship-journal crawshays of merthyr tydvil, the cuvier and napoleon cuvier, childhood of cuvier, homage to cuvier in london davy, sir humphry, death of davy, sir humphry, as an angler deaf, the, how they may hear decline of science, the dee, dr., the necromancer descartes' "wooden daughter" descent in a diving-bell, a diamonds, celebrated discoveries anticipated diving-bell, first use of the drummond light, the drying wood for violins drymaking in holland, a early incitements (humboldt's) to study of nature earthquakes, in chile earthquakes, how to measure electricity, the velocity of electrifying machine in persia, an el dorado of sir walter raleigh elgin marbles, the experiments with an electric eel false anticipations of railway speed faraday as a lecturer female mathematician, a french ferguson, the wife of james fire-proof house on putney heath "fossil rain" fourdrinier's paper-making machinery fourier's independence franklin's discoveries gold in siberia gutta-percha, discovery of herschel's love of music herschel, his first telescope herschel, his sister holding a "craw's court" hyena, a tame india rubber years since indian jugglers' secret, the invention of gun cotton invention of the diving-bell invention of the hand gear invisible despatch, the jesuit's bark, the first use of kaleidoscope, combinations of the kaleidoscope, sir d. brewster's kaleidoscope, the first leaning tower of pisa, the leibnitz's last moments lifting heavy persons lighthouses, reflecting, the origin of lion eaten as food, the lithography, the discovery of london as a port longevity of the beetle magnetic correspondence in the th century mariner's compass, the marvels of the alchemists "means to the end," the mechanical triumphs monochromatic painting moon seen through lord rosse's telescope, the mythology of science, the navigation before the compass necessity the mother of invention newton's finger-magnet nice robbery, a observatory, ancient, in persia old st. paul's, a wrench to origin of post paid envelopes ostrich, enemies of the parachute descent, a safe pascal's childhood pascal, how he weighed the atmosphere perils of chemical experiment philosophical enthusiasm poetic prophecies of darwin and milton poker across the fire, the potato, introduction of the, into france power of the lever railway system suggested, the "raining trees" at the cape raleigh, sir walter, a chemist rapid manufacture of a coat reason for silence, fontaine's rosse's, lord, telescope rust, protection by st. pierre's "paul and virginia" scientific pilgrim, a self-taught mechanist, a semaphore v. electric telegraph "shepherd to the king of england for scotland" siberian mammoth remains, the smeaton's independence, smeaton, his reproof of gaming snow spectacles of the esquimaux society of arts, origin of the spinning feats steam-gun in the th century strychnine a remedy for paralysis sun, total eclipse of the, at cuba, sun, vast spot on the talent and opportunity tea, identity of black and green, tea, the first cup of, drunk in england tebreez, variable climate of telegraph, origin of the electric telescope, invention of the thames tunnel, construction of the travelling carriage, a novel travelling in the himalaya mountains travels of volcanic dust tropical delights, sydney smith's tycho brahe, credulity of vast mirrors made in russia vicissitudes of mining in mexico voyages of manufactures waste of human life watch melted by lightning, a watt's discovery of the composition of water weighing-machine at the bank of england "wet the ropes!" whitebait, the rights of who first doubled the cape? wonders of australia, sydney smith on the world in a drop of water, the ------------------------------------------------------------------------ note. in the annals of invention and discovery, it may be said without undue boasting, no nation of modern times can lay claim to such an eminent position as great britain; and her many ingenious and intrepid adventurers into what they found unknown regions of the arts, the sciences, and the earth's surface, have so largely contributed to raise her to her great place and power, that it is mere justice and self-interest to bestow on them grateful rewards in life, and renown after death. in this little volume are brought together a number of sketches and memoranda, illustrating the history of discovery, and the lives and labours of inventors and explorers, not of our own country alone, but of others--for knowledge is of no country, but of all. the object of the collector has been rather to present the popular than the strictly scientific side of his subject--to furnish materials of interest and amusement, as well as instruction; and if now and then he has been tempted to stray into bye-paths of anecdote and gossip, excuse may readily be found in the fact that the private life of our men of science, often singularly noble and full of character, is apt to be altogether obscured by the brilliancy of the results of their secret and silent toil. this volume will have served its purpose, if it excites an appetite for fuller and deeper inquisition into the sources of british greatness and of modern civilisation. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ invention and discovery. _curious facts and illustrative sketches._ ------------------ poetic prophecies. in dr. darwin's _botanic garden_, first published in , but written, it is well known, at least twenty years before the date of its publication, occurs the following prediction respecting steam:-- "soon shall thy arm, unconquer'd steam, afar drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car; or, on wide-waving wings expanded bear the flying chariot through the fields of air,[ ] fair crews triumphant leaning from above, shall wave their fluttering 'kerchiefs as they move; or warrior bands alarm the gaping crowd, and armies shrink beneath the shadowy cloud: so mighty hercules o'er many a clime waved his huge mace in virtue's cause sublime; unmeasured strength with early art combined, awed, served, protected, and amazed mankind." a distinguished photographer imagines that he has traced the foreshadowing of his delightful science in the following passage from our great epic poet: "with one touch virtuous th' arch-chemic sun, so far from us remote, produces." _paradise lost_, b. iii. v. . ----- footnote : darwin projected an "aërial steam-carriage," in which he proposed to use wings similar to those of a bird, to which motion was to be given by a gigantic power worked by high-pressure steam, though the details of his plan were not bodied forth. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ construction of the thames tunnel. when the ingenious miss pardoe visited constantinople in , she was not less surprised than gratified by the inquiry of an albanian chief, as to the probable completion of the thames tunnel. this, however, is but one of the many instances of the anxiety with which the great work was watched throughout continental europe. in egypt, too, where a new country is rising, phoenix-like, upon the ashes of the old world, the progress of the tunnel was regarded with like curiosity; participated, indeed, throughout the civilised world. this interest is fully attested by the visitors' book at the tunnel, wherein are inscribed the names of scientific men belonging to nearly every city of importance. the engineer of this great work, mr. (afterwards sir) mark isambard brunel, completed his design in ; and amongst those who then regarded it as practicable were the duke of wellington and the late dr. wollaston. the works were commenced in , and the tunnel itself in ; and by march, , it had advanced about one-third of the whole length. all proceeded well till may , when the river burst into the tunnel with such velocity and volume, as to fill it in fifteen minutes; but, although the men were at work, no lives were lost. the hole, thirty-eight feet deep, was closed with bags of clay and hazel-rods, the water pumped out, and the works resumed in september. on jan. , , the river broke in a second time, and filled the tunnel in less than ten minutes; when the rush of water brought with it a strong current of air that put out the lights; six of the workmen were lost. for some distance, mr. brunel, junior, struggled in total darkness, and the rush of the water carried him up the shaft. the tunnel was again cleared, and the part completed found to be sound. hundreds of plans were proposed for its completion; the funds of the company were too low to proceed, and above _l._ was raised by public subscription. for seven years the work was suspended; but, by advances from government, it was resumed in . on april , , there was a third irruption of the river; a fourth on nov. , , with the loss of one life; and, on march , , the fifth and last irruption took place. thus, of the tunnel there were completed-- in feet. -- " -- " -- " -- " leaving only feet to complete. meanwhile, the tunnel works proved a very attractive exhibition. in , they were visited by , persons, and, in , by , . by jan. , the tunnel was completed from shore to shore-- feet, and sir i. brunel, on aug. , was the first to pass through. on march , , the tunnel was opened to the public, with a demonstration of triumph. the cost of the work has been nearly four times the sum at first contemplated; the actual expense being upwards of , _l._ these, of course, are but a few data of the great work, the progress of which, for twenty years, interested every admirer of scientific enterprize. the engineering details present marvels of ingenuity. the building of the vast brick shaft, feet in diameter, feet in height, and feet thick, with, set over it, the steam-engine for pumping out the water and raising the earth--and the sinking of the whole, _en masse_, into the rotherhithe bank, were master-works of genius. thus far the vertical shaft: the tunnel itself commenced with an excavation larger than the interior of the old house of commons. but the great invention was the _shield_ apparatus--the series of cells, in which, as the miners worked at one end, the bricklayers formed at the other the top, sides, and bottom of the tunnel. the dangers, too, were many: sometimes, portions of the frame would break, with the noise of a cannon-shot; then alarming cries were heard, as some irruption of earth or water poured in; the excavators were, however, much more inconvenienced by fire than water--gas explosions frequently wrapping the place with a sheet of flame, and strangely mingling with the water, and rendering the workmen insensible. yet, with all these perils, but seven lives were lost in making the tunnel under the thames; whereas, nearly forty men were killed in building the new london bridge.--_note-book of ._ ------------------ vast spot on the sun. sir john herschel, when at the cape of good hope, observed, on may , , a spot upon the sun, the black centre of which would have allowed the globe of our earth to drop through it, leaving a thousand miles clear of contact on all sides of that tremendous gulf. ------------------ death of sir humphry davy. it was at rome, on the th day of february, , when he was finishing his eloquent work, _the last days of a philosopher_, that sir humphry davy received the final warning to prepare. by dictation, he wrote to his brother, who was at malta with the british troops--"i am dying from a severe attack of palsy, which has seized the whole of the body, with the exception of the intellectual organ. i shall leave my bones in the eternal city." but he was to die neither then nor there. within three weeks, his brother was by his bedside, and found him as much interested in the anatomy and electricity of the torpedo as ever, though he bade dr. davy "not to be grieved" by his approaching dissolution. yet, after a day of pulse-beats, and only five breathings in a minute, and of the most distressing particular symptoms, he again revived. shortly after this, lady davy arrived at rome from england, with a copy of the second edition of _salmonia_, which sir humphry received with peculiar pleasure. after some weeks of melancholy dalliance with the balmy spring air of the campagna, the albula lake, the hills of tivoli, and the banks of the tiber, they travelled quietly round by florence, genoa, turin, slowly threading the flowery, sweet-scented alpine valleys, to geneva, where _he suddenly expired_. it was three hours beyond midnight; his servant called his brother; his brother was in time to close his eyes. it was the th of may, in . they buried him at geneva. in truth, geneva buried him herself, with serious and respectful ceremonial. a simple monument stands at the head of the hospitable grave. there is a tablet to his memory on the walls of westminster abbey. there is a monument also, at penzance, his birth-place. ------------------ homage to cuvier. when the count de seze replied to an eloquent discourse of cuvier, he stated that, "since the restoration, cuvier was the second example of fortunate combination of literature and science, and that he had been preceded only by that illustrious geometer, (the marquis de laplace), whom we may call the _newton_ of france." in referring to the european reputation of cuvier, and to the vast extent and variety of his knowledge, he applied to him the happy observation which fontenelle made respecting leibnitz--that while the ancients made one hercules out of several, we might, out of one cuvier, make several philosophers. ------------------ false estimate of railway speed. the ordinary speed of george stephenson's killingworth engine, in , was four miles an hour. in , mr. wood, in his work on railways, took the standard at six miles an hour, drawing tons on a level; and so confident was he that he gauged the power of the locomotive, that he asserted--"nothing could do more harm towards the adoption of railways than the promulgation of such nonsense as that we shall see locomotive engines travelling at the rate of , , , and miles an hour." the promulgator of such nonsense was george stephenson. in , it was estimated that, at miles an hour, the gross load was - / tons, and the net load very little; and that, therefore, high speed, if attainable, was perfectly useless. before the end of that year, george stephenson got with "the rocket" a speed of - / miles an hour, carrying a net load of - / tons. in , his engines were to draw tons on a level, at miles an hour. when the speed of the locomotive was set beyond question, prejudice then took the alarm about safety, and a very strong stand was from time to time made for a limitation of speed. even after the year , the london and birmingham directors considered that miles an hour was enough; but the vigour of the broad gauge advocates has tripled the working power of the locomotive, and given us miles an hour where we might have been lingering at . ------------------ the crawshays of merthyr tydvil. mr. crawshay, of the cyfarthfa works, at a dinner given to him in , by the people of merthyr, related the following account of the rise of his family of "iron kings," as they are called. "my grandfather was the son of a most respectable farmer in normanton, yorkshire. at the age of , father and son differed. my grandfather, an enterprising boy, rode his own pony to london, then an arduous task of some fifteen or twenty days' travelling. on getting there, he found himself perfectly destitute of friends. he sold his pony for _l._; and during the time that the proceeds of the pony kept him, he found employment in an iron warehouse of london, kept by mr. bicklewith. he hired himself for three years for _l._, the price of his pony. his occupation was to clean the counting-house, to put the desks in order, and to do anything else that he was told. by industry, integrity, and perseverance, he gained his master's favour, and was termed 'the yorkshire boy.' he had a very amiable and good master; and, before he had been two years in his place, he stood high in this just man's confidence. the trade in which he was engaged was only a cast-iron warehouse, and his master assigned to him, 'the yorkshire boy,' the privilege of selling flat irons--the things with which our shirts and clothes are flattened. the washerwomen of london were sharp folks; and when they bought one flat iron, they stole two. mr. bicklewith thought that the best person to cope with them would be a man working for his own interest--and a yorkshireman at the same time. that was the first matter of trading that ever my grandfather embarked in. by honesty and perseverance, he continued to grow in favour. his master retired in a few years, and left my grandfather in possession of his cast-iron business in london, which was carried on on the very site where i now spend my days--in york yard. my grandfather left his business in london, and came down here; and my father, who carried it on, supplied him with money almost as fast as he spent it here; but not quite so fast. what occurred subsequently, this company knows perfectly well. who started with humbler prospects in life than my grandfather? no man in this room is so poor but that he can command _l._ depend upon it, any man who is industrious, honest, and persevering, will be respected in any class of life he may move in. do you, think, gentlemen, there is a man in england prouder than i am at this moment? what is all the world to me, unless they know me?" ------------------ weighing machine at the bank of england. the most interesting place connected with the machinery of the bank of england is the weighing-office, which was established about . in consequence of a proclamation concerning the gold circulation, it became very desirable to obtain the most minute accuracy, as coins of different weight were plentifully offered. many complaints were made, that sovereigns which had been issued from one office were refused at another; and though these assertions were not, perhaps, always founded on truth, yet it is indisputable that the evil occasionally occurred. every effort was made by the directors to remedy this, some millions of sovereigns being weighed separately, and the light coins divided from those which were full weight. fortunately, the governor for the time being, (mr. w. cotton), before whom the complaints principally came, was attached to scientific pursuits; and he at once turned his attention to discover the causes which operated to prevent the attainment of a just weight. in this he was successful, and the result of his inquiry was, a machine, remarkable for an almost elegant simplicity. about or light and heavy sovereigns are placed indiscriminately in a round tube; as they descend on the machinery beneath, those which are light receive a slight touch, which moves them into their proper receptacle; while those which are the legitimate weight, pass into their appointed place. the light coins are then defaced by a sovereign-cutting machine, remarkable alike for its accuracy and rapidity. by this, may be defaced in one minute; and, by the weighing machinery, , may be weighed in one day. an eminent member of the royal society mentioned to the writer, that, amongst scientific men, it is a question whether the weighing-machine of mr. cotton is not the finest thing in mechanics; and that there is only one other invention--the envelope-machine of de la rue--to be named with it.--_francis's history of the bank of england._ ------------------ childhood of pascal. pascal, the celebrated french philosopher and divine, (whose life, bayle affirms, is worth a hundred sermons), evinced such early ardour for knowledge, that, at the age of eleven, he was ambitious of teaching as well as learning; and he then composed a little treatise on the refractions of the sounds of vibrating bodies when touched by the finger. one day he was found alone in his chamber, tracing, in lines of coal, geometrical figures on the wall; and, on another occasion, he was surprised by his father, just when he had succeeded in obtaining a demonstration of the nd proposition of the first book of euclid--that the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles. astonished and overjoyed, his father rushed to his friend, m. pailleur, to announce the extraordinary fact; and the young geometer was instantly permitted to study, unrestrained, the elements of euclid, of which he soon made himself master, without any extrinsic aid. from the geometry of planes and solids he passed to the higher branches of the science; and, before he was sixteen years of age, he composed a treatise on the conic sections, which evinced the most extraordinary sagacity. when scarcely years of age, too, pascal contrived a machine to assist his father in making the numerical calculations which his official duties in upper normandy required. in later life, pascal found researches in geometry an occupation well fitted to give serenity to a heart bleeding from the wounds of his beloved associates. he had long before renounced the study of the sciences; but during a violent attack of toothache, which deprived him of sleep, the subject of the cycloid forced itself upon his thoughts. fermat, roberval, and others, had trodden the same ground before him; but, in less than eight days, and under severe suffering, he discovered a general method of solving this class of problems, by the summation of certain series; and as there was only one step from this discovery to that of fluxions, pascal might, with more leisure and better health, have won from newton and from leibnitz the glory of that great invention. ------------------ the discoverer of gutta percha. the gutta percha tree, or gutta tuban, as it ought more properly to be called--the percha being a spurious article--abounds in the indigenous forests of singapore, although it was only about the year that it was discovered by europeans. the first notice taken of it appears to have been by dr. w. montgomerie, in a letter to the bengal medical board, in the beginning of , wherein he commends the substance as likely to prove useful for some surgical purposes; and supposes it to belong to the fig tribe. in april, , the substance was taken to europe by dr. d. almeida, who presented it to the royal society of arts of london; but it did not at first attract much attention, as the society simply acknowledged the receipt of the gift. its uses would rather appear to have been found out by the malays, who first manufactured some of the gutta percha into whips, and brought them into the town at singapore for sale, where they were seen by europeans. ------------------ sir isaac newton's magnet. the smallest natural magnets generally possess the greatest proportion of attractive power. sir isaac newton wore in his ring a magnet which weighed only three grains; yet it was able to take up grains, or nearly times its own weight--whereas magnets weighing above two pounds seldom lift more than five or six times their own weight. ------------------ coal gas in balloons. mr. green has the merit of being the first person who made experiments on the buoyant properties of coal gas. in some of his preliminary trials, he ascertained that the ascensive force of a small balloon, three feet in diameter, was equal to eleven ounces; but, when filled in the old way, with hydrogen gas, not more than fifteen ounces. ------------------ cuvier and napoleon. after cuvier had presented to buonaparte, in a council of state, his report of the progress of the mathematical and natural sciences since the year , the emperor expressed, in a very happy manner, the satisfaction which he had received from the document. "he has praised me," said napoleon, "as i like to be praised." cuvier, however, as he himself said, had only invited the emperor to imitate alexander, and to employ his power in promoting the advancement of the natural sciences. ------------------ last moments of leibnitz. the passing of the mighty spirit of leibnitz from this scene of existence was a deeply impressive scene. he had suffered from occasional illness during several preceding years. these attacks, however, passed away, and the philosopher resumed his speculations with renewed energy. in november, , his complaint returned with great violence. "the closing scene suggests gloomy reflections, as the lurid glare, which, during his extraordinary life, had attracted the eyes of the world, disappears; while we have not the record we could desire, indicating that the moral sensibilities of the philosopher were rightly alive to the decisive nature of the awful change. his seventy years are ended, and the lightning seems lost among dark clouds. during the last day of his life, we are told, he was buried in conversation with his physician on the nature of his disease, and on the doctrines of alchymy. towards evening, his servant asked him if he would receive the eucharist. 'let me alone,' said he, 'i have done ill to no one. i have nothing to confess. all must die.' he raised himself on his bed, and tried to write. the darkness of death was gathering around him. he found himself unable to read what he had written. he tore the paper, and, lying down, covered his face, and a few minutes after o'clock, on the evening of the th of november, , he ceased to breathe! it is most solemn to contemplate a human spirit, whose course of thought throughout life was unsurpassed for power of speculation, and daring range of mind among the higher objects of knowledge, and which, at the period of its departure, was in the depths of a controversy about the mysteries of a supersensible world--thus summoned into that world, to become conversant in its final relations with that being who had entrusted it with such mental power, and whose nature and attributes had so often tasked its speculative energies."--_north british review._ ------------------ franklin's discoveries. of all this great man's scientific excellencies, the most remarkable is the smallness, the simplicity, the apparent inadequacy of the means which he employed in his experimental researches. his discoveries were all made with hardly any apparatus at all; and if, at any time, he had been led to employ instruments of a somewhat less ordinary description, he never rested satisfied until he had, as it were, afterwards translated the process, resolving the problem with such simple machinery, that you might say he had done it wholly unaided by apparatus. the experiments by which the identity of lightning and electricity was demonstrated, were made with a sheet of brown paper, a bit of twine or silk thread, and an iron key!--_lord brougham._ ------------------ carnÔt, when a child. the aptitude and taste for military affairs of carnôt, destined afterwards to perform so important a part in the history of europe, displayed itself in a singular manner while he was yet a child. being taken for the first time to a theatre, where some siege or other warlike operation was represented, he astonished the audience by interrupting the piece to complain of the manner in which the general had disposed his men and his guns, crying out to him that his men were in fire, and loudly calling upon him to change his position. in fact, the men were so placed as to be commanded by a battery. ------------------ smeaton's independence. smeaton, the engineer, often evinced a high feeling of independence in respect to pecuniary matters, and would never allow motives of emolument to interfere with plans laid on other considerations. the empress catherine of russia was exceedingly anxious to have his services in the formation of great engineering works in her dominions, and she commissioned the princess dackshaw to offer him his own terms, if he would accede to her proposal. but his plans and his heart were bent upon the exercise of his skill in his own country, and he steadily refused all the offers made to him. it is reported that when the princess found her attempts unavailing, she said to him, "sir, you are a great man, and i honour you. you may have an equal in abilities, perhaps, but in character you stand single. the english minister, sir robert walpole, was mistaken; and my sovereign, to her loss, finds one who has not his price." after smeaton had retired from his profession, he was often pressed to superintend certain works; when these entreaties were backed by personal offers of emolument, he used to send for an old woman who took care of his chambers in gray's inn, and say, "her attendance suffices for all my wants!" a reply which conveyed the intimation that a man whose personal wants were so simple, was not likely to break through a pre-arranged line of conduct for mere pecuniary considerations. smeaton's _magnum opus_ is the eddystone lighthouse, which has withstood the storms of more than a century. one of its severest perils was in a terrific hurricane in november, , when the men in the lighthouse appear to have been in a most critical situation; alive to their danger, and conscious of being beyond the hope of human aid. the report made by one of the light-keepers states, that on the morning of the rd, "the sea was tremendous, and broke with such violence on the top and round the building, as to demolish in an instant five panes of the lantern glass, and sixteen cylinder glasses, the former of unusual thickness. the house shook with so much violence as to occasion considerable motion of the cylinder glasses fixed in the lamps; and at times the whole building appeared to sway as if resting on an elastic body. the water came from the top of the edifice in such quantities that we were overwhelmed, and the sea made a breach from the top of the house to the bottom." ------------------ childhood of cuvier. cuvier, like sir isaac newton, was born with such a feeble and sickly constitution, that he was scarcely expected to reach the years of manhood. his affectionate mother watched over his varying health, instilled into his mind the first lessons of religion, and had taught him to read fluently before he had completed his fourth year. she made him repeat to her his latin lessons, though ignorant herself of the language; she conducted him every morning to school; made him practise drawing under her own superintendence, and supplied him with the best works on history and literature. his father had destined him for the army. in the library of the gymnasium, where he stood at the head of the classes of history, geography, and mathematics, he lighted upon a copy of gesner's history of animals and serpents, with coloured plates; and, about the same time, he had discovered a complete copy of buffon among the books of one of his relatives. his taste for natural history now became a passion. he copied the figures which these works contained, and coloured them in conformity with the descriptions; whilst he did not overlook the intellectual beauties of his author. in the fourteenth year of his age he was appointed president of a society of his schoolfellows, which he was the means of organising, and of which he drew up the rules; and seated on the foot of his bed, which was the president's chair, he first showed his oratorical powers in the discussion of various questions, suggested by the reading of books of natural history and travels, which was the principal object of the society. when at the age of nineteen, the casual dissection of a colmar, a species of cuttle-fish, induced cuvier to study the anatomy of the mollusca; and the examination of some fossil terebratulæ, which had been dug up near fécamp, in june, , suggested to him the idea of comparing fossil with living animals; and thus, as he himself said, "the germ of his two most important labours--the comparison of fossil with living species, and the reform of the classification of the animal kingdom--had their origin at this epoch." ------------------ watt's discovery of the composition of water. a controversy a good many years ago agitated the philosophical world, as to the discovery of the composition of water--whether the merit was due to watt or cavendish. one of watt's letters, dated may th, , seems to compress the matter into a nutshell. writing to his friend, mr. fry of bristol, mr. watt says, that "he has had the honour of having had his ideas pirated;" that dr. blagden explained his theory to lavoisier, at paris; that m. lavoisier soon after invented it himself; and that "since that, mr. cavendish has read a paper to the royal society on the same idea, without making the least mention of me." "the one," he continues, "is a french financier, and the other a member of the illustrious house of cavendish, worth above , _l._ ( , , _l._) and does not spend _l._ a year. rich men may do mean actions; may you and i always persevere in our integrity, and despise such doings." another important point is, that watt and cavendish's papers on the discovery were printed under the sole superintendence of dr. blagden, secretary to the royal society; that mr. watt's paper is printed with the _erroneous date of , in place of _, and that the separate copies of mr. cavendish's papers have the _erroneous date of , in place of _. the obvious effect of these two errors was to give cavendish the priority over watt; whereas, by written testimony, watt's theory is proved to have been known to priestley in . it is dr. blagden's conduct in the matter that has disturbed the current of scientific history. "it is his testimony," says an able writer in the _north british review_, "not appealed to by cavendish, but gratuitously offered by himself, that contains the allegation that cavendish mentioned to him and others his conclusions. it is his testimony, gratuitously sent to crell, that deprives the french chemists, lavoisier, laplace, and monge, of their due share of honour; and it was by his acts that erroneous dates and claims were propagated throughout europe. let us impanel, then, a british jury--not of chemists, for their verdict is given--not of the improvers or manufacturers of steam-engines, for they might be partial--but of the highest functionaries of the law, the members of the peerage--let us lay before them these facts, and then tell them that blagden received an annuity of _l._ from cavendish; that, at his death, he left him a legacy of , _l._; and we will answer for it, that the testimony of blagden will be rejected, and the priority of watt affirmed." ------------------ how pascal weighed the atmosphere. pascal's treatise on the weight of the whole mass of air forms the basis of the modern science of pneumatics. in order to prove that the mass of air presses by its weight on all the bodies which it surrounds, and also that it is elastic and compressible, he carried a balloon, half filled with air, to the top of the puy de dome, a mountain about toises above clermont, in auvergne. it gradually inflated itself as it ascended, and when it reached the summit, it was quite full, and swollen as if fresh air had been blown into it; or, what is the same thing, it swelled in proportion as the weight of the column of air which pressed upon it was diminished. when again brought down, it became more and more flaccid, and when it reached the bottom, it resumed its original condition. in the nine chapters of which the treatise consists, pascal shows that all the phenomena and effects hitherto ascribed to the horror of a vacuum arise from the weight of the mass of air; and after explaining the variable pressure of the atmosphere in different localities, and in its different states, and the rise of water in pumps, he calculates that the whole mass of air round our globe weighs , , , , , , french pounds. ------------------ the leaning tower of pisa.[ ] sir john leslie used to attribute the stability of this tower to the cohesion of the mortar it is built with being sufficient to maintain it erect, in spite of its being out of the condition required by physics--to wit, that "in order that a column shall stand, a perpendicular let fall from the centre of gravity must fall within the base." sir john describes the column of pisa to be in violation of this principle; but, according to designs shown to dr. cumming, at pisa, in , the perpendicular does fall within the base. ----- footnote : when at pisa, many years since, captain basil hall investigated the origin and divergence of the tower from the perpendicular, and established completely to his own satisfaction that it had been built from top to bottom, originally, just as it now stands. his reasons for thinking so are, that the line of the tower, on that side towards which it leans, has not the same curvature as the line on the opposite, or what may be called the upper side. if the tower had been built upright, and then been made to incline over, the line of the wall on that side towards which the inclination was given, would be more or less concave in that direction, owing to the nodding or "swagging over" of the top, by the simple action of gravity acting on a very tall mass of masonry, which is more or less elastic when placed in a sloping position. but the contrary is the fact; for the line of wall on the side towards which the tower leans, is decidedly more convex than the opposite side. captain hall has, therefore, no doubt whatever that the architect, in rearing his successive courses of stones, gained or stole a little at each layer, so as to render his work less and less overhanging as he went up; and thus, without betraying what he was about, really gained stability. ------------------ holding a "craws' court." dr. edmonston in his interesting "_view of the zetland islands_," relates that the hooded crow sometimes engages in merry meetings, but, savage-like, concludes by a sanguinary sacrifice. the crows generally appear in pairs, even during winter, except when attracted to a spot in search of food, or when they assemble for the purpose of holding what is called a _craws' court_. this latter institution exhibits a curious fact in their history. numbers are seen to assemble on a particular hill or field, from many different parts. on some occasions, the meeting does not appear complete before the expiration of a day or two. as soon as all the deputies have arrived, a very general noise and croaking ensue; and shortly after, the whole fall upon one or two individuals, whom they persecute and beat until they kill them. when this has been accomplished, they quietly disperse. ------------------ alpine perils. strange incidents befel professor forbes, and his companions, in their travels through the alps of savoy. on one occasion, they got so near a thundercloud, as to be highly electrified by induction, with all the angular stones round them hissing like points near a powerful electrical machine; on another, whilst crossing one of the loftiest passes, the col de collon, they discovered a dark object lying on the snow, which proved to be the body of a man, with the clothes hard-frozen and uninjured. "the effect on us all," says the professor, "was electric; and had not the sun shone forth in its full glory, and the very wilderness of eternal snow seemed gladdened under the serenity of such a summer's day, as is rare at these heights, we should certainly have felt a deeper thrill, arising from the sense of personal danger. as it was, when we had recovered our first surprise, and interchanged our expression of sympathy for the poor traveller, and gazed with awe on the disfigured relics of one who had so lately been in the same plight with ourselves, we turned and surveyed, with a stronger sense of sublimity than before, the desolation by which we were surrounded; and became still more sensible of our isolation from human dwellings, human help, and human sympathy, our loneliness with nature, and as it were, the more immediate presence of god." ------------------ philosophical enthusiasm. "never shall i forget," says agassiz, "the impression which the sight of the _pterichthys_, provided with appendages resembling wings, produced upon me, when i assured myself that it belonged to the class of fishes. it was an entirely new type, which was about to figure, for the first time since it had ceased to exist, in the series of beings--again to form a link which nothing of all that had been revealed up to the time with regard to extinct creations, would have led us ever to suspect the existence of--showing forcibly that observation alone can lead us to the recognition of the laws of development of organized beings; and how much we should guard against all those systems of transformation of species, which the imagination invents with as much facility as reason refutes them." ------------------ "shepherd to the king of england for scotland." lalande, the celebrated astronomer, committed a ludicrous mistake in styling james ferguson, _berger du roi d'angleterre en ecosse_, the king of england's shepherd for scotland. the matter has, however, been thus explained:--daubenton, as a naturalist, had the charge of the royal flocks of sheep in france. in order to retain his situation under the republic, he required a _certificate of civism_ from the section of the sans culottes. in this curious document, he is called _the shepherd daubenton_. lalande, whose great work on astronomy was published at this period, had seen james ferguson (the astronomer) designated _the shepherd_, probably to distinguish him from adam ferguson the philosopher, and hence he placed _ferguson the shepherd_ in the same category with _the shepherd daubenton_, and made him "shepherd to the king of england for scotland!" ------------------ travels of volcanic dust. on the nd of september, , a quantity of volcanic dust fell in the orkney islands, which was supposed to have originated in an eruption of hecla in iceland. it was subsequently ascertained that an eruption of hecla took place on the morning of the above-named day, so as to leave no doubt of the justness of the conclusion. the dust had thus travelled about miles! ------------------ early life of alexander brongniart. this celebrated chemist and mineralogist, upwards of forty years director of the porcelain manufactory of sèvres, was born at paris in . his father was justly celebrated for his attainments in the fine arts. his mind developed itself in the midst of that brilliant society belonging to the end of the eighteenth century, which his father was accustomed to draw around him. he there derived, from conversations with franklin, the germ of that mild and practical philosophy which he never abandoned; and from those of lavoisier his earliest notions of chemistry, which formed one of the foundations of his scientific career. he gave early indications of that clearness of elocution which formed one of his merits as a professor; and it is related that lavoisier himself took pleasure in listening to a lecture on chemistry delivered by brongniart even when he was scarcely fifteen years of age. he studied in the ecole de medécine, where he was thrice enrolled; and when every frenchman was called to the frontier, he was connected to the army of the pyrenees in the capacity of an apothecary. a stay of fifteen months among these mountains gave him the opportunity of studying a rich and varied field of nature, as a zoologist and botanist. he likewise made geological observations, which, at a later period, took their place in the science, and which he often took pleasure in recalling; but there he encountered dangers which his youth did not suspect, and he was imprisoned under suspicion of having favoured the escape of the skilful naturalist, broussonnet, who avoided certain death by fleeing by the breach of rolland. restored to liberty after the th thermidor, brongniart returned to paris, and, in , was nominated director of the porcelain manufactory of sèvres, on the recommendation of berthollet. at nineteen years of age, brongniart was one of the founders of the societé philomatique, which, at the period of proscription for all of a higher class, kept alive the sacred fame of science. he died in , and at his funeral, on october th, m. elie de beaumont delivered an _éloge_, whence these details have been derived. ------------------ smeaton's reproof of gaming. smeaton, the engineer, was on intimate terms of acquaintance with the duke and duchess of queensbury, and often spent a leisure hour in the evening at their house. on a few occasions, he played at cards with them, and on one such evening, he effected the abolition of that inconsiderate, indiscriminate play amongst people of superior rank or fortune, which compels every one to join, and at their own stake too. smeaton detested cards, and his attention never following the game he played like a boy. the game was pope joan; and the general run of it was high; and the stake in pope had accumulated to a serious sum. it was smeaton's turn by the deal to _double_ it; when, regardless of his cards, he busily made minutes on a slip of paper, and put it on the board. the duchess eagerly inquired what it was; and he as coolly replied, "your grace will recollect the field in which my house stands may be about five acres, three roods, and seven perches; which, at thirty years' purchase, will be just my stake; and if your grace will make a duke of me, i presume the winner will not dislike my mortgage." the joke and the lesson had alike their weight; and the party never after played but for the merest trifle. ------------------ invention of gun-cotton. cotton, having largely contributed to our national prosperity in times of peace, promised, not long since, to play a very important part in the strategies of war; and this by its use in place of gunpowder; wherefore the new substance was termed "gun-cotton." the merit of the invention is believed to be due to professor schonbein, of basle. in , the novelty was first announced as an explosive compound, possessing many apparent advantages over gunpowder. it was described as a cotton prepared by a secret process; which, on the application of a spark, became at once converted into a gaseous state. in an experiment performed in the laboratory of professor schonbein, a certain weight of gunpowder, when fired, filled the apartment with smoke; whilst an equal weight of gun-cotton exploded without producing any smoke, leaving only a few atoms of carbonaceous matter behind. cannon-balls and shells were then experimentally projected by this prepared cotton, with nearly double the projectile force of gunpowder. professor schonbein made an interesting experiment upon the wall of an old castle: it had been calculated that from three to four pounds of gunpowder would be requisite to destroy this wall, and a hole capable of containing that quantity was prepared. in this aperture were put four ounces of the prepared cotton, which, when fired, blew the massive wall to pieces. again, the sixteenth part of an ounce of the prepared cotton, placed in a gun, carried a ball with such force, that it perforated two planks at the distance of twenty-eight paces; and, at another time, with the same charge, drove a bullet into a wall, to the depth of three inches and three-quarters. professor schonbein attended the meeting of the british association for the advancement of science, held at southampton, in , when the operation of this new power was explained and experimented with. subsequently, the professor attended at osborne house, to exhibit the properties of his gun-cotton to prince albert, when schonbein offered to explode a portion on the hand of colonel b----: who would, however, have nothing to do with the novel power. prince albert himself submitted to the test, and off went the cotton, without smoke, stain, or burning of the skin. thus encouraged, the colonel took his turn; but whether the material was changed or not for the coarser preparation, it gave him such a singeing that he leaped up with a cry of pain. a hearty laugh was all the commiseration he received. after this, professor schonbein loaded a fowling-piece with cotton in the place of powder, and the prince fired both ball and shot from it with the usual effect, and perfect impunity. ------------------ sir joseph banks's "balance." at the death of sir joseph banks, there was left at the apartments of the royal society, at somerset house, a very delicate balance, constructed by ramsden, the property of sir joseph. the secretaries accordingly wrote to his widow, requesting to know her wishes respecting the instrument. "pay it into coutts's," was her ladyship's reply. ------------------ buckingham palace gates. the central gates of the marble arch, facing buckingham palace, were put up in the summer of : they were designed and cast by samuel parker, then of argyll-place--they are the largest and most superb in europe, not excepting the gates of the ducal palace at venice, or of the louvre at paris. their material is a beautiful alloy, the base of which is refined copper. although cast, their enriched foliage and scroll-work bear the elaborate finish of the finest chasing: the height of each gate is twenty-five feet; width, seventeen feet, six inches; extreme thickness, three inches; weight of each, two tons, thirteen cwt.; yet, they are so beautifully hung, that a child might open and shut them. they now terminate at the springing of the arch; but mr. parker had cast for the heading a chaste frieze, and a design of the royal arms in the central circle, flanked by state crowns: this portion was, however, irretrievably mutilated by the government removing the gates from the foundry in a common stage-waggon, without due care to prevent their breakage; yet the work cost, altogether, guineas! ------------------ earthquakes in chile. mr. darwin, in his very interesting _journal of a voyage round the world_, relates that he was one day dining with a gentleman at coquimbo, when a sharp earthquake happened. he heard the forthcoming rumble, but from the screams of the ladies, the running of servants, and the rush of several of the gentlemen to the doorway, he could not distinguish the motion. some of the women afterwards were crying with terror, and one gentleman said he should not be able to sleep all night, or if he did, it would only be to dream of falling houses. the father of this person had lately lost all his property at talcahuano, and he himself had only just escaped a falling roof at valparaiso, in . he mentioned a curious coincidence which then happened: he was playing at cards, when a german, one of the party, got up, and said he would never sit in a room in these countries with the door shut, as, owing to his having done so, he had nearly lost his life at copiapo. accordingly, he opened the door; and no sooner had he done this, than he cried out, "here it comes again!" and the famous shock commenced. the whole party escaped. the danger in an earthquake is not from the time lost in opening a door, but from the chance of its becoming jammed by the movement of the walls. ------------------ cuvier in london. when cuvier visited england, in , in conversing with the prince regent on the subject of our natural history collections, he suggested the union of all the private collections in one great national museum, which, from the extent of our colonial possessions, he conceived would surpass every other collection in europe. during the great naturalist's stay in london, he was gratified with the sight of a westminster election, in which he saw the practical working of one of our most important political institutions. "at this period," says his biographer, mrs. lee, "the election for westminster was going forward, and he frequently dwelt upon the amusement he had received from being on the hustings every day. these orgies of liberty were then unknown in france; and it was a curious spectacle for a man who reflected so deeply on everything which passed before him, to see and hear our orators crying out at the top of their voices to the mob, who pelted them with mud, cabbages, eggs, &c. &c.; and sir murray maxwell, in his splendid uniform, and decorated with orders, flattering the crowd who resisted him, and sent at his head all the varieties of the vegetable kingdom. nothing ever effaced this impression from cuvier's memory, who frequently described the scene with great animation." ------------------ the first cup of tea drunk in england. in all probability, the first cup of tea made in england was drunk upon the site of buckingham palace, st. james's park; for the earl of arlington took the first pound of tea to england, having bought it in holland for sixty shillings; and at this time the earl resided at arlington house, which was taken down to make room for buckingham house, since altered to the queen's palace. ------------------ benefit of a wife to an author. the wife of nathaniel bowditch was a woman of singular sweetness of disposition and cheerful piety, who, by her entire sympathy with her husband in all his studies and pursuits, lightened and cheered his labours; and by relieving him from all domestic cares, enabled him to go on with undivided mind and undistracted attention, in the execution of his great work--the translation of laplace's _mécanique celeste_, on which his fame as a man of science rests. he had been heard to say that he never should have accomplished the task, and published the book in its present extended form, had he not been stimulated and encouraged by her. when the serious question was under consideration as to the expediency of bowditch's publishing it at his own expense, at the estimated cost of , dollars, (which it actually exceeded,) with the noble spirit of her sex, his wife conjured and urged him to go on and do it, saying that she would find the means, and gladly make any sacrifice, and submit to any self-denial that might be involved in it. in grateful acknowledgment of her sympathy and aid, he proposed, in the concluding volume, to dedicate the work to her memory, (she died in )--a design than which nothing could be more beautiful or touching.[ ] in the course of his labour, dr. bowditch used to say, "i never come across one of laplace's _thus it plainly appears_, without feeling sure that i have got hours of hard study before me to fill up the chasm, and find out and show _how_ it plainly appears." ----- footnote : it is highly honourable to the sex, that the only exposition of laplace's work that has ( ) appeared in england, is from the pen of a female--the accomplished mary somerville, wife of dr. somerville, of chelsea hospital. this was published under the title of the _mechanism of the heavens_, of which, it is observed, in the _edinburgh review_, "this, unquestionably, is one of the most remarkable works that female intellect ever produced in any age or country; and with respect to the present day, we hazard little in saying that mrs. somerville is the only individual of her sex in the world who could have written it." for this signal service to science, there was conferred upon the lady a pension of _l._ per annum, at the recommendation of sir robert peel. ------------------ the world in a drop of water. the microscope has shown that a drop of water though it may appear to the naked eye to be perfectly clear, is swarming with living beings. according to ehrenberg, a cubic inch of water may contain more than , millions of these beings, estimating them only to occupy one fourth of its space; and a single drop, placed under the microscope, will be seen to hold millions; an amount, perhaps, not so very far from equal to the whole number of human beings on the surface of our globe! ------------------ origin of post-paid envelopes. m. piron tells us, that the idea of a post-paid envelope originated, early in the reign of louis xiv., with m. de velayer, who, in , established, with royal approbation, a private penny post, placing boxes at the corners of the streets for the reception of letters, wrapped up in envelopes, which were to be bought at offices established for that purpose. m. de velayer also caused to be printed certain forms of _billets_, or notes applicable to the ordinary business among the inhabitants of great towns, with blanks, which were to be filled up by the pen with such special matter as might complete the writer's object. one of these _billets_ has been preserved to our times by a pleasant misapplication of it. pelisson, mde. de sevigné's friend, and the object of the _bon mot_, that "he abused the privilege which men have of being ugly," was amused at this kind of skeleton correspondence; and under the affected name of _pisandre_, (according to the pedantic fashion of the day,) he filled up and addressed one of these forms to the celebrated mademoiselle de scuderi, in her _pseudonyme of sappho_. this strange _billet-doux_ has happened, from the celebrity of the parties, to be preserved, and is still extant: one of the oldest, we presume, of penny-post letters, and a curious example of a pre-paying envelope--as well as a new proof of the adage, that "there is nothing new under the sun." ------------------ character in works. telford, the engineer, relates that he came to london in , and got employed at the quadrangle of somerset house-buildings; he soon became known to sir william chambers and mr. r. adam, the two most distinguished architects of that day; the former haughty and reserved, the latter affable and communicative; and a similar distinction of character pervades their works, sir william's being stiff and formal, and those of mr. adam, playful and gay. ------------------ brindley, the engineer. though one of the most successful engineers of his age, brindley was so illiterate as to be scarcely able to read or to write. by his unrivalled powers of abstraction and memory, he often executed his plans without committing them to paper; and when he was engaged in any difficult or complex undertaking, he was in the habit of retiring to bed, where he often remained for two or three days, till he had thoroughly completed his design. so singular, indeed, was the structure of his mind, that the spectacle of a play in london, disturbed to such a degree the balance of its mechanism, that he could not, for some time, resume his usual pursuits. ------------------ reason for silence. some one asked fontaine, the celebrated geometrician, what he did in society where he remained almost perfectly silent. "i study," replied he, "the vanity of men, in order to mortify it occasionally." ------------------ ascent of the jungfrau alp. in , professor forbes, along with m. agassiz, and others, made a successful ascent of the great swiss mountain, the jungfrau, whose summit is , feet above the level of the sea. of six travellers and seven guides who formed the party, four of each reached the top--viz., of the former, mm. forbes, agassiz, desor, and duchatelies; of the latter, jacob leutvold (who ascended the finster aarhorn,) johan jannon, melchior, baucholzer, and andreas aplanalp. they left the grimsel on the morning of the th of august, , ascended the whole height of the ober-aar glacier, and descended the greater part of that of viesch. crossing a col to the right, they slept at the chalet of aletsch, near the lake of that name. this was twelve hours' hard walking, the descent of the glaciers being difficult and fatiguing. next day, the party started at six a.m., having been unable sooner to procure a ladder, to cross the crevices; they then traversed the upper part of the glacier of aletsch in its whole extent for four hours and a half, until the ascent of the jungfrau began. the party crossed with great caution extensive and steep fields of fresh snow, concealing crevices, till they came to one which opened vertically, and behind which rose an excessively steep wall of hardened snow. having crossed the crevices with the ladder, they ascended the snow without much danger, owing to its consistency. after some similar walking they gained the col, which separates the aletsch glacier from the rothal, on the side of lauterbrunnen, by which the ascent has usually been attempted. thus, the travellers, although now at a height of between , and , feet, had by far the hardest and most perilous part of the ascent to accomplish. the whole upper part of the mountain presented a steep, inclined surface of what at first seemed snow, but which soon appeared to be hard ice. this slope was not less than or feet in perpendicular height, and its surface (which professor forbes measured several times with a clinometer,) in many places rose at degrees, and in few much less; and all alpine travellers know well what an inclined surface of degrees is to walk up. of course, every step taken was cut with the hatchet, whilst the slope terminated below, on both sides in precipices some thousand feet high. after very severe exertion, they reached the top of this great mountain, at four p.m. the summit was so small that but one person could stand upon it at once, and that not until the snow had been flattened. the party returned as they came up, step by step, and backwards, and arrived at the chalets of aletsch, and by beautiful moonlight, at half-past eleven at night. ------------------ the steam-gun in the fifteenth century. in , m. delectuze discovered, among the manuscripts of leonardo da vinci, an entry carrying a knowledge of the steam-engine, applied to warfare, to at least as far back as the fifteenth century. he has published in the _artiste_, a notice of the life of leonardo, to which he adds a fac-simile of a page of one of his manuscripts, containing five pen-and-ink sketches of details of the apparatus of a steam gun, with an explanatory note on what he designates the "architonnere." the entry is as follows:-- invention of archimedes. the architonnere is a machine of fine copper, which throws balls with a loud report and great force. it is used in the following manner:--one-third of the instrument contains a large quantity of charcoal fire. when the water is well heated, a screw at the top of the vessel which contains the water must be made quite tight. on closing the screw above, all the water will escape below, will descend into the heated portion of the instrument, and be immediately converted into a vapour so abundant and powerful, that it is wonderful to see its force, and hear the noise it produces. this machine will carry a ball a talent in weight." it is worthy of remark that leonardo da vinci, far from claiming the merit of this invention for himself or the men of his time, attributes it to archimedes. the steam gun of our time has been an exhibition-room wonder; and the prediction of the duke of wellington that it would fail in warfare, has never been, and is never likely to be, tested. ------------------ ancient observatory in persia. when sir john malcolm visited maraga, he traced distinctly the foundations of the observatory, constructed in the th century, for naser-ood-deen, the favourite philosopher of the tartar prince, hoolakoo, the grandson of ghenghiz, who, in this locality relaxed from his warlike toils, and assembled round him men of the first genius of the age, who have commemorated his love of science, and given him more fame as its munificent patron, than he acquired by all his conquests. in this observatory there was, according to one of the best mahomedan works, a species of apparatus to represent the celestial sphere, with the signs of the zodiac, the conjunctions, transits, and revolutions of the heavenly bodies. through a perforation in the dome, the rays of the sun were admitted, so as to strike upon certain lines on the pavement in a way to indicate, in degrees and minutes, the altitude and declination of that luminary during every season, and to mark the time and hour of the day throughout the year. the observatory was further supplied with a map of the terrestrial globe, in all its climates or zones, exhibiting the several regions of the habitable world, as well as a general outline of the ocean, with the numerous islands contained in its bosom; and, according to the mahomedan author, all these were so perspicuously arranged and delineated, as at once to remove, by the clearest demonstration, every doubt from the mind of the student. ------------------ london as a port. sir john herschel, who possesses in an eminent degree, the peculiar talent of felicitously illustrating every subject that he approaches, in his valuable _treatise on astronomy_, thus refers to the situation of london as a port:--"it is a fact, not a little interesting to englishmen, and combined with our insular station in that highway of nations, the atlantic, not a little explanatory of our commercial eminence, that london _occupies nearly the centre of the terrestrial hemisphere_." ------------------ fourdrinier's paper-making machinery. on april , , some very interesting details of fourdrinier's machinery for making paper of endless length, were elicited during a debate in the house of commons, upon the presentation of a petition from these ingenious manufacturers. it appears that yards, or any given quantity of yards, of paper could be continuously made by it. many years since, the invention was patented; but, owing to a mistake in the patent--the word "machine" being written instead of "machines"--the property was pirated, and that led to litigations, in which the patentees' funds were exhausted before they could establish their rights. they then became bankrupts, and thus all the fruits of their invention, on which they had spent , _l._, were entirely lost to them. the evidence of mr. brunel, and of mr. lawson, the printer of _the times_, proved the invention of the fourdriniers to be one of the most splendid discoveries of the age. mr. lawson stated that the conductors of the metropolitan newspapers could never have presented to the world such an immense mass of news and advertisements as was now contained in them, had not this invention enabled them to make use of any size required. by the revolution of the great cylinder employed in the process, an extraordinary degree both of rapidity and convenience in the production is secured. one of its chief advantages is the prevention of all risk of combination among the workmen, the machine being so easily managed that the least skilful person can attend to it. it was added that the invention had caused a remarkable increase in the revenue: in the year , when this machine was not in existence, the amount of the paper duty was , _l._; in , when the machinery was in full operation, the amount of duty was , _l._; in , it was , _l._ no doubt, part of this increase must be set down to other causes; still, it was impossible but for this discovery, that such a quantity of paper could have been made and consumed. the positive saving to the country effected by it, had not been less than , , _l._; the increase in the revenue not less than , _l._ a-year. at length, in may, , the sum of , _l._ was voted by parliament to messrs. fourdrinier, as some compensation for their loss by the defective state of the patent law. there has been made by this machinery at colinton mills, a single sheet of paper weighing lbs., and measuring upwards of a mile and a half in length, the breadth being only inches. were a ream of paper of similar sheets made, it would weigh , lbs. or upwards of tons. ------------------ the cocoa-nut crab. m. darwin in his _voyage round the world_, thus describes a crab which lives upon cocoa-nuts, and which he found on keeling island, in the south seas: "it is very common on all parts of the dry land, and grows to a monstrous size; it has a front pair of legs, terminated by very strong and heavy pincers, and the least pair by others which are narrow and weak. it would at first be thought quite impossible for a crab to open a strong cocoa-nut covered with the husk; but m. liesk assures me he has repeatedly seen the operation effected. the crab begins by tearing the husk, fibre by fibre, and always from that end under which the three eye-holes are situated; when this is completed, the crab commences hammering with its heavy claws on one of these eye-holes till an opening is made. then, turning round its body, by the aid of its posterior and narrow pair of pincers, it extracts the white albuminous substance. i think this is as curious a case of instinct as ever i heard of, and likewise of adaptation in structure between two objects apparently so remote from each other in the scheme of nature, as a crab and a cocoa-nut." ------------------ descartes' wooden daughter. when descartes resided in holland, he made with great labour and industry a female automaton, which gave some wicked wits occasion to report that he had an illegitimate daughter, named franchine. the object of descartes was, to demonstrate that beasts have no souls, and are but machines nicely composed, that move whenever another body strikes them and communicates to them a portion of its motions. having carried this singular machine on board of a dutch vessel, the captain, who sometimes heard it move, had the curiosity to open the box. astonished to see a little human form uncommonly animated, yet when touched appearing to be nothing but wood--and being little versed in science, but very superstitious--he took the ingenious labour of the philosopher for a little devil, and terminated the experiment of descartes, by throwing his "wooden daughter" into the sea. ------------------ astronomical shoemaker. when halley's comet was expected in , a shoemaker of leicester, named joseph mills, set about tracing the path of the heavenly visitor through the heavens. this he did by drawing its orbit upon his house floor, from which he made a diagram that more accurately represented the course of the comet than any that had been previously published. on being questioned how he had calculated the disturbing forces, so as to come so near the truth; he replied that he could not tell, further than he had performed it by the common rules of arithmetic. ------------------ decline of science. in january, , a poor fellow was taken before the authorities of paris for begging in the streets. he had studied the _science_ of cookery under the celebrated carême, and was the inventor of the delicious _saumon truffé à la broche_. he was in the last garb of want, and attributed his poverty to the decline of cookery from a science to a low art! it has been observed that cooks, in nine cases out of ten, after ministering to the luxury of the opulent, creep into holes and corners, and pass neglected out of the world. ------------------ variable climate of tebreez. tebreez is celebrated as one of the most healthy cities in persia, and it is on this ground alone that we can account for its being so often rebuilt after its repeated demolition by earthquakes. it is seldom free even for a twelvemonth from slight shocks; and it is not yet so much as a century since it was levelled to the ground by one of those terrible convulsions of nature. sir john malcolm, when he visited this place, was more surprised at its salubrity, from knowing the great extremes of heat and cold to which it is subject; having obtained from a friend who had resided there during the whole of the preceding year, a most accurate diary of the various changes of its climate. "from this, it appeared that on the th of october there was a heavy fall of snow, which did not, however, remain long upon the ground: the weather again became mild, and there was no excessive cold until the middle of december, from which period, until the end of january, fahrenheit's thermometer, when exposed to the air at night, never rose above zero; and in the house at mid-day it was seldom above °. "january was by far the coldest month. during it, the water is described as becoming almost instantaneously solid in the tumblers upon the dining-table, and the ink often freezing in the ink-stand, although the table was close to the fire. for at least a fortnight, not an egg was to be had, all being split by the cold. some bottles of wine froze, although covered with straw, and many of the copper ewers were split by the expansion of the water when frozen in them. "according to this diary, the weather became comparatively mild towards the end of february; but it appears that here, as in england, 'a lingering winter chills the lap of may;' for, on the first of that month, there was a heavy fall of snow, with such cold that all promise of the spring was destroyed. of the heat that ensued, and the sudden and great changes to which tebreez is subject, we had abundant proof; in the month of june, the range of the thermometer being usually, within the twenty-four hours, from ° to °,--a difference of °. "the extreme heat of the summer causes most of the houses in tebreez to be built so as to admit the air during that season; but the architects of persia fall short of their brethren in europe, in forming places by which the cool air can be admitted in summer, and excluded in winter. this partly accounts for the above effects of cold; but the city of tebreez, and many more parts of aderbejan, and still more of the neighbouring province of kûrdistan, though nowhere beyond the th degree of latitude, are, from their great elevation, subject to extreme cold. in the latter country (says sir john malcolm) i found, on the morning of the th of august, ice half an inch thick on a basin of water standing in my tent."[ ] ----- footnote : sketches of persia. ------------------ strychnine a remedy for paralysis. strychnine (obtained in the greatest purity from the upas tiente) has been used successfully for this purpose. one of dr. bardesley's patients in lincolnshire, who was experiencing the return of sensation in his paralyzed limbs, under the use of strychnine, asked if there was not something _quick_ in the pills; _quick_ for _alive_ being still in use in that part of england. ------------------ rapid manufacture. many years ago, the late sir john throckmorton sat down to dinner, dressed in a coat which, the same morning, had been wool on the back of the sheep. the animals were sheared; the wool washed, carded, spun, and woven; the cloth was scoured, fulled, sheared, dyed, and dressed; and then, by the tailor's aid, made into a coat, between sunrise and the hour of seven, when a party sat down to dinner, with sir john, as their chairman, wearing the product of the active day! ------------------ discoveries anticipated. from time immemorial, the inhabitants of some distant regions have carried on their nocturnal or underground manufactures by natural gas, obtained through a hollow reed thrust into the earth. arriving at modern times, navigation by the archimedes screw, as a propeller, through the means of steam, attracted the notice of the scottish society of arts in ; but, above twenty years previously, an experiment with similar screws, adapted to a boat, on the lake lochend, by mr. whytock, a member of the society, proved the efficiency of the invention, though on a small scale. in scotland, an agricultural society was established in ; a thrashing-machine appeared in ; and a reaping-machine in . ------------------ the first use of jesuit's bark. a casual circumstance, it is said, discovered that excellent febrifuge, the jesuit's bark. an indian in a delirious fever was left by his companions, as incurable, by the side of a river, to quench his burning thirst while dying. he naturally drank copious draughts of the water, which, having long imbibed the virtues of the bark, that floated abundantly on the stream, quickly dispersed the fever of the indian. he returned to his friends, and explained the nature of his remedy; and the sick crowded about the margin of the holy stream (as they imagined it) till they had quite exhausted its virtues. the sages of the tribe found out at length, however, whence the efficacy of the stream arose. the indians discovered it first, in , to the lady of a viceroy of peru, who by its use recovered of a dangerous fever; and in it was known at rome. ------------------ nice robbery. m. bachalier, a french florist, kept some beautiful species of the anemone to himself, which he had procured from the east indies; and he succeeded in withholding them, for ten years, from all who wished to possess them likewise. a counsellor of the parliament, however, one day paid him a visit, while the anemones were in seed, and in walking with him round the garden contrived to let his gown fall upon them. by this means he swept off a good number of the seeds; and his servant, who had been apprised of the scheme, dexterously wrapt up the gown and secured them. any one must have been a sour moralist who should have considered this to be a breach of the eighth commandment. ------------------ female mathematician. in the year , the french academy of sciences proposed, as a subject for a prize, "the propagation of heat," when the marchioness of châtelet entered the list of competitors. her work was not only an elegant account of all the properties of heat at that time known to natural philosophers, but it was also remarkable for various proposals for experiments; one, among others, which was afterwards followed up by herschel, and from which he derived one of the chief gems in his brilliant scientific crown. ------------------ fourier's independence. it was only occasionally that the real character of fourier, the french philosopher, showed itself. "it is strange," said, one day, a certain very influential person belonging to the court of charles x., whom the servant, joseph, would not allow to get further than fourier's ante-chamber--"it is really strange that your master should be more difficult of access than a minister." fourier, overhearing this remark, jumped out of bed, to which he had been confined by indisposition, opened the room door, and facing the courtier, exclaimed, "joseph, tell the gentleman, that if i were a minister, i should receive everybody, because such would be my duty: as a private individual, i receive whom i think fit, and when i think fit." the grandee, disconcerted by the liveliness of the sally, did not answer a word. we must even suppose that from that instant he determined to visit nobody but ministers, for the simple _savant_ heard no more of him. ------------------ mechanical triumphs. the direct and almost instant benefits of mechanical inventions to their originators have been thus eloquently illustrated in the _edinburgh review_:--"contributing, as they do, to our most immediate and pressing wants--appealing to the eye by their magnitude, and often by their grandeur, and associated, in many cases, with the warmer impulses of humanity and personal safety--the labours of the mechanist and engineer acquire a contemporary celebrity, which is not vouchsafed to the results of scientific research, or to the productions of literature and the fine arts. the gigantic steam-vessel, which expedites and facilitates the intercourse of nations--the canal, which unites two distant seas--the bridge and the aqueduct, which span an impassable valley--the harbour and the break-water, which shelter our vessels of peace and of war--the railway, which hurries us along on the wings of mechanism, and the light beacon which throws its directing beams over the deep--address themselves to the secular interests of every individual, and obtain for the engineer who invented or who planned them, a high and a well-merited popular reputation." ------------------ the elgin marbles. these beautiful relics of grecian antiquity cost the earl of elgin , _l._, of which sum he barely received one-half from government; so that lord byron's imputation to the earl of a mercantile spirit in the transaction is notoriously unjust. ------------------ raleigh a chemist. during his confinement in the tower of london, sir walter raleigh devoted a considerable portion of his time to chemical and pharmaceutical investigations; and interesting it is to see how his unsubdued spirit enabled him to make the most of his misfortunes, to surmount difficulties, and to turn ordinary things to extraordinary purposes,--greatly, no doubt, to the amazement of those about him, who marvelled much to behold the splendid courtier, and the captain of a happier day, earnestly employing himself with chemical stills and crucibles in a vacant hen-house! "he has converted," says sir w. wade, the lieutenant of the tower, in a letter to cecil, "a little hen-house in the garden into a still-house, and here he doth spend his time all day in distillations." ------------------ mr. babbage's calculating machine. a calculating machine is a fair subject for a joke. in may, , when an additional grant was applied for in the house of commons, in order to complete mr. babbage's machine, mr. wakley inquired whether it was likely to be of any use to the public? upon this, sir robert peel felicitously replied, that "the machine should be put to calculate the time at which it would be of any use." the calculating machine has certainly not yet been put to any more practical purpose. ------------------ herschel's love of music. sir william herschel was a good musician, yet such was his ardour for astronomical discovery, that at some benefit concert which he gave, he had his telescope fixed in a window, and made his observations between the acts. ------------------ power of the lever. archimedes said, "give me a lever long enough, and a prop strong enough, and with my own weight i will move the world." "but," says dr. arnott, "he would have required to move with the velocity of a cannon-ball for millions of years, to alter the position of the earth a small part of an inch. this feat of archimedes is, in mathematical truth, performed by every man who leaps from the ground; for he kicks the world away from him whenever he rises, and attracts it again when he falls." ------------------ an electrifying machine in persia. when sir james malcolm was in persia, on his first expedition, an electrifying machine which he took with him was one of the chief means of astonishing his persian friends; and with its effects he surprised and alarmed all, from majesty itself to the lowest peasant. at isfahan, all were delighted with the electric machine, except one renowned doctor and lecturer of the college, who, envious of the popularity gained by this display of superior science, contended publicly that the effects produced were moral, not physical; that it was the mummery the europeans practised, and the state of the nervous agitation they excited, which produced an ideal shock; but he expressed his conviction that a man of true firmness of mind would stand unmoved by all that could be produced out of the _glass bottle_, as he scoffingly termed the machine. he was invited to the next experiment, the day arrived, and he came accordingly. this doctor was called "red-stockings," from his usually wearing scarlet hose. he was, notwithstanding his learning and reputed science, often made an object of mirth in the circles of the great and wealthy at isfahan, to whom he furnished constant amusement, from the pertinacity with which he maintained his dogmas. hence, "red-stockings," with all his philosophy, was not overwise. nevertheless, he maintained his ground in the first society, by means common in persia, as in other countries: he was, in fact, a little of the fool,[ ] and not too much of the honest. this impression of his character, combined with his presumption, made sir john malcolm and his party less scrupulous in their preparations to render him an example for all who might hereafter doubt the effects of their boasted electricity; indeed, their persian visitors seemed anxious that the effect should be such as to satisfy the man that had dared them to the trial--that it was physical, not moral. the philosopher, notwithstanding various warnings, came boldly up, and took hold of the chain with both hands, planted his feet firmly, shut his teeth, and evidently called forth all his resolution to resist the shock. it was given; and poor "red-stockings" dropped on the floor, as if he had been shot. there was a momentary alarm; but, on his almost instant recovery, and it being explained that the effect had been increased by the determination to resist it, all gave way to one burst of laughter. the good-natured philosopher took no offence. he muttered something about the reaction of the feelings after being overstrained, but admitted there was more in the glass bottle than he had anticipated. ----- footnote : "_poco di matto_" is deemed by the italians an essential quality in a great man's companion. ------------------ how to measure the shock of an earthquake. dr. buckland relates that in certain places liable to earthquakes, their extent has been measured by _bowls of treacle_, the inclination of the treacle in the bowl showing the quantum of shock; and elsewhere (by a watchmaker) in scotland, by placing a clock against each of the four walls of an apartment, and marking the centre of the disk of the pendulum with chalk: when the shock took place, the derangement caused the pendulum to strike against the back and front of the clock-case, when, of course, a mark would be left indicative of the phenomenon, though not of its amount. ------------------ the drummond light. the importance of simplicity in inventions for popular use, has been shown in the late lieutenant drummond's apparatus for illuminating lighthouses with his oxyhydrogen light; that is, a stream of oxygen and another of hydrogen, directed upon a ball of lime. experimentally, the light has succeeded beyond the expectation of the inventor; but the machinery or apparatus remains to be simplified before it can be worked by the keepers of lighthouses. ------------------ st. pierre's "paul and virginia." baron humboldt, in his _cosmos_, vol. ii., pays the following eloquent tribute to that small production of the creative imagination to which bernardin de st. pierre owes the fairest portion of his literary fame--paul and virginia--a work such as scarcely any other literature can show. "it is," says humboldt, "a simple, but living picture of an island in the midst of the tropic seas, in which, sometimes smiled on by serene and favouring skies, sometimes threatened by the violent conflict of the elements, two young and graceful forms stand out picturesquely from the wild luxuriance of the vegetation of the forest, as from a flowery tapestry. here the aspect of the sea, the grouping of the clouds, the rustling of the breeze in the bushes of the bamboo, and the waving of the lofty palmo, are painted with inimitable truth. "bernardin de st. pierre's master-work, paul and virginia, accompanied me into the zone to which it owes its origin. it was there read for many years by my dear companion and friend, bonpland, and myself; and there (let this appeal to personal feelings be forgiven) under the silent brightness of the tropical sky, or when, in the rainy season, on the shores of the orinoco, the thunder crashed, and the flashing lightnings illuminated the forest, we were deeply impressed and penetrated with the wonderful truth with which this little work paints the power of nature in the tropical zone in all its peculiarity of character. "a similar firm grasp of special features, without impairing the general impression, or depriving the external materials of the free and animating breath of poetic imagination, characterises in an even higher degree the ingenious and tender author of "atala," "rené," "the martyr," and the "journey to greece and palestine." the contrasted landscapes of the most varied portions of the earth's surface are brought together, and made to pass before the mind's eye with wonderful distinctness of vision: the serious grandeur of historic remembrances could alone have given so much depth and repose to the impressions of a rapid journey." ------------------ mythology of science. m. arago, in his brilliant _eloge_ on fourier, observes:--"the ancients had a taste, or rather a passion, for the marvellous, which made them forget the sacred ties of gratitude. look at them, for instance, collecting into one single group the high deeds of a great number of heroes, whose names they have not even deigned to preserve, and attributing them all to hercules. the lapse of centuries has not made us wiser. the public in our time also delight in mingling fiction with history. in all careers, particularly in that of the sciences, there is a design to create herculeses. according to the vulgar opinion, every astronomical discovery is attributable to herschel. the theory of the motions of the planets is identified with the name of laplace, and scarcely any credit is allowed to the important labours of d'alembert, clairaut, euler, and lagrange. watt is the sole inventor of the steam-engine, whilst chaptal has enriched the chemical arts with all those ingenious and productive processes which secure their prosperity." to countervail this error, arago continues: "let us hold up to legitimate admiration those chosen men whom nature has endowed with the valuable faculty of grouping together isolated facts, and deducing beautiful theories from them; but do not let us forget that the sickle of the reaper must cut down the stalks of corn, before any one can think of collecting them into sheaves." ------------------ el dorado of sir walter raleigh. the term _el dorado_ is commonly considered to have reference to the sovereignty teeming with precious metals, which had long been sought for in vain by spanish adventurers. their expeditions in quest of it were directed to the interior of the vast region lying between the orinoco and the amazon, or guiana. the rocks were represented as impregnated with gold, the veins of which lay so near the surface as to make it shine with a dazzling resplendency. the capital, manoa, was said to consist of houses covered with plates of gold, and to be built upon a vast lake, named parima, the sands of which were auriferous. we abridge the following new version of this "romance of history," from a brilliant paper on the life and works of raleigh, in the _edinburgh review_. the term _el dorado_ was not originally used to designate any particular place; it signified generally 'the gilded,' or 'golden,' and was variously applied. according to some, it was first used to denote a religious ceremony of the natives, in covering the anointed body with gold-dust. the whole of guiana was, on account of the above usages, sometimes designated _el dorado_; but the locality of the fable varied. the question, however, to be solved is, whence arose the belief that a district so marvellously abundant with the precious metals existed in the interior of guiana; and the solution appears to have been left to humboldt. while exploring the countries upon the upper orinoco, he was informed that the portion of eastern guiana, lying between the rivers essequibo and branca is 'the classical soil of the dorado of parima.' in the islets and rocks of mica, slate, and talc, which rise up within and around a lake adjoining the parima river, reflecting from their shining surfaces the rays of an ardent sun, we have materials out of which to form that gorgeous capital, the temples and houses of which were overlaid with plates of beaten gold. with such elements to work upon, heated fancies, aided by the imperfect vision of distant and dubious objects, might easily create that fabulous superstructure. we may judge of the brilliancy of these deceptive appearances, from learning that the natives ascribed the lustre of the magellanic clouds, or nebula of the southern hemisphere, to the bright reflections produced by them. there could not well be a more poetical exaggeration of the lustrous effects produced by the metallic hues of rocks of talc. these details, in which m. de pons, a somewhat later traveller, who long resided in an official capacity in the neighbouring countries, fully concurs, in all probability point to the true origin of this remarkable fable. the well-known failure of raleigh did not discourage other adventurers, who were found in quick succession; the last always flattering themselves with the hope that the discovery of _el dorado_ would ultimately be realized. ------------------ amber, a source of international trade. the amber trade, which was probably first directed to the west cimbrian coasts, and only subsequently to the baltic and the country of the esthonians, owes its first origin to the boldness and perseverance of phoenician coast navigators. in its subsequent extension, it offers a remarkable instance of the influence which may be exerted by a predilection for even a single foreign production, in opening an inland trade between nations, and in making known large tracts of country. in the same way that the phocæan massilians brought the british tin across france to the rhone, the amber was conveyed from people to people through germany, and by the celts on either declivity of the alps to the padus, and through pannonia to the borysthenes. it was this inland traffic which first brought the coasts of the northern ocean into connexion with the euxine and the adriatic.--_humboldt's cosmos._ ------------------ antiquity of lightning conductors. a story was formerly repeated in germany, after father angelo cortenoria, that the tomb of the hero of clusium, lars porsena, described by varro, ornamented with a bronze head and bronze pendent chains, was an apparatus for atmospheric electricity, or for conducting lightning, (as were, according to michaelis, the metal points on solomon's temple); but the tale obtained currency at a time when men were much inclined to attribute to ancient nations the remains of a supernaturally revealed primitive knowledge, which was soon after obscured. the most important notice of the relation between lightning and conducting metals (a fact not difficult of discovery) still appears to be that of ctesias: he possessed two iron swords, presents from the king artaxerxes mnemon, and from his mother parysatis, which, when planted in the earth, averted clouds, hail, and strokes of lightning. he had himself seen the operation, for the king had twice made the experiment before his eyes. the exact attention paid by the etruscans to the meteorological processes of the atmosphere in all that deviated from the ordinary course of phenomena, makes it to be lamented that nothing has come down to us from their fulgur red books. the epochs of the appearance of great comets, of the fall of meteoric stones, and of showers of falling stars, would no doubt have been found recorded in them, as in the more ancient chinese annals, of which edward biot has made use. creuzer has attempted to show, that the natural features of etruria may have influenced the peculiar turn of mind of its inhabitants. a "calling forth" of the lightning, which is ascribed to prometheus, reminds us of the pretended "drawing down" of lightning by the fulguratores. this operation consisted in a mere conjuration, and may well have been of no more efficacy than the skinned ass' head, which, in the etruscan rites, was considered a preservative from danger in their thunder-storms.--(_see notes to humboldt's cosmos_, vol. ii.) ------------------ how the deaf may hear. about , a merchant of cleves, named jorissen, who had become almost totally deaf, sitting one day near a harpsichord, while some one was playing--and having a tobacco-pipe in his mouth, the bowl of which rested accidentally against the body of the instrument--was surprised to hear all the notes most distinctly. by a little reflection and practice, he again attained the use of this valuable sense; for he soon learned--by means of a piece of hard wood, one end of which he placed against his teeth, while another person placed the other end on _his_ teeth--to keep up a conversation, and to be able to understand the least whisper. the effect thus described is the same, if the person who speaks rests his stick against his throat or his breast; or when one rests the stick which he holds in his teeth against some vessel into which the other speaks. ------------------ drying wood for violins. some amusing instances are related of the efficiency of "the application of heated currents to manufacturing and other purposes," once patented by davison and symington. thus, a violin had been in the owner's possession for upwards of sixteen years, how old it was when he first had it is not known. upon being exposed to this process, it lost in eight hours no less than five-sixths (nearly five and two-thirds) per cent. of its weight. this there is every reason to believe was owing to the blocks glued inside, for the purpose of holding the more slender parts together. instrument makers would do well to see that all parts, however mean their position in the instrument, are properly seasoned, or divested of moisture; for surely water cannot improve sound. a violin-maker of high reputation, having an order to make an instrument for one of the first violinists of the day, was requested to have the wood seasoned by the new process; only three days were allowed for the experiment, in which the wood was seasoned and sent home. the two heaviest pieces were reduced in weight - / lbs., which is equal to two pints of water. it is ascertained that, by this means of drying, the effect of age has been given to the instrument made from the above wood; and it became _first fiddle_ in the orchestra of her majesty's theatre. the wood had been in the possession of its owners for eight years; and it was sent from switzerland, in the first instance, as dry wood.[ ] ----- footnote : in proof of the economy of messrs. davison and symington's invention applied to the manufacture and cleansing of brewers' casks, it is stated that through its adoption at truman's brewery, spitalfields, a saving of tons of coals was effected annually. ------------------ columbus's own ship journal. columbus has left us some charming descriptions of his own discoveries; though it is only recently that we have obtained the knowledge of his own ship's journal, of his letters to the treasurer sanchez, to donna juana de la torre, governess of the infant don juan, and to queen isabella. humboldt has sought to show with how deep a feeling and perception of the forms and the beauty of nature the great discoverer was endowed, and how he described the face of the earth, and the "new heaven" which opened to his view, with a beauty and simplicity of expression which can only be fully appreciated by those who are familiar with the ancient force of the language as it existed at the period. the aspect and the physiognomy of the vegetation, the impenetrable thickets of the forest, "in which one can hardly distinguish which are the flowers and leaves belonging to each stem;" the wild luxuriance which clothed the humid shores; the rose-coloured flamingoes fishing at the mouth of the rivers in the early morning, and giving animation to the landscape, attract the attention of the old navigator while sailing along the coast of cuba, between the small lucayan islands and the jardinillos. each newly-discovered land appears to him still more beautiful than those he had before described; he complains that he cannot find words in which to record the sweet impressions which he has received. "the loveliness of this new land," says the discoverer, "far surpasses that of the campina de cordoba. the trees are all bright with ever-verdant foliage, and perpetually laden with fruits. the plants on the ground are tall and full of blossoms. the breezes are mild like those in april in castille; the nightingales sing more sweetly than i can describe. at night, other small birds sing sweetly, and i also hear our grasshoppers and frogs. once i came into a deeply-enclosed harbour, and saw high mountains which no human eye had seen before, from which lovely waters streamed down. the mountain was covered with firs, pines, and other trees of very various form, and adorned with beautiful flowers. ascending the river, which poured itself into the bay, i was astonished at the cool shade, the crystal clear water, and the number of singing birds. it seemed as if i could never quit a spot so delightful--as if a thousand tongues would fail to describe it, as if the spell-bound hand would refuse to write." we have here, from the journal of an unlettered seaman, the power which the beauty of nature, manifested in her individual forms, may exert on a susceptible mind. feelings ennoble language; for the prose of the admiral, especially when, on his fourth voyage, at the age of , he relates his wonderful dream on the coast of veragua, is, if not more eloquent, yet far more moving, than the allegorical pastoral romance of boccacio and the two arcadias of sannazaro and sydney; than garcilasso's salicio y nemoroso; or than the diana of jorge de montemayor. ------------------ early incitements to a scientific study of nature. baron humboldt, in the opening of his _cosmos_, vol. ii., recalls the lessons of experience, which tell us how often impressions received by the senses from circumstances, seemingly accidental, have so acted on the youthful mind as to determine the whole direction of the man's course through life. childish pleasure, in the form of countries and of seas, as delineated in maps; the desire to behold those southern constellations which have never risen in our horizon; the sight of palms and of the cedars of lebanon, figured in a pictorial bible, may have implanted in the spirit the first impulse to travel in distant lands. "if i might (says humboldt) have recourse to my own experience, and say what awakened in me the first beginnings of an inextinguishable longing to visit the tropics, i should name george forster's descriptions of the islands of the pacific--paintings, by hodge, in the house of warren hastings, in london, representing the banks of the ganges--and a colossal dragon-tree in an old tower of the botanic gardens at berlin." ------------------ the rights of whitebait. formerly, whitebait were considered to be the young of the shad; and only of late years has the misnamed fish taken its proper position. it appears that mr. yarrell, the able naturalist, was one morning in march struck with the early appearance of whitebait in a fishmonger's shop in st. james's; and knowing that shads, which they were supposed to be, did not make their appearance till much later (may), he took up the matter, and persevered in a course of investigation, which lasted from march to august, . the specific distinction between the two fishes, on which mr. yarrell relies as of the greatest value, is the difference of their anatomical character; and especially in the number of vertebræ, or small bones, extending from the back-bone. "the number of vertebræ in the shad," he states, "of whatever size the specimen may be, is invariably fifty-five, while the number in the whitebait is uniformly fifty-six; even in a fish of two inches, with the assistance of a lens, their exact number may be distinctly made out." ------------------ catching electric eels. humboldt gives a very interesting narrative of the mode of the capture of the gymnoti employed by the indians of south america. this is done by rousing the eels by driving horses and mules into the ponds which those fish inhabit, and harpooning them when they have exhausted their electricity upon the unhappy quadrupeds. "i wished," says humboldt, "that a clever artist could have depicted the most animated period of the attack; the groups of indians surrounding the pond, the horses, with their manes erect, and eye-balls wild with pain and fright, striving to escape from the electric storm which they had roused, and driven back by the shouts and long whips of the excited indians, the livid yellow eels, like great water-snakes, swimming near the surface, and pursuing their enemy: all these objects presented a most picturesque and exciting _ensemble_. in less than five minutes, two horses were killed: the eel, being more than five feet in length, glides beneath the body of the horse, and discharges the whole strength of its electric organ; it attacks at the same time the heart, the digestive viscera, and above all, the gastric plexus of nerves. i thought the scene would have had a tragic termination, and expected to see most of the quadrupeds killed; but the indians assured me that the fishing would soon be finished, and that only the first attack of the gymnoti was really formidable. in fact, after the conflict had lasted a quarter of an hour, the mules and horses appeared less alarmed; they no longer erected their manes, and their eyes expressed less pain and terror. one no longer saw them struck down in the water; the eels, instead of swimming to the attack, retreated from their assailants, and approached the shore." the indians now began to use their missiles; and by means of the long cord attached to the harpoon, jerked the fish out of the water without receiving any shock so long as the cord was dry. all the circumstances narrated by humboldt establish the close analogy between the gymnotus and torpedo in the vital phenomenon attending the exercise of their extraordinary means of offence. the exercise is voluntary and exhaustive of the nervous energy; and, like voluntary muscular effort, it needs repose and nourishment to produce a fresh accumulation. ------------------ sir william herschel's first telescope. sir william herschel arrived in england from hanover, his birth-place, about the end of the year , when he was in his st year. he was bred a professor of music, and went to live at halifax, where he acquired, by his own application, a considerable knowledge of mathematics; and, having studied astronomy and optics in the popular writings of ferguson, he was anxious to witness with his own eyes the wonders of the planetary system. he accordingly borrowed of a friend a telescope, two feet in focal length; and, having directed it to the heavens, he was so delighted with the actual sight of phenomena, which he had previously known only from books, that he commissioned a friend to purchase for him in london a telescope, with a high magnifying power. fortunately for science, the price of such an instrument greatly exceeded his means, and he immediately resolved to construct a telescope with his own hands. after encountering the difficulties which every amateur at first experiences, in the casting, grinding, and polishing, of metallic specula for reflecting telescopes, he completed, in , a reflecting instrument, _five feet_ in focal length, with which he was able to observe the ring of saturn, and the satellites and belts of jupiter. this telescope was completed when he resided at bath, where he acquired by degrees, and in his leisure hours, that practical knowledge of optics and mechanics which was necessary for such a task. his experience in this scientific art was of the most remarkable kind; and, by , he had constructed so many telescopes, as to be better furnished with the means of surveying the heavens than were possessed by any other astronomer, in either of the fixed observatories in europe. ------------------ wonders of australia. sydney smith has thus sketched a few of the natural wonders of this new world:--"in this remote part of the earth, nature (having made horses, oxen, ducks, geese, oaks, elms, and all regular and useful productions, for the rest of the world) seems determined to have a bit of play, and to amuse herself as she pleases. accordingly, she makes cherries with the stone outside; and a monstrous animal, as tall as a grenadier, with the head of a rabbit, a tail as big as a bedpost, hopping along at the rate of five hops to a mile, with three or four young kangaroos looking out of its false uterus, to see what is passing. then comes a quadruped, as big as a large cat, with the eyes, colour, and skin of a mole, and the bill and web-feet of a duck, puzzling dr. shaw, and rendering the latter half of his life miserable, from his utter inability to determine whether it was a bird or a beast. add to this, a parrot with the legs of a sea-gull; a skate with the head of a shark; and a bird of such monstrous dimensions, that a side-bone of it will dine three real carnivorous englishmen;--together with many other productions that, on the discovery of the country, agitated sir joseph banks, and filled him with emotions of distress and delight." ------------------ vicissitudes of mining. humboldt relates of a frenchman, joseph laborde, that he went to mexico very poor in , and acquired a large fortune in a very short time by the mine of la canada. after building a church at tasco, which cost him , _l._, he was reduced to the lowest poverty by the rapid decline of those very mines, from which he had annually drawn from , to , pounds' weight of silver. with a sum of , l., raised by selling a _sun_ of solid gold, which, in his prosperity, he had presented to the church, and which he was allowed by the archbishop to withdraw, he undertook to clear out an old mine, in doing which he lost the greatest part of the produce of this golden sun, and then abandoned the work. with the small sum remaining, he once more ventured on another undertaking, which was, for a short time, highly productive; and he left behind him, at his death, a fortune of , _l_. ------------------ tropical delights. what a ludicrous picture has sydney smith drawn of the animal annoyance of tropical climates. "insects," he says, "are their curse. the bete rouge lays the foundation of a tremendous ulcer. in a moment, you are covered with ticks. chigoes bury themselves in your flesh, and hatch a large colony of young chigoes in a few hours. they will not live together, but every chigoe sets up a separate ulcer, and has his own private portion of pus. flies get into your mouth, into your eyes, into your nose; you eat flies, drink flies, and breathe flies. lizards, cockroaches, and snakes get into your bed; ants eat up the books; scorpions sting you on the foot. everything bites, stings, or bruises. every second of your existence, you are wounded by some piece of animal life, that nobody has ever seen before, except swammerdam and merian. an insect with eleven legs is swimming in your tea-cup; a nondescript, with nine wings, is struggling in the small-beer; or a caterpillar, with several dozen of eyes in his belly, is hastening over the bread and butter. all nature is alive, and seems to be gathering all her entomological hosts to eat you up, as you are standing, out of your coat, waistcoat, and breeches. such are the tropics. all this reconciles us to our dews, fogs, vapours, and drizzle; to our apothecaries rushing about with gargles and tinctures; to our old british constitutional coughs, sore throats, and swelled faces." ------------------ invention of the diving-bell. in the united states of america, generally, and to some extent in england, the invention of the diving-bell has been attributed to sir william phipps; who was, however, one of the first persons who used the bell advantageously, in recovering nearly , l. treasure from a spanish wreck, near the bahamas. the _invention_, or the earliest use of the diving-bell, dates from upwards of a century before the birth of phipps; the first instance of its use being at cadiz, in the presence of charles v., in ; whereas phipps was born at pemaguid, in america, in . there is, likewise, another popular error, that the mulgrave family, of which the present head is the marquess of normanby, descended from sir william phipps; the founder of the mulgrave family being phipps, one of the earliest explorers of the arctic regions. ------------------ experiments with an electric eel. in there was brought to london, and exhibited at the adelaide gallery, in the strand, a living specimen of the electric eel, or gymnotus, being the first received in this country alive within the present century. it was fed upon fish, and occasionally with bullock's blood, and was kept warm by water, artificially heated. with this eel several interesting experiments were made, allowing periods of rest from a week to a month between each set. one of these is thus described:-- "i was so fortunate (says professor owen) as to witness the experiments performed by professor faraday on the large gymnotus which was so long preserved at the adelaide gallery, in london. that the most powerful shocks were received when the one hand grasped the head, and the other hand the tail of the gymnotus, i had painful experience, especially at the wrists, the elbow, and across the back. but our distinguished experimenter showed us that the nearer the hands were together, within certain limits, the less powerful was the shock. he demonstrated by the galvanometer that the direction of the electric current was always from the anterior parts of the animal to the posterior parts, and that the person touching the fish with both hands received only the discharge of the parts of the organs included between the points of contact. needles were converted into magnets; iodine was obtained by polar decomposition of iodide of potassium; and availing himself of this test, professor faraday showed that any given part of the organ is negative to other parts before it, and positive to such as are behind it. finally, heat was evolved, and the electric spark obtained." ------------------ talent and opportunity. previous to the year , the brass ordnance for the british government was cast at the foundry in moorfields; but an accident which occurred there at the above date, led to the removal of the foundry to woolwich. the circumstances connected with this change are interesting, as well as instructive. it appears that a great number of persons had assembled to witness the re-casting of the cannon taken by the duke of marlborough from the french; and there happened to be among them, a young german artisan in metal, named schalch. observing some moisture in the moulds, he pointed out to the spectators around him the danger likely to ensue from an explosion of steam, when the moulds were filled with the heated metal; and at the instigation of his friends, this apprehension was conveyed through colonel armstrong, major-general of the ordnance, to the duke of richmond, then in attendance, as the head of the department. this warning was, however, disregarded; but schalch retired from the spot with as many of the bystanders as he could persuade to accompany him. they had not proceeded far before the furnaces were opened, and, as schalch had foretold, a dreadful explosion ensued. the water in the moulds was converted into steam, which from its expansive force caused a fiery stream of liquid metal to dart out in every direction. part of the roof of the building was blown off, and the galleries that had been erected for the company were swept to the ground. most of the foundrymen were terribly burnt; some were killed; and many of the spectators were severely injured. a few days afterwards, in answer to an advertisement in the newspapers, schalch waited upon colonel armstrong, and was informed by him that the board of ordnance contemplated building a new foundry, and had determined, from the representations made to them of schalch's ability, to offer him the superintendence of its erection, and the management of the entire establishment, when completed. schalch readily accepted the appointment: he fixed upon the warren at woolwich, as the most eligible site for the new building; and the ordnance which were cast here under his direction were highly approved of. thus, almost by mere chance, was the young german appointed to a situation of great trust and emolument, which he filled so ably, that during the many years he was superintendent of the royal arsenal, not a single accident occurred, amidst all the dangerous operations of gun-casting. he retired, after sixty years service, to charlton, where he died; and his tomb may be seen in woolwich church-yard. ------------------ travelling in the himaleh mountains. the perils of the heights and passes of the himâleh are truly frightful. at boorendo, , feet in height, one of the safest and most frequented of the passes, the guides point out a spot where upwards of twenty persons, returning from koonacour with salt, a few years since, perished at once: they were overtaken by a fall of snow when on the other side, but they preferred trying the pass to making a circuit of six or seven days' journey; the wind got up, and they were so benumbed with cold by the time they reached the trees, that they were unable to strike a light, and slept to wake no more. the road to ludak is passable in the middle of winter, and is never shut by snow; but there are frightful accounts of frosts on this route. as protection against these perils, travellers clothe themselves in their journeys with a winter-dress, which is so heavy that it scarcely seems possible for them to walk. putee ram, a traveller, is described as wearing a garment of lambskin, called lapka, with sleeves; the fleecy side was inward, and the exterior covered with sooklat, a kind of warm blanket, dyed blue. there were trousers of the same, long woollen stockings, and over them the usual kind of boots, the foot part stuffed with two inches of wool; and gloves of thick flannel reaching above the elbows; in addition to this, he had a blanket round his waist, another thrown on his shoulders, and a shawl wrapt over his cap and part of his face; such, he said, was the usual garb of a traveller in the winter season; adding, that he was always accompanied by a mule-load of blankets and another lapka, all of which were required at night, when he was obliged to sleep under the snow. ------------------ gold in siberia. the reign of the emperor nicholas has been distinguished by the important discovery, that portions of the great _eastern_ regions of siberia are highly auriferous; viz., the government of tomsk and teniseik, where low ridges, similarly constructed to those on the eastern flank of the ural, and like them, trending from north to south, appear as offsets from the great east and west chain of the altai, which separates siberia from china. and here, it is curious to remark, that a very few years ago, this distant region did not afford a third part of the gold which the ural produced; but by recent researches, an augmentation so rapid and extraordinary has taken place, that in the eastern siberian tract yielded considerably upwards of two-and-a-quarter millions sterling, raising the total gold produce of the russian empire to nearly _three millions sterling_!--_sir r. i. murchison_. ------------------ combinations of the kaleidoscope. the system of endless changes is one of the most astonishing properties of the kaleidoscope. with a number of loose objects--pieces of glass, for example,--it is possible to reproduce any figure we have admired, when it is once lost. centuries may elapse before the same combination returns; if the objects, however, are placed in the cell so as to have very little motion, the same figure may be recalled, and if actually fixed, the same pattern will return in every evolution of the object-plate. a calculation of the number of forms is given upon the ordinary principles of combination; namely, that twenty-four pieces of glass may be combined , , , , , , , , , , , times--an operation the performance of which would take hundreds of thousands of millions of years, even upon the supposition that twenty combinations were effected every minute! ------------------ "the means to the end." from the abundance of clay upon its site, london is, as might be expected, a brick-built city; although the ingenuity of our age has cased miles of streets with cement, to imitate stone. this prevalence of clay is, in great measure, explanatory of the vastness of the metropolis. it is nowhere better illustrated than in the fact of "the five fields," (between pimlico and chelsea,) formerly a clayey swamp, being now the site of some of the finest mansions in london. a few years ago, the clay retained so much water that no one would build there, and "the fields" were the terror of foot-passengers proceeding from westminster to chelsea after nightfall. at length, mr. cubitt, on examining the strata, found them to consist of clay and gravel, of inconsiderable depth. _the clay he removed, and burned into bricks; and by building upon the substratum of gravel, he converted this spot from the most unhealthy to one of the most healthy_, to the immense advantage of the ground landlord and the whole metropolis. this is one of the most perfect adaptations of the means to the end, to be found in the records of the building art. ------------------ india rubber, a century and a half since. every generation is wisest in its own conceit, and the present is continually overrated at the expense of the past. who would have thought that india rubber cloaks were worn in south america upwards of a century since? yet such, forsooth, is the plain fact of history; and disinclined as we are to rob mr. macintosh of the merit of his adaptation, the invention must be awarded to another age; indeed, it is almost one of the antiquities of the new world. in a work entitled _la monarchia indiana_, printed at madrid in , we find a chapter devoted to "very profitable trees in new spain, from which there distil various liquors and resins." among them is described a tree called _ulquahuill_, which the natives cut with a hatchet, to obtain the white, thick, and adhesive milk. this when coagulated, they made into balls, called _ulli_, which rebounded very high, when struck to the ground, and were used in various games. it was also made into shoes and sandals. the author continues:--"our people (the spaniards) make use of their _ulli_ to varnish their _cloaks_, made of hempen cloth, _for wet weather_, which are good to resist water, but not against the sun, by whose heat and rays the _ulli_ is dissolved." india rubber is not known in mexico at the present day by any other name than that of _ulli_. and the oiled silk covering of hats very generally worn throughout the country by travellers is always called _ulli_. ------------------ balloon voyage from london to nassau. on monday, november , , mr. monck mason and mr. robert holland accompanied mr. green in his large balloon from london to weilburg, in the grand duchy of nassau, in germany, an extent of british miles, achieved in the short space of eighteen hours. the route lay through a considerable portion of the five kingdoms of england, france, belgium, prussia, germany, and the archduchy of nassau; whilst a long succession of cities, including london, rochester, canterbury, dover, calais, cassel, ypres, courtray, lille, oudenarde, ath, and brussels, (with the renowned fields of waterloo and genappe,) namur, liege, spa, malmedy, coblentz, and a whole host of intermediate villages, were all brought within the compass of the aeronauts' horizon; their superior elevation and various aberrations enabling them to extend far beyond what might be expected from a hasty consideration of the line connecting the two extremities of the route. the voyagers returned to london by steam, and mr. monck mason afterwards published an interesting narrative of the æronautical voyage. the appearance which the balloon exhibited previous to the ascent was very strange. provisions calculated for a fortnight's consumption, in case of emergency; ballast to the amount of upwards of a ton in weight, disposed in bags of different sizes, duly registered and marked; together with an unusual supply of cordage, implements, and other accessories to an aërial excursion, occupied the bottom of the car: while, all around the hoop, and elsewhere appended, hung cloaks, carpet-bags, barrels of wood and copper, a coffee-warmer by means of slaked lime, barometers, telescopes, lamps, wine and spirit flasks, with many other articles designed to serve the purposes of a voyage to regions where, once forgotten, nothing could be supplied. ------------------ antiquity of refined sugar. it appears from the accounts of the chamberlain of scotland, published from the originals in the exchequer, that in the year , _loaves of sugar_ were sold in scotland at the price of s. - / d. (more than an ounce of standard silver) per lb. stow's _survey of london_ states sugar refining to have been commenced in england about ; and upwards of four centuries since we find margaret paston writing to her husband from norwich thus:--"i pray, that ye will vouchsafe to send me another sugar-loaf, for my old one is done." ------------------ clearness of the sky at the cape of good hope. an observer states that in forty-two successive days at the cape, there were only three in which he could not see venus in broad daylight. sir john herschel assures us that he has written a letter by the light of an eclipse of the moon. under these circumstances, the starry heavens presented a brilliance, of which the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere can have no conception; the line from orion to antinous being remarkably rich and brilliant, and appearing as a continuous blaze of light; with, however, a few patches of the sky destitute of stars. ------------------ introduction of the potato. the history of the potato affords a strong illustration of the influence of authority. for more than two centuries, the use of this invaluable plant was vehemently opposed: at last, louis xv. wore a bunch of its blossoms in the midst of his courtiers, and the consumption of the root became universal in france. ------------------ faraday, as a lecturer. von raumer acutely observes:--"mr. faraday is not only a man of profound chemical and physical science, (which all europe knows), but a very remarkable lecturer. he speaks with ease and freedom, but not with a gossiping unequal tone, alternately inaudible and bawling, as some very learned professors do; he delivers himself with clearness, precision, and ability. moreover, he speaks his language in a manner which confirmed me in a secret suspicion i had, that a great number of englishmen speak it very badly. why is it that french in the mouth of mdlle. mars, german in that of tieck, and english in that of faraday, seems a totally different language? because they articulate what other people swallow or chew. it is a shame that the power and harmony of simple speech (i am not talking of eloquence, but of vowels and consonants), that the tones and inflexions which god has given to the human voice, should be so neglected and abused. and those who think they do them full justice--preachers--generally give us only the long straw of pretended connoisseurs, instead of the chopped straw of the dilettanti." ------------------ the railway system suggested. a striking suggestion of the extension of railway communication into a "system," as connecting lines are now called, will be found in sir richard phillips's _morning's walk from london to kew_, published in . on reaching the surrey iron railway at wandsworth, sir richard records: "i found renewed delight on witnessing, at this place, the economy of horse labour on the iron railway. yet a heavy sigh escaped me, as i thought of the inconceivable millions which have been spent about malta, four or five of which might have been the means of extending _double lines of iron railway_ from london to edinburgh, glasgow, holyhead, milford, falmouth, yarmouth, dover, and portsmouth! a reward of a single thousand would have supplied coaches and other vehicles, of various degrees of speed, with the best tackle for readily turning out; and we might, ere this, have witnessed our mail coaches running at the rate of miles an hour, drawn by a single horse, or _impelled miles an hour by blenkinsop's steam-engine_. such would have been a legitimate motive for overstepping the income of a nation; and the completion of so great and useful a work would have afforded rational ground for public triumph in general jubilees!" the writer of these penetrative remarks lived until , so that he had the gratification of witnessing a triumph akin to his long-cherished hope. ------------------ lord brougham's blunders. dr. young's theory of light was treated with the most sovereign contempt by lord brougham, in the earlier numbers of the _edinburgh review_; and dr. young died without reaping the honour of his discovery. the theory is now recognised as true; and m. arago has formally vindicated dr. young from the noble critic's animadversions, in a discourse delivered at the french institute. in , when the first application was made to parliament on gas-lighting, the movers in the project were much opposed; a committee of the house of commons was granted, but the application terminated unsuccessfully; and the testimony of mr. accum to the practicability of gas-lighting exposed him to the severe animadversions and ridicule of mr. brougham. ------------------ who first doubled the cape of good hope? "why, vasco de gama, to be sure"--perhaps, the reader will reply. in portugal, however, a much more ancient navigator has been mentioned. vieyra, an old preacher of great renown at lisbon, said in one of his sermons:--"one man only passed the cape of good hope before the portuguese. and who was he? and how? it was jonah, in the whale's belly. the whale (or rather great fish) went out of the mediterranean because he had no other course; he kept the coast of africa on the left, scoured along ethiopia, passed by arabia, took post in the euphrates, on the shores of nineveh, and, making his tongue serve as a plank, landed the prophet there." ------------------ the first kaleidoscope. when, by a happy accident, sir david brewster had discovered the leading principles of the kaleidoscope while repeating biot's experiments on the action of fluids upon light, he constructed an instrument in which he fixed permanently, across the ends of the reflectors, pieces of coloured glass, and other irregular objects. but it was not till some time afterwards that the great step towards the completion of the instrument was made, in the idea of giving motion to these objects, which were placed loosely in a cell at the end of the instrument. when this idea was carried into execution, the kaleidoscope in its simple form was completed. the next and by far the most important step of the invention was, to employ a draw tube and lens, by means of which beautiful forms could be created from objects of all sizes, and at all distances from the observer. in this way, the power of the kaleidoscope was indefinitely extended, and every object in nature could be introduced into the picture, in the same manner as if these objects had been reduced in size, and actually placed at the end of the reflector. ------------------ ferguson and his wife. james ferguson and his wife led a cat-and-dog life, and she is not once alluded to in the philosopher's autobiography. about the year , one evening, while he was delivering to a london audience a lecture on astronomy, his wife entered the room in a passion, and maliciously overturned several pieces of the apparatus; when all the notice ferguson took of the catastrophe was the observation to the audience--"ladies and gentlemen, i have the misfortune to be married to this woman." ------------------ a descent in a diving-bell. sir george head, in his shrewdly humorous _home tour_, gives an amusing picture of a pair of operative divers whom he saw in the hull docks. sir george was passing as the workmen were raising the diving-bell, when he stepped into the lighter to observe the state of the labourers on their return from below. he had a remarkably good view of their features, at a time when they had no reason to expect any one was looking at them; for, as the bell was raised very slowly, he had an opportunity of seeing within it, by stooping, the moment its side was above the gunwale of the lighter. but, sir george shall relate what he saw:-- "a pair of easy-going, careless fellows, each with a red nightcap on his head, sat opposite one another, by no means over-heated or exhausted, and apparently with no other want in the world than that of 'summut to drink;' they had been under water exactly two hours. i asked them what were their sensations on going down? they said that, before a man was used to it, it produced a feeling as if the ears were bursting; that, on the bell first dipping, they were in the habit of holding their noses; at the same time of breathing as gently as possible, and that thus they prevented any disagreeable effect: they added, the air below was hot, and made a man thirsty;--the latter observation, though in duty bound i received as a hint, i believe to be true; nevertheless, the service cannot be formidable, as the extra pay is only one shilling per day. had there been any thing extraordinary to see below, i should have asked permission to go down; but the water was by no means clear, and the muddy bottom of the docks was not a sufficient recompence for the disagreeable sensation. two men descend at a time, and four pump the air into the bell through the leathern hose; the bell is nearly a square, or rather an oblong, vessel of cast-iron, with ten bull's-eye lights at the top, which lights are fortified within by a lattice of strong iron wire, sufficient to resist an accidental blow of a crowbar, or other casualty.--notwithstanding the great improvements made in diving-bells since their invention, after all precautions, a man in a diving-bell is, certainly, in a state of awful dependence upon human aid: in case of the slightest accident to the air-pump, or even a single stitch of the leathern hose giving way, long before the ponderous vessel could be raised to the surface, life must be extinct." ------------------ sir humphry davy an angler. laybach, in styria, is interesting, for having been the retreat of sir humphry davy not long before his death: he resided in an hotel here, and the pretty daughter of the hostess relates several anecdotes of him. he was a most indefatigable angler: his extraordinary success in transferring the trout to his basket procured for him the title of "the english wizard;" and the scared peasants, who could never understand by what artificial means he caught the fish, shunned him as if he had been his satanic majesty. he spent the greater part of the day in angling, or in geologizing among the mountains; he generally passed his evenings in the company of his hostess' pretty daughter, who made his tea, and was his antagonist at écarté, or some other light game; and the maid of the inn played her cards so well, that she secured a handsome legacy from the philosopher in his will. ------------------ miss caroline lucretia herschel. this very interesting lady died at hanover on the th of january, , in the th year of her age. she was the sister of sir william herschel; and consequently, aunt to sir john herschel, the present representative of this truly scientific family. miss herschel was the constant companion of her brother, and sole assistant of his astronomical labours, to the success of which her indefatigable zeal, diligence, and singular accuracy of calculation, not a little contributed. from the first commencement of his astronomical pursuits, her attendance on both his daily labours and nightly watches was put in requisition; and was found so useful, that on herschel's removal from bath to datchet, and subsequently to slough, he being then occupied with the review of the heavens and other researches, she performed the whole of the arduous duties of his astronomical assistant; not only reading the clocks and noting down all the observations from dictation as an amanuensis, but subsequently executing the extensive and laborious numerical calculations necessary to render them available to science. for the performance of these duties, his majesty king george the third was pleased to place her in the receipt of a salary sufficient for her singularly moderate wants and retired habits. arduous, however, as these occupations must appear, especially when it is considered that her brother's observations were always carried on (circumstances permitting) till daybreak, without regard to season, and indeed chiefly in winter, they proved insufficient to exhaust her activity. in the intervals, she found time both for astronomical observations of her own, and for the execution of more than one work of great extent and utility. the observations she made with a small newtonian sweeper, constructed for her by her brother, with which she found no less than eight comets; and on five of these occasions her claim to the _first_ discovery is admitted. these sweeps also proved productive of the detection of several remarkable nebulæ and clusters of stars, previously unobserved. on her brother's death, in , miss herschel returned to hanover, which she never again quitted; passing the last twenty-six years of her life in repose--enjoying the society, and cherished by the regard of, her remaining relatives and friends; gratified by the occasional visits of eminent astronomers, and honoured with many marks of favour and distinction on the part of the king of hanover, the crown prince, and his amiable and illustrious consort. to within a very short period of her death, her health continued uninterrupted, her faculties perfect, and her memory (especially of the scenes and circumstances of former days) remarkably clear and distinct. her end was tranquil and free from suffering--a simple cessation of life. we append the following just and eloquent tribute to the merits of miss herschel, from dr. nichol's "views of the architecture of the heavens:"-- "the astronomer (sir william herschel), during these engrossing nights, was constantly assisted in his labours by a devoted maiden sister, who braved with him the inclemency of the weather--who heroically shared his privations that she might participate in his delights--whose pen, we are told, committed to paper his notes of observations as they issued from his lips; 'she it was,' says the best of authorities, 'who, having passed the nights near the telescope, took the rough manuscripts to her cottage at the dawn of day, and produced a fair copy of the night's work on the ensuing morning; she it was who planned the labour of each succeeding night, who reduced every observation, made every calculation, and kept everything in systematic order;' she it was--miss caroline herschel--who helped our astronomer to gather an imperishable name. this venerable lady has in one respect been more fortunate than her brother; she has lived to reap the full harvest of their joint glory. some years ago, the gold medal of our astronomical society was transmitted to her at her native hanover, whither she removed after sir william's death; and the same learned society has recently inscribed her name upon its roll: but she has been rewarded by yet more, by what she will value beyond all earthly pleasures; she has lived to see her favourite nephew, him who grew up under her eye unto an astronomer, gather around him the highest hopes of scientific europe, and prove himself fully equal to tread in the footsteps of his father." ------------------ tycho brahe's credulity. this great astronomer strongly--and weakly--believed in the predictions of astrology. if, when he went abroad, he met an old woman, or a hare crossed his path, he would turn back, being persuaded that evil was threatened him. ------------------ invention of the telescope, and early discoveries with it. it is singular that the epoch of the most extensive discoveries upon the surface of our planet was immediately succeeded by man's first taking possession of a considerable part of the celestial spaces by the telescope. the powers of this instrument have not yet reached their limit. the feeble commencement, however hardly magnifying as much as thirty-two times in linear dimension, enabled astronomers to penetrate into cosmical depths, before unknown. the accidental discovery of the space-penetrating power of the telescope was first made in holland, probably as early as the close of . according to the latest documentary investigations, this great invention may be claimed by hans lippershey, a native of wesel and a spectacle-maker at middelburg, who, on the nd of october, , offered to the states-general certain instruments "with which one can see to a distance." two other persons, adrienz and jansen, made a similar offer, nearly at the same time. when the news of the dutch invention reached venice, galileo was accidentally present; he at once divined what were the essential conditions of the construction, and immediately completed a telescope at padua for his own use. he directed it first to the mountains in the moon; then examined with small magnifying powers the group of the pleiades, the cluster of stars in cancer, the milky way, and the group of stars in the head of orion. then followed in quick succession the great discovery of the four satellites of jupiter, the two "handles" of saturn, or his surrounding ring imperfectly seen, so that its true character was not at once recognised; the solar spots, and the crescent form of venus. the occultations of the satellites, or their entrance into the shadow of jupiter, led to the knowledge of the velocity of light; and led galileo to perceive their importance in the determination of the longitude of places on land. galileo carried his first telescope to venice, where his time for more than a month was employed in showing and explaining its nature to the different inhabitants. a ludicrous instance is related of the insatiable telescope mania which had seized on the people. galileo went one day to the tower of st. mark, in order to make observations on its summit, but the people espied him, and compelled him to hand a telescope which he had made for himself, from one to another, until all had gratified their curiosity by having a peep; and, after he had been detained several hours, he was not a little glad to regain his telescope, and return home. but this was not all: he heard them inquiring at what inn he lodged; and foreseeing the inconvenience of the celebrity which was beginning to attach to him, he left venice early the next morning, to pursue his observations with greater privacy. melancholy is it to relate that these brilliant disclosures brought temporary disgrace and positive suffering upon their author. galileo, at the age of seventy-seven, after having devoted his life to useful and valuable labours, was forced to abjure his philosophical opinions, and to declare, on his knees, that he believed his doctrines concerning the motion of the earth round the sun, the existence of solar spots, &c., to be false and pernicious. the moral firmness of the old man was not sufficient to make him brave the terrors of the inquisition, and we must therefore look with a lenient eye at this abjuration of doctrines which at the very moment he firmly believed to be true: but what shall we say of those men, who, under the plea of religion, could subject so noble a mind to such humiliating degradation! ------------------ identity of black and green tea. green and black tea are produced from the same plant, though the botanists were long at issue about this matter. the idea of green tea being dried upon copper is proved to be a popular fallacy, for the tea would be flavoured and spoiled in the process; besides, the bloom can be given by harmless means. dr. lettsom, by the way, thought it was given by a vegetable process. mr. ball, who has written a practical volume on "the cultivation and manufacture of tea," describes an experiment made by him, proving that tea may be dried _black and green_, at once, in the same vessel and over the same fire: he divided the pan, and the leaves on one side he kept in motion, and the other quiet--when the latter became black, and the former green; thus proving the difference of colour to be not derived from any management of heat, but from manipulation, the heat being the same in both cases. at the same time, certain chinese rogues glaze our hysons most unscrupulously; and it has been proved by chemical analysis, that the chinese green teas are artificially coloured, though not with indigo, as represented by the green tea merchants. we may add, that gunpowder tea is dried at the highest temperature, and pekoe at the lowest; and the chemical cause of black tea is its loss of tannin in its drying, previous to roasting, an opinion that is supported by the testimony of liebig. again, mr. ball thinks there may be one species of tea plant, but several varieties, and that all botanical difference is destroyed in the course of packing. ------------------ protection by rust. rust is usually associated with decay. professor faraday, however, observes that, in some cases, it is curious to see how tin, a metal having a slight attraction for oxygen, protects other metals from oxidation or rust. in canada, tin-plate is used for the roofs of houses, and you are dazzled by the lustre of the setting sun upon the roofs; whilst there, although it is exposed to the atmosphere year after year, it does not decay, because the superficial coat of oxide protects the tin and iron beneath. ------------------ the lion eaten as food. captain c. kennedy, in his "journey through algeria and tunis," notes:--"we were anxious to know if there was any chance of another lion being found in the neighbourhood, and were informed that doubtless there were plenty; but such was the nature of the ground, that, unless their exact haunts were known (in which case they were generally killed), we might go out for a fortnight, and never encounter a single beast. the skins of all lions killed throughout the regency are sent to the bey, who pays a handsome premium upon each. the flesh is eaten: contrary to our expectation, we found it excellent, and made a capital supper upon the ends of the ribs, stewed with a little salt and red pepper; it tasted like very young beef, and was neither tough nor strong flavoured." ------------------ the moon seen through lord rosse's telescope. in , the rev. dr. scoresby had the gratification of observing the moon through the stupendous telescope constructed by lord rosse, at parsonstown. it appeared like a globe of molten silver, and every object of the extent of one hundred yards was quite visible. edifices, therefore, of the size of york minster, or even of the ruins of whitby abbey, might be easily perceived, if they had existed. but there was no appearance of anything of that nature; neither was there any indication of the existence of water, or of an atmosphere. there were a great number of extinct volcanoes, several miles in breadth; through one of them there was a line of continuance about miles in length, which ran in a straight direction, like a railway. the general appearance, however, was like one vast ruin of nature; and many of the pieces of rock driven out of the volcanoes, appeared to lie at various distances. ------------------ longevity of the beetle. some facts recently stated to the british association may, perhaps, shake faith in the "corporal sufferance" of the beetle, whose cause has been so eloquently pleaded by shakspeare. sir g. richardson has exhibited a beetle found imbedded in some artificial concrete, where it must have been at least sixteen years; yet, when the animal was brought to him, it was alive, and lived for six weeks after--the ordinary duration of the life of this species of beetle being but two or three years. mr. darwin left one of the same kind of beetles in a covered vessel for a year, without its being killed; he also dropped upon one hydrocyanic acid, but it walked off, quite unaffected by the poison. ------------------ total eclipse of the sun. sagua la grande, on the island of cuba, was the only place where total darkness was produced by the eclipse of the sun, on the th of july, . the eclipse phenomenon commenced at h. m. s. a.m., sky clear. as the time of the total darkness approached, all animated nature gave signs of approaching night, man only excepted. still, the mirth of the gay donnas and senoras soon ceased; the slaves abandoned their occupations, and many fell on their knees. the darkness came on gradually, and at minutes past , the sun was totally obscured. there stood the moon, covering the whole face of the sun, and presenting the appearance of a great black ball in the heavens, with rays of light diverging from behind it. the rays gave out a pale, aurora-like reflection upon the earth, resembling that cast by the moon when half-full. this lasted only fifty seconds; and, at a little past , the eclipse ended. ------------------ the diving-bell. was first used in europe at toledo, in spain, in , before charles v. and , spectators. the experiment was made by two greeks, who, taking a very large kettle suspended by ropes with the mouth downward, fixed planks in it, on which they placed themselves, and with a lighted candle gradually descended to a considerable depth. ------------------ rate of balloon travelling. mr. green relates some singular experiences of the variety of currents in our atmosphere, influencing the rate of his aërial travelling. he has found that at a great elevation, the north-west current generally prevails throughout the year, without reference to the direction of the wind near the earth; this constant current being at an elevation of from , to , feet. this upper current carries his balloon at the rate of six miles an hour; whilst the lower current wafts it at the rate of thirty miles an hour. he states, that in one of his ascents from liverpool, he entered the constant current at an elevation of , feet, and descended into a lower south-east current at the height of , feet; the former carrying his balloon at the rate of five miles, and the latter at the rate of eighty miles an hour. he has travelled ninety-seven miles in fifty-eight minutes, and his speed has often been from sixty to eighty miles an hour. ------------------ safe descent in a parachute. this feat, of very rare occurrence, was accomplished in september, , when mr. hampton ascended with a parachute attached to a gas balloon, from cheltenham, to the height of feet. at this altitude, he cut the connecting-cord, when the balloon rose for some hundred feet, and burst; mr. hampton safely descending in the parachute, within thirteen minutes; the collapsed balloon having reached the earth before him. ------------------ "fossil rain." in , there was discovered at liverpool, the impression of a fossil shower of rain upon sandstone. dr. buckland observes of the phenomenon:--"it could not be mistaken for ripple of the water, that was common enough: it had all the small-pox character, the pitted appearance, which a heavy shower of rain would leave, and which would be covered up by the next tide, and so preserved to future generations." ------------------ melting of a watch by lightning. during a violent thunder-storm in , a fishing-boat, belonging to one of the shetland islands, was struck by lightning. the electric fluid came down the mast, which it tore into shivers; and melted a watch in the pocket of a man who was sitting close by the side of the mast, without injuring him. not only was the man altogether unhurt, but his clothes also were uninjured; and he was not aware of what had taken place until, on taking out his watch, he found it was fused into a mass! ------------------ the indian jugglers' secret. lieutenant hutton states, that the snakes which the indian jugglers handle with impunity are drugged with opium, which renders them quiet and harmless. the effects of the drug will not wear off for a fortnight or three weeks; but a drugged snake which lieutenant hutton purchased, after the lapse of three weeks, flew at him unexpectedly, and nearly strangled him. ------------------ the art of stereotype. the first person mentioned as practising the modern art of stereotype, was a dutchman, van der mey, who resided at leyden about the end of the sixteenth century. he printed four books from solid plates; but at his death the art of preparing solid blocks was lost, or wholly neglected. in , however, mr. ged, a jeweller of edinburgh, apparently without knowledge of van der mey's performances, devised the plan of printing from plates; and in he entered into partnership with three other persons, for the purpose of prosecuting the art. a privilege was obtained by the company, from the university of cambridge, to print bibles and prayer-books; but one of ged's partners was so averse to the success of the plan, that he engaged such people for the work as he thought most likely to spoil it. the compositors wilfully made errors in correcting, and the pressmen battered the plates when the masters were absent. in consequence, the books were suppressed by authority, and the plates melted. mr. ged, with the help of his son, whom he had apprenticed to the printing trade, actually produced, in , an mo edition of sallust; and in another book was printed in newcastle. but after the death of ged and his son, the art again fell into disuse, till in it was revived by mr. tulloch of glasgow, who practised it in partnership with mr. foulis, the university printer. ------------------ "raining trees." during sir john herschel's residence at the cape of good hope, he often observed that on the windward side of the table mountain the clouds were spread out and descended very low, but frequently without any rain falling; while, on the lee-side they poured over the precipitous face of the mountain, producing as they rolled out, the well-known phenomenon of the table-cloth. sir john, however, found that as he walked under fir-trees in the neighbourhood, while the clouds were closely overhead, he was subjected to a copious shower; but on coming from beneath the trees it was fair. on inquiring into the cause of this, he ascertained that the cloud was condensed on the trees, and thus the umbrella-shaped tops of the firs acted a part quite the reverse of our umbrellas in this country, for they wetted the person beneath them, instead of keeping him dry. ------------------ the invisible dispatch. the plan of writing with rice-water, to be rendered visible by the application of iodine, was practised with great success in the correspondence during the war in affghanistan. the first letter of this kind was received from jellalabad, concealed in a quill. on opening it, a small paper was unfolded, on which appeared only a single word, "iodine." the magic liquid was applied, and an important dispatch from sir robert sale stood forth. ------------------ tame hyÆna. when the traveller, ignatius pallme, was at kordofan, he saw in the court of a house at lobeid, a hyæna running about quite domesticated. the children of the proprietor tamed it, took the meat thrown to it for food out of its jaws, and put their hands even to its throat without receiving the slightest injury. when the family sat down to dinner in the open air, the animal approached the table, and snapped up the pieces that were thrown to it, like a dog. a full-grown hyæna and her two cubs, on another occasion, were brought to our traveller for sale; the latter were carried in arms, as you might carry a lamb, and were not even muzzled. the old one, it is true, had a rope round her snout, but she had been led a distance of twelve miles by one man without offering the least resistance. the africans do not even reckon the hyæna among the wild beasts of their country, for they are not afraid of it. ------------------ novel travelling carriage. in , a carriage was built for a gentleman at kensington, which, for completeness, equalled sir samuel morland's celebrated cooking-carriage, of the seventeenth century. it was divided into two apartments, an anti-room, and a drawing-room and bed-chamber with every comfort. the anti-room contained a table, drawers, and culinary utensils; and the drawing-room was furnished with sofas, sofa-bedstead, six chairs, table, cupboards, and a chandelier for nine lights; a stove and fuel. the length of the carriage was twenty-nine feet, and the breadth nine feet; and the length of the drawing-room twenty-feet. the whole weighed two tons and a half. ------------------ enemies of the ostrich. the ostrich would appear to be a bird of many enemies, from the following statement in sir j. e. alexander's narrative of his expedition of discovery in south africa: "according to native testimony, the male ostrich sits on the nest (which is merely a hollow place scooped out in the sand) during the night, the better to defend the eggs from jackals and other nocturnal plunderers. towards morning, he _brummels_, or utters a grumbling sound, for the female to come and take his place; and she sits on the eggs during the cool of the morning and evening. in the middle of the day, the pair, leaving the eggs in charge of the sun, and 'forgetting that the foot may crush them, or the wild beast break them,' employ themselves in feeding off the tops of bushes in the plain near the nest. looking aloft at this time of day, a white egyptian vulture may be seen, soaring in mid-air, with a large stone between his talons. having carefully surveyed the ground below him, he suddenly lets fall the stone, and then follows it in rapid descent. let the hunter run to the spot, and he will find a nest of, probably, a score of eggs, (each equal in size to twenty-four hen's eggs,) some of them broken by the vulture. the jackal, too, is said to roll the eggs together to break them; and the hyæna pushes them off with his nose, to bury them at a distance." ------------------ fire-proof house on putney heath. upon putney heath, by the road-side, stands an obelisk, to record the success of a discovery made in the last century, of the means of building a house which no ordinary application of ignited combustibles could be made to consume. the inventor was mr. david hartley, to whom the house of commons voted , _l._, to defray the expenses of the experimental building, which stood about one hundred yards from the obelisk. in , king george the third and queen charlotte took their breakfast in one of the rooms; while in the apartment beneath, fires were lighted on the floor, and various inflammable materials were ignited, to attest that the rooms above were fire-proof. hartley's secret lay in the floors being double, and there being interposed between the two boards sheets of laminated iron and copper, not thicker than tinfoil or stout paper, which rendered the floor air-tight, and thereby intercepted the ascent of the heated air; so that, although the inferior boards were actually charred, the metal prevented the combustion taking place in the upper flooring. another experiment took place on the th anniversary of the great fire of london, when a patriotic lord mayor and the corporation of london witnessed the indestructible property of the structure. yet, the invention was never carried into further practice. the house was, many years after, converted into a tasteful villa, although the obelisk records the success of the experiment. ------------------ the last of the alchemists. the last true believer in alchemy was, according to mr. brande, one peter woulfe, who occupied chambers in barnard's inn, holborn, while in london, and usually spent the summer in paris. he died in . about the year , another solitary adept lived, or rather starved, in london, in the person of an editor of an evening newspaper, who expected to compound the alkahest, if he could keep his materials digested in a lamp-furnace for the space of seven years. the lamp burnt brightly during six years eleven months, and some odd days besides; and then, unluckily, it went out. why it went out, the adept could never guess; but he was certain that if the name could only have burnt to the end of the septenary cycle, his experiment must have succeeded. in , sir richard phillips visited "an alchemist," named kellerman, at the village of lilley, midway between luton and hitchen; he was believed by some of his neighbours to have succeeded in discovering the philosopher's stone, and also the universal solvent. he had been a man of fashion, and an adventurer on the turf; but had for many years shut himself up at lilley, and been inaccessible and invisible to the world; his house being barricaded, and the walls of his grounds protected by hurdles, with spring-guns, so planted as to resist intrusion in every direction. sir richard, however, obtained an interview with this strange being, and the account of his visit is very graphic:-- "the front-door was opened, and mr. kellerman presented himself. i lament that i have not the pencil of hogarth, for a more original figure never was seen. he was about six feet high, and of athletic make. on his head was a white nightcap, and his dress consisted of a long great-coat, once green, and a sort of jockey waistcoat, with three tiers of pockets. his manner was extremely polite and graceful; but my attention was chiefly absorbed by his singular physiognomy. his complexion was deeply sallow, and his eyes large, black, and rolling. he conducted me into a very large parlour, with a window looking backward, and having locked the door and put the key into his pocket, he desired me to be seated in one of two large armchairs, covered with sheepskins. the room was a realization of the well-known picture of teniers's alchemist. the floor was strewed with retorts, crucibles, alembics, jars, and bottles of various shapes, intermingled with old books, the whole covered with dust and cobwebs. different shelves were filled in the same manner; and on one side stood the alchemist's bed. in a corner, somewhat shaded from the light, i beheld two heads, white, with dark wigs on them; i entertained no doubt, therefore, that, among other fancies, he was engaged in re making the brazen speaking head of roger bacon and albertus." "he then gave me a history of his studies, mentioned some men in london whom i happened to know, and who, he alleged, had assured him that they had made gold. that having, in consequence, examined the works of the ancient alchemists, and discovered the key which they had studiously concealed from the multitude, he had pursued their system under the influence of new lights; and, after suffering numerous disappointments, owing to the ambiguity with which they describe their processes, he had at length happily succeeded; had made gold, and could make as much more as he pleased, even to the extent of paying off the national debt in the coin of the realm." "i yielded to the declaration, expressed my satisfaction at so extraordinary a discovery, and asked him to show me some of the precious metal which he had made." "'not so,' said he, 'i will show it to no one. i made lord liverpool the offer that, if he would introduce me to the king, i would show it to his majesty; but lord liverpool insolently declined, on the ground that there was no precedent; and i am therefore determined that the secret shall die with me. it is true that, in order to avenge myself of such contempt, i made a communication to the french ambassador, prince polignac, and offered to go to france, and transfer to the french government the entire advantages of the discovery; but, after deluding me, and shuffling for some time, i found it necessary to treat him with the same contempt as the others. every court in europe,' he added, 'knows that i have made the discovery, and they are all in a confederacy against me; lest, by giving it to any one, i should make that country master of all the rest--the world, sir,' he exclaimed with great emotion, 'is in my hands, and my power.'" * * * * * "i now inquired whether he had been alarmed by the ignorance of the people in the country, so as to shut himself up in this unusual manner?" "'no,' he replied, 'not on their account wholly. they are ignorant and insolent enough; but it was to protect myself against the governments of europe, who are determined to get possession of my secret by force. i have been,' he exclaimed, 'twice fired at through that window, and three times attempted to be poisoned. they believed i had written a book containing my secrets, and to get possession of this book has been their object. to baffle them, i burnt all that i had ever written; and i have so guarded the windows with spring-guns, and have such a collection of combustibles in the range of bottles which stand at your elbow, that i could destroy a whole regiment of soldiers if sent against me.' he then related that, as a further protection, he lived entirely in that room, and permitted no one to come into the house; while he had locked up every room except that with patent padlocks, and sealed the keyholes." in a conversation of two or three hours with the narrator, kellerman enlarged upon the merits of the ancient alchemists, and on the blunders and impertinent assumptions of modern chemists. he quoted roger and lord bacon, paracelsus, boyle, boerhaave, woolfe, and others, to justify his pursuits. as to the term philosopher's stone, he alleged that it was a mere figure to deceive the vulgar. he appeared to give full credit to the silly story of dee's assistant, kelly, finding some of the powder of projection in the tomb of roger bacon, at glastonbury, by means of which, as he said, kelly for a length of time supported himself in princely splendour. kellerman added, that he had discovered the blacker than black of appolonius tyanus: it was itself "the powder of projection for producing gold." it further appeared he had lived in the premises at lilley for twenty-three years, during fourteen of which he had pursued his alchemical studies with unremitting ardour; keeping eight assistants for the purpose of superintending his crucibles, two at a time, relieving each other every six hours: that he had exposed some preparations to intense heat for many months at a time, but that all except one crucible had burst--and that, kellerman said, contained the true "blacker than black." one of his assistants, however, protested that no gold had ever been found, and that no mercury had ever been fixed, for he was quite sure kellerman could not have concealed it from his assistants; while, on the contrary, they witnessed his severe disappointment at the result of his most elaborate experiments. by the way, in the introduction to _zanoni_, sir e. bulwer lytton has given a clever sketch of an eccentric antiquarian bookseller, in the neighbourhood of covent garden, who is said to have assembled "the most notable collection ever amassed by an enthusiast, of the works of alchemist, cabalist, and astrologer." the "vindictive glare and uneasy vigilance," and the frowning and groaning of the anti-bookseller (for it absolutely went to his heart when a customer entered his shop), are all very characteristic and life-like in this sketch. when free from such annoyance, he might be seen gloating over his musty, unsaleable treasures, on which he had, it was said, spent a fortune. ------------------ celebrated diamonds. we read marvellous records, (in modern books, too,) of the high prices realized for diamonds; but according to dr. ure, "it does not appear that any sum exceeding one hundred and fifty thousand pounds has ever been given for a diamond." this statement, made in the year , has since received signal confirmation. on july , , the nassuck diamond was sold by auction in london, and realised only , l., though it was estimated by the east india company to be worth , l. this diamond was among the spoils which were captured by the combined armies, under the command of the marquis of hastings, in the british conquest of india, and formed part of the "deccan booty." this magnificent gem is as large as a good-sized walnut, weighs - / grains, is of dazzling whiteness, and is as pure as a drop of dew. after the above sale, it was purchased by the marquis of westminster, who more than once wore it on the hilt of his court sword; it was presented by his lordship to the marchioness of westminster, on her birth-day, along with the arcot diamond ear-rings, once belonging to queen charlotte, and disposed of at the above sale for , l. the great mogul's diamond, about the size of half a hen's egg, and the pitt diamond, are well known. among the crown jewels of russia is a magnificent diamond, weighing carats: it is the size of a small pigeon's egg, and was formerly the eye of a brahminical idol, whence it was purloined by a french soldier; it passed through several hands, and was ultimately purchased by the empress catherine, for , l. in ready money, and an annuity of , l. one of the largest diamonds in the world was found in the river abaite, about miles n. w. of the diamond district of serro do frio, in brazil: it is of nearly an ounce in weight, and has been _estimated_ by roma de l'isle at the enormous sum of millions. it is uncut; but the king of portugal, to whom it belonged, had a hole bored through it, in order to wear it suspended about his neck on gala days. no sovereign possessed so fine a collection of diamonds as this prince. in , the brazilian journals announced that a negro had found, in the diamond district of bahia, a rough diamond weighing nearly an ounce. the approximative value was stated at , l., but it was sold by the finder for l. the most celebrated diamond of our times we, however, suspect to be that called "the mountain of light," (_koh-i-noor_,) which belonged to runjeet sing, and now belongs to queen victoria. it was once valued at £ , , , is very brilliant, and without a flaw of any kind. runjeet's string of pearls was, it is thought, if possible, even handsomer than the diamond; they were about three hundred in number, literally the size of small marbles, all picked pearls, and round, and perfect both in shape and colour. two hours before he died, he sent for all his jewels, and gave the above diamond, said to be the largest in the world, to a hindoo temple; his celebrated string of pearls to another; and his favourite fine horses, with all their jewelled trappings, worth , l., to a third. "the nizam's diamond" is another wonderful gem: it was first seen in the hands of a native child in india, who was playing with it, ignorant of its value; and a considerable sum being offered for it, led to the discovery of its being a real diamond. in its rough state, it weighs carats; and as the rough stones are usually taken to give but half of their weight when cut or polished, it would allow carats. ------------------ dr. dee, the necromancer. dr. john dee was a man who made a conspicuous figure in the th century. he was born in london in : he was an eminent scholar and an indefatigable mathematician; when at cambridge, he was mostly occupied eighteen hours out of the twenty-four in study. while here he superintended the exhibition of a greek play of aristophanes, among the machinery of which he introduced an artificial scarabæus, or beetle, which flew up to the palace of jupiter with a man on his back, and a basket of provisions. the astonished spectators ascribed this feat to the arts of the magician; and dee, annoyed by these suspicions, found it convenient to withdraw to the continent. dee's principal study in early life lay in astrology; and accordingly, upon the accession of elizabeth, robert dudley, her chief favourite, was sent to consult the doctor as to the aspect of the stars, that they might fix on an auspicious day for celebrating her coronation. some years after, we find him again on the continent; and in , being taken ill at louvaine, the queen sent over two physicians to attend him. elizabeth afterwards visited him at his house at mortlake, to view his collection of mathematical instruments and curiosities; and about this time employed him to defend her title to countries discovered in different parts of the globe. he says of himself, that he received the most advantageous offers from charles v., ferdinand, maximilian ii., and rodolph, emperor of germany; and from the czar of muscovy an offer of _l._ per annum, on condition that he would reside in his dominions. had dee gone no further than this, all would have been well; but he was ruined by his enthusiasm; he dreamed perpetually of the philosopher's stone, and was haunted with the belief of intercourse with spirits. one day in november, , he tells us that as he was at prayer, there appeared to him the angel uriel at the west window of his museum, who gave him a translucent stone, or crystal, of a convex form, that presented apparitions, and even emitted sounds; so that the observer could hold conversations, ask questions, and receive answers from the figures he saw in this _mirror_. with this speculum, black-stone, or show-stone, dee used to "call his spirits," and kelly, his associate, "did all his feats upon." kelly, who acted as seer, reported what spirits he saw, and what they said; whilst dee, who sat at a table, recorded the spiritual intelligence. a folio volume of their notes was published by casaubon; and many more, containing the most unintelligible jargon, remain in ms. in the british museum, together with the consecrated cakes of wax, marked with mathematical figures and hieroglyphics, used in their mummeries. at length, dee fell into disrepute; his chemical apparatus, and other stock in trade, were destroyed by the mob, who made an attack upon his house; but the mirror is stated to have been saved. it subsequently passed into the collection of the mordaunts, earls of peterborough, in whose catalogue it is called _the black stone, into which dr. dee used to call his spirits_. from the mordaunts it passed to lady elizabeth germaine, and from her to john, duke of argyle, whose son, lord frederick campbell, presented it to horace walpole; and on the breaking up of the collection at strawberry hill in , this precious relic was sold: it was described in the catalogue as "a singularly interesting and curious relic of the superstition of our ancestors on the celebrated speculum of kennel coal, highly polished, in a leathern case." bulwer, in his romance of _zanoni_, introduces a mirror of this kind; and every tale of superstition has its magic glass. it is worth while to compare dee's speculum with the celebrated ink mirror described in lane's work on the _modern egyptians_; it may, at least, illustrate the curious inquiry upon coincident superstitions. ------------------ voyage of manufacture. the produce of our factories has preceded even our most enterprising travellers. captain clapperton saw at the court of the sultan bello, in the interior of africa, pewter dishes with the london stamp, and had at the royal table a piece of meat served up on a white wash-hand basin of english manufacture. the cotton of india is conveyed by british ships round half our planet, to be woven by british skill in the factories of lancashire. it is again set in motion by british capital, and transported to the very plains whereon it grew; and is repurchased by the lords of the soil which gave it birth, at a cheaper price than that at which their coarser machinery enables them to manufacture it themselves. at calicut, (in the east indies,) whence the cotton cloth called calico derives its name, the price of labour is a fraction of that in england, yet the market is supplied from british looms. ------------------ sir david brewster's kaleidoscope. the idea of this instrument, constructed for the purpose of creating and exhibiting a variety of beautiful and perfectly symmetrical forms, first occurred to sir david brewster in , when he was engaged in experiments on the polarization of light, by successive reflections between plates of glass. the reflectors were, in some instances, inclined to each other; and he had occasion to remark the circular arrangement of the images of a candle round a centre, or the multiplication of the sectors formed by the extremities of the glass plates. in repeating, at a subsequent period, the experiments of m. biot on the action of fluids upon light, sir david brewster placed the fluids in a trough, formed by two plates of glass, cemented together at an angle; and the eye being necessarily placed at one end, some of the cement, which had been pressed through between the plates, appeared to be arranged into a regular figure. the remarkable symmetry which it presented led to dr. brewster's investigation of the cause of this phenomenon; and in so doing, he discovered the leading principles of the kaleidoscope. by the advice of his friends, dr. brewster took out a patent for his invention; in the specification of which he describes the kaleidoscope in two different forms. the instrument, however, having been shown to several opticians in london, became known before he could avail himself of his patent; and, being simple in principle, it was at once largely manufactured. it is calculated that not less than , kaleidoscopes were sold in three months in london and paris; though, out of this number, dr. brewster says, not, perhaps, one thousand were constructed upon scientific principles, or were capable of giving anything like a correct idea of the power of his kaleidoscope. ------------------ lord rosse's leviathan telescope. the late earl of rosse, with a devotion to science which has few parallels, constructed this gigantic telescope, at his seat, parsonstown, in the south of ireland. to the frame of the vast instrument is fixed a large cubical wooden box, about eight feet wide; in this there is a door, through which two men go in to remove, or to replace, the cover of the mirror. to this box is fastened the tube, which is made of deal staves, and hooped like a huge cask. it is about feet long, and feet diameter in the middle. _the dean of ely once walked through the tube with an umbrella up!_ the stupendous speculum weighs three tons; the casting and polishing of it were labours of wonderful skill. the telescope is not turned to any part of the sky, but limited to the range of half an hour on each side of the meridian, through which its motion is given by powerful clockwork, independent of the observer. for this purpose it stands between two pieces of masonry, of gothic design, which harmonize with lord rosse's castle; one of these piers sustaining the galleries for the observer, and the second the clockwork and other apparatus. there is an elegant arrangement of counterpoises to balance the enormous mass, so that a comparatively slight force only is required to elevate or depress it. a correspondent of the _mechanics' magazine_ thus describes the capacity of this wonderful instrument:-- "such is its power, that if a star of the first magnitude were removed to such a distance, that its light would be three millions of years in reaching us, this telescope would, nevertheless, show it to the human eye. is it to be wondered at, then, that, with such an instrument, grand discoveries should be made? it has been pointed to the heavens; and, although in the beginning of its career, it has already accomplished mighty things. there are nebulous spots in the heavens which have baffled all the instruments hitherto constructed, but this telescope resolves their true character completely. among the wonderful objects which have been subject to its scrutiny, is the nebula in the constellation of orion. i have had an opportunity of examining it. it is one of the most curious objects in the whole heavens. it is not round, and it throws off furious lights. from the time of herschel it has been subjected to the examination of the most powerful instruments--but it grew more and more mysterious and diverse in its character. when lord rosse's great telescope was directed to its examination, it for a long time resisted its power. he found it required patient examination--night after night, and month after month. at length, a pure atmosphere gave him the resolution of its constitution; and the stars of which it is composed burst upon the sight of man for the first time!" ------------------ origin of reflecting lighthouses. in the last century, at a meeting of a society of mathematicians at liverpool, one of the members proposed to lay a wager, that he would read a paragraph of a newspaper, at ten yards' distance, with the light of a farthing candle. the wager was laid, and the proposer, having covered the inside of a wooden dish with pieces of looking-glass, fastened in with glaziers' putty, placed his reflector behind the candle, and won his wager. one of the company marked this experiment with a philosophic eye. this was captain hutchinson, the dockmaster, with whom originated the reflecting lighthouses, erected at liverpool in . ------------------ waste of human life. in , there was opened in cochin-china a canal, miles long, feet wide, and feet deep. it was begun and finished in six weeks, although carried through large forests and over extensive marshes. twenty thousand men worked upon it day and night; and it is stated that , died of fatigue. ------------------ lifting heavy persons. one of the most extraordinary pages in sir david brewster's _letters on natural magic_, is the experiment in which a heavy man is raised with the greatest facility, when he is lifted up the instant that his own lungs, and those of the persons who raise him, are inflated with air. thus, the heaviest person in the party lies down upon two chairs, his legs being supported by the one, and his back by the other. four persons, one at each leg, and one at each shoulder, then try to raise him--the person to be raised giving two signals, by clapping his hands. at the first signal, he himself and the four lifters begin to draw a long and full breath, and when the inhalation is completed, or the lungs filled, the second signal is given for raising the person from the chair. to his own surprise, and that of his bearers, he rises with the greatest facility, as if he were no heavier than a feather! sir david brewster states that he has seen this inexplicable experiment performed more than once; and he appeals for testimony to sir walter scott, who had repeatedly seen the experiment, and performed the part, both of the load and of the bearer. it was first shown in england by a gentleman who saw it performed in a large party at venice, under the direction of an officer of the american navy. ------------------ origin of the society of arts. "to this society," a well-informed writer has said, "some of our best artists have owed the most priceless of all services that can be rendered to men of genius at the outset of their career--appreciation on the part of an enlightened few--introduction under favourable auspices to the many." the society of arts was established in , chiefly by mr. william shipley, a drawing-master; but it was not until that the institution was fairly located in its own premises, built in handsome style by the adams', in john street, adelphi; the object being denoted by the inscription upon the entablature of the pediment in the front of the mansion, in these words: "arts and commerce promoted." there are many interesting anecdotes of the early awards of this society. thus, in , bacon, the sculptor, received for a small figure of peace a reward of ten guineas; and the same artist gained the highest premium upon nine different occasions. in , nollekens received ten guineas for an alto-relievo of jephtha's vow; and two years later, fifty guineas for a more important piece of sculpture. flaxman, in , gained for one of his earliest attempts a grant of ten guineas; and for another work, in , he obtained the society's gold medal. lawrence, at the early age of thirteen, received the reward of a silver-gilt palette, with five guineas, for his drawing in crayons of the transfiguration; and the painter in the height of his subsequent prosperity, was accustomed to speak of the impulse thus given to his love of art. in , sir william ross, at the age of twelve, received the society's silver palette for a drawing of the death of wat tyler; mr. edwin landseer gained a similar mark of approbation in , for an etching; and to mr. wyon was adjudged the gold medal, in , for a medal die. but to artists there is a feature of still greater interest in the society's history: it was in its rooms that the first exhibition of paintings in england took place in , which was continued with great success for some years. within about ninety years, the society had distributed more than , _l._ in premiums. the growth of forest trees was one of its early objects of encouragement; and we find among the recipients of its gold medals the dukes of bedford and beaufort, the earls of winterton, upper ossory, and mansfield; and dr. watson, bishop of llandaff. then came agriculture, chemistry, manufactures, and mechanics. in the latter, the society taught us, or at least aided those who did so, the manufacture of turkey carpet, tapestry, weaving, and weaving to imitate the marseilles and india quilting; also, how to improve our spinning and lace-making, our paper, and our catgut for musical instruments, our straw-bonnets, and artificial flowers. the colonies shared in the society's early encouragement: potash and pearlash were produced by its agent in north america; and it was busily engaged, just before the breaking out of the war of independence, in introducing the culture of the vine, the growth of silk-worms, and the manufacture of indigo and vegetable oils. but the rewards given to poor bethnal-green and spitalfields weavers, for useful inventions in their calling, illustrate, perhaps even better than any of the foregoing instances, the object of the society which so honourably distinguishes it from other associations--its readiness to receive, examine, and reward every kind of useful invention that may be brought forward by those who have neither friends nor money to aid them in making their inventions known. nor must we forget barry's grand series of paintings upon the society's large room; of which dr. johnson said, "there is a grasp of mind there, which you will find nowhere else." upon the walls, too, hang some fine portraits of the early presidents of the society, painted by sir joshua reynolds. ------------------ vast mirrors. mirrors are cast of larger dimensions at st. petersburg than elsewhere. in the imperial manufactory, there was cast for prince potemkin, a mirror measuring inches by . one of the same proportions, valued at guineas, was cast for the duke of wellington many years since, but was broken to atoms in its conveyance from st. petersburg to england. ------------------ transportation of the coffee-tree. one of the most interesting episodes in the history of coffee is, that of the transportation of the plant of the coffee-tree, taken from the hothouses of amsterdam, given to louis xiv., and father of the three plants, one of which was taken to the french antilles by captain declieux, who, in a scarcity of water experienced by the ship's crew, shared the small quantity which he had to drink, between himself and his dear coffee-plant. it is believed that from this plant has sprung all the coffee grown in the west indies. ------------------ arkwright's spinning frame. mr. arkwright tells us, that he accidentally derived the first hint of this great invention from seeing a red-hot iron bar elongated by being made to pass between rollers; and, though there is no mechanical analogy between that operation and the process of spinning, it is not difficult to imagine that, by reflecting upon it, and placing the subject in different points of view, it might lead him to his invention. ------------------ spinning feats. among the wonders of this branch of manufacture, the following deserve mention:--in , a woman at east dereham, in norfolk, spun a single pound of wool into a thread of , yards in length, wanting only yards of forty-eight miles, which, at the above period, was considered a circumstance of sufficient curiosity to merit a place in the records of the royal society. since that time, however, a young lady of norwich has spun a pound of combed wool into a thread of , yards; and she actually produced from the same weight of cotton a thread of , yards, equal to upwards of miles:--this last thread, if woven, would produce about twenty yards of yard-wide muslin. ------------------ marvels of the alchemists. the pretended secret of the alchemists was the transmutation of the baser metals into gold, which they occasionally exhibited to keep the dupes who supplied them with money in good spirits. this they performed in various ways. sometimes they made use of crucibles with a false bottom. at the real bottom, they put a quantity of gold or silver. this was covered by a portion of powdered crucible mixed with gum or wax, and hardened. the material being put into a crucible and the heat applied, the false bottom disappeared; and at the end of the process, the gold or silver was found at the bottom of the crucible. sometimes, they made a hole in a piece of charcoal, filled it with oxide of gold or silver, and stopped up the hole with a little wax; or they soaked the charcoal in solutions of these metals; or they stirred the mixture in the crucible with hollow rods, containing oxide of gold or silver within, and the end closed with wax. by these means, the gold or silver wanted was introduced during the operation, and considered as a product. sometimes the cunning wights used solutions of silver in nitric acid, or of gold in aqua-regia, or an amalgam of gold or silver, which being adroitly introduced, furnished the requisite quantity of metal. a common exhibition was to dip nails into a liquid, and take them out, half converted into gold. the nails were one-half gold and the other half iron, neatly soldered together, and the gold was covered with something to conceal the colour, which the liquid was capable of removing. ------------------ invention of the hand gear. it has been said that we are indebted for the important invention in the steam-engine, termed hand gear, by which its valves or cocks are worked by the machine itself, to an idle boy named humphrey potter, who, being employed to stop and open a valve, saw that he could save himself the trouble of attending and watching it, by fixing a plug upon a part of the machine which came to the place at the proper times, in consequence of the general movement. if this anecdote be true, what does it prove? that humphrey potter might be very idle, but that he was, at the same time, very ingenious. it was a contrivance, not the result of accident, but of acute observation and successful experiment.--_dr. paris._ ------------------ poker across the fire. boswell and johnson held a conversation upon this experiment as follows:--_boswell._ "why, sir, do people play this trick, which i observe now when i look at your grate, putting the shovel against it to make the fire burn?"--_johnson._ "they play the trick, but it does not make the fire burn. _there_ is a better (setting the poker perpendicularly up at right angles with the grate.) in days of superstition, they thought, as it made a cross with the bars, it would drive away the witch." upon this, dr. kearney notes: "it certainly does make the fire burn: by repelling the air, it throws a blast upon the fire, and so performs the parts, in some degree, of a blower or bellows." these observations were made only as to the shovel, but the poker is equally efficacious. "after all," says croker, "it is possible that there may be some magnetic or electrical influence, which, in the progress of science, may be explained; and what has been thought a vulgar trick, may be proved to be a philosophical experiment." whatever may be the cause, there is every-day evidence that a poker or shovel, as the case may be, if laid across a dull fire, will revive it; because, we think, the poker or shovel receives and concentrates the heat, and produces an additional draught through the fire. ------------------ the artesian well of grenelle, at paris. the boring of this well by the messrs. mulot occupied seven years, one month, twenty-six days, to the depth of - / english feet, or - / feet below the depth at which m. elie de beaumont foretold that water would be found. the sound, or borer, weighed , lb., and was treble the height of that of the dome of the hospital des invalides, at paris. in may, , when the bore had reached feet inches, the great chisel and feet of rods fell to the bottom; and, although these weighed five tons, m. mulot tapped a screw on the head of the rods, and thus, connecting another length to them, after fifteen months' labour, drew up the chisel! on another occasion, this chisel having been raised with great force, sunk at one stroke feet inches into the chalk![ ] ----- footnote : the depth of the grenelle well is nearly four times the height of strasburg cathedral; more than six times the height of the hospital des invalides, at paris; more than four times the height of st. peter's, at rome; nearly four times and a half the height of st. paul's, and nine times the height of the monument, london. lastly, suppose all the above edifices to be piled upon each other, from the base-line of the well of grenelle, and they would but reach within - / feet of its surface.--_year-book of facts_, . ------------------ "wet the ropes." the property of cords contracting their length by moisture became generally known, it is said, on the raising of the egyptian obelisk in the square facing st. peter's, at rome, by order of pope sixtus v. the great work was undertaken in the year , and the day for raising the obelisk was marked with great solemnity. high mass was celebrated at st. peter's, and the architect and workmen received the benediction of the pope. the blast of a trumpet was the given signal, when engines were set in motion by an incredible number of horses; but not until after fifty-two unsuccessful attempts had been made, was the huge block lifted from the earth. as the ropes which held it had somewhat stretched, the base of the obelisk could not reach the summit of the pedestal, when a man in the crowd cried out, "_wet the ropes!_" this advice was followed, and the column, as of itself, gradually rose to the required height, and was placed upright on the pedestal prepared for it. ------------------ the death of dr. black. in the society of friends such as adam smith, hume, carlyle, home, hutton, playfair, and dugald stewart, the closing days of this great and gentle chemist wore tranquilly away. towards the end, he sank into a low state of health, and only preserved himself from the severe shocks of the weather in the changeable climate of edinburgh, by a degree of care and abstemiousness rarely surpassed even by the devoutest brahmin. "it was his generous and manly wish, that he might never live to be a burden to his friends; and never was the wish more completely gratified. on the th november , in the seventy-first year of his age, he expired without any convulsion, shock, or stupor, to announce or retard the approach of death. being at table with his usual fare--some bread, a few prunes, and a measured quantity of milk diluted with water; and having the cup in his hand when the last stroke of the pulse was to be given, he had set it down upon his knees, which were joined together, and kept it steady with his hand in the manner of a person perfectly at ease; and in this attitude expired, without spilling a drop, and without a writhe in his countenance; as if an experiment had been required, to show to his friends the facility with which he departed. his servant opened the door to tell him that some one had left his name; but getting no answer, stepped about half way towards him, and, seeing him sitting in that easy posture, supporting his basin of milk with one hand, he thought that he had dropped asleep, which he had sometimes seen happen after his meals. the man went back and shut the door; but before he got down stairs, some anxiety that he could not account for made him return, and look again at his master. even then, he was satisfied, after coming pretty near, and turned to go away; but again returned, and coming quite close, found his master without life." ------------------ origin of the telegraph. when arthur young made his well-known journey in france, in the year to , he met, he tells us, with a monsieur lomond, "a very ingenious and inventing mechanic," who had made a remarkable discovery in electricity. "you write two or three words on a paper," says young: "he takes it with him into a room, and turns a machine enclosed in a cylindrical case, at the top of which is an electrometer, a small, fine, pith ball; a wire connects with a similar cylinder and electrometer in a distant apartment; and his wife, by remarking the corresponding motions of the ball, writes down the words they indicate; from which it appears that he has formed an alphabet of motions. as the length of the wire makes no difference in the effect, a correspondence might be carried on at any distance. whatever the use may be, the invention is beautiful." this discovery, however, lay unnoticed until about the year ; though the apparatus was designed to effect the same end as the electric telegraph, by means very similar. the possibility of applying electricity to telegraphic communication was conceived by several other persons, long before it was attempted upon a practical scale. the rev. mr. gamble, in his description of his original shutter-telegraph, published towards the close of the last century, alludes to a project of electrical communication. mr. francis ronalds, in a pamphlet on this subject, published in , states that cavallo proposed to convey intelligence by passing given numbers of sparks through an insulated wire; and that, in , he himself made experiments upon this principle, which he deemed more promising than the application of galvanic or voltaic electricity, which had been projected by some germans and americans. he succeeded perfectly in transmitting signals through a length of eight miles of insulated wire; and he describes minutely the contrivances necessary for adapting the principle to telegraphic communication. it is, however, to the combined labours of mr. w. f. cooke and professor wheatstone that electric telegraphs owe their practical application; and, in a statement of the facts respecting their relative positions in connection with the invention, drawn up at their request by sir m. i. brunel and professor daniell, it is observed that "mr. cooke is entitled to stand alone, as the gentleman to whom this country is indebted for having practically introduced and carried out the electric telegraph as a useful undertaking, promising to be a work of national importance; and professor wheatstone is acknowledged as the scientific man whose profound and successful researches had already prepared the public to receive it as a project capable of practical application."--_penny cyclopædia._ ------------------ necessity the mother of invention. when vitiges, king of the goths, besieged belisarius in rome in , and caused the fourteen large aqueducts to be stopped, the city was subjected to great distress, not on account of the want of water in general, for it was secured against that inconvenience by the tiber, but on account of the loss of that water which the baths required, and, above all, of that necessary to drive the mills, which were all situated on these canals. horses and cattle, which might have been employed in grinding, were not to be found; but belisarius, a man of great ingenuity, devised an expedient to remedy this distress. below the bridge that reached to the wall of janiculum, he extended ropes, well fastened, and stretched across the river from both banks. to these he affixed two boats of equal size, at the distance of two feet from each other, where the current flowed with the greatest rapidity, under the arch of the bridge; and, placing large millstones on one of the boats, suspended in the middle space a machine by which they were turned. he constructed at certain intervals on the river other machines of the same description, which, being put in motion by the force of the water that ran below them, drove as many mills as were necessary to grind provisions for the city. to destroy these, the besiegers threw into the stream logs of wood, and dead bodies, which floated down the river into the city; but the besieged, by making use of booms to stop them, were enabled to drag them out before they did any mischief. this is said to have been the first invention of floating mills. ------------------ a "dry-making" in holland. the conversion into solid land of the lake of beemster, in north holland, is, after the haarlemmermeer polder (which is twice and a half its size), the largest specimen in the netherlands of what the dutch term "dry-makings." the scheme was first broached in . in funds were applied for, which were not, however, promised by the states of holland and west friesland until . in , a company was formed at the hague, by dirck van oss and others, to pump out the beemster in whole or in part; and on their security the states lent the necessary capital. at the commencement, it was thought that sixteen windmills would suffice for the undertaking; but this number was shortly increased by ten, and the twenty-six mills were then divided into thirteen gangs. by the end of , several of the mills began to pump, and early in , they were all ready. towards the end of this year, the bottom of the lake became visible in some places: but during a storm on the d of january , the great waterland sea dyke gave way, and the pressure on the ring dyke that had been constructed round the beemster proved greater than it was capable of resisting. it gave way in turn in two places, and the lake was again filled. on the th february , further and ample funds were advanced by the states; in , more mills were put on to the work; on the th of may , the dry-making was at last completed; and on the th july of that year, the distribution of the lots of land redeemed took place. the ring dyke is over , yards long, and has an average height of × · z. p. (a metre and a half above the mean level of the sea). thus was the beemster pumped out; and from that day to the present, the name of dirck van oss has been held in deep respect in holland, as the name of the first dutchman who conquered the waters on anything like a large scale. the system he employed has been closely followed in all successive undertakings of this kind; and, with the exception of the application of steam, and certain improvements in machinery, the plans of dirck van oss for draining the beemster were adapted with a like success to the lake of haarlem, by m. gevers d'endegeest, the hero of this last conquest, and the sanguine prophet ( ) of the ultimate reclamation of the zuyder zee. the drainage of the lake of haarlem, it may be mentioned, was accomplished in , after thirteen years of toil and anxiety, at a cost of , , florins (£ , ); a sum which, large as it is, has nevertheless been completely recovered, both in capital and interest, by the sale of , acres of arable land.--_report to foreign office._ ------------------ a scientific pilgrim. when lord napier (of merchiston) first published his _logarithms_, mr. briggs, professor of mathematics at gresham college, london, was so surprised with admiration, that he could not rest till he had seen the noble inventor, and actually went to scotland for that purpose in . lilly, the astrologer, thus describes the interview:--"mr. briggs appointed a certain day when to meet at edinburgh; but, failing thereof, merchiston was afraid he would not come. it happened one day, as john marr and the lord napier were speaking of mr. briggs: 'ah! john,' said merchiston, 'mr. briggs will not come.' at the very instant, one knocks at the gate; john marr hastens down, and it proved to be mr. briggs, to his great contentment; he brings mr. briggs up into my lord's chamber, where almost one quarter of an hour was spent, each beholding the other with admiration before one word was spoken. at last, mr. briggs began, 'my lord, i have undertaken this long journey purposely to see your person, and to know by what engine of wit or ingenuity you came first to think of this most excellent help unto astronomy, viz. the logarithms; but, my lord, being by you found out, i wonder nobody else found it out before, when now, being known, it appears so easy.'" briggs was nobly entertained by lord napier; and every summer after, during his lordship's life, this venerable man went to scotland purposely to see him. ------------------ the burning mirrors of archimedes. many have questioned the facts recorded by several historians, concerning the surprising effects of the burning mirrors of archimedes, by means of which the roman galleys besieging syracuse were consumed to ashes. descartes, in particular, discredited the story as fabulous; but kircher made many experiments with a view of testing its credibility. he tried the effect of a number of plane mirrors; and, with five mirrors of the same size, placed in a frame, he contrived to throw the rays reflected from them to the same spot, at the distance of more than feet; and by this means he produced such a degree of heat, as led him to conclude that, by increasing their number, he could have set fire to inflammable substances at a greater distance. he likewise made a voyage to syracuse, in company with his pupil schottius, in order to examine the place of the alleged transaction; and they were both of opinion, that the galleys of marcellus could not have been more than thirty paces from archimedes' mirrors. m. buffon also constructed a machine, consisting of a number of mirrors, by which he seems to have revived the secret of archimedes, and to have vindicated the credit of history in this respect. his experiment was first made with twenty-four mirrors, which readily set fire to combustible matter composed of pitch and tow, and laid on a deal board at the distance of seventy-two feet. he further pursued the attempt by framing a kind of polyhedron, consisting of pieces of plane looking-glass, each six inches square; and by means of this machine, some boards of beech-wood were set on fire at the distance of feet, and a silver plate was melted at the distance of feet. this machine, in the next stage of its improvement, contained plane mirrors, each eight inches long and six broad, mounted on a frame eight feet high and seven broad. with twelve of these mirrors, light combustible matter was kindled at the distance of twenty feet; with forty-five of them, at the same distance, a large tin vessel was melted, and with , a thin piece of silver. when the whole machine was employed, all the metals and metallic minerals were melted at the distance of twenty-five and even of forty feet. wood was kindled in a clear sky at the distance of feet. m. buffon afterwards constructed a machine which contained mirrors, each six inches square, with which he could melt lead and tin at the distance of feet. but perhaps the most powerful burning mirror ever constructed, was that of mr. parker, an eminent glass manufacturer of london; it was made in the begining of this century by one penn, an ingenious artisan of islington. he erected an outhouse at the bottom of his garden, for the purpose of carrying on his operations, and at length succeeded in producing, at a cost of £ , a burning lens of a diameter of three feet, whose powers were astonishing. the most hard and solid substances of the mineral world, such as platina, iron, steel, flint, &c., were melted in a few seconds, on being exposed to its immense focus. a diamond weighing ten grains, exposed to this lens for thirty minutes, was reduced to six grains, during which operation it opened and foliated like the leaves of a flower, and emitted whitish fumes; when closed again, it bore a polish, and retained its form. ten cut garnets, taken from a bracelet, began to run into each other in a few seconds, and at last formed one globular garnet. the clay used by wedgewood to make his pyrometric test ran in a few seconds into a white enamel; and several specimens of lavas, and other volcanic productions, on being exposed to the focus of the lens, yielded to its power. a subscription was proposed in london to raise the sum of guineas, in order to indemnify the inventor for the expense he had incurred in its construction, and retain it in england; but, through the failure of the subscription, and other concurring circumstances, mr. parker was induced to dispose of it to captain mackintosh, who accompanied lord macartney in his celebrated embassy to china; and the mirror, much to the loss and regret of european science, was left at pekin. ------------------ magnetic correspondence in the seventeenth century. in one of addison's contributions to the _spectator_ (no. ), we find the following curious instance of what may almost be considered as the foreshadowing of the electric telegraph. it is quoted from the writings of strada, the celebrated roman jesuit, who died in . in his "prolusiones," a series of polished latin essays upon rhetoric and literature, he gives an account of a chimerical correspondence between two friends, by the help of a certain loadstone, which had such virtue in it, that if touched by two several needles, when one of the needles so touched began to move, the other, though at ever so great a distance, moved at the same time and in the same manner. he tells us that two friends, being each of them possessed of these needles, made a kind of dial-plate, inscribing it with twenty-four letters--in the same manner as the hours of the day are marked upon the ordinary dial-plate. they then fixed one of the needles on each of these plates, in such a manner that it could move round without impediment so as to touch any of the twenty-four letters. upon their separating from one another into distant countries, they agreed to withdraw themselves punctually into their closets at a certain hour of the day, and to converse with one another by means of this their invention. accordingly, when they were some hundred miles asunder, each of them shut himself up in his closet at the time appointed, and immediately cast his eye upon his dial-plate. if he had a mind to write anything to his friend, he directed his needle to every letter that formed the words that he had occasion for--making a little pause at the end of every word or sentence, to avoid confusion. the friend, in the meanwhile, saw his own sympathetic needle moving of itself to every letter which that of his correspondent pointed at. by this means, they talked together across a whole continent, and conveyed their thoughts to one another, in an instant, over cities or mountains, seas or deserts.... in the meanwhile (adds the essayist, playfully), if ever this invention should be revived, or put in practice, i would propose that upon the lovers' dial-plate there should be written, not only the twenty-four letters, but several entire words which have always a place in passionate epistles; as flames, darts, die, languish, absence, cupid, heart, eyes, hang, drown--and the like. this would very much abridge the lover's pains in this way of writing a letter--as it would enable him to express the most useful and significant words with a single turn of the needle. ------------------ navigation before the compass. before the invention of the mariner's compass, the phoenician, the greek, and the early italian navigators were compelled to creep from headland to headland, without venturing to quit the shore--except when an island, so near as to be distinctly seen from the continent, offered them an equally secure retreat from the violence of an accidental tempest. yet, the bolder norwegians, though exposed to far greater perils, from the habitual inclemency of a high northern latitude, and from the frequent cloudiness of their atmosphere, were in the habit of attempting, and often with success, a voyage of some length upon the ocean. it may be supposed that a patient observation of natural phenomena, attention to the flight of migratory birds and to the direction of currents, and some few simple devices which, being no longer necessary, are now forgotten, served as substitutes for the more valuable guides of modern navigation. of one of the devices here enumerated, it is related that when flok, a famous norwegian navigator, was about to set out from shetland for iceland, then called gardarsholm, he took on board some crows, "because the mariner's compass was not yet in use." when he thought he had made a considerable part of his way, he threw up one of his crows, which, seeing land astern, flew to it; whence flok, concluding that he was nearer to shetland (or perhaps faroë) than any other land, kept on his course for some time, and then sent out another crow, which, seeing no land at all, returned to the vessel. at last, having run the greater part of his way, another crow was sent out by him, which, seeing land ahead, immediately flew for it; and flok, following his guide, fell in with the east end of the island. such was the simple mode of steering their course, practised by those bold navigators of the stormy northern ocean. this story at once and strikingly recalls the use made of birds by the first sea captain of whom we read--noah; but such expedients evidently could not be supposed to have inspired the old northern navigators with the courage and confidence that enabled them, as there is reason to believe, to discover america before columbus. ------------------ semaphore _v._ electric telegraph. an anecdote will suffice to illustrate the advantages of the electric over the visual variety of telegraph--the one being only workable in certain states of the weather; the other available in all states. upon one occasion, when the british army were fighting in spain, intelligence was every day feverishly expected from wellington through the medium of the semaphore at the admiralty. long delayed, it came at last, and was apparently of a fearful character. it ran thus: "wellington defeated." parliament and the people were stunned for a time, and rumours flew about like wildfire to this effect. it turned out, however, that just as the word "defeated" was deciphered, a fog intervened, and cut off the rest of the communication. when the dark pall disappeared, the bright sky disclosed to a jubilant people, not "wellington defeated," but "wellington defeated--the french!" ------------------ a wrench to old st. paul's. when, after much mean and yet costly endeavour to patch up the cathedral of st. paul's, after the great fire, sir christopher wren at last had his advice accepted, to rebuild the whole structure, the demolition of the old fabric gave ample play to his scientific knowledge and engineering skill. one of his exploits, perhaps now more remarkable because at the time it was at once rare and bold, has thus been described:--"in order that the rubbish and old materials might not hinder the setting out of the foundations, for the purpose of proceeding with the works, sir christopher constructed scaffolds high enough to extend his lines over the heaps that were in the way; and thereby caused perpendiculars to be fixed upon the points below for his various walls and piers, from lines drawn carefully upon the level plan of the scaffold. thus he proceeded, gaining every day more and more room, till he came to the middle tower that formerly carried the lofty spire. the ruins of this tower being nearly two hundred feet high, the labourers were afraid to work above, which induced him to facilitate the labour by the use of gunpowder. to perform this work, he caused a hole to be dug, of about four feet wide, by the side of the north-west pier of the tower, in which was perforated a hole two feet square, reaching to the centre of the pier. in this he placed a small deal box containing eighteen pounds of gunpowder. to this box he affixed a hollow cane, which contained a quick match, reaching to the surface of the ground above; and along the ground a train of powder was laid, with a match. the mine was then closed up, and exploded, while the philosophical architect waited with confidence the result of his experiment. this small quantity of powder not only lifted up the whole angle of the tower, with two great arches that rested upon it, but also two adjoining arches of the aisle, and the masonry above them. this it appeared to do in a slow but efficient manner, cracking the walls to the top, lifting visibly the whole weight about nine inches, which suddenly dropping, made a great heap of ruins in the place, without scattering or accident. it was half a minute before the heap already fallen opened in two or three places, and emitted smoke. by this successful experiment, the force of gunpowder may be ascertained; eighteen pounds only of which lifted up a weight of more than three thousand tons, and saved the work of a thousand labourers. the fall of so great a weight from a height of two hundred feet gave such a concussion to the ground, that the inhabitants round about took it for the shock of an earthquake." ------------------ snow spectacles. ellis, in his _voyage to hudson's bay_, written in the middle of last century, says of the esquimaux:--"their snow eyes, as they very properly call them, are a proof of their sagacity. they are little pieces of wood or ivory, properly formed to cover the organs of vision, and tied on behind the head. they have two slits, of the exact length of the eyes, but very narrow; and they see through them very distinctly, and without the least inconvenience. this invention preserves them from snow-blindness, a very dangerous and powerful malady, caused by the action of the light strongly reflected from the snow, especially in the spring, when the sun is considerably elevated above the horizon. the use of these eyes considerably strengthens the sight, and the esquimaux are so accustomed to them, that when they have a mind to view distant objects, they commonly use them instead of spy-glasses." ------------------ a self-taught mechanist. the following description is given of an ingenious and singular piece of mechanism--constructed by a boy of the name of john young, who in resided at newton-on-ayr--which attracted much notice among the scientific of the day:--"a box, about three feet long by two broad, and six or eight inches deep, had a frame and paper covering erected on it, in the form of a house. on the upper part of the box are a number of wooden figures, about two or three inches high, representing people employed in those trades and sciences with which the boy is familiar. the whole are put in motion at the same time by machinery within the box, acted upon by a handle like that of a hand-organ. a weaver upon his loom, with a fly-shuttle, uses his hands and feet, and keeps his eye upon the shuttle, as it passes across the web. a soldier, sitting with a sailor at a public-house table, fills a glass, drinks it off, then knocks upon the table, upon which an old woman opens a door, makes her appearance, and they retire. two shoemakers upon their stools are seen, the one beating leather, and the other stitching a shoe. a cloth-dresser, a stone-cutter, a cooper, a tailor, a woman churning, and one teasing wool, are all at work. there is also a carpenter sawing a piece of wood, and two blacksmiths beating a piece of iron, the one using a sledge, and the other a small hammer; a boy turning a grindstone, while a man grinds an instrument upon it; and a barber shaving a man, whom he holds fast by the nose with one hand. the boy was only about seventeen years of age when he completed this curious work, and since the bent of his mind could be first marked, his only amusement was that of working with a knife, and making little mechanical figures. this is the more extraordinary, as he had no opportunity whatever of seeing any person employed in a similar way. he was bred a weaver with his father, and since he could be employed at the trade, has had no time for his favourite study, except after the work ceased, or during the intervals; and the only tool he ever had to assist him was a pocket-knife. in his earlier years he produced several curiosities on a smaller scale; but the one now described is his greatest work, to which he devoted all his spare time during two years." ------------------ the amsterdam pile. in an interesting report on the "waterstaat" of the netherlands, presented to the british government, we read: "to appreciate the beauty of the dutch science of hydrodynamics, it is necessary to understand that, from first to last, it is a question of comparative levels. the error of a centimètre in level might drown a province, or frustrate the purpose for which some canal had been designed. thus it may be said, without exaggeration, that the most important institution in the kingdom of the netherlands is a certain antiquated pile at amsterdam--but one of many million pine-trees brought from norway, on which the city is perched,--which indicates the rise and fall of the outer waters of the zuyder zee and german ocean. for years this pile has been watched with anxiety by the burghers of the netherlands, and a graduated scale has been marked upon it, in which the mean water level is represented by zero. it is known as the 'amsterdamsche peil,' and every hydraulic undertaking in the country is measured by its standard, as having a level of so many mètres or centimètres above or below the usual level of the sea. the initials a. p. (amsterdamsche peil), o. a. (zero of amsterdam), or z. p. (zero of pile), are the forms of abbreviation most generally used to represent the starting-point in all hydraulic calculations; and one of these, with the signs + and -, must therefore necessarily occur in every intelligible description of dutch public works." ------------------ the perils of experiment. m. rouelle, an eminent french chemist, was not the most cautious of operators. one day, while performing some experiments, he said to his auditors: "gentlemen, you see this cauldron upon the brazier; well, if i were to cease stirring for one moment, an explosion would ensue, that would blow us all into the air." the audience had scarce had time to reflect on this comfortable piece of information, when the operator actually did forget to stir, and his prediction was amply verified. the explosion took place with a terrible crash; all the windows of the laboratory were smashed to pieces, and two hundred auditors were whirled away into the garden. fortunately, no one received any serious injury, the chief violence of the explosion having been in the direction of the chimney. the demonstrator himself marvellously escaped without further harm than the loss of his wig.--a certain scotch professor--not of the present generation--as remarkable for the felicity of his experimentation as rouelle could be for his failures, was once performing an experiment with some combustible materials, when the mixture exploded, and the phial which he held in his hand flew into a thousand pieces. "gentlemen," said the doctor to his students, with the most unaffected gravity, "i can assure you that i have performed this experiment often with the same phial, and never knew it break in my hands before." the simplicity of this somewhat superfluous assurance gave rise to a general laugh, in which the professor, instantly discerning the cause of it in his own excellent irishism, most heartily joined. ------------------ the siberian mammoth remains. about , lbs. of fossil ivory--that is to say, the tusks of at least mammoths--are bartered for every year in new siberia, so that in a period of years of trade with that country, the tusks of , mammoths must have been disposed of--perhaps even twice that number, since only lbs. of ivory is calculated as the average weight produced by one pair of tusks. as many as ten of these tusks have been found lying together, weighing from to lbs. each. the largest are rarely sent out of the country, many of them being too rotten to be made use of, while others are so large that they cannot be carried away, and are sawn up in blocks or slabs on the spot with very considerable waste, so that the loss of weight in the produce of a tusk before the ivory comes to market is of no trifling amount. a large portion of this ivory is used by the nomad tribes in their sledges, arms, and household implements, and formerly a great quantity used to be exported to china; a trade which can be traced back to a very distant period. notwithstanding the enormous amount already carried away, the stores of fossil ivory do not appear to diminish; in many places near the mouths of the great rivers flowing into the arctic ocean, the bones and tusks of these antediluvian pachyderms lie scattered about like the relics of a ploughed-up battlefield, while in other parts these creatures of a former world seem to have huddled together in herds for protection against the sudden destruction that befell them, since their remains are found lying together in heaps. in , a hunter from yakutsk, on the lena, found in the new siberian islands alone poods ( , lbs. english) of mammoth tusks, none of which weighed more than poods; and this, notwithstanding that another hunter on a previous visit in had brought away with him poods of ivory from the same islands. entire mammoths have occasionally been discovered, not only with the skin (which was protected with a double covering of hair and wool) entire, but with the fleshy portions of the body in such a state of preservation that they have afforded food to dogs and wild beasts in the neighbourhood of the places where they were found. they appear to have been suddenly enveloped in ice, or to have sunk into mud which was on the point of congealing, and which, before the process of decay could commence, froze around the bodies, and has preserved them up to the present time in the condition in which they perished. it is thus they are occasionally found when a landslip occurs in the frozen soil of the siberian coast, which never thaws, even during the greatest heat of the summer, to a depth of more than feet; and in this way, within a period of a century and a half, five or six of these curious corpses have come to light from their icy graves. a very perfect specimen of the mammoth in this state was discovered in the autumn of , near the mouth of the jenissei; an expedition was despatched to the spot by the imperial academy of sciences in the summer of , and the result of that expedition, it is considered, will be the disclosure of some interesting facts in the natural history of a former creation.--_mr. lumley's report on russian trade._ ------------------ velocity of electricity. one of our most profound electricians is reported to have exclaimed, "give me but an unlimited length of wire, with a small battery, and i will girdle the universe with a sentence in forty minutes." yet this is no vain boast; for so rapid is the transit of the electric current along the lines of the telegraph wire, that, supposing it were possible to carry the wires eight times round the earth, it would but occupy _one second of time_. the immense velocity of electricity makes it impossible to calculate it by direct observation; it would require to be many thousands of leagues long before the result could be expressed in the fractions of a second. yet professor wheatstone devised some apparatus for this purpose, among which was a double metallic mirror, to which he gave a velocity of eight hundred revolutions in a second of time. the professor concluded, from his experiments with this apparatus, that the velocity of electricity through a copper wire, one-fifteenth of an inch thick, exceeds the velocity of light across the planetary spaces; that it is at least , miles per second. the professor adds, that the light of electricity, in a state of great intensity, does not last the millionth part of a second; but that the eye is capable of distinctly perceiving objects which present themselves for this short space of time. ------------------ monochromatic painting. a very delicate experiment, yet a very natural one, which buffon appears to have first noticed, led in all probability to the invention of the monochromatic mode of painting, or painting with a single colour. if, at the moment which precedes sunset, at the close of a cloudless day, a body is placed near a wall, or against another polished body, or on a smooth chalky soil, the shadow carried by this body is blue, instead of being black or colourless. this effect is produced by the light of the sun being so weakened, that the blue rays which are reflected from the sky--which has always this colour on a clear day--fall, and are again driven back or reflected on that part of the wall which the dying light of the sun cannot strike; for even at its last moment, the light which falls straight and direct, is sufficiently strong to destroy that of the heavens, which is only reflected, wherever they meet. ------------------ the mariner's compass. the time at which the attractive property of the magnet was discovered, is by no means known; certain, however, it is, that mankind were acquainted with it at a very early period. father kircher endeavours to prove that the jews were aware of the magnet's singular property of attracting iron; and from plutarch, it appears that the egyptians were not ignorant of it. pythagoras, ptolemy, and several other ancient philosophers, knew and admired this wonderful property of the magnet. thales and anaxagoras were so struck with it, as to imagine that the magnet had a soul; and plato said that the cause of its attraction was divine. but the _directive_ property of the magnet was not known to the ancients. to the simple application of this property, which was either discovered or introduced into europe about years ago, mankind is indebted principally for the discovery of a new continent nearly equal to the old one, for an extensive commerce between the most distant nations, and for an accurate knowledge of the shape and size of the world we inhabit. the use of the magnetic needle was not known in europe before the thirteenth century. the honour of its discovery has been much contested; but by the consent of most writers, it seems to belong to flavio gioja of amalfi. he lived in the reign of charles of anjou, who died in ; and it was, it is said, in compliment to this sovereign that gioja distinguished the north pole by the emblem of france, the _fleur-de-lis_. du halde, in his book upon china, indeed, intimates that the use of the magnetic needle was known to the ancient chinese. speaking of the emperor hoang-ti, when he gave battle to tchi-yeou, he says: "he, perceiving that thick fogs saved the enemy from his pursuit, and that the soldiers rambled out of the way and lost the course of the wind, made a car which showed them the four cardinal points. by this method he overtook tchi-yeou, made him prisoner, and put him to death. some say that there were engraven on this car, on a plate, the characters of a rat and a horse, and underneath was placed a needle to determine the four parts of the world. this would amount to the use of the compass, or something near it, being of great antiquity and well attested." in another place, speaking of certain ambassadors, du halde says: "after they had their audience of leave, in order to return to their own country, tcheou-kong gave them an instrument, which on one side pointed towards the north, and on the opposite side towards the south, to direct them better on the way home, than they had been directed in coming to china. the instrument was called _tchi-ran_, which is the same name as the chinese now call the sea-compass by; this has given occasion to think that tcheou-kong was the inventor of the compass." this happened in the twenty-second cycle, about years before christ; but, notwithstanding the assertions of du halde, strong reasons have been adduced against the mariner's compass being known among the ancient people of china and of arabia. the french also have laid claim to the discovery of the compass, and in the imperial library at paris there is a poem, contained in a curious quarto manuscript of the thirteenth century, on vellum, in which the mariner's compass is evidently mentioned; but still it appears that the neapolitan, flavio gioja, if not the original discoverer, was at least the first who used the mariner's compass, or constructed it for the use of vessels in the mediterranean. ------------------ the discovery of lithography. the invention, or more properly the discovery, of lithography, claims a high rank among those of the present age, on account of its extensive usefulness. the honour of the invention belongs to alois sennefelder, originally a performer at the theatre royal of munich. he had conceived the idea of etching on stone instead of on copper, and was proceeding to make the experiment, when an accidental discovery gave a more beneficial turn to his speculations. the discovery, which was that of the lithographic art, has been thus narrated by sennefelder himself:-- "i had just succeeded, in my little laboratory, in polishing a stone plate, which i intended to cover with etching ground, when my mother entered the room, and desired me to write her a bill for the washerwoman, who was waiting for the linen. i happened not to have even the smallest slip of paper at hand, as my little stock of paper had been entirely exhausted by taking proof impressions from the stones; nor was there even a drop of ink in the ink-stand. as the matter would not admit of delay, and we had nobody in the house to send for a supply of the deficient materials, i resolved to write the list with my ink prepared with wax, soap, and lamp-black, on the stone which i had just polished, and from which i could copy it at leisure." "some time after this, i was going to wipe this writing from the stone, when the idea, all at once, struck me to try what would be the effect of such a writing with my prepared ink if i were to bite it in the stone with aquafortis; and whether, perhaps, it might not be possible to apply printing ink to it in the same way as to wood engravings, and to take impressions from it." sennefelder surrounded the stone with a border of wax, and applied aquafortis, by which in a few minutes the writing was raised. printing ink was then applied with a common printer's ball, impressions were taken off, and the practicability of the important art of lithography thus was fully established. the first application of the art to purposes of usefulness unconnected with the fine arts, was made by the duke of wellington in the peninsular war, for the purpose of rapidly multiplying copies of general orders, instructions, etc., and accompanying them with sketches of positions. it has since been introduced into the public offices of almost every state in europe; and its uses in every department of commercial, social, and artistic activity are innumerable. the end. murray and gibb, edinburgh, printers to her majesty's stationery office. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ catalogue of popular and standard books published by william p. nimmo, edinburgh, _and sold by all booksellers_. [illustration] second and cheaper edition. the 'edina' burns. crown to, beautifully printed on the finest toned paper, and elegantly bound in cloth extra, gilt edges, price twelve shillings and sixpence; or in morocco extra, twenty-five shillings. _a handsome drawing-room edition of_ the poems and songs of robert burns. _with original illustrations by the most distinguished scottish artists._ [illustration] 'of all the handsome reprints of the works of "nature's own" bard, this "edina" edition of the poems and songs of burns is perhaps the handsomest yet produced. beautifully printed, and profusely illustrated by some of the most distinguished of the scotch academicians, it forms a shrine worthy of the genius of the "poet of the land of the mountain and the flood." it is, as might be expected, scottish in every respect,--printer, publisher, and illustrators; and as also we think it should; for with whom could it be so much a labour of love to produce a first-rate edition as with one of burns's own countrymen? and who should be better able to illustrate the "brown heath and shaggy wood" of scotia's scenery than her own sons?'--_the examiner._ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's _large print unabridged_ library edition of the british poets. _from chaucer to cowper._ in forty-eight vols. demy vo, pica type, superfine paper, elegant binding, price s. each volume. the text edited by charles cowden clarke. with authentic portraits engraved on steel. --------------------- the following works are comprised in the series:-- vols. wyatt, spenser, shakespeare, surrey, herbert, waller, denham, milton, butler, dryden, prior, thomson, johnson, parnell, gray, smollett, pope, shenstone, akenside, goldsmith, collins, t. warton, armstrong, dyer, green, churchill, beattie, blair, falconer, burns, cowper bowles, scott, chaucer's canterbury tales, crawshaw, quarles' emblems, addison, gay's fables, somerville's chase, young's night thoughts, percy's reliques of ancient english poetry, specimens, with lives of the less known british poets, h. k. white and j. grahame's poetical works, _any of the works may be had separately, price s. each volume._ hugh miller's works. [illustration] cheap popular editions, _in crown vo, cloth extra, price s. each._ i. thirteenth edition. my schools and schoolmasters; or, the story of my education. 'a story which we have read with pleasure, and shall treasure up in memory for the sake of the manly career narrated, and the glances at old-world manners and distant scenes afforded us by the way.'--_athenæum._ a cheaper edition of 'my schools and schoolmasters' is also published, bound in limp cloth, price s. d. ii. thirty-fourth thousand. the testimony of the rocks; or, geology in its bearings on the two theologies, natural and revealed. _profusely illustrated._ 'the most remarkable work of perhaps the most remarkable man of the age.... a magnificent epic, and the principia of geology.'--_british and foreign evangelical review._ iii. ninth edition. the cruise of the betsey; or, a summer ramble among the fossiliferous deposits of the hebrides. with rambles of a geologist; or, ten thousand miles over the fossiliferous deposits of scotland. iv. sketch-book of popular geology. v. ninth edition. first impressions of england and its people. 'this is precisely the kind of book we should have looked for from the author of the "old red sandstone." straightforward and earnest in style, rich and varied in matter, these "first impressions" will add another laurel to the wreath which mr. miller has already won for himself.'--_westminster review._ a cheaper edition of 'first impressions of england' is also published, bound in limp cloth, price s. d. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ hugh miller's works. [illustration] cheap popular editions, _in crown vo, cloth extra, price s. each._ vi. ninth edition. scenes and legends of the north of scotland; or, the traditional history of cromarty. vii. eleventh edition. the old red sandstone; or, new walks in an old field. _profusely illustrated._ 'in mr. miller's charming little work will be found a very graphic description of the old red fishes. i know not a more fascinating volume on any branch of british geology.'--_mantell's medals of creation._ viii. fourth edition. the headship of christ and the rights of the christian people. with preface by peter bayne, a.m. ix. tenth edition. footprints of the creator; or, the asterolepis of stromness. with preface and notes by mrs. miller, and a biographical sketch by professor agassiz. _profusely illustrated._ 'mr. miller has brought his subject to the point at which science in its onward progress now lands.'--agassiz. _from preface to american edition of the 'footprints.'_ x. third edition. tales and sketches. edited, with a preface, by mrs. miller. xi. third edition. essays: historical and biographical, political and social, literary and scientific. xii. second edition. edinburgh and its neighbourhood, geological and historical. with the geology of the bass rock. [illustration] *** _hugh miller's works may also be had in complete sets of volumes, elegantly bound in imitation roxburgh, gilt top, price £ , s., or in half-calf extra, gilt back, price £ , s._ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ p o p u l a r w o r k s by ascott r. hope. second and cheaper edition, crown vo, cloth extra, price s. d., a b o o k a b o u t d o m i n i e s : being the reflections and recollections of a member of the profession. 'a more sensible book than this about boys has rarely been written, for it enters practically into all the particulars which have to be encountered amongst "the young ideas" who have to be trained for life, and are too often marred by the educational means adopted for their early mental development. the writer is evidently one of the arnold school--that "prince of schoolmasters"--who did more for the formation of the character of his pupils than any man that ever lived.'--_bell's weekly messenger._ -------------- third edition, crown vo, cloth extra, s. d., a b o o k a b o u t b o y s . by ascott r. hope, author of 'a book about dominies.' --------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- four volumes, crown vo, cloth, price s., or four volumes bound in two, roxburgh style, the people's edition of t y t l e r ' s h i s t o r y o f s c o t l a n d . 'the most brilliant age of scotland is fortunate in having found a historian whose sound judgment is accompanied by a graceful liveliness of imagination. we venture to predict that this book will soon become, and long remain, the standard history of scotland.'--_quarterly review._ --------------------------------------------------------- cheap edition, crown vo, cloth extra, price s. d., l a s t l e a v e s : sketches and criticisms. by alexander smith, author of 'life drama,' 'dreamthorpe,' etc. etc. edited, with a memoir, by patrick proctor alexander, m.a., author of 'mill and carlyle,' etc. etc. --------------------------------------------------------- second edition, crown vo, cloth extra, price s. d., family prayers for five weeks, with prayers for special occasions, and a table for reading the holy scriptures throughout the year. by w i l l i a m w i l s o n, minister of kippen. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's library edition of standard works, in large demy vo, with steel portrait and vignette, handsomely bound, roxburgh style, gilt tops, price s. each. i. vii. shakespeare's complete swift's works. carefully works. with selected, with life of the biographical sketch by mary author, and original and c. clarke; and a copious authentic notes. glossary. viii. defoe's works. carefully ii. selected from the most burns's complete authentic sources; with poetical and prose life of author. works. with life and variorum notes. ix. smollett's works. iii. carefully selected from the goldsmith's miscellaneous most authentic sources; with works. life of author. x. iv. the canterbury byron's poetical tales and faerie works. illustrated by queen, with other poems eminent artists. of chaucer and spenser. edited for popular perusal, v. with current illustrative and josephus: the whole explanatory notes. works of flavius josephus, the jewish historian. translated xi. by whiston. the works of the british dramatists. vi. carefully selected from the the arabian nights' original editions, with copious entertainments. notes, biographies, and a illustrated with upwards of historical introduction, etc. original engravings etc. edited by j. s. keltie, editor of 'defoe's works,' etc. ------------------ *** the above works may also be had elegantly bound in half-calf extra, gilt back, price s. each. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ demy vo, cloth, price s. d., jamieson's scottish dictionary. abridged from the dictionary and supplement (in vols. to), by john johnstone. an entirely new edition, revised and enlarged, by john longmuir, a.m., ll.d., formerly lecturer in king's college and university, aberdeen. ---------------------------- in demy vo, richly bound in cloth and gold, price s. d., the poetical works of james thomson. edited by charles cowden clarke. illustrated with choice full-page engravings on steel, printed in colours by kronheim & co. ------------------------------------ demy vo, bound, price s. d., the mechanic's and student's guide in the designing and construction of general machine gearing, as eccentrics, screws, toothed wheels, etc., and the drawing of rectilineal and curved surfaces; with practical rules and details. illustrated with numerous original engravings. edited by f r a n c i s h e r b e r t j o y n s o n, author of 'the metals used in construction.' 'as a whole, the work may be commended for its general correctness, brevity, neatness, and the way in which it necessitates the drawing forth from the mental stores the technical knowledge stowed away as a "foundation".... we may remark that many london schools have for some time adopted the examples to be found in mr. joynson's work as exercises for youth, and that the said youth eventually find them of great use. surely this is commendation indeed, and with this we close a brief notice of a very nicely got-up and creditable volume.'--_english mechanic._ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's five shilling illustrated gift-books. ------------------ crown vo, beautifully printed on superfine paper, profusely illustrated by eminent artists, and richly bound in cloth and gold and gilt edges, price s. each. i. sword and pen; or, english worthies in the reign of elizabeth. by walter clinton. ii. norrie seton; or, driven to sea. by mrs. george cupples, author of 'unexpected pleasures,' etc. iii. the circle of the year; or, studies of nature and pictures of the seasons. by w. h. davenport adams. iv. the wealth of nature: our food supplies from the vegetable kingdom. by the rev. john montgomery, a.m. v. stories of school life. by ascott r. hope. vi. the battle history of scotland. tales of chivalry and adventure. by charles alfred maxwell. vii. the sea kings of orkney. and other historical tales. by the same author. viii. english and scottish chivalry. tales from authentic chronicles and histories. by the same author. ix. the wars of england and scotland. historical tales of bravery and heroism. by the same author. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's 'carmine' gift-books. --------------------- i. small to, beautifully printed within red lines on superior paper, handsomely bound in cloth extra, bevelled boards, gilt edges, price s. d., roses and holly: a gift-book for all the year. with original illustrations by eminent artists. 'this is really a collection of art and literary gems--the prettiest book, take it all in all, that we have seen this season.'--_illustrated times._ --------------------- ii. uniform with the above, price s. d., pen and pencil pictures from the poets. with choice illustrations by the most eminent artists. --------------------- iii. uniform with the above, price s. d., gems of literature: elegant, rare, and suggestive. illustrated by distinguished artists. 'for really luxurious books, nimmo's "pen and pencil pictures from the poets" and "gems of literature" may be well recommended. they are luxurious in the binding, in the print, in the engravings, and in the paper.'--_morning post._ --------------------- iv. uniform with the above, price s. d., the book of elegant extracts. profusely illustrated by the most eminent artists. --------------------- v. uniform with the above, price s. d., the golden gift. _a book for the young._ profusely illustrated with original engravings on wood by eminent artists. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ _just ready._ entirely new binding, in cloth extra, gold and colours. entirely new binding, in morocco extra illuminated. nimmo's popular edition of the works of the poets. -------------- in fcap. vo, printed on toned paper, elegantly bound in cloth extra, gold and colours, price s. d. each; or in morocco extra, illuminated, price s. d. each; or morocco extra, novel prismatic effect with silk centre, entirely new design, price s. d. each. each volume contains a memoir, and is illustrated with a portrait of the author, engraved on steel, and numerous full-page illustrations on wood, from designs by eminent artists. i. ix. longfellow's poetical works. beattie and goldsmith's poetical works. ii. scott's poetical works. x. pope's poetical works. iii. byron's poetical works. xi. burns's poetical works. iv. moore's poetical works. xii. the casquet of gems. v. wordsworth's poetical works. xiii. the book of humorous vi. poetry. cowper's poetical works. xiv. vii. ballads: scottish and milton's poetical works. english. viii. xv. thomson's poetical works. the complete works of shakespeare. two volumes, price s. d. each. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's popular edition of the works of the poets--_continued._ ------------------ xvi. the arabian nights' xviii. entertainments. lives of the british two volumes, price s. d. each. poets. xvii. xix. bunyan's pilgrim's progress the prose works of and holy war. robert burns. --------------------- *** this series of books, from the very superior manner in which it is produced, is at once the cheapest and handsomest edition of the poets in the market. the volumes form elegant and appropriate presents as school prizes and gift-books, either in cloth or morocco. 'they are a marvel of cheapness, some of the volumes extending to as many as , and even , pages, printed on toned paper in a beautifully clear type. add to this, that they are profusely illustrated with wood engravings, are elegantly and tastefully bound, and that they are published at s. d. each, and our recommendation of them is complete.'--_scotsman._ ---------------------------------------------------------------- nimmo's favourite gift-books. in small vo, illustrated, printed on toned paper, richly bound in cloth and gold and gilt edges, with new and original frontispiece, printed in colours by kronheim, price s. d. each. i. iv. the vicar of wakefield. Æsop's fables, poems and essays. with instructive applications. by oliver goldsmith. by dr. croxall. ii. v. bunyan's pilgrim's progress. the history of sandford and merton. iii. the life and adventures vi. of robinson crusoe. evenings at home; or, the juvenile budget opened. *** the above are very elegant and remarkably cheap editions of these old favourite works. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ _completion of the copyright edition of_ wilson's tales of the borders. edited by alexander leighton, one of the original editors and contributors. in announcing the completion of the copyright edition of the border tales, the publisher does not consider it necessary to say anything in recommendation of a work which has stood the test of a general competition, and which has increased in public favour with its years. equally suited to all classes of readers, it has been received with delight in the school-room, the drawing-room, the parlour, and the village reading-room. many of the tales have been publicly read. the high tone of its morality renders it an admirable small library for young members of the family. the new copyright edition will contain four additional volumes, now first published, which will complete the work. it will be issued in twenty-four monthly volumes, price s. each, sewed in elegant wrapper, commencing march st, . but at the same time the entire work will be kept on sale, so that all who desire to possess it--either complete, or any separate volume thereof--can be supplied at once. each volume is complete in itself, forming an independent collection of stories. the work may also be had in twelve double volumes, handsomely bound in cloth, price s. each, or in roxburgh gilt top, for libraries, etc., price s. d. each. those who already possess the first twenty volumes are recommended to complete their sets by purchasing the four new volumes, the last of which will contain a steel portrait of the editor and principal contributor, alexander leighton, with a copious glossary. ---------------------------- crown vo, cloth extra, price s., triumph: the christian more than conqueror. by the rev. george philip, m.a., free st. john's church, edinburgh. 'we have, in this little volume, a very gem of scriptural, christian thoughtfulness, of sagacious christian joyfulness, of cultured intellect, of purest literary taste, and of finest genuine feeling.'--_british and foreign evangelical review._ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's handy books of useful knowledge. foolscap vo, uniformly bound in cloth extra. price one shilling each. ------------------ i. the earth's crust. a handy outline of geology. with numerous illustrations. third edition. by david page, ll.d., f.r.s.e., f.g.s., author of 'text-books of geology and physical geography,' etc. ii. poultry as a meat supply: being hints to henwives how to rear and manage poultry economically and profitably. fourth edition. by the author of 'the poultry kalendar.' iii. how to become a successful engineer: being hints to youths intending to adopt the profession. third edition. by bernard stuart, engineer. iv. rational cookery: cookery made practical and economical, in connection with the chemistry of food. fifth edition. by hartelaw reid. v. domestic medicine: plain and brief directions for the treatment requisite before advice can be obtained. second edition. by offley bohun shore, doctor of medicine of the university of edinburgh, etc. etc. etc. vi. domestic management: hints on the training and treatment of children and servants. by mrs. charles doig. vii. free-hand drawing: a guide to ornamental, figure, and landscape drawing. by an art student, author of 'ornamental and figure drawing.' profusely illustrated. viii. the metals used in construction: iron, steel, bessemer metal, etc. etc. by francis herbert joynson. illustrated. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ _new series of choice books, beautifully printed on superfine paper, profusely illustrated with original engravings by the first artists, and elegantly bound in cloth and gold, large crown vo, price s. each, entitled_, _nimmo's select library_. i. almost faultless: a story of the present day. by the author of 'a book for governesses.' ii. before the conquest; or, english worthies in the olden time. by w. h. davenport adams. [illustration] *** other volumes uniform in progress. ---------------------------------------------------------------- _nimmo's universal gift-books._ _a series of excellent works, profusely illustrated with original engravings by the first artists, choicely printed on superfine paper, and elegantly bound in cloth and gold, crown vo, price s. d. each._ i. rupert rochester, the banker's son. a tale. by winifred taylor, author of 'story of two lives,' etc. etc. ii. the story of two lives; or, the trials of wealth and poverty. by winifred taylor, author of 'rupert rochester,' etc. iii. the lost father; or, cecilia's triumph. a story of our own day. by daryl holme. iv. christian osborne's friends. by mrs. harriet miller davidson, author of 'isobel jardine's history,' and daughter of the late hugh miller. v. tales of old english life; or, pictures of the period. by william francis collier, ll.d., author of 'history of english literature,' etc. [illustration] *** other volumes uniform in progress. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ popular works by the author of 'heaven our home.' ------------------ i. one hundredth thousand. crown vo, cloth antique, price s. d., heaven our home. 'the author of the volume before us endeavours to describe what heaven is, as shown by the light of reason and scripture; and we promise the reader many charming pictures of heavenly bliss, founded upon undeniable authority, and described with the pen of a dramatist, which cannot fail to elevate the soul as well as to delight the imagination.... part second proves, in a manner as beautiful as it is convincing, the doctrine of the recognition of friends in heaven,--a subject of which the author makes much, introducing many touching scenes of scripture celebrities meeting in heaven and discoursing of their experience on earth. part third demonstrates the interest which those in heaven feel in earth, and proves, with remarkable clearness, that such an interest exists not only with the almighty and among the angels, but also among the spirits of departed friends. we unhesitatingly give our opinion that this volume is one of the most delightful productions of a religious character which has appeared for some time; and we would desire to see it pass into extensive circulation.'--_glasgow herald._ -------------- a cheap edition of heaven our home, in crown vo, cloth limp, price s. d., is also published. [illustration] ii. twenty-ninth thousand. crown vo, cloth antique, price s. d., meet for heaven. 'the author, in his or her former work, "heaven our home," portrayed a social heaven, where scattered families meet at last in loving intercourse and in possession of perfect recognition, to spend a never-ending eternity of peace and love. in the present work the individual state of the children of god is attempted to be unfolded, and more especially the state of probation which is set apart for them on earth to fit and prepare erring mortals for the society of the saints.... the work, as a whole, displays an originality of conception, a flow of language, and a closeness of reasoning rarely found in religious publications.... the author combats the pleasing and generally accepted belief, that death will effect an entire change on the spiritual condition of our souls, and that all who enter into bliss will be placed on a common level.'--_glasgow herald._ -------------- a cheap edition of meet for heaven, in crown vo, cloth limp, price s. d., is also published. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ iii. twenty-first thousand. crown vo, cloth antique, price s. d., life in heaven. there, faith is changed into sight, and hope is passed into blissful fruition. 'this is certainly one of the most remarkable works which have been issued from the press during the present generation; and we have no doubt it will prove as acceptable to the public as the two attractive volumes to which it forms an appropriate and beautiful sequel.'--_cheltenham journal._ 'we think this work well calculated to remove many erroneous ideas respecting our future state, and to put before its readers such an idea of the reality of our existence there, as may tend to make a future world more desirable and more sought for than it is at present'--_cambridge university chronicle._ 'this, like its companion works, "heaven our home," and "meet for heaven," needs no adventitious circumstances, no prestige of literary renown, to recommend it to the consideration of the reading public, and, like its predecessors, will no doubt circulate by tens of thousands throughout the land.'--_glasgow examiner._ -------------- a cheap edition of life in heaven, in crown vo, cloth limp, price s. d., is also published. [illustration] iv. seventh thousand. crown vo, cloth antique, price s. d., christ's transfiguration; or, tabor's teachings. 'the work opens up to view a heaven to be prized, and a home to be sought for, and presents it in a cheerful and attractive aspect. the beauty and elegance of the language adds grace and dignity to the subject, and will tend to secure to it the passport to public favour so deservedly merited and obtained by the author's former productions.'--_montrose standard._ 'a careful reading of this volume will add immensely to the interest of the new testament narrative of the transfiguration, and so far will greatly promote our personal interest in the will of god as revealed in his word.'--_wesleyan times._ -------------- a cheap edition of christ's transfiguration, in crown vo, cloth limp, price s. d., is also published. ------------------------- *** aggregate sale of the above popular works, , copies. in addition to this, they have been reprinted and extensively circulated in america. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's presentation series of standard works. --------------------- in small crown vo, printed on toned paper, bound in cloth extra, gilt edges, bevelled boards, with portrait engraved on steel, price s. d. each. i. vii. wisdom, wit, and allegory. the mirror of character. selected from 'the spectator.' selected from the writings of overbury, earle, and butler. ii. benjamin franklin: viii. a biography. m e n o f h i s t o r y . by eminent writers. iii. the world's way: ix. lays of life and labour. old world worthies; or, classical biography. iv. selected from _travels in africa._ plutarch's lives. the life and travels of mungo park. with a supplementary chapter, x. detailing the results of recent the man of business discovery in africa. considered in six aspects. a book for young men. v. wallace, xi. the hero of scotland: women of history. a biography. by eminent writers. by james paterson. xii. vi. the improvement of the mind. epoch men, by isaac watts. and the results of their lives. by samuel neil. *** this elegant and useful series of books has been specially prepared for school and college prizes: they are, however, equally suitable for general presentation. in selecting the works for this series, the aim of the publisher has been to produce books of a permanent value, interesting in manner and instructive in matter--books that youth will read eagerly and with profit, and which will be found equally attractive in after life. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's half-crown reward books. extra foolscap vo, cloth elegant, gilt edges, illustrated, price s. d. each. i. v. memorable wars of scotland. home heroines: by tales for girls. patrick fraser tytler, f.r.s.e., by t. s. arthur. author of 'history of scotland,' etc. vi. lessons from women's lives. by sarah j. hale. ii. seeing the world: vii. a young sailor's own story. the roseville family: by charles nordhoff. an historical tale of the eighteenth century. by mrs. a. s. orr. iii. the martyr missionary: viii. five years in china. leah: by rev. charles p. bush, m.a. a tale of ancient palestine. by mrs. a. s. orr. iv. ix. my new home: champions of the reformation. a woman's diary. the stories of their lives. ---------------------------------------------------------------- nimmo's two shilling reward books. foolscap vo, illustrated, elegantly bound in cloth extra, bevelled boards, gilt back and side, gilt edges, price s. each. i. vi. the far north. a father's legacy to his daughters; etc. ii. the young men of the bible. vii. great men of european history. iii. the blade and the ear. viii. mountain patriots: iv. monarchs of ocean. ix. labours of love: v. a tale for the young. life's crosses, and how to meet them. x. mossdale: a tale for the young. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's eighteenpenny reward books. demy mo, illustrated, cloth extra, gilt edges, price s. d. each. i. vi. the vicar of wakefield. the boy's own workshop. poems and essays. by jacob abbott. by oliver goldsmith. vii. ii. the life and adventures of Æsop's fables, robinson crusoe. with instructive applications. by dr. croxall. viii. the history of sandford iii. and merton. bunyan's pilgrim's progress. ix. iv. evenings at home; the young man-of-war's or, the juvenile budget opened. man. a boy's voyage round the world. x. unexpected pleasures. v. by mrs. george cupples, author the treasury of anecdote: of 'the little captain,' etc. moral and religious. -------------- *** the above series of elegant and useful books is specially prepared for the entertainment and instruction of young persons. ---------------------------------------------------------------- nimmo's sunday school reward books. fcap. vo, cloth extra, gilt edges, illustrated, price s. d. each. i. v. bible blessings. lessons from rose hill. by rev. richard newton. vi. ii. great and good women. one hour a week: fifty-two bible lessons for the vii. young. at home and abroad. iii. viii. the best things. the kind governess. by rev. richard newton. ix. iv. christmas at the beacon: grace harvey and her a tale for the young. cousins. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's one shilling juvenile books. foolscap vo, coloured frontispiece, handsomely bound in cloth, illuminated, price s. each. i. vii. four little people and their the perils of greatness. friends. viii. ii. little crowns, and how to elizabeth; win them. or, the exiles of siberia. ix. iii. great riches. paul and virginia. x. iv. the right way, and little threads. the contrast. v. xi. benjamin franklin. the daisy's first winter. vi. xii. barton todd. the man of the mountain. ---------------------------------------------------------------- nimmo's sixpenny juvenile books. demy mo, illustrated, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt side, gilt edges, price d. each. i. vii. pearls for little people. story pictures from the bible. ii. viii. great lessons for the tables of stone. little people. ix. iii. ways of doing good. reason in rhyme. x. iv. stories about our dogs. Æsop's little fable book. xi. v. the red-winged goose. grapes from the great vine. xii. vi. the hermit of the hills. the pot of gold. [illustration] nimmo's fourpenny juvenile books. the above series of books is also done up in elegant enamelled paper covers, beautifully printed in colours, price d. each. ---------- *** the distinctive features of the new series of sixpenny and one shilling juvenile books are: the subjects of each volume have been selected with a due regard to instruction and entertainment; they are well printed on fine paper, in a superior manner; the shilling series is illustrated with frontispieces printed in colours; the sixpenny series has beautiful engravings; and they are elegantly bound. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's popular religious gift-books. ------------------ mo, finely printed on toned paper, handsomely bound in cloth extra, bevelled boards, gilt edges, price s. d. each. i. across the river: twelve views of heaven. by norman macleod, d.d.; r. w. hamilton, d.d.; robert s. candlish, d.d.; james hamilton, d.d.; etc. etc. etc. 'a more charming little work has rarely fallen under our notice, or one that will more faithfully direct the steps to that better land it should be the aim of all to seek.'--_bell's messenger._ ii. emblems of jesus; or, illustrations of emmanuel's character and work. iii. life thoughts of eminent christians. iv. comfort for the desponding; or, words to soothe and cheer troubled hearts. v. the chastening of love; or, words of consolation to the christian mourner. by joseph parker, d.d., manchester. vi. the cedar christian. by the rev. theodore l. cuyler. vii. consolation for christian mothers bereaved of little children. by a friend of mourners. viii. the orphan; or, words of comfort for the fatherless and motherless. ix. gladdening streams; or, the waters of the sanctuary. a book for fragments of time on each lord's day of the year. x. spirit of the old divines. xi. choice gleanings from sacred writers. xii. direction in prayer. by peter grant, d.d., author of 'emblems of jesus,' etc. xiii. scripture imagery. by peter grant, d.d., author of 'emblems of jesus,' etc. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ popular religious works, suitable for presentation. ------------------ i. foolscap vo, handsomely bound in cloth extra, antique, price s. d., christian comfort. by the author of 'emblems of jesus.' ii. by the same author, uniform in style and price, light on the grave. iii. uniform in style and price, glimpses of the celestial city, and guide to the inheritance. with introduction by the rev. john macfarlane, ll.d., clapham, london. --------------------------------------------------------- crown to, cloth extra, gilt edges, price s., the national melodist. two hundred standard songs, with symphonies and accompaniments for the pianoforte. edited by j. c. kieser. -------------- demy to, cloth extra, gilt edges, price s. d., the scottish melodist. forty-eight scottish songs and ballads, with symphonies and accompaniments for the pianoforte. edited by j. c. kieser. the above two volumes are very excellent collections of first-class music. the arrangements and accompaniments, as the name of the editor will sufficiently testify, are admirable. they form handsome and suitable presentation volumes. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ nimmo's instructive and entertaining anecdote books. foolscap vo, elegantly printed on superfine paper, and richly bound in cloth and gold and gilt edges, price s. each. i. books and authors. curious facts and characteristic sketches. ii. law and lawyers. curious facts and characteristic sketches. iii. art and artists. curious facts and characteristic sketches. iv. invention and discovery. curious facts and characteristic sketches. v. omens and superstitions. curious facts and illustrative sketches. vi. clergymen and doctors. curious facts and characteristic sketches. 'this series seems well adapted to answer the end proposed by the publisher--that of providing, in a handy form, a compendium of wise and witty sayings, choice anecdotes, and memorable facts.'--_the bookseller._ nimmo's pocket treasuries. miniature to, choicely printed on the finest toned paper, and beautifully bound in a new style, cloth, price s. each. the complete set in an elegant box, price s. d. each. i. iv. a treasury of table the table talk talk. of samuel johnson, ll.d. ii. v. epigrams gleanings and literary follies. from the comedies of shakespeare. iii. vi. a treasury of poetic beauties of the gems. british dramatists. 'a charming little series, well edited and printed. more thoroughly readable little books it would be hard to find; there is no padding in them, all is epigram, point, poetry, or sound common sense.'--_publisher's circular._ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ in square vo, richly bound in cloth and gold, price s., the loves of rose pink and sky blue, and other stories told to children. by william francis collier, ll.d., author of 'tales of old english life,' etc. etc. profusely illustrated with original humorous illustrations on wood. 'it is a clever book by a clever man. there is a mind in every page, and the illustrations show that the artist appreciates the humour of the author.'--_daily news._ 'a fanciful and eccentric title for some very good fairy tales told to the little ones.'--_the times._ 'the prose and verse stories in this very handsome volume are of a healthy kind, and well calculated to compass the object for which they have been written, namely, the amusement of our young folk.'--_the examiner._ '"the loves of rose pink and sky blue, and other stories told to children," by dr. w. f. collier, is one of the most pleasant contributions to this season's literature which comes from the far north. it is genial in its purpose, pleasant in its details, and natural in its composition.'--_bell's messenger._ second edition, enlarged, price s., richly bound, story of the kings of judah and israel. written for children. by a. o. b. illustrated with full-page engravings and map. 'we have been much pleased with the "story of the kings of judah," which will prove a real boon to children, who so often are compelled to puzzle their little brains over the history of the kings of judah and israel, with the vaguest possible idea of what it all means. this little work gives the best and clearest account we have ever seen, as adapted to the comprehension of children; and the author is evidently one who has been accustomed to the training of young minds, and knows how to meet their difficulties.'--_churchman's companion._ n e w g i f t - b o o k f o r . in small quarto, price s. d., e p i s o d e s o f f i c t i o n ; or, choice stories from the great novelists. with biographical introductions and notes, etc. this work is profusely illustrated with original engravings by the most distinguished artists. it is beautifully printed at the ballantyne press on superfine paper, and elegantly bound in cloth and gold. the engraving has been executed by mr. robert paterson, edinburgh, who is well known for the excellence of his work. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ [illustration] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ learn to invent first steps for beginners young and old practical instruction valuable suggestions to learn to invent we should apprentice ourselves as it were to the inventor study the original lines of his thoughts as the young artist studies the master work. copyright by s. e. clark [illustration] s. e. clark philadelphia penna. by mail cents estb. preface. the booklets "mental nuts" and "a book of maxims" have met with so much favor i have decided to try again. i submit this little effort to those young and old who desire information and suggestions on the subject, in the form of a "first step" or introduction, for those who would learn to invent. though it is entirely a subject for the deepest study, i favor a personal talk, digressing at times in an effort to interest and instruct, to enliven and cheer. i see little hope for the casual reader. "as ye sow so shall ye also reap." my faith rests in the careful, persevering student. i sincerely hope that as a whole the effort may prove helpful to many. as to the future, may you all realize. "full many a pupil has become more famous than his master." s. e. c. philadelphia, pa., sept. , . introduction. invention is the fountain source of material progress. it would indeed be a fruitless effort to try to express in adequate language its wondrous possibilities and practical worth to mankind. its field of action surpasses all others. it is most apparent in our daily walks of life. every human effort owes it homage. the fame of many inventors has encircled the earth. they have been feted and honored in many ways, their names indelibly inscribed on the roll of the earth's greatest men. fortune and fame have been showered on them with a lavish hand, and yet little or no effort is made to direct thought into this vast and unlimited field for study, that people may learn to invent. the whole subject is left quite in the dark. it is on the go-as-you-please, hit-and-miss plan. people become inventors by mere chance, and are viewed as possessing a special gift of nature. i hold that invention is just as tangible as any of the sciences and can just as well be taught. the human mind is naturally inventive. the trend will improve and grow or it will wilt and die, according to the attention it receives. to learn to invent we should apprentice ourselves, as it were, to the inventor, take up his invention and study the original lines of his thought, as the young artist studies the master work. first learn to imitate, and the creative thought will follow and develop. i shall be content to confine my effort to the simplest forms of devices i can call to mind, a first step. but don't mistake nor be discouraged. to the average man and the particular people to whom i hope this pamphlet will appeal the small and simple devices are the cream of the field. they are easily handled, quickly turned, and many pay fabulous sums. oftentimes the idea will flit before the mind like a will-o'-the-wisp or its zephyr-like touch is not realized. i believe many people have experienced a semi-consciousness of the presence of opportunity and allowed it to pass unheeded by, that had they taken it up intelligently and properly studied and developed it they would have become famous. we should inform and prepare ourselves. be ready to act on the slightest intimation. "there is a tide in the affairs of men which, taken at the flood, leads to fortune; omitted, all the voyage of their life is bound in shallows and in miseries." "the nearer to the practical men keep the less they deal in vague and abstract things the less they deal in huge mysterious words the mightier is their power, * * * * * the simple peasant who observes a truth, and from the fact deduces principle; adds solid treasure to the public wealth, the theorist who dreams a rainbow dream and calls hypothesis philosophy, at best is but a paper financier who palms his specious promises for gold, facts are the basis of philosophy; philosophy the harmony of facts." thomas l. harris, in "lyrics of a golden age." learn to invent small talk. since we will interest ourselves in the very small affairs that hang like a great cloud of fringe on the science of invention, i think it well to make a note of some of the bright little things that have been brought forth. many of these little mites have proven to be veritable gold mines to the fortunate originator or patentee. they are too numerous to classify. they appear so very simple, embodying but a single thought, we naturally associate "'luck." indeed, many did come to mind uninvited, but it was to an observing mind, a thinking mind. if we desire to participate in and avail ourselves of these wondrous opportunities we must observe and think. the dents on the old tin tobacco boxes, one on the box, the other on the lid, placed to register with and thus secure it when closed, was certainly very simple. it is said a man was sewing and the needle would often slip off the end of the thimble when he would attempt to push it through. he became vexed and struck the thimble a blow on the end with a hammer. it was first convex, but the blow from the hammer made it quite flat on the end. upon renewing the sewing he found the thimble worked splendidly; the needle did not slip. he became interested and finally took out a patent for a thimble with a concave end. certainly, to any one who would attempt to get up a machine to do sewing it would appear as a mere matter of force of circumstance to use a needle with the eye in the point, since necessarily the other end would be attached to the machine. the return ball, in homely language a wooden ball with a rubber string fastened to it, was certainly simple enough; also the metal toe cap formerly extensively used on children's shoes to prolong their wear. the little wheels on the end of the pole on the trolley cars would have been a bonanza were it not that the introduction of the trolley system was so slow. the seventeen years for which patents are granted passed by before the system became in general use. this slowness to become general has ruined many grand opportunities. it is a fact to be reckoned with. many successful inventors have had their hopes blasted at times by the apathy of the people in adopting their inventions in time for them to reap their just reward. while the inventor naturally and perforce must lead, he should be discreet, and not go so far ahead that he cannot get the people to follow. some matters must be approached gradually. the little ball fastening so common on our money purses is a gem. it would be rare indeed to provide any other device to take its place, it is so convenient, simple and practical. a fastener, to be a success, must make a noise in closing; it becomes the signal to the mind that the work is properly done. the hook and eye "see that hump" was simple enough, but i fancy it required a splendid campaign of advertising and business push to get it to the front and make it pay. many inventions are virtually lost because they are not properly pushed. my advice is, if you have an invention and are not situated properly to push it, sell it. experience leads me to observe that we constantly change our views or see things differently. some things look good to-day and later we do not think well of them, and vice versa, other things improve and grow in our estimation. when an idea of a device occurs, study it; think how it can best be made; make a drawing of it; take up every detail and material best suited. try to get it in the most simple form. when, after careful consideration, you feel that you have perfected it in your mind, have a model made and see that it meets every requirement. if you do not sell the invention you can contract the manufacturing and go into the business of selling, or you can put it out on a royalty basis. all inventors use certain mechanical principles. the same principle is often found in many different inventions; hence, it is well to study these principles, as the knowledge of them will help you to perfect and bring forth your invention. in this connection i would advise that you possess all the little novelties you can; study them; examine them closely and ask yourself why did he this and that. take up each one and try to get a clear understanding of it; practice explaining it to others and impress the points on your mind; they may be of great service to you some day. many times a good idea is poorly carried out, the mechanical arrangements are not well adapted either for performing the work or to effect lowest cost in construction. these defects give rise to improvements. it certainly would be a provoking experience to obtain a grand idea and get it up in a defective mechanical way and have someone make a simple improvement and reap the reward. if i could control the matter i would change the patent laws in this respect. i would foster improvement, but i would not allow the original inventor to be robbed of his just reward. i would not permit him to become arrogant and dictate impossible terms, but i would see to it that he at least got a part of his dues. if he came forward with an original invention he would get a patent; if another man made an improvement on his method i would give him a patent, subject to a small royalty to the original inventor, and to continue until the original patent expired. the matter could be judged just as well as law cases are judged. you must duly consider the subjects you attempt. don't bother with perpetual motion; it would only be a toy at best. i have no faith in a non-refillable bottle: in all probability it would fill if it were submerged, and particularly if a hole were drilled in it. an idea in this line is to have a nickel or a dime blowed in the glass of the bottle; the goods would be sold for the amount more, and the buyer would break the bottle to get his money back. the idea seems practical, at least so far as the fact that the broken bottle would be a true non-refillable one. ordinarily i do not interest in those inventions that require to be demonstrated, as they are too expensive to introduce. the people are generally skeptical, and they have been so for ages. the poets of the early centuries voiced public doubt in verse, referring to a gun, gotten up and promoted by a stock company, thus: "a rare invention to destroy the crowd of fools at home, instead of foes abroad; fear not my friends, this terrible machine, they're only wounded who have shares therein." financial advices are all good before ten and after three. as a rule, don't buy stocks that are glaringly advertised; they are working hard to sell. don't go in by the front door: stocks of such companies can generally be bought on the outside for less than the advertised price and are most always too high at that. many, indeed, would be high at the price in counterfeit money. vast sums and much time have been lost on various patents connected with railroads, etc. once in a great while one may succeed. you should have a book and record your ideas as they occur; write out enough about them to make the whole thought on the subject clear, and preserve it for future reference. it would be a splendid idea to write out descriptions of any little novelty you see. state all the particulars; make your notes so that you will clearly understand every detail at any time you refer to them: get all the patent papers of small or simple novelties, etc., that you can and read carefully what they say about the construction; note what the inventor claims. i would recommend the patent office gazette. this, i am sure, will prove the most valuable exercise you can take. they will prove practical lessons of worth and you will gain many helpful ideas. i recently met a gentleman from the south, who had taken out a patent on a hoe that was used extensively in the cotton fields. the blade was extra large and the handle was secured to the middle or central portion in a way that when the edge of the blade in use became worn and battered it could be turned and virtually form a new hoe. in the early days of the linotype or printing machines there were several machines being made and developed. one of the parties took out a patent on what they called an adjuster. it was simply a wedge, which was operated to spread the type and space the words; and though a very simple matter, it became a most important feature and compelled the other companies to pay a royalty for its use. i think it will be found a very valuable point to carefully consider the subject before you rush into developing an invention. many things can be done, viewed as a mere mechanical possibility, but circumstances may preclude their use. a party labored on the idea of a device to perforate postage stamps in the operation of canceling them. the thought finally occurred to him to use sand in the mucilage, so that when the stamp was struck in the usual canceling operation the sand would cut through it. i am informed that he wrote to the postoffice department at washington. in their reply they stated that the sand would also cut the envelope. if i desired to work on that idea i would first aim to print the stamps with a color that would turn after it was canceled in the usual way, using, perhaps, some acid in the canceling ink, or i would work on the lines of a cancel to tear an embossed stamp, but i don't think the subject worth while. i prefer articles that sell to the many. "little and often fills the purse." all inventions originate in thought, which is often due to casual observance. we see a man stoop on the street, pick up a straw or splint and run it in the pipe stem. we begin to think. his pipe became clogged; it did not draw freely; he was lucky to find the straw; he might not always find one so readily. it is an idea to provide for such emergency so that he will not have to depend on the chance straw--something convenient; let me see--suppose we take a fine wire, double and twist it, leaving a small ring at one end. he could put it in the pipe-stem and leave it there; it would not be large enough to close the draft. if the stem became stopped he could pull the wire out, clean and replace it. now, we observed, thought obtained an idea and constructed a device; can we improve it? we should study, ask ourselves the questions, does it this? will it that? make a sample and test it, see that it meets the requirements, and you have an invention. obtain a patent, have them manufactured, and put them on the market. i do not smoke at present, and certainly do not recommend cigarettes, but simply as an illustration of an idea: we could gather up tobacco stems, etc., and make them into a paper to be used as a wrapper in making the cigarette. it would come pretty near being an all-tobacco cigarette. why not fit the inside of the watch case with a thin sheet revolving calendar? a hollow rubber ball or spring might be fitted in the heel of the shoe to make walking more comfortable. an instrument to write with, fitted so that a ball passing over the paper would leave the mark or ink. it would not scratch and would wear longer than a gross of pens. bicycles may have seen their day; i often thought an automatic pump could be arranged to keep them in prime condition. possibly a leather paint could be made to paint the soles of one's shoes, to make them wear longer. the governor on an engine is a simple idea; its function is to control--by its use the engine is regulated. if the latter is operating a dozen machines it is exerting a certain power; if, suddenly, ten of the machines were stopped, the power would run the engine at a terrific rate of speed; the governor rises and shuts off the power, and thus controls the engine. the safety valve on the boiler is also very simple; it controls the steam pressure, allowing it to escape when it becomes too great. the wood or cold handle sad iron is exceedingly simple and astonishingly profitable. the morse alphabet, used in telegraphing, was rather on the puzzle order, and quite easy at that. argand had gotten up his lamp with a circular wick, in a tube, the air thus supplying oxygen from within and without. it was a success; his child brother playfully set a broken flask over the flame, which was greatly improved thereby. the practical eye of the elder argand enabled him to note the birth of lamp chimneys. the four wire prongs to hold chimneys on lamps were crude, simple, and very profitable. a good fender for trolley cars should be made so that it could be projected in front of the car, or drawn in within the line of the car, bow-shaped in front and governed by springs, so that it would yield when striking a person. a mechanism might be arranged to show the next station or street on a sign in the car. it could be operated by power taken from the axle, though the slipping of the wheels would be bothersome. the flying machine is a little too much of a wild fancy for me; it would do for some fellow who wants to get off the earth. "it's me for the simple life." men chew their cigars so much in smoking; it don't look a bit neat; an oiled paper end might be worked on under the wrapper to help the matter. for cheap, machine made cigars, a toothpick might be worked in, to be pulled out before lighting, to improve the draft. "please shut the door" became a very common saying; finally it attracted the inventor's attention. a rope, pulley and weight may have been first; then springs ordinarily applied came, finally the spring was placed in the hinge and later still the spring and air cushion were combined. it closes the door and prevents it from slamming. i believe in keeping fairly quiet about ideas i am working on. but don't spend your money for a patent too quickly. many times patents are taken out, and instead of any danger of someone stealing them, they can't be coaxed to buy at mere cost. unless it is really an important idea, it pays to get them made and see if they will sell before you take out a patent. in your notebook where you keep a record of novelties and your ideas, from time to time, don't fail to record all costs you can learn of and where different things can be made--the more particular you are about these matters, the more you will improve your ideas and ability to properly promote them. much vexation and lost time can be avoided in getting up inventions by being exact. "slipshod" won't do. it defeats many perfectly practical ideas. the parts of a machine must be shaped and fitted to a nicety; "whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well." it seems to me there is no end to improvement. i heard of a yankee who was traveling in england. he was somewhat of a blower; no matter what he saw or heard of he claimed they had the same thing in america much more improved. the englishmen could not stand it, so they thought they would get the best of the yankee. they told him of a wonderful machine, the most complete ever built. a hog was driven in at one end and came out a cooked sausage at the other. the yankee took it calmly and said yes, they had it in america, but it was a failure until a fellow-yankee improved it. "improve it? a complete machine like that? why, impossible." "well," said the yankee, "he put an attachment on so that if you did not like the sausage you simply reversed the machine and the hog walked out again." next to the simple or single idea patents: i think the improvements follow, and indeed many of them are exceedingly simple. it is all right to improve old patents and new ones, when the improvement has real merit. i want to take you over an improvement i had patented. i secured an old trick, in the form of a tin box three inches long, having a cap at each end. a cent would be dropped in through an opening in the top. the central portion was double, the outer sleeve was loose and could be pushed up and down; a slot in its side hid by the cap would register, when pushed up, with a slot in the inner part; by tilting the box the cent would drop through these slots into the hand. then the loose sleeve had to be worked back into position so that the cap hid the slot. the operation was slow and somewhat difficult. it occurred to me to make the box of wood and provide it with a slanting bottom on the inside. this would lead the cent right up to the slot, and it would come out without tilting the box; also by using a spring it became automatic, i. e., the spring would push it back into position. the trick can be done at least five times while it is done once with the tin box. it made an a trick box. it would be a good seller on the street, but in stores they would forget how to work it, and stores can't spare the time to demonstrate, so it did not go well in stores. the boxes were made complete for $ . per gross, sold to jobbers at $ and to retailers at $ . they retailed at cents. they were made on a lathe and nicely polished, packed one dozen in a box. i think in nine cases out of ten it is best to contract with some good firm to make the device. you will have plenty to do selling it. you can easily get some one to make the goods, but it is not so easy to get one who can sell them and push them properly. i tried manufacturing and don't like it. ideas are common and belong to all, the methods to the first should fall. as a matter of fact, you can't patent an idea. you patent the method, or device. some patents may perforce virtually cover the idea as a consequence of there being no alternative. a needle for machines with the eye in the point, the wedge adjuster in the linotype machines. patents of that class, when good, are extra valuable, because they can't be improved. we also can sometimes make an article in common use by a patented machine and have a very secure thing. i think wire nails come under this head. speaking of wire calls to mind the key ring; many millions have been sold. possibly a brake could be made in the form of a wedge suspended in front of the wheel by a chain in a way that it could be moved so that the wheel would run on it and thus stop the vehicle. i don't know the particulars, and so i only speak in a general way. a patent was procured on a knife with an irregular or sawlike edge. it was recommended to cut bread, cake, etc.; could cut without much downward pressure, which made the bread, etc., soggy. probably a good thing. a party patented an improvement, making his knife with a wave edge for the same purpose. well, i would have compelled no. to pay no. a small royalty. have you ever seen the little tugboats doing their work, taking the big ships into dock? do you know how they steer? they have a propeller close up to the stern; just beyond is the rudder. both are in line with the centre. the turning of the propeller throws a strong current past both sides of the rudder and away from the tug. by turning the rudder so that the current strikes it the vessel is forced around; it acts as though pivoted in the centre, the ends going in opposite directions. in the early days they tried to move the vessel by blowing wind against the sails with a bellows stationed on the vessel. they overlooked the reaction, and were surprised that the vessel did not move. can you construct a box having a drawer so arranged that you could put an object in it, close and open it and have the object disappear? i frequently meet the gentleman who got up the "donkey party." it certainly was amusing. the fifteen puzzle took the country by storm. pigs in clover was great, but too many imitations. the idea of printing animals on calico, so that they could be cut, sewed and stuffed at home was no doubt profitable. it was clever to shape the crackers like the oysters. an elephant or teddy bears brand of popcorn might take. the old sand box toys took well. they operated mechanical figures on the hour glass principle. millions of little wire hooks have been sold to hang things on christmas trees. a simple device to revolve the tree should sell well. a small generative battery could electric light the tree. it injures the showcase to drop the money on it, and at times it is difficult to pick up the change. the little porcupine-like rubber mat is handy. the cigar cutter is all right. a revolving needle might be used to improve the draft of the improperly made cigars; it would be more practical than the porous plasters frequently recommended on the back of the head for the same purpose. i guess the hen, in her quill, has us all beat on toothpicks. a man who built a large stack at his mill to get a better draft for the fire had an eight-inch pipe leading from the fireplace. it met an obstruction and was divided into two four-inch pipes, one going on either side of the obstruction and thence to the stack. when the work was completed the fire did no better than before. the builder was much disappointed and puzzled. he could not understand it. can you observe what was the matter? it should be apparent at a glance. he shut off half of the draft. an eight-inch pipe is equal to four four-inch pipes. to observe you must observe. why do people read fiction? a lady was annoyed by her hair coming down. she finally bent the hairpin. her husband patented the idea and they made a fortune. the idea of a paragon frame for umbrellas proved a mint. rubber dress shields, lined, made thousands. it is said wooden shoepegs paid millions. "truth is stranger than fiction." toy guns are pretty old, and mama had always been nervous over the arrows, caps, etc. i patented the harmless gun in --had it fire a hollow rubber ball. i supplied the trade for twelve years, and then sold the patent for $ , . the invention has paid in all probably $ , , and the guns are for sale in the stores as usual. in fact, all that my patent covered was the idea of a string made fast to the rear of the plunger and extending back to the outside, on the bottom edge of the stock, so that the spring or plunger could be pulled back into position, instead of using a ramrod to push it back, as in other toy guns. perfecting the details of this gun called for much more study than did taking out the patent. at first the end of the plunger rod would wedge in the barrel on striking the hollow ball. the end of the plunger was flat, a very small portion of the ball touched it, and hence would naturally dent and wedge. it was remedied by making the end of the plunger concave, so that in striking the ball it would come in contact with a greater surface and not dent. the point where the string, which was pulled to set the spring, came out of the stock, would split out, and we could not satisfactorily fasten on a brass plate with an eyeletted hole. this was overcome by boring the hole large and gluing in a round piece with a hole through the centre. it was then cut down in the sandpapering, and was quite unnoticeable. it worked like a charm. it was difficult to get the hollow rubber balls at a low cost: two cents each was quoted. they took a square piece of thin rubber, pinched it up with the fingers, put some water in, then put cement on the edges, placed it in an iron mold and put it in the furnace. the water turned to steam and forced the rubber in the shape of the mould; the vulcanizing would cause it to stay in position, but many would leak and not shape right. the process was improved by using tubing cut proper length and pieces punched out of a flat sheet to fit over the ends. it was a success, and few ever failed to properly shape. one gross was made at a time. they cost less than one cent each. for a while $ per thousand was the best price quoted for the brass eagles used on the stock for ornament. these were finally secured at $ , and a number of hundred thousand were used. seven small wood turnings were used in each gun. the first lot of one thousand of these turnings cost $ . . they were made on a lathe by hand. then they were secured at $ . per thousand, done by machine, and finally they were contracted at cents per thousand. a paper tube, painted and silver bronzed, made a good barrel. i thought these details might interest. they are "all wool and a yard wide." "one fact is worth a book full of theories." toys present a good field for inventors. they pay well usually, and are easy to handle. you must hold your prices firmly; treat all jobbers alike, no matter whether they buy one or one hundred gross. if you favor one you offend all the rest. be impartial. cities are growing so large, rents are soaring so high and store space seems to be getting so crowded, possibly a fixture of store shelves could be arranged on the ferris wheel plan and put into position above the counter to help the situation. mucilage evaporates so fast. they have fountain pens. can any of you get up a fountain mucilage pen or brush? i guess we are a little late for ink bottles and spittoons that won't spill the contents upon upsetting. a thought in mind seems to constantly annoy. readers, no doubt, if they have the patience to read the whole of this pamphlet, will possibly wonder what it is all about. well, they need not ponder. the student who is alive to the subject will understand; he will take the time and allow his thoughts to dwell on each little subject mentioned. i believe in as much original gray matter "horse sense" and facts as circumstances permit, that every time you bump up against it you find something out. "sabe." have you ever studied the philosophy of trains going around curves. the wheels have a flange on one side and taper to the other side. they stand on the track with the flange on the inside. when they come to the curve, in which the outside rail is always set higher than the inside one, and is necessarily longer, the flange presses against it, and that wheel is running on its largest diameter while the opposite wheel is on its smallest diameter. this fact, together with the slipping, enables the outside wheel to go over a greater length of rail than the inside wheel, though both are secured rigidly to the same axle. the train has a tendency to go straight ahead; the outside rail being higher causes it to constantly slip a little. the bent rail keeps prying the flange over, as it were, and the train is brought around the curve safely. sometimes it pays to learn some things not generally considered as being immediately connected with one's regular calling. i heard of a noted chinese doctor who had a very bright son who was studying medicine at college. an epidemic set in, the doctor was sent for and went from one case to another. he was quite an athlete and a good swimmer. soon the village people concluded the doctor was the cause of all the sickness and decided to thrash him. the doctor ran for his life, the crowd close on his heels. finally he came to a river, plunged in and swam to the opposite side. no one in the crowd could swim--the doctor was safe. he went home and the bright young son answered the door and said, "father, i need the money for some books at college the teacher recommends." the father's mind was full of thought of the experience he had just gone through, and he said, "my son, with due respect to your teacher, i advise that you first learn to swim; it may some day be more important than any of your studies." don't be an idle spectator of life, create splendor for others' view. do i think ladies could invent? well, at the present moment i feel like saying most decidedly yes. why, you yourself made a splendid observation. don't you recall saying the horses lost a great portion of their food by tossing their heads about while eating? well, yes, the flies are annoying, but i think there is another reason. well, you see they strap the full feed bag to the horse's head. at first the adjustment is good enough, but as the horse eats the surface of the food recedes and soon the adjustment becomes bad. the horse can no longer reach the food, and tosses his head about in an effort to get it. well, we observed, thought, and as a consequence have a problem to work out. yes, i think we might overcome the difficulty. why, exactly, splendid; we can properly adjust the springs and fasten them in the handle or hanging straps that hold the feed bag to the horse. then, as he eats and the weight becomes less, the springs will cause the bag to rise and the adjustment will be proper throughout. yes, that is a real invention. we are inventors. we will use a perforated bag. why, i think we might call it "the automatic ventilated feed bag." the horse will thank us, and we will become so rich. salt cellars don't work good in damp weather--the salt cakes. you should work out that problem by the "think a little" rule. a flagpole to operate the flag on the principle of the spring roller window curtain; make the political banner collapsible. pass tops by, too many already; besides i have been sore on them since youth, when i tried to make one to wind up with a key and run all day. it was a long time before i replaced my watch, the works of which i used in that top. did it spin? "nope." postage stamp affixer. no, pass it. it may do later on when you are more experienced. i had some dealings with a simple kind: it looked and worked like a rubber stamp, but the moisture from the sponge soon got in among the stamps--impractical. it should be quite easy to make a chute wagon that would unload coal while standing lengthwise along the curb, so as not to block the cars. suppose you wish to cause a toy man to pass around a six-inch circle and at the same time constantly revolve, could you contrive to make it work by turning a crank? it is good practice to work all puzzles and problems you find. it cultivates reasoning and gives you splendid practice on concentrating your thought. it makes you a close observer and becomes a valuable asset for use in any walk of life. some people don't seem to notice anything--or, at least, very few things. i one time had an amusing debate with a man. he insisted he moved his upper jaw in eating. he proved it conclusively to himself by biting on his finger. how many of you know the difference between a horse and a cow in getting up? i hope a half dozen dozen and six dozen dozen don't look alike to you. you must get things exactly as they are in your mind; then only will you have a true basis to reason from. don't go through life with the idea that everything is "about the size of a piece of chalk." many people will say to those who invent, "how did you come to think of it? i could never think of anything." the main trouble is they don't think at all. if they would take an interest in things and examine them closely, study them until they can clearly explain every detail, it would be a reasonably short time until they would think of other things and invent. the inventor should be sanguine and hopeful. it spurs him on and helps him to wade through discouragement. possibly as like produces like, like thoughts produce like thoughts, fear thoughts produce fear thoughts. you must have a little of the big i in you. "he who dares assert the i may calmly wait, while hurrying fate meets his demands with sure supply." i don't mean that you should sit down and expect to invent by mere weight of thought. that would be like watching the clock to see the hour pass by. i mean you should make the start. begin by noticing how things are done. interest your thoughts on the subject. keep the matter in mind. time will pass by pleasantly and some morning you will find your mind engrossed with an idea of an invention or an improvement on one, and that day will appear the brightest in your life. the more you study over what others have done, the sooner you will do something yourself. i fear you won't study. now let me see; take that trick box. in no. they tilted the box to get the cent out. well, by tilting the box they simply put the flat bottom on a slant and the cent slid out. that could be improved in working by making a slanting bottom. again, in no. , after they worked the outer sleeve up so that the openings registered and allowed the cent to slide out, they then worked the outer sleeve back into position, so that the side of the cap hid the slot. that work could be saved by inserting a spring, and so you should take up each feature, learn the reason why, and impress it on your mind. confine yourself to the very simple things. later on you will take interest in the larger ones, but at first they would likely discourage you, though the large inventions are only a combination of simple ideas. the telegraph sounds big. in the first place, it was simply a discovery. the electric current magnetized the wire so that it attracted metal, and would do so no matter how long the wire (within reason). now, they could not well arrange to move the magnet over the paper to do the writing, so they thought to make it stationary and move the paper. the machine to do this was the biggest part of the invention. the code or morse alphabet followed, by arranging the dots and dashes to represent the letters. if a massive structure were built of bricks, broad, high walls, square and round towers, high, commanding, arched doorway, facades, ledges, etc., you would stand and gaze in bewildering admiration at the grand, colossal structure. yet it is only a combination of bricks. and what are bricks, pray? only clay molded into shape and baked in an oven. no man ever invented a great machine unless he was an adept in the line of simple things, or he engaged assistance from those who were. don't underrate the importance of these simple ideas. take each one up, consider and go over it as carefully as though it were new--your own thought--and as though you were going to apply for a patent on it. if you can't enthuse and work or study in earnest on these matters you are surely on the wrong line for you. get off and devote your time to some other pursuit. you must be in earnest and willing to persevere. keep everlastingly at it. dabblers rarely ever succeed at anything. i saw a patented churn. it was a plain tank and a long round handle with propeller blades set on the end. the propeller was pushed down through the cream. it did not revolve, and hence agitated the cream very much. then, when it was pulled up to the top, the propeller revolved and the cream was scarcely moved. in going down the propeller would move up about one inch and lock. in pulling up it would move back and unlock. i remember the man who patented an iron ore washer. it was a large tank affair, say eight feet long, three feet at one end and six feet at the other. inside it was lined with iron plates having a flange projecting upward. these were fastened so that the flanges formed a spiral from the large to the small end. an axle was placed in the centre by braces. the large end almost touched the ground; the small end was, say, two feet above the ground. the ore dirt was shoveled in the big end. a stream of water entered the small end. the washer was revolved. the dirt ran out with the water. the ore was worked by the flanges up to and fell out of the small end. i met a party who had a patented bung for barrels. it looked like a straight piece of round wood. i inquired, what is the patent. he said, bungs blow out of barrels, but his would not, because it was first made larger at one end than the other, then by driving it through a tube it was forced equal at each end. the original big end was marked and put in the bung hole. the liquid would cause it to swell to its former size. it could not blow out, and to tap the barrel it was driven in. the shores of lake superior are full of fine iron ore, probably millions of dollars worth. a party got up an electrical separator. to reclaim the iron sounds big. let us see. an iron cylinder, an electrical battery or dynamo to charge and magnetize it, a long trough with a moving belt in the bottom. the sand and fine iron were shoveled on the belt and carried up to and fell on one side of the revolving magnetized cylinder. the iron adhered, and as the separator revolved it was scraped off on the other side. some ten years ago i wrote to a number of chewing gum firms and proposed they make sugar-coated tablets. they did not enthuse and i dropped the matter. to-day it forms quite a business. about twenty-five years ago i proposed to put india-rubber along the water line of war ships, so that when struck the hole would close and prevent the water going in. to-day every war ship is equipped with that idea, using cellulose instead of rubber. so, don't give up your ideas too quickly. become well convinced before you drop them. during the past month i read an article stating that the railroads required a heavier rail. i thought the added weight might be used to make the rail alike top and bottom--a double rail--so that when one side wore out the rail could be turned and virtually have a new one, and it being on the ground would save the handling in the second case. a special shoe would secure it to the tie. first costs are often increased to get economic results. i simply advance the idea. any one interested can put it in their pipe and smoke it. if any of you use a rubber ball in the heel of the shoe to make walking comfortable you may be able to fit a small tube and have it arranged to ventilate the toe of the shoe. a party made a horseshoe having a toe piece of three parts. the centre was very hard steel; the outsides were soft. they wore down and the hard centre stuck up. it was always sharp. he said the blacksmiths would not handle them because it hurt their business. it always seemed a good idea to make a wheel so that the spokes formed a hub at the centre. if all the people were alive to their needs all hats would be ventilated. the corrugated band is a good idea, as far as it goes. it should be supplemented with vents in sides or top. do you know they paint ships without brushes? simply spray it on with an atomizer and sweep with a suction hose. i hope it will be after my day when some of you get up a machine to do the eating. a cannon was mounted with mechanism to absorb the recoil and other service. a hole was drilled through the side of the cannon about one foot from the end or muzzle. a tube was fitted and extended rearward to the mechanism. when the cannon was fired the pressure became very great in the chamber, and the instant the projectile passed the drilled hole, and until it left the gun, this high pressure or power went through the tube and worked the mechanism at the rear of the gun. i know hoopskirts are long out of style. could a flexible metal band be arranged at the bottom of pants and end of coat sleeves, so that they need not be sewed and could be worked to shorten or lengthen them, as desired? i saw a funnel that had a wire rod running down to the small end. a ball on the end of the rod was used to close or open the funnel. when the bottle was full you could close the funnel, and no more would run out of it. i don't think there is a good nutmeg grater on the market. the price at retail should not be above cents. it should have a good appearance, convenient and practical. it should all be enclosed, fly proof and dust proof--a sanitary grater. there is a chance to improve a match box to hang on the wall, something that won't show the marks. you should be alive to the difference between goods being on sale at stores and taking hold of a specialty and pushing it. sometimes the horses are driven with slack lines, and shy or scare suddenly. often the driver is bothered to take up the slack. could you invent handles to put on the lines that could be moved forward easily, have them grip so not to slip back until a spring or catch released them? i don't understand why they don't connect the shafts to the vehicle so that they could be instantly disconnected in case the horse ran away. they sell a number of popcorn roasters. one to revolve should prove a good seller. the shaking plan is very tiresome. some arrangement should be put on the bootblack boy's box to prevent the foot from slipping off. a propeller rocket could be made to go very high. could you make a metal frame that any one, by using a strong manila paper, could make a pocketbook to hold notes, bills, etc.? how do you like a wire device to be put on rolls of ribbon to keep them from unwinding in the retail stores? a watch might be made so that the opening and closing of the lid would keep it wound up. i have not been inside a school for a long time. perhaps they have holders to prevent the chalk crayons from breaking. did you ever cut a round piece of cardboard in a strip, say one-half inch wide, cutting round and round to the centre, then set it on a knitting needle, place it over the stove and see it turn? the heat from a small wax candle should turn a christmas tree lamp on the same principle. now they make wood lead pencils that require no sharpening. the lead is loose. a slot down the side of the pencil enables one to advance the lead as required. elections call forth many ideas as to the best form of balloting. i think a very safe form of voting would be to have two large iron boxes with mechanism and a long roll of paper, proper width, with the ballots printed on it; a flat space or table between the boxes; the long paper tape of ballots would be wound up on a roller in one box and unwound into the other, the ballots to be numbered consecutively. a voter steps up and proves his right to vote; then he marks his vote on ballot no. , which shows on the flat place between the boxes. the judges then turn a crank. that ballot moves into the other box and the next adjoining ballot appears on the flat place. such a plan would be free from stuffing, and ought to give reasonable satisfaction. the various styles of folding boxes are good illustrations of the single idea inventions. many flourishing concerns are based on same. to be an inventor one should be a close observer. they should make sure of just what they see. i heard of a business man who had a very valuable horse. he left particular orders that great care should be taken and see that the horse did not get loose and go in the new clover field. he went off to his business, some distance away, and soon a neighbor came at top speed and said, "your horse is in the clover field." the business man left his office in great haste and ran home, where he found the horse in the stable where he had left him. the cow had been put in the clover field. the neighbor said he did not look so very close. he saw an animal in the field. it seemed to have four corners, with a leg from each corner to the ground, and thought it might be the horse. he wouldn't make an inventor--"a left-over in the process of nature's selection." a device to turn the sheets of music for piano players should be worthy of study. some one ought to get up a paste that could be put in a tooth and adhere. it should become hard and be lasting. most anything to obviate the barbarous riveting process. has it ever occurred to you the vast amount of waste going on in putting up goods in tin packages? it presents a great field for invention of the simple "lucky" kind. the person who hits the right thing will become vastly wealthy. try to devise a shape of package that will answer and be useful after it is emptied. now, simply to illustrate the idea, say we put tomatoes up in a tin cup with a lid that would serve as a cake cutter. nice little buckets might answer. smoking tobacco packages ought to answer for match boxes to hang on the wall. come, now, there is a fortune waiting. who among the students will be first to claim it? nothing would please me more than to hear of some one or more of you making a hit. think. "he who would eat the nut must crack it." some people think there have been so many patents taken out already there is no chance to get up any more. the truth is, no doubt, the chances are on the increase. new sciences are being developed, as for instance, electricity, and each new machine turns out work that enables the inventor to do something he could not well do before. machinery now will shape wire to any required form; castings are greatly improved; wood turnings are cheap and in almost every imaginable shape. the inventor of to-day has almost every possible detail want at hand, and so he can undertake things heretofore out of reach. naturally, as the country grows things come into demand that were not worth while before. indeed, from every point of view the field seems to broaden. suppose a two-inch tube has a one-inch hole through the side. it is desired to cover the hole with a band, so arranged that when the band is turned it will revolve a rod inside of the tube. can you reason how to do it? grates used under boilers for steam purposes expand when heated. when cast in one piece the bars warp and soon wear out. a grate was patented made in pieces; each single bar was loose; due allowance was made for expansion. they are oval on top, broad and tapering. they do not warp. the space between the bars widened towards the bottom, hence the ashes would not clog. draw an end view of such bars; the idea will show plainly. i favor drawing to impress thought. the matter rests with yourself. "you can lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink." since so simple a device as an air cushion will render the fall of an elevator harmless, there should be something doing with trains of cars. no telescoping. who will quiet the awful noise of the trolley car, particularly in cities? overhead they might slide the cars to advantage, using a cog motor on third rail. method is a species of invention. it lends force to action. what day of the week was march , ? . --the last two figures of the date. . --take one-fourth; don't use fractions. . --the day of the month. . --ratio; see table below. ---- . / --divide by . ---- and no rem.; sat., rem.; sun., rem.; mon., etc. table of ratio, , being a figure for each month, beginning january , etc. now, i wish you to practice this method to memorize the table of ratio: . please remember . . think double double, and you have . it is , miles to the moon . add to the unit side . add to the hundred side you should get that in a minute. for dates in the th century add before dividing by . for leap years make the ratio for january and february one less than in the table. try this for the presidents washington jackson adams adams jefferson monroe madison w a j - m - m a j van buren and harrison tyler polk and taylor fillmore pierce buchanan lincoln johnson grant hayes garfield and arthur cleveland harrison cleveland mckinley and roosevelt read across the page. begin with the seven large initials, they will soon impress on the mind, then get the names they stand for. then simply remember van buren and harrison, the remainder in the form given across the page have a sort of a sing song that soon grows fast. incidentally learn the given names. when we look at the watch we must make a mental calculation to state the time. i heard of a watch that had three circular openings in the front case, one on each side and one on the bottom; the latter showed the second hand. the one on the left showed the hour, and on the right the number of minutes past the hour were shown. if it were twenty minutes past ten we would see ten and twenty. there was no mental calculation required. no doubt you have all seen the little egg separator, a circular piece of sheet metal having a concave centre with little slots near the top of the concave portion. it is placed on a cup. the egg broken and contents placed in the separator, the white runs through the slots into the cup and the yolk remains in the separator. a good ink tablet should be a good thing. they certainly would be a great convenience, and should do for fountain pens too. i have often thought that chairs are not made right. when you lean back the front part of the seat rises and it tends to stop circulation in the limbs. could the seat part be so hinged or arranged that the front portion would not rise, or would it answer to simply have the back hinged? the stem wind on the watch was a very simple thought, and should have been forced on the mind every time the key was lost. "necessity is the mother of invention." i advise all who have any idea of inventing to practice drawing. it is an excellent practice and makes one a close observer. in thinking of subjects combining several movements or features the drawing clinches them; oftentimes the idea will slip the mind, and puzzle as we will we can't recall it at the desired time. "now you shall wish, but wish in vain to call the fleeting words again." when you draw it it is there. you can leave it and take up any part you wish to consider. there is a lot of studying to do to equip yourself well for inventing. the better you are equipped the better your chances. but you should look upon the work as a pleasure. then each thing you learn will please. i don't believe in scolding the learning into people. we should aim to make learning pleasant and agreeable. i know the subject is dry to many. i don't wish to weary, remember. "it's pennies for labor and dollars for thought." a contractor was building a pier at the seashore. when he tried to drive the piles down into the sand they would continually bounce up. he became very much discouraged; he was completely puzzled. it baffled his wits. a gentleman from the west was visiting at the resort. he became very deeply interested in the little clams. he was amused to see how quickly they could go down in the sand. he visited the pier and learned of the contractor's troubles. he sought him and advised that a hose be attached to the pile and force a stream of water ahead of it as it was driven down. the idea worked very satisfactorily. observation. yes, ideas are good things. a cow had fallen in a well that was being dug. the neighbors gathered about the well, which was ten feet deep. no one could suggest a means to rescue the cow. an old darkey passing by was attracted by the crowd. he looked down into the well and saw the cow apparently unhurt. he said, "let's git her out." "how?" they sang in chorus. "why, jist shovel de sand back inter de well; she'll keep on top." during the siege of paris they wrote letters and reduced them in size until they looked like mere dots to the naked eye. they were then sent out on pigeons and magnified to the original size. that is possibly the basis of a freak thought. suppose a $ bill was placed on a hillside; we go a distance away and take a photograph of one mile square of the hillside, having the bill exactly in the centre. say the photograph is one foot square. now we cut off one and three-quarter inches all the way around the picture, leaving say one-half of the same. then we enlarge this to one foot square and repeat until the foot square picture shows say ten feet square of hillside with the bill in plain view in the centre. if that could be done we could examine the moon and planets too, very closely. "one science only can one genius fit, so vast is art, so narrow human wit." probably the most uncertain feature of a majority of patents is, will the people buy them? the theory of most patents is plausible enough. but often the practice or fact is very doubtful. the public seem to be whimsical and act as the spirit moves them, oftentimes without rhyme or reason; things become a fad or are turned down. they spring up and die like a flower. there is no rule. you must take your chance. it is a natural stumbling block. you must be sanguine to invent and cautious to keep off of wrong leads. take the matter philosophically. don't allow it to irritate. you can counsel with practical people and those whom you expect to use your device. feel your way the best you can. when ready, take your plunge, and be satisfied to settle the matter, either as a success or failure. if the latter, make your bow, "nor with weight of words offend the ear." there seems to be no rule; they come and go. the first time i saw a match with the handle end fire proofed, so not to burn the finger, it looked good. i thought all matches would be made that way. now i scarcely ever see one. the little brass-like boxes with a spring lid and about sixty matches, all for one cent at retail, tells the story of cheap labor by machinery. i saw a match box in the form of a house. the low chimney in the centre of the roof was as long as a match and very narrow; a flat piece with a gutter in the top edge filled the inside of the chimney. the house would be pulled up and then pushed down; always a match would be in the guttered end of the piece in the chimney. i did not examine it, but it no doubt had a slanting bottom on the inside. the piece in the chimney was stationary. the house would rise high enough so that the top of the guttered piece would be at the bottom of the slanting sides. the matches would roll over it, and one would lodge in the guttered top. when the house was pushed back it was at the top of the chimney, ready for use. it embodies an idea, and so i will give it. some houses become infested with active insects, to the very great annoyance of the occupants. if you ever happen to have the occasion, put a few sheets of sticky fly paper on the floor at night; place a small piece of raw meat in the centre of each. they will all be there in the morning. they hop for the meat and linger on the paper. stop laughing and think. suppose you had no sticky fly paper nor molasses, would you think to try a plate with water on it and the meat in the centre? thinking how to substitute one plan for another is good exercise. look out when you do it, or you will invent. the gyroscope top is certainly very peculiar in its movements. it is an enigma to science. it is proposed to run a car on a single rail by having two gyroscopes mounted within the car. in rowing a boat the position is such that the power does not continue in full to the extreme end of the stroke. possibly the blade could be pivoted to the oar, so that at the best point in the stroke for the purpose it would press a spring, which would release itself at the end of the stroke to advantage. the elbow for stove pipes was a fine idea, also the spring rollers for window curtains. the mail box in use is good. indeed, it should be quite natural for a person to enthuse. i patented a child's riding stick, hollow wheels at one end, horse head with moveable jaw at other. can you reason how to make the jaw work? no doubt you rode on summer trolley cars and pushed up and pulled down the curtains. but do you know how they are constructed? the curtain is attached to a spring roller, and has an iron tube on the end. two wire cords, one on either side of the frame, are fastened at the top. each passes through the tube and is fastened again at the bottom. thus the cords cross in the tube, which can be pushed up, the spring roller taking up the slack curtain; or it can be pulled down, the curtain unwinding. if you will only observe closely you will see ideas carried out on every hand. when you come to invent the knowledge of them will give you confidence and help you very much. but it will not suffice to simply read of them. you must study, learn and impress the principle on your mind. it is learning, not reading, that counts. it has always seemed queer to me that so many ideas spring up and flourish for a while, then die and are forgotten. many good ideas for the personal benefit of the buyer don't seem to go at all. if an article pleased one generation, why not the next? it is so in many things and not so in many others. judgment is required to distinguish standard from transient. a life preserver, say of oiled goods, with a spring inside, flat, the size of a plate when operated, three feet long and able to float a person. convenient fasteners for room doors with poor locks, burglar alarms and portable fire escapes, all worth their weight in gold when required. a few poles and strands of wire, an electrically controlled carriage and an operator would drop a life preserver every few feet of the bathing surface. they are all good subjects for the people in the troubles, but you would go to bed hungry trying to sell the goods. two wire cables across the street from the big hotels, to operate a draw bridge, at times would save hundreds, as would a tunnel from amusement places. steel cars would prevent the terrible fires when wrecked, and save many lives. it seems the people want something to eat, wear or to amuse for their money. it has been a much mooted question, and as it involves an idea it may not be amiss. how to make fire from wood: you would get very tired rubbing two pieces of rotten wood together. select a dry, well-seasoned block; nick or deeply dent the surface with a sharp stone. provide an arrow-like stick, and a bow and string much like the bow and arrow. stand the arrow-like stick in the dented surface of the block. the bow has the string fast at each end. make one wrap of the string around the arrow, which you steady with one hand and work the bow back and forth with the other. mechanics would call it a fiddle drill. the arrow-like stick will turn rapidly. the friction will create a dust-like, fibrous mess, which will soon burn. then blow and have a flame. make a currycomb with wire teeth: have a sheet of metal proper shape perforated to receive the wire teeth, and rest at the bottom of the brush. after cleaning the horse pull the metal sheet up, thus cleaning the comb. for a window sash without weights follow the trolley curtain. if a stirrup had an open bottom, save a small cleet on each side to rest the foot on, in case the rider was thrown the foot would turn and come out. i don't believe in the strenuous life. it is the "happy medium" that appeals to me. we must have time to think. i don't mean to hesitate. we should think in advance as far as possible. think, so that you will know better what to do. try not to become confused; act with good judgment. a doctor was expecting a load of hay. on returning home at noon he noticed a load upset in front of his gate. a boy with a fork in his hands looked bewildered. the doctor inquired and was told the hay was for him. "ah, well," he said to the boy, "come in and have some dinner." "oh, indeed, sir, i can't; my father would not like it. i must move the hay." "oh, yes," said the doctor, "come." the boy was hungry and willing, but insisted his father would not like it. finally he reluctantly yielded. but he ate so fast the doctor cautioned him in vain. he would reply, "i am sure father won't like it." finally the doctor asked, "where is your father?" "why," said the boy, "he's under that load of hay." i noticed in a paper that the government desired a device to secure packages of letters in transit from one place to another. they use string, and it costs over $ , per year. a billion of packages are tied up annually. at first glance, considering security, etc., i rather think a telescopic box would be best. but the cost, wear and tear, extra weight in freight all act to make the box impracticable. indeed, if the matter is to be governed by cost, i advise our dear old uncle sam to stick to his string. the common shipping tag which has the washer-like piece of cardboard to reinforce the tie hole is simple and good. it is cheap and stronger, indeed, than the metal eyelets. the ball and socket fastener used on gloves, suspenders and many other things is very good. it fell in the lap of a frenchman. a great variety of fasteners to hold sheets of paper together have a large sale. in most all cases they aim to hold the paper without puncturing it. the name uneeda was coined, tied fast to a biscuit and became famous. s. t. x was an oldtimer. i believe it meant "sure thing in ten years from ." i think a good ash sifter could be made with a box, say two by three feet, and a cylindrical sieve on an axle with a crank handle. the sieve to be provided with a door or lid, the ashes put in and the sieve revolved. the operation should be easy. it was a good idea to make circular zinc pieces to put under stoves; also the circular pieces used in pipe holes to close them in summer. the little bell-shaped guards hung from the ceiling to protect it from the gas jets was good, very simple and quite natural. the little burners on the gas fixtures are fine. i met a gentleman who was blind. he took out a patent for a handle for a scrub brush. it could be attached and detached at will. the barn doors hung on wheels on a track was a good job; also the gates that open when the team approaches. the lawn mower was not slow. games are a very uncertain field to work in, though some of the standard games have been very profitable. they must be gotten up in elaborate manner, and as a rule must be well advertised. many little puzzles have paid well, but they are invariably greatly exaggerated. the matters that come under the head of copyright are, i think, a good field to work in. the money success of these things depends principally on how well they are handled. there are many ways to make sales, many channels to work in. i am of the opinion that a large per cent. of inventors would do better to put their inventions out on royalty or sell. i am sure those who have invented will do so again and again if they are not too busily engaged otherwise. hence i claim it best, generally speaking, to sell or place on royalty, and then invent something else. inventing is really a profession--so is manufacturing. "let the cobbler stick to his last." the strenuous life, like baby's suit, is soon outgrown. then what to do becomes important. i think every city of fair size in the country should have a trades exchange. a man or woman opens a store and announces they will receive goods of all descriptions to sell or exchange, give a descriptive receipt for the goods, charging, say ten per cent. for services, when sold or exchanged. you can make a good white soap for say two cents per pound; put it up in one and a quarter pound cakes and sell direct to the consumer for five cents--give premiums for your wrappers. take a contract to increase the circulation of your country or town paper; then visit the people, prepare an article on the city or town, and write up sketches of those who subscribe. mail order business will pay fairly well from any point if you deal right. never sell anything unless it is worth the money, and don't introduce any fake schemes. get some good novelties, household articles, books, etc.; select good leaders to advertise, and when you make a sale enclose circulars of the other goods; soon you can have a catalogue. study the papers you advertise in; there are many quacks--you can tell them by the character of their advertising. public catalogues soon become too common; also you should handle the goods you sell. then you can control the matter better. lists of names are generally drummed too much before you get them. once you begin to advertise you will get informed of live papers and live goods to push. for personal canvassing a clothes bar made of half-inch round pieces, fastened to ends in the form of an x with an inverted v on top; they open and close, and will form a dryer, a basket and a sort of table to air a bed on. they should weigh six pounds and sell for $ . ; cost, say forty to fifty cents. say a country weekly, single sheet, one fold, wants to boom the subscription list. reserve suitable space, say at the double corner, for four pages of any book chosen. in a year they have a page book. "full many a gem of purest ray serene, the dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear. full many a flower is born to blush unseen and waste its sweetness on the desert air." yes, the woods are full of them. the future inventions will rival those of the past. you should prepare and cast your net. if you choose "luck" may come your way, opportunity may faintly knock. you should be alert, comprehend and intelligently pursue. you must know the form and touch, lest its presence be unknown. "of all sad words of tongue or pen, the saddest are these: it might have been." those who would be inventors should take up the helpful studies to that end, viz.: mathematics in all its branches, philosophy, physics, all mechanical works and drawing. interest yourself in all kinds of puzzles, observe closely. begin early in life to study. "children, like tender osiers, take the bow, and as they first are fashioned always grow." finished! don't say you do not like it. we can find reasons to like anything. it all depends on the way we view it. i heard of an irishman who imbibed too freely in a western town and was ridden through the place on a rail. the people lined the streets and cheered lustily. after it was all over some one asked him what he thought of it. "be gorra," says he, "if it wasn't fur the honor of the thing i'd about as lave walk." if this little pamphlet turns out to be a cue which directs new thought into the vast unlimited field of invention, its mission will be filled. possibly some day the subject will be taught in the schools; possibly those scholars will be the most practical people on the earth; possibly their influence in the land will wield a mighty niagara of power. the end. mental nuts can you crack 'em? a superb collection of old time catch and prize problems; famous debaters. they have puzzled the people of all times. pleasingly referred to in old schoolday talks. quaint, curious and interesting puzzles, calculated to call forth the best mental effort. an unique curio of intense interest. a great home entertainer. on heavy paper, bronzed and embossed. by mail cents, stamps or silver. a book of maxims illustrated and alphabetical those terse old sayings, so pleasing to the ear, so convincing to the mind; the flowers of thought, word pictures of speech, lines of prose and verse. a desirable reference book. "now you shall wish, but wish in vain, to call the fleeting words again." to those who fear misquoting, this book will prove a valuable treasure. many times a well-chosen maxim conveys the trend of thought better than otherwise a full page would do. on heavy glazed paper, bronzed and embossed. by mail cents, stamps or silver. tales of yarnville it is to laugh. funniest book ever happened. o. k. anywhere and everywhere. subjects, each a pearl entertain your friends. don't be a wall flower. if you can't sing, dance, or play the fiddle, learn to tell a good one. compact vest pocket size, round corners. by mail cents, stamps or silver. * * * * * transcriber's note: page , "treasuse" changed to "treasure" (solid treasure to the) page , "maters" changed to "matters" (are about these matters) page , "geting" changed to "getting" (getting up inventions) page , period changed to a comma (pushed up, with a slot) page , "porus" changed to "porous" (the porous plasters) page , "shelfs" changed to "shelves" (of store shelves) page , period added to abbreviation (no. they) page , "willling" changed to "willing" (and willing to persevere) page , "corrigated" changed to "corrugated" (the corrugated band) the art of inventing by edwin j. prindle, m.e., l.l.m., of the new york bar. a paper read at the d annual convention of the american institute of electrical engineers, milwaukee, wis., may - , . _a paper presented at the d annual convention of the american institute of electrical engineers, milwaukee, wis., may - , ._ copyright . by a. i. e. e. the art of inventing. by edwin j. prindle. there are many kinds of invention. the poet, the artist, the playwright, the novelist all exercise or may exercise invention in the production of their works. the merchant may exercise invention in the devising of a new method of selling goods. the department store was an invention of this class. the subject of my paper is, however, the art of making technical inventions, and particularly patentable inventions. and, first, of its commercial importance; for the engineer is concerned with things having a commercial value. by the art of inventing, wealth is created absolutely out of ideas alone. it usually takes capital to develop an invention and make it productive, but not always. a notable recent example is professor pupin's loaded telephone line. he received a very large sum of money, and his expenditures, as i understand, were comparatively trivial. the certificate of ownership of an invention is a patent, and the importance of the art of invention will be made apparent from a brief consideration of what rights a patent confers and of the part that patents play in the industries. a patent is the most perfect form of monopoly recognized by the law. as was said in a recent decision: "within his domain, the patentee is czar. the people must take the invention on the terms he dictates or let it alone for seventeen years. this is a necessity from the nature of the grant. cries of restraint of trade and impairment of the freedom of sales are unavailing, because for the promotion of the useful arts the constitution and statutes authorize this very monopoly." there is an enormous amount of wealth in this country that is based upon patents. as an instance, might be mentioned the fact that the united shoe machinery company is, by means of patents, able to control the sewing machines upon which ninety per cent. of the welt shoes in the united states are sewed. the bell telephone company, and the westinghouse air brake company and many other corporations of the first importance built themselves up on patents. patents have become so well recognized a factor in commerce that, in many lines of manufacture, concerns do not depend simply upon cheapness of manufacture, or quality of product, to maintain their trade, but they count on always having a product which is at least slightly better than that of their competitors, and which is covered by patents, so that they do not have to compete with an article of equal merit. and they keep a corps of inventors at work in a constant effort to improve the product, so that, when the patents now giving protection have expired, they will have a better article to offer, which shall also be protected by patents. inventing has become almost a recognized profession. many large concerns constantly employ a large corps of inventors, at liberal salaries. besides the inventors employed by large corporations, there are many inventors who have maintained their independence, and are free lances, so to speak. some inventors have become wealthy almost solely by their inventions, such as edison, bell, westinghouse, marconi, pupin, tesla, and sprague. a considerable number of the smaller manufacturing concerns are built largely or wholly upon the inventions of their principal owners. aside from the question of financial returns from inventing, the inventor has the satisfaction of knowing that he is a producer of the most fundamental kind. all material progress has involved the production of inventions. inventors are universally conceded to be among the greatest benefactors of the human race. the art of invention is therefore one of great commercial and economical importance, and it becomes a matter of much interest to know how inventions are produced. it is my object to attempt an explanation of the manner of their production. if it be inquired on what grounds i offer an explanation of this apparently most difficult subject, i reply that, in the practice of patent law, i have often had occasion and opportunity to inquire into the mental processes of inventors, and that the subject is one to which i have given considerable attention. it seems to be popularly believed that the inventor must be born to his work, and that such people are born only occasionally. this is true, to a certain extent, but i am convinced there are many people who, without suspecting it, have latent inventive abilities, which could be put to work if they only knew how to go about it. the large percentage of inventors in this country compared with all other countries, shows that the inventive faculty is one which can be cultivated to some extent. the difference in ingenuity is not wholly a matter of race, for substantially the same blood exists in some other countries, but it is the encouragement of our patent laws that has stimulated the cultivation of this faculty. the popular idea seems to be that an invention is produced by its inventor at a single effort of the imagination and complete, as minerva sprang full grown and fully armed from the mind of jove. it is, undoubtedly, true that every inventor must have some imagination or creative faculty, but, as i shall seek to show, this faculty may be greatly assisted by method. while reasoning does not constitute the whole of an inventive act, it can, so to speak, clear the way and render the inventive act easier of accomplishment. invention has been defined as "in the nature of a guess; the mind leaps across a logical chasm. instead of working out a conclusion, it imagines it." the courts have repeatedly held that that which could be produced _purely_ by the process of reasoning or inference, on the part of one ordinarily skilled in the art is not patentable, but that the imaginative or creative faculty must somewhere be used in the process. the mind must somewhere leap from the known to the unknown by means of the imagination, and not by mere inference in making the invention. but the inventor, consciously or unconsciously, by proper method, reduces the length of this leap to much more moderate proportions than is popularly supposed. that reasoning and research frequently enter very largely into the inventive act in aid of the creative faculty is the opinion of dr. trowbridge, of columbia university who said: "important inventions leading to widespread improvements in the arts or to new industries do not come by chance, or as sudden inspiration, but are in almost every instance the result of long and exhaustive researches by men whose thorough familiarity with their subjects enables them to see clearly the way to improvements. almost all important and successful inventions which have found their way into general use and acceptance have been the products of well-balanced and thoughtful minds, capable of patient laborious investigation." judge drummond, in a decision many years ago, said: "most inventions are the result of experiment, trial, and effort, and few of them are worked out by mere will." most inventions are an evolution from some previously invented form. it has been said: "we know exactly how the human mind works. the unknown--or unknowable--it always conceives in terms of the known." even the imagination conceives in terms of what is already known; that is, the product of the imagination is a transformation of material already possessed. imagination is the association in new relations of ideas already possessed by the mind. it is impossible to imagine that, the elements of which are not already known to us. we cannot conceive of a color which does not consist of a blending of one or more colors with which we are already familiar. this evolution of an invention is more or less logical, and is often worked out by logical processes to such an extent that the steps or efforts of imagination are greatly reduced as compared with the effort of producing the invention solely by the imagination. edison is quoted as having said that "any man can become an inventor if he has imagination and pertinacity," that "invention is not so much inspiration as perspiration." there are four classes of protectable inventions. these are arts, machines, manufactures, and compositions of matter. in popular language an art may be said to be any process or series of steps or operations for accomplishing a physical or chemical result. examples are, the art of telephoning by causing undulations of the electric current corresponding to the sound waves of the spoken voice. the art of casting car wheels, which consists in directing the metal into the mold in a stream running tangentially instead of radially, so that the metal in the mold is given a rotary movement, and the heavy, sound metal flows out to the rim of the wheel, while the light and defective metal is displaced toward the centre, where it is not subjected to wear. the term machine hardly needs any explanation. it may be said to be an assemblage of two or more mechanical elements, having a law of action of its own. a manufacture is anything made by the hand of man, which is neither a machine nor a composition of matter; such as, a chisel, a match, or a pencil. the term composition of matter covers all combinations of two or more substances, whether by mechanical mixture or chemical union, and whether they be gases, fluids, powders or solids; such as, a new cement or paint. these definitions are not legally exact, but serve to illustrate the meaning. in the making of all inventions which do not consist in the discovery of the adaptability of some means to an end not intentionally being sought after, the first step is the selection of a problem. the inventor should first make certain that the problem is based upon a real need. much time and money is sometimes spent in an effort to invent something that is not really needed. what already exists is good enough or is so good that no additional cost or complication would justify anything better. the new invention might be objectionable because it would involve counter disadvantages more important than its own advantages, so that a really desirable object is the first thing to be sure of. having selected a problem, the next step should be a thorough analysis of the old situation, getting at the reasons for the faults which exist, and in fact discovering the presence of faults which are not obvious to others, because of the tendency to believe that whatever is, is right. then the qualities of the material, and the laws of action under which one must operate should be exhaustively considered. it should be considered whether these laws are really or only apparently inflexible. it should be carefully considered whether further improvement is possible in the same direction, and such consideration will often suggest the direction in which further improvement must go, if a change of direction is necessary. sometimes the only possible improvement is in an opposite direction. a glance at the accounts of how james watt invented the condensing steam-engine will show what a large part profound study of the old engine and of the laws of steam played in his invention, and how strongly they suggested the directions of the solutions of his difficulties. we now come to the constructive part of inventing, in order to illustrate which, i will seek to explain how several inventions were, or could have been, produced. the way in which the first automatic steam engine was produced was undoubtedly this--and it shows how comparatively easily a really great invention may sometimes be made. it was the duty of humphrey potter, a _boy_, to turn a stop-cock to let the steam into the cylinder and one to let in water to condense it at certain periods of each stroke of the engine, and if this were not done at the right time, the engine would stop. he noticed that these movements of the stop-cock handles took place in unison with the movements of certain portions of the beam of the engine. he simply connected the valve handles with the proper portions of the beam by strings, and the engine became automatic--a most eventful result. as one example of the evolution of an invention, i will take an instrument for measuring and recording a period of time, known as the calculograph, because it lends itself with facility, to an explanation from a platform and because my duties as a lawyer have necessitated my becoming very familiar with the invention, and have caused me to consider how it was probably produced. and first the problem: there was much occasion to determine and record the values of periods of elapsed time; such as, the length of time of a telephone conversation; as the revenue of the telephone companies depended upon the accuracy of the determination. all the previous methods involved the recording in hours and minutes the times of day marking the initial and the final limits of the period to be measured, and then the subtraction of the one time of day from the other. this subtraction was found to be very unreliable as well as expensive. the problem then was to devise some way by which the value of the period could be arrived at directly and without subtraction and also by which such value could be mechanically recorded. the prior machine from which the calculograph was evolved is the time-stamp, a printing machine having a stationary die like a clock dial and having a rotating die like the hand of the clock, as in fig. . the small triangle outside the dial is the hour hand, it being placed outside the dial because it is necessary that the two hands shall be at the level of the face of the dial and yet be able to pass each other. the hour hand may be disregarded here, as the records needed are almost never an hour long. the manner of using the time stamp to determine the value of an interval was to stamp the time of day at the beginning of the period, and then to stamp the time of day at the close of the period at another place on the paper, as shown in fig. , and finally mentally to subtract the one time of day from the other to get the value of the period. [illustration: fig. . time stamp record.] the inventor of the new machine conceived the idea that, if the time-stamp were provided with guides or gauges so that the card could be placed both times in the same position, and the two records of the time stamp thus be superimposed concentrically (as illustrated in fig. ), the value of the period would be represented by the arc marked off by the initial and final imprints of the minute hand, so that, instead of subtracting one record from another, he had only to find the value of the arc marked off by counting the corresponding number of minutes along the dial. the inventor had thus gotten rid of the subtraction, but there were several desirable qualities not yet obtained. first, he could not tell from the record alone, whether it was the longer or the shorter arc marked off that was the measure of the period. for instance, he could not tell whether the period was or minutes. this was because the two hand or pointer imprints were exactly alike except in position. so he conceived the idea of making the pointer imprints different in appearance, by providing the pointer die with a mark in line with the pointer, as illustrated in fig. . the mark and pointer revolve together and either the dies or the platen are so arranged that the mark can be printed without the pointer at the initial imprint and the pointer at the final imprint as in fig. , the mark being printed or not at the final imprint, as desired. this could be done either by allowing the pointer die or the corresponding portion of the platen to remain retracted from the paper during the first printing. [illustration: : fig. . : initial time stamp record. final time stamp record. elapsed time: : - : = minutes. to read this record, hours and minutes must be subtracted from hours and minutes, an operation liable to much error.] it could thus be told with certainty from the record alone whether the longer or the shorter arc is the measure of the period, because the beginning of the arc is that indicated by the imprint of the mark without the pointer. there was still something to be desired. the counting of the minutes along the measuring arc was a waste of time, if the value of the arc could in some way be directly indicated. if the hand were set back to o'clock for the initial imprint, the final imprint would show the hand pointing directly at the minute whose number on the dial is the value of the period, and it would not even be necessary to count. but the setting of the hand back to zero would prevent its making the final imprint of any previously begun record, so that the machine could only be used for one record at a time. it was desirable to have a machine that would record any number of overlapping intervals at the same time, so that one machine would record the intervals of all the telephone conversations under the control of a single operator, or rather of two operators, because both of them could reach the same machine. so it wouldn't do to set the hand back to zero, as the hand must rotate constantly and uniformly. then why not set the zero up to the hand at each initial imprint? this meant making the dial rotatable, as well as the hand. it gave an initial record like that shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. . subtraction eliminated but counting still required and uncertainty whether elapsed period is or minutes.] [illustration: fig. . hand and zero mark revolving within stationary dial.] the inventor then thought of securing the dial to the pointer die so that they would revolve together, the zero of the dial being in line with the pointer, as illustrated in fig. . this would obviate the necessity of setting the zero of the dial up to the pointer at the initial imprint. [illustration: fig. . initial imprint of zero mark alone and final imprint of hand (and zero). elapsed time, minutes. no subtraction and no uncertainty as to which imprint first, but counting still required.] but again the improvement involved a difficulty. as the dial rotated, its final impressions would never register with its initial impressions and would therefore always destroy them. as the first imprint of the dial was the only useful one, and as the second imprint only made trouble, the inventor conceived the idea of not making any imprint of the dial at the close of the period, and this he accomplished by making the annular portion of the platen covering the dial so that it could be advanced to print or not as desired. as the zero of the dial always marked the beginning of the measuring arc, it served the same purpose as the mark in line with the pointer, and the latter could now be omitted. the final machine then consists simply of a revolving die which, as shown in fig. , consists of a graduated and progressively numbered dial, having a pointer revolving in line with the zero, and the machine has a platen consisting of an inner circular portion over the pointer and an annular portion over the dial, each portion being operated by a separate handle so that the dial can be printed at the beginning of the period and the pointer alone, at its close. the final record has an initial imprint of the dial, fig. a, the zero of the dial showing the position of the pointer at the beginning of the period, and a final imprint of the pointer alone, as shown in fig. b, the complete final record, fig. c, consisting of the superimposition of these two records, and showing the pointer in line with that graduation whose number is the value of the period. here is a record not only involving no subtraction and no uncertainty but not even, counting in its record, and, as it was made without disturbing the motions either of the pointer or dial, any number of records of other periods could have been begun or finished while the machine was measuring the period in question. [illustration: fig. . dial moved up to initial position of zero mark. elapsed time, minutes. no subtraction, no counting, no uncertainty; but only one record possible at a time.] hiding all the intermediate steps in the evolution of this invention, it seems the result of spontaneous creation, but considering the steps in their successive order, it will be seen that the invention is an evolution from the time-stamp; that logic rendered the effort of the imagination at any one step small by comparison, and that the individual steps might be well within the capacity of a person to whom the spontaneous creation of the final invention might be utterly impossible. a most interesting example of the evolution of an invention is that of the cord-knotter of the self-binding harvester. the problem here was to devise a mechanism which would take place of the human hands in tying a knot in a cord whose ends had mechanically been brought together around a bundle of grain. [illustration: fig. . dial with pointer at zero revolving together.] the first step was to select the knot which could be tied by the simplest motions. the knot which the inventor selected is that shown in fig. , and is a form of bow-knot. [illustration: fig. . dial with pointer at zero revolving together, zero mark on pointer being replaced by zero of dial.] the problem was to find how this knot could be tied with the smallest number of fingers, making the smallest number of simple movements. as anyone would ordinarily tie even this simple knot, the movements would be so numerous and complex as to seem impossible of performance by mechanism. the inventor, by study of his problem, found that this knot could be tied by the use of only two fingers of one hand, and by very simple movements. the knot will best be understood by following the motions of these fingers in tying the knot. using the first and second fingers of the right hand, they are first swept outward and backward in a circular path against the two strands of the cord to be tied, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. a. initial imprint.] [illustration: fig. b. final imprint.] [illustration: fig. c. complete record. simple, direct-reading record. no subtraction, no counting, no uncertainty. any number of overlapping periods recorded on one machine.] the fingers continue in their circular motion backward, so that the strands of the cord are wrapped around these fingers, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] continuing their circular motion, the fingers approach the strands of the cord between the twisted portion and a part of the machine which holds the ends of the cord, and the fingers spread apart as shown in fig. , so that they can pass over and grasp the strands thus approached, as shown in fig. . the fingers then draw back through the loop which has been formed about them, the fingers holding the grasped portion of the strands, as shown in fig. . the knot is finished by the completion of the retracting movement of the fingers through the loop, thus forming the bow of the knot as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] the inventor found that one finger could have a purely rotary movement, as if it were fixed on the arm and unable to move independently of the arm, and the movement being as if the arm rotated like a shaft, but the second finger must be further capable of moving toward and from the first finger to perform the opening movement of fig. , and the closing movement of fig. by which it grasps the cord. the inventor accordingly, from his exhaustive analysis of his problem, and his invention or discovery of the proper finger motions, had further only to devise the very simple mechanical device illustrated in fig. to replace his fingers. the index finger of the hand is represented by the finger _s_, which is integral with the shaft _v_. the second finger of the hand is represented by the finger _u_, which is pivoted to the first finger by the pin _s_. the grasping movement of the finger _u_ is accomplished by a spring _v'_ bearing on the shank _u'_, and its opening movement is caused by the travel of an anti-friction roll _u"_, on the rear end of the pivoted finger, over a cam _v"_, on the bearing of the shaft. the shaft is rotated by the turning of a bevel pinion _w_ on the shaft through the action of an intermittent gear. the necessity of drawing the fingers backward to accomplish the movement between figs. and was avoided by causing the tied bundle to have a motion away from the fingers as it is expelled from the machine, the relative motion between the fingers and the knot being the same as if the fingers drew back. [illustration: fig. .] thus the accomplishment of a seemingly almost impossible function was rendered mechanically simple by an evolution from the human hand, after an exhaustive and ingenious analysis of the conditions involved. it will be seen from the examples i have given that the constructive part of inventing consists of evolution, and it is the association of previously known elements in new relations (using the term elements in its broadest sense). the results of such new association may, themselves, be treated as elements of the next stage of development, but in the last analysis nothing is invented or created absolutely out of nothing. [illustration: fig. .] it must also be apparent, that pure reason and method, while not taking the place of the inventive faculty, can clear the way for the exercise of that faculty and very greatly reduce the demands upon it. where it is desired to make a broadly new invention on fundamentally different lines from those before--having first studied the art to find the results needed, the qualities of the material or other absolutely controlling conditions should be exhaustively considered; but at the time of making the inventive effort, the details should be dismissed from the mind of how results already obtained in the art were gotten. one should endeavor to conceive how he would accomplish the desired result if he were attempting the problem before any one else had ever solved it. in other words, he should endeavor to provide himself with the idea elements on which the imagination will operate, but to dismiss from his mind as much as possible the old ways in which these elements have been associated, and thus leave his imagination free to associate them in original and, as to be hoped, better relations than before. he should invent all the means he can possibly invent to accomplish the desired result, and should then, before experimenting, go to the art to see whether or not these means have before been invented. he would probably find that some of the elements, at least, have been better worked out than he has worked them out. of course, mechanical dictionaries, and other sources of mechanical elements and movements will be found useful in arriving at means for accomplishing certain of the motions, if the invention be a machine. many important inventions have been made by persons whose occupation is wholly disconnected with the art in which they are inventing, because their minds were not prejudiced by what had already been done. while such an effort is likely to possess more originality than that on the part of a person in the art, there is, of course, less probability of its being thoroughly practical. the mind well stored with the old ways of solving the problem will, of course, be less likely to repeat any of the mistakes of the earlier inventors, but it will also not be as apt to strike out on distinctly original lines. it is so full, already, of the old forms of association of the elements as to be less likely to think of associating them in broadly new relations. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] nothing should be considered impossible until it has been conclusively worked out or tried by experiments which leave no room for doubt. it is no sufficient reason for believing a thing won't work because immemorial tradition, or those skilled in the art, say it will not work. many an important improvement has been condemned as impracticable, by those in the art, before it has been tried. a conception which an inventor has been striving for unsuccessfully will sometimes come to him at a time of unaccustomed mental stimulation. the slight stimulation of the movement of a train of cars, and the sound of music, have been known to produce this effect. the sub-conscious mind, after having been prepared by a full consideration of the problem to be solved, will sometimes solve the problem without conscious effort, on the part of the inventor. [illustration: fig. . the essential parts of the cord-knotter.] in inventing a machine to operate upon any given material, the logical way is to work from the tool to the power. the tool or tools should first be invented, and the motions determined which are to be given to them. the proper gearing or parts to produce from the power each motion for each tool should then be invented. it should then be considered if parts of each train of gearing cannot be combined, so as to make one part do the work of a part in each train; in short, to reduce the machine to its lowest terms. occasionally a mechanism will be invented which is exceedingly ingenious, but which it is afterwards seen how to simplify, greatly at the expense of its apparent ingenuity. this simplification will be at the sacrifice of the pride of the inventor, but such considerations as cheapness, durability and certainty of action leave no choice in the matter. it will sometimes be found that a single part can be made to actuate several parts, by the interposition of elements which reverse the motion taken from such part, or which take only a component of the motion of such part, or the resultant of the motion of such part and some other part. where a machine involves the conjoint action of several forces, it can be more thoroughly studied, if it is found there are positions of the machine in which one force or motion only is in operation, the effect of the others in such position being eliminated, and thus the elements making up the resultant effect can be intelligently controlled. the drawing board can be made a great source of economy in producing inventions. if the three principal views of all the essentially different positions of the parts of a machine are drawn, it will often be found that defects will be brought to light which would not otherwise have been observed until the machine was put into the metal. it is desirable to see the whole invention clearly in the mind before beginning to draw, but if that cannot be done, it is often of great assistance to draw what can be seen, and the clearer perception given by the study of the parts already drawn, assists the mind in the conception of the remaining parts. if the improvement which it is sought to make is a process, it should first be considered whether any radically different process can be conceived of, and if so, whether or not it is better than the old process, and the reason for its defects, and whether it is possible to cure those defects. if the old process appears to be in the right general direction, it should be considered whether one of the old steps cannot with advantage be replaced by a new one, or whether the order of performing the steps cannot be changed to advantage. i have in mind one process in which a reversal of the order of steps resulted in giving the product certain desirable qualities which had before been sought for, but could not be obtained. it is sometimes desirable not only to invent a good process of producing a product, but to control all feasible processes of producing the product. such a case occurred where the product itself had been patented, and it was desirable to extend the monopoly beyond the time when the patent on the product should expire. there were two steps or operations which were essential to the production of the product, and the inventor, by reference to permutations, saw that there were but three orders in which those steps could be performed; first, the order a-b, then the order b-a, and then both steps together. the order a-b was the old order, which did not produce an article having the desired qualities. the inventor therefore, proceeded to invent ways by which the steps could be performed together, and then by which they could be performed in the reverse order, and the patenting such two processes would cover generically all possible ways of making the article and secure the desired result of putting himself in position to control the monopoly after the patent on the article had expired, because no one could make the article without using one of his two processes. in inventing compositions of matter there is one inventor who, if he is seeking for a certain result, will take a chemical dictionary and make every possible combination of every substance that could by any possibility be an ingredient of that which he desires to produce. it is as if he were seeking to locate a vein of mineral in a given territory, and, instead of observing the geographical and geological formation, and thus seeking to arrive at the most probable location of the vein, he should dig up every foot of earth throughout the whole territory, in order finally to locate the vein. this method is exceedingly exhaustive, but does not appeal to one as involving much exercise of the inventive faculties. inventing has become so much of a science, that if one is willing to spend sufficient time and money to enable a competent corps of inventors to go at the matter exhaustively, almost any possible invention involving but a reasonable advance in the art can be perfected. transciber's notes: punctuation errors repaired. the second copyright notice before the text begins has been changed from to to match the first notice on the title page. inventors & inventions by henry robinson illustrations by t. m. fleming [illustration] published by henry robinson west d street new york, n. y. copyright, by h. robinson west d street new york, n. y. contents chapter successful invention chapter machine designing chapter financing a new invention chapter marketing a new invention chapter determining the selling price of a newly invented article chapter office management and business policies chapter divers ways of exploiting an invention chapter useful pointers on successful manufacturing chapter warning to prospective inventors chapter advice to inventors on inventions chapter general definition and classification of inventions chapter the glory of invention and pictures of celebrated inventors and scientists chapter how to invent chapter how to make sketches and specifications chapter the necessity of competent engineering for successful invention chapter pert pointers for prospective inventors that will be found helpful chapter protection of an invention chapter various ways employed to cheat and rob inventors chapter government connivance at the despoiling of a poor inventor chapter old and common tricks employed to "do" an inexperienced inventor chapter the root of the evil chapter comparative legal protection afforded to mental and physical property chapter the utter helplessness of a poor inventor to obtain justice chapter public attitude towards him who steals physical and to the one who steals mental property chapter present available means of protecting an invention chapter comparative government treatment--a bounty for raising "sugar beets," but a tax on inventions chapter society's debt to the inventor chapter comparative protection given by the government chapter the law's definition of property--and public policy chapter the successful inventor chapter comparative treatment the world accords to them, and summary illustrations by henry robinson engineer and inventor a. g. arnold, esq. the successful inventor the unsuccessful inventor the steps by which he is required to climb and mount that desired eminence. inventors seldom have anything outside of their aspirations and prospects. finance ministers. vision sufficiently penetrating to detect the nigger in the woodpile. "no one poor enough to do his invention reverence." "a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush." the good will and well wishes of those who helped create it. numerous and deep are the pitfalls that the would-be-successful inventor must avoid. victims constantly thrown up by the waves of passion and folly, on the sterile shore of human indifference. short and easy cut to opulence and ease. who can fathom or set a limit to the ingenuity of that divine creation, the human brain? none but its creator. our ordinary everyday mechanical utilities would be considered magic by him who wrote--"there's nothing new under the sun." newton. herschel. s. f. b. morse. robert fulton, inventor of the steamboat. benj. franklin. elias howe. jas. watt. lord kelvin. thos. a. edison. sig. marconi. sir h. bessemer. c. h. mc cormick. professor huxley. humboldt. chas. darwin. seymour m. bonsall. an intelligent and prudent inventor will carefully note his own capacity. observe everything carefully. try to remember everything you see. reason logically. do not overlook details. don't imagine yourself a solomon. "the eagle and the jackdaw." don't bite off more than you can swallow. don't set yourself a quixotic task. don't go about with a face as solemn and anxious as though you were atlas. she wants to be shown. she will not be slow in handing you up the sugar lumps. to cast aside when you become successful the sharer of your early poverty and struggles. you will be greater by not following anybody's example in that respect. only a temperate abstemious regime of life can give the healthy brain. don't forget the people you knew. the swipeing mfg. co. have stolen my invention. we must have dollars as a retaining fee. defended in court * * * * on technicalities. the exploiters of his invention can enjoy their ill-gotten gains with impunity. why, oh why, is the stealing of one kind of property a criminal offense, another only a civil tort? but is it different oh! now! if the stolen property is a mental instead of a hand product? the world is usually more mindful of the man with the "big stick," than with the "big grievance." difference in the treatment meted out by our government to him who renders services to society, by digging in the dirt, and to him who uses the brain. has not the ingenuity of the inventor enabled even the farmer * * * to get greater returns for his labor? * * * has he not made his work lighter and has he not enabled him to get more of the good things of this world? through the inventor's ingenuity and industry this country has attained its mighty potency in war. inventors and inventions [illustration by henry robinson engineer and inventor ] dedicated to my friend and benefactor a. g. arnold, esq. [illustration: a. g. arnold. esq.] preface the object of publishing this pamphlet is to awaken the public conscience to the great injustice continually being done to a numerous and worthy class of intellectual toilers, and the evil resulting from the same to the general public. if perchance this will help to remedy the wrong to any extent, the author will feel amply repaid for the trouble and expense incurred in pointing it out to the public. respectfully yours the author h. robinson chapter successful invention a very large number of people in and out of the mechanical profession are intensely eager to know how to become successful inventors. wealth, honor and glory are the reward of the successful. disappointment, drudgery, oblivion, and poverty are often the portion of the less fortunate ones. many of the latter foolishly attribute the greater measure of success to their fellow-workers in the same chosen field of usefulness to luck, which is far from the truth, and to that fallacious belief they often owe their own less favored condition. it is also an injustice to those who have reached the summit; as there is one, and only one road that leads to it, and which they all have to take, and its name is "endeavor." there are numerous fictitious definitions of the successful inventor, and yet there is but one true gauge and test of merit that entitles one to membership in the none-too-numerous and select fraternity. this test is the ability of producing a commercially successful invention. that "ability" is but the concentrated name for the possession of numerous requirements, comprising a vast and varied knowledge, theoretical, scientific, and practical, not only of the various mechanical branches necessary for successful machine designing, but of the art and conditions for the manipulation of that product for which a machine is designed, with or without that machine, and the newly designed machine's economic relation to the same. then securing the necessary co-operation of financial means must be attended to; introducing the newly hatched-out novelty into the market, compelling its adoption and general use, for its purpose, and organizing the proper fabric for its production efficiently and economically. [illustration: the successful inventor the unsuccessful inventor] last, but not least, there must be secured the possession of a fair share of its benefits to its originator, and to those "financial interests" necessary in the production and marketing of a successful invention. all of these accomplishments are the necessary elements and attributes of the successful inventor, and are the steps by which he is required to climb and mount that desired eminence and through the skipping or missing of any one of those steps, many aspiring climbers have been hurled headlong to the bottom of the abyss just as they were within reach of the goal. no matter how naturally favored one may be, never has nature so favored any individual as to bestow on him those necessary accomplishments gratis. it is one of the greatest anomalies of human nature, that the performance of most difficult tasks, requiring for their consummation numerous and rare attainments, are continually undertaken by those who are least qualified to perform them. lured by the glittering reward of the few successful ones, they try to gain by chance what can only be gained by work. chapter machine designing while the elements of success in actual engineering are general, comprised by knowledge of well-known sciences and arts; yet the accomplishments of their undertaking must necessarily be stamped with the individuality of its creator, and along those lines that repeated experiences have found necessary, to insure success. in inventing and designing a new machine, one must first thoroughly familiarize himself with its desired performance, as the success or failure of his mechanical creation depends on how nearly perfect that performance is, compared to established or desired standards; and the performance of that machine when made will truly denote how well its designer understood it, and his skill in mechanical manipulation to produce it. [illustration: the steps by which he is required to climb and mount that desired eminence] another important item of calculation must be the relative value of the probable production of the machine, its quantity and quality, to the cost of the machine. careful consideration must be given to the working conditions the machine will have to be adapted to. these must include a careful study of the substance to be worked upon in the machine, its regularity or irregularity in shape, its constant or changing conditions under various environments or seasons, and its general peculiarities. the cost of manipulating the machine must be considered, that is, the required amount of power for its propulsion, and the cost of maintaining its efficient mechanical performance for a certain amount of production, or its durability, and its proneness to get out of order. nor must one fail to take into account the required intelligence and skill to operate it. while constantly and carefully bearing in mind the before-mentioned objective points, the prospective successful inventor in designing his machine, must carefully aim for cheapness of construction, which can only be properly accomplished by designing the various mechanical performances of the machine with the least number of parts, and of the simplest form, requiring for their proper production the least amount and cheapest kind of labor in the pattern shop, foundry, and machine shop, and, next to the creating of efficient and durable machines, the greatest order of skill in a machine designer is required in producing simple and cheap mechanical designs. and yet this is not all that is required from him, even in the mechanical line, but he must have such mechanical movements and parts in his machine, as will enable him to secure a good patent on it, which will insure him protection, at the same time carefully and absolutely avoiding any possible infringement on others. in a measure that can be avoided by looking up the copies of patents of similar inventions. another important factor in determining the general design of a machine, is the probable market for the same, as that must, in a great measure, decide the justifiable expenditure for the initial or first general cost, for bringing the successful machine into being. [illustration: inventors seldom have anything outside of their aspirations and prospects.] so much for the mechanical or engineering part of the invention. chapter financing a new invention the next important part is the financial side of it. the estimate for this must necessarily vary with the intended mode of disposal of the prospective invention after its perfection. if it is the intention of the inventor to dispose of his invention after it is perfected, the expense can be approximately estimated, and in many cases will be moderate, of course varying with the nature of the invention. but if it is the intention to manufacture it, create and supply a market for it, the required capital will always be considerable. for many obvious reasons, it is considered advantageous for the profitable exploitation of an invention to have the financial end of it under a separate head, which is generally the case. usually this is "making a virtue of necessity," as inventors seldom have anything outside of their "aspirations and prospects," whether it is that "necessity is the mother of invention," or that "invention is the mother of necessity," is something that physiologists have not quite determined. but in any event, the prospective successful inventor must provide himself with a "finance minister," variously designated as "angel," "backer," or "octopus." this part of the inventive problem, to many an inventor, is insolvable for many reasons. to solve it successfully requires good insight, and judgment of human nature. ability to impart one's own "enthusiastic aspirations," and to keep it up, requires diplomacy and tact. [illustration: finance ministers.] but solve the problem he must if the inventor wants to be successful, and various means have been employed to do so. one of them, which is probably as good as any, is for the enterprising inventor to divide that part of his problem into two or several parts. if he cannot command a large amount at once, he will devote his energies to interesting successively small amounts, which will enable him to carry on the development of his invention from one stage to another; each time advancing it further, becoming stronger, and showing enhanced prospects. to sell to each successive "backer" the interest of his predecessor, and if the predecessor's money has been used to good advantage, that can be done profitably, and to the satisfaction of everybody concerned, as well as increasing the available means for carrying on the exploitation of the invention. that is one of the ways by which an inventor can provide himself steadily with some one to take care of the "finance portfolio" in his cabinet. another, but far more hazardous way, is to resort to the professional promoter. great care, however, must be taken by the inventor in these various financial transactions, which necessarily include the making and signing of various contracts and legal instruments, that his entire invention as well as himself are not entirely absorbed by others. as competent and reliable legal advice may not always be within his reach, he must be able to make contracts advantageously, and above all to be the possessor of a vision sufficiently penetrating to detect "the nigger in the woodpile," in any paper before he signs it. chapter marketing a new invention the value and success of an invention depends upon its demonstrated usefulness to those for whose use it is intended, and their desire to avail themselves of the same. it very often devolves on the inventor to give that value to it, a task which will not be found easy, especially to the novice. the first necessary steps to force an invention into the market is to procure as many representative references from people using his invention as possible. this may necessitate placing his machine on trial for a certain length of time, and personally demonstrating its usefulness; also educating other operators to operate his machine advantageously. [illustration: vision sufficiently penetrating to detect the nigger in the woodpile.] the inventor will find ample opportunity to display his forebearance at this stage of the game, as he will find at the beginning, "no one poor enough to do his invention reverence." and it is one of the strange things that one observes in life, that many people who have not sufficient energy and intelligence to raise themselves beyond the very humblest and meanest occupations in life, consider themselves amply qualified to criticise, and even make suggestions on inventions that some of the best brains have spent their best on. but this is a condition that must be reckoned with and overcome in introducing a new machine on the market, and the inventor will find it to his advantage to use every possible means to persuade and win over those who will have to operate his machine, as well as to demonstrate to the proprietor himself the usefulness of the invention; and sometimes even he may find it to his advantage to furnish an educated operator for the machine. if his means are limited, which is often the case, he will have to act as his own salesman, advertisement-writer, and press-agent until the invention becomes firmly established in the market. to go out in the cold, wide world and solicit orders even on approval for a new invention requires considerable adaptability, pluck, patience, and hard work. very often success or failure depends upon the initial exertions in that direction. no fixed rules can be laid down for that kind of work. to be successful, it must be varied with the nature and the disposition of every individual who does the selling and buying. but generally speaking, it is a safe rule for a salesman to observe, "brevity, directness, simplicity, and politeness," as the average business man is, by force of circumstances, homeopathic. they like "talks" in small quantities, concentrated form, and sugar-coated. [illustration: no one poor enough to do his invention reverence.] sometimes silence, the ability to keep one's mouth closed, and to respectfully listen to a loquacious prospective buyer, will secure an order for a machine, where a disposition to do all the talking, however "silvery" will not accomplish the same "golden" results. another important factor in introducing a machine into the market is advertising by mail. painstaking exertions coupled with the required ability to get up a proper circular, which should include a clear cut, half-tone preferably, of the machine to be sold, a concise explicit statement of the nature of the machine, and its capacity, and its advantages over previous or other methods of doing the same work. in wording and phrasing your circular, observe simplicity. a list of references will materially enhance your chances of securing attention, as most people are willing to say "me too," where you could never get them to say "i." in the general get-up of your circular it is best to have such an arrangement as will readily go into an ordinary business envelope, without folding. if, however, it must be folded, it must be so arranged that the fold so creased will not come at a vital point. plain, clear type of convenient size, on good white paper, and black ink, is better than rainbow colors. however, a different color for a few words now and then for emphasis, is permissible, and may help to bring out certain points which you wish the prospective buyer's attention called to. the general get-up of the circular must be of such a nature and form, that the prospective buyer of average intelligence will be attracted by it, and will get a general idea of what it has to tell him at a glance. it is even best to leave the price of the article off the circular, as that will induce people to inquire for it, and give one a chance to get in touch with those who are interested, while those who would not even inquire for the price, would not buy any way. another means for introducing a new invention on the market, is in "write-ups" of the same in the daily papers, magazines, and trade papers; as very unfortunately a good many people would not pay any attention to circulars, and would not find time to grant a personal interview to a solicitor, yet they do look up printed matter in the form of a newspaper, magazine, or trade-paper, and very often get their own views on any subject from the general tone of the article they read. these articles require considerable intelligence, care, and literary ability to prepare, and more to get them printed, as they naturally have to vary in tone and style with the paper, or magazine they are printed in. it is more or less easy to get a write-up in a trades-paper for an article that comes within its sphere, and very often the editor of that magazine will be willing to do the writing-up, from circulars furnished to him or from observations of the machines as a news item, for the dual purpose of furnishing its readers with useful information, and of obtaining advertising patronage from the beneficiary. in other magazines, it will require more ingenuity and literary merit to get in at all, and except in very rare instances, it would be best for the inventor to turn that part of the business over to some one who has experience in that line of work, and knows "how." chapter determining the selling price of a newly invented article considerable business acumen is required in determining and fixing the selling price of a new machine. the factors to be taken into consideration are, the value of its saving in every direction to its purchaser, the average amount of capital invested in the prospective purchaser's business, and the amount to be invested in the machine, as very often a machine may be beyond the reach of those for whose use it is desired, by reason of its price. in any event, the cost of producing the machine should not be a factor in determining the price, but the value of its product. and the cost of producing the same results by any other process, will give a very fair estimate, after taking into consideration the means of the people who have to buy it. generally a machine is sold outright to the consumer, but in some instances they are only rented for certain periods or volumes of production. that has to be determined by the nature of the invention and the business to which it applies. chapter office management and business policies if the inventor is unfortunate enough to be compelled to attend to his own office work, he will probably find it advantageous to observe the following rules: answer all letters promptly, briefly, and politely, and don't write what you feel like, as that will often get you into trouble. don't forget to make a copy, and keep it, of every letter you send out, and file carefully all letters you receive. if the inventor has to be his own purchasing agent, he should remember that the lowest price is not always the cheapest, and the highest price doesn't indicate that you couldn't get it any cheaper elsewhere, and as good, if not better. whenever possible, arrange for everything to be delivered at your place, as that throws the transit responsibility on the contractor until the goods are delivered, and your credit is also longer. order your goods as much ahead of time as possible as goods are very rarely delivered on the time they are promised. examine all goods delivered in your place as to quality and weight, and keep a careful memorandum of the same, and don't forget to check off the bills you receive for the same. don't be afraid to complain of unfair treatment, even at the risk of being called a "kicker." remember that the faithful performance of your duties for the firm that trusts and depends upon you, is more important than the catering to anybody, especially if it has to be done at the expense of the firm you represent. don't expect "perfection" from people you are dealing with, as they have also a good many things to contend with, and when once you have o. k.'d the bills, pay for them as soon as possible if you want to maintain your credit and your self-respect. honesty and straight dealings will materially increase your chances of staying in the market, once you get there. cultivating a good name with the people you are dealing with, is better than "kowtowing" to "rating agencies," as well as being the cheapest and very best kind of advertising. never misrepresent your financial condition when furnishing a statement to your bank, for you may do it once too often, and then you will wish "you hadn't." you will travel more easily and further by telling the truth. chapter divers ways of exploiting an invention having advanced his invention to the stage of having obtained a footing in the market, the inventor has reached the "parting of the ways," and now is the time for him to decide whether he is to sell his invention, or to keep it. if he decides to sell, his likely buyers are those who are in that line of business, and who are generally willing to add to their established business some patented novelty in their own line, that will give them exclusive use, and special advertising facilities, thereby increasing their profits, and enhancing their prestige; or some capitalist on the alert for a profitable investment, and congenial occupation. the decision of the inventor must depend upon the nature of the invention, its profitableness, his own financial resources, his health, his energies, temperament, and the likelihood of his invention being imitated, and his mechanical and financial ability to protect it. [illustration: "a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush."] generally speaking the proverb about "a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush," is very applicable to inventions, and the inventor who is blessed with a grain of prudence in his make-up, will think carefully, and his best, before he refuses a fair offer. if he desires to sell, a sum of money outright is better than a royalty. should it not be practical or desirable to dispose of it, he must make preparations to supply the market in constantly increased proportions. owing to the various kinds of skilled labor, numerous expensive tools, machinery, high rents for suitable manufacturing places necessary for the building of machinery, requiring the investment of large capital, and the devotion of a great deal of time for organization and supervision, many inventors find it convenient, even profitable, to have their machines built under contract by some established manufacturing concern which is properly equipped for that special kind of work. this in many cases is a very wise business-like course to pursue, as it eliminates the necessity of a large investment, and leaves the inventor free to devote himself to improving and enlarging the field for his invention, and to attend to the business end to better advantage. chapter useful pointers on successful manufacturing should it, however, be decided to manufacture his invention, it will be found that a proper system for regular routine will be required to produce the articles within reasonable cost. if the inventor has no special experience in manufacturing, it will be greatly to his advantage to procure information, by inspection, and carefully noting the methods employed in up-to-date manufacturing establishments, making similar articles. manufacturing must be carried out from "the top downwards," not from "the bottom upwards." that is, the brain work in the office must be carefully planned and carried out first, and recorded in assembly and detail drawings and carefully written-up specifications. next a double set of metal patterns should be made to be kept in two separate places to guard against fire. to do everything should not be attempted in the beginning, as many parts requiring special equipment and special skill, such as foundry work, drop forging, gear making, and wood work, can very often be contracted for with persons especially equipped to do that work, at less than the price it would cost to produce them by a firm which has to do a little of everything. elimination of that much of the work permits better concentration and increased facilities for the other work, resulting in a maximum of production with a minimum of investment. the work in the factory should be carefully divided up, and localized. if the quantities of complete manufactured articles to be made are large, or there is a fair prospect that they will be so, and their sale is not localized, a duplicate, interchangeable system of manufacture is indispensable, and should be employed from the very beginning. in spite of the initial expenses for tools, it will be found to be a great saver of worry, annoyance, trouble, and money. also the labor cost for duplicate parts in the making and assembling is very considerably less than if made in the "good old way." this makes it possible to supply parts that will fit the machine which will be required in the course of usage, in any part of the world where it may happen to be, and which often forms a considerable part of the profits. indeed it may be truly said that it sometimes pays to give machines away for nothing, if assured a monopoly of its repairs at one's own prices. the "gang-boss" system in the shop will be found a material aid in producing and maintaining a desired standard of quality and quantity. it will also lessen the necessary supervision and worry in tracing, and eliminate deficient and jarring elements in production. [illustration: the good will and well wishes of those who helped create it.] a healthy, accessible location, and a clean, comfortable shop are indispensable. fair, just and considerate treatment, with an apparent ready appreciation by the management, of the merits of their employees, will be duly rewarded by the willing and faithful co-operation of those on whom in a great measure the success or failure of manufacturing depends; also enhancing the value of the profits by the addition of the goodwill, and wellwishes of those who help to create it, as the want of it often mars the enjoyment of the money when earned. chapter warning to prospective inventors by a careful perusal of what has been said, it will be seen that the undertaking of a successful invention is no easy task, and that it cannot fall to one's lot by mere chance. it is quite true that, like the diamond, the inventor, the general, orator, or writer is born. but be it also remembered that even a diamond has to be cut, ground, and polished before it attains its lustre, and the inventor or general, writer and orator are no exceptions to the rule. the general could not conquer a valiant foe if he did not master the science of war, or if he failed to familiarize himself with most of the conspicuous experiences of others in the same profession. the writer and orator would have no audience if they failed to fertilize their brains with rich stores of knowledge to draw upon, and with proper means of expressing themselves. and the inventor is generally doomed to failure if he fails to earnestly apply himself to the acquisition and mastery of that knowledge which is potent to successful invention in the mechanical line, and to get his just or fair share of its value. [illustration: numerous and deep are the pitfalls that the would-be-successful inventor must avoid.] numerous and deep are the pitfalls that the would-be-successful inventor must avoid. rich and powerful are the members of the fraternity who thrive and fatten on him, through his short-comings of "omission or commission." at every stage of his progress he has to combat a new set and different kinds of vampires, each attacking him with different weapons, and in different ways, who consider the unlucky inventor their natural and legitimate prey. these men respectively garb their duplicity with the respectable name of a "profession," and justify the means of robbing him of his just and hard earnings, with the all-condoning name of "modern business methods." [illustration: victims constantly thrown up by the waves of passion and folly, on the sterile shore of human indifference.] [illustration: short and easy cut to opulence and ease. encouraged to pursevere in their fallacies by the slick cunning sharks. with their own ill-conceived notions and pride. they become unfitted for their usual occupations. very often the substance of those depending on them.] as numerous and as pitiful as are the various victims constantly thrown up by the waves of passion and folly on the sterile shore of "human indifference," none are more so than they who have nothing better than the promptings of a more-than-ordinary share of vanity and conceit to aspire to the honors and rewards of successful inventors. foolishly do they imagine it a short and easy cut to opulence and ease. enthused with their delusion, they become unfitted for their usual occupations, and are encouraged to persevere in their fallacies by the slick, cunning sharks whose inevitable prey they become through it. these not only take their very last dollar, but very often the substance of those depending upon them; until at last, poor, ruined, deluded fools, they wake up to the realization of the grand truth, "that one gets nothing for nothing," not even experience. but it is none the less unfortunately true, that those very victims themselves are responsible for the existence of the means and conditions for their undoing. if perchance in the outset of their ruinous career, they encounter one who would give them competent and honest advice, if it be at variance with their own ill-conceived notions and pride, he will receive insults for his pains, and be deprived of the opportunity of rendering any services to the profession of which his ability and integrity makes him a creditable and honorable member. chapter advice to inventors on inventions what and how to invent, is very often asked and variously answered. on the nature of the answer to the honest inquirer often depends whether he is to be discouraged in a good undertaking, or sent on a fool's errand, or directed rightly to the avenue of success. the various answers to what and how to invent may be divided into three different kinds. the stupid, the misleading, and the intelligent. the remark is often made by certain people, "oh, there used to be lots of chances to make fortunes out of inventions years ago, but not now." this is as stupid as it is untrue. never in the history of the world, have the opportunities been as numerous and the rewards as great as they are now for any and every kind of meritorious invention. our advanced civilization, the complex intricacies of our social fabric, the enormous general increase in wealth and the consequent general ability, to greater or less extent, to gratify our numerous and various desires, has created an unlimited field of opportunity for the ingenious, fertile and enterprising brain. not only for the improvements upon methods of "doing things," for which there is no man capable of setting a limit, but even for the invention and creation of entirely new means of gratification and utility. the inventor of steam locomotion created for mankind a new means of providing for certain phases of its existence. yet those who successively contributed their ingenuity and made the modern locomotive possible have filled a want, served a useful purpose, conferred a benefit and justly earned and merited reward. the existence of the perfected steam locomotive did not deter human ingenuity and enterprise from developing electric traction. the inventors of wireless telegraphy, were not deterred or discouraged in their efforts by the existence of telegraph wires. the fact that, in all the unknown thousands of years of human existence, speech was considered only a human prerogative did not prevent "the sage of llewellyn" from giving to the world the phonograph. every human brain is different from every other; endowed with its own special marvellous capacity, making it possible for it to succeed in new directions. who can fathom, or set a limit to the ingenuity of that divine creation, the human brain? none but its creator. our ordinary every-day mechanical utilities would be considered magic by him who wrote, "there is nothing new under the sun." [illustration: who can fathom or set a limit to the ingenuity of that divine creation, the human brain? none but its creator.] [illustration: our ordinary everyday mechanical utilities would be considered magic by him who wrote--"there's nothing new under the sun."] happily the world is not apt to suffer from the foolish slogan of "in good old times," as generally the possessor of extraordinary abilities will not be deterred by it from using them. and a sigh for past opportunities is but a true indication of the unfitness of its unfortunate emitter for any opportunity. the "misleading answer" to "what and how to invent" is that which tells everybody and anybody, to invent anything and everything. human abilities and environments vary, and it necessarily follows that every individual cannot be successful in that undertaking which requires for its successful accomplishment that which manifestly his creator did not endow him with. nor is the capable man apt to be as successful in a direction where, through his environments, he is a stranger, as he would in that field of operation that he has been most active in. it is better and cheaper for a person to first determine his possession of the abilities for doing certain things, than to find out the want of them by the failure of his undertaking. the gifted individual will also find success easier to attain if his efforts are directed in experienced channels, than if prospecting on what is to him, "unexplored wilds." and to the "misleading answer" of "what and how to invent," can be, in a great measure, attributed the product of the inventive weeds that choke up the patent offices as well as the elimination of numerous individuals from ordinary but useful occupations for which their creator evidently intended them. their wasted substances furnishes a fat living to them who make a profession to give out this "misleading" advice broadcast. chapter general definition and classification of inventions to "answer intelligently what and how to invent." it is first necessary to analyze most carefully the various phases of invention of various natures. it will be observed that inventions in general may be divided into several divisions, as follows: first:--fundamental physical principles, which are very rare and purely scientific. second:--basic mechanical adaptation to and for the first division which generally comes into existence soon after the discovery of the first. third:--basic mechanical adaptation to a well-defined production, substituting human or animal exertions; which comes by degrees, and none too often. fourth:--improved mechanical applications. fifth:--diverse or varied mechanical applications. the last two are the most prolific or numerous classes. the first division includes our physical sciences. the second is the first mechanical harness for utilizing a new discovery in the laws of physics for different purposes. the third includes the first mechanical appliances receiving impulse from some other body for doing to greater advantage that which is done by direct human or animal exertions, and are commonly termed labor-saving machines. the fourth are the continuous improvements on the third, and may include basic mechanical contrivances. the fifth is for accomplishing the same ends as the second, third and fourth, but also for the greater adaptability for certain specific purposes, and for popularizing its production; that is to prevent the exclusive monopolizing of certain advantages gained through and by the second and third. chapter the glory of invention and pictures of celebrated inventors and scientists great and glorious are the opportunities for the lucky individual possessing the required high standard of intelligence, education, taste, and means of devoting himself to scientific investigations and experiments, discovering and giving to the world new scientific truths, and means of harnessing them to various human usefulness, coming within range of different dynamic forces, such as: steam, gas, electricity, hydraulics, etc. the gates of the treasuries of rapturous joy are ajar to him, all his life, and an honored memory afterwards, as enduring as the civilization that made his triumphs possible. the products of his genius are his monuments, and are of greater beauty than any sculptor could produce. more enduring than the pyramids, always noted by admiring and grateful humanity, to whom it gives comfort and inspiration. [illustration: newton discoverer of gravitation.] [illustration: stephenson inventor of steam engine.] [illustration: eli whitney inventor of cotton gin.] [illustration: ericsson inventor of the "monitor."] [illustration: herschel, astronomer.] [illustration: s. f. b. morse, inventor of the telegraph.] [illustration: robert fulton, inventor of the steamboat.] [illustration: benj. franklin, scientist.] [illustration: elias howe, inventor of the sewing machine.] [illustration: jas. watt, inventor of the modern steam engine.] [illustration: lord kelvin, scientist.] [illustration: thos. a. edison, the sage of llewellyn, inventor of the phonograph, incandescent light, etc.] [illustration: sig. marconi, inventor of wireless telegraphy.] [illustration: sir h. bessemer, inventor of bessemer steel.] [illustration: c. h. mc cormick, inventor of the reaping machine.] [illustration: professor huxley, scientist.] [illustration: humboldt, scientist.] [illustration: chas. darwin, discoverer of evolution.] [illustration: seymour m. bonsall, inventor of the "innovation ingenuities."] one cannot possibly fail to get enthusiastic over the achievements of the long line of great scientific minds, who have made our civilization possible. "when will their glory fade?" more humble, yet as useful, are the numerous inventors whose achievements necessarily come under the third, fourth and fifth classification. the inventing and designing of a machine to do work more quickly and better than has been always done by hand increases and cheapens a useful production, placing it within reach of those who would otherwise be deprived of it, and always eliminates drudgery. chapter how to invent how to invent? invention is a problem and a solution. it necessarily follows that the first thing to do is to thoroughly comprehend the problem and then contrive mechanical means to solve it. work from the centre outwardly; that is, build up your machine around your object of accomplishment. do not try to design a machine and insert it afterwards. there are many men so extraordinarily gifted that it is possible for them to succeed in diverse directions, even in those for which they have not been especially equipped by training. that is conspicuously true in invention. useful inventions have been invented, and fortunes made by the inventors who were not engineers so far as training was concerned, nor were they even machinists, yet their extraordinary gifts have out-balanced the disadvantage of the lack of training for mechanical creation; but they all had to enlist, more or less, the services of others to make up for their own deficiencies. no doubt there will be many more inventors from outside the ranks of mechanical engineers, and they will find the following suggestions useful. understand thoroughly what you have to accomplish, first of all. after conceiving your ideas of a mechanical contrivance to do it with, try and make some kind of a sketch of the whole and the part respectively. chapter how to make sketches and specifications the fact that you are not a draftsman or have even no idea of how drawings are made, need not deter you from making sketches that will be understood. a sketch or drawing is a representation more or less correct of the imaginary object in your brain. drawings or sketches are the easiest kind of writing. they are picture writing, usually the first mode of writing employed by primitive people, and any man who has the intelligence to invent, no doubt has sufficient ability to make some kind of sketches with pencil on paper of the pictures he conceives in his brain. in making your sketch, remember that nearly every object has many sides to it, and your sketch is to impart a conception of the shape and form of that object to somebody else who has no knowledge of it, and must necessarily get his ideas from your sketches as he cannot look inside of your brain; therefore make as many sketches of your object as there are sides to it, and mark them, front, side, back, top and bottom, and every separate piece, , , , etc. write up explanations or specifications of the same. you can learn how to do that by reading standard works on applied mechanics. chapter the necessity of competent engineering for successful invention having done that much, now do not make a "bee line" for the patent office. do not imagine that the goal of your ambition, or the end of your tribulations lies in the patent office, that the obtaining of some kind of a patent places an "aladdin's lamp" at your disposal. you have not got anything positive as yet to get a patent on--the fact is you only think you have something--but your judgment may not be the very best on the subject for your own good. take your sketches and your specifications and consult a competent, reputable engineer, and he will tell you what are the prospects and probabilities of your invention. if your invention is a valuable one, engage his services to re-design it for you, and to make it practical. don't think that because you are an inventor you are necessarily a "natural born engineer." they don't grow that way. but be wise enough "to know what you don't know," and to get the right services from the right man. after your engineer has incorporated your invented idea in a suitable body, try to get your protection in the patent office on the form in which you intend utilizing your idea. no patents are granted on ideas. you will find the money spent on engineering your invention well spent, as very often large sums of money would be saved in making models and experimenting, and litigation would often be avoided if the inventor would have the practical "horse sense" to go to a competent engineer when in need of engineering skill. in designing and inventing a machine for doing certain work on a certain article which is otherwise done by hand, it does not necessarily follow that the machine must imitate in its actions the method employed by hand in accomplishing the same ends. that is very often not the only or the best method of doing it. while it is desirable for the machine to accomplish as good, or better, results than is accomplished by hand process, it may be far from desirable for the machine to imitate in its action the hand process in doing it. that may be a very roundabout way of doing it, and may not lend itself to simple and desirable mechanical manipulation. for that reason the inventor of a labor-saving machine may often have to first invent a new process for bringing about certain results on the substances on which his machine is to operate, that may be radically different from the method employed by hand. [illustration: an intelligent and prudent inventor will carefully note his own capacity.] it is therefore obvious that, to invent a labor-saving machine successfully, it is first necessary to determine the executive method of operation, and often to invent a more suitable and adaptable one before inventing the means for accomplishing the same, as the executive part of his contemplated machine is his problem, and the ease or difficulty of its solution depends upon its simplicity. the intelligent and prudent inventor will carefully note his own special capacity, aptitude, taste, education, training, experience, and opportunity in certain directions. he will carefully weigh and measure so far as possible in advance his proposed undertaking, and when finally decided upon, he will set himself to work enthusiastically on the lines laid down in this article, and with all the devotion and tenacity that is in him, knowing no defeat, learning and finding new means to solve the problem from every set-back and apparent failure, until he will bring it to a successful accomplishment, and actually tear victory from the jaws of defeat. chapter pert pointers for prospective inventors that will be found helpful while it is impossible to lay down fixed rules for the would-be successful inventor to follow, the following will be found useful: observe everything carefully. try to remember everything you see. acquire the habit of concentration. reason logically. do not overlook details. be a hard worker. keep your mouth shut. don't count your chickens before they are hatched. don't get inflated with your superiority, neglecting to avail yourself of the accumulated knowledge and experience of others. don't imagine yourself a solomon. don't bite off more than you can swallow. (read Ã�sop's fable about the "eagle and the jackdaw.") don't set yourself a quixotic task, and, on the other hand, don't think it is impossible for you to succeed where others have failed. [illustration: observe everything carefully. try to remember everything you see. reason logically. do not overlook details.] do not start an advance account in greatness by telling everybody you come in contact with what a wonderful invention you are working on, thereby trying to enhance your importance with them. remember you are not "it" until you have succeeded, and when you do, the world will know it soon enough, and you will not suffer by reason of its having found it out for itself. remember an inventor is only judged by what he has made good, not by what he has attempted. don't, oh! please don't go about with a face as solemn and anxious as if you were an atlas. using the inside of your head, should not be sufficient reason for neglecting the outside of it by "boycotting" the barber. hair is not "wisdom teeth." do not waste your time complaining for the want of appreciation in your wife, for the "great ideas" you have in your head. she may have a strain of missourian blood in her veins, and "she wants to be shown." when you "do," you can be sure she will not be slow in handing you up the "sugar lumps." because shakespeare, napoleon, ruskin, etc., have parted from the partners of their youth, should not lead you to the deduction that it necessarily is the earmarks of greatness to cast aside, when you have become successful, the sharer of your early poverty and struggles. you will be greater by not following anybody's example, in that respect. [illustration: don't imagine yourself a solomon.] [illustration: "the eagle and the jackdaw." don't bite off more than you can swallow.] [illustration: don't set yourself a quixotic task.] [illustration: don't go about with a face as solemn and anxious as though you were atlas.] [illustration: she wants to be shown.] [illustration] [illustration: she will not be slow in handing you up the sugar lumps.] [illustration: to cast aside when you become successful the sharer of your early poverty and struggles.] [illustration: you will be greater by not following anybody's example in that respect.] [illustration: only a temperate abstemious regime of life can give the healthy brain.] [illustration: don't forget the people you knew.] remember that only a temperate abstemious régime of life can give you the healthy brain required for the successful accomplishment of anything worth doing. don't fail to give credit to others when it is due. don't forget to repay those who have helped to make your success possible, and, lastly, gain your success in such a manner that your enjoyment of its reward will not be marred by the remorse of your conscience. chapter protection of an invention the protection of an invention implies the dual problem of how to prevent others from stealing the product of one's mental labor, and of how to insure a fair share of its value to the inventor. to solve that problem absolutely is of course no more possible than the absolute prevention of the pilfering of anything else of value in the world, but it may be made as secure as the present circumstances in the case will permit if the inventor, to use a slang expression, will be "on to the game." to be that, he first has to know with whom he has to reckon, and how the stealing is done, and the best way to checkmate it. chapter various ways employed to cheat and rob inventors while it is impossible to enumerate all of the different methods employed in bringing about the proverbial slip between the cup and the inventor's lip, a few of the usual means, and those generally adopted, in fact so general, that they have come to be looked upon as almost legitimate, established precedents, are as follows: if the inventor is in the employ of a company manufacturing goods, to which his invention is a valuable addition, the company simply "takes it," and applies for a patent on the same, as being the original inventor. in most cases the inventor is not even informed of the patent application, and generally some high official in the company's employ claims and gets the credit and reward for inventing it. should that invention be very valuable, or the inventor commits the indiscretion of making other inventions, he will be promptly discharged on one pretense or another, to be rid of his presence, so as to "nip any possible trouble in the bud," and the poor inventor has to "drift" for a while until he strikes something again and probably has a similar experience in the course of time, if he did not get "wise" by his last experience. another pet practice is for a concern to boldly take another man's invention that is valuable to it, and work it as if it were its own, of course making money out of it, and very often doing so undisturbed. this may be possible for a variety of reasons, such as, being at a distance from the inventor and his having no means of finding it out; or, again, he may be dead, and his rightful heirs may have no knowledge of the patent, its value or its infringement. but should even the inventor be alive and find them out and attempt to call them to account, he will promptly be informed to "go and see their lawyers," which is only another way of telling him, "well, what are you going to do about it?" for if he goes to see their lawyers, they will most condescendingly and patronizingly inform him that that patent is not "valid," and advise him not to bother his head about it, as it would do him no good. and unless he has the means to engage lawyers, who require fat "retainers," he is absolutely helpless, and the exploiters of his invention can enjoy their ill-gotten gains with impunity. chapter government connivance at the despoiling of a poor inventor incredible, yet it is true, that if a patent is infringed upon, and for some reason the inventor, though cognizant of it, does not commence suit, it is held that he acquiesced in the same, and the parties who are stealing his invention, as well as others, can go on robbing him with impunity. the "interference" trick is usually resorted to, to transfer a valuable invention from a poor but rightful owner to those who want it, and have the money to make profitable use of it and pay for the trick. the most surprising part of it is that it is done quite legally and generally successfully and with no "comeback." it is also very remarkable for its simplicity of procedure, which is usually as follows: [illustration: the swipeing mfg. co. have stolen my invention.] [illustration: we must have dollars as a retaining fee.] [illustration: defended in court * * * * on technicalities.] [illustration: the exploiters of his invention can enjoy their ill-gotten gains with impunity.] a manufacturer of a certain line of goods makes it his business promptly to obtain copies of all patents in his own line of goods as soon as they are issued. when he finds something that he thinks he wants or can use to advantage in his business, he promptly goes ahead, starts to make it by copying the patent illustration in the published records, and as promptly and innocently files a patent application in the patent office, which is an exact duplicate and copy of the other man's patent that has been issued and published. in due course he gets the return of his patent application from the patent office with the citation against it of the other man's patent that he is copying. he then promptly notes the date of the patent application of the other man's patent and files what is called in the patent office as "interference," simply claiming that he invented his invention or thought about it, or dreamed about it at a previous time, allowing himself a sufficient margin of a year or two before the date of application of the other man's patent, and thereby claiming himself the rightful inventor of the same, boosting up his own false affidavit by one or two lying witnesses, which experience has demonstrated is a commercial commodity. having done that, it is necessary for the right inventor, who has received due notice from the patent office, to come and defend his title to his patent, in spite of the fact that the patent has been issued to him after the customary and usual formalities in due legal form, and payment of all legal fees. in order to defend the same now, he is obliged to engage attorneys who require the usual and indispensable retainers, fees, etc., without any certainty at all of being able to retain his just claim to his patent, for the very simple reason that the time of the filing of his patent was probably within a reasonable time of the making of his invention, and he has to combat the sworn testimony of his adversaries, who have given themselves ample latitude in insuring their priority claim. while they are swearing falsely, they reason, and rightly so, that it is no more criminal to lie by the year than by the month, and consequently they make sure of it, and give themselves plenty of rope, with the result that the rightful inventor, after paying his original fees for the obtaining of the patents and the second fees for defending it, usually loses the same and his invention, simply because circumstances and his conscience do not permit him to defend himself against his adversaries with the same weapons he is attacked with, namely, perjury; thus he remains by force of circumstances an honest man considerably poorer, and a whole lot wiser by his experience. chapter old and common tricks employed to "do" an inexperienced inventor another method in vogue for appropriating other people's inventions, is to copy it, making some slight minor change in it, and defend it in court, if need be, on technicalities. there are still other ways, by which inventors often lose their just dues, which is generally the fault of their own inexperience, as for instance, by giving exclusive manufacturing privileges to somebody without a reasonable guarantee, for the making of a certain quantity per stipulated period. the possessor of the privilege will then only have to make one in the whole life of the contract, and thereby rid himself of a competitive article from the market, at the inventor's expense. then there are various methods of avoiding the payment of royalties on all that's made, by getting them made at different places, unknown to the inventor, and by keeping two sets of books. if the invention forms the basis of a stock company, by allowing the inventor only a minority of the stock, and taking all of the earnings of the invention in large salaries by the controlling parties, thus leaving the inventor out in the cold. chapter the root of the evil the different ways of appropriating other people's invention without giving any equivalent for it, are made possible by our existing laws which are notoriously defective for insuring justice and equity to those who labor with their brains, who, in the opinion of most people, are as deserving of protection, in the enjoyment of the fruits of their labor, as they who work with their hands. if the man who cultivates the soil, raises a crop and when the same is ripe, some one should come and boldly reap and harvest the same, and carry it off to his barn and enjoy the proceeds thereof, the law would immediately lay its hands on that person, deprive him of his stolen goods, to return the same to the rightful owner. the community would also be wrought up in righteous indignation and add its ostracism of the malefactor, even after he has been deprived of his stealings, suffered the penalty, and is probably penitent. but it is different, oh! how different, if the stolen property is a mental instead of a hand product. it ought to be apparent that there is a defect somewhere in the profound reasoning of our august law-makers and honorable jurists in framing and interpreting our laws for protection of property that makes it possible for a man to arrest another man that he has found in possession of his plow, while allowing a man to steal another man's invention, for the improvement of all plows, and to throw the inventor out of his office for attempting to remonstrate with him for appropriating his property. chapter comparative legal protection afforded to mental and physical property the law is very partial in protecting the rightful owner in possession of that which to produce requires but manual labor and very little preparation, but it gives no practical protection to the rightful owner in securing to him even a part of the benefits of his production, if the same is the result of the labors of the brain, after spending many years in hard and careful study in making it possible for him to accomplish it. dame justice with unsheathed sword stands guard over the cellar of potatoes that took three months for the ox and his owner to produce, but she is entirely indifferent if an intelligent and educated engineer is robbed of the results of his labors of several years, after collecting a fee from him for doing that which it does not do, and which it ought to do freely. it is manifestly a peculiar logic, entirely at variance with the rules, that govern the ideas of equity. the man who produces a field of corn that will feed a dozen cows is directly protected in the possession thereof by the paid officers of the law of the community, while the man who, by his exertions, lightens the burdens of millions of human beings has no claim upon the services of the community's enforcers of the law of property rights. chapter the utter helplessness of a poor inventor to obtain justice it is confessedly an enigma to many a man, why if an inventor is so unlucky as not to possess the large sums of money required to engage the services of competent attorneys, he must be content to see the despoiler of the fruits of his labor enjoy it. and should he, the inventor, be so indecorous as to accuse him of it, the law will immediately fly to the assistance of his despoiler, and clap the unlucky inventor in jail for libel. again, if a man, as member of a corporation, appropriates another man's property the law does not permit him to retain it, or exempt him from the consequences of this unlawful action by reason of any limitation of responsibility as a member of a corporation. but, should the corporation appropriate another man's invention, and after expensive and long drawn-out litigations, the inventor should be awarded damages from the company for exploiting his invention, all the company has to do to avoid paying the award is to fail, and the same individuals can re-organize to do the same business under a new charter and name, and may steal the same inventor's patent again, providing it pays it to do so, and the inventor would have to commence to fight again in court. [illustration: why, oh why, is the stealing of one kind of property a criminal offense, another only a civil tort? the law is very powerful in protecting the rightful owner. dame justice with unsheathed sword stands guard over the cellar of potatoes. no claim upon the services of the community's officers of the law.] why, oh why, is the stealing of one kind of property a criminal offense, and another only a civil tort? chapter public attitude towards him who steals physical and to the one who steals mental property good people will justly gather up their coat-tails in holy horror, when perchance they come in contact with a man convicted of highway robbery, but when has a man been expelled from church membership, or from fashionable clubs, who has lost a patent suit by a clear case of intentional infringement being proven against him? at present it would seem that many inventors have a special reason for deploring the decadence of the eternal brimstone-doctrine, as punishment for wrong-doing, especially for the breaking of the eighth and tenth commandments, as its modern substitute of "thou shalt not steal, less-than-necessary-for-lawyers'-fees-to-absolve-you-and-a-reasonable-margin-of-profit," manifestly is broad enough to include the stealing of inventive production. chapter present available means of protecting an invention to protect an invention is indeed a very serious problem, under any and all circumstances, yet there are certain conditions that will protect it in a measure. the first and most potent is to have a good deal of money to fight infringements with, for money not only has the famed virtue of "covering a multitude of sins," but of keeping others from sinning against you. [illustration: but is it different oh! now! if the stolen property is a mental instead of a hand product? the community would be wrought up in righteous indignation.] second: good and careful invention and designing by making the mechanical contrivance as nearly basic as the circumstances will permit, and to design and invent contrivances for the same purpose in as many other ways from the one to be used as possible, and by patenting the same, making it harder for anybody else to get around it. third: to so develop your means of producing your invention, that they will enable you to hold your own in competition in the market should it come. fourth: to have a good patent lawyer draw your patent claims. fifth: if possible have that lawyer interested in your invention. sixth: never give it out to be worked on a royalty, unless it is to some party with whose ability and integrity you are satisfied, and even then have a clearly defined contract in writing as to quantities and conditions. seventh: if the invention is assigned to a corporation, do not leave yourself with a minority of stock if you can at all help it, but if you cannot possibly avoid parting with a majority of the stock, identify and amalgamate your interests with some other stockholder in your company, that in combination with him will give you a majority and control; and arrange if possible for your services to be indispensable and profitable to the company. last, never sign an agreement with anybody assigning to them all of your future improvements and inventions you may make for the same purpose. you will be reasonably protected if you can keep that "up your sleeve." for the world is usually more mindful of the man with the "big stick" than with the "big grievance." [illustration: the world is usually more mindful of the man with the "big stick," than with the "big grievance."] chapter comparative government treatment--a bounty for raising "sugar beets," but a tax on inventions laws are framed and a great deal of money spent by our government for the encouragement of useful production by its people. for illustration, it is considered that the best way to produce sugar, is the raising of the sugar cane which is raised in the world in sufficient quantities to meet all possible demands, and naturally enough in places where it can be raised to the best advantage. many of those places are under the stars and stripes, namely, louisiana, hawaii, porto rico, and the philippine islands. yet if a citizen who, on his farm, could produce many diverse articles and sell the same to advantage, chooses instead to raise a vegetable (beets), from which sugar can be manufactured at a disadvantage, expects and receives from the government not only absolute protection of his production, and also the securing of an enhanced price for the same, through a high tariff, but an actual bonus of money known as a "bounty." but the inventor who bestows great benefits on his fellow citizens and the world at large, and gives it that which can not be had at all elsewhere at the time, is evidently not deemed by our law-makers of sufficient importance to receive any encouragement or justice. from what has been said here, it ought to be very evident that there is a wide difference in the treatment meted out by our government to him who renders services to society by digging in the dirt, and to him who digs in the brain. [illustration: difference in the treatment meted out by our government to him who renders services to society, by digging in the dirt, and to him who uses the brain.] chapter society's debt to the inventor it is certainly good and just public policy that the government should spend a good deal of money for the benefit of the farmers, but where is the justice and the good public policy in making money out of the inventors? (see statistics of the fiscal returns from the patent office.) is the former more indispensable to society than the latter? has not the ingenuity of the inventor enabled even the farmer, the special protegé of the government, to get greater returns from his labor than ever in the history of the world? has he not made his task lighter, and has he not enabled him to get more of the good things of the world for the earnings of his labor? and is it not in a great measure through the inventor's ingenuity and industry that this country has attained its unprecedented prosperity in peace and mighty potency in war? chapter comparative protection given by the government our formidable warships are always ready to race to the furthest end of the world to protect our merchants and their wares. even our missionaries have the "moral" support of our "strong arm," in forcing on the so-called heathens the barter of "cozy corners in heaven" for "cash down," but it is a notorious fact that certain so-called civilized countries are making it their habit and custom quite openly to appropriate every invention that is worth appropriating, providing the inventor is a foreigner, and the unfortunate inventor has not even got a cause of action at law, nor would the inventor's complaint at the state department be productive of anything more substantial than polite regrets. these modern barbary pirates need not fear another commodore perry, so long as they devote their depredations solely to the comparatively more valuable production of the brains instead of the hands. [illustration: has not the ingenuity of the inventor enabled even the farmer * * * to get greater returns for his labor? * * * has he not made his work lighter and has he not enabled him to get more of the good things of this world?] [illustration: through the inventor's ingenuity and industry this country has attained its mighty potency in war.] chapter the law's definition of property--and public policy evidently the law's definitions of "industry and property" are only that which were known and accepted as such before the era of mechanical inventions. and while the law is sufficiently modern in exacting a fee from this modern class of toilers, yet it has not modernized sufficiently to extend to them the encouragement and protection that in all reason and justice they are entitled to, even without additional exaction from them, and it is also against public policy. "full many a gem of purest ray serene the dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear." "full many a flower is born to blush unseen and waste its sweetness on the desert air." many a great invention to increase human comfort and happiness would be given to the world, if inventors were given that encouragement and protection which their genius, industry and usefulness deserve. chapter the successful inventor one has indeed to be more than ordinarily gifted, and most carefully trained in many directions, spiritual, mental and physical, to be a successful inventor. to improve by one's own ability and efforts the results of any phase of human activities; to conceive, execute and adopt and introduce a new and improved method for the carrying out of certain human exertions without infringing upon, or appropriating the efforts of others; to secure a fair and just share of its benefits, to be translated to higher planes of life, without becoming over-conscious of it; to be called to the management of affairs involving the interests, and welfare of others; to be able to do so, not only profitably, but in a manner to gain, hold and preserve the esteem of our fellow-beings, is indeed a creditable achievement. well worth the ambition of every high-minded person extraordinarily gifted. it requires the proverbial wisdom of an owl, the cunning of a fox, and the courage and strength of a lion. if the true history of all the pre-eminent inventors should be written, it would be a record of "making" the most of oneself, painstaking labor, and of constant devotion to duty, of as brave and as true men as ever wore brass buttons and gold lace; who, without martial glamour and loud acclaim, quietly solve and overcome great difficulties, against discouraging odds, and attain good results. chapter comparative treatment the world accords to them, and summary the world pays no heed to the efforts and struggles of such men, often neglects to reward their good achievements, yet it never fails to avail itself of their benefits. the monetary reward meted out by the world to even the most successful inventors is insignificant, compared to the benefits bestowed upon it by the beneficiary of its gratitude. the world is full of monuments and statues to them who have or have tried to benefit it by destruction and slaughter, and by the making of widows and orphans, but one would have to use "diogenes' candle," to find the monuments to them who have benefited the world, by giving it untold wealth and happiness, without sorrow or suffering, except to themselves, through scientific and mechanical research and invention. the feeling of having benefited our fellows, of having helped to improve the world for others, as others have done for us, the sweet consciousness of having given the world "what was best in us," is the true and only adequate reward to him who has given his best efforts to lighten human burdens and increase their happiness. transcriber's note: minor spelling inconsistencies, mainly hyphenated words, have been harmonized. obvious typos have been corrected. an "illustrations" section has been added as an aid for the reader. miracle by price by irving e. cox, jr. _they said old doctor price was an inventive genius but no miracle worker. yet--if he didn't work miracles in behalf of an over-worked little guy named cupid, what was he doing?_ [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from worlds of if science fiction, october . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] memo to: clayton, croyden and hammerstead, attorneys attention: william clayton from: walter gordon dear bill: enclosed is the itemized inventory of the furnishings of the late dr. edward price's estate. as you requested, i personally examined the laboratory. candidly, bill, you needed a psychiatrist for the job, not a graduate physicist. dr. price was undoubtedly an inventive genius a decade ago when he was still active in general electronics, but his lab was an embarrassing example of senile clutter. you had an idea, bill, that before he died price might have been playing around with a new invention which the estate could develop and patent. i found a score of gadgets in the lab, none of them finished and none of them built for any functional purpose that i could discover. only two seemed to be completed. one resembled a small, portable radio. it was a plastic case with two knobs and a two-inch speaker grid. there was no cord outlet. the machine may have been powered by batteries, for i heard a faint humming when i turned the knobs. nothing else. dr. price had left a handwritten card on the box. he intended to call it a semantic-translator, but he had noted that the word combination was awkward for commercial exploitation, and i suppose he held up a patent application until he could think of a catchier name. one sentence on that card would have amused you, bill. price wrote, "should wholesale for about three-fifty per unit." even in his dotage, he had an eye for profit. the semantic-translator--whatever that may mean--might have had possibilities. i fully intended to take it back with me to general electronics and examine it thoroughly. the second device, which price had labeled a transpositor, was large and rather fragile. it was a hollow cylinder of very small wires, perhaps a foot in diameter, fastened to an open-faced console crowded with a weird conglomeration of vacuum tubes, telescopic lenses and mirrors. the cylinder of wires was so delicate that the motion of my body in the laboratory caused it to quiver. standing in front of the wire coil were two brass rods. a kind of shovel-like chute was fixed to one rod (price called it the shipping board). attached to the second rod was a long-handled pair of tongs which he called the grapple. the transpositor was, i think, an outgrowth of price's investigation of the relationship between light and matter. you may recall, bill, the brilliant technical papers he wrote on that subject when he was still working in the laboratories of general electronics. at the time price was considered something of a pioneer. he believed that light and matter were different forms of the same basic element; he said that eventually science would learn how to change one into the other. i seriously believe that the transpositor was meant to do precisely that. in other words, price had expected to transpose the atomic structure of solid matter into light, and later to reconstruct the original matter again. now don't assume, bill, that price was wandering around in a senile delusion of fourth dimensional nonsense. the theory may be sound. our present knowledge of the physical world makes the basic structure of matter more of a mystery than it has ever been. not that i think price achieved the miracle. even in his most brilliant and productive period he could not have done it. as yet our accumulation of data is too incomplete for such an experiment. i believe that price created no more than a very realistic illusion with his arrangement of lenses and mirrors. i saw the illusion, too; i used the machine. there were two dials on the front of the console. one was lettered "time", and the other "distance". the "time" dial could be set for eons, centuries or hours, depending upon the position of a three-way switch beneath it; the "distance" dial could be adjusted to light years, thousand-mile units, or kilometers by a similar device. since there was no indication which position would produce what results, i left the dials untouched. i plugged the machine into an electric outlet and pushed the starter button. the coil of wire blazed with light and the chute slid rapidly in and out of the cylinder. that was all, at first. the starter button was labeled "the shipper", and i gathered that price had visualized the practical application of the transpositor as a device for transporting goods from one point to another. i looked around the lab for something i could put into the chute. there was a card, written in red, warning me not to load beyond the dimensional limits of the chute. the only thing i saw that was small enough was the little radio-like gadget price had called a semantic-translator. loaded horizontally, it just barely fit the chute. i pushed the shipper button a second time. again there was a blaze of light, brighter than before, which temporarily blinded me. for a moment i saw the semantic-translator in the heart of the fragile, wire cylinder. it had the glow of molten steel, pouring from a blast furnace. then it was gone. the chute shot back to the front of the machine. the tray was empty. was it an illusion? i believe that, bill, because later on, when i thought of using the grapple.... * * * * * miss bertha kent walked back the gravel trail from the dressing room. the early morning sun was bright and warm, but she held her woolen robe tight across her throat. she tried to avoid looking at the other camps--at the sleepy-eyed women coming out of tents, and the men starting morning fires in the stone rings. bitterness was etched in acid in her soul. she made herself believe it was because she hated yosemite. the vacation had been such a disappointment. she had expected so much and--as usual--it had all gone wrong. her hope had been so high when school closed; this year was going to be different! "are you going anywhere this summer?" miss emmy asked after the last faculty meeting in june. "to yosemite for a couple of weeks, i think." "the park's always crowded. you ought to meet a nice man up there, bertha." "i'm not interested in men," miss kent had replied frostily. "i'm a botany teacher and it helps me professionally if i spend part of the summer observing the phenomenon of nature." "don't kid me, bertha. you can drop the fancy lingo, too; school's out. you want a man as much as i do." that was true, miss kent admitted--in the quiet of her own mind. never aloud; never to anyone else. six years ago, when bertha kent had first started to teach, she had been optimistic about it. she wanted to marry; she wanted a family of her own--instead of wasting her lifetime in a high school classroom playing baby sitter for other people's kids. she had saved her money for all sorts of exotic summer vacations--tours, cruises, luxury hotels--but somehow something always went wrong. to be sure, she had met men. she was pretty; she danced well; she was never prudish; she liked the out-of-doors. all positive qualities: she knew that. the fault lay always with the men. when she first met a stranger, everything was fine. then, slowly, miss kent began to see his faults. men were simply adult versions of the muscle-bound knot-heads the administration loaded into her botany classes. bertha kent wanted something better, an ideal she had held in her mind since her childhood. the dream-man was real, too. she had met him once and actually talked to him when she was a child. she couldn't remember where; she couldn't recall his face. but the qualities of his personality she knew as she did her own heart. if they had existed once in one man, she would find them again, somewhere. that was the miracle she prayed for every summer. she thought the miracle had happened again when she first came to yosemite. she found an open campsite by the river. while she was putting up her tent, the man from the camp beside hers came to help. at first he seemed the prototype of everything she hated--a good-looking, beautifully co-ordinated physical specimen, as sharp-witted as a jellyfish. the front of his woolen shirt hung carelessly unbuttoned. she saw the mat of dark hair on his chest, the sculpted curves of sun-tanned muscle. no doubt he considered himself quite attractive. then, that evening after the fire-fall, the young man asked her to go with him to the ranger's lecture at camp curry. bertha discovered that he was a graduate physicist, employed by a large, commercial laboratory. they had at least the specialized area of science in common. by the time they returned from the lecture, they were calling each other by first names. the next day walt asked her to hike up the mist trail with him to nevada falls. the familiar miracle began to take shape. she lay awake a long time that night, looking at the dancing pattern of stars visible through the open flap of her tent. this was it; walt was the reality of her dream. she made herself forget that every summer for six years the same thing had happened. she always believed she had found her miracle; and always something happened to destroy it. for two days the idyll lasted. the inevitable awakening began the afternoon they drove along the wawona highway to see the mariposa grove of giant sequoias. they left their car in the parking area and walked through the magnificent stand of cathedral trees. the trail was steep and sometimes treacherous. twice walt took her arm to help her. for some reason that annoyed her; finally she told him, "i'm quite able to look after myself, walt." "so you've told me before." "after all, i've been hiking most of my life. i know exactly what to do--" "there isn't much you can't take care of for yourself, is there, bertha?" his voice was suddenly very cold. "i'm not one of these rattle-brained clinging vines, if that's what you mean. i detest a woman who is always yelping to a man for help." "independence is one thing, bertha; i like that in a woman. but somehow you make a man feel totally inadequate. you set yourself up as his superior in everything." "that's nonsense, walt. i'm quite ready to grant that you know a good deal more about physics than i do." "say it right, bertha. you respect the fact that i hold a phd." he smiled. "that isn't the same thing as respecting me for a person. i knew you didn't need my help on the trail, but it was a normal courtesy to offer it. it seems to me it would be just as normal for you to accept it. little things like that are important in relations between people." "forget it, walt." she slipped her hand through his. "there, see? i'll do it just the way you want." she was determined not to quarrel over anything so trivial, though what he said seemed childish and it tarnished the dream a little. but the rest was still good; the miracle could still happen. yet, in spite of all her effort, they disagreed twice more before they left the mariposa grove. bertha began to see walt as he was: brilliant, no doubt, in the single area of physical science, but basically no different from any other man. she desperately wished that she could love him; she earnestly wished that the ideal, fixed so long in her mind, might be destroyed. but slowly she saw the miracle slip away from her. that night, after the fire-fall, walt did not ask her to go with him to the lecture. miserable and angry, bertha kent went into her tent, but not to sleep. she lay staring at the night sky, and thinking how ugly the pin-point lights of distant suns were on the velvet void. as the hours passed, she heard the clatter of pans and voices as people at the other campsites retired. she heard walt when he returned, whistling tunelessly. he banged around for nearly an hour in the camp next to hers. he dropped a stack of pans; he overturned a box of food; he tripped over a tent line. she wondered if he were drunk. had their quarreling driven him to that? walt must have loved her, then. after a time all the coleman lanterns in the camp were out. still bertha kent did not sleep. the acid grief and bitterness tormented her with the ghost of another failure, another shattered dream. she listened to the soft music of the flowing stream, the gentle whisper of summer wind in the pines, but it gave her no peace. suddenly she heard quiet footsteps and the crackling of twigs behind her tent. she was terrified. it must be walt. if he had come home drunk, he could have planned almost any kind of violence by way of revenge. the footsteps moved closer. bertha shook off the paralysis of fear and reached for her electric lantern. she flashed the beam into the darkness. she saw the black bulk of a bear who was pawing through her food box. she was so relieved she forgot that a bear might also be a legitimate cause of fear. she ran from the tent, swinging the light and shooing the animal away as she would have chased a puppy. the bear swung toward her, roaring and clawing at the air. she backed away. the bear swung its paws again, and her food box shattered on the ground, in a crescendo of sound. bertha heard rapid footsteps under the pines. in the pale moonlight she saw walt. he was wearing only a pair of red-striped boxer shorts. he was swinging his arms and shouting, but the noise of the falling box had already frightened the bear away. walt stood in the moonlight, smiling foolishly. "i guess i came too late," he said. "i'm quite sure the bear would have left of its own accord, walt. they're always quite tame in the national parks, you know." as soon as she said it, she knew it was a mistake. even though he had done nothing, it would have cost her little to thank him. the words had come instinctively; she hadn't thought how her answer would affect him. walt turned on his heel stiffly and walked back to his tent. with a little forethought--a little kindness--bertha might even then have rescued her miracle. she knew that. she knew she had lost him now, for good. for the first time in her life she saw the dream as a barrier to her happiness, not an ideal. it held her imprisoned; it gave her nothing in exchange. she slept fitfully for the rest of the night. as soon as the sun was up, she pulled on her woolen robe and went to the dressing room to wash. she walked back along the gravel path, averting her eyes from the other camps and the men hunched over the smoking breakfast fires. she hated yosemite. she hated all the people crowded around her. she had made up her mind to pack her tent and head for home. this was just another vacation lost, another year wasted. she went into her tent and put on slacks and a bright, cotton blouse. then she sat disconsolate at her camp table surveying the mess the bear had made of her food box. there was nothing that she could rescue. she could drive to the village for breakfast, but the shops wouldn't open for another hour. behind her she heard walt starting his coleman stove. yesterday he would have offered her breakfast; now he'd ignored her. all along the stream camp fires were blazing in the stone rings. bertha wondered if she could ask the couple on the other side of her campsite for help. they had attempted to be friendly once before, and bertha hadn't responded with a great deal of cordiality. they weren't the type she liked--a frizzy-headed, coarse-voiced blonde, and a paunchy old man who hadn't enough sense to know what a fool he looked parading around camp in the faded bathing trunks he wore all day. suddenly a light flashed in bertha's face. a metal shovel slid out of nothingness and deposited a tiny, rectangular box on the table. for a long minute she stared at the box stupidly, vaguely afraid. her mind must be playing her tricks. such things didn't happen. she reached out timidly and touched the box. it seemed real enough. a miniature radio of some sort, with a two-inch speaker. she turned the dials. she heard a faint humming. the coarse-voiced blonde came toward the table. "we just heard what happened last night, miss kent," she said. "me and george. about the bear, i mean." bertha forced a smile. "it made rather a shambles, didn't it?" "gee, you can't make breakfast out of a mess like this. why don't you come and eat with us?" the blonde went on talking, apologizing for what she was serving and at the same time listing it with a certain pride. strangely, miss kent heard not one voice, but two. the second came tinnily from the little box on the table, "you poor, dried-up old maid. that guy who's been hanging around would have been over long before this, if you knew the first thing about being nice to a man." bertha gasped. "really, if that's the way you feel--" "why, honey, i just asked you over for breakfast," the blonde answered; at the same time the voice from the machine said, "i suppose george and me ain't good enough for you. o.k. by me, sister. i didn't really want you to come anyway." trembling, miss kent stood up. "i've never been so insulted!" "what's eating you, miss kent?" the blonde seemed genuinely puzzled, but again the voice came from the plastic box, "the old maid's off her rocker. you'd think she was reading my mind." switching her trim little hips, the blonde walked back to her own camp. bertha kent dropped numbly on the bench, staring at the ugly box. "reading my mind," the woman had said. somehow the machine had done precisely that, translating the blonde's spoken words into the real, emotional meaning behind them. it was a terrifying gadget. bertha was hypnotized by its potential horror--like the brutal, devastating truth spoken by a child. a camper walked past on the road, waving at miss kent and calling out a cheerful good morning. but again the machine read the real meaning behind the pleasant words. "so you've finally lost your man, miss kent. the way you dished out the orders, it's a wonder he stayed around as long as he did. and a pity: you're an attractive woman. you should make some man a good wife." they all thought that. the whole camp had been watching her, laughing at her. bertha felt helpless and alone. she needed--wanted--someone else; it surprised her when she faced that fact. then it dawned on her: the camper was right; the blonde was right. she had lost walt through her own ridiculous bull-headedness. in order to assert herself. to be an individualist, she had always thought. and what did that matter, if it imposed this crushing loneliness? for a moment a kind of madness seized her. it was the diabolical machine that was tormenting her, not the truth it told. she snatched a piece of her broken food box and struck at the plastic case blindly. there was a splash of fire; the gadget broke. she saw walt look up from his stove. she saw him move toward her. but she stood paralyzed by a shattering trauma of pain. the voice still came from the speaker, and this time it was her own. her mind was stripped naked; she saw herself whole, unsheltered by the protective veneer of rationalization. and she knew the pattern of the dream-man she had loved since her childhood; she knew why the dream had been self-defeating. for the idealization was her own father. that impossible paragon created by the worship of a child. the shock was its own cure. she was too well-balanced to accept the tempting escape of total disorientation. grimly she fought back the tide of madness, and in that moment she found maturity. she ran toward walt, tears of gratitude in her eyes. she felt his arms around her, and she clung to him desperately. "i was terrified; i needed you, walt; i never want to be alone again." "needed me?" he repeated doubtfully. "i love you." after a split-second's hesitation, she felt his lips warm on hers. from the corner of her eye she saw a chute dart out of nowhere and scoop up the broken plastic box from the camp table. they both vanished again. that was a miracle, too, she supposed; but not nearly as important as hers. then the reason of a logical mind asserted its own form of realism: of course, none of it had happened. the mind-reading gadget had been a device created in her own subconscious, a psychological trick to by-pass the dream that had held her imprisoned. she knew enough psychology to understand that. she ran her fingers through walt's dark hair and repeated softly, "i love you, walt gordon." * * * * * was it an illusion? i believe that, bill, because later on, when i thought of using the grapple, i brought the semantic-translator back from nowhere. apparently the smaller gadget had been in the console or behind it. i hadn't seen it when i searched, because my eyes had been hurt by the glare of light. in the process the translator somehow got twisted around, for the chute dragged it back vertically through the coil of wire. it touched the wall of the cylinder, and the whole machine exploded. it was impossible to save anything from the wreckage. but as a physicist i assure you, bill, the transposition of matter into light is, in terms of our present science, a physical impossibility. it is certainly not the sort of invention that could have been produced by a senile old man, pottering around in a home laboratory. the only thing i regret is that i had no opportunity to examine the semantic-translator, but i'm sure it would have proved just as much nonsense. i'm going up to yosemite tomorrow for a couple of weeks. if you want any further details on the price inventory, look me up at the office when i come home. yours, walt gordon how to succeed as an inventor "one way to measure your success is by the earnestness with which your competitors lie about you."--_poor richard, jr.'s, almanac._ [illustration: united states patent office, washington, d.c.] how to succeed as an inventor showing the wonderful possibilities in the field of invention; the dangers to be avoided; the inventions needed; how to perfect and develop new ideas to the money making stage by goodwin b. smith registered attorney, united states patent office, and officially connected with a number of industrial enterprises founded on united states patents philadelphia, u.s.a. inventors and investors corporation copyright, , by goodwin b. smith. all rights reserved. table of contents page. chapter i. looking forward chapter ii. looking backward chapter iii. patents the greatest source of wealth chapter iv. successful inventors chapter v. field of invention chapter vi. growth of the field of invention chapter vii. necessary steps chapter viii. sounding the market chapter ix. practical development chapter x. lower cost--superior merit chapter xi. application for patents, etc. picture of u.s. patent office. chapter xii. marketing chapter xiii. discouragements and dangers chapter xiv. selling patents chapter xv. conclusion chapter xvi. statistics of the countries of the world chapter xvii. mechanical movements and explanation thereof man's value to society failure is want of knowledge; success is knowing how. wealth is not in things of iron, wood and stone. wealth is the brain that organizes the metal. pig iron is worth $ per ton; made into horse shoes, $ ; into knife blades, $ ; into watch springs, $ ; that is, raw iron, $ , brain power, $ .--newell dwight hillis. dedicated to the grand army of american inventors "how to succeed as an inventor" preface the author of this book, after a number of years' experience in patent causes, is constrained to enter a strong protest against the enormous waste and loss attendant on methods at present pursued in regard to patents. this loss and waste is largely due to a lack of business knowledge necessary to properly market and develop inventions. history shows that enormous profits can be earned from good, strong patents. a careful perusal of the following pages will point out some of the dangers to be avoided and the safe and reasonable course to be pursued. invention is a matter that requires the deepest study, and should be approached, not in a haphazard, hit-or-miss fashion, but rather in a receptive, studious, analytical manner. while the average individual is fond of giving advice, no one enjoys accepting it. there is no one, however, who so needs competent, unprejudiced advice as the inventor. a genius is more or less prejudiced in certain directions, and it has been found that the prejudice oftentimes runs against the acceptance of well-intentioned criticism. "our judgment is like our watches,--none go just alike, but each believes his own." it is to be hoped that this volume will be the means of saving, as well as earning, money for the hosts of deserving american geniuses. philadelphia, march, . the author. chapter i. looking forward "patience and the investment of time and labor for future results are essential factors in every inventor's success." the field of invention is closed to no one. the studious mechanic may design and improve on the machine he operates. the day laborer, if dissatisfied with his lot, may devise means for lessening the toil of his class, and largely increase his earning capacity. the busy housewife, not content with the drudgery incident to her household cares, may devise a means or article which will lighten her task, and prove a blessing to her sisters. the plodding clerk, without an iota of mechanical knowledge, may perfect a system or an office appliance which will prove of vast benefit to himself and his fellows. the scientist may discover new forces and make new applications of old principles which will make the world marvel,--and so on through the whole category of crafts, occupations and professions. if one of the old kings of israel, centuries ago, voiced the sentiment that there was nothing new under the sun, do we not possess, at the present time, a similar mental attitude, and are we not apt to say with him that there appears to be "nothing new under the sun"? civilization begets new needs and wants; opportunities for new invention are multiplying at a tremendous rate. in other words, where an inventor, two centuries ago, would have had one hundred chances to "make good," today the chances are multiplied many thousand-fold. no avenue of business can open up the possibilities of such enormous honors and fabulous money returns as a _real_ invention which is in universal demand. the discoveries of the past form a record which is not only glorious, but points the man of genius of today in an unswerving manner to the possibilities which the future holds, and which are vastly greater than anything which has gone before. each age finds the people convinced that human ingenuity has reached the summit of achievement, but the future will find forces, mechanical principles and combinations which will excite wonder, and prove to be of incalculable benefit to mankind. our old friend darius green and his flying machine, that we heard about when we were children, was not as great a fool as he was imputed to be. witness at the present time the marvelous results attained by inventors with air ships. we are proud of wilbur and orville wright, who at this writing have just broken all records for aeroplanes, or "machines heavier than air." it seems that in five or ten years from now the navigation of the air will be a problem perfectly solved. (since writing the above, on thursday, september th, orville wright, at fort myer, va., met with an accident to his machine, which resulted in the death of lieutenant selfridge, of the u.s. army, and severe injuries to the inventor. the accident is said to have been due to the breaking of one of the propellers.) when you think that the first locomotives that were invented were considered wonders if they made a speed of eight to ten miles per hour, the chances are that within the next few years we will have airships going through space at incredible rates of speed. we might also, at this time, refer to the experiments of count zeppelin and santos-dumont, and the american, professor baldwin, in "dirigible balloons." this type of airships will undoubtedly be superseded by the "aeroplane," or the "helicopter." the principal inventors in this line are henry farman, the french inventor, and delagrange, the german. wright brothers hold the world's record, at this time. little did murdock (who erected, in , while an engineer in cornwall, england, a little gasometer which produced gas enough to light his house and office) think that in the year no house would be considered as modern unless it was fully equipped with the gas for lighting and heating which he discovered and brought to practical use. it is also said that "while murdock resided in cornwall he made gas from every substance he could think of, and had bladders filled with it, with which, and his little steam carriage running on the road, he used to astonish the people." no one is astonished at "little steam carriages," or, in other words, automobiles, nowadays, one hundred and sixteen years later. our grandparents, when they were young people, imagined that they were living in the "golden age," and yet we today would consider their lack of what we nowadays consider positive necessities a mighty primitive and inconvenient manner in which to live. when the "wisest man," centuries ago, is chronicled as saying, "there is nothing new under the sun," they lived in tents, rode camels, fought with bows and arrows, sling shots and battering rams! while the tower of babel was possibly the first "skyscraper," it did not contain express elevators, hot and cold water, telephones, call boxes, yale locks, granolithic floors, fire escapes, transom lifts, automatic sprinklers, stationary wash stands, water closets, steam or hot water heat, electric and gas lights, push buttons, sash weights, and so on ad infinitum. so you can readily appreciate the marvelous strides the human race is making in the way of material development, and all, or nearly all of which has been due to the fertile brain and nimble wit of the inventors! who will have the temerity to say when and where this development will stop, when solomon, centuries ago, thought they had reached the limit? what will be the next wonderful invention? for instance, the perfected telephote? you, by stepping into a cabinet in philadelphia, could have your photograph taken and shown in boston, all by and through an electric wire! the telephote may transmit light and color as the telephone does sound; why not a combination of the two, so you can see your friend perfectly when you talk to him on the 'phone? our grandparents thought they were as comfortable as possible, and they were, because they did not know any better. do we know better? one hundred years from now, possibly, _our_ great, great-grandchildren will consider us as having lived in the "stone age." the field of invention has no bars up,--you, all of us, are free to enter. "the important thing in life is to have a great aim, and to possess the aptitude and perseverance to attain it." chapter ii. looking backward "intelligent study and the application of unremitting effort to a definite purpose are the factors that overcome obstacles." here follows a list of the principal inventions chronologically arranged, with the names and nationalities of their inventors. year. name of invention. name of inventor. nationality. spirally grooved rifle barrel blaew german. barometer torricelli italian. discovery of electrical phenomena william gilbert english. steam engine thos. newcomen english. steam engine with piston denis papin french. first practical application of steam engine thos. savory english. thermometer fahrenheit danzig. franklin printing press benj. franklin u.s. stereotyping william ged scotch. weaving flying shuttle john kay english. leyden jar kleist german. lightning conductor benj. franklin u.s. spinning jenny jos. hargreaves english. piano england. cut nails jere. wilkinson u.s. circular wood saw miller english. steam engine jas. watt scotch. balloon inflated with gas montgolfier french. puddling iron henry cort english. cast iron plow jas. small scotch. steamboat john fitch u.s. steam road wagon, first automobile oliver evans u.s. threshing machine and. meikle english. wood planer sam'l bentham english. cotton gin eli whitney u.s. electric battery volta italian. fire-proof safe richard scott english. steel pen wise english. malleable iron castings lucas english. band wood saw newberry english. first sea-going steamboat john stephens u.s. revolving cylinder printing press fred'k koenig german. breech-loading shot gun thornton & hall u.s. first locomotive, u.s geo. stephenson english. miner safety lamp sir humphry davy english. gas meter clegg english. discovery of water gas ibbetson english. portland cement aspdim english. friction matches john walker u.s. hot blast for iron furnaces neilson scotch. washington printing press sam'l rust u.s. chloroform guthrie scotch. electric telegraph prof. morse u.s. rotary electric motor sturgeon english. "old iron sides" locomotive baldwin u.s. steam whistle geo. stephenson english. reaper cyrus h. mccormick u.s. carbolic acid runge german. horse-shoe machine burden u.s. acetylene gas davy english. revolver sam'l colt u.s. screw propeller for steam navigation john erickson u.s. galvanizing iron craufurd english. babbitt metal isaac babbit u.s. vulcanizing rubber goodyear u.s. daguerreotype louis daguerre french. artesian wells french. automatic piano seytre french. first telegram sent prof. morse u.s. double cylinder printing press richard hoe u.s. pneumatic tire thompson english. sewing machine elias howe u.s. ether as an anaesthetic dr. morton u.s. nitroglycerine sobrero improved hoe printing press richard hoe u.s. steam pressure gauge bourdon french. corliss engine george h. corliss u.s. mercerized cotton john mercer english. breech-loading rifle maynard u.s. ice-making machine gorrie u.s. telegraph fire alarm channing & farmer u.s. diamond rock drill herman u.s. revolver smith & wesson u.s. cocaine gaedeke german. bessemer steel sir henry bessemer english. bicycle michaux french. sleeping car woodruff u.s. cable car gardner u.s. first atlantic cable cyrus field u.s. "great eastern" launched u.s. passenger elevator e. g. otis u.s. barbed wire fence u.s. gattling gun dr. r. j. gattling u.s. antiseptic surgery sir jos. lister english. open hearth steel process siemens-martin english. torpedoes whitehead u.s. typewriting machine c. l. sholes u.s. dynamite nobel french. oleomargarine mege french. sulky plow slusser u.s. spring tooth harrow garver u.s. celluloid hyatt u.s. automatic brake geo. westinghouse u.s. car coupler e. h. janney u.s. quadruplex telegraph thos. a. edison u.s. twine binder harvester gorham u.s. self-binding reaper loche & wood u.s. roller flour mills wegmann u.s. ice-making machine pictet switzerland. telephone dr. alex. graham bell u.s. phonograph thos. a. edison u.s. gas engine n. a. otto u.s. telephone transmitter emile berliner u.s. carbon filament for electric lamps thos. a. edison u.s. rotary disc cultivator mallon u.s. telephone transmitter blake u.s. hammerless gun greener u.s. typhoid bacillus robert koch german. pneumonia bacillus sternberg u.s. buttonhole machine reece u.s. tuberculosis bacillus robert koch german. hydrophobia bacillus louis pasteur french. cholera bacillus robert koch german. diphtheria bacillus loefler german. lockjaw bacillus nicolaier french. antipyrene kuno u.s. linotype machine ottmar mergenthaler u.s. first electric street railway in the u.s. baltimore, md. overhead electric trolley van depole u.s. graphophone bell & tainter u.s. cyanide process mcarthur & forest u.s. incandescent gas light carl welsbach german. harveyized armor plate harvey u.s. kodak snapshot camera eastman & walker u.s. bicycles equipped with pneumatic tires u.s. magazine rifle krag-jorgensen u.s. rotary steam turbine parsons english. kinetoscope thos. a. edison u.s. carborundum e. g. acheson u.s. calcium carbide electrically produced thos. l. wilson u.s. liquifying air carl linde german. x-rays prof. roentgen german. acetylene gas from calcium carbide thos. l. wilson u.s. wireless telegraphy g. marconi italian. finsen rays finsen danish. non-whittling lead pencil f. h. lippincott u.s. mercury vapor electric light peter cooper hewitt u.s. airship m. santos-dumont french. automobile mower deering harvester co. u.s. from the encyclopedia americana. "there are no elevators in the house of success."--silent partner. * * * * * since the above list (taken from the encyclopedia americana) was published, there have been a large number of very important inventions brought out. in professor and madam curie, of paris, discovered radium. this remarkable substance is extracted from pitch-blende. it is said to require the reduction of about five thousand tons of the blende to produce one pound of radium. the cost of one pound of radium is variously estimated at from one to three millions of dollars. radium overturns all the laws of chemistry and physics. scientists state that if a method of producing it cheaply is ever discovered it will create the greatest revolution in industrial circles. one pound of radium is said to be capable of lighting an enormous area for one billion years without reducing its size or substance by one thousandth part. in other words, it exerts abnormal energy without any appreciable loss. in , january, peter cooper hewitt, of new york city, announced the invention by him of his mercury vapor tube electric light. this light is red-less,--gives off all colors except red. it is in present use in many large establishments. it is practically indestructible, and gives eight times as much light with the same amount of electricity as other lights. mr. hewitt is a wealthy man, having inherited money. he comes of the famous new york hewitt family, whose members have been in the forefront of progress. mr. hewitt also invented the "hewitt electrical converter" and the "hewitt electrical interrupter," both inventions of unusual merit. in , january th, guglielmo marconi sent a wireless message from cape cod, mass., to cornwall, england, a distance of miles. such a thing, a few years ago, would have been considered absolutely impossible,--unbelievable,--a wild flight of the imagination. marconi's achievement was accomplished only after the most prolonged experimentation and many disappointments. in , september th, hudson maxim filed an application for a patent on an electrical invention for the prolongation of human life. in , professor alexander graham bell and professor emile berliner, famous inventors in telephones, are working on new styles of flying machines. with these experts in the field, aerial navigation will, no doubt, shortly be a problem completely solved. notes. in b.c., hero, of alexandria, gives an account of an ingenious steam toy. * * * * * in , one blasco de garay is said to have shown in the harbor of barcelona, spain, a vessel of two hundred tons' burden, moved by a paddle wheel driven by steam power. * * * * * in edward somerset, the ingenious marquis of worcester, contrived the first steam engine. * * * * * in , when benjamin franklin invented the "franklin stove," or as it is sometimes called, the "pennsylvania fireplace," he refused to accept a patent on it, saying, "we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, so we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by an invention of ours." an unscrupulous london manufacturer made some light changes in franklin's stove, we are sorry to state, got a patent on it, and made a fortune from its sale. * * * * * an invention of the greatest utility was that brought out in by william symington, a young englishman, for a method of converting the reciprocating motion of an engine into the rotary. * * * * * about , claude chappe, a frenchman, while at school at angers, contrived an apparatus consisting of a post bearing a revolving beam and circulatory arms with which he conveyed signals to three of his brothers who were at another school about half-a-league distant, who read the signals with a telescope. in the french legislature voted chappe francs ($ ) to enable him to make experiments in paris. this invention of chappe was called the "semaphore telegraph." of course, misty or foggy weather would preclude the use of this signalling device. during the war between england and france an amusing incident is related of the use of the "semaphore telegraph." the admiral at plymouth started a "wigwag message" to whitehall, but was able to forward only part of the message, a thick fog gathering over a portion of the line and interrupting the message. the first part of the message was "wellington defeated," which caused great distress and anxiety in london. the remainder of the message, "the french at salamanca," received next day, changed the metropolitan sorrow into gladness. * * * * * about the year , signor galvani, a professor of anatomy at bologna, discovered the principle of galvanic electricity. this was brought about in a very peculiar way. mrs. galvani was ill, and her physician prescribed some frog broth. accordingly, frogs were procured, skinned, washed and laid on a table in the professor's laboratory, which seemed to serve a double purpose of a room for scientific and culinary operations. one of the professor's assistants was engaged in experimenting with a large electric machine which stood upon the same table, and had occasion to draw sparks from the machine. the wife of galvani, who was present, was surprised to observe that every time he did so the limbs of the frogs moved as if alive. she immediately communicated this strange incident to her husband, who repeated the experiments with, of course, the same result. from this experiment was later developed the so-called zinc and copper wet jars used in the art. * * * * * in , robert fulton, who was of irish descent, made his famous trip in his steamboat, the "clermont," from new york to albany, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, in thirty-two hours, and returned in thirty hours, averaging about five miles per hour. many stories are told of the consternation the "clermont" excited in those who saw her for the first time. people who had seen her passing at night described her as "a monster moving on the waters, defying wind and tide, and breathing flames and smoke." the steamboats, at that time, used pine wood for fuel, which sent columns of ignited vapor many feet above the stack, and whenever the fire was stirred enormous showers of sparks would fly off, which in the night produced a very brilliant and beautiful effect. sailors and seamen on vessels that had never seen a steamboat were scared speechless, and in many cases prostrated themselves, and besought providence to protect them from the approaches of the horrible monster which they saw. * * * * * in thomas d. edmundson, a station agent on the new castle and carlisle line, in england, invented the first railroad ticket. the inventor for several years devoted himself entirely to the ticket industry, and by degrees a business arose which became one of the largest in the world. * * * * * in the government issued the first postage stamps. * * * * * george stephenson died in at the age of , a wealthy man, beloved and honored by all. statues of him were erected at liverpool, london and newcastle. in rome, italy, a tablet bears this inscription: "in this rome, from whence wondrous roads proceed to the empire of the world, the employees of the roman railways, on the th of june, , worthily commemorated the centenary of george stephenson, who opened still more wondrous roads to the brotherhood of the nations, and whose virtues, inspiring to great works, have left an undying example." during an examination before a parliamentary committee george stephenson was asked, "suppose, now, one of your engines to be going at the rate of nine or ten miles an hour, and that a cow were to stray upon the line, and get in the way of the engine, would not that be a very awkward circumstance?" stephenson replied, "yes, very awkward for the cow." in the course of the same examination he was asked, "but would not men and animals become frightened by the red hot smoke pipe?" to which question stephenson replied, "but how would they know that it was not painted?" these extracts indicate some of the difficulties inventors had to contend with. * * * * * in two hours after bell filed his patent for his telephone, elisha gray, of boston, filed an application for a similar device. bell won, and has been awarded great honors for his invention. it was at first referred to as a "scientific toy." it is now a necessity. * * * * * in marthelemay themonier, a frenchman, was mobbed for building a sewing machine, by laborers who thought his machines contrary to their interests. "victory belongs to the most persevering."--napoleon. "success is the child of audacity."--beaconsfield. by-products many men mistake obstinacy for perseverance. * * * * * anybody can slide down hill, but it takes good legs and good wind to go up. * * * * * a third of our lives is spent in bed--that's why we ought to hustle the other two-thirds. * * * * * waste is criminal. the old proverb says, "waste not, want not." and it is true. * * * * * anybody may drink at the fountain of knowledge, but you've got to bring your own cup. * * * * * the farther you look back into the history of industry and invention, the more you will be impressed with the fact that almost everything has improved as our ability to produce it has increased. * * * * * wireless telegraphy would never have come about had not the other kind preceded, and it is impossible to imagine the phonograph's being ahead of the telephone. * * * * * without illuminating gas and gasoline, welsbach lights would never have been thought of or possible. * * * * * we would have no electric lights without the dynamo, and no dynamo if wire-drawing had not first been perfected. * * * * * so it goes--everything is dependent on factors that have preceded and any achievement of today is the result of thousands of years of previous effort and thought. * * * * * and the knowledge that we are adding to the world's store today is but the foundation for further advance by men to come. * * * * * as long as we don't know everything there will be things we cannot explain and these things will be called chance. into the life of every human being there enter these inexplicable occurrences. silent partner. chapter iii. patents the greatest source of wealth "upon what meat does this, our caesar, feed, that he has grown so great?"--shakespeare. the sources of wealth. _the diagram below shows very } _the cry nowadays is that clearly the rich men of the world, } there are no chances for and the source of their wealth_: } accumulating wealth as did } these people--in some ways } this is right._ } } _three of the avenues to } wealth are pretty well closed: } taking each up in turn we find_ st. natural wealth. } } secured by mining, drilling and } first. digging. examples: } john d. rockefeller, } mines and oil wells are becoming henry h. rogers, } scarcer every year, and there barney barnato, } are few which remain undiscovered. and many others. } nd. real estate. } } advances in value as by buying } second. lots in a growing city and taking } advantage of its growth. examples: } real estate takes an inside hetty green, } knowledge of conditions, which the vanderbilts, } none but men who give the russell sage, } subject deep study can hope to and many others. } acquire. rd. transportation. } } steam railways, electric railways, } third. and steamboat lines. examples: } the goulds, } transportation requires thomas j. ryan, } big capital, and the small e. h. harriman. } investor on the "outside" has } no chance whatsoever. th. patents. } } inventions on articles in use in } fourth. the manufactures, the arts, the } home. examples: } patents are to-day the carnegie, edison, } greatest source of wealth. schwab, maxim, } krupp, westinghouse, } "genius, that power which pullman, bell, } dazzles mortal eyes, welsbach, singer, } is oft but perseverance in hewitt, mccormick, } disguise." acheson, colt, } marconi, bessemer, } and thousands of others. } chapter iv. successful inventors "lives of great men all remind us, we can make our lives sublime, and departing, leave behind us, footprints on the sands of time."--longfellow. the long list of famous patentees with their inventions which a previous chapter contains is an eloquent testimonial to the fact that fame, fortune and an undying place in history will be given to anyone fortunate enough to conceive and work out a new idea which inures to the benefit of mankind. while these famous inventors have been devising and exploiting inventions of wide scope and large calibre there have been an army of small inventors which should be equally as famous and whose inventions will, probably, on the average, return larger proportionate profits to their owners than have a great many of the prominent ones already listed. the writer has in mind small inventions, such as, for instance, mrs. pott's sad iron; the de long hook and eye; the gillette safety razor; enterprise meat chopper; junoform bust form; push-point pencil; bromo seltzer; morrow coaster brake; brass tips for boys' shoes; mennen's talcum powder; rubber tips for lead pencils; bundy time clock; president suspenders; pianola; castoria; angelus; o'sullivan's rubber heel; macey's sectional bookcases; red dwarf ink pencil; washing machine; tyden table lock, and the thousands of similar small inventions, practically all of which are bringing or have brought enormous fortunes to their owners and developers. king c. gillette has become a wealthy man from the royalties and profits on his safety razor. while safety razors had been on the market for years, it took gillette to bring out a better one, patent it, and make his fortune. the inventor of the president suspender is said to have collected over fifty thousand dollars last year in royalties on the sales of over two hundred thousand dozen pairs of his suspenders. miss wolfe, the inventor of the junoform bust form, it was remarked recently, would attain wealth from her royalties. mrs. potts is reputed to have collected over half a million dollars from royalties from the patents on her sad iron. it is also said that the selden gas engine royalties exceed ten million dollars in amount. it is stated that mccormick, the inventor of a cream separator, has an annual income from his patents of over thirty thousand dollars. it is said that the inventor of the new-style "pay-as-you-enter" street car will receive a large royalty on every car of that style used in the united states. they are at present coming into use on the metropolitan street car lines. everybody is familiar with the enormous fortune made by pullman with his palace car patents. notes. it is related that when george westinghouse called on commodore vanderbilt to endeavor to interest him in his air-brake, vanderbilt said to him: "do you mean to tell me that you can stop a train of cars by wind?" and when informed that in effect that was what was contemplated, remarked that he had no time for fools. sometime afterward when, through the support of andrew carnegie and several others, a successful test of the brake had been made, westinghouse had the satisfaction, according to the story, of replying to vanderbilt's request for a conference, "i have no time to waste on fools." * * * * * ottmar mergenthaler worked twenty years on the development of his linotype machine, and ten years thereafter in perfecting it. the mergenthaler linotype company has paid out twenty millions of dollars in dividends in fourteen years. the romance of the invention of the linotype brings out in glaring letters persistence, as edward mott woolley states in "system," of september, , in an article describing the development of the linotype machine. * * * * * it is related of oscar hammerstein, the well-known theatrical proprietor, that when he was fifteen years old he landed from a steamer at the battery in new york, after running away from his german home. he was without money or friends, or any place to go. he got a job in a cigar factory at $ . per week. making cigars by hand seemed to him a poor way of doing it, so he began experimenting on his own account, and four years later he had a machine to do the work. he sold this machine for $ , cash, and immediately started on a new one, which in place of selling outright he had manufactured on a royalty basis. it is said that he has received over $ , in cash from his royalties. yet today hammerstein is not known by his inventions, but by the big theatrical enterprises which have earned or lost other fortunes for him at various times. * * * * * in the struggle of charles goodyear to manufacture a rubber compound that should fulfil mercantile needs is presented a striking, if rather familiar example of what eternal persistence will finally accomplish, and of how it may be assisted by what we call "luck." when he was twenty-one goodyear entered a rubber house in philadelphia and began experimenting in india rubber. by chance one day a little rubber mixed with sulphur fell on a stove, and he at once realized what might be accomplished by what is now known as vulcanization. to carry on his experiments he was required to pawn the school-books of his children to raise money. however, he kept everlastingly at it, and was rewarded with a number of international prizes and decorated by several foreign rulers. his name has gone down to fame as one of the successful inventors of the world. the goodyear rubber company bears his name. * * * * * the public today is familiar with the record of thomas a. edison, who is considered the greatest inventor the world has ever known. the new book which has recently come out, "the life of thomas a. edison," is well worth purchasing and reading. the public press reported he had won his infringement suits and that the "moving picture" trust or combination agreed to pay him royalties running into a sum of seven figures. * * * * * george ade, the "funny man," is independent financially from the royalties paid him on his copyrights. * * * * * the story of the de long hook and eye company is the history of an infinitesimal start with an enormous present size. * * * * * sir henry bessemer is said to have been paid $ , , in royalties on his steel process. * * * * * emerson, a baltimore druggist, made a number of fortunes from his invention of bromo-seltzer. likewise mennen, of talcum powder fame, whose face and name are known all over the world. * * * * * landis, a franklin county (pa.) man, sold his "straw stacker" patents, it is said, for $ , cash,--practically all profit. * * * * * this list, if complete, would fill volumes, but it would be a story with the same ending in each and every case. * * * * * a careful study of the reason why all the above patents have proved to be so successful emphasizes the fact that inventors, to succeed, _must not lose sight of the six cardinal tests enumerated elsewhere in this volume_. [illustration: press and pen remind us of inventions that have brought fame and wealth] chapter v. field of invention "if a man can write a better book, preach a better sermon, or make a better mouse-trap than his neighbor, though he build his house in the woods, the world will make a beaten pathway to his door."--emerson. inventions, to possess commercial merit, must supersede in utility similar devices already on the market. they must also possess capacity for production at lower cost, as well as having conspicuously superior merit. the field of invention is a broad one, and embraces any new electrical appliances, engineering devices, improvements in steam navigation, agricultural implements, railways, household novelties, novelties in hardware and tools, pencils and toys, vehicles, furniture, toilet articles, wearing apparel, office appliances and devices. inventions and improvements needed. electrical. a simple, cheap and powerful electric motor; electrical motors adapted to use of either direct or alternating current; improvements in the filaments of incandescent bulbs, something along the lines of the new tungsten filaments; new, cheap substitute for gutta-percha for insulating; simple method of generating ozone for medical and disinfecting purposes; method for generating electricity direct from coal without the incidental production of light and heat; a new, indestructible incandescent lamp filament; a new style of incandescent lamp that will give more light and use less current; a simple means for preventing the blowing out of fuses, and yet preventing the overloading of the motors; method of extracting electricity from the earth. (note: a number of experiments have been carried out along this line with partial success.) a method of storing electricity generated during a severe electrical storm. (note: this is not considered practicable by electrical engineers, although it is possible that someone may hit on a way of accomplishing it.) a simple, light accumulator for storing electricity. chemical. a substitute for paper pulp; strong, tough, thin, flexible paper; substitute for glass in eye-glasses, telescopes, opera glasses, and other optical lenses; a cheap, artificial substitute for indigo; method for deodorizing petroleum, gasoline, naphtha and similar volatile oils without changing their quality; method of deodorizing asphalt; method of deodorizing paint; method of increasing the life and durableness of soft rubber; simple means for preserving butter; new shoe blacking free from sulphuric and acetic acids; cheap substitute for matches; method of removing nicotine from tobacco; method of utilizing vulcanized rubber scrap; substitute for leather; method for producing artificial mica in large sheets; artificial flavors of tea and coffee, similar to the commercial artificial extract of vanilla; cheap method of producing sugar from starch; method of producing pure carbon; substitute for celluloid; substitute for asphalt; method for producing flexible glass. mining and metallurgy. first and foremost is the method of hardening and tempering copper; cheap method for extracting gold from brick clay, ore, sand, etc.; cheap method for procuring iron direct from ore without the intervention of the blast furnace; method for producing malleable pig iron; cheap method of producing high-speed steels for tools and the like; machine to separate slate from anthracite and bituminous coal. (note: it should be some process not requiring water settling-tanks.) process for casting copper without blow holes; solder for cast iron; cheap method for recovering tin from old tin cans and the like. railways and military. note.--it has been found extremely hard to introduce railway patents. we would, therefore, most earnestly advise our american inventors not to spend any time and money on inventions such as car couplers, steel railway ties, block signals, and the like. in this class we would suggest so-called "small-inventions." efficient air gun as a weapon; improvements in army tents; improvements in dirigible balloons and aeroplanes for military uses.* (*note: this is a big undertaking, and we would not advise any of our clients to enter it.) machinery, tools, steam engines, etc. simple means of adjusting ball bearings; attachment for lathes, such as taper cutting devices, grinding attachments; attachments for planers for producing curved surfaces; attachment for drill press for radial boring; new and improved tools of all kinds and descriptions; simple and cheap bone crusher; simple and cheap bone cleaner; simple and cheap casting machine for small foundries; simple and cheap molding machine for small foundries; machine for casting under pressure; substitute for fly wheels on engines; efficient safety stopping devices for engines; substitute for governor; cheap and efficient denatured alcohol motor; substitute for belts and pulleys; simple, cheap and efficient anti-friction bearings; machine for automatically sewing buttons on clothing; tool for cutting ice without waste; cheap music turner. recording and vending machines, office appliances, etc. simple, cheap and efficient cash register; cash register that will throw out false coins; machine for vending newspapers; electrically driven typewriter; cheap substitute for fountain pen; cheap substitute for lead pencil; indestructible writing pen; reliable gas meter; reservoir lettering brush. lighting, heating and ventilating--building construction. indestructible gas mantel for welsbach lights; method of simultaneously lighting all the burners in a room, or house; automatic valve closing device for shutting off gas when not ignited; brick-laying machine; method of glazing without the use of putty; window sash that will not bind or stick in the frame; substitute for sash weights; substitute for spring shade rollers; substitute for carpet nails; new, cheap, springless lock; substitute for hinges on doors; cheap, efficient door check and buffer. auto vehicles. durable and unpuncturable tires; cheap and efficient power meter; cheap and efficient dust preventer; improvements in all the details of automobile and vehicular construction; substitute for motor wheels. miscellaneous. _textile_: substitute for horse hair; substitute for broom fibre; substitute for asbestos; substitute for silk; method of coating cheap fibres with silk; method of spinning asbestos; substitute for an umbrella; one-piece covering for umbrellas, etc., etc. _printing_: method for multi-color printing with but one impression; method for printing sheet metals; substitute for printing blocks.* (*note: must be light in weight, and non-inflammable.) substitute for lithographic stone; a firm, black, copying, printing ink; method for photographing in colors. _agricultural_. machine for harvesting sugar cane; substitute for cotton bale tie; method or machine for exterminating caterpillars; method or machine for exterminating mosquitoes; improvements or new devices for use of farmers, agriculturalists, truckmen, florists, and similar vocations; method or machine for annihilating flies. general. substitute for rubber fire hose; method for profitable utilization of saw dust; substitute for hair pin, or one that will not fall out; envelope that cannot be opened. what not to invent. non-refillable bottles. nut locks. metal railway ties. railroad rail joints. patent medicines. car couplers. hooks and eyes. safety pins. hair curlers. washing compounds. trolley pole catchers. bending machines, unless absolutely new idea, and style. adding machines, unless absolutely new idea and style. present style typewriters. turbine engines, unless absolutely new idea, and style. submarine boats. our reason for advising inventors to stay away from the above classes is on account of the fact of the killing competition in these classes, and the additional fact that the field is absolutely overcrowded. the attorneys that have applied for the hosts of patents for inventors in these lines have "rung all possible changes" in their claims for patents into which it is possible to twist and turn the english language. wants fulfilled. in a publication on patents published about fifteen years ago, the following articles were asked for, which have since been invented, and which are making their inventors money: cheap ice machine. denaturated alcohol. cheap calcium carbide. method of preserving milk. (note the organization of the "white cross milk companies" in the cities of philadelphia, boston, new york, baltimore and washington, at this writing. milk prepared by this process is said to keep for several months, and will be absolutely free from germs and bacilli. it is a new process.) smokeless gun powder (now in almost general use). iron and steel railway ties. (they have been found mechanically impracticable and have been discarded by the pennsylvania railroad company.) safety device for rifles and revolvers. (everybody is familiar with the "hammer the hammer" advertisement.) milking machine. bread cutting machine. pocket cigar lighter. steam heating for trains. the above list will serve as an illustration of the fact that inventors are persistently supplying what the world needs in the way of new devices and machines. supply and demand. "where there's a will there's a way." do not imagine that anyone is lying awake at night waiting for your invention to come out, because they are not. all of us consider ourselves pretty comfortable, and we are not bothering much about any new inventions. another mistake inventors often make is that of endeavoring to make the public want their device. the proper thing to do is to invent something that the public already wants. in other words, "follow the lines of least resistance." there are many good things which are very ingenious, and perfectly novel and patentable, but which are in lines in which there would not be enough sale in ten years to pay the inventor the expense of getting out patents. yet plenty of such things are patented almost every week, in this country. "some time there could be but one customer,--say, the government, or some great corporation,--and there may be reasons which are obvious, and others not so plain on the surface, why you could not even make them a present of your invention." chapter vi. growth of the field of invention the following pages concisely show the marvelous growth of the field of invention from primitive man's three fundamental wants, namely, food, clothing and shelter, to the present-day countless necessities of twentieth century life. the same marvelous broadening of the field is found in all directions. the few illustrations given on the following pages will illustrate the point, and direct the thoughts of the student unerringly to the almost illimitable sphere of invention. chart partially illustrating the vast growth of the field of invention from primitive man's three fundamental needs to the present day essentials of civilization. ============================== =============================== planting } { construction cultivating } { materials harvesting } { decorating stock raising } { hardware slaughtering } +----------+ +-----------+ { furnishing marketing } | food | | shelter | { lighting hunting } +---+------+ +-------+---+ { medicine fishing } \ / { heating preparing } \ / { cleaning storing } \ / { defending amusements } | | | | food :::: then and now | | shelter : then and now b.c.--manna & roots | | b.c.--caves & tents -- -course dinner | | --skyscrapers | | +--+------------+-+ | the three | | wants of | | primitive man | +--+----------+---+ | \ / clothing : then and now | | transportation: b.c.--fig leaf | | then and now --directoire gown | | b.c.--camels & oxen | | --autos & | | flying machines | | | | { ships manufacturing } / \ { banking } / \ { shoes materials } +----+-----+ +------+----+ { railroads } | clothing | | transportation { vehicles marketing } +----------+ | | { autos } +-----------+ { mail jewelry, etc. } { subways & tubes { telegraph { telephone note: a further analysis of the above, together with the sub-division, "transportation", (a natural outgrowth of the three primary needs) will be found on the following pages. copyright by goodwin b. smith. food ~h~ scythes, ~a~ sickles, ~r~ rakes, reapers, ~v~ mowers, ~e~ binders, ~s~ threshers, ~t~ stackers, ~i~ loaders, ~n~ unloaders, ~g~ grain-elevators, etc. ~planting~ { garden tools, plows, harrows, { rollers, planters, seed drills, etc. { cultivators, sprinklers, ~cultivating~ { weeders, insect { destroyers, fertilizers, etc. ~stock raising~ { fences, harness, incubators, brooders, { milking machines, creameries, etc. ~m~ crates, boxes, ~a~ stores, scales, ~r~ packages, ~k~ delivery-systems, ~e~ office appliances, ~t~ stationery, ~i~ printing, ~n~ pens, pencils, ~g~ inks, rubbers, etc. ~slaughtering~ { conveyors, pens, grinders, stuffers, etc. ~hunting~ { bows and arrows, snares, traps, guns, bags, etc. ~fishing~ { nets, hooks, lines, boats, canneries, kits, etc. ~p~ cutlery, ~r~ stoves, ~e~ kettles, ~p~ broilers, ~a~ ovens, ~r~ condiments, ~i~ grinding, ~n~ distilling, ~g~ evaporating, etc. ~s~ elevators, ~t~ refrigerators, ~o~ canning, ~r~ curing, ~i~ drying, ~n~ pickling, ~g~ evaporating, etc. ~a~ ~m~ musical ~u~ instruments, ~s~ theatres, ~e~ parks, ~m~ cards, ~e~ games, ~n~ toys, ~t~ moving ~s~ pictures, etc. copyright , by goodwin b. smith. shelter ~c~ tools, engineering ~o~ excavating, ~n~ masonry, ~s~ wood-working, ~t~ elevating, ~r~ stone-cutting, ~u~ etc. ~c t i o n.~ ~f~ carpets, rugs, ~u~ fixtures, ~r~ furniture, ~n~ bedding, ~i~ china, ~s~ cutlery, ~h~ glass-ware, ~i~ periodicals, ~n~ books, ~g~ etc. ~hardware~ { builders, shelf, mill house, etc. ~cleaning~ { brooms, brushes sweepers, soaps, etc. ~d~ sling shots, bows ~e~ and arrows, guns, ~f~ revolvers, shot, ~e~ burglar alarms, armor, ~n~ military battle ships, ~d~ insurance: fire, life, ~i~ accident, burglary, ~n~ liability, etc. ~g~ explosives, air-ships, etc. ~m~ quarrying, ~a~ ~t~ cement, ~e~ ~r~ plaster, ~i~ ~a~ steel-structure, ~l~ ~s~ etc. { brasiers, stoves, furnaces, ~heating~ { hot air, hot water, steam, { vapor, electricity, etc. { paint, varnish, wall paper, ~decorating~ { molding, carving, { polishing, photography, etc. ~medicine~ { drugs, instruments, specifics, toxins, etc. ~lighting~ { lamps, burners, oil, gas, electricity, { acetylene, glass, etc. copyright , by goodwin b. smith. clothing ~m~ spinning, weaving, ~a~ bleaching, tanning, ~n~ curing, sorting, picking, ~u~ carding, shearing, ~f~ vulcanizing, mixing, ~a~ cutting, fitting, lining, ~c~ buttons, threads, ~t~ sewing machines, ~u~ etc. ~r i n g.~ ~m~ cotton, wool, linen. ~a~ leather, silk, straw, ~t~ fur, feathers, rubber, ~e~ felt, fibre, paper, ~r~ wood, pulp, etc. ~i a l s.~ ~j~ precious stones, rings, ~e~ chains, necklaces, ~w~ bracelets, pins, brooches, ~e~ pendants, watches, pocketbooks, ~l~ accessories, perfumeries, ~r~ cosmetics. ~y e t c.~ ~m~ advertising, department ~a~ stores, ~r~ adding machines, ~k~ cash registers, ~e~ etc. ~t i n g.~ copyright , by goodwin b. smith. transportation ~a~ horses, ~n~ camels, oxen, ~i~ mules, ~m~ llamas, ~a~ dogs, ~l~ burros, ~s~ elephants, etc. ~v~ sleds, chariots, ~e~ jinrikishas, carts, wagons, ~h~ sleighs, coaches, hearses, ~i~ coffins, carriages, cabs, ~c~ velocipedes, wheel-barrows, ~l~ trucks, cars, trams, ~e~ tricycles, ~s~ bicycles, etc. ~s~ sandals, snowshoes, ~h~ skates, roller-skates, ~o~ rubbers, boots, ~e~ gaiters, slippers, ~s~ motor skates, etc. ~r~ horse, steam, ~a~ cable, compressed, ~i~ air trolleys, ~l~ third-rail, elevated, ~r~ monorail, alcohol, ~o~ motors, gasoline ~a~ motors, electric ~d~ ~s~ motors, etc. ~s~ rail, steam propeller, ~h~ turbine, submarine, ~i~ balloons, dirigibles, ~p~ aeroplanes, ~s~ helicopters, etc. { poles, exchanges, ~telephone~ { directories, phonographs, { graphophones, etc. { wiring, insulation, batteries, ~telegraph~ { poles, conduits, semaphore, { stock tickers, switchboards, etc. ~a~ steam, gasoline, ~u~ alcohol, ~t~ electric, ~o~ elevators, ~s~ moving stairways, etc. ~m~ envelopes, stationery, ~a~ postage, expressage, ~i~ pneumatic mail boxes, ~l~ letter boxes, etc. ~subways and { reinforced concrete, tubes~ { air-locks, etc. ~banking~ { species, banknotes, vaults, { and safes, checks, etc. copyright , by goodwin b. smith. chapter vii. necessary steps "in any business, it is to-day's unknown facts that wreck the machine tomorrow. therefore, find out the facts." almost all inventors show an unusually needless amount of haste in rushing off to an attorney and applying for a patent, even before they have given their idea any practical demonstration whatsoever. this is, in the opinion of the writer, all wrong, and is not the most practical way to proceed. the application for patent, and filing of carefully drawn specification and claims, is, of course, highly important and necessary, but it should not be undertaken until after the most searching, practical tests of the invention, as well as the most careful investigation as to the _public demand_ for your idea, as it is from the latter source that profits will come. the care with which your specification is written, and the claims drawn, will regulate the strength of your protection against infringers. don't forget that the red seal and blue ribbon on a worthless patent are just as red and blue as they are on a high-grade, "suit-proof," one that has stood the tests of the courts from bottom to the top. what the united states supreme court says. "the specification and claims of a patent, particularly if the invention be at all complicated, constitute one of the most difficult legal instruments to draw with accuracy, and in view of the fact that valuable inventions are often placed in the hands of inexperienced persons to prepare such specification and claims, it is no matter of surprise that the latter frequently fail to describe with requisite certainty the exact invention of the patentee, and err either in claiming that which the patentee had not in fact patented, or in omitting some element which was a valuable or essential part of his actual invention." topliff vs. topliff, u.s. . the highest court of the land thus puts itself on record in reference to the importance of having the specification and claims of your patent properly drawn. it is equally as important to have your models, drawings, patterns, etc., accurately designed and executed. every week the "official gazette," published by the u.s. patent office, is chock full of new, novel and ingenious devices on which patents have been granted, but which are in lines in which the demand and sales are so very restricted that the profits in seventeen years will scarcely pay for the cost of the patent. as dr. grimshaw, ph.d., m. e., a celebrated inventor and scholar, known to many americans, and at present residing in germany, so aptly puts it, it is well to remember "there are some lines in which competition is so fierce that there would not be any use in coming into the field. if the marquis of worcester, watt, fulton and morse, whitney and howe, edison and mccormick, and a dozen more of the great inventors of the world, past and present, were to put their heads together, and get up a new car-coupler, the chances are that they could not get thirty cents for the patent. the thing is overdone." many, many, hard-earned dollars are annually expended by inexperienced inventors in the building of ornate, nickel-plated models that from a practical, business stand-point are commercially impossible, and never will amount to anything. while they are splendid in "theory," and pretty to look at, and talk about, yet in "practice" and real utility they are of no value. don't go to the expense of a model until you know your device is patentable, mechanically practicable, commercially salable, and in demand in the markets of the world, and in a class in which there is no killing competition. caveats have proven to be, oftentimes, worse than worthless. the government fee is $ ; the attorney fee from $ to $ . when you file your application you are notified by the u.s. patent office of an interference suit, if someone else happens to file an application along similar lines. it is then "up to you" to show that "you thought of it first," usually a very expensive and disappointing task. don't apply for a caveat, is the writer's advice. confidence is the bed-rock foundation of all business today, so don't be afraid of anyone trying to steal your idea. a simple and inexpensive means to follow is to have a rough pencil sketch and description of your idea, dated and signed by yourself and two competent witnesses. then, if the question of priority of invention is raised, you have a strong document to substantiate your claims to priority. if your idea will pass muster on the six cardinal tests, ( ) as regards patentability; ( ) as regards mechanical practicability; ( ) as regards its possession of superior merit and low cost of production; ( ) as regards a large and constant public demand for it; ( ) as regards to its being better, cheaper and more salable than similar devices already on the market; ( ) as regards to the competition it will encounter,--then, and only then, are you justified in spending time and money in applying for a patent, and having proper working model built, etc. don't rely on your own judgment in such matters,--it is of necessity greatly prejudiced, and rightly so. you, as an inventor, are in the same relative position as the mother of a new baby. both of you undoubtedly feel that your offspring possesses all the graces, and has no bad points whatsoever. but your invention does not have as good a show, at least no better, than the new baby has of developing into a "world-beater" or prodigy. in both instances it will require careful development, much study, and the hardest kind of work to make a moderate success of the new infant. another point to remember is that the one who is responsible for its successful development is entitled to more credit and greater rewards than the father of the idea or infant. a patent attorney, must, of very necessity, be disposed to find practically everything submitted to him "to be patentable." some firms go so far as to mail their guarantees that ideas are patentable, but your idea has five other points in which it may "fall down." mere patentability is only one-sixth of the necessary ground you must cover. your friends may think you are a genius, a wonder, and you may be, but don't let their adulation turn your head to the extent of your forgetting the six tests necessary to your idea's success. if you are sick, you go to the best physician you can find; if your horse is sick, you send for a veterinarian; if you are required to go to court, you retain a good lawyer to represent your side,--you don't try to cure yourself, or your horse, or defend yourself. you go to a specialist in these lines. follow the same sane method in your patent matters. the "no-cure-no-pay" doctor is not highly regarded, neither are patent firms that do a "contingent fee" business on the "no patent-no pay" basis. cut rates are also to be shunned. good service demands and can exact commensurate returns. economy in these matters is a poor policy to pursue. analysis of the six cardinal patent tests. "if i am building a mountain, and stop before the last bucketful of earth is placed on the summit, i have failed."--confucius. first: would it be possible to cover my idea or invention by a good, strong, basic patent? first and foremost, the thing to do is to find out if your invention can be properly covered by a good, strong patent,--a basic patent, if possible, and if not basic, at least, one covering some novel elements which would prevent unscrupulous imitators and dealers from substituting "something just as good" for your invention. in this connection we might say that any bright attorney can find some way in which an alleged patent can be issued practically on anything, so very little dependence can be placed, as a rule, on "preliminary searches" that are furnished "free of cost." expect to pay at least $ . for it, and ask for the references the search develops. we place the covering of an invention by strong letters patent first, as we consider it of the utmost importance that an invention, to be a commercial success, must grant its owner a virtual monopoly. second: is my invention mechanically practicable? there are a great many ideas which of themselves are good, and still are not of themselves of any value. it is of equal importance, in order to make a success of an invention, to have it conform to certain recognized mechanical principles, and capable of economical production through the regular trade and manufacturing channels. in other words, an invention nowadays would be seriously handicapped if it was necessary to revolutionize the present equipment of factories to bring it out. (in this connection it might be interesting to note that thomas a. edison, in an article published in "the star," of washington, september th, , said that in his opinion wright brothers were working on the wrong principle with their flying machine. in edison's opinion the machine should not be dependent on the skill of the operator, but should be capable of automatic operation somewhat similar to an automobile or the locomotive.) third: can my invention be more cheaply manufactured than similar devices already on the market? if your invention will enter the markets of the world in close competition with other devices of similar nature, it is necessary that it possesses the possibility for lower cost of production than the articles it will meet in competition. if it costs more to make, it will be heavily handicapped from the start. if it costs less to make it will have this additional advantage pulling in its favor from the start. fourth: does my idea possess conspicuous novelty and superior merit over similar devices already on the market? the established, advertised article in the markets of the world always has a great advantage over new and relatively untried devices. a new article, to succeed, must show at a glance that it is "something better." in addition to that, it must have superior merit which will at once make it possible to bring about a quick sale in competition with the article already on the market. if your invention is better, costs less to produce, has more "talking points," dealers will be quick to buy it. otherwise, possibly not. fifth: is there a large, constant, public demand for my invention, or its product? public demand for anyone's invention practically regulates its success, from a commercial standpoint. if there is no public demand for it, there can be no individual profit derived from it. in other words, it is useless to apply for a patent on any art, machine or process where the demand for its use is very limited. for instance, it would be ridiculous to patent a process for performing one single act or function, the demand for which would cease as soon as the act or function was accomplished. to illustrate, some years ago, while building the city hall, in philadelphia, it was necessary to raise the enormous statue of william penn to the top of the tower. this was quite an undertaking, and a great many bright men cudgeled their brains as to the best means of accomplishing the result. it would have been very foolish to patent the means by which the statue was put on the top of the tower, because after it was placed on the top there would be no further demand for the process or means by which penn was raised to his elevated position. "little and often fills the purse" is a familiar quotation to many of us, and is especially applicable to the profits to be made from inventions. sixth: is there killing competition in the class to which my invention belongs? if your device is likely to run into a section of the trade of the world where questionable tactics and high-pressure methods are necessary to keep one's head above water, our advice to you would be, "don't do it!" as it would possibly be better to "follow the lines of least resistance," and spend your time and money on something where you would have a better chance for success. in the year , what chances do you think an inventor would have in starting a business in competition with the united states steel corporation, or the american sugar refining company, or the standard oil company, or the pennsylvania railroad company, or the paper trust, or the bell telephone company, or the moving picture trust, or the american can company, or the baldwin locomotive works? these enormous aggregations of brains and capital would make it quixotic to attempt to compete with them in the markets of the world. yet you may be able to invent something they would be glad to purchase! if your patent is weak or deficient in any one of these six cardinal tests it is heavily handicapped to just that extent in the race for success. do not depend on your own judgment, as your judgment is naturally prejudiced, and will not, most likely, reflect a dependable forecast of the public attitude toward your invention. it will be cheaper in the long run to get reliable counsel in these respects before you start, rather than learning it from bitter experience. [illustration: the united states capitol.] terse suggestions this is the day of short cuts. if you take the long way 'round, you will never "arrive." cuts, to be short, need not be poorly done with a blunt knife. the cleverest surgeon is he who can perform the biggest operation in the shortest time. learn to do things quickly, but do them well. * * * * * in this hustling world we must "get there," and "get there quick," not only in our conversation but in all our work. we must avoid non-essentials. * * * * * spend your time and money on money-savers rather than on frills. do your work under a system, and stick to it. do not have a too elaborate system, however. * * * * * with the machine work of the twentieth century method, fine hand work is now considered a luxury. * * * * * don't beat about the bush. get right down to the point. the swiftest road to success has the fewest curves. "dost thou love life? then do not squander time, for that is the stuff life is made of."--franklin. chapter viii. sounding the market "people are always to be found who think anything with which they are not familiar cannot be good." if the average inventor goes out among his friends with his invention and asks them their opinion of it, he will hear some such expressions as this: "old man, you are a marvel!"; "you will be a millionaire some day, sure thing!"; "that looks a big winner!"; "beats anything i ever saw!" and so on. but such comments are absolutely worthless. many an inventor's head has been turned by just such praise. it is all well-meant, best-intentioned, and highly gratifying, but as an indication of what will be likely to happen to your invention it is worse than valueless. it is grossly misleading. your friends want to encourage you, help you. they see only your invention's good points, not its vital weaknesses. they are not "skilled in the art,"--are not in a position to judge competently at all. do not depend on any such opinions. go to a specialist in such lines. will a stranger to you buy your invention in preference to the ones already on the market? if so, he exacts a lower price or a better article, which amount to the same thing. can you manufacture your invention and sell it at a good profit in competition with others? will the wholesalers handle it? can they do so at a good profit? has it good selling and talking points, or do you need to make excuses for it? is the field now over-crowded? in this connection, remember the "six cardinal patent tests," especially the fifth and sixth. is there a large, constant, public demand for my invention or its product? and is there killing competition in the class to which my invention belongs? get the advice of a specialist. chapter ix. practical development "everything in this world is a development. nothing happens by chance." can my invention be made to do better work by putting in gears in place of that sprocket chain? would canvas be cheaper and better than leather in that belt? won't a cotter pin be cheaper and better in place of that nut? won't a steel casting be cheaper and better than that expensive machined steel bearing? would not my machine do better work and cost less if i stuck to just this one operation? questions such as this you must ask yourself. the successful inventor is not a "one-idea" man. he must be on the watch for "something better" all the time, until he and his expert advisers are convinced by _actual tests_ in _actual service_ that it is absolutely right in every way. no invention is complete and perfect when it is first conceived. its successful development is a series of changes, substitutions, alterations, rearrangements, until finally it attains marketable shape. at a meeting of mechanical experts in philadelphia one evening, six men were asked the very best way to make a certain piece of machine work. there were six different answers.--"many men of many minds."--which was the best way, and why? if you take your own ideas you will possibly have but one way to do it, and your way may not prove the best way in the end. the successful invention of today dominates its particular field. why? because it is better than others. successful development of any invention requires a great degree of patience, unlimited hard work, belief in ultimate success, and competent theoretical and practical knowledge of mechanics, physics, mathematics, salesmanship, shop practice and the like. it is a science in itself. "whatever i have tried to do in life, i have tried with all my heart to do well; whatever i have devoted myself to, i have devoted myself to completely; in great aims and small i have always been thoroughly in earnest."--charles dickens. chapter x. lower cost superior merit "an idea of itself may be good, but still not of itself be of any value." patents, to meet with even moderate commercial success, must be on a "human necessity" or "luxury"--must cost less and be better than the ones already on the market. that is this whole chapter in a nutshell. lines upon lines could be said about it, but the reader will grasp the point. chapter xi. application for patents, design patents, trade-marks labels and copyrights "the man who does things is the man who is doing things. the busiest man in the city is the man who is always ready for new business." "to postpone action generally means an attempt to kill by time."--john timothy stone. what is patentable. an art or process, machines or mechanisms, manufactured articles, compositions of matter, improvements on any of the above, if the art, machine, manufactured article, composition of matter, or improvement thereof, for which a patent is desired, was not known or used by others, in this country, and has not been patented or described in any printed publication in this or any foreign country, before the applicant's invention or discovery thereof, and has not been in public use or on sale for more than two years prior to his application, unless the same is proved to have been abandoned. usual cost the cost of taking out a patent varies with different cases. in a simple case such as, for instance, an improvement in potato mashers, it is, ordinarily, $ . some attorneys charge $ less, and some $ more, according to their schedules. this amount is made up as follows: preliminary search of patent office records $ preparation of drawings, one sheet preparation of specification and claims first government fee final government fee, payable six months after allowance of patent _____ total cost of simple one-sheet case $ complicated machines and processes that require a large number of sheets of drawings and contain a great deal of detail work cost often times, especially if interferences develop, as much as $ . elsewhere in this volume is quoted the opinion of the supreme court as regards the importance of having the specification and claims carefully drawn. have your work done well, and expect to pay a fair price for good service. design patents. preparation of drawings and specification, and prosecuting case $ government fee, for - / government fee, for government fee, for copyrights. the cost of obtaining a copyright, including all fees, is usually $ trade-marks. preliminary search, government and attorney's fees $ labels. government and attorney's fees $ note.--patents run for seventeen years, and cannot be renewed. design patents run for - / , or years, as the case may be. trademarks run for thirty years, and longer, if desired. label patents run for years, and may be renewed for fourteen years longer, if desired. copyrights run for years, and may be renewed for fourteen years longer, if desired. special rates and terms are payable on "interferences," infringements, appeals and assignments. * * * * * foreign patents can be procured in all civilized countries, but should be applied for only after the most careful study as to whether they are likely to prove profitable to the inventor. we are inclined to say it is the exception when they do. * * * * * "rules of practice" issued by the united states patent office contain the following in regard to the importance of care in the selection of an attorney: "as the value of patents depends largely upon the careful preparation of the specification and claims, the assistance of competent counsel will, in most instances, be of advantage to the applicant; but the value of their services will be proportionate to their skill and honesty, and too much care cannot be exercised in their selection." * * * * * "before you spend much money, either your own or any one's else, be sure ( ) that your invention will work; ( ) that no one else has patented it; ( ) that there is an opportunity for its sale; ( ) that there is not too much competition. many a man starts off and orders a fancy nickel-plated model, and applies for his patent, only to find that the idea will not work even the least little bit. in this matter the advice of some one else well up in the theory, added to that of some one else well up in the practice, would be valuable." * * * * * "many an application done up in all the bravery of typewriting, notarial seal, and all that, has been rejected like a bad penny for the very simple reason that some one else had before patented the idea, or something enough like it to bar out the newcomer. it is cheaper to have the ground gone over first by a preliminary search by a competent person even before the application is written out." * * * * * "don't be unduly suspicious. don't fear that any one who takes more than a passing interest in your invention is going to steal it. all business is based more or less on trust. you trust some one every day. so does every one else. there is no use in your showing every tom, dick and harry what you have, or expect to have; but if you show a man anything at all, do it with trust. if he is not trustworthy, do not show him anything."--dr. grimshaw. chapter xii. marketing "anybody can slide down hill, but it takes good legs and good wind to go up."--silent partner. the brightest minds of the business world are endeavoring to solve the problem of how best to market an article. of course, unlimited capital, and a good article greatly lessen the problem. but to start with little or no money, build up a business, equip the plant, buy raw materials, hire help, manage a factory, establish credit, advertise, fill orders, collect accounts, and do the thousand and one other things necessary to make success of a business requires a good, virile mind, and plenty of hard work and close attention to detail, and should be a steady, gradual development. with honesty of purpose, quality of product, absolute fair-dealing, push and untiring energy as guides, any man or woman given good health, common sense and a fairly meritorious patented article can unquestionably succeed in profitably marketing it. a steady climb with unflagging zeal and singleness of purpose always win out. the motto should be, "this one thing i do." it has been found from experience that it is usually well to get the best expert advice in connection with the establishment of a new business before making plans for spending much money. there are specialists in all business lines today, and as a rule it proves to be wise economy to spend money in payment of their services. some of the largest industrial establishments in the world are the direct outgrowth of a very small plant judiciously handled and energetically developed. of course, in marketing a product, one must know exactly what the product costs. allow proper margin for management expenses, fixed charges, depreciation, selling expenses and the like. it is usually safe to add one hundred per cent. to the manufacturing cost for the purpose of covering administrative and fixed charges. wholesale selling prices should always conform to the list put out by other manufacturers. in other words, an article retailing at c usually sells wholesale for c to c doz. an article retailing at c usually sells wholesale for c to c doz. an article retailing at c usually sells wholesale for $ . to $ . doz. an article retailing at c usually sells wholesale for $ . to $ . doz. an article retailing at $ . usually sells wholesale for $ . to $ . doz. the gross prices are approximately as follows: on a c article, $ . to $ . per gross on a c article, $ . to $ . per gross on a c article, $ . to $ . per gross on a c article, $ . to $ . per gross on a $ . article, $ . to $ . per gross it is usually customary to give a discount of from per cent. to per cent., if ordered in gross lots. terms of settlement show considerable variation in different lines, and range anywhere from per cent. to per cent. for cash in ten days, with extension of credit of from thirty days net to ninety days "extra dating." there are some splendid books advertised and published along these lines which can be had from the various publishers. there are also weekly and monthly periodicals that will prove of great benefit to anyone engaging in a new business. carefully prepared catalogues, stationery, printed matters, follow-up letters, etc., should be used. consult a specialist about these matters. "the world always listens to a man with a will in him." chapter xiii. discouragements and dangers when to-day's difficulties overshadow yesterday's triumphs and obscure the bright visions of tomorrow-- when plans upset, and whole years of effort seem to crystallize into a single hour of concentrated bitterness-- when little annoyances eat into the mind's very quick, and corrode the power to view things calmly-- when the jolts of misfortune threaten to jar loose the judgment from its moorings-- remember that in every business, in every career, there are valleys to cross, as well as hills to scale, that every mountain range of hope is broken by chasms of discouragement through which run torrent streams of despair! to quit in the chasms is to fail. see always in your mind's eye those sunny summits of success! don't quit in the chasm! keep on!"--system. a careful study of the histories of great inventors and inventions impresses the student most forcibly with the glaring fact that while the field of invention offers, and has paid, fabulously large rewards to the fortunate genius who invents or discovers some really new device or idea, it also is a field full of discouragements, dangers and heart-breaking delays, disappointments and unfulfilled hopes, to say nothing of time and energy utterly wasted by misguided zeal and misdirected effort. we need to look at the matter from all angles, and study to avoid the pitfalls and dangers history unerringly points out to us, as well as learn thoroughly the lesson so dearly bought for us by the noble men and women in the army of inventors who have gone before. the following table shows the startlingly large totals of patents and re-issues issued by the united states government since the year , up to last year, : the united states government has issued, approximately, , patents. when we compare the number of patents that have proven to be commercial successes (in other words, money-makers), how pitifully small the list is by comparison! how many "blasted hopes," vanishing "air castles"; how much poverty, how many wrecked homes, how many suicides (but why prolong this list?) are represented by those letters patent that did not win! why did they fail? the seal was just as red, the ribbon just as blue, they cost just as much, the drawings were just as clear--then why did they fail? for one, any or all of the following reasons: . the claims were weak. . the invention would not work. . the cost of manufacture was too great. . the idea was feebly patentable, but not sufficiently new or novel. . there was no demand for it. . the big fellows froze it out! or, to be exact, they failed to stand the six cardinal tests given elsewhere. don't intend to "take up inventing," as some men say, and expect to make a success of it, without any preparation, with little practical education, much less diligent study. you can't do it, unless it be by merest accident! look at history. she tells the story so that all can hear and heed it. think of edison's perseverance, his all-night experiments, without food or drink, his life-long hard and unremitting effort. picture george stephenson's disappointments; the silly opposition he met; his constant "if at first you don't succeed, try, try again!" spirit! think of john fitch and his steamboat; ottmar mergenthaler and his linotype,--years of trial and study; remember fulton and his "clermont"; the wright brothers, wilbur and orville, working year after year, planning, perfecting, always at it! success in invention is not "easy money."--it does not consist of "thinking out an idea," picking up a magazine or paper and reading a patent advertisement "free report as to patentability,"--"no patent no pay,"--"send sketch," etc., etc.; drawing a rough pencil sketch and forwarding it to the attorneys the inventor picked out; getting back a mysterious looking certificate done up in purple ink, seals, etc., purporting to guarantee that the idea is a patentable one, or he doesn't pay a cent. next he forwards from $ to $ and gets back the specification and claims (the claims "claiming" every thing above the earth, and numbering possibly twenty to fifty) for his oath and signature. then the case is filed with the patent office. after waiting anywhere from six months to several years the attorney notifies him that his case is "allowed" (sometimes it is rejected, and he has thrown his money away), and will be issued upon payment of the final government fee of $ , that is, of course, provided it has not run into an "interference." if it has, it is to be regretted, as it may mean the loss of all the inventor's money in fees and expenses, and the loss of his case in the end. but for the sake of the story we'll say he gets his patent in a big, official looking envelope. he sees his name on it, the seal, the ribbon, the picture of the patent office, and his heart and head naturally swell with pride. but if he looks at it carefully, he will find the claims (and they are what count) consist of one big long paragraph of several hundred words, without a period in it, describing the exact or fancied construction, the protection in the claim being so restricted and limited in scope that a poor chauffeur could drive a sight-seeing auto through the alleged patent without touching sides, top or bottom! the twenty to fifty claims were all rejected. then what happens? he shows it to his family, friends, neighbors. he gets his name in the town paper. he is spoken of as an "inventor." then he begins to wonder what he is going to do with it. he is dreaming possibly of millions, when it is not worth cents. when his name appears in the official gazette he will begin getting circulars, cunningly worded letters, postal cards, etc., mentioning his wonderful (?) invention (it may be a new paring knife!) and saying that for any amount ranging from $ . to $ . the writer will be glad to sell the patent for any amount their fertile imagination may conjure up, always more than ample, but after the money is sent for "advertising," "printing," or what not, all signs of a sale absolutely disappear. (don't send any money to a firm to sell your patent unless they are known to be reliable and trustworthy, and _don't guarantee_ to do anything but treat you fairly and make an honest effort to sell it.) the safe and rational way is to test your idea thoroughly in advance of having it patented, and then you are practically sure of a sale. here is the moral: some day he will wake up and find he might better have painted the house with the $ , or given it to his wife for a new dress. he will give up the idea of fame and fortune so alluringly set forth in the circulars sent out by some attorneys. this is an every-day case one in the business meets with all the time. it is all wrong, but is only too true. authorities state that per cent. of the patents issued today are worthless from a commercial standpoint! statistics appear to prove it, although it is hard to get at the real facts. the reader may feel that the author is trying to discourage inventors from entering the field. no. all that is intended is to show and point out the rational course to pursue in applying for patents and endeavoring to be a success as an inventor. volumes could be written on this subject, but the above will serve as an average example of blasted hopes and misdirected effort. "failure is only endeavor temporarily off the track. how foolish it would be to abandon it in the ditch." bright side the output of all the gold, silver and diamond mines in the world does not equal in value the profits earned from american inventions. * * * * * probably between fifty and sixty millions of dollars have been, spent in procuring patents issued by the united states government, on the basis that the average patent costs from $ to $ , and there have been , issued. to show that patents are profitable, we need only recall the fact that almost twice this amount has been received in profits from several of them, namely, the bell telephone, for instance, or the harvester, sewing machine, telegraph, phonograph, etc. authorities on the subject are of the opinion that there are almost two hundred patents in force in the united states today that return profits of over one million dollars per year; several hundred that return half-a-million dollars profit; five or six hundred that return from $ , to $ , in profits; and an enormous number which return incomes of from $ , to $ , annually. * * * * * inventive genius can exact the highest possible price, for its labor in the markets of the world. if you are a genius you cannot employ your time to better advantage than in endeavoring to improve methods at present in use, or invent combinations that will cheapen production, or discover new elements or combinations that will effect economic results. the history of inventions, poets, past and present, tell us that success is possible, if persistently pursued. do not allow the dangers and discouragements that we must all meet with to dishearten you. as longfellow so beautifully puts it: "be still, sad heart! and cease repining; behind the clouds is the sun still shining; thy fate is the common fate of all, into each life some rain must fall, some days must be dark and dreary." chapter xiv. selling patents it is not so much how you sell your patent. it is what you get for it. patents can be disposed of in various ways. we are sorry to say that the majority of patents issued today, for reasons already stated, are disposed of on the scrap heap, or the waste basket. however, if you have a patent that possesses commercial value, it can possibly be disposed of in one of the following manners: first, by selling it outright for a cash consideration. second, by selling state, county or shop rights for the use of your invention. third, by placing it with an already established concern on a royalty basis. fourth, by the organization of a company or partnership for its production and marketing. taking up each one of the methods in order, the following explanations will possibly be of interest: it has often been said that an inventor rarely underestimates the value of his patent. associating with and meeting large numbers of inventors from time to time has convinced the writer that no one individual can give a reliable estimate of the value of anyone's invention. if an inventor desires to sell his invention outright, he should take into consideration, in fixing the price, just how much he spent on the development of the idea; how much money he actually spent in procuring the patent, building the models, and getting the invention into marketable shape. he should add a certain modest percentage for good will, and if he desires to sell outright, base his figures on some such estimates. for instance, a small, simple patent could be estimated as being worth, say $ cash, as follows: twenty weeks of time spent in developing the idea, $ per week $ procurement of patent building of models expert advice and counsel manufactured samples, dies, tools, etc. good will, or present value of the patent per se , -------- fair selling price for patent in which the time, labor, expenditures, etc., were approximately in accordance with the figures listed above, would be $ , the man that buys the patent will be entitled to a great deal more profit than the inventor who conceived it, and by the time he has it on the market and has the sale established, he will be entitled to everything he earns. of course, there are exceptions to every rule, but the writer is not speaking of exceptions now. another very profitable way to dispose of a patent is the selling of state, county and shop rights. this has brought many inventors very large returns, although it involves a good deal of selling expense, and salesmanship of the highest order. the placing of a patent on a royalty basis, and the payment of a nominal cash "_quid pro quo_" we consider the best method of disposing of an invention, and the one most likely to prove profitable, provided, of course, that the firm with which the patent is placed is thoroughly reliable, and can energetically push its sale. elsewhere in this volume you have read of the enormous sums in royalties that have been received on various successful inventions. one particular illustration at this time may not be in-apropos. oscar hammerstein, the new york theatre proprietor, sold his first cigar-making machine for $ , cash. the next one he invented he placed on a royalty, and made $ , . this is almost a typical case. when the patent or its product has a sufficiently large public demand it is oftentimes better to organize a new company for its development and sale. this is done by applying for a charter under some favorable state laws, (it is usually expedient to apply in the state in which it is intended to manufacture,) and give the inventor a reasonable stock interest in the company, together with an executive position if he is capable of filling it. "you must bear some of the burden of introduction yourself. a capitalist may be willing to bet his hard dollars that your idea will work, if you have secured a patent; or he may be induced to bet that it is patentable, if you show him that it will work; but moneyed men who will bet that your invention is both patentable and practicable are few and far between. if they make such a bet, it will be with very heavy odds against the inventor."--grimshaw. do not forget that some men have made millions out of a single patent. do not forget that others have lost all they could make and borrow. "victories that are easy are cheap. those only are worth having which come as a result of hard fighting." chapter xv. conclusion the old adage, "be sure you are right and then go ahead," is especially apropos advice to inventors. but how can you be sure you _are_ right? only by investigation that is strictly impersonal and unprejudiced in every sense. you can have this work of investigation done for you--you can buy advice of this kind just as you can buy legal or medical advice from specialists. better disburse $ or $ in procuring sound expert advice than spend weeks, months and years chasing a mirage or will-o'-wisp. you are not compelled to accept the advice if it differs from your ideas, but you will most likely learn a great deal that will pay you handsomely. the writer is fully aware that this line of talk is opposed to the "don't hesitate," "send at once," "delays are dangerous," "the other fellow will get ahead of you" arguments so generally used by individuals who "have an axe to grind." be sure you are right, and then go ahead--don't think you are sure--be sure! the author feels that a careful weighing of all statements and facts in this volume will be of great value to anyone considering the application for a patent. history has undoubtedly proven that _good_ patents are possibly more profitable than any other investment that can be made. if you have an idea, or have made a discovery that you think will prove of benefit to mankind, the wise and prudent course is to have it thoroughly investigated, in all points as relate to its success. the small cost of a reliable investigation would be money well spent as it is possible your idea or discovery may be the means of bringing you in enormous wealth. chapter xvi. statistics of the countries of the world countries population sq. miles capitals china , , , , peking. british empire[ ] , , , , london. russian empire , , , , st. petersburg. united states[ ] , , , , washington. united states and islands[ ] , , , , washington. france and colonies , , , , paris. german empire, in europe , , , berlin. austro-hungarian empire , , , vienna. japan , , , tokio. netherlands and colonies , , , the hague. turkish empire , , , , constantinople. italy , , , rome. spain , , , madrid. brazil , , , , rio janeiro. mexico , , , city of mexico. korea , , , seoul. congo state , , , .... persia , , , teheran. portugal and colonies , , , lisbon. sweden and norway , , , .... belgium , , , brussels. argentine republic , , , , buenos ayres. chile , , , santiago. peru , , , lima. switzerland , , , berne. greece , , , athens. denmark , , , copenhagen. venezuela , , , caracas. liberia , , , monrovia. cuba , , , havana. guatemala , , , n. guatemala. hayti , , , port au prince. paraguay , , asuncion. panama , , panama. [ ] these estimates of the population and area include the recently acquired great possessions in africa. [ ] census of . [ ] estimated for january st, . population of the united states. alabama , , alaska , arizona , arkansas , , california , , colorado , connecticut , dakota .... delaware , district of columbia , florida , georgia , , hawaii , idaho , illinois , , indiana , , indian territory , iowa , , kansas , , kentucky , , louisiana , , maine , maryland , , massachusetts , , michigan , , minnesota , , mississippi , , missouri , , montana , nebraska , , nevada , new hampshire , new jersey , , new mexico , new york , , north carolina , , north dakota , ohio , , oklahoma , oregon , pennsylvania , , rhode island , south carolina , , south dakota , tennessee , , texas , , utah , vermont , virginia , , washington , west virginia , wisconsin , , wyoming , ---------- total , , population continental united states (including alaska), , , ( ); philippines, , , ; porto rico, , ; hawaii, , ; guam, , ; american samoa, , ; total population, , , . population, , estimating continental united states, about , , . chapter xvii. mechanical movements in deciding upon the construction of models and the development of an idea, the proper mechanical movements should always be very carefully taken into consideration. in other words, movements which simplify the invention, minimize friction, and add power, are always to be preferred to clumsy and inefficient means or methods. every inventor, and all students of the mechanical arts and sciences, should arrange any mechanism which they may desire to produce with the least number of parts possible, and embracing the greatest amount of simplicity of action. on the following pages you will find a large number of mechanical movements with suitable description thereof which will undoubtedly assist inventors in developing and constructing their models of ideas. most of the movements embraced in the following pages have appeared in various scientific journals and publications devoted to scientific and mechanical art. study all the various movements applicable to your invention before deciding upon any particular one. [illustration: . illustrating the transmission of power by simple pulleys and an open belt. the pulleys in this case rotate in the same direction. . illustrating the transmission of power by simple pulleys and a crossed belt. the pulleys rotate in opposite directions. . showing the transmission of motion from one shaft to another at right angles to it by means of guide-pulleys. there are two guide-pulleys side by side, one for each leaf of the belt. . showing the transmission of motion from one shaft to another at right angles to it, without the use of guide-pulleys. . showing a method of engaging, disengaging, and reversing the upright shaft on the left. the belt is shown on a loose pulley, and accordingly no motion is communicated to the shafts. if the belt be traversed on to the left-hand pulley, which is fast to the outer hollow shaft (_b_), motion is communicated to the vertical shaft by the bevel-wheels how to succeed and c; and if it be traversed on to the right-hand pulley, which is fast to the inner shaft (_a_), motion in an opposite direction is transmitted to the vertical shaft by the bevel-gear a and c. . stepped speed-pulleys (on the left of the figure), used in lathes and machine-tools, and cone pulleys (on the right of the figure), used in cotton machinery, &c., for varying speed according to the requirements of the work being done. for a given speed of the upper shaft the speed of the lower one will be greater the more to the left the belt is placed. the cone-pulleys permit of more gradation in speed than the stepped arrangement. . spur-gearing. the wheels rotate in opposite directions (cf. ). the smaller wheel has the greater speed of revolution, and the speeds of the wheels are in the inverse ratio of their diameters. . evans' variable friction gear. the gripping medium by which motion is transmitted from one cone to the other is a loose leather band, whose position can be varied by the hand-screw shown. . bevel-gearing. this is an adaptation of the spur-wheel principle to the case of non-parallel axes. . a worm or endless screw geared with a worm wheel.] [illustration: . elliptical spur-gearing, used when a rotary motion of varying speed is required. . a spur-wheel geared internally with a pinion. the wheels rotate in the same direction (cf. ). . spur-gearing with oblique teeth, giving a more continuous bearing than . . showing the transmission of power by rolling contact from one shaft to another obliquely situated with regard to it. . different kinds of gearing for transmitting motion from one shaft to another arranged obliquely to it. . two kinds of universal joints. . a method of transmitting motion from one shaft (the vertical) to another (the horizontal) by means of bevel-gearing, with a double-clutch for altering the direction of rotation. the bevel-wheels on the horizontal shaft are loose, and the direction of movement is determined by the side upon which the double-clutch is engaged. the clutch slides upon a key or feather fixed on the shaft. . transmission of two speeds by gearing. the hand is shown on the loose left hand pulley of the lower three. when it is moved on to the middle pulley, which is keyed to the shaft carrying the small pinion, a slow motion is transmitted to the lowest shaft; but when, it is on the right-hand pulley, which is fast to the outer shaft carrying the large spur-wheel, a quick speed is transmitted. . transmission of two speeds by means of belts. the two outer pulleys on the lower shaft are loose, the two inner fast. with the belts arranged as shown, the speed of the lower shaft is slower than when both are traversed to the right.] [illustration: . an intermittent circular motion in the direction indicated by the arrow is transmitted to the wheel a, by means of the oscillating rod d and the pawl b, from the reciprocating rectilinear motion of the rod c. . the continuous rotation of the shaft carrying the two cams or wipers gives to the rod a an intermittent alternating rectilinear motion. the rod is raised by the action of a wiper on the projection b, and it falls by its own weight. this contrivance is used in ore-stampers or pulverizers, power-hammers, &c. . the reciprocating rectilinear motion of the rod on the right produces intermittent circular motion of the wheel by means of the elbow-lever and the pawl. the direction of motion of the wheel is determined by the side on which the pawl works. this contrivance is used in giving the feed-motion to planing-machines and other tools. . the piston-rod and crank motion used in the steam-engine. the reciprocating rectilinear motion of the former is converted into the rotary motion of the latter through the agency of the connecting-rod (not shown). . an eccentric, such as is used on the crank-shaft of steam-engines for communicating reciprocating rectilinear motion to the slide-valves. it rotates round an axis not pushing through its centre. . internal spring pawls for a ratchet brace. the ratchet can revolve only in one direction (counterclockwise), and as it does so the springs are gradually compressed and suddenly released in turn. . friction pawl feed motion, silent. the arrow shows the direction of rotation of the wheel. the principle of the contrivance is obvious. . a heart-cam, by whose rotation uniform traversing motion is imparted to the vertical bar. the dotted lines show the method of obtaining the curve of the cam. eight concentric circles are drawn with radii in arithmetical progression as shown, and they are divided into twelve equal sectors. the points on the heart-curve are determined by the intersection of radii and circles. . a quick-return crank motion, applicable to shaping-machines. this arrangement needs no explanation.] [illustration: . a crank motion, with the crank wrist working in a slotted yoke, thereby dispensing with the oscillating connecting rod. . a screw stamping-press, showing how rectilinear motion may be obtained from circular motion by means of a screw. . a screw-cutting mechanism. the rotation of the left-hand screw produces a uniform rectilinear movement of a cutter which cuts another screw-thread (seen on the right). the pitch of the screw to be cut may be varied by changing the sizes of the engaged spur-wheels at the bottom of the frame. . the movable headstock of a turning lathe. by turning the wheel on the right hand motion is communicated to the screw, thus causing the spindle with the centre at its end to move in a straight line. . swivelling-gear for car wheels. the essential part is the operation of the endless screw on the worm-wheel. the wheels are connected by a lever freely joined to the cranks. . diagrammatic representation of screw-gear to operate three worm-wheels in the same direction, for chucks, etc. the method of working is obvious. . a mutilated screw for sliding into a nut having corresponding parts of the thread cut away, to be fixed by a partial turn. it is used for the breech-pieces of cannon. . variable radius lever, operated by a crank motion to give variable angular reciprocating motion to a shaft. . hand or power feed-gear, for a drill, boring-machine, &c. . a method of doubling the length of stroke of a piston-rod or the throw of a crank. a pinion revolving on a spindle attached to the connecting-rod is in gear with the fixed lower rack and also with the upper rack, which is carried by a guide-rod above and is free to move backward and forward. the connecting-rod communicates to the pinion the full length of stroke, and since the lower rack is fixed the pinion rotates, thus making the upper rack travel twice the length of the stroke.] [illustration: . a toggle-joint arranged for a punching-machine. the lever at the right operates upon the joint or knuckle of the toggle on the left, thus raising or lowering the punch. . a stone-breaker, with chilled-iron jaw-faces and a toggle or knapping motion. . an ellipsograph. the oblique traverse-bar carries two studs, which slide in the grooves of the cross-piece. by the motion of the traverse bar the attached pencil is made to describe an ellipse. . link-motion valve-gear of a locomotive engine. the rods of the two eccentrics on the right are jointed to the curved slotted bar called the link, which can be raised or lowered by the system of levers terminating in the handle at the left. the link carries in its slot a slide and pin connected with another arrangement of levers, which operates on the valve-rod as shown. if the link be so arranged that the slide is at its centre, then the movement of the eccentrics will simply cause the link to oscillate about the pin of the slide, and the valve-rod will be at rest. otherwise the valve-rod will move, and, if the slide be at an end of the link, steam will be admitted during nearly the whole stroke, but if the slide occupy an intermediate position the period of admission of steam is shorter in the latter case the steam is worked more or less expansively. . joy's locomotive valve-gear operated by the connecting-rod. the rod a is connected to the starting-lever to reverse, vary, or stop the distribution of steam by the slide-valve (cf. ). . side shaft motion for operating cornish, corliss, and spindle valves.] [illustration: . the "geneva stop", used in swiss watches to limit the number of revolutions in winding up. the convex part _a b_ of the upper wheel acts as the stop. . a form of strap brake used in cranes and other hoisting-machines. if the lever be depressed the ends of the brake-strap are drawn toward each other, and the strap is thus tightened on the brake-wheel. . a dynamometer, used to ascertain the amount of useful effect given out by a motive-power. a is a smooth pulley secured on a shaft as near as possible to the motive-power. two blocks of wood, or one block and a series of straps fastened to a band or chain, are fitted to the pulley, and these are so arranged as to bite or press upon the pulley by means of the screws and nuts on the top of the lever d. at the end of d is a scale, and the stops c, c' prevent the lever from travelling far from the horizontal position. the shaft being in motion, the screws are tightened and weights are placed in the scale until the lever takes the position shown at the required rate of revolution. the useful effect is then represented by the product of the weight added and the velocity at which the point of suspension of the scale would revolve if the lever were attached to the shaft. . a diagrammatic sketch of a form of groove for ball-bearings, running horizontally, showing the points of bearing in the grooves. . a diagrammatic sketch of a roller bearing for a vertical shaft, with steel balls between the ends of the cone-rollers to separate them and reduce their friction. . a diagrammatic sketch of a roller bearing for a wagon axle, with balls between the roller ends to separate them and prevent internal friction. two views of the bearing are shown in order to make the arrangement perfectly clear. . a recoil escapement for clocks. the anchor h l k is made to oscillate on the axis _a_ by the swing of the pendulum. the teeth of the escapement-wheel a come alternately against the outer surface of the pallet a and the inner surface of the pallet d. the pallets are not concentric to the axis _a_, and therefore a slight recoil of the wheel takes place after the escape of a tooth (whence the name of the escapement). when the pallets leave a tooth the teeth slide along their surfaces, giving an impulse to the pendulum.] [illustration: . a dead-beat or repose escapement for clocks. the lettering is as in the preceding. the pallets are concentric with the axis _a_, and thus while a tooth is against the pallet the wheel is stationary. . a lever escapement of a watch. the anchor b is attached to the lever e c, with the notch e. on a disk d, on the axis of the balance-wheel, there is a pin which enters the notch at the middle of each vibration, causing the pallet to enter in and retire from between the teeth of the scape-wheel. the wheel gives an impulse to each pallet alternately as it leaves a tooth, and the lever gives an impulse to the balance-wheel in opposite directions alternately. . chronometer escapement. as the balance rotates in the direction of the arrow, the tooth v presses the spring against the lever, thus pressing aside the lever and removing the detent from the tooth of the wheel. as the balance returns v presses aside and passes the spring without moving the lever, which then rests against the stop e. . a parallel motion. to the left-hand end of the short vibrating rod in the centre the radius-rod is connected, to its right-hand end the beam, and to its centre the piston-rod. . the working of the pin in the oblique groove of the lower cylinder produces an alternating traverse of the upper shaft with its drum. . a drilling-machine. rotary motion is given to the vertical drill-shaft by the bevel-gearing. the shaft slides through the horizontal bevel-wheel, but is made to turn with it by a feather and groove. it is depressed by means of a treadle connected with the upper lever. . showing how to describe a spiral line on a cylinder. the spur-wheel on the right gears with the toothed rack shown behind, thus causing the pencil to traverse the cylinder vertically. it also produces rotation of the cylinder. . wheel-work in the base of a capstan. the drumhead and the barrel can be rotated independently. if the former, which is fixed to the spindle, be locked to the barrel by a bolt, it turns the barrel with it (single-purchase). otherwise the wheel-work comes into operation, and the drum-head and barrel rotate in opposite directions with velocities as three to one (triple-purchase).] [illustration: . a centrifugal governor for steam-engines. the central spindle is driven from the engine by the bevel-gearing, and the balls fly out under the action of centrifugal force. if the engine speed increases, the balls diverge farther, thus raising the slide at the bottom and so reducing the opening of the regulating-valve connected with it. if the speed of the engine decreases, an opposite result follows. . crank-shaft governor cut-off gear. two hinged centrifugal weights are coupled by links to the cut-off eccentric sheaves and returned by springs to the full open position. . a gas-engine governor. the revolving cam throws the vertical arm of the lever far enough to close the gas-valve when the speed increases beyond the normal. . a plan view of the fourneyron turbine. in the centre are a number of fixed curved "shutes" a, which direct the water against the buckets of the outer wheel b, thus causing it to revolve. . the jonval turbine. the shutes are on the outside of a drum _a_, stationary within the casing _b_. the wheel _c_ is similar, with the buckets exceeding the shutes in number and set at a slight tangent instead of radially. . montgolfier's hydraulic ram, by means of which a small fall of water throws a jet to a great height or furnishes a supply at a high level. the action of the water on the two valves, which are alternately open, is easily comprehended. the right-hand one is pressed down by a weight or spring. the elasticity of the air gives uniformity to the efflux. . common lift-pump. during up-stroke lower valve opens and piston-valve closes, and water rushes up to fill the vacuum created. during down-stroke lower valve closes and piston-valve opens, and the water passes through the piston. at next up-stroke it is raised by the piston and passes out by the spout. . common force-pump, with two valves. when piston rises, the suction-valve opens and water enters the vacuum. when piston descends the suction-valve closes and the outlet-valve opens, and the water is forced up through the outlet-pipe. . a double-acting piston-pump with four valves.] [illustration: . a hydrostatic press. water forced by the pump through the small pipe into the ram cylinder and under the solid ram forces the latter up. the amount of force exerted on the ram bears to the pressure on the plunger the same ratio as the area of the ram does to the area of the plunger. thus, if the area of the plunger cross-section be two square inches and that of the ram four square feet, a pressure of ten pounds on the former will produce a pressure of pounds on the latter, or nearly cwts. . the bourdon aneroid gauge. b is a bent tube closed at the ends and secured at its middle, c. the ends of the tube are connected with a toothed sector gearing with a small pinion which carries the indicating pointer. pressure of steam or other fluid admitted to the tube tends to straighten it, thus moving the pointer more or less. . an air-pump with foot and head valves. . root's rotary engine, used as blower and also as pump. it has two rotating pistons of special shape, so arranged that air or water may be caught and carried forward by their motion. . waygood's patent hydraulic balance lift. a is the lift-cylinder communicating with the interior of the cylinder and ram b. the cylinder c and ram d are loaded to nearly balance the cage and ram a, and the load is raised by admitting pressure water to cylinder c. . an epicyclic train. the wheel a, which is concentric with the revolving frame c, gears with f, which is fixed to the same axle as e. e gears with b and d, the latter on the same axis as a. the driving motion may be communicated to the arm and one extreme wheel, a or d, in order to produce an aggregate motion of the other extreme wheel; or motion may be given to the two extreme wheels, thus communicating motion to the arm. . another form of epicyclic train. f g is the arm, secured to the central shaft, a, upon which are loosely fitted the bevel-wheels c, d. the bevel-wheel b turns freely on f g. motion may be given to the two wheels c, d to produce aggregate motion of the arm, or to the arm and one of these wheels to produce aggregate motion of the other. . common d slide-valve with three ports: a diagrammatic section.] [illustration: . another form of slide-valve, partly in equilibrium. the arrows show the movement of the steam. (like the other figures on this plate, this one is a diagrammatic section.) . a variable cut-off valve on the back of the main slide, the rod of which (seen above) can be revolved by hand or from the governor to vary the opening of the cut-off valves. . double-beat valve, with sunk seating. . reducing-valve, which can be adjusted by the balance weight to pass fluids from a high to any lower pressure. . an equilibrium-valve. . india-rubber disc and grating valve. . a four-plunger valve, used for double-power hydraulic lift-cylinders employing a trunk piston for the low power the pressure-water acts on both sides of the piston; for the double power it acts only on the back of the piston, the front side being then open to the exhaust. . sketch of the corliss valve-gear, operated by a single eccentric. it has two steam and two exhaust valves of an oscillating cylindrical type, worked from pins on a rocking wrist-plate. the steam-valves have trips regulated by the governor.] [illustration: . corliss valve, with rectangular rocking spindle. . a favourite type of vertical overhead cylinder screw engine, with half-standards and distance rods, one, two, or three cylinders, simple or compound. the condenser is usually in the back standards and the pumps behind. . a pedestal bearing, with four brasses and set-screw adjustments. . a hydraulic oil-pivot for vertical-spindle. oil under pressure is forced into the channels between the bearing faces, the area and pressure being adjusted to the load. the surplus oil is returned from the oil-well to the pump. . an engine crosshead, with adjustable guide-brasses, set up by taper keys and nuts. . an equalizing lever to distribute the load on two car springs. . korting's water-jet condenser. it requires three feet head of condensing water . an automatic tipping-scale. when full, to equal the weight, it falls and tips by striking a fixed stop. the scale then turns over and returns to its position to be refilled.] patents expert advice and counsel in patent matters goodwin b. smith registered attorney patents, trade-marks, labels, caveats, copyrights, reports as to patentability, comprehensive reports as to probable commercial success of your invention. reasonable charges. highest service. unquestionable references. address chestnut street, philadelphia next door keith's theatre the ~only~ clip and paper fastener the paper clip for which the business world has been waiting. secure, refined, low-priced. send c in coin or stamps for sample carton of by mail, postpaid. agents wanted in unassigned territory. west manufacturing company manufacturers chestnut street, philadelphia [illustration: without junoform] [illustration: with junoform] are you worried about your figure? junoform bust forms and accessories will remedy all defects. all dealers keep them. made in all styles, at from c to $ . . write for price-list and send dealers name if you can't find the style you want. mlle. wolfe company manufacturers south th street - - - philadelphia _the louisiana lottery_ did not offer the chance of drawing a "capital prize" as is offered at the present time, to an alert, intelligent man or woman in the field of invention. we furnish expert, unprejudiced, dependable advice in all matters pertaining to patents, inventions, discoveries and the like. our services may be obtained on extremely reasonable terms, and, if desired, we will finance or market inventions of superior merit. if you are of an inventive frame of mind don't let your ideas lie dormant. it will cost you little to test them. established inventors and investors corporation patent specialists chestnut street - philadelphia references simplex manufacturing co., west st., new york; west mfg. co., philadelphia; u.s. indestructible gasket co., church st., new york; mlle. wolfe co., philadelphia; scott-conner sales co., missouri trust bldg., st. louis, mo.; report publishing co., lebanon, pa.; c. d. jocelyn & co., philadelphia. the mail order man a large beautiful instructive magazine read by everybody who is anybody in the mail order business; gives latest ideas and pointers. yearly subscription (including two booklets) mail order advertising (telling bow to advertise a mail order venture) and the right way of getting into mail order business, all for c. current number with booklets c. ross d. breniser s. chestnut street philadelphia if you have a patent which ought to be for sale by mail order firms, advertise in "the mail order man," circulation , . rate. cts. per line. _how-do-you-do_ we live in a thriving city of , inhabitants and are taking a little trip, just to tell you that _we do_ p_rinting_ this department is well equipped--printing magazines, catalogs, booklets, anything, a little better than seems necessary, imparting to them an individuality all their own. _write for our prices._ a little out of the way, ~but~ report publishing co., lebanon, pa. leading print house between philadelphia and pittsburg if you own an ~aunt sally's cake maker~ you can "eat your cake and have it too" in the house any time on ten minutes' notice. anyone with human intelligence can make a cake in ten to fifteen minutes with this beater. sold on an absolute and positive guarantee to give satisfaction or money will be refunded without quibble. price, $ . manufactured and sold by inventors and investors corporation chestnut street, philadelphia patent office searches and reports on patentability are specialized by this company. no "desk searches" or "guarantees", but careful painstaking examination of patent office records, with references. moderate charges. write for particulars. inventors and investors corporation stafford building philadelphia, penna. transcriber's note: minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed. words printed in italics are marked with underlines: _italics_. words printed in bold are marked with tildes: ~bold~. cronus of the d. f. c. by lloyd biggle, jr. _she was wonderful and forsdon was in love. but he'd seen the future and knew that in five days she was slated for murder!_ [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from worlds of if science fiction, february . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] a bright, sunny day in may, and a new job for me. i found the room in the basement of police headquarters--a big room, with freshly stenciled letters d f c on the door, and an unholy conglomeration of tubes, wires and dials bulking large in one corner. a bright young police cadet sat at a desk in the center of the room. "are you mr. forsdon?" i nodded, and dumped my bag beside the desk. "captain marks is waiting for you," he said and jerked his head toward a door to the rear. captain marks had his office in a cubbyhole off the main room. it was quite a comedown from the quarters he'd occupied upstairs as captain of detectives. he'd held onto that job past his retirement age and, when they were about to throw him out on his ear, d. f. c. came along and he jumped at it. the captain was not the retiring type. his door was open, and he waved me in. "sit down, forsdon," he said. "welcome to the department of future crime." i sat down, and he looked me over. a lean, hard face, closely cropped white hair, and steely grey eyes that looked through a man, rather than at him. small--five feet seven, a hundred and forty pounds. you looked at him and wondered how he'd ever gotten on the force in the first place, until you saw his eyes. i'd never felt comfortable in his presence. "do you know what we have here, forsdon?" he said. "not exactly." "i don't either--exactly. the brass upstairs thinks it's an expensive toy. it is. but they've given us a trial budget to see if it works, and now it's up to us." i nodded, and waited for him to go on. he packed his pipe, lit it, and then leaned back and let the smoke go out. "we have an invention," he said, "which i don't pretend to understand. you saw the thing?" "yes," i said. it wasn't easy to overlook. "walker calls it cronus--for the greek god of time. it gives us random glances around the city on what looks like a large tv screen--random glances into the _future_!" he paused for dramatic effect, and i probably disappointed him. i already knew that much. "the picture is hazy," he went on, "and sometimes we have a hell of a time figuring out the location of whatever it is we're looking at. we also have trouble pinpointing the time of an event. but we can't deny the potential. we've been in operation for three weeks, and already we've seen half a dozen holdups days before they happened." "at least it's an ideal we've always worked for," i offered. "i mean, to prevent crime, rather than just catch the criminal." "oh!" he said, and went to work on his pipe again. "maybe i didn't make myself clear. we saw the holdups on that screen, but we couldn't _prevent_ a single one. all we managed to do was catch the criminal a few minutes after he had committed the crime. so it raises an interesting question: is it possible to change the future?" "why not?" i said. captain marks thought a moment. "it isn't too critical, where the holdups are concerned. the criminal is caught immediately, the loot is recovered, and the victim goes his way thinking kind thoughts about the efficiency of the police force. but what about assault, or rape, or murder? apprehending the criminal ten minutes later won't be much comfort to the victim. but now that you're here to follow up the leads given us by cronus--well, we'll see what we can do. come on. i want you to meet walker. and cronus!" walker--dr. howard f. walker--was huddled over his creation. there was no doubt about it being his baby, as you could see from the way his hands caressed the dials. he was a gangling-looking man, six feet one, maybe pounds, fifty-odd years old. he had a long neck, an overly pronounced adam's apple, and thinning hair. he wore thick glasses, his face was gentle and dignified, and he looked like a very tired university professor. he didn't hear us come up, and the old man waited quietly until he noticed us. "walker," the old man said, "this is forsdon, our new detective." he nodded at me. "cronus has something," he said. "if i can find it again...." he turned to his dials. "that's one of our problems," captain marks said. "once we focus on a crime, it's sometimes hard to locate it again. the time interval between the present and the time the crime is committed keeps getting less. it takes a different adjustment each time...." his voice trailed away, and i looked from walker to the six-foot-square screen above his head. shadows flitted about on the screen. a female shadow walking along the street holding a child shadow by the hand. shadow aircars moving along jerkily. a row of male shadows grotesquely posed along a bar, their glasses making bright blotches in the picture. a room, and a female shadow moving around a table. the future revealed by cronus was a shadow world and the only way you could tell male from female was by their dress. the scene kept shifting. a park, with trees, and lounging adults, and running children. a room with people seated around a table, a reading room, perhaps at the public library. a large living room, with an old-fashioned fireplace, and a bright blotch that was the fire. another smaller room, a female shadow.... "that's it!" walker said suddenly. he moved a motion picture camera into position, and pressed a button. it whirred softly as we watched. a nondescript living room. a female shadow. she threw up her hands and stood transfixed for a horrible moment or two. a male shadow bounded into the picture--a giant male shadow. she turned to run, and he caught her from behind. his hand moved upward. something glittered in it, and he brought it down. he struck twice, and the female crumpled to the floor. he whirled, ran toward us, and disappeared. the camera ground on, recording the image of that shapeless shadow on the floor. abruptly the scene changed. a restaurant, with crowded tables and jerkily moving robot-servers. walker swore softly and turned off the camera. "that's all i got before," he said. "if i could come on it from a different angle, maybe we could locate the place." "when?" the captain asked. "seven to twelve days." it hit me, then, like a solid wallop on the jaw. i'd been looking into the future. * * * * * "plenty of time," the captain said. "but not much to go on." he looked at me. "what do you think?" "might be able to identify the man," i said. "he'll be well over six feet--wouldn't surprise me if he were six-eight or nine. he'll have the build of a male gorilla. and he limps slightly with his right foot." "not bad. anything else?" "it's an apartment or a hotel room," i said. "i'd guess an apartment. the scanner screen by the door means it's either relatively new, or it's been remodeled. the living room has a corner location, with windows on two sides. it's hard to say for certain, but i believe there's an old-fashioned sofa--one of those with a back on it--along the far wall." walker slumped into a chair. "you make me feel better," he said. "i thought there was next to nothing to go on." captain marks nodded. "but you missed one thing." "what's that?" "our assailant is left-handed. also--the limp may be something temporary. all right, forsdon, it's all yours. seven to twelve days, and you'd better plan on seven." he went back to his office, and i looked at walker. "can you give me any idea at all as to the location?" "i can draw you a circle on the map, but it's only about fifty-fifty that you'll find the place inside the circle." "that's better than nothing." "there is one thing," walker said. "i'd like to have you wear this. everywhere." a band of elastic, with what looked like dark beads placed on it at intervals. "it's an arm band," walker said. "cronus picks up these beads as bright spots. so i'll be able to identify you if you show up on the screen." i hesitated, and he said, "the captain wears one. we know it works, because cronus has picked him up twice." i took the arm band, and slipped it on. i sat down with the map and a directory and worked until a technician came back with the developed film. walker was still perspiring in front of cronus. he hadn't been able to focus on the crime a third time. the captain's door was closed, and his nasal voice was rattling the door as he bellowed into his telephone. i pulled the curtains to darken one corner of the room, and fed the film into a projection machine. i ran the film ten times without coming up with anything new. i couldn't make out the number on the door. i also couldn't decide whether the assailant was a chance prowler or someone known to the victim. i stopped the camera, and made a sketch of the room from what i could make out in the way of furnishings. the captain came barging out of his office, took a quick look at my sketch, and nodded approval. "we'll find the apartment," he said. "then our troubles will really start." i couldn't see that, and i told him so. i figured our troubles would be nearly over if we found the apartment. "you think it's possible to prevent this crime," he said. "i don't. even if we find the apartment and identify the man and woman, the crime is still going to happen." "why?" i said. "look at it this way. if we prevent the crime, it's not going to happen. right?" "right." "and if it's not going to happen, cronus wouldn't show it to us. all you see on that screen is what _will_ happen. as far as cronus is concerned, it already has happened. preventing it is like trying to change the past." "we can try," i said. "yes, we can try. the regular force will help us on this one. a team of detectives is waiting outside. tell them what you want done." i wanted an apartment living room with a corner location and a door scanner. it wasn't as bad as it sounded--the scanner was a new gadget at that time. not many apartment buildings would have it. there was always the chance, of course, that an individual had had one installed on his own, but that was a worry i could postpone. i put in a hectic day of trudging through apartment buildings and squabbling with superintendents, but we found it the next morning, in a stubby little seven-story building on south central. it was one of those apartment buildings that went up way back in , when the city decided it couldn't afford the luxury of open spaces and opened part of old central park to apartment buildings. this one was a midget among the other buildings in that development, but it had been remodeled recently. it had scanner screens. after the usual protests, the superintendent showed me around. most of the occupants weren't home. he let me into a rear apartment on the sixth floor, and i took one look and caught my breath. i pulled out my sketch, though i had it memorized by this time, and moved across the room to get the right angle. the sofa was there--it _was_ an old-fashioned job with a back. what had been a bright blotch in the picture turned out to be a mirror. a blur by the sofa was a low table. a chair was in the wrong place, but that could have been moved. what was i thinking about? _it was going to be moved._ every detail checked. "stella emerson," the superintendent said. "_miss_ stella emerson--i think. she never gave me no trouble. something wrong?" "not a thing," i said. "i want some information from her." "i dunno when she's home." her next-door neighbor did. i went back to headquarters and picked up the loose ends on the attempt to identify our assailant-to-be. no luck. and at six o'clock that evening, i was having a cup of coffee with miss stella emerson. she was the sort of person it's always a joy to interview. alert, understanding, cooperative--none of that petty, temperamental business about invasion of privacy. she was brunette and twenty-six or twenty-seven, maybe five feet four, a hundred and ten pounds. the pounds were well distributed, and she was darned nice looking. she served the coffee on the low table by the sofa, and sat back with her cup in her hand. "you wanted information?" she said. i fingered my own cup, but i didn't lift it. "i'd like to have you think carefully," i said, "and see if you've ever known a man who matches this description. he's big, really big. heavy set. maybe six feet eight or nine. he's left handed. he might walk with a slight limp in his right foot...." she set her cup down with a bang. "why, that sounds like mike--mike gregory. i haven't seen him for years. not since...." i took a deep breath, and wrote "mike gregory" in my notebook. "where was he when you saw him last?" "on mars. i was there for two years with civil service. mike was a sort of general handyman around the administration building." "do you know where he is now?" "as far as i know, he's still on mars!" my coffee was scalding hot, but i didn't notice as i gulped it down. "i'd like to know everything you can tell me about this mike gregory," i said. "may i take you to dinner?" as my dad used to say, there's nothing like mixing business with pleasure. she suggested the place--a queer little restaurant in the basement of a nearby apartment building. there were lighted candles on the tables--the first candles i'd seen since i was a child. the waitresses wore odd costumes with handkerchiefs wrapped around their heads. an old man sat off in one corner scraping on a violin. it was almost weird. but the food was good, and stella emerson was good company. unfortunately, her mind was on mike gregory. "is mike in trouble?" she said. "he always seemed like such a gentle, considerate person." i thought of the knife-wielding shadow, and shuddered. "how well did you know him?" i said. "not too well--he stopped to talk with me now and then. i never saw him except at work." "was he--interested in you?" she blushed. it was also the first blush i had seen in so long i couldn't remember when. i had heard it said that the blush went out when women did away with their two-piece bathing suits and started wearing trunks like the men. i'm telling you, you can't have any idea about what's wrong with our scientific civilization until you've seen a girl blush by candlelight. "i suppose he was," she said. "he kept asking me to go places with him. i felt sorry for him--he seemed such a grotesque person--but i didn't want to encourage him." "you're certain about the limp?" "oh, yes. it was very noticeable." "and about his being left-handed?" she thought for a moment. "no. i'm not certain about that. he could have been, i suppose, but i don't think i ever noticed." "is there anything else you remember about him?" she shook her head slowly. "not much, i'm afraid. he was just a person who came through the office now and then. he had an odd way of talking. he spoke very slowly. he separated his words, just ... like ... this. most of the girls laughed at him, and when they did he'd turn around and walk away without saying anything. and--oh, yes, sometimes he'd talk about california. i guess that was where he was from. i never found out anything about his personal life." "but you didn't laugh at him?" "no. i couldn't laugh at him. he was just too--pathetic." "have you heard from him since you came back?" "he sent me a christmas card once. he didn't know my address on earth, so he sent it to the office on mars so it would be forwarded. it didn't reach me until july!" "how long ago was that?" "it must be four years ago. it was a couple of years after i left mars." i dropped mike gregory, and tried to learn something about stella emerson. she was twenty-eight. she'd worked for two years on mars, and then she came back and got a job as private secretary with a small firm manufacturing plastic textiles. she made enough money for her own needs, and was able to save a little. she liked having a place of her own. she had a sister in boston, and an aunt over in newark, and they visited her occasionally. she led a quiet life, with books, and visits to the art institutes, and working with her hobby, which was photography. it all sounded wonderful to me. the quiet life. a detective gets enough excitement on the job. if he can't relax at home, he's going to be a blight on the mortality tables. we were on our second cup of coffee, by then, and i motioned the old fiddler over to our table. his bloodshot eyes peered out ever a two-week growth of beard. i slipped him a dollar bill. "how about giving us a melody." he gave us a clumsy serenade and stella reacted just as i'd hoped she would. she blushed furiously, and kept right on blushing, and i just leaned back and enjoyed it. i took her back to her apartment, and said a friendly farewell at her door. we shook hands! and she didn't invite me to spend the night with her, which was just as refreshing. i rode the elevator with chiming bells and a wisp of the old man's music floating through my mind. i stepped out on the ground level, walked dreamily out the door and hailed an aircab with my pocket signal. and just as i was about to step in, it stabbed me like the flickering knife on cronus's screen. she was a wonderful girl, and i was falling for her, and in seven to twelve days--no, nearer five to ten days, now--she was going to be murdered. "something wrong?" the driver said. i flashed my credentials. "police headquarters," i said. "use the emergency altitude." * * * * * walker was crouched in front of cronus, perspiring, as usual, but looking infinitely more tired. no matter what time i came in, he always seemed to be there, or there was a note saying he was down in his lab in the sub-basement. "i haven't found it again," he said. "that's all right. we can manage with what we have." he frowned irritably. "it's important, confound it. this is just an experimental model, and it's maddeningly inefficient. with money and research facilities, we could produce one that would really work, but we can't get that kind of support by predicting a few piddling holdups. but a murder, now--that would make someone sit up and take notice." "stop worrying about your dratted cronus," i snapped. "i don't give a damn about that pile of junk. there's a girl's life to be saved." it was unfair, but he didn't object. "yes, of course," he said. "the girl's life--but if i can't get more information...." "i've found the apartment," i told him, "and i've found the girl. but the man is supposed to be on mars. it doesn't figure, but it's something to work on." i called the captain, and gave him my report. if he resented my bothering him at home, he didn't show it. any wheel i could get my fingers on i set turning, and then i went home. i won't pretend that i slept. by morning we had a complete report from the colonial administration on michael rolland gregory. fingerprints, photos, detailed description, complete with limp and left-handedness. the works. also, the added information that he'd resigned his civil service job eight months before and had left immediately for earth, on a dawn liner scheduled to land at san francisco. i swore savagely, got off an urgent message to san francisco, and left for a dinner date with stella emerson. and another handshake at her apartment door. san francisco did a thorough job, but it took time--two more days. michael rolland gregory had hung around for a while, living in run-down rooming houses, and holding a series of odd jobs. two months before he had disappeared. "he could be anywhere by now," i told the captain. "including here in new york," the captain said dryly. two to seven days. i took stella back to her apartment after our dinner date, and in front of the door i said, "stella, i like you." she blushed wonderfully. "i like you too, jim." "then do me a favor--a very special favor." her blush deepened, with an overlay of panic. "i'd--like to, jim. because i--like you. but i can't. it's hard to explain, but i've always told myself that unless i marry a man...." i leaned against the wall and laughed helplessly while her eyes widened in amazement. then i dispensed with the handshaking. she clung to me, and it might have been her first kiss. in fact, it was. "i don't just like you, darling," i said. "i love you. and that wasn't the favor i was going to ask. you said you have an aunt over in newark. i want you to stay with her for a while--for a week or so." "but--why?" "will you trust me? i can't tell you anything except that you're in danger here." "you mean--mike?" "i'm afraid so." "it's hard to believe that mike would want to harm me. but if you think it's important...." "i do. will you call your aunt, now, and make the arrangements? i'll take you over tonight." she packed some things, and i took her to newark in an aircab. her aunt was hospitable and cooperative, albeit a little confused. i checked her apartment thoroughly. i was taking no chances that the aunt's living room could be the potential scene of the crime. it wasn't--no similarity. "promise me," i said, "that you won't go back to your apartment for any reason until i tell you it's all right." "i promise. but i may need some more things." "make a list, and i'll have a police woman pick them up for you." "all right." i arranged with the superintendent of her apartment building to have the lights in her apartment turned on each evening, and turned off at an appropriate time. i put a stakeout on her apartment building, and on her aunt's. i got a detective assigned to shadow her, though she didn't know it, of course. then it was zero to five days, and i was quietly going nuts. zero to four days. i walked into the d. f. c. room, and walker swarmed all over me. "i found it again," he said. "anything new?" "no. just the same thing. exactly the same." "when?" "two to three days." i sat down wearily, and stared at cronus. the screen was blank. "how did you manage to invent that thing?" i said. "i didn't really invent it. i just--discovered it. i was tinkering with a tv set, and i changed some circuits and added a lot of gadgets, just for the hell of it. the pictures i got were darned poor, but they didn't seem to be coming from any known station--or combination of stations, since they kept changing. that was interesting, so i kept working on it. then one day the screen showed me a big aircar smashup. there were about ten units involved, and i told myself, 'boy, these class d pictures are really overdoing it.' about a week later i opened my morning paper, and there was the same smashup on page one. it took a long time to get anybody interested." he stopped suddenly as the captain came charging out of his office. "brooklyn," he called. "gregory was living in a rooming house in brooklyn. he left three weeks ago." * * * * * a lead with a dead end. no one knew where he'd gone. it proved that he was somewhere in the vicinity of new york city, but i don't think any of us ever doubted that. "one thing is interesting," the captain said. "he's using his own name. no reason why he shouldn't, of course. he's not a criminal--but he is a potential criminal, and _he doesn't know that_." i saw, suddenly, that we had a double problem. we had to protect stella from gregory, but we also had to protect gregory from himself. if we could find him. "there's not much we can do," i said, "but keep on looking." it was what walker called the critical period. something had to happen on this day or the next, or cronus was a monkey's dutch uncle. "if we could only pick gregory up and hold him for a couple of days, maybe we could beat this," i told the captain. "we've eliminated stella emerson, we've locked the apartment, and caging gregory should snap the last thread." he laughed sarcastically. "you think that would solve the problem? listen. we spotted a holdup, and i recognized the crook. he had a long record. i had him picked up, and he was carrying a gun so we slapped him in jail on a concealed weapons charge. he escaped, got another gun, and committed the holdup right on schedule. i'm telling you, cronus shows exactly how the future is. we can't change it. i'm working as hard as anyone else to prevent this, but i know for a certainty that sometime today or tomorrow the girl and gregory are going to meet in that apartment--or in one exactly like it." "we're going to change it this time," i said. on my way out i stopped for a good look at cronus. nothing but a monster would give you a murderer, and a victim, and the place and approximate time, and make you completely helpless to do anything about it. i felt like giving cronus a firm kick in a vital part of its anatomy. i called off my dinner date with stella and prowled around manhattan looking for a big man with a pronounced limp. one speck of dust among the millions. i noticed with satisfaction that i was not alone in my search. aircars were swooping in low for a quick look at pedestrians. foot patrolmen were scrutinizing every passerby. and detectives would be making the rounds of the rooming houses and hotels with photographs. cab and bus drivers would be alerted. for a man who had no reason to hide, michael rolland gregory was doing an expert job of keeping out of sight. i radioed police headquarters at : p.m., and the captain's voice exploded at me. "where the hell have you been? the stakeout at the girl's apartment got gregory. they're bringing him in." i cut off without any of the formalities, and sprinted. i tore down the corridor to the d. f. c. room, and burst in on what might have been a funeral celebration. walker sat with his face in his hands, and the captain was pacing in a tight circle. "he got away," the captain snarled. "snapped the handcuffs like toothpicks, beat up his escort and ran. the man must have the strength of a utility robot." "how did they happen to pick him up?" i wanted to know. "he came strolling down the street and started to go into the apartment building. completely innocent about the whole thing, of course. he didn't have any idea we were looking for him." "he has now," i said. "it's going to be great sport locating him again." we had a small army loose in the area where gregory escaped, but for all they found he might have burrowed into the pavement. i called stella and asked her to stay home from work the next day. i got the stakeout on her aunt's apartment doubled. i was up at dawn, prowling the streets, riding in patrolling aircars, and i suppose generally making a nuisance of myself with calls to headquarters. we put in a miserable day, and gregory might have been hiding on mars, for all the luck we had. i had my evening meal at a little sandwich shop, and did a leisurely foot patrol along the street by stella's apartment building. the stakeout was on the job, and the superintendent had stella's lights on. i stood for a moment in the doorway, watching the few pedestrians, and then i signaled an aircab. "i'd like to circle around here a bit," i said. "sure thing," the cabbie said. we crisscrossed back and forth above the streets, and i squinted at pedestrians and watched the thin traffic pattern. fifteen minutes later we were back by the apartment building. "circle low around the building," i said. "oh, no! want me to lose my license? i can't go out of the air lanes." "you can this time," i said. "police." he looked at my credentials, and grunted. "why didn't you say so?" there was a narrow strip of lawn behind the building, with a couple of trees, and then a dimly-lit alley. the cabbie handed me a pair of binoculars, and i strained my eyes on the sprawling shadows. i couldn't see anything suspicious, but i decided it might be worth a trip on foot. the third time around i glanced at stella's lighted windows--the rear ones--and gasped. a dark shadow clung to the side of the building, edging slowly along the ledge towards her window. gregory. "see that?" i said to the cabbie. as we watched, he got the window open, and disappeared into the apartment. i tried to radio the men on the stakeout, and couldn't rouse them. i called headquarters. both walker and captain marks were out. they would be back in a few minutes. but i didn't have minutes left. "skip it," i said. i snapped out a description of the situation, and cut off. "can you get close enough to get me through that window?" i asked the cabbie. "i can try," he said. "but watch your step, fellow. it's a long drop." he hovered close, and i grabbed the edge of the window and pulled myself through. gregory faced me across the living room, a bewildered, panicky look on his huge, child-like face. i was thinking, how stupid can we get? from the way he came into cronus's picture we should have known he didn't come through the door. stella had come through the door, and we just assumed he was already in the room. but who would have thought gregory could make like a human fly? "all right, gregory," i said. "you're under arrest." tears streaked his face. his jaw moved, but no sound came out. suddenly i saw how we had blundered. this grotesquely oversized child meant no harm to anyone. stella was the only person he'd ever known who treated him like a human being, and he wanted to see her again. for some reason he couldn't understand, the police were trying to prevent that. suddenly the entire universe was against him, even stella, and he was frightened. and dangerous. he lunged at me like a pile driver, and forced me back towards the open window. i got my gun out, and he just casually knocked it out of my hand. he had me on the window ledge, forcing me back and all i could see were the stars out in space. then the apartment door opened and closed and gregory glanced back over his shoulder. i screamed. "run, stella! run--" then the night air was whistling past me. i bounced off an awning, crashed into the branches of a tree, struggled frantically for a hold, and fell through. from the window above came a piercing scream.... * * * * * the doctor had a face like an owl, and he bent over me, making funny clucking noises with his tongue. "there we are," he said, when he saw my eyes open. "not bad at all." "what's good about it?" i said. "young man, you fell six stories, and all you have is a broken leg and assorted bruises. you ask me what's good about it?" "you wouldn't understand," i said. "beat it." stella's scream still rang in my ears. i twisted, and felt the heavy cast on my left leg. my mood merged and blended with the dull grey of the hospital room. a nurse came tiptoing in, and smiled blandly when she saw i was awake. "you have some visitors," she said. "do you want to see them?" i knew it was the captain. i hated to face him, but i said, "let's get it over with." the captain loomed in the doorway, backed away, and came in again. and ahead of him walked stella. a different stella--face pale and distorted, eyes registering shock and grief, but alive. but very much alive. i started to get up, and the nurse placed a firm hand on each shoulder and held me to the bed. "not so fast, sonny boy," she said. captain marks moved up a chair for stella. "jim," she said. her voice broke. "i'll tell him," the captain said. "it seems that miss emerson has a sister living in boston. she didn't know anything about our problem, and she came down this evening for a visit. she had a key to miss emerson's apartment, and she walked in just at the right time to play a leading role in cronus's drama." "was she--" "no. thankfully, no. her condition is serious but she'll be all right again. the knife missed a vital spot by a fraction." i relaxed. "what happened to gregory?" "he tried to go out the way he came in. there wasn't any tree to break his fall. and one other thing. i have an urgent message for you from walker." i glanced at the slip of paper. "jim--for god's sake, stay out of aircars!" "cronus showed us your fall half an hour before it happened. from our angle, it looked as if you fell out of the aircab that was hovering over the building. some time in the next twenty-four hours, walker calculated, but we couldn't reach you." "it wouldn't have made any difference," i said. "you know yourself...." "yes," he said. "i know." his voice rambled on, while my eyes met stella's. "so cronus can show us the future," i heard him say, "but he can't change it, and neither can we." "cronus changed mine," i said, still looking at stella. the captain took the hint, and left. five minutes later the phone rang, and i reached around stella to answer it. it was walker, and stella held her face close to mine and listened. "just called to offer my congratulations," walker said. "congratulations for what?" "for your wedding. cronus just spotted it." i swore, but i kept it under my breath. "i haven't even asked the girl," i said, "and don't tell me i'm wearing that stupid arm band at my wedding, because i'm not." "no, you're on crutches. but the captain is standing up with you, and he's wearing his." "all right," i said. "when is this glad event going to take place?" "four to eight days." i slammed down the receiver, and kissed stella's blushing face. "cronus says we're getting married in four to eight days, and this is one time that monstrosity's going to be wrong. we'll get married tomorrow." "all right, jim, if you want to. but...." "but what?" "this is may twenty-eighth, and i want to be a june bride." we were married five days later, and we went to arizona on our honeymoon. i'd done some checking, and i knew arizona was well outside of cronus's range. transcriber's note: italic text has been marked with _underscores_. subscript numbers are displayed as _{ } as in the equation in chapter vii. please see the end of this book for further notes. [illustration: wilbur wright who with his younger brother, orville wright, invented the first practical aeroplane. wilbur wright's death of typhoid fever in the summer of was an irreparable loss to aviation.] the boy's book of new inventions by harry e. maule [illustration] many illustrations garden city new york doubleday, page & company _copyright, , by_ doubleday, page & company _all rights reserved including that of translation into foreign languages, including the scandinavian_ to my mother in appreciation of her broad interest in all the activities of the world _acknowledgments_ _the thanks of the publishers and author are due a great many individuals and publications for aid in securing photographs and data used in the preparation of this volume._ _although space prevents giving the names of all, opportunity is here taken to express to each the heartiest appreciation of their generous help and valuable suggestions._ _more than to all of these are my thanks due my wife, edna o'dell maule, for her constant aid and coöperation._ preface in the preparation of this book the author has tried to give an interesting account of the invention and workings of a few of the machines and mechanical processes that are making the history of our time more wonderful and more dramatic than that of any other age since the world began. for heroic devotion to science in the face of danger and the scorn of their fellowmen, there is no class who have made a better record than inventors. most inventions, too, are far more than scientific calculation, and it is the human story of the various factors in this great age of invention that is here set forth for boy readers. new discoveries, or new applications of forces known to exist, illustrating some broad principle of science, have been the chief concern of the author in choosing the subjects to be taken up in the various chapters, so that it has been necessary to limit the scope of the book, except in one or two instances, to inventions that have come into general use within the last ten years. in "the boy's book of inventions," "the second boy's book of inventions," and "stories of invention," mr. baker and mr. doubleday have told the stories of many of the greatest inventions up to , including those of the gasoline motor, the wireless telegraph, the dirigible balloon, photography, the phonograph, submarine boats, etc. consequently for the most part the important developments in some of these machines are treated briefly in the final chapters, while the earlier chapters are devoted to new inventions, which, if made before , did not receive general notice until after that time. although the subjects treated in the earlier chapters are here spoken of as new inventions, all of them are not recent in the strictest sense of the word, for men had been working on the central idea of some of them for many years before they actually were developed to a stage where they could be patented and sent out into the world. h. e. m. contents chapter page i. the aeroplane how a scientist who liked boys and a boy who liked science followed the fascinating story of the invention of the aeroplane. ii. aeroplane development how the inventors carried on the art of aviation until it became the greatest of all sports and then a great industry. iii. aeroplanes to-day our boy friend and the scientist look over modern aeroplanes and find great improvements over those of a few years ago. a model aeroplane. iv. artificial lightning made and harnessed to man's use our friends investigate nikola tesla's invention for the wireless transmission of power, by which he hopes to encircle the earth with limitless electrical power, make ocean and air travel absolutely safe, and revolutionize land traffic. v. the motion picture machine machines that make sixteen tiny pictures per second and show them at the same rate magnified several thousand times. motion pictures in school. our boy friend sees the whole process of making a motion picture play. vi. adventures with motion pictures perilous and exciting times in obtaining motion pictures. how the machine came to be invented and the newest developments in cinematography. vii. steel boiled like water and cut like paper our boy friend sees how science has turned the greatest known heats to the everyday use of mankind. viii. the tesla turbine dr. nikola tesla tells of his new steam turbine engine, a model of which, the size of a derby hat, develops more than horse power. ix. the romance of concrete the one piece house of thomas a. edison and other uses of the newest and yet the oldest building material of civilized peoples, seen by the boy and his scientific friend. x. the latest automobile engine our boy friend and the scientist look over the field of gasoline engines and see some big improvements over those of a few years ago. xi. the wireless telegraph up to the minute the scientist talks of amateur wireless operators. the great development of wireless that has enabled it to save three thousand lives. long distance work of the modern instruments. xii. more marvels of science color photography, the tungsten electric lamp, the pulmotor, and other new inventions investigated by our boy friend. list of illustrations wilbur wright _frontispiece_ facing page the first wright aeroplane the first wright glider the second wright glider a long glide motor of the wright biplane a -cylinder, -horsepower antoinette motor an -cylinder, -horsepower curtiss motor standard gnome aeroplane motor a -cylinder, -horsepower gnome motor testing a gnome motor on a gun carriage model aeroplane fliers a modern college man's glider otto lilienthal making a flight in his glider the chanute type glider the herring glider an early helicopter prof. samuel pierpont langley sir hiram maxim octave chanute langley's steam model the maxim aeroplane medals won by the wright brothers the first santos-dumont aeroplane the cross-channel type blériot monoplane a voisin biplane glenn curtiss about to make a flight henri farman starting aloft with two passengers louis blériot glenn curtiss making a flight in the _june bug_ orville wright making a flight at fort myer the first letter ever written aboard an aeroplane in flight the goddess of liberty first actual war expedition of an aeroplane war manoeuvres harry n. atwood arriving at chicago finish of atwood's st. louis to new york flight starting with the aeroplane mail chavez on his fatal flight across the alps the late calbraith p. rodgers, trans-continental flier the world's longest glide the end of a glide landing on a warship boarding a battleship the curtiss flying boat the flying boat starting glenn curtiss allowing his hydro-aeroplane to float on the water after alighting hydro-aeroplanes at monte carlo the wright biplane standard curtiss biplane curtiss steering gear standard farman biplane farman with enclosed nose a modern blériot a standard blériot passenger-carrying blériot the antoinette monoplane the nieuport monoplane like a bolt of lightning dr. nikola tesla doctor tesla's first power plant electricity enough to kill an army a battle scene in the studio the men who gave the world motion pictures the motion-picture projector a section of motion-picture film making a motion-picture play in the studio a motion-picture studio a realistic film of washington crossing the delaware the corsican brothers--a famous trick film the guillotine a romance of the ice fields the spanish cavalier all ready for a thermit weld thermit in eruption dr. hans goldschmidt thermit weld on sternframe of a steamship a large shaft welded by the thermit process cutting up the old battleship _maine_ cutting away the decks an oxy-acetylene gas torch weld tiny -horsepower turbine the tesla turbine pump the marvellous tesla turbine thomas a. edison and his concrete furniture model of edison poured concrete house what one set of boys did with concrete massive concrete work a level stretch of catskill aqueduct huge concrete moulds at panama concrete locks on the panama canal the world-wide use of concrete the catskill aqueduct the aqueduct deep under ground the silent knight motor a portable army wireless outfit the wireless in the navy the navy wireless school an amateur wireless outfit list of diagrams a simple model aeroplane diagram of the earth a motion-picture camera a motion-picture printing machine diagram of the tesla turbine the curtiss turbine marconi transmitter layout marconi detector layout the pulmotor the boy's book of new inventions chapter i the aeroplane how a scientist who liked boys and a boy who liked science followed the fascinating story of the invention of the aeroplane. when, with engine throbbing, propellers whirling, and every wire vibrating, the first successful aeroplane shot forward into the teeth of a biting december gale and sailed steadily over the bleak north carolina sand dunes for twelve seconds, the third great epoch in the age of invention finally was ushered in. first, man conquered the land with locomotive, electricity, steam plow, telegraph, telephone, wireless and a thousand other inventions. almost at the same time he conquered the ocean with steamship, cable, and wireless. now, through the invention of the aeroplane, he is making a universal highway of the air. such was the way the real beginning of aviation was summarized one day to a bright young man who spent all his spare time out of school at the laboratory of his good friend the scientist. always in good humour, and with a world of knowledge of things that delight a boy's heart, the man was never too deep in experiments to answer any questions about the great inventions that have made this world of ours such a very interesting place. the laboratory was filled with models of machines, queer devices for scientific experiment, a litter of delicate tools, shelves of test tubes, bottles filled with strange smelling fluids, and rows upon rows of books that looked dull enough, but which the scientist explained to the boy contained some of the most fascinating stories ever told by man. coming back to aeroplanes the boy said, "but my father says that aviation is so new it is still very imperfect." "that is true," answered the scientist, taking a crucible out of the flame of his bunsen burner and hanging it in the rack to cool, "but it has seen a marvellous development in the last few years. "it was less than ten years ago--the end of , to be exact--that orville and wilbur wright first sailed their power-driven aeroplane," he continued, "but so rapid has been the progress of aviation that nowadays we are not surprised when a flight from the atlantic to the pacific is accomplished. it seems a tragic thing that wilbur wright should have been called by death, as he was in may, , by typhoid fever, for he was at the very zenith of his success and probably would have carried on his work to a far, far greater development." [illustration: the first wright aeroplane this was the machine that made the first successful flight in the history of the world, of a power-driven, man-carrying aeroplane.] [illustration: the first wright glider this device was first flown as a kite without a pilot, and the levers worked by ropes from the ground, to test the principles.] [illustration: the second wright glider the machine was launched into the air from the top of a sand dune against a high wind, and proved a great success.] [illustration: a long glide wright glider in full flight over kill devil hill, n. c.] after a little pause the scientist continued, saying that, at the time the wright brothers made their first flight they were experimenting with what we now know as a biplane, or chanute type glider, at kill devil hill, near kitty hawk, n. c. it is a desolate wind-swept spot on the coast where only a little rank marsh grass grows on the sheltered sides of the great sand dunes. the brothers chose this barren place for their experiments because here the winds were the most favourable for their purpose. they were not ready for their first attempt to fly in a motor-propelled machine until december th, and though they sent out a general invitation to the few people living in that section, only five braved the cold wind. three of these were life savers from the kill devil hill station near by. doubtless the other people had heard of the numerous failures of flying machines and expected the promised exhibition of the silent young men who had spent the autumn in their neighbourhood, to be just another such. they were sadly mistaken, for they missed a spectacle that never before had been seen in all the history of the world. nowadays we are familiar with the sight of an aeroplane skimming over the ground and then soaring into the sky, but to the five people who, besides the inventors, were present it undoubtedly was almost beyond belief. the brothers had installed a specially constructed gasoline engine in their glider, and after thoroughly testing it they carried the machine out on to a level stretch of sand, turned it so that it would face the wind, and while the life savers held it in place the brothers went over every wire and stay. they felt perfectly confident that the machine would fly, but they made no predictions, and in fact spoke but few words between themselves or to the five men gathered about the aeroplane. the machine was not the smoothly finished one we know to-day as the wright biplane. the operator lay flat on his face on the lower plane, the elevating rudder composed of two smaller planes stuck out in front, instead of behind, and there were several other important differences in design, but in principle it was the same machine that has carried the fame of the american inventors around the world. finally the operator took his place, the engine was started, the signal was given, the men holding the machine dropped back and it started out along the rail from which it was launched. it ran along the track to the end, directly against the wind, and rose into the air. it meant that the air had been turned into a highway, but the wright brothers were very modest in setting down an account of their achievement. "the first flight," they wrote, "lasted only twelve seconds," a flight very modest compared with that of birds, but it was, nevertheless, the first in the history of the world in which a machine carrying a man had raised itself by its own power into the air in free flight, had sailed forward on a level course without reduction of speed, and had finally landed without being wrecked. the second and third flights (the same day) were a little longer, and the fourth lasted fifty-nine seconds, covering a distance of feet over the ground against a twenty-mile wind. "after the last flight the machine was carried back to camp and set down in what was thought to be a safe place. but a few minutes later, when engaged in conversation about the flights, a sudden gust of wind struck the machine and started to turn it over. all made a rush to stop it, but we were too late. mr. daniels, a giant in stature and strength, was lifted off his feet, and, falling inside between the surfaces, was shaken about like a rattle in a box as the machine rolled over and over. he finally fell out upon the sand with nothing worse than painful bruises, but the damage to the machine caused a discontinuance of experiments." "thus," said the scientist, "we see the record aeroplane flight for was feet while in a wright biplane flew more than , miles from the atlantic to the pacific. in ten years more we may look back to our monoplanes and biplanes of to-day in the same way we do now on the first cumbersome 'horseless carriages' that were replaced by the high-powered automobiles we know now. some experts in aeronautics say that we may even see the complete passing of the monoplane and biplane types in favour of some now unknown kind of aeroplane." who knows but that the man to invent the perfect aeroplane will be one of the boy readers of this! everywhere the making and flying of model aeroplanes by boys is looked upon, not only as play, but as a valuable and instructive sport for boys and young men of any age. one of the indications of this may be seen in the public interest taken in the tournaments of boys' model aeroplane clubs. not only do crowds of grown people with no technical knowledge of aeroplanes attend the tournaments, but also older students of aviation who realize that among the young model fliers there may be another orville or wilbur wright, a blériot, or a farman. so important is this knowledge of aviation considered that the principles and the practical construction of model aeroplanes are taught in many of the public schools. instead of spending all their school hours in the study of books, the boys now spend a part of their time in the carpenter shop making the model aeroplanes which they enter in the tournaments. of course, dozens of types of models are turned out, some good and some bad, but in the latter part of chapter iii is given a brief outline for the construction of one of the simplest and most practicable model aeroplanes. not only the schools but the colleges also have taken up aviation, and nearly every college has its glider club, and the students work many hours making the gliders with which they contest for distance records with other clubs. as a consequence aviation has become a regular department of college athletics, and intercollegiate glider meets are a common thing. the epochs of invention go hand in hand with the history of civilization, for it has been largely through invention that man has been able to progress to better methods of living. in the olden days, when there were few towns and every one lived in a castle, or on the land owned by the lord of the castle, war was the chief occupation, and the little communities made practically everything they used by hand. when they went abroad they either walked or rode horses, or went in clumsy ships. pretty soon men began to invent better ways of doing things; one a better way of making shoes, another a better way of making armour, and the people for miles around would take to going to these men for their shoes and armour. towns sprang up around these expert workmen, and more inventions came, bringing more industries to the towns. inventions made industry bigger, and war more disastrous because of the improvement invention made in weapons. then came inventions that changed the manner of living for all men--the machines for making cloth, which did away with the spinning-wheels of our great-grandmothers, and created the great industry of the cotton and woollen mills; the inventions for making steel that brought about the great steel mills, and enabled the armies of the world to use the great guns we know to-day, and the battleships to carry such heavy armour plate; the steam locomotive that enabled man to travel swiftly from one city to another; the steamship that brought all the nations close together; the telegraph, cable, telephone, and wireless, that made communication over any distance easy; the submarine that made war still more dangerous; and finally the aeroplane that makes a highway of the air in which our earth revolves. but even from the time of the ancient greeks and romans man had tried to fly. every nation had its list of martyrs who gave their lives to the cause of aviation. in modern times, too, many attempts had been made to discover the secret of flight. otto lilienthal, a german, called the "flying man," had made important discoveries about air currents while gliding through the air from hills and walls by means of contrivances like wings fitted to his person. others had made fairly successful gliders, and prof. samuel pierepont langley of the smithsonian institution in washington actually had made a model aeroplane that flew for a short distance. also, clement ader, a frenchman, had sailed a short way in a power flier, and sir hiram maxim, the english inventor, had built a gigantic steam-driven aeroplane that gave some evidences of being able to fly. but these men were laughed at as cranks, while the wrights kept their secret until they were sure of the success of their biplane. however, the question as to who first rode in a power-driven flier under the control of the operator still is the subject of a world-wide controversy. it was as boys that the wright brothers first began experiments with flying, and though they have received the highest praises from the whole world, orville still is, and until his death wilbur was, the same quiet, modest man who made bicycles in dayton, and the surviving brother of the pair is working harder than ever. in telling the story of their own early play, that later proved to be one of the most important things they ever did, the wright brothers wrote for the _century magazine_: "we devoted so much of our attention to kite-flying that we were regarded as experts. but as we became older we had to give up the sport as unbecoming to boys of our age." as every boy knows, kite-flying was one of the early methods of experimenting with air currents and greatly aided the scientists in their exploration of the ocean of air that surrounds the world, eddying and swirling up and down, running smoothly and swiftly here, coming to a dead stop there--but always different from the minute before. but before the wright brothers gave up flying kites they had played with miniature flying machines. they were known then as "helicopteres," but the wright brothers called them "bats," as the toys came nearer resembling bats than anything else the boys had seen about their home in dayton, ohio. most boys probably have played with something of the kind themselves, and maybe have made some. they were made of a light framework of bamboo formed into two screws driven in opposite directions by twisted rubber bands something like the motors on boys' model aeroplanes of to-day. when the rubber bands unwound the "bats" flew upward. "a toy so delicate lasted only a short time in our hands," continues the story of the wright brothers, "but its memory was abiding. we began building them ourselves, making each one larger than that preceding. but the larger the 'bat' the less it flew. we did not know that a machine having only twice the size of another would require eight times the power. we finally became discouraged." this was away back in , and it was not until that the wright brothers actually began the experiments that led to their world-famous success. strangely enough it all started when orville, the younger of the two, was sick with typhoid fever, the same disease that caused wilbur wright's death. according to all accounts, the elder brother, having remained away from their bicycle factory in order to nurse orville, was reading aloud. among other things he read to orville the account of the tragic death of otto lilienthal, the german "flying man" who was killed while making a glide. [illustration: motor of the wright biplane] [illustration: a -cylinder -horsepower antoinette motor a frequent prize winner.] [illustration: an -cylinder o-horsepower curtiss motor] the gnome motor [illustration: standard gnome aeroplane motor, showing interior.] [illustration: photo by philip w. wilcox. fourteen-cylinder -horsepower gnome motor. used on many racing aeroplanes.] [illustration: courtesy of the _scientific american_ testing a gnome motor on a gun carriage. so great is the power of the engine that the tongue of the heavy carriage is buried in the ground to hold it in place.] "why can't we make a glider that would be a success?" the brothers asked each other. they were sure they could, and they got so excited in talking it over that it nearly brought back orville's fever. when he got well they studied aeronautics with the greatest care, approaching the subject with all the thoroughness that later made their name a byword in aviation for care and deliberation. neither of these two young men was over demonstrative, and neither was lacking in the ability for years and years of the hardest kind of work, but together they made an ideal team for taking up the invention of something that all the scientists of the world hitherto had failed to develop. wilbur was called by those who knew him one of the most silent men that ever lived, as he never uttered a word unless he had something to say, and then he said it in the most direct and the briefest possible manner. he had an unlimited capacity for hard work, nerves of steel and the kind of daring that makes the aviator face death with pleasure every minute of the time he is in the air. no less daring is orville, the younger of the two, who is a little bit more talkative and more full of enthusiasm than was wilbur. he was the man the reporters always went to when they knew the elder brother would never say a word, and his geniality never failed them. he also is a true scientist and tireless in the work of developing the art of aviation. first, the brothers read all the learned and scientific books of professor langley, and octave chanute, the two first great american pioneers in aviation, and the reports of lilienthal, maxim, and the brilliant french scientists. they saw, as did professor langley, that it was out of the question to try to make a machine that would fly by moving its wings like a bird. then they began with great kites, and next made gliders--that is, aeroplanes without engines--for the brothers knew that there was no use in trying to make a machine-driven, heavier-than-air flier before they had tested out practically all the theories of the earlier scientists. they fashioned their gliders of two parallel main planes like those of octave chanute. the width, length, distance between planes, rudders, auxiliary planes and their placing were all problems for the most careful study. it was very discouraging work, for no big thing comes easily. as their experiments proceeded they said they found one rule after another incorrect, and they finally discarded most of the books the scientists had written. then with characteristic patience they started in to work out the problem from first principles. "we had taken aeronautics merely as a sport," they wrote later. "we reluctantly entered upon the scientific side of it. but we soon found the work so fascinating that we were drawn into it deeper and deeper." the wrights knew that an oblong plane--that is, a long narrow one--driven through the air broadside first is more evenly supported by the air than would be a plane of the same area but square in shape. the reason for this is that the air gives the greatest amount of support to a plane at the entering edge, as it is called in aviation--that is, the edge where it is advancing into the air. a little way from the edge the air begins to slip off at the back and sides and the support decreases. thus, it will be seen that if the rear surface, which gives little support because the air slips away from under it, is put at the sides, giving the plane a greater spread from tip to tip and not so much depth from front to rear, the plane is more efficient--that is, more stable, less subject to drifting, and better able to meet the varying wind currents. scientists call this proportion of the spread to the depth the aspect ratio of planes. for instance, if a plane has a spread of feet and a depth of feet it is said to have an aspect ratio of _ _. this is a very important consideration in the designing of an aeroplane, because aspect ratio is a factor in the speed. in general, high speed machines have a smaller aspect ratio than slower ones. the aspect ratio also has an important bearing on the general efficiency of an aeroplane, but the lifting power of a plane is figured as proportionate to its total area. in order to hold the air, and keep its supporting influence, aviators have tried methods of enclosing their planes like box kites, and putting edges on the under sides. this latter was found a mistake because the edge tended to decrease the speed of the flier and did more harm than the good obtained through keeping the air. in aviation, as we know it to-day, aeroplane builders believe in giving their planes a slight arch upward and backward from the entering edge, letting it reach its highest point about one third of the way back and then letting it slope down to the level of the rear edge gradually. this curve, which is called the camber, is mathematically figured out with the most painstaking care, and was one of the things the wright brothers worked out very carefully in their early models. also, planes are driven through the air at an angle--that is, with the entering edge higher than the rear edge--because the upward tilt gives the air current a chance to get under the plane and support it. this angle is called by the scientists the angle of incidence and is very important because of its relation to the lifting powers of the planes. [illustration: model aeroplane fliers every fair saturday the model makers and fliers spend in the parks either practising for or holding flight tournaments.] [illustration: a modern college man's glider] [illustration: otto lilienthal making a flight in his glider] another one of the difficult problems the inventors had to struggle with was the balance of their fliers. before the wright brothers flew, it was thought that one of the best ways was to incline the planes upward from the centre--that is--make them in the shape of a gigantic and very broad v. this is known in science as a dihedral angle. the idea was that the centre of gravity, or the point of the machine which is heaviest and which seeks to fall to earth first through the attraction of gravitation, should be placed immediately under the apex of the v. the scientists thought that the v then would keep the machine balanced as the hull of a ship is balanced in the water by the heavy keel at the bottom. the wrights decided that this might be true from a scientific point of view, but that the dihedral angle kept the machine wobbling, first to one side and then righting itself, and then to the other side and righting itself. this was a practical fault and they built their flier without any attempt to have it right itself, but rather arched the planes from tip to tip as well as from front to rear. the winglike gliders of lilienthal and chanute had been balanced by the shifting of the operator's body, but the wrights wanted a much bigger and safer machine than either of these pioneers had flown. in their own words, the wrights "wished to employ some system whereby the operator could vary at will the inclination of different parts of the wings, and thus obtain from the wind forces to restore the balance which the wind itself had disturbed." this they later accomplished by a device for warping or bending their planes, but in their first glider there was no warping device and the horizontal front rudder was the only controlling device used. this latter device on the first glider was made of a smaller plane, oblong-shaped and set parallel to, and in front of, the main planes. it was adjustable through the system of levers fixed for the operator, who in those days lay flat on the front plane. thus the two main planes and the adjustable plane in front with stays, struts, etc., made up the first wright glider. the wright brothers took their machine to kitty hawk, n. c., in october, , presumably for their vacation. they went there because the government weather bureau told them that the winds blew stronger and steadier there than at any other point in the united states. also it was lonely enough to suit the wrights' desire for privacy. it was their plan to fly the contrivance like a boy does a huge box kite, and it looked something like one. a man, however, was to be aboard and operate the levers. according to the wright brothers' story the winds were not high enough to lift the heavy kite with a man aboard, but it was flown without the operator and the levers worked from the ground by ropes. a new machine the next year showed little difference of design, but the surface of the planes was greater. still the flier failed to lift an operator. at this time the wright brothers were working with octave chanute, the chicago inventor, engineer and scientist whom they had invited to kitty hawk to advise them. after many discussions with chanute they decided that they would learn the laws of aviation by their own experience and lay aside for a time the scientific data on the subject. they began coasting down the air from the tops of sand dunes, and after the first few glides were able to slide three hundred feet through the air against a wind blowing twenty-seven miles an hour. the reason their glider flights were made against the wind was because the wind passing swiftly under the planes had the same effect as if the machine was moving forward at a good clip, for the faster the machine moves, or the faster the air passes under it, the easier it remains aloft. in other words, no one part of the air was called upon to support the planes for any length of time, but each part supported the planes for a very short time. for instance, if you are skating on thin ice you run much less danger of breaking through if you skate very fast, because no one part of the ice is called upon to support you for long. in the wright brothers were approaching their goal. slowly and with rare patience they were accumulating and tabulating all the different things different kinds of planes would do under different circumstances. in the fall of that year they made about one thousand gliding flights, several of which carried them six hundred feet or more. others were made in high winds and showed the inventors that their control devices were all right. the next year, , which always will be remembered as the banner one in the history of aviation, the brothers, confident that they were about to succeed in their long search for the secret of the birds, continued their soaring or gliding. several times they remained aloft more than a minute, above one spot, supported by a high, steady wind passing under their planes. "little wonder," wrote the wright brothers a few years, later, "that our unscientific assistant should think the only thing needed to keep it indefinitely in the air would be a coat of feathers to make it light." what the inventors did to keep their biplane glider in the air indefinitely, however, was to add several hundred pounds to the weight in the shape of a sixteen-horsepower gasoline motor. the total weight of the machine when ready to fly was pounds. every phase of the problem had been worked out in detail--all the calculations gone over and proved both by figures and by actual test. the planes, rudders, and propellers had been designed by mathematical calculations and practical tests. the main planes of this first machine had a spread from tip to tip of feet, and measured feet inches from the entering edge to the rear edge, a total area of square feet. this will show how great is the spread of the main planes as compared to their length from front to rear. the two surfaces were set six feet apart, one directly above the other, while the elevating rudder was placed about ten feet in front of the machine on a flexible framework. this elevating rudder was composed of two parallel horizontal planes which together had an area of eighty square feet. the elevating planes could be moved up or down by the operator just as he desired to fly upward or downward. the machine was steered from right to left or left to right by two vertical vanes set at the rear of the machine about a foot apart. they were a little more than six feet long, extending from the upper supporting plane to a few inches below the lower supporting plane. these also were turned in unison by the operator, according to the direction toward which he wished to fly. the most intricate device of their machine, however, was not perfected on their first biplane. this is the one for maintaining a side to side balance, or lateral equilibrium, as the scientists say. in watching the flights of gulls, hawks, eagles, and other soaring birds, the brothers had observed that the creatures, while keeping the main part of their wings rigid, frequently would bend the extreme tips of their wings ever so slightly, which would seem to straighten their bodies in the air. the inventor decided that they needed some such device as nature had given to these birds. the system was called by the scientists the torsional wing system, which means that the tip ends of the wings were flexible and could be warped or bent or curled up or down at will by the operator. only the rear part of the tips of the wings on the wright machines could be bent, but this was enough to keep the machine on an even keel when properly manipulated. how the wright modern machines are operated is fully described on page ( ). the whole machine was mounted on a pair of strong light wooden skids like skiis or sled-runners. to start the early wright biplanes, the machines were placed on a monorail, along which they were towed by a cable. the force for towing them at sufficient speed was obtained by dropping from the top of a derrick built at the rear of the rail a ton of iron which was connected with the cable. the later wright biplanes were equipped with rubber-tired wheels mounted on the framework, which still retained the skids. heavy rubber springs were provided to absorb the shock. with the wheels the machine could run over the ground of its own power and thus the cumbersome derrick and monorail were done away with. the operator was supposed to lie on his face in the middle of the lower plane, but in the later machines a seat was provided for him alongside the engine, and in still later ones seats for one or two passengers. the engine which was designed by the wright brothers themselves for this purpose, was a water-cooled four-cylinder motor which developed sixteen horsepower from , revolutions per minute. the engine was connected with the propellers at the rear of the biplane by chains. the propellers were about eight feet in diameter and the blades were six to eight inches wide. the materials used in the biplane were mostly durable wood like spruce pine and ash, the metal in the engine and the canvas on the planes. there was not one superfluous wire. everything had a use, and even the canvas was stretched diagonally that it might fit more tightly over the framework of the planes and offer less wind resistance, and also stretch more easily for the wing warping. finally on december , , everything was in readiness for the first attempt of these two patient men--then unknown to the world--to fly in a power-driven machine. that first flight, made practically in secret amid the desolate sand dunes of the north carolina coast, lasted only twelve seconds. however, it was the first time, but one, in the history of the world that a machine carrying a man had lifted itself from the ground and flown entirely by its own power. the two succeeding flights were longer, and the fourth covered feet, lasting fifty-nine seconds. the inventors were not heralded as the greatest men of their time. there were no medals or speeches. the five men--fishermen and life savers--who saw the flights agreed that it was wonderful, but they kept the wrights' secret and the brothers calmly continued their studies and experiments. the spring of found them at work on huffman prairie about eight miles east of dayton. the first trials there were not very successful and the brothers, who had worked seven long years in secret, had the unpleasant experience of failing to show satisfactory results to the few friends and reporters invited to see an aeroplane flight. their new machine was larger, heavier, and stronger, but the engine failed to work properly. of course this was no great disappointment to those two silent, determined young men. "we are not circus performers," they said. "our aim is to advance the science of aviation." and advance it they did. their experiments continued, and in they made a record of three miles in minutes seconds. the next year, , they made a record flight of . miles and remained in the air minutes seconds at heights of from to feet. all this time the brothers were solving problems and correcting faults, but in and their chief endeavour was to keep their machines from tipping sidewise when they turned. only the most technical study and the final development of their wing-warping device solved the problem. perhaps the strangest part was the lack of interest shown in their work by the world and even by their own townsmen, for, though there had been several newspaper accounts of their test flights, no great enthusiasm was aroused. they were not wealthy and they had spent more on their experiments than they could afford, so all this time they had proceeded without attracting any more attention than necessary. they desired to perfect their patents before letting the world know the secret of their inventions, and spent the next two years in business negotiations. meanwhile, the french inventors were making much progress and soon brought out several successful aeroplanes. why was this? why was it that the art of air navigation sought by man since the earliest times should have been discovered and mastered so quickly? the answer lies in the putting together of two things by the wright brothers--that is, their discovery of the kind of a plane that would stay aloft with the air passing under it at a swift enough clip to give it support, and their adaptation of the gasoline engine to the use of driving the plane forward with enough speed. when they began work, the gasoline engine was just coming to its real development. it was light, developed a high power, and its fuel could be concentrated into a small space. these things were essential to the success of the aeroplane--light weight, high power, and concentrated fuel. and these were things that the early inventors lacked. sir hiram maxim equipped his machine with a steam engine, while langley used steam engines in most of his models. these were very heavy, cumbersome, gave slight power in comparison to their weight, and could carry only a little fuel with them. undoubtedly the adaptation of the gasoline engine to the use of the aeroplane marked the difference between mechanical flight and no flight, but it also is not to be doubted that those aviators, who are more mechanical than scientific, have overrated the importance of the engine in aeroplane construction. before engines ever were used, the chanute type of biplane had to be worked into a state of reliability, if not perfection. now the scientific leaders in aviation are giving every bit as much attention to the perfection of their planes, their gliding possibilities, and the scientific rules governing their action as they are to their engines. most boys understand, at least generally, how an automobile or motor-boat engine works. scientists call gasoline engines "internal combustion motors," and that means that the force is gathered from the explosion of the gasoline vapour in the cylinder. enough gasoline to supply fuel to run an aeroplane motor for as much as eight or nine hours can be carried in the tank. from the tank a small pipe carries the gasoline to a device called the carbureter. the carbureter turns the gasoline into gas by spraying it and mixing it with air, for gasoline turns into a very inflammable and explosive gas when mixed with the oxygen in the air. so this gas, if lighted in a closed space, will explode. the explosion takes place in the motor-cylinder by the application of an electric spark, and the force pushes the piston, which turns the crank and drives the aeroplane propeller, automobile wheels, or motor-boat screw. thus we have the piston driven out and creating the first downward thrust, but the thrusts must be continuous. the piston must be drawn back to the starting place, the vapours of the exploded gas expelled, and the new gas admitted to the cylinder ready for the next explosion. on the ordinary four-cycle motor two complete revolutions of the flywheel are necessary to do all the work. first, we must have the explosion that causes the initial thrust; second, the return of the piston rod in the cylinder by the momentum of the flywheel as it revolves from the initial thrust, thus forcing out the burned gas of the first explosion; third, the next downward motion to suck in a fresh supply of gas; and, fourth, the next upward thrust to compress it for the second explosion. it sounds simple enough, but it isn't, as every one knows who has tried to run a gasoline motor for himself. the carbureter must do its work automatically and convert the air and gasoline into gas in just the right proportions. a slight fault with the feed of gasoline or air would cause trouble. also the electric-spark system that ignites the gas and causes the explosions must be in perfect running order. the explosions cause great heat, so some system of cooling the cylinders either by air or water must be used. only one cylinder has been explained here, but most engines have several, each working at a different stage, so that the power is exerted on the shaft continuously. for instance, take a four-cylinder engine; on the instant that the first cylinder is exploding and driving the shaft, the second cylinder is compressing gas for the next explosion, the third is getting a fresh supply of gas, and the fourth is cleaning out the waste gas of the explosion of a second before. thus it will be seen why the explosions are almost constant. now think of the aeroplane motor that has fourteen cylinders and develops horsepower! this is probably the most powerful aeroplane engine in the world, although there are many motor boats that have engines developing , horsepower. in the early days when scientists were groping for the secret of air navigation the best that the clumsy steam engines they had at their disposal would do was to generate one horsepower of energy for every ten pounds of weight. these days the light powerful aeroplane engines we hear roaring over our heads are generating one horsepower of energy for every three or three and a half pounds of dead weight, and engines have been constructed weighing only one pound to every horsepower, though they are impractical for general use. the first engines that were used in aeroplanes were simply automobile engines adapted to air navigation. the main question in those days was lightness and power. this was achieved by skimming down the best available automobile engines so that they were as light as safety would allow. although lightness is still an important factor in aeroplane engine construction, many authorities declare that it is growing less so as the science advances and aeroplanes are able to carry heavier loads. there were many intricate and difficult problems, however, that attended taking a motor aloft to drive an aeroplane. the motor had to run at top speed every second, for it could not rest on a low gear as an automobile engine could. first one part and then another would give out and the motors were constantly overheating. experience taught the makers how to make their machines light enough and yet strong enough to do the required work. it was in cooling that the greatest difficulties were met, and it was this that brought about the great innovations in motor building. the system of cooling the engine with water required much heavy material, such as pipes, pumps, water, water jackets, and radiator. on account of the general efficiency of a water-cooled engine many builders of aeroplanes stuck to it and developed it to a very high standard. at present many of the prize-winning engines are water cooled, as, for instance, the wright and curtiss. all of these water-cooled engines and several standard air-cooled makes are of the reciprocating type that have stationary cylinders and crankcase while the crankshaft rotates like that of the motor boat. the famous curtiss, anzani, renault, and others are all engines of this type. they all differ, but all have a high capacity, as we know from the records they have broken. the anzani and r. e. p. makers, whose motors are air cooled, have used to great advantage the plan of making their motors star-shaped--that is, with the cylinders arranged in a circle around the crankshaft. this is the shape taken by the famous air-cooled rotary engines of which the much-discussed gnome is the best known make. in this rotary motor the cylinders and crankcase revolve about the crankshaft which is stationary. authorities are divided over the gnome, which has many severe critics as well as many enthusiastic supporters. its lightness is certainly an advantage. the ordinary gnome has seven cylinders and develops fifty horsepower while the newest models have fourteen cylinders and develop and horsepower. a brief description of the motor here will suffice to show the general principle of the rotary engine. the stationary crankshaft is hollow, and through it the gasoline vapour passes from the carbureter at the rear to the cylinders. of course the inlet valves in the pistons are made to work automatically. the magneto is also placed behind the motor and the segments revolve on the crankcase. wires extend from the segments to the spark plugs in the cylinders, and revolve with them. the cylinders are turned out of solid steel and the whole engine is conceded by experts to be one of the most wonderfully ingenious ever built. the cylinders and crankcase themselves serve as flywheel, thereby eliminating the dead weight of the usual heavy flywheel in the other types of motors, and the rotation serves to cool the engine perfectly. again, the rotary motor is light and small, while it develops a tremendously high power. aviators also claim for it other advantages too technical for consideration here. many authorities, in fact, declare that the rotary engine is the aeroplane motor of the future. it is very popular among the french aviators and at present holds a great many speed records. it was with one of these high-power gnomes that claude grahame-white, the english flier, won the gordon bennett race at belmont park in the fall of , and weyman again in england in . while this high state of development in the aeroplane motor has been attained comparatively within a few years, the art of flying has occupied the mind of man since it was described in greek mythology. the chinese for thousands of years have used kites and balloons. the ancient greeks watched the wonderful flights of the birds and invented myths about men who were able to fly. then achytes, his mind fired by these stories, invented a device in the form of a wooden dove which was propelled by heated air. other inventors made devices that were intended to fly, and during the reign of nero, "simon the magician" held the world's first aviation meet in rome. according to the account, he "rose into the air through the assistance of demons." it further states that st. peter stopped the action of the demons by a prayer, and that simon was killed in the resultant fall. simon made another record that way by being the first man to be killed in an aeronautical accident. other records show that baldud, one of the early tribal kings in what later was named england, tried to fly over a city, but fell and was killed. a little later, in the eleventh century, a benedictine monk made himself a pair of wings, jumped from a high tower and broke his legs. these wings really were rude gliders and the principle remained in the minds of men, even in those days when their chief occupation was war. according to the legends, a man named oliver of malmesburg, who lived during the middle ages, built himself a glider and soared for feet. [illustration: courtesy of the smithsonian institution the chanute type glider upon this machine was based the invention of the biplane.] [illustration: courtesy of the smithsonian institution the herring glider based on the idea of the lilienthal gliders.] [illustration: an early helicopter an idea that was abandoned before the aeroplane became a reality.] the three great pioneers in aviation [illustration: courtesy of the smithsonian institution prof. samuel pierpont langley] [illustration: courtesy of the _scientific american_ sir hiram maxim] [illustration: courtesy of e. l. jones, n. y. octave chanute] it was in the fifteenth century that men first began to make flying a scientific study by making records and, in part at least, tabulating the results of their experiments. among these early students of the science were leonardo da vinci, who is best known to the world as a painter and sculptor, but who was a great engineer and architect of his time, and jean baptiste dante, a brother of the great poet. although da vinci was the more scientific in his experiments, dante made greater progress, and it is on record that he made many wonderful flights with a glider of his own construction over lake trasimene. he launched his glider from a cliff into the teeth of the wind, showing thereby his knowledge of the fact that a glider works best when flown against a high wind, because in that way the air is passing under it at greater speed. in one flight he made about feet, which would be a fine record for any glider manipulated by an expert to-day. finally dante attempted an exhibition at perugia, at the marriage festival of a celebrated general, fell on the roof of the notre dame church and broke one of his legs. da vinci had three different schemes for human flight. one was the old idea of bird flight, first dreamed of by the greeks when ovid wrote the poem of "dædalus and icarus." scientists called the machine that da vinci proposed an orthopter and the operator was supposed by the movement of both arms and legs to fly by flapping the wings. needless to say it did not work, and we know to-day that bird flight by wing flapping is probably impossible for man. another of da vinci's ideas is still being worked upon by some inventors. this was a machine known as the helicopter, which was supposed to fly upward by the twisting of a great horizontal screw ninety-six feet in diameter. the idea was just the same as that of the toy that started the wright brothers to thinking. the trouble with da vinci's machine was that he had no power to run it. boys in playing with toy helicopters to-day can run them with rubber bands, but da vinci had to turn his screw by human power. little was accomplished with this machine, although da vinci showed its practicability with models. the third scheme of this italian scientist is one that many years later was perfected and demonstrated at every county fair--that is, the parachute. the first parachute was very crude, but it soon was developed to a fairly high stage of effectiveness and men came down from the tops of towers in them without much injury. again, in , the marquis de bacqueville, then sixty-two years old, made a contrivance with which he flew about nine hundred feet before he fell into a boat in the seine river and broke his leg. the marquis had announced in advance that he would fly from his great house in paris, across the seine river and land in the famous garden of the tuileries. a crowd assembled and marvelled when the nobleman sailed into the teeth of the wind supported by what apparently were great wings. something went wrong after a flight that would be considered remarkable by a scientific glider to-day, and his fall resulted in a broken leg for the experimenter. according to the authorities, all these experiments were not very valuable to science, because while the flights were accurately described the construction of the fliers (except in the case of leonardo da vinci) was not given, or only indicated in the most uncertain and unscientific language. in a french scientist named blanchard attempted to make a flying machine of which the man driving it was to be the power. he was still working with it when ballooning became known, and he took up that sport with avidity. at that point came the true division between heavier-than-air and lighter-than-air machines. before many scientists had hinted at the practicability of a hot air or gas balloon, but all successful flying experiments had been made with what we suppose to have been some form of gliders. however, in tiberius cavallo, an italian scientist living in london, made a small hydrogen balloon, and was followed by the manufacture of fairly successful balloons by the montgolfier brothers, two french inventors. from that time ballooning, with which this chapter has no concern, made rapid strides, until to-day the balloon has reached the stage where great motor-driven balloons are used by the european armies, and also to carry passengers. the next step in the heavier-than-air machine, known these days as the aeroplane, was taken in , by sir george cayley, an englishman and a true scientist, who constructed a glider and tabulated much valuable information. it was this scientist who made the first conclusive demonstrations looking toward the proof that man can never fly like a bird, but must proceed upon the principle of sustained planes. sir george set down many laws of equilibrium governing the control of flying machines, estimated the power necessary to carry a man, and even hinted at the possibility of a gas engine more powerful and lighter than the then crude steam engine. he declared that a plane driven through the air, and inclined upward at a slight angle, would tend to rise and support a weight, and also that a tail with horizontal and vertical vanes would tend to steady the machine and enable the pilot to steer it up or down. [illustration: courtesy of the smithsonian institution langley's steam model this tandem monoplane made several successful trial flights.] [illustration: the maxim aeroplane maxim's great machine was claimed as the first successful aeroplane. in trials it rose a few inches off the ground.] [illustration: medals won by the wright brothers top, langley medal bestowed by the smithsonian institution; bottom, medal authorized by act of congress.] this, it will be seen, was a very close approach to the idea of the aeroplane as we know it to-day. it remained for another british inventor, by the name of henson, to carry these ideas to a further development, and with his colleague, f. stringfellow, he worked out a model that embodied most of the principles of the present-day flier of the monoplane type. they decided the proper proportion for the width and length of the plane and steadied their machine with both horizontal and perpendicular rudders. in henson and stringfellow built a model of their aeroplane and equipped it with a small steam engine. a subsequently constructed steam-propelled model made a free flight of forty yards. this is claimed to be the first flight of a power-driven machine, although it was only a model. in f. h. wenham, another englishman, took out a patent on an aeroplane made up of two or more planes, or, as the scientists call it, two or more superposed surfaces. immediately following this, stringfellow constructed a steam-propelled model of triplane type, but it was no more successful than his monoplane. this latest model may be seen in the smithsonian institution at washington to-day along with other models marking the progress of aeroplanes. in the years following other inventors contributed much valuable information to the data concerning aviation. among these was warren hargrave, the australian, who had discovered the box kite, and who had seen in it the principle for the aeroplane. hargrave even built a small monoplane weighing about three pounds and propelled by compressed air, which flew feet in eight seconds. though the wright brothers were the first to make a practical man-carrying, power-propelled aeroplane, they were not the first men to be carried off the ground by such a machine. the first man admitted by most authorities to have flown in a power-driven aeroplane was clement ader, a frenchman, who had spent his life in the study of air navigation. his first machine was of monoplane type driven by a forty-horsepower steam engine. it was called the _eole_ and it had its first test before a few of the inventor's friends near the town of gretz on october , , making, according to witnesses, a free flight of feet. ader built two more machines in subsequent years and succeeded in interesting the french military authorities. in october of he made several secret official tests of his last machine, the _avion_. it had a spread of square feet, weighed , pounds, and was driven by a forty-horsepower steam engine. the day for the trial was squally but he persevered. the flier ran at high speed over the ground, several times lifted its wheels clear off its track and finally turned over, smashing the machine. the officials did not consider the exhibition successful, and the support of the army was withdrawn. ader in disgust gave the _avion_ to a french museum and abandoned aviation, with success almost within his grasp. shortly before this time prof. samuel pierpont langley of the smithsonian institution and octave chanute, the great american pioneers in aviation, were making their early experiments. professor langley experimented with numerous kinds of model fliers, and finally, on may , , launched a steam-propelled model over the potomac river. according to the scientist dr. alexander graham bell, who was present, it flew between and feet and then "settled down so softly and gently that it touched the water without the least shock, and was in fact immediately ready for another trial." the second test was equally successful. the speed was between twenty and twenty-five miles an hour and the distance flown about , feet. professor langley's first aerodrome, as he called it (the word is now used to mean aviation field), was made in the form of a tandem monoplane about sixteen feet long from end to end and with wings measuring about thirteen feet from tip to tip. the steam engine and propellers were placed between the forward and aft planes. the whole machine weighed about thirty pounds and of course was too small to carry a pilot. langley next made a model which took the form of a tandem biplane, and which had some success in flights. when the government appropriated $ , for him to build an aerodrome that would carry a man, langley began to experiment with a gasoline engine. he used his tandem biplane and a motor that developed two and a half to three horsepower. the whole machine weighed fifty-eight pounds, and the planes, which were set at a dihedral angle, had sixty-six square feet of surface. a successful test without a pilot was made on the potomac river below washington on august , , and while the spectators and reporters were lauding him the inventor merely remarked: "this is the first time in history, so far as i know, that a successful flight of a mechanically sustained flying machine has been seen in public." the man-carrying machine was ready for its tests a few months later. ever since having been financed by the government, langley had been at work, and the result was a tandem monoplane much like his early models. it was driven by a gasoline motor placed amidships which acted on twin screw propellers, which also were between the tandem planes. the whole machine with the pilot weighed pounds, and had , square feet of wing surface. it was fifty-two feet long from front to rear and the wings measured forty-eight feet from tip to tip. the wings were arched, like those of modern aeroplanes, and the double rudder at the rear had both horizontal and vertical surfaces to steer the machine up or down, or from right to left. the aerodrome did not have any device for keeping it on an even keel, such as the ailerons we know to-day, or the wing-warping system of the wright machine. this was a serious drawback, according to the present-day scientists, but professor langley had set his wings in a dihedral angle--that is, like a broad v, to give what is called automatic stability. this dihedral angle, it will be remembered, is one of the principles discarded by the wright brothers early in their experiments as one that tended to keep the machine oscillating from side to side. professor langley realized this, it is said, and to offset it had already advanced several ideas along the line of wing warping, for keeping his machine on an even keel when buffeted by the wind. the aerodrome also lacked the wheels now used on aeroplanes for starting and alighting, and even the skids that were used on the first wright machines. his motor was remarkably well adapted to the work. it developed horsepower with a minimum of vibration, and with its radiator, water, pump, tanks, carbureter, batteries, and coil weighed twenty pounds, or about five pounds per horsepower. the arrangement of the five cylinders around the shaft like the points of a star was one that has become very popular in modern aviation motors. the first trial took place at widewater, va., on september , . the machine was placed on a barge on the potomac river; the pilot, charles m. manley, professor langley's able young assistant, took his seat in the little boat amidships, and a catapult arrangement, like the early wright starting device, sent it into the air. to the bitter disappointment of langley and his friends the machine dived into the water. it came up immediately, the daring manley undaunted and uninjured. investigation showed that in launching it the post that held the guys which steadied the front wings had been so bent that the forward planes were useless. at the next trial, december , the rear guy post was injured in a similar accident and the machine fell over backward. this ended the experiments, as the government appropriation had been spent, and the machine was repaired and stored in the smithsonian institution, where it is yet. professor langley died a few years after this, feeling that his great work had never been appreciated or understood by the world. many have declared that he died of a broken heart as a result of the frequent ridicule of the public and press. although he never saw the triumph of aerial navigation, he died firm in the belief that it was only a matter of time and the working out of theories then laid down until man could fly. his last hours were cheered by the receipt of a copy of resolutions of appreciation passed by the aero club of america. in the meantime, the frenchman ader had actually flown in a power-driven machine of his own construction, at private tests, while captain le bris and l. p. mouillard, frenchmen, and otto lilienthal, a german, had been carrying on important glider flights. also sir hiram maxim, the american-born inventor who was knighted in england, made a great aeroplane that was tested with some success. the machine was built in and was mounted on a track. it was called a multiplane--that is, it had several planes, one above the other, and was driven by a powerful steam engine. the whole machine weighed three and a half tons and had a total surface of , square feet. during its tests on the track it lifted a few inches off the ground. thus maxim claimed that his was the first machine that had ever lifted a man off the ground by its own power. it was otto lilienthal, however, the "flying man," who established a systematic study of one phase of aviation which became general enough to be called the lilienthal school. this was the system of practising on gliders before attempting to go into the air with power-driven machines. as will be remembered, this was exactly the system the wright brothers followed out. lilienthal's first experiments were made in with a pair of semicircular wings steadied by a horizontal rudder at the rear. the whole apparatus weighed forty pounds and had a total plane surface of square feet. he would run along the ground and jump from the top of a hill. he made many good flights, and in with a new glider averaged to yards and steered up or down or to either side at will. lilienthal found that the air flowing along the earth's surface had a slightly upward current, as science tells us it does, and that it would carry him upward if the wind was blowing strong enough. hence he could go forward either up or down in about the same way that a yacht tacks against the wind. but lilienthal had the same trouble in balancing that the wright brothers had at first, so he kept an even keel as best he could by swinging his legs and body from side to side as he hung underneath the glider. the "flying man" made about , flights and then constructed a still more successful biplane glider for which he built an engine. he was killed while making a glide on august , , however, and the motor was never used. several authorities who were in touch with lilienthal declared that the machine had become wobbly and unreliable. this, they said, was the cause of its collapsing in midair under the heavy strain. lilienthal's death, though mourned by scientists all over the world, did not interfere with the great work he had started, for his system had many disciples both in europe and america. among these, besides the wrights, were the americans octave chanute and a. m. herring, and percy s. pilcher of the university of glasgow. pilcher was killed three years after lilienthal, september , , while trying to make a glide in stormy weather. [illustration: the first santos-dumont aeroplane this was the first successful aeroplane to be flown in europe, and was quickly followed by others.] [illustration: the cross-channel type blÉriot monoplane the blériot monoplane was the first of the monoplane type to make a success in europe.] [illustration: a voisin biplane the voisin brothers perfected the first permanent aeroplane used in europe. henri farman made his first wonderful flights in a voisin.] [illustration: glenn curtiss about to make a flight] [illustration: henri farman starting aloft with two passengers] [illustration: louis blÉriot shortly after completing his trans-channel flight] great credit must be given to chanute because it was in great part through his advice that the wright brothers achieved final success, and all biplanes to-day are known to the technical side of the aviation world as chanute type machines. chanute and herring started experiments with gliders among the sand dunes on the southern shore of lake michigan, and, after some indifferent success with the lilienthal monoplane type of glider, made a flier of five surfaces one above the other. the rudder was in the rear and the pilot hung below the machine. one by one experiments pared down the number of planes to three and then to two. the planes were arched, as they are in modern aeroplanes. the rudder extended behind the contrivance and had both horizontal and vertical blades. the whole machine weighed pounds and had square feet of plane surface. the biplane was eminently satisfactory and herring decided to make an engine for it and sail in a power-driven flier--or a dynamic aeroplane, as the scientists call it. his motor was a compressed air machine and he proposed to go into the air as if for a glide and then start the engine. according to newspaper accounts, he accomplished this and his compressed air engine drove him forward seventy-three feet in eight or ten seconds against a strong breeze. the flight was not given very much consideration, however, for lack of authoritative witnesses. this brings us around again to the activities of the wright brothers, who started their work with the glider built along the lines laid down by octave chanute. they had the active support and aid of this inventor throughout their three or four years of experiments, although many other scientists were inclined to discredit their work. while the brothers were going ahead with their practical flier the european scientists were developing with rapid strides and prof. john j. montgomery of santa clara college, santa clara, cal., who was killed in a glider accident in , was astonishing the far west with gliding experiments of great importance. montgomery's best glider was a tandem monoplane with a device by which the pilot could change at will the amount of curvature of any of the wings. this gave him the tremendous advantage of being able to vary the lifting power of the wings independently of each other and hence a means of maintaining side to side balance. professor montgomery made his own flights until injuring his leg in alighting, and then he hired trained aeronauts to glide from great heights. as it turned out it would have been better had he never resumed flying himself. he used balloons to carry up the gliders and when they reached the required altitude the operator cut the cable. daniel maloney, a daring parachute jumper, and two other aeronauts, named wilkie and defolco, carried on these hair-raising experiments. flights were made at santa clara, santa cruz, san josé, oakland, and sacramento, in . the balloon would take up the aeroplane, and aviator, who sat on a saddle like a bicycle seat between the tandem planes and manipulated the wing control and rear rudder with hand levers and a pair of stirrups for his feet. in april of that year a forty-five-pound glider, such as the one described, with maloney in the seat, was taken up four thousand feet. when the aviator cut loose he glided to earth, making evolutions never before made by man in the air, and finally landed as lightly as a feather on a designated spot. shortly afterward maloney while making a sensational glide was killed. as the balloon was rising with the aeroplane, a guy rope switched around the right wing and broke the post that braced the two rear wings and which also gave control over the tail. those below shouted to maloney that the machine was broken, but he probably did not hear, and when he cut loose the machine turned turtle. one of the saddest of all the many aeroplane fatalities was the accident early in the fall of , in which professor montgomery was killed while experimenting with his glider. thus we see that the pioneers whose work has counted for the most in the early history of aviation were americans--that the science can almost be claimed as a development of american genius. true, ader was the first man to fly in a power-propelled machine, and lilienthal led the way in the science of gliding, but it remained for chanute, langley, montgomery, and the wright brothers to gather all this scientific data together and put it to practical use so that the motor could be installed and power flight, or dynamic flight, as the scientists call it, begun. chapter ii aeroplane development how the inventors carried on the art of aviation until it became the greatest of all sports and then a great industry so interested in aviation had our young friend become that he forgot all other inventions in his enthusiasm for flying. he never missed a chance to go to the aviation field, and sometimes his scientist friend would go with him. these days were rare treats indeed, for the boy always learned some new and important points from their conversations. with them we have seen how the science of aeronautics has been divided into two great departments: balloons, or lighter-than-air fliers, and all other machines that are not maintained in the air by hot air or gas. we have seen also the three great divisions of heavier-than-air aviation--that is, orthopters or wing-flapping machines; helicopters or machines that fly upward through the operation of horizontal screws; and aeroplanes. lastly we see the three divisions of aeroplanes: gliders; dynamic aeroplanes, or the machines we know to-day; and true bird soaring, the art of flying without artificial power and without the flapping of wings. but on every side the boy heard people talking of great feats of flying that he knew nothing about. "who was santos-dumont? what was that first trans-channel flight? why do they always talk about the first rheims meet?" he asked one afternoon as he was returning home from the field with the scientist. the man could not answer the questions all in one breath, but we will follow his explanation, which extended over many pleasant hours, and see how aviation developed into a mighty sport and industry. for several years following the world of aviation was led by europeans--mostly frenchmen who readily grasped the principles of the science and made the best and lightest motors that the world has ever seen. the united states, however, was the first nation to experiment with aeroplanes for military purposes, although at present the country is far behind france, england, and germany in the development of aeroplanes for use in war. alberto santos-dumont, a daring young brazilian who a few years earlier had astounded the world with his achievements with dirigible balloons, was the first of the aviators working in europe to construct a practical man-carrying power flier. scores of brilliant foreigners were working on the principles for gliders laid down by lilienthal, but santos-dumont, working along the ideas of the scientists who had built power-propelled models, made himself a clumsy biplane equipped with a -horsepower motor and actually inaugurated public flights, considering that all done by the wrights up to that time was experimental and practically in secret. on august , , he made his first flight near paris. it was brief, but authorities agree that it was the first time in europe that a power-propelled flier had risen in free flight with a man at the steering wheel since ader's secret flight in . two months later he made a public flight of metres in seconds, winning the world's first regularly offered aviation prize. this was the archdeacon cup of , francs authorized by the aero club of france for a flight of metres. scientists gave these flights more attention than they did the flights of the wright brothers the year before because they were viewed by many thousands of people and also by men who had studied the science of aviation for years. besides this, santos-dumont made no secret of the construction or workings of his machine as the wright brothers did. he was already a popular idol through his work with dirigible balloons, and being very rich--the son of a millionaire plantation owner in brazil--he did not have the same financial incentive for keeping his plans secret. his flights gave the aviators of france tremendous encouragement and it was but a short time until half a dozen aeroplanes, the makes of which are all well known now, were making successful flights and breaking records. santos-dumont called his biplane an aeromobile. the two main planes had perpendicular surfaces enclosing them so that the wings of each side looked like two box kites hitched together side by side, as shown in the picture. the rudder extended to the front and it also looked like a box kite. the pilot sat just in front of the wings and could manipulate his rudder from side to side or up and down. thus he could steer his machine from right to left, upward or downward. the brazilian had not solved the problem of keeping his aeromobile from tipping sideways, so he arranged its wings in a dihedral angle, which balanced it fairly well. the starting and alighting device was a set of wheels which we know so well to-day. the biplane contained square feet of plane surface and the total weight was pounds. perhaps the most important factor in this machine was an eight-cylinder -horsepower antoinette gasoline motor. this was the first time that this now famous motor was used in an aeroplane and it gave promise at that time of the prize-winning capabilities it later developed. the propeller, which was made of aluminum, was about six feet in diameter, or about two feet less than the diameter of the twin screws in the early wright biplanes. [illustration: copyright h. m. benner, hammondsport, n. y. the june bug glenn curtiss making a flight in one of his first aeroplanes.] [illustration: orville wright making a flight at fort myer the aeroplane first became well known in this country when the wright brothers carried on their fort myer tests.] [illustration: courtesy of the _scientific american_ the first letter ever written aboard an aeroplane in flight this was written at the time ovington was carrying aeroplane mail from garden city to mineola, by aeroplane.] several years before this the voisin brothers had been taken by the general fever for aviation and in they finished a practical biplane in which henri farman, a former auto racer, and leon delagrange, an artist, astonished the world. this early machine is described by one authority as something like a cross between a box kite and a chanute glider. extending out behind the two main planes was a rudder like a huge box kite, which was used to steer the machine from right to left. this also helped to keep the biplane from tipping forward or backward. a single horizontal rudder in front steered it upward or downward. these rudders were manipulated by the operator, who sat between the two main planes in front of his engine, by either pushing his pilot wheel forward or backward or by turning it like the steering wheel of an automobile. there was no device for balancing the aeroplane, but the construction kept it on a fairly even keel--or, as the scientist said, it had inherent or automatic stability--i. e., stability automatically gained from the construction of the machine. also the operator was supposed to swing his body from side to side to aid this. the aeroplane started from and alighted on four wheels set under the main plane and the tail. it had square feet of surface and with the engine weighed , pounds. the motor was a -horsepower antoinette, which drove a single aluminum propeller. after preliminary "bird hops" at issy-les-mollineaux, farman on october beat santos-dumont's record by flying metres. on january , , he won the deutsch-archdeacon cup of , francs for the first person to make a circular flight of metres. two months later delagrange challenged farman for his world championship, but lost, farman twice circling the two pylons, or marking poles, that had been set up metres apart, in minutes seconds. the distance covered with turns was . metres. delagrange flew the metres in . minutes. then for the first time in the world's history two men rode in an aeroplane, delagrange taking his rival behind him and sailing over a part of the course. a month later delagrange took the distance record from farman with a flight of , metres in - / minutes. while these pioneers were winning prizes and breaking records louis blériot was bringing his aeroplane to a successful stage. he had been working on the problem of aviation since , but had failed with wing flappers and machines like box kites. finally he had some success with a tandem monoplane like professor langley's. the first of his machines of this kind was smashed in a fall, but the second, blériot's seventh flier, flew steadily and was the fastest aeroplane ever developed. thus blériot at the opening of had developed his monoplane idea far past the stage professor langley ever had developed it. he had increased the size of the forward plane and decreased the size of the rear plane until the great forward wings did all the work of sustaining the machine in the air, while the chief uses of the tail were steering and steadying the machine. moreover, blériot's was the first machine among the practical european fliers to have a system of wing warping such as the wright brothers had developed in their wonderful biplane, and such as glenn curtiss, another american inventor, was at the same time developing for his machines. this gave blériot what is called three-rudder control--that is, the vertical rudder at the rear to steer it from right to left, the horizontal rudder, also on the tail, to steer it up or down, and the flexible wing tips to keep it from tipping sidewise. the aspect ratio of the early blériots was low, which gave them greater speed. in other words, the main plane did not have so great a spread as most aeroplanes do, while it was much deeper, and, having less of an entering edge, it could go faster. there were three wheels--two under the main plane and the third under the tail for starting and alighting. the engine was just under and at the front of the main plane, driving a single propeller. this propeller--which is the type most used on monoplanes--is called a tractor propeller because, instead of pushing the aeroplane forward from the rear, it pulls it from the front. the operator sat just to the rear and above the engine so he could look out and over the top of the main plane. the last day of october, , blériot jumped into international fame with this machine by making a cross-country flight from toury to artenay, a total distance of about miles. this was the second cross-country flight ever attempted. the day previous farman had flown his biplane from châlons to rheims, nearly miles. meanwhile the wright brothers had been making great progress, as will be seen shortly, and wilbur wright had brought a biplane to france to make demonstrations for a french syndicate. he took up quarters at le mans in august, . his notable flights broke the world's records for distance and duration. early in the month he flew miles and was in the air hour and minutes. a few days later he broke the french records for altitude by going up feet, and on the last day of the year won the michelin prize of , francs for the longest flight of the year. in january wilbur wright went to pau, where he opened a school and was joined by his brother orville, who had just recovered from a historical accident in the united states which will be described shortly. at pau they made a great many flights and exhibited their aeroplane to thousands and thousands of people from all over the world, including great scientists, military men, statesmen, and many members of the european nobility. among these was young king alfonso of spain, who took such a delight in the machine that he would have made an ascension were it not for the objections of his ministers. king edward of england also visited the famous brothers, talked with them about their achievements, and witnessed several fine flights. then wilbur took his machine to italy, where king emanuel attended his exhibitions in rome. later in london the two brothers were entertained by the aeronautical society of great britain and received its gold medal. during this time they won the respect of the whole world of aviation. "now to return to the progress made by the intrepid american inventors in our own country, led by the wright brothers, glenn curtiss, a. m. herring, dr. alexander graham bell, and his associates, f. w. baldwin and j. a. d. mccurdy," continued the boy's friend. "you remember that toward the close of the wright brothers suspended their flights near dayton because it had become necessary for them to spend all their time in business negotiations. in the spring of , after increasing the motor power of their flier, they began tests again because the brothers had agreed to furnish a machine to the united states signal corps and another to a french syndicate." the machine that was to be furnished to the signal corps, he explained, had to be able to carry two men and to be able to fly for one hour without stopping, at an average speed of miles an hour. furthermore, this flight had to be made across country dotted with hills, valleys, and forests. another of the requirements was that the machine should be able to fly miles without stopping. the wright brothers agreed to furnish such an aeroplane for $ , , and orville wright went to fort myer, va., near washington, for the tests. his preliminary flights were very successful and thousands of americans flocked to the drill ground to see what was practically the first public exhibition in the united states. about the time that the french aviators were making flights of hour or so orville wright flew his machine for one hour and minutes. repeatedly he took lieut. frank p. lahm or lieutenant selfridge for short flights. on the th of september the tragic accident that put a stop to the flights occurred. orville wright was flying about feet high with lieutenant selfridge as a passenger when one of the propellers hit a stay wire which coiled about the blade, breaking it and making the machine unmanageable. the aeroplane plunged to the ground, throwing the occupants forward. lieutenant selfridge suffered injuries from which he died within three hours, while wright suffered several broken bones. this occurred while wilbur wright was at le mans, france. the year before dr. alexander graham bell, the american inventor, had invited glenn curtiss, a bicycle and motor manufacturer, to aid him in equipping with power the fliers that he was constructing with the help of lieutenant selfridge, f. w. baldwin, and j. a. d. mccurdy. they formed the aerial experiment association, which later became famous, and early in march, , began the test of their first aeroplane, which they called the _red wing_. the machine was tried over the ice of lake keuka, near hammondsport, n. y., and before its makers were ready to fly it went into the air and sailed feet. the _red wing_ was of biplane type and mounted on skids, with the propeller and vertical direction rudder at the rear. the horizontal elevating rudder was at the front. the notable feature was the curve of the planes. the upper plane curved from the centre downward, while the lower plane curved from the centre upward, so that the two planes, if they had been a little bit longer, would have met. this curvature was expected to give automatic stability, but the machine was never a great success. the next machine made by these experimenters was called the _white wing_, and made some fair flights. the next was the famous _june bug_ which was designed by curtiss and entered by him to contest for the _scientific american_ cup for a flight of one kilometre. the test, which was held on the th of july, , near hammondsport, was the first official flight for a prize in america, and was successful in every way, winning the cup with a flight of yards. this biplane had the three-rudder control--that is, a tail at the rear shaped like a box kite to steer it from right to left, two small parallel planes in front to steer it up or down, and a system of flexible wing tips which enabled the operator to maintain a side to side balance. in curtiss made some important improvements over his machine of previous years by replacing the flexible wing tips with ailerons. this was the first time these devices were used in this country, but they had already been introduced in europe on several machines. there are many kinds of ailerons, but on curtiss's biplane they were two small horizontal planes fixed between the outer tips of the upper and lower planes. they could be turned so as to keep the aeroplane balanced when making a sharp turn or when struck by a gust of wind. curtiss and his partner, a. m. herring, took the machine to the plains near mineola, l. i., that summer, and began preliminary flights. they won several rich prizes, including that year's _scientific american_ cup for the longest flight of the season. in this curtiss made an official distance of - / miles. [illustration: photograph by the american press the goddess of liberty photographed from an aeroplane] [illustration: first actual war expedition of an aeroplane this picture shows rene simon returning from his scouting trip over the camp of the mexican insurrectos, february , .] [illustration: war manoeuvres american army aeroplane manoeuvring over the troops mobilized at san antonio, texas, during the mexican revolution.] we will leave mr. curtiss and his associates for the time being and take up again the work of the wright brothers, who in the spring of returned to the united states after their european triumphs. their laurels were further added to by a medal from the aero club of america, presented by president taft at the white house, and medals from the federal government, the state of ohio, and their home town of dayton. all this time they were busy making the aeroplane with which they were to resume the final tests for the government that had been interrupted the previous fall by the death of lieutenant selfridge. they arrived at fort myer in june, but spent most of that month and a large part of july in preparations and short practice flights. the great crowds, among which were scores of statesmen and politicians, gathered in washington, became impatient at the delays, but the brothers had waited for a good many years to perfect their biplane and would not risk failure by attempting the official tests in bad weather, with their plane out of tune, or their engine in bad working order. finally ten thousand cheering spectators were rewarded by seeing orville wright ascend with lieutenant lahm as a passenger, and sail for hour and seconds, fulfilling the endurance requirements. the next few days the weather prevented the distance test, but one calm evening just before sunset orville carried lieut. b. d. foulois across hills and valleys to alexandria and return at an average speed of . miles per hour. this won the brothers a bonus of $ , on the price of the machine because they were to receive $ , extra for each mile per hour more than the miles per hour called for in the contract. it was the greatest feat of aviation ever seen in the united states at the time and the ovation tendered the brothers was equal to the occasion. not once, however, did they lose their heads in the slightest or show any undue enthusiasm over their achievement. statesmen, army officers, and newspaper men crowded around with congratulations and praises, but the great victory was only what the brothers had expected and they soon were planning improvements on their biplane. the real meaning of this feat by the wright biplane, however, was that the united states was the first nation officially to adopt an aeroplane for military purposes. to americans it seems peculiarly fitting that it was the wright machine that was adopted because it was the wright aeroplane, strictly an american product, that was the first practical flier. later on wilbur returned to fort myer to finish off his contract by teaching two signal corps officers to handle the machine. during this time the aviator changed his biplane by transferring one of the forward elevating planes to the rear, where it was used as a fixed tail to give greater stability from front to rear. this was such a success that it was used in subsequent models, and the present-day wright biplanes have no forward lifting plane at all--the horizontal plane at the rear serving as the elevator and also as the fore and aft balancer. in the fall of , after the fort myer tests, the brothers again separated, orville going to europe, where he achieved more distinction, and wilbur remaining at home to astonish his countrymen with his exhibitions at the hudson-fulton celebration. he made the first trip around the statue of liberty on september , starting from and returning to governor's island in new york bay. in the meantime the european aviators were making even greater strides, and saw many new aeroplanes take the air to break records of different kinds. throughout the season there was hardly a day that some record was not broken, or that some previously unknown man did not achieve undying fame for his daring feats. aeroplane schools were established and aviation passed from the stage of experimenting into the stage of record making and breaking. the european governments, particularly france and germany, were carefully watching progress, and dozens of the pupils in the aviation schools were young officers detailed to learn the art of flying and report on its usefulness in warfare. also the building of aeroplanes became a great industry and in france thousands of scientists, designers, mechanics, motor experts, and wood-working experts were engaged in turning out machines as fast as they could. it would be impossible in this brief space to describe all of the important flights of the last few busy years in aviation, which were talked of by the boy and his scientist friend, but a very brief outline of the feats accomplished will show the wonderful progress that has been made. the first great international meet, which was held at rheims, france, in , did more than anything else up to that time to show the world how far the science had gone and how many good machines there were. so great was the public interest in this meet that before the end of the year meets were arranged and held at blackpool and donchester, england; berlin, juvisy, france, and brescia, italy. the most notable achievements of the year in europe were the flight across the english channel by blériot in his graceful monoplane, by which he won the prize of , pounds offered by the london _daily mail_, the winning of the james gordon bennett cup by curtiss, the only american to contest for the great honour, and the winning of the grand prix by farman in his biplane. blériot, while practising, before his famous flight across the english channel, broke many records with his monoplanes, no. xi and no. xii. he was the first man to take two passengers in such a craft, those in the machine besides himself being santos-dumont and a. fournier. the total weight of machine and three men was , pounds. he also made several cross-country records and received medals from the aero club of great britain and the aero club of france. [illustration: harry n. atwood arriving at chicago on his flight from st. louis to new york.] [illustration: the finish of atwood's st. louis to new york flight the aviator is here seen arriving at governor's island in new york bay.] [illustration: postmaster-general hitchcock and captain beck starting with the aero-mail this is the first time regular united states mail ever was carried by aeroplane. throughout the meet at garden city in , earle l. ovington and beck carried mail over a regular route.] blériot's flight over the english channel was one of the most dramatic that ever has been made by an aviator, as he encountered perils that no birdman ever before had faced. he had as a contestant one of the daring young aviators who has made the history of aviation read like a novel. this was hubert latham, who used the antoinette monoplane, one of the most beautiful machines ever designed, and which is described fully later on. young latham had become a popular hero because of his daring feats. the aviators said that he was carrying on an endless battle with the wind, for he seemed to prefer flying high in the air when the wind was so gusty that other aviators were afraid to leave their hangars. he had made several monoplane records for endurance and altitude, and after a notable cross-country flight announced his intention of sailing across the english channel to collect the , pounds from the _daily mail_. so he took his graceful monoplane to calais, and after impatiently waiting for fair weather, soared from the towering cliffs and out over the stormy waters of the english channel. thousands cheered his daring and wished him success, but before he had gone more than six miles his motor failed him and he glided to the water. in a few minutes the boat that was sailing below him came up and found him calmly sitting on the upper framework of his machine, which was buoyed up by the great wings. he was looking as unconcerned as if he had been sitting in a motor boat on a lake, and declared he would try again the next day. his machine was wrecked in getting it ashore, however, and blériot made his famous flight before the young man could get it repaired. the older man had been injured in an accident and was still walking on crutches, with a badly burned foot, when a favourable opportunity for the trans-channel flight came. he was awakened before dawn on the morning of july th, and, throwing away his crutches as he got into his machine for a practise spin, he said: "i will show the world that i can fly even if i cannot walk." at : , just as the sun was rising, he sailed out over the precipice, and latham, watching him, wept with disappointment at not being able to enter the contest. a torpedo boat destroyer was following him, but soon she dropped behind and he was over the trackless channel without any landmark to guide him. finally the coast of france dropped out of sight and the intrepid aviator was alone, with nothing but his carefully planned monoplane between him and death in the tossing waters hundreds of feet below. after ten minutes of this the cliffs of the english coast loomed up ahead, bathed in the early morning sunlight. he saw several boats far below him and followed their course, which brought him to the town of deal, near which he landed. the first man to greet him was his good friend m. montaine, but soon after a crowd of englishmen were crowding about congratulating him on his wonderful achievement. not to be outdone, young latham cabled his congratulations. august saw the beginning of the first great international meet at rheims. most of the leading aviators of the world gathered there to contest for the prizes and for fame. curtiss, blériot, farman, latham, lefabre, count de lambert, paul tissandier, louis paulhan, le blanc, roger sommer, and rougier all distinguished themselves and made their names as familiar in this country as they were in france. latham, with his apparently fearless disregard of danger, and his great, soaring antoinette monoplane that looked more like a dragon-fly when up in the air than anything else, was one of the popular idols. not only did he fly in rough winds but also in heavy rainfall, as did his rival, blériot. of course there were several bad accidents, but none to compare with the later fatalities. the winning of the $ , grand prix de la champagne for the longest flight was not so spectacular as the next day's great race. latham had made a record of miles that it was thought would stand. on the day of the finals, friday, august th, latham again took the air, making a spectacular flight several hundred feet high. at the same time several others were performing evolutions in the air, some high and some low. farman was flying close to the ground and making but poor time in his slower craft. finally, after all the others had come to earth, the longest flight having been made by latham, with miles to his credit, the crowd realized that farman was making a record. time after time he passed the grand stand, marking off the miles. it became dark, but the crowd still lingered, and was rewarded finally by seeing him bring his machine softly to the ground in front of the judges' stand, winner of the $ , , with a record of kilometres. his friends, wild with joy, pulled the exhausted aviator from his seat and carried him off the field on their shoulders. the next day curtiss, the only american taking part in the meet (although several wright biplanes were flown by frenchmen), brought out his -horsepower biplane to try for the speed prize of $ , offered by james gordon bennett. he made two rounds of the field at a speed of . miles an hour. blériot then brought out his great -horsepower monoplane, but the test flights were discouraging. finally, after working over his machine all afternoon and trying several propellers, he started at five o'clock and made his first round in much better time than curtiss had done. he slackened up on the second round, however, and came to earth to find that he had lost to the gallant american. by winning the prize curtiss was allowed to take the next year's contest to his own country. there were many other records broken at the other meets held in , but none of them stood long after the season had got well under way. altitude, endurance, distance and speed records all were shattered by the ever-increasing army of aviators and the constantly improving machines. undoubtedly the most spectacular and daring feat of was the flight across the alps by george chavez, who was born in paris of peruvian parents only twenty-three years before his tragic death. in september of that year he set out to win the prize of , francs offered by the italian aviation society to the first aviator who would fly the miles from brig to milan, across the towering peaks and yawning chasms of the alps. of the five who entered the contest chavez was the only one to make a real start. after waiting for several days, during which wind, rain and fog kept him chained to the ground, he finally rose in the air. in a few minutes he was , feet above sea level, crossing the famous simplon pass, braving the fierce eddies of wind that swirled around the cruel, jagged crags and precipices. finally he crossed the mountains and glided down the italian slope to domodossola. thousands had gathered to greet his arrival, but as he was sinking gradually to the earth, only thirty feet above the ground, a gust of wind caught the machine, the wings collapsed and the brave young man fell to earth underneath the machinery. he received injuries from which he died four days later. the committee granted him one third of the prize on the basis that he had completed the difficult part of the journey. no less dangerous was glenn curtiss's trip from albany to new york in his biplane, by which he won the $ , prize offered by the new york _world_. most of his route lay over wooded hills, the waters of the hudson river, or the cliffs along its banks, which territory, as any one who has travelled from new york to albany knows, offers few landing places. starting with a letter from the mayor of albany to the mayor of new york and followed by a special train on the new york central he made camelot, miles from albany, in about an hour. the next jump was clear to spuyten duyvil, the northern boundary of manhattan, which completed the required miles in a total elapsed time of hours and minutes. his average speed was - / miles an hour. this stage of the journey nearly brought serious disaster to the aviator, for, while passing the famous old mountain storm king, he was caught by a terrific gust of wind and his machine was twisted sideways so that it dropped suddenly toward the river. by skilful manipulation he righted his biplane and continued. after a brief pause at spuyten duyvil he sailed down the hudson river and the upper new york bay to governor's island. every whistle in the harbour, a few million people and the reporters representing the newspaper readers of the whole civilized world, proclaimed his victory over the wind gusts eddying around the palisades and the new york skyscrapers. in the united states there were many aviators besides curtiss who were making an effort to win long distance prizes. the new york _times_ and the philadelphia _ledger_ had offered a large purse, supposed to be $ , , for the first flight from new york to philadelphia, and on june th, a few days after glenn curtiss's flight from albany to new york, charles k. hamilton, another young man new to aviation, sailed in his curtiss biplane the miles from governor's island to philadelphia in hour and minutes, and returned the same day. his average speed was - / miles an hour, the same maintained by curtiss in his albany-new york trip. these two flights added tremendously to the fame of the curtiss machines. the great international aviation tournament of , held at belmont park in october, was the climax of the season in this country. of course interest centred around the race for the james gordon bennett cup and prize of $ , , which had been won the year before at rheims by curtiss. the total prizes amounted to $ , and practically every standard make of aeroplane was represented. the american aviators came into prominence at this meet, as will be remembered by the feats of walter brookins, arch. hoxsey, ralph johnstone, j. a. drexel and a dozen others. the english contingent was led by claude grahame-white, who had been making himself famous at the harvard-boston meet. of the frenchmen, alfred leblanc, hubert latham, emiel aubrun and count de lesseps were among the leaders. nearly every one nowadays is familiar with the story of how grahame-white brought out his -horsepower blériot monoplane for its first trial and made kilometres at an average speed of miles an hour. soon after that leblanc came out with another -horsepower blériot, acknowledged to be one of the swiftest machines ever made at that time, and started on a race around the course at a speed such as the world had never seen before. in the last lap his gasoline gave out, the aeroplane shot downward and was smashed against a telephone pole. leblanc was more angry than injured, because he had lost the race, although his speed had been miles an hour, or six miles better than grahame-white's. brookins, with the wright biplane racing machine, started out with high speed, but the engine soon began to miss fire and he too came to earth. consequently grahame-white carried off the prize. the next day the aviators were out to contest for the $ , offered by thomas f. ryan for the quickest flight from the aviation field to the statue of liberty in new york harbour, miles away, and return. never before was there such a dramatic race. together count de lesseps and claude grahame-white, both in blériot machines, started for the statue. john moisant, the american aviator, who only that summer had made the first flight from paris to london, suddenly determined to win the prize. it took him about five minutes to buy leblanc's -horsepower blériot monoplane for $ , , and just as grahame-white and de lesseps were returning from their flight moisant started out. instead of taking the safer roundabout course, where there were many landing places, this dauntless birdman sailed directly over the church steeples of brooklyn, cutting through the treacherous air currents at terrific speed, circling the statue at great altitude and returning by the same route. his time was seconds better than that of grahame-white, who flew a machine of double the power. the americans were wild with delight, thinking moisant had won the prize, but the committee finally gave the award to count de lesseps, who made the slowest time, because grahame-white had fouled the starting post, or pylon, as it is called by aviators, and because moisant in his desperation to get started had failed to qualify. but there were other records broken. ralph johnstone, flying the small wright biplane racer, which was equipped with particularly large propellers, broke the altitude record of , feet which had been set in france by climbing to an altitude of , feet. the round trip to and from the clouds took him hour and minutes. in connection with the altitude trials, the daring of johnstone and hoxsey was particularly notable. both of these aviators took up their wright biplanes when the wind was blowing so fiercely that they could hardly turn the pylons. when they got to a great altitude, one time the gale was so terrific that they were carried backward at a speed of nearly miles an hour, and both of them had to land in open country; johnstone at holtsville, l. i., miles away, and hoxsey at brentwood, half that distance. during these flights both of them had reached altitudes of more than a mile in the air. but these records were not destined to stand long, as will be shown by the table on page . but world's distance and altitude records were being broken in europe, too, and during the summer of the record keepers were busy putting new names at the heads of their lists, as will be shown by the table on page . the long distance speed race, called the "circuit de l'est," which took in a course miles long, of six towns around paris, aroused as much enthusiasm as any. the prize which was offered by the newspaper _le matin_ of paris was for , francs. the race started on august , with eight contestants, and ended on august with alfred leblanc, in his blériot monoplane, the winner. he had made the distance in six stages at an average speed of miles an hour, flying through rain, fog and wind. next came aubrun in a blériot and weyman in a farman. not only was this race one of the severest tests that the aeroplane had ever had, but also it was a trial to the aviators that did a great deal to prove the practicability of the aeroplanes for more serious work than pleasant day sport. altitude flights in [a] ================================================ aviator | altitude | aeroplane | -------------+-----------+---------------------+ paulhan | , feet| farman biplane | olieslaegers | , " | blériot monoplane | brookins | , " | wright biplane | latham | , " | antoinette monoplane| chavez | , " | blériot monoplane | morane | , " | blériot monoplane | morane | , " | blériot monoplane | chavez | , " | blériot monoplane | drexel, a. | , " | blériot monoplane | johnstone | , " | wright biplane | legagneux | , " | blériot monoplane | hoxsey, a. | , " | wright biplane | -------------+-----------+---------------------+ =========================================== aviator | place | date -------------+--------------+-------------- paulhan | los angeles |jan. , olieslaegers | brussels |july , " brookins | indianapolis |july , " latham | rheims |july , " chavez | blackpool |aug. , " morane | havre |aug. , " morane | havre |sept. , " chavez | issy, paris |sept. , " drexel, a. | philadelphia |oct. , " johnstone | belmont park |nov. , " legagneux | pau |dec. , " hoxsey, a. | los angeles |dec. , " -------------+--------------+-------------- [a] these records were broken in and . the record being , feet, made by garro, france. distance and endurance flights ======================================================== | | distance | time aviator | aeroplane | miles |hr. min. ----------------+----------------+------------+--------- l. paulhan | h. farman bi-p | in all | | | | | | | grahame-white | h. farman bi-p | | | | | l. paulhan | h. farman bi-p | | | | | g. h. curtiss | curtiss bi-p. | | | | | c. k. hamilton | curtiss bi-p. | | | | | r. labouchere | antoinette | . | | mono-p | j. olieslaegers | blériot mono-p | . | | | | a. leblanc | blériot mono-p | | | | | elapsed | | | time | | | e. aubrun | blériot mono-p | | | | | elapsed | | | time | | | m. cattaneo | blériot mono-p | miles | | | yds | | | in all | r. johnstone | wright bi-p | miles | | | feet | walter brookins | wright bi-p | . in | | | all. | arch hoxsey | wright bi-p | | | | | m. tabuteau | h. farman bi-p | . | | | | g. h. curtiss | curtiss bi-p | | | | | j. a. d mccurdy | curtiss bi-p | | | | | capt. bellenger | | | | | | lieut. bague | | | | | | | | | hirth | | | | | | vedrines | | | | | | h. n. atwood | burgess-wright | | | bi-p. | |net fly- | | | ing time h. n. atwood | burgess-wright | , | | bi-p. | |net fly- | | | ing time olieslaegers | blériot | | | | | loridan | | | | | | vassilieff | | | | | | renaux | m. farman | | | | | vedrines | morane | | | | | c. p. | wright bi-p. | , | rodgers | | |total | | | flying | | | time helen | nieuportmono-p | | | | | helen | nieuportmono-p | | | | | lieuts. | curtiss bi-p | | ellyson, | | | towers | | | ----------------+----------------+------------+--------- ======================================================== | | aviator | place | date ----------------+---------------------------+----------- l. paulhan | chevilly-arcis-sur-aube | apr. , | to châlons | | two stages. | grahame-white | london to rugby. | apr. , | | l. paulhan | london to manchester, | apr. , | two stages. | g. h. curtiss | albany to new york | may , | | c. k. hamilton | new york to philadelphia. | june , | | r. labouchere | over course rheims, | july , | france, world's record | j. olieslaegers | rheims, france, | july | world's record. | a. leblanc | circular course, paris, | aug. - , | troyes, nancy, mexziers,| | douai, amiens | | and back. | e. aubrun | same as above. won | aug. - , | second prize. arrived | | only minutes | | later than leblanc. | m. cattaneo | lanark, scotland. | aug. , | | | | r. johnstone | boston | sept. , | | walter brookins | chicago to springfield, | sept. , | ill., two stops. | arch hoxsey | springfield, ill., to st. | oct. , | louis, mo., one stop, | m. tabuteau | buc, france. | oct. , | | g. h. curtiss | across lake erie and | aug. , | return. | j. a. d mccurdy | key west to near havana | jan. , | (fell into ocean). | capt. bellenger | paris to bordeaux, | feb. , | france. | lieut. bague | antibes, italy, across | march , | mediterranean to | | gorgona island. | hirth | munich to berlin, | june , | germany. | vedrines | london to paris | aug. , | | h. n. atwood | boston to washington | june , | | july , | | h. n. atwood | st. louis to new york | aug. | | - , | | olieslaegers | kiewit, belgium (over | july , | course). | loridan | mourmelon, france | july , | (over course). | vassilieff | st. petersburg to | july , | moscow. | renaux | chartres, france | aug. , | (over course). | vedrines | issy, france | aug. , | (over course). | c. p. | n. y. to long beach, | aug. ,- rodgers | cal., world's | dec. , | record. | | | helen | bethany, france (over | aug. , | course), stops. | helen | etampes, france (over | sept. , | course), stops. | lieuts. | annapolis to near | oct. , ellyson, | fortress monroe | towers | (over water). | ----------------+---------------------------+--------- then, too, there was the great london to manchester race for the $ , offered by lord northcliffe, owner of the london _daily mail_. this was one of the most exciting contests of the year, not only because of the difficulties of the trip, but also because of the nip and tuck finish between the two contestants. claude grahame-white had just purchased a farman biplane, and hearing that paulhan was hurrying across the atlantic from the united states to try for the prize himself, the englishman announced that he would start as soon as his machine could be set up. he had had but little experience with the biplane, as always before that time he had used a blériot, but nevertheless, in spite of the advice of his friends to wait, grahame-white started on the -mile flight on the morning of april d in the teeth of a high wind. according to grahame-white's own account of the flight he was buffeted about so unmercifully by the wind that several times he thought he would have to descend. at the same time the cold was so intense that he suffered agonies. he reached his first stop at rugby in safety, though so cold he had to be lifted from his seat, but soon after taking the air again the gale rose to such a pitch that he was forced to land. he went to a hotel to rest and wait for the wind to abate, but while there the gale tipped over his biplane, smashing it so badly that the aviator had to give up and take his machine back to london practically to be rebuilt. meanwhile paulhan had reached england and was rushing his workmen night and day to get his aeroplane set up before grahame-white could complete his repairs and make a fresh start. finally, with the wind still blowing a gale, paulhan started for manchester. grahame-white heard of this at : in the evening, but manfully started after his competitor and flew miles, when he was finally forced to land in the dark. determined to remain in the race, he started again about three o'clock in the morning with the intention of trying to catch up with the daring frenchman. besides the bitter cold, it was so dark that the englishman could not see whether he was flying high or low or even toward manchester. the danger of this kind of flying he knew was very great, because if his engine failed him he would have had to come to earth anywhere he happened to light, as likely on a church steeple or in a lake as on a level spot. of this famous flight grahame-white wrote in his book, "the story of the aeroplane": "my start was really something in the nature of a confused jumble. faint lights swept away on either side as my machine moved across the ground. i could not judge my ascent at all, on account of the darkness. but i elevated as quickly as possible, and got away from the ground smartly. "directly i was at a respectable height, i could see the lights of the railway station very distinctly. i headed toward them. looking directly down, i found that i could distinguish nothing on the ground below me. it was all a black smudge. i flew right over the lights of the railway station--and as i was doing so my engine began to miss fire. it was certainly a very uncomfortable moment--one of the most uncomfortable i have ever experienced. "but, very fortunately for me, after a momentary spluttering, the engine picked up again, and fired properly. i had begun to sink toward the ground, upon which i knew i could have picked out no landing place in the darkness. as soon as my engine began to do its work again, however, i rose and continued my flight smoothly." with the dawn came a terrific wind which forced the aviator to land near polesworth. while waiting for the wind to abate the englishman and his friends heard paulhan had reached manchester and won the prize. of paulhan's famous flight, one of the men who was aboard the special train following paulhan, according to mr. grahame-white, said: "i do not think i have ever seen a machine roll about in the air as his did. he was, we could see, incessantly at work. one wind gust after another struck the machine and it literally reeled under the shock. "up and down it went, and from side to side. paulhan's pluck and determination were remarkable. i do not think that any other man could have kept on with such determination as he displayed. it was a strange thing to see how the wind got worse and worse as the airman flew on." but these feats that startled the world in would not cause a ripple of enthusiasm now, since the north american continent has been crossed by aeroplane; since the trip from boston to washington and from st. louis to new york has been made; since a machine has stayed in the air a whole day, or more than eight and a half hours, since a dozen passengers have been carried half a dozen miles and since the development of the hydro-aeroplane. [illustration: copyright, by brown brothers, n. y. chavez on his fatal flight across the alps] [illustration: the late calbraith p. rodgers, trans-continental flier this picture was taken just after rodgers had picked himself up after one of the many smash-ups of his aeroplane during his ocean to ocean flight.] of course it hasn't all been the winning of prizes and the cheering of crowds, for, as we all know, there has been a tragic side to aviation. up to the summer of more than persons had met death in aeroplane accidents. to analyze all these accidents would require a whole book, but experts agree that in a great many cases they were the result of carelessness on the part of the pilot. of course there were other causes, such as the collapse of the wings, the breaking of stays, the overturning by wind gusts, "holes in the air," the explosion of the motor, the failure of the motor at a critical time, or the collapse of the aviator, but authorities declare that many of these can be prevented by the use of proper care by the designers, manufacturers, and pilots of the air vehicles. two of the most tragic of the recent air fatalities were the deaths of arch. hoxsey and rodgers at los angeles, the former in december, , and the latter in april, . hoxsey had just set a world's record for altitude in his wright biplane, while rodgers only a few months before his death had completed a transcontinental flight and made a world's record. several women aviators also were killed in , including miss harriet quimby, one of the first american women to take up flying. miss quimby's machine fell with her in boston while she was making an exhibition flight. the death roll of american aviators included: lieutenant kelly, u. s. a.; a. hartle, los angeles; kreamer, badger and johnstone, chicago; frisbie, norton, kan.; castellana, mansfield, pa.; miller, troy, ohio; clarke, garden city, n. y.; dixon, spokane, wash.; ely, macon, ga.; and professor montgomery, santa clara, cal., whose early experiments are held in such high esteem by scientists. just as was the year for record-breaking aeroplane contests, was the year that proved the aeroplane a machine with a greater and more important use than that of a very exciting and a very expensive sport. probably the most astounding developments in the world of aviation in were the experiments of the wright brothers at kitty hawk, which showed that man has come very near to solving the problem of true soaring flight. we will look more closely at the experiments in a later chapter. of much greater practical use was the development of the hydro-aeroplane by glenn curtiss. his lead in this was quickly followed by the wrights and most of the european makers. the year saw the aeroplane employed for the first time in the world's history in actual warfare. when the revolution was raging in mexico in february, , the diaz army sent rene simon in a blériot monoplane to make a scouting trip over the camp of the insurrectos. a little later on lieutenant foulois of the american signal service, whose name will be remembered in connection with the fort myer experiments, sailed over and about the camp of the mobilized american army at san antonio, texas, while the mexican revolution was in progress just across the american boundary line. next came the use of the aeroplane for scouting by the italian army in its invasion of tripoli. all of these expeditions showed that the aeroplane can be used more successfully in war for scouting than as a means for dropping explosives. of course there have been many experiments conducted by aviators in dropping paper bombs, but army officers both in the united states and abroad are not agreed as to the success of such projects. another of the important military experiments has been the equipping of aeroplanes with wireless apparatus so that a wireless operator in the machine with the aviator could send and receive brief messages such as would describe the position and strength of an enemy in war time. also many aviators have taken up with them photographers who have taken accurate photographs of both the still and motion variety of the country over which they were passing. of course the armies of the world are building guns which will carry to a great altitude as a defence from aerial attack. although the first country to adopt aeroplanes for use by its army, the united states is now far behind other nations in its aviation squads. the united states signal corps owns only a few wright and curtiss biplanes, with only a small number of officers who know how to fly them. france has an extensive fleet of several hundred aeroplanes and a small army of aviators, while germany has established a school for aviation where sixty or seventy officers are always being instructed in flying the various types of machines. the german army has now more than one hundred aeroplanes, besides many dirigible balloons. the british government has not gone so far, but has conducted some interesting experiments in which claude grahame-white was one of the leaders. the latest things in the aeroplane, however, are always expected to be brought out at the french army tests, and several machines that were first exhibited in this way will be described a little later on. but not only in war is the aeroplane being developed, but also in the greater work of peace, because the aeroplane enthusiasts expect that in the near future the art will be developed to such a degree of safety that regular systems of passenger traffic can be installed. besides this, the aeroplane is the fastest mode of travelling now known, and it may be used for the carrying of mail. it was only in the summer of that the first aeroplane mail route of the united states was established between the aviation field in garden city, l. i., and the united states post-office at mineola, several miles away. daily throughout the meet at garden city captain beck and earle l. ovington carried a sack of officially stamped and sealed mail from the post-office on the field to the postal station at mineola. the first sack was handed to beck by postmaster-general hitchcock. before this, mail had been carried by aeroplane in england, but not on a regularly established route. also the aeroplane has been pressed into service by deputy sheriffs seeking criminals and by searching parties hunting for lost persons. the former was done in los angeles when a gang of desperadoes escaped into the california desert and an aeroplane soared over the sagebrush in an effort to locate them, while the latter was done near new york after duck hunters had got lost in a storm on great south bay, and near new orleans when an aviation student skimmed over lake pontchartrain and located the body of a man drowned there. these are some of the useful developments of the aeroplane. of course there have been many spectacular achievements such as the trip of calbraith p. rodgers, a comparatively inexperienced aviator, from sheepshead bay, n. y., to long beach, cal., across the whole american continent; the trips of harry n. atwood from boston to washington and from st. louis to new york via chicago, buffalo and albany; the trip of vedrines from paris to madrid, across the pyrenees mountains, and the terrific speed of about miles an hour, or more than two and a half miles a minute, maintained by vedrines for eighty miles. just to think of such a speed would take the ordinary person's breath away, but the aviators speak of it calmly and say it won't be long before it will be a common thing for aeroplanes to make a speed of miles an hour, about twice as fast as the fastest automobile has ever burned up the road. then, too, there was the winning of the james gordon bennett cup and prize in england by c. f. weyman, an american who flew a nieuport monoplane equipped with a -horsepower gnome motor. it would be impossible in our space to give a list of the contests, races, circuit races and endurance tests of the year. not only were aeroplanes seen in the united states, but they were flown in south america, africa, australia, japan, india and china. the sphinx in the great sahara desert, the panama canal, niagara falls, the chinese wall, the far eastern temples to buddha, and the islands of the antipodes all have been circled by the dauntless birdmen, as well as the goddess of liberty in new york and the eiffel tower in paris. young atwood started from boston without much ado on june , , sailed miles to new london, conn., and the day following reeled off the miles to new york as easily as he would walk across the street. the fourth of july he went to atlantic city; july th he sailed from there to baltimore, a distance of miles, which was made in four hours and a half; and the day after that finished up by sailing into washington, d. c. this young aviator still was not satisfied and shipped his aeroplane to st. louis, from where on august th he started for new york. his longest single flight was made from st. louis to chicago, miles in hours and minutes. flying an average distance of - / miles a day for the remaining eleven days, he completed the , miles on august th. his total flying time was hours and minutes, and his average speed . miles per hour. far more exciting was the record-breaking flight of the ill-fated rodgers from the atlantic to the pacific. he had a number of severe falls, but his determination carried him through in spite of everything. his machine was a specially constructed wright biplane model ex, something of a mixture between the regular racing and passenger carrying types. starting from sheepshead bay, n. y., on september th, the young giant, who had only learned to fly that summer, was off on the longest trip ever attempted by a birdman. after being on the go for forty-nine days, he sailed over the coast towns to long beach on the pacific ocean. he was actually in the air the equivalent of days, hours, minutes; made an average speed of miles an hour, and his longest single flight was from sanderson to sierra blanca, texas, on october th, a distance of miles. he crossed three ranges of mountains, two deserts and the continental plain; he wrecked and rebuilt his machine four times and replaced some parts of it eight times; he rode through darkness and wind and rain and lightning, at the heart of a thunder cloud. once his engine blew up while he was , feet high and he had to glide to earth. a special train with duplicate parts, a complete repair-shop, and mechanics followed as he winged his way up the hudson across new york state, across the plains of the middle west, down through kansas, oklahoma and texas, across the arizona and california deserts, over the pacific range, and finally to the western ocean. his worst accident came at compton, cal., on the last stage of his journey, when he was so badly injured that he was laid up twenty-eight days. this occurred on november th, but, persevering to the end, rodgers arose as soon as he was able and sailed to the ocean on december th. rodgers remained in california the rest of the winter, giving many exhibitions of his daring and skill, only to meet his death while holding the world's record. on april , , while , persons at long beach, near los angeles, watched his evolutions, his machine tipped forward. the crowd cheered, thinking it a daring dive, but became silent when they saw the aviator had lost control. from a height of feet the biplane plunged into the surf where the water was only two feet deep. when the people reached the broken machine rodgers was dead--his neck broken. there was nothing to show the cause of the biplane's dive. the spot where rodgers was killed is only a few yards from the one where he completed his transcontinental flight, and where the citizens of los angeles planned to erect a monument to his achievement. most boys are perfectly familiar with the important events of in aviation, which the scientist and his young friend talked over so eagerly, for, of course, the papers are full of them, and aviation meets are a common thing now in nearly every city of the country. the development of the hydro-aeroplane was probably the chief work of the inventors for the year, but with it came many devices designed to prevent the appalling loss of life while the art of flying is being perfected. one of them is a parachute fixed to the top of the plane, which the aviator is supposed to open in case his machine gets beyond control. in tests aviators have descended to earth in these parachutes without injury. also a number of automatic balancing and stabilizing devices have been brought out. frank coffyn's feats in and about new york bay during the winter of with his wright hydro-aeroplane gave that city the best idea of the success of the aeroplane in and over water it had ever had. he flew from and alighted on the water and great ice floes in the bay as easily as aviators would fly from a clear landing ground on a calm day. it was from coffyn's machine that the picture of the statue of liberty was taken. the world saw the first hydro-aeroplane meet in march of off the coast of the little european principality of monaco. seven aviators competed for the rich prizes, and, although the maurice farman machine won the greatest number of points, the curtiss hydros showed the greatest speed, and alighted with perfect ease in breakers four feet high. far more important than the winning of prize contests is the latest achievement of glen curtiss in perfecting his "flying boat," pictures of which are shown opposite page . curtiss describes this aeroplane as a combination between a speed motor boat, a yacht and a flying machine. speaking of the new plane, he said recently: "with this craft the dangers common to land aeroplanes are eliminated and safe flying is here. it will develop a new and popular sport which will be known as aerial yachting." the most important factor in this machine is its safety, but it also is speedy, for in its official tests at hammondsport it developed miles an hour as a motor boat and miles an hour as an aeroplane. the boat is feet long and feet wide. the planes are feet wide and - / feet deep. the rudders are attached to the rear; the propeller, driven by an -horsepower motor, is at the front. before we go on to other inventions let us look closely at a few of the aeroplanes so well known to-day, so that when we see them at the meets we can distinguish the different makes. chapter iii aeroplanes to-day our boy friend and the scientist look over modern aeroplanes and find great improvements over those of a few years ago--a model aeroplane. every effort of the aeroplane inventors these days is bent toward making the power flier useful--a faithful servant to man in his day-to-day life--and to this end greater carrying capacity is one of the chief objects," said the scientist one day in answer to a question from his young friend as to what the future of aviation would be. "no one can tell what the future will bring forth," he continued. "you or one of your friends might invent the ideal aeroplane. there is one way of telling how the wind blows, though, and that is by watching the new developments of aeroplanes very carefully. let's look at some of them." of course it was impossible for the boy to study every improvement or every make of aeroplane, but the scientist pointed out a few examples that served to show how science is trying to improve on aviation as we know it to-day. the boy's friend said that probably the most wonderful accomplishment in the art of air navigation since power fliers became an accomplished fact was the work of orville wright in the fall of with his new glider, which he tested at the wright brothers' old experiment station at kitty hawk, n. c. "never before in the history of aviation, so far as is known," said the scientist, "has man come so near to the true soaring flight which we have seen is the third stage of aeroplaning." not only did this wonderful glider sail into the wind and reach an altitude of feet, but, under the control of the pilot, it stayed in the air minutes and second, most of the time hovering over one spot, without the use of any propelling device. on the day of the great test the glider was taken to the top of kill devil hill, which is feet high, and while the wind was roaring through the canvas at miles an hour the machine was launched. to those unaccustomed to the actions of gliders it would have seemed that the engineless biplane would be blown backward over the edge of the hill. instead, it shot forward and upward into the teeth of the hurricane. the force of the wind on the planes, which were presented diagonally to it, caused the flier to rise and go ahead by just about the same principle that a ship can sail almost into the teeth of the wind by having her sails set at the proper angle. when it had reached the altitude of feet it stopped motionless and to those below who saw orville wright sitting calmly in the pilot's seat it seemed that some unseen hand was holding him aloft. suddenly the pilot pressed a lever and the glider darted feet to the left, returned to her original position, sank to within a few feet of the hillside and hovered there for two minutes. the wrights had been working on the principles involved for a long time and at the testing grounds were orville wright, his brother loren, who up to that time had not been known to the world of aviation, and alexander ogilvy, an english aviator. after the remarkable test orville wright was asked, "have you solved real bird flight?" "no," he replied, "but we have learned something about it." the aviator went on to explain that had he been up , feet or so, where the wind currents are always strong, he probably could have stayed up there all night, or as long as he cared to. this greatest of all feats of soaring was accomplished in a glider that looked to the ordinary person very much like the modern wright biplane without the engine. there were skids but they were very low. in general outline the machine was composed of two main planes, a vertical vane set out in front, two vertical planes at the rear of the tail, and behind these the horizontal plane. the details of the construction of the glider were not made public and only a few persons saw it, but from all accounts the curve of the main planes was much greater than is usual, thus gaining the glider a greater degree of support from the air, and the planes were capable of being warped much more than in the ordinary wright biplane. the vertical vane in front, which does not appear on any of the wright power fliers, was a foot wide and five feet tall. it acted as a keel and gave the machine greater side-to-side stability because the wind passing at a high speed to each side of it tended to keep it vertical. in working out a biplane that could rise from or alight on the water, glenn curtiss practically doubled the usefulness of aeroplanes. the experiments, conducted under the auspices of the united states navy so impressed the officers that several have been added to its equipment. curtiss has been experimenting with hydro-aeroplanes for several years, but before actually completing one he conducted a number of experiments with ordinary biplanes in the vicinity of hampton roads, va., in , to prove them available for use on battleships. finally, lieutenant ely flew from the deck of the cruiser _birmingham_ over the water and to a convenient landing spot on land. later on curtiss went to california to perfect his hydro-aeroplane, and while conducting the work lieutenant ely made a flight from shore to the deck of the battleship _pennsylvania_ which was lying in san francisco harbour. these two incidents were more in the nature of "stunts" than developments, but they showed what an aeroplane could do if attached to a battleship fleet as a scout. even more convincing was the proof when curtiss finally worked out a form of wooden float which was put between the mounting wheels. the float was flat-bottomed with an upward inclination at the prow so that when skimming over the water the tendency was to rise from the surface rather than to cut through it. small floats at the outer tips of the lower main plane helped to keep the machine on an even balance while floating at rest upon the water. the wheels served their regular purpose if the machine started from or alighted upon land. the experiments were conducted on san diego bay, and it was only after long and patient labour that the work of mr. curtiss and his military associates was rewarded with success. in the course of the experiments he tried a triplane, which had great lifting power, but this later was abandoned in favour of the regular biplane fitted with a float. after the machine had been perfected, curtiss flew his hydro-aeroplane out into the bay to the cruiser _pennsylvania_, upon which ely had landed a month before, and after landing on the water at the cruiser's side was pulled up to her deck and later was put back into the water from where he sailed to camp. the machine was named the _triad_ because it had conquered air, land, and water. of the machine curtiss says: "i believe the hydro-aeroplane represents one of the longest and most important strides in aviation. it robs the aeroplane of many of its dangers, and as an engine of warfare widens its scope of utility beyond the bounds of the most vivid imagination. the hydro-aeroplane can fly miles an hour, skim the water at miles and run over the earth at miles." it was not long after the curtiss hydro-aeroplane had been successfully demonstrated, before all the other leading makers brought out air craft that could sail from and alight on water as well as on land. the wright hydro-aeroplane, which is equipped with two long air-tight metal floats instead of one, has achieved great success in the united states. in europe all the leading biplane types are now made with hydro-aeroplane equipment, and flying over water became as popular last year as flying over land did in . the first american monoplane to be equipped with the floats of a hydro-plane was shown by the "queen" company at the new york aero show in may, . it was called an aero boat as the front part of the fuselage was enclosed like a boat and the operator sat in it, under the wings. the propeller was at the rear and there was a small pontoon at each end of the wings to keep it on an even keel when stationary in the water. a short time after this the curtiss company turned out the flying boat which was described on page . [illustration: the world's longest glide this photograph shows the new wright glider, driven by orville wright, being held above kill devil hill, n. c., in the face of a high wind, for minutes second.] [illustration: the end of a glide after remaining aloft the new glider was allowed gently to settle to earth.] [illustration: landing on a warship lieutenant ely is here shown landing in a curtiss biplane on the platform built on the deck of the cruiser _birmingham_, at anchor in hampton roads.] [illustration: courtesy of the _scientific american_ boarding a battleship glenn curtiss being hoisted aboard the battleship _pennsylvania_ in san diego harbour after alighting alongside in his hydro-aeroplane.] in general outline the aeroplanes in use to-day differ greatly from those seen several years ago, but the difference is in form rather than in principle. there have been many improvements, of course, in construction, control of the fliers, and in the powerful engines that drive them. in fact the tendency of aeroplane builders has been to adopt the successful devices on other machines rather than to work out original ones. the most noticeable change in the present-day aeroplanes is the way in which builders nowadays are enclosing the bodies and landing framework in canvas or even light metal, so that they shall offer as little resistance to the air as possible. it gives the machines the appearance of being armoured, as will be noticed from the pictures of the new planes, so the term has come to be used in that sense, although, of course, the covering would not protect them against bullets. this armour has become particularly popular with the designers who are making aeroplanes for the french army, and at the recent military tests in france most of the machines were covered to some degree, and many of them looked for all the world like great long-bodied gulls or mammoth flying fishes. several aeroplanes have been equipped with twin motors and double steering systems so that either or both could be used. this, of course, is a great advantage in case one fails. also designers are figuring on wing surfaces that can be reefed or telescoped for better stability as well as wings that can be folded for easier transportation. experts do not agree on the respective merits of the two great general types of aeroplanes--that is, monoplanes and biplanes. some claim that the monoplane is the best and others that the biplane is the most successful flier. records show that so far monoplanes are the faster of the two types, but biplanes can be fitted with hydro-aeroplane floats, whereas it is impractical with most monoplanes. many declare the biplane to have the greater lifting power, but the blériot "aero-bus" has carried a jolly family party of eight without difficulty. each type has its champions as to safety, reliability and endurance, but time will have to decide the question. wright biplane first let us look at one of the latest wright biplanes as it is brought out on the aviation field and is being tuned up by its keen-eyed young american pilot. the description of the wright will be remembered. also it will be remembered how the wright brothers in discarded the forward horizontal elevating rudder entirely, and substituted in its place a single elevating rudder at the rear end of the tail, which also served to give fore and aft stability. also in the wright brothers added wheels to the skids that hitherto had been used for starting and alighting. thus the old system of having the machine skidded along a rail by a falling weight, as previously described, was done away with in favour of its running over the ground on its wheels. after noting these improvements, we will look at the general outlines of such a wright racing machine as contested for the james gordon bennett cup in . the two main planes are the smallest yet used on a biplane, being only - / feet wide from tip to tip, and only - / feet from front to rear. thus, the aspect ratio, it will be seen is . they are the same general shape as the planes on the other wright machines, and their total area is square feet. the machine is steered up or down by the horizontal elevator rudder in the rear, which is oblong-shaped, by feet. the rudder that steers the machine from right to left is set vertically at the tail and is worked in combination with the levers that work the warping of the tips of the planes. on this little machine the twin-screw propellers, - / feet in diameter, sweep practically the whole width of the machine. they are connected by chains to the -horsepower -cylinder wright engine (in ordinary biplanes of this type the engine is horsepower) and make revolutions per minute (in ordinary machines of this type they make revolutions per minute). the machine weighs a total of pounds and is capable of more than miles an hour. the elevation rudder is controlled by a lever set either at the right or left hand of the operator. the direction rudder is controlled by a lever that also controls the warping of the planes, as in turning it is necessary to cant the machine over to the inner side of the curve being made, in order to prevent slipping sidewise through the air. however the handle of the direction and warping lever is so arranged by a clutch system that by moving the lever simply from side to side the direction lever can be worked independently of the warping. the direction and balancing system then, we see, is worked in this manner. say, while flying, a gust of wind causes the biplane to dip at the right end. the operator quickly moves his warping lever forward. this pulls down the tips of the right planes, and at the same time elevates the tips of the left planes. the change of the angle makes the right side lift to its normal position while it makes the left side drop. consequently the machine is restored to an even keel and the operator lets the planes spring back to their normal shape. the large wright biplanes, model b, are designed the same as the small racing models except that the wings have a spread of feet, and a depth of - / feet--a total area of square feet. the perpendicular triangular surfaces in front like two little jib sails, are a distinguishing feature, although the latest wright models substitute narrow vertical fins about six feet tall and six inches wide. they are placed immediately in front of the main planes. the hydro-aeroplane substitutes two aluminum floats for the wheels. curtiss biplane the curtiss biplane, which we have seen has had a great deal to do with the development of aviation, is one of the simplest and most successful machines known to-day. the main planes of the regular-sized machines have a spread of - / feet, are set feet apart, and have a depth from front to rear of - / feet. the total wing area is feet. the direction rudder is a single vertical vane at the rear, which is turned by the steering wheel connected by cables. the elevation rudder consisting of one horizontal plane square feet in area is at the front and is turned up or down by the pilot as he desires to sail up or down, by means of a long bamboo pole connecting the elevation rudder with his pilot wheel. he pushes the wheel forward or back to rise or descend, while he twists it from right to left to turn in either of those directions. the side-to-side balance was maintained in the early curtiss machines by flexible wing tips, but these later were replaced by ailerons placed between and at the outer tips of the main planes. each aileron had an area of square feet and they were operated by a brace fitted to the operator's body. thus, if the machine tipped to the right, the operator would swing to the left, turn the ailerons, and right the machine. in some later curtiss biplanes these ailerons were replaced by others, like flaps attached to the rear outer edges of the main planes. by raising the flaps on one side and lowering them on the other the balance was well preserved. as before stated, these machines are driven by curtiss engines. in most of them the engines are -cylinder, -horsepower motors. the cylinders in this type, of course, are stationary, but the engine shaft is directly connected with the -foot propeller at the rear, which makes , revolutions per minute. the pilot sits between the two main planes of his engine. on large curtiss machines seats for as many as three passengers have been arranged at the sides of the pilot. the most important work curtiss has done in the last few years is the development of the hydro-aeroplane, which has been explained. voisin biplane the next biplane with which we are familiar is the voisin, which henri farman demonstrated as the first really successful aeroplane seen in europe. this machine was a standard of what was called the cellular type because it was composed of cells, like a box kite. the two main planes, which were the same size, feet by - / feet, were connected at the outer edges so as to make the plane a closed cell--i. e., a box with the ends knocked out. two other vertical surfaces between the main plane gave the machine the appearance of three box kites side by side. the tail out behind was composed of a square cell. in the centre of it was a vertical vane for steering it from right to left, while out in front was a single horizontal rudder for raising or lowering the plane. the control was much the same as in the curtiss machine. the steering wheel turned the plane from right to left, and was connected by a rod with the elevator, so that by pushing it forward or back, the machine was raised or lowered. there was no device for maintaining a side-to-side balance as the cell formation was supposed to keep the machine on an even keel. the motor drove a propeller at the rear. the later bordeaux type of voisin which was built for military purposes does away with the side curtains and box tail. on the outer rear edge of the upper main plane are ailerons for maintaining the balance, which are operated by foot pedals. the elevator is a single horizontal plane at the rear of the tail, while the direction rudder is a vertical plane beneath it. this machine carries two persons, and is frequently driven by a gnome engine. still another and later type of the voisin bordeaux is the front control. in this the ailerons are used as previously described, but also there are side curtains enclosing the outer edges of the main planes. out in front at the end of a long framework or fuselage are the horizontal elevating planes, and the vertical direction planes. both these machines have double control systems. farman biplane dissatisfied with the work of his first voisin biplane in the early days of flying henri farman designed and built a machine that bore his own name, of which the military type is now looked upon with great favour by many of the european experts. the two main supporting planes in the regular farman models were feet by - / feet, set feet apart, and with a total area of square feet. these dimensions have been varied slightly in other machines. the elevating rudder, which was set well out in front of the body of the machine, was a horizontal plane controlled by a wire and lever. in the rear was a tail of two parallel surfaces, slightly curved like the main planes of the biplanes. these two surfaces steadied the machine from front to rear. at their two sides were two vertical surfaces, giving the tail the appearance of a box kite, so familiar in the voisin. these two vertical surfaces, however, comprised the direction rudder, and were turned from side to side by the operator with a foot lever. in some of the later farman biplanes the two vertical surfaces were done away with in favour of a single one, extending between the centres of the two horizontal surfaces of the tail. the side-to-side balance was maintained by ailerons in the form of wing tips set at the outer rear edges of the main planes. the tips were hinged and connected with wires which led to the lever that worked the elevating rudder. thus by pulling this lever toward him the operator tilted the rudder up, and the machine rose, and by moving it from side to side the biplane was kept on an even keel. for instance, if the machine were to tip to the right he would move the lever to the left, pulling _down_ the hinged ailerons on the right. the ones on the left would still remain standing straight out at the same angle as the main planes. the increase in the lifting power on the right side would cause that end to rise, righting the machine. most farman biplanes these days are driven by the well known -cylinder gnome rotary air-cooled engines, set at the rear of the main plane. they are directly connected with the single propeller, which is - / feet in diameter. the seat for the aviator is in front of the engine at the front edge of the lower plane, and there also frequently are placed seats for two other passengers. the machine is mounted on wheels and skids. the "farman militaire" type is one of the largest and heaviest machines made to date, having a total area of supporting plane of square feet. the chief difference is that instead of two direction rudders there are three, and that the lower main plane is set at a dihedral angle. it was on such a machine ("type michelin") that farman flew steadily for eight and a half hours. it also has made remarkable distance, endurance, and weight-carrying records, although it is a slow machine, making but to miles an hour. the "type michelin" is distinguished by the fact that the upper main plane has a spread of feet, inches, while the lower plane had a spread of only feet. maurice farman biplane soon after henri farman had become famous as an aviator and constructor of aeroplanes, his brother maurice began to build air craft. the maurice farman biplane was the result. after conducting their business separately for several years the brothers consolidated, and each type is known by the name of the brother designing it. the maurice farman biplane has some remarkable records, among them the winning of the michelin prize in by tabuteau, who flew - / miles in seven and a half hours without stopping. the main planes have a spread of feet and a depth of - / feet. they have not as great a curve or camber as most biplanes, which increases their speed. the tail is of the well-known farman cell formation--that is, it has four sides. the two vertical surfaces swing on pivots and are controlled by wires connecting with the direction steering wheel. the horizontal surfaces of the tail, except for the tips, are stationary, and steady the machine from front to rear. the rear tips of these two surfaces, however, work on pivots in connection with the main elevating plane which is set out in front. the elevator is a single plane controlled by a rod connected with the steering wheel, while the tips of the horizontal tail surfaces are controlled in unison with the main elevator by wires, also connected with the steering wheel. ailerons are set into the rear outer tips of the main planes, for the control of the side-to-side balance, and these are worked by foot pedals. in order to give greater safety in case of the breakage of a wire, all the controlling parts in the maurice farman machine are duplicate, which is a big step toward the much-desired double controlling system in aeroplanes. the biplane is mounted on both skids and wheels. the operator sits well forward on the lower plane in a comfortable little pit enclosed in canvas. thus, the maurice farman machine was the first to adopt this device for shielding the pilot from the wind. the engine used usually is an -cylinder air-cooled renault, which drives a propeller nearly feet in diameter. breguet biplane only slightly known in the united states but well and favourably known in europe, particularly in france, is the breguet biplane, which made wonderful records in the french army tests in . a brief description will show the difference between this machine and others of the biplane type. it has won many prizes for its stability and lifting powers, and also has shown great speed. the framework is mostly metal and is so elastic that it gives under the pulsations for the wind, so that the machine is not so badly strained by gusts as the more rigid kinds. also it is thought the elasticity increases its lifting capacity. of the two main planes the upper one spreads - / feet, while the lower one spreads - / feet. they are - / feet deep, and set feet apart. the body and tail of the machine are made on delicate graceful lines, terminating in the elevation and direction rudders at the rear. there are no rudders, vanes, or other rigging out in front. the lateral balance is maintained by warping the planes. the propeller is at the front of the machine, and is of the tractor type, pulling it through the air instead of pushing it. in the latest machines a metallic three-bladed breguet propeller, the pitch of which is self-adjusting, is used, but in others a two-bladed wooden propeller, such as is familiar in this country. the long body, or fuselage, as the framework of the tail is called, is enclosed on the latest types of breguets in use by the french army, greatly adding to its gracefulness, and decreasing the wind pressure. there are several other makes of biplanes that could be described to advantage but space prevents it, and the descriptions here given serve to illustrate the principle of the biplane type of aeroplane. blÉriot monoplane the first and probably best known monoplane, the blériot, still holds many records for both speed and endurance. the blériot machines have so many variations that it would be impossible to describe all the types of monoplanes this versatile frenchman has turned out. we are familiar in a general way with the blériot, the single widespreading main plane, set at a slight dihedral angle, with its long, graceful body out behind terminating in the horizontal elevating and vertical direction rudders, giving it the appearance of a great soaring bird as it sails through the air as steadily as an automobile on a smooth road--much more steadily in fact, for as soon as the wheels of an aeroplane leave the ground all jolting disappears, and not even the vibration of the engine is noticeable, although the roar of its explosions can be heard a great distance. there is nothing but the breeze and the earth streaming along behind you, as if it were moving and you were hovering motionless high up in the sky. in the famous blériot xi, in which the designer made the first trip across the english channel, the main plane had a spread of a little more than feet and a depth of - / feet, a total area of square feet and a low aspect ratio of about . . at the end of the stout wooden framework, that made up the body and tail, was the vertical direction rudder - / square feet in area which was turned from right to left by a foot lever. the elevation rudder was divided into two halves, one part being put at each side of the direction rudder. the total area of the elevator was square feet, while the horizontal stabilizing plane to which the elevator was attached was about the same. the balance was maintained by warping the main plane, but instead of warping the tips of the plane, as is done in the wright biplanes, the two sides of the main plane were warped from the base, so that the operator could change the angle of incidence--that is, the angle at which the planes travel through the air. thus, if the machine should tip down on the right side, the operator would warp the planes so as to increase the angle of incidence on the right side and lessen it on the left side. in other words, the rear part of the right wing would be bent downward, while on the left side the rear edge would be raised. the forward edge remains stationary. the increase of the angle on the right side would cause an increase of the lifting power on that side and also the decrease of the angle on the left side would lessen the lifting power of the left wing so the right side, which was tipping down, would be lifted, and the machine restored to an even keel. this warping was done by moving from side to side the same lever on which was mounted the steering wheel. the whole machine was mounted on a strong chassis with wheels for starting and alighting. the pilot sat in the framework above the main plane. the monoplane was propelled by a single propeller of the tractor type to feet in diameter, placed at the front of the machine. it was driven in the early blériots by a -horsepower anzani motor, but more lately the blériot machines have carried gnome motors. one of the important improvements which appeared on the no. xi _bis_ was the changing of the main plane so that the upper side was curved but the under side was nearly flat. this gave the machine much more speed and the designers found that the flattening out of the curve on the under side did not greatly lessen the lifting power. this same type of machine also was made later to carry three passengers. the machine known as the "type militaire" was just about like the others except that the tail instead of being rectangular was fan-shaped. it carried seats for two and was equipped with all the latest aviation accoutrements, such as tachometers, barographs to record altitude, instrument to record inclination, various other gauges, map cases and thermos bottles. the most distinctive feature of the blériot no. xii, which was the first aeroplane to carry three passengers, was the long vertical keel, shaped like the fin of a fish at the top of the framework. the direction rudder was at the rear of this keel, while the elevation rudder was at the rear and a little below it. immediately below the direction rudder was a small horizontal plane about the size of the elevation rudder which helped to maintain a fore and aft stability. then there was the famous blériot aerobus which would carry to people. the machine was very large, the wings having a spread of feet and a total area of square feet. it was driven by a -horsepower gnome motor and a propeller feet in diameter, which was placed at the rear of the main plane. thus the propeller drove the machine through the air from the rear instead of pulling it from the front as do the tractor propellers on most of the blériot monoplanes. the passengers were seated underneath the main plane on the framework which extended out to the rear. the tail terminated in the vertical direction rudder and a large stationary horizontal surface which gave the necessary front-to-rear stability. the elevating plane of this type was placed out in front. [illustration: the flying boat starting the latest aeroplane is here seen cutting through the water preparatory to ascending into the air.] [illustration: the curtiss flying boat this is the very latest development in the hydro-aeroplane, and moreover it is claimed by its inventor, glenn curtiss, to be the first absolutely safe aeroplane.] [illustration: glenn curtiss allowing his hydro-aeroplane to float on the water after alighting] [illustration: hydro-aeroplane at monte carlo at the hydro-aeroplane meet at monaco practically every well-known type of biplane was equipped with pontoons and entered the contest.] the blériot canard or "duck" is one of the latest developments of the pioneer constructor, and the chief difference between it and the other blériot machines is that the body extends out in front of the main plane instead of behind, something like santos-dumont's first machine. the main plane has a spread of feet, and has a total supporting surface of square feet. at the forward end of the body is placed the horizontal elevating rudder, while two small vertical rudders, placed on the top of the outer ends of the main plane and working in unison, serve to steer it from side to side. the balance in this machine is preserved by large hinged ailerons at the outer rear edges of the main plane. the pilot sits in front of the engine underneath the plane, which is a military advantage, giving him ample chance for looking down and observing everything over which he is passing. antoinette monoplane no machine that ever was flown has excited more admiration from those on the ground than the graceful antoinette monoplane, designed by the famous french motor-boat builder, levavasseur. its great tapering wings and long fan-shaped tail give it the appearance of a huge swallow or dragon-fly as it sails through the air, and whenever this type has appeared at the american meets it has received tremendous applause. the two best known models of the antoinette are the type used by latham in this country, and the "armoured" type, entered in the french military tests. the bow of the first-mentioned machine is shaped very much like the prow of a boat with the to horsepower -or -cylinder water-cooled antoinette engine occupying the extreme forward part. the propeller is set in front of this, and is of the tractor type, drawing the machine through the air behind it. in the recent models of the antoinette, the main plane, set at a slight dihedral angle, spread a little more than feet (compare this with the spread of feet of the blériot). the two sides of the main plane taper from the body of the machine, but have an average depth from front to rear of feet, which gives a fairly high aspect ratio of about . the total area is square feet. the main plane also tapers in thickness, being nearly a foot through close to the body and tapering down to a few inches at the outer tips. the graceful tail at the rear has both vertical and horizontal surfaces gently tapering to the height and width of the elevating and direction rudders. the elevating rudder is a single horizontal triangular surface at the rear controlled by cables running to a pilot wheel at the operator's right hand. it has an area of square feet. the direction rudder is composed of two triangular surfaces with an area of square feet each. one is above the elevator and the other below, but both are worked in unison by wires connecting with a foot lever. the machine is balanced by a warping system much like that on the wright biplanes we know so well. this is accomplished by wires connecting with a steering wheel at the pilot's left hand, so that he uses his right hand to steer his machine up or down, his feet to steer from right to left, and his left hand to maintain the balance. of course, in making a sharp turn he uses his warping wheel as well as his direction wheel, because, as previously explained, it is necessary to incline the machine over toward the inside of the curve desired to be made. the pilot sits in the framework, above and a little back of the supporting plane. the "armoured" antoinette, which was designed for military purposes, is entirely enclosed, even increasing the already great resemblance to a bird, while the direction rudder is made of a single surface, and the elevating rudder of two rhomboid-shaped rudders. the pilot sits in a cockpit with only his head and shoulders protruding above and has a view below through a glass floor. its most important feature is the total elimination of cross wires, struts and the like. the resistance is greatly decreased, but the weight increased. in addition, a peculiar wing section is used, flat on the under side and curved on the upper side. the wings are immensely thick, being entirely braced from the inside. at the body the wings are over two feet thick. their thickness decreases toward the tips, which are about eight inches thick. the shape of each wing is called trapesoidal, and they are set at a large dihedral angle. the motor is a regular -horsepower antoinette. the oddest feature of this type is the landing gear, which is entirely enclosed to within a few inches of the ground; the landing wheels at the front are six in number, three on each side of the centre, enclosed in what is called a "skirt." at the rear are two smaller wheels. the dimensions are roughly as follows: spread, - / feet, wings, square feet; length over all, feet; depth of wings (from front to rear) at tips, over feet, increasing to almost feet at the centre. the total weight is nearly , pounds. nieuport monoplane the nieuport monoplane is one of the newer machines that has attracted a great deal of attention for its speed with low-powered engines. among the achievements of this monoplane was weyman's winning of the james gordon bennett cup and prize in england in , and the demonstration of its remarkable passenger carrying abilities. the nieuport also is a wonderful glider, for claude grahame-white took his new one up , feet at nassau boulevard, garden city, during the meet there and glided down the whole distance without power, the downward sail taking him nearly as long as the upward climb. [illustration: the wright biplane baby wright model. orville wright is in front of seat, while wilbur wright is holding back on the fuselage.] [illustration: standard curtiss biplane for reliability and stability the curtiss biplane is one of the best known models.] [illustration: curtiss steering gear sitting in front of the engine the aviator controls the ailerons by straps over his shoulders, and the direction and elevation rudders by the steering wheel.] the passenger machine has a spread of feet with a length of about feet from front to rear. this machine is generally equipped with a or horsepower gnome motor, although the plane with which weyman won the gordon bennett contest was equipped with a -horsepower gnome motor. the smaller machine has a spread of feet, inches and a length of feet. an engine of the -cylinder anzani type is usually mounted on this monoplane. the body of the flier gracefully tapers to a point at the rear where are placed the elevating and steering rudders. the chief characteristics of the nieuport are strength, simplicity in design, and great efficiency of operation. the smaller machine, which is equipped with an engine of from to horsepower, has acquired a speed of - / miles an hour. the nieuport is constructed along original lines throughout. the wings are very thick at the front edge, while the rear edges are flexible so that in gusts of wind they give a little. the fuselage, or body of the machine, which is extraordinarily large, and shaped like the body of a bird, is entirely covered with canvas. the weakest part of the nieuport monoplane is the alighting and running gear, which is so designed as to eliminate head resistance, but unfortunately this simplicity is carried to an extreme which makes the machine the most difficult one to run along the ground, and to this construction may be traced most of the accidents which have occurred to the nieuport machines. the nieuport control differs from that of the majority of other machines inasmuch as the wing warping is controlled by the feet, while hand levers operate the vertical and elevating rudders. model aeroplanes after having taken in such a lot of information about aeroplanes the scientist's young friend considered himself fairly well equipped to build a flier. "why couldn't i build a little model aeroplane?" he said one day. "no reason why young couldn't," answered his friend in the laboratory. "you have a little workshop at home and your own simple tools will be plenty. you will have to buy some of your materials, but they are all cheap. "there is no sport like model aeroplane flying, but to the average american boy the flying is not half so much fun as meeting and overcoming the obstacles and problems entailed in making the little plane. these days nearly any boy would scorn to enter a model aeroplane tournament with any machine that he did not make himself, and a great many of the amateur aviators even prefer to make their own designs and plans. "when we begin to take up the construction of a glider or an aeroplane, we must, like the wright brothers, reluctantly enter upon the scientific side of it, because in model building we cannot simply make exact reproductions of the great man-carrying fliers, but must meet and overcome new problems. the laws that govern the standard aeroplanes apply a little differently to models, so it is necessary for the model builder to figure things out for himself. "for instance," explained the scientist, "most amateurs have decided that monoplane models fly much better than biplanes. the reason for this is probably that with the miniature makes the air is so disturbed by the propeller that its action on the lower plane tends to make it unsteady rather than to give it a greater lifting capacity. this could be avoided by placing the two planes farther apart, but they would have to be so far separated that the machine would be ungainly and out of all proportion. moreover, the second plane, with the necessary stays and trusses, adds to the weight of the machine, and this is always bad in models. "there are as many different types of model aeroplanes as there are of the big man carriers, but you had better make a small flier first, experiment with it, and then work out your own variations just as you think best." "will you help me build one?" asked the boy. "no, for you don't need my help and you will have more fun doing it alone. i will tell you how to go about it, and with what you know of the principles of aviation from our conversations it will be easy to make a successful model." then taking a piece of paper and a pencil the scientist began to draw rough plans for the building of a little model monoplane something like the blériot, except that it was driven tail first, with the propeller at the rear. as he worked he explained how the plan shown below should be followed, saying that the beginner would find that a length of about one foot would be the most convenient for this first model. later on he can make the big ones with a spread of wings of three feet, and a length of forty or more inches. [illustration: a simple model aeroplane] first, the three main parts of the model should be made. those are the two main planes and backbone. the simplest way of making the planes for a model of this kind is to use thin boards of poplar or spruce, which will not split easily and which can be worked with a jackknife. the large plane should be rectangular, with a spread of eight inches and a depth of two inches, while the smaller plane should be the same shape, four by one inch. they should be one eighth of an inch or less in thickness. plane and sandpaper them down as thin and as smooth as possible without splitting them, and round off the corners just enough to do away with sharp edges. now draw a line parallel with the side that is eight inches long, three quarters of an inch from the edge. measure off two inches toward the centre from the outer edges, along this line, and draw lines parallel with the edges that are two inches deep. at the corners which are to be the rear we find the lines make two rectangles three quarters of an inch by two inches, and these corners are to be cut away in a graceful curve from the corners of the rectangles. when it is done the main plane will be shaped like a big d with the curved edge to the rear. the front edge of the small plane also should be curved, but not nearly so much as the larger plane. this done, the planes can be steamed or moistened with varnish, and given a slight curve or camber by laying them on a flat board with a little stick underneath and weights at the front and back to hold down the edges while they dry and set. the sticks should be about one third of the way back from the front edges, from there tapering down to the level of the rear edge. of course, in this process great care must be used not to split the delicate planes. [illustration: standard farman biplane note the box tail and the single elevating plane.] [illustration: farman plane with enclosed nose this type is sometimes used in europe, and it led to the farman "canard" with the box tail in front.] [illustration: a modern blÉriot this machine has the enclosed fuselage and other recent improvements. note the four-bladed propeller.] [illustration: a standard blÉriot this is the regular type of blériot made famous by long over-water flights.] [illustration: passenger-carrying blÉriot this type has tremendous capacity for carrying great weights.] there are many other ways of making planes. if one does not care to round off the edges, he can make very light wooden rectangular frames of the size indicated, and cover them with cloth, or silk, afterward varnishing them to make them smooth and air-tight. it is difficult to give such planes a camber, but if the framework is made of strong light wire, such as umbrella ribs, and then covered, the camber can be obtained by putting light wire or light wooden ribs in the planes, much like on the big standard makes. plane building can be developed to a high art, and after a boy makes one or two models he will see any number of ways that he can make them lighter, stronger and more professional looking. with the planes finished, the next work is to make the backbone of the machine by planing and sandpapering a light strong stick one foot long and not more than a quarter of an inch square. cut out a neat block of the same wood, the same thickness as the backbone, and one inch square. glue it to the end of the backbone and reinforce it by wrapping it with silken thread moistened with glue or varnish. be sure to have the grain of this block, which is the motor base, run the same as the backbone. three quarters of an inch from the backbone, and parallel with it, bore a little hole for the propeller shaft or axle. unless you are sure of your drill, heat a thin steel wire and burn the hole, rather than risk splitting the block. the propeller is the next thing to make, while the glue on the backbone is drying, and the camber of the plane is setting. some models have metal propellers, but most boys prefer to make wooden ones, either from blocks of their own cutting or from blanks that can be purchased. the blank should be four inches in diameter an inch wide, and half an inch thick. it can be cut away very thin with a sharp knife, and a fairly good whittler can make a propeller that looks as businesslike as the great gleaming blades on the big machines. a wire then should be run through the dead centre of the propeller and bent over so that when the wire shaft turns the propeller also turns. as a bearing or washer the simplest device is a glass bead strung on the shaft and well oiled to lessen the friction, between the propeller and the propeller base. the shaft is then run through the hole in the motor base and bent into a hook for the rubber strands that drive the propeller. great care should be taken in mounting the propeller and making the hook that the shaft is kept in an absolutely straight line, and at an accurate right angle with the propeller, so that the screw can turn free and true with as little friction as possible, and no wobbling or unbusinesslike vibration. next a wire hook should be placed at the other end of the backbone upon which to hook the other end of the rubber strands. this hook can either be imbedded in another block the same size as the motor base or can be set out by some other ingenious device, so that the strands will turn free of the backbone, and will make an even line parallel with it. both hooks should be covered by little pieces of rubber tubing to protect the rubber strands. any friction whatever in a model is bad, but it is worst of all upon the rubber strands of the motor. with the parts in hand the next step is attaching the planes to the backbone. in this machine the motor should be above the planes, so that the planes should be affixed to the upper side of the central stick, with the rubber strands above them. the propeller is at the rear, so the small front plane should be placed at the front, with the slightly curved edge to the rear. it should be about an inch from the tip of the stick and the front edge should be elevated slightly to give the necessary lifting power. the main plane should be placed about an inch from the rear tip of the backbone, with the curved edge to the rear and the front slightly elevated. the planes should be affixed with rubber bands so that it is possible to move them forward or back, because the little monoplane might be lacking in fore and aft stability and the rearrangement of the planes might correct it. it might even be found more satisfactory in some models to change the order and let the propeller, base, and strands of the motor come below the planes instead of above them. your own experience will tell best. [illustration: the antoinette monoplane new armoured antoinette shown in the large picture, while the small insert shows the old-style machine.] [illustration: photo by philip w. wilcox the nieuport monoplane comparatively a new make, the nieuport monoplane has sprung into great favour for its speed and passenger-carrying capacities.] of course, the planes must be placed on the backbone exactly evenly or the airship will be lopsided, a fatal fault. by experimenting, the boy can tell just how high the front edges should be elevated, or, in other words, what angle of incidence he should give his plane. a rudder, to keep the machine in a straight course, can be added underneath the centre of the main plane. it should be about two inches square, but shaved off to a curving razor edge. also light skids of cane or rattan may be added. they should be glued to the under side of the backbone and curved backward like sled runners. the front one should be two and a half to three inches high, while the rear one should be about an inch to an inch and a half less. after trying out the model as a glider by throwing it across a room and making sure it is well balanced both laterally and longitudinally, or from side to side, and fore and aft, the rubber strands can be put on, and the motor wound up. about four strands of rubber one eighth of an inch square, such as is sold for this purpose, would suffice for good flights of more than one hundred feet, if the machine were of the same weight and proportions as the model from which this description was written. in models, however, there are many little details that can change the conditions, and a boy can only experiment, locate his mistakes, and try it over again. this is one of the simplest and easiest model aeroplanes that can be made. a trip to one of the model aeroplane tournaments will reveal dozens of more elaborate ones, which will give any ingenious boy ideas for development of the principles he can learn from the simpler type. probably the next step of the average boy would be to build a machine with two motors, which can be done by elaborating the single stick backbone or by making a backbone of two or three sticks well braced with cross pieces at each end and in the middle. then there are interesting experiments with the size of planes, number of planes, their aspect ratio--that is the proportion of their width to their depth--ailerons for automatic stability, and rudders for keeping the machine on a straight course. there are always new things to be done with the motors, because, though the rubber motors have driven models close to half a mile, there are now on the market miniature gasoline motors to drive models, and experiments are being tried with clockwork and compressed air. indeed the model aeroplane field is as broad in itself as that of the man-carrying machines. aviation has been reduced to an exact science, but it is yet in its early growth, both in the field of models and in the field of the various kinds of man-carrying machines. not only are the designers making great headway with aeroplanes, but also with dirigible balloons so any one interested in aeronautics has a very wide field for his work. as we said in an earlier chapter, the boy model designer of to-day may be the inventor of to-morrow who gains undying fame by some now undreamed-of development of the aeroplane. the designers of the man carriers are trying to make their machines stronger, safer, more reliable, capable of carrying more passengers, and they hope at last to bring them to a more practical use in the world than as a sport. the most thoughtful aviators do not favour exhibition flying so strongly as they do long cross-country flights, endurance tests, passenger-carrying tests, and other experiments that will develop aeroplanes beyond their present limitations. the next great feat of the aeroplane is the crossing of the atlantic ocean, and that may not be far distant, for at the time of writing half a dozen aviators are planning the attempt, but even more important than that, even more important than the development of the aeroplane for war scouting, is the development of the aeroplane as a faithful servant of the people who are quietly going about their own everyday business. the time will come when the readers of this may send their mail by aeroplane, take pleasure rides in the aeroplane instead of the automobile, and even make regular trips on regularly established aeroplane routes, buying their tickets at the great central aeroplane stations as they would buy railroad tickets in the grand central or the pennsylvania stations to-day, taking their seats in comfortably arranged aero cars, and being whisked in a few hours from one part of the country to the other, and even from one side of the ocean to the other. chapter iv artificial lightning made and harnessed to man's use our friends investigate nikola tesla's invention for the wireless transmission of power, by which he hopes to encircle the earth with limitless electrical power, make ocean and air travel absolutely safe, and revolutionize land traffic. "how would you like to send a signal clear through the earth with your wireless outfit and get it back again on your receiving instrument as clear and strong as at first, just about the same way you hear the echo of your voice when it rebounds from a mountainside or a big building?" asked the scientist one day while his young friend was telling him about his amateur wireless experiments. "i don't see how i could," answered the boy. "no, of course you don't," said the boy's friend, "for it took nikola tesla, 'the wizard of electricity' almost a lifetime to work out the invention by which he could do that, but if you like we will go and see doctor tesla and ask him to tell us about his wonderful experiments. "you see this is a series of inventions by tesla, and wireless telegraphy is only a small part of it. you remember the other day you told me of having read about aeroplanes equipped with wireless. just think, tesla's invention will make it possible for airships to be propelled and operated all by electricity sent without wires. the whole broad plan is called the wireless transmission of power, and that simply means that electricity can be transmitted without wires for all the uses we now have for it, as well as for a number of entirely new and hitherto unknown devices." the boy was delighted with the prospect of seeing the great scientist tesla, about whom he had read so much, and began to ask his older friend a thousand questions about the man, his work and life. it was a good many days before the whole thing had been talked over, and the boy understood the series of inventions, but we will follow through a part of our scientist's explanation and the visit to tesla's laboratory and plant. although tesla's plan is one of the most astounding ever proposed by science, it has been proved possible by experiments of such hair-raising nature that the inventor has been called a "daredevil" a "demon in electricity" and a "dreamer of dynamic dreams." in his experiments he has produced electrical currents of a voltage higher even than the bolts of lightning we see cleaving the sky during the worst thunderstorms. these currents he has harnessed to his own use and made them tell him the inmost secrets of the earth--in fact of the palpitation at the very core of the globe--the heartbeats of our sphere. he has given exhibitions in which he has caused currents of inconceivably high power to play about his head as if they were gentle summer breezes, and while working in the mountains of colorado, he has brought forth electrical discharges which caused disturbances in the wireless telegraph apparatus in all parts of the globe. in short, nikola tesla plans to make artificial lightning, and so harness it to the use of man, that it can be sent anywhere on or above the earth, without wires. to scientists and electrical engineers, tesla's plan offers a field for limitless study and discussion, but to the boy who is interested in electricity it offers one of the most fascinating subjects for reading and thinking in all the realm of science. just reflect that with the wireless transmission of power, and the development of an art that tesla calls "telautomatics," the navigators of wireless power-driven airships and ocean liners will know their exact speed, position, altitude, direction, the time of night or day, and whether there is anything in their path, all through the wireless "telautomatic" devices for registering such impressions. tesla declares that the terrible _titanic_ disaster never would have occurred had his system been in effect last april, for he declares that the _titanic's_ captain would have known of the iceberg he was approaching long enough in advance to slacken speed and get out of its way. moreover, he declares that with the wireless transmission of power, the wireless telegraph becomes a very simple matter, and that immediately after the accident, had the ship struck an obstacle in spite of warnings, the captain could have been in wireless telephone communication with his offices in london and new york, and with all the ships that were on the seas in the vicinity of the ill-fated liner. but making air and sea navigation safe, sure, and speedy, are only the first steps tesla intends to take in the wireless transmission of power. after that he hopes to light the earth--to carry a beautiful soft bright light to ranchmen far out on the deserts, to miners in their cabins or deep in the earth, to farmers, and to sailors, as well as to people in their homes in the cities all over the world--australia as well as the united states. wireless electrical power, according to tesla, will be one of the greatest agencies in war, if there is any, but it first will be an argument for universal peace. "fights," says the inventor, "whether between individuals or between nations arise from misunderstandings, and with the complete dissemination of intelligence, constant communication, and familiarity with the ideals of other nations, that international combativeness so dangerous to world peace, will disappear." if tesla's plan were carried out in full it would completely revolutionize the industries of the world, for all the power of niagara or any other waterfall in the world could be sent without wires to turn the wheels of the industries in china or australia, while the power of the zambesi falls in africa could be transmitted to run trains, subways, elevateds, and all other forms of industry in the united states. there is practically no limit to the possibilities of the scheme, because through tesla's invention, distance means nothing, and the power instead of losing force with distance as is the case when power is transmitted through wires, retains practically the same voltage as at the outset. we will visit doctor tesla at his office and laboratory in the metropolitan tower in new york with the scientist and his young friend to see what kind of a man it is who has invented machines for creating and handling such tremendous voltages. tesla sits at a wide flat-topped desk in the centre of his sunny office surrounded by books, a few models of inventions, and a few pictures of some of his most remarkable electrical experiments. he is very tall and slight, with a mass of black hair thrown back from his intellectual forehead. his piercing gray eyes sparkle as he smiles in greeting, and his thin pointed face lights up with an expression of pleasure and kindness that cannot help but make the great electrician's visitors feel that he is a good friend. although he was naturalized more than twenty years ago, and has been an american citizen ever since, his english still shows some slight traces of his foreign birth. he looks no more than forty-odd and he is as interested in everything that is going on in the world as a young boy, but he has passed his fiftieth year. "for all that i am something of a boy still myself," says the inventor. "you see i could work for the present generation to make money. of course that's all right, but i don't care what the present generation thinks of me. it is the growing generation--the boys of to-day that i want to work for, because they will live in an age when the world has advanced far enough in science to understand some of the deeper mysteries of electricity. the boys of to-day are the great scientists of to-morrow, and it is to them that i dedicate my greatest efforts." all his life tesla has been working with an eye to the future as well as to the present, and some of his inventions probably will be far better appreciated in twenty years than they are now, although to tesla we owe our thanks for some of the most important electrical machinery in use at the present time. as an inventor tesla is best known as a pioneer in high tension currents. it was he who introduced to the world the great principle of the alternating current, as up to the time he carried out his experiments only the direct current was used. indeed, more than four million horsepower of waterfalls are harnessed by tesla's alternating current system. that is the same as forty millions of untiring men working without pay, consuming no food, shelter or raiment while labouring to provide for our wants. in these days of conservation, it is interesting to note that this electrical energy derived from water power saves a hundred million tons of coal every year. our trolley roads, our subways, many of our electrified railroads, the incandescent lamps in our homes and offices, all use a system of power transmission of this man's invention. as said before tesla is a naturalized american citizen. he was born in smiljan, lika, on the austro-hungarian border, in . he came by his scientific and inventive turn of mind naturally, for his father was an intellectual greek clergyman, and his mother, georgia mandic, was an inventor herself as was her father before her. the boy attended the public schools of lika and croatia, where he was a leader among his playmates in sports where imagination and mechanical skill were required. there are marvellous tales of the ingenuity of tesla while a schoolboy, but with all his play he was a serious-minded student, and went through the polytechnic in gratz and the university of prague in bohemia with honours. while in the polytechnic, tesla saw the defects of some of the machinery that was used in the laboratory, and made suggestions for its improvement. after finishing college tesla began his practical career in budapest as an electrical engineer in . his first invention followed soon after in the form of a telephone repeater. he continued in electrical engineering in paris until , when he came to the united states. his first employment in america was with the edison company at orange, n. j., but in he went into business for himself as an electrical engineer. from that time on he has been an important figure in the scientific world. he has made many addresses before various gatherings of experts and has written numerous papers on scientific subjects for the magazines. of course the bulk of his time has been given to his inventions and the necessary research therefor. [illustration: like a bolt of lightning the electrical discharge of this tesla oscillator created flames feet across, under the pressure of , , volts and a current alternating , times per second.] [illustration: dr. nikola tesla wizard of electricity, and inventor of the wireless transmission of power.] [illustration: doctor tesla's first power plant from this oscillator doctor tesla sends out the electrical waves with which he hopes to revolutionize industry.] throughout his life tesla has been more interested in the adventurous and scientific side of electricity than the commercial side, and all of his inventions smack of the marvellous. to name all his inventions would be almost like giving a list of the machines and devices that mark man's progress in the use of electricity. his invention for the alternating current dynamo, for instance, brought forth an entirely new principle, while his rotating magnetic field made possible the transmission of alternating currents from large power plants over great distances and is very extensively used to-day. high power dynamos, transformers, induction coils, oscillators, and various kinds of electric lamps all came in for his attention. he became one of the foremost authorities on high tension currents and in invented a system of electrical conversion and distribution by oscillatory discharges which was a step toward his great goal, the wireless transmission of power. he was very near the prize when in he announced a system of wireless transmission of intelligence. his studies continued and finally, in , he announced his famous high potential transmitter by which he claimed to be able to send power through the earth without wires. the art of telautomatics announced in was really a part of tesla's invention for the wireless transmission of power, for the plan was to control such objects, for instance, as airships or boats, from a distance by electricity transmitted without wires. through that marvellous invention the boat or aeroplane dispatcher, sitting before a complex little wireless dispatching board could send his craft, at any speed, at any height, in perfect safety, and with exact precision to the place or port he desired it to go. it would not be necessary for the dispatcher ever to see the craft he was directing, for his instruments would show him everything in regard to its speed, direction, and location; nor yet would it be necessary for a craft to have a crew aboard, for all the operations in connection with sending it from one place to another would be controlled perfectly by telautomatics. such are the almost inconceivable inventions of nikola tesla. "sometimes they call me a dreamer," says tesla, "because i do not capitalize these inventions, start in manufacturing and make a big fortune. that is not what i care to do. i want to go further in this great mystery of wireless power, and if i am busy making money i cannot devote my best abilities to inventions that will be in use when the next generation is grown." but let us try to fathom the mysteries of tesla's scheme for the transmission of electric energy without wires. in the first place we must not try to think of it as being on the same basis as the radio, or hertzian wireless telegraph, for, although the modern developments of the wireless telegraph take into consideration the central theory of tesla's invention, they are not at all the same in their practical working. tesla's theory is based entirely on his discovery of what he calls stationary electrical earth waves which he sets in motion with his high potential magnifying transmitter, an electrical apparatus of tremendous power. first, let us remember the three essential departments of tesla's idea for world telegraphy, world telephony, and world transmission of power for commercial purposes. assuming that the power is created by niagara or some other great waterfall--"white coal" as it is picturesquely called by many engineers--the first necessities are a transformer and a transmitter that will send the electrical energy, thus gathered, into the earth and air. the next necessity is a receiving instrument that will record the impulse, whether it be a voice, a telegraph click, or several million volts for driving factory wheels or lighting houses. lastly, it is necessary to tune the currents so that millions of different impulses can be sent without causing confusion between them. in other words, there must be departments for sending, receiving and "individualizing." to ask doctor tesla to tell us the whole story of this invention would be to ask him to tell us in detail the whole history of his life work--and that would take several volumes, for he is one of those men who have worked incessantly, day and night, sacrificing himself and overcoming his natural desire for leisure and amusement. it all started, tesla explains, when he was a very small boy. he was troubled at that time with a strange habit. whenever any one would mention a thing to him, a vision of the object immediately would come before his eyes. he declares that this was very troublesome, and that as he grew older he tried to overcome it, thinking it some strange malady. with an effort he learned how to banish the images by putting them from his mind. on inquiring into the cause of the visions, the young scientist's penetrating brain brought him to the conclusion that every time he saw a vision, some time previous he had seen something to remind him of the object. the tracing back of the cause of his vision so frequently caused it to become a mental habit, and he declares that for many years he has done it automatically, and that he has been able to trace the cause of nearly every impression, even including his dreams. reflecting on these things, as a mature scientist, tesla came to the conclusion that he was an automaton, responding automatically to impressions registered on his senses from the outside. "why couldn't i make a mechanical automaton that would represent me in every way, except thought?" he asked himself. the answer to the question which came only after years of study and experiment was the art of "telautomatics," which tesla declares can be developed just as soon as the wireless transmission of power is an accomplished fact. in the course of his research into the realm of high tension currents tesla reached the stage where it was no longer safe nor convenient to experiment in the centres of population. moreover, he desired to make a study of the action of lightning. colorado, with its vast stretches of uninhabited plains and mountains, offered an ideal place for his laboratory, particularly because the high, dry climate of that state brings forth some of the worst electrical storms seen in the united states. consequently, in the spring of , tesla built an experiment station on the plateau that extends from the front range of the rocky mountains to colorado springs, and began the experiments through which the secret with which he hopes to revolutionize the communication and transportation systems of the world, was revealed to him. besides his high power alternating current dynamo, tesla set up an electrical oscillator with which he hoped to send out electrical waves, through the earth and air, that would prove to him the possibility of an extensive system of wireless communication, and telautomatic, or wireless control of airships, projectiles, steamships, etc. in his early experiments he used the oscillator at low tension, but as his success became more marked he increased the tension, until the oscillator was giving twelve million volts, and the current was alternating a hundred thousand times a second. in regard to these high tension experiments in colorado and elsewhere, doctor tesla said, "i have produced electrical oscillations which were of such intensity that when circulating through my arms and chest they have melted wires which have joined my hands, and still i have felt no inconvenience. i have energized, with such oscillations, a loop of heavy copper wire so powerfully that masses of metal placed within the loop were heated to a high temperature and melted, often with the violence of an explosion. and yet, into this space in which this terribly destructive turmoil was going on i have repeatedly thrust my head without feeling anything or experiencing injurious after effects." among the earlier experiments, which in themselves were wonderful enough, were the transmission of an electrical current through one wire without return, to light several incandescent lamps. advancing further along the trail of wireless transmission of power, tesla lighted the lamps without any wire connection between them and his transmitter. the oscillator, though simple in its construction, is one of the most wonderful of all electrical devices. "you see," said doctor tesla, "all that is necessary is a high power alternating dynamo which generates a tremendous alternating current. for our oscillator proper, we make a few turns of a stout cable around a cylindrical or drum-shaped form, and connect its two ends with the source of electrical energy. then, inside the big cable, or primary coil, we wind a lighter wire in spiral form. one end of the secondary coil is sunk into the ground and connected with a plate, and the other is erected in the air. when the current is turned on, our oscillator sends these electrical impulses into the earth and air--or, as the scientists say, into the natural media. these oscillations create electrical waves and affect any device that is tuned to them--but (and this is very important) no device that is not tuned to them." continuing the explanation of his high tension experiments, tesla tells us that the awe-inspiring electrical display, of which there is a picture on page , was made by his oscillator which created an alternate movement of electricity from the earth into a hollow metal reservoir and back at a speed of , alternations a second. the reservoir is already filled to overflowing with electricity and as the current is sent back to it at each alternation the terrific force makes it burst forth with a deafening roar, as great as the heaviest lightning detonation. the electric flames shoot out in every direction searching for something on which they may alight, just as lightning sent from the clouds searches for a conductor upon which it may alight and escape into the earth. the induction coils in the picture are tuned to these tremendous electrical explosions, and the flames shoot direct to them, a distance of feet. the flames shooting from the coil of the oscillator pictured on page were nearly feet across, represented twelve million volts of electricity, and a current alternating , times a second. these hair-raising experiments created such electrical disturbances that it was possible to draw great sparks more than an inch long, from water plugs over feet from the laboratory. one of the most marvellous things about these experiments is that any human being could remain in the vicinity. the absolute safety of these discharges when properly harnessed is well illustrated in the picture shown there as the man seen amidst the flames felt no ill effects from his experience, simply because this power was so thoroughly harnessed by the wizard tesla, that it could go only to the device tuned to receive it. every boy is familiar with stories of lightning striking one person, but yet leaving another person right next to him unharmed. such is the action of tesla's high tension currents, only he directs them by induction just as he wants them to go. "but this is just like lightning!" exclaimed the boy. "so it is," calmly answered doctor tesla with a smile. "i have often produced electrical oscillations even greater than the energy of lightning discharges." these experiments were marvellous enough, but they were surpassed in a short time by his famous discovery of july , , which showed him that he could send his wireless waves to the opposite side of the earth just as well as a hundred feet away. this revelation, as the scientist calls it, came about through his study of lightning. the scientist had set up in his colorado laboratory many delicate electrical instruments to register various different electrical effects. tesla noticed, however, that strangely enough his instruments were just as violently affected by distant electrical storms as by nearby disturbances. "one night when meditating over these facts," said tesla, "i was suddenly staggered by a thought. the same thing had presented itself to me years ago; but i had then dismissed it as impossible. and that night when it recurred to me i banished it again. nevertheless, my instinct was aroused, and somehow i felt that i was nearing a great revelation. "as you know, it was on the third of july that i obtained the first definite evidence of a truth of overwhelming importance for the advancement of humanity. a dense mass of strongly charged clouds gathered in the west, and toward evening a violent storm broke loose which, after spending much of its fury in the mountains, was driven away with great velocity over the plains. heavy and long persisting arcs formed almost at regular intervals of time. my observations were now greatly facilitated and rendered more accurate by the records already made. i was able to handle my instruments quickly, and was prepared. the recording apparatus being properly adjusted, its indications became fainter and fainter with the increasing distance of the storm, until they ceased altogether. i was watching in eager expectation. sure enough, in a little while the indications again began, grew stronger, gradually decreased, and ceased once more. many times, in regularly recurring intervals, the same actions were repeated, until the storm, as evident from simple computations, with nearly constant speed had retreated to a distance of about two hundred miles. nor did these strange actions stop then, but continued to manifest themselves with undiminished force. "when i made this discovery i was utterly astounded. i could not believe what i had seen was really true. it was too great a revelation of nature to accept immediately and unhesitatingly." what tesla had discovered, and soon announced to the scientific world, was the existence of stationary terrestrial waves of electricity, and its meaning was that an impulse sent into the earth was carried on these waves to the other side of the earth and rebounded without any loss of power. he had, in fact, discovered and turned to man's use the very heartbeats of our earth. "whatever electricity may be," he continued, "it is a fact that it acts like a fluid, and in this connection, we may consider the earth as a great hollow ball filled with electricity." he goes on to explain that when an impulse is sent into this ball of electricity it proceeds to the opposite wall of the earth in waves and, finding no outlet it returns to the place it started, but in a series of waves exactly the opposite of the outgoing ones, so that the two cross and diverge at regular intervals as indicated in the diagram. [illustration: a--oscillator b--opposite side of earth c--waves in nodal and ventral intervals.] as tesla put it, "the outgoing and returning currents clash and form nodes and loops similar to those observable on a vibrating cord." tesla figured from these experiments that the waves varied from to kilometres from node to node, that they could be sent to any part of the globe, and that they could be sent in varying lengths up to the extreme diameter of the earth. in order to prove his discovery tesla sent an impulse into the earth, and received it back, on his delicate instrument, in a few seconds. "it is like an echo," he explained. "when you shout and in a few seconds hear your voice coming back, you do not think it is another voice but know immediately that it is simply your own vocal vibrations reflected by the house, mountainside, or what not. it is just the same with an electrical vibration. the stationary terrestrial wave goes through the earth, reaches the other side and, finding no outlet, is reflected without any loss of power. indeed, in some cases it is returned with greater power than at first." "then in your system the wireless electrical current passes through the earth, and not through the air," interrupted the scientist. "no," he answered, "it passes through both. it is difficult to understand the big things about electricity, but just think of the earth as a great ball filled with electricity, as i said before. think of the tower of the oscillator as a tube, and of the great mushroom-shaped top of the plant as another ball. now from our great alternating current dynamo we first fill the ball at the top of the oscillator with electricity, and then we make a motion that corresponds to squeezing it. what happens? just what happens when you have two rubber balls connected with a tube. you squeeze one of them, and push the air, or water, into the other ball. in that way we push the electricity into the earth, but it comes back to us on the stationary waves, from the opposite side, and when it does we are ready to give it another mighty push with another tremendous squeeze from our dynamo. when this is going on the top of the oscillator is gathering electricity from the air all the time and sending it out to be used wherever there is a receiver properly tuned to receive these rates of vibration." "but," again asked our friend, "isn't there a great deal of valuable electrical power wasted in that way?" "no, there is very little waste," answered the electrician, "for this reason: if, for instance, our oscillator can generate a hundred thousand or a million, or any other number of volts, and we only wish to use it for some small purpose on the other side of the earth, the receiver at the antipodes takes as much power as is needed, and the rest remains unused and our oscillator can be run at reduced capacity." thus, according to tesla's plan, the electrical energy will be sent into the earth and air by the high potential magnifying transmitter or oscillator, the stationary electrical waves carry it through the earth and the receiving instrument on the other side of the world collects the energy to put it to a thousand and one purposes of mankind. and do not forget that the oscillator and the receiving instrument are so tuned to each other that there is no danger, according to tesla's scheme, of different oscillators and receivers getting mixed up. before tesla had discovered the stationary electrical waves he had gone deep into the mystery of the "individualization" of electrical impulses, and as a result advanced plans for sending a number of messages over one wire without their interfering with each other. this study was continued with even greater energy, after he had taken the first steps toward the realization of his world telegraphy and world telephony without wires. in wireless telegraphy as we know its practice to-day, one of the serious drawbacks is the interference of other operators, both amateur and professional, with important messages. tesla holds that the simple tuning of instruments to one another as is done nowadays would not be sufficient, when there were millions of currents passing through and around the earth. for instance, he says that an instrument tuned to a single rate of vibrations would be very apt to come into contact with another instrument sending at the same rate. of course the confusion so familiar in modern radio-telegraphy would result. moreover, it makes it difficult to send messages that cannot be intercepted and read by every wireless operator in hearing. "this can be avoided," continues the inventor, "by combining different tones or rates of vibration. in actual practice it is found that by combining only two tones, a degree of privacy sufficient for most purposes is attained. when three vibrations are combined it is extremely difficult even for a skilled expert to read or disturb signals not intended for him. it is vain to undertake to 'cut in on' a series of wireless impulses made up of four different rates of vibration. the probability of getting the secret of the combination is as slight as of your solving the number combination on the door of a safe. from experiments i have concluded that this individualization will allow the transmission of several million different messages. it is interesting when you think that one world telegraphy plant would have a greater capacity than all the ocean cables combined." in regard to the amount of power to be transmitted, tesla points out that an impulse of low voltage, or low horsepower, will carry to the other side of the earth without any loss of power, just as easily as a high voltage current. "a wire," says tesla, "offers certain resistance to an electrical current causing some loss, but not so when it is sent through the natural media. the earth is a conducting body of such enormous dimensions that there is virtually no loss, so that distance means nothing. to the average intelligence this will appear incomprehensible. we are continuously confronted with limitations, and those truths which are contradicted by our senses are the hardest to grasp. for example, one of the most difficult tasks was to satisfy the human mind that the earth rotated round the sun; for to the eye it seemed just the opposite." tesla further pointed out that five-hundred miles is about the farthest that high power can be transmitted by wires with complete success, but that without wires, by his system, power can be transmitted, as we have seen, to any part of the globe or the atmosphere about it. the plan for a world-wide system of wireless telegraphs and telephones differs considerably from the original idea laid down by scientists for radio or hertzian wireless telegraphy. originally guglielmo marconi, who first successfully telegraphed without wires, and whose system is well known all over the world, planned to send his electrical impulses through the ether, in the form of hertzian rays, but later the method was amended. the theory advanced was that since everything is afloat in the colourless, intangible something called ether (not the drug used as an anæsthetic), and that since waves of light, heat, and electricity travel through ether, it would be possible to send electrical impulses through the ether in the earth and air, just as well as through the ether in a copper wire. in his early experiments marconi used the light rays or waves named after their discoverer, hertz, but these were found to be very limited, so electrical vibrations of a higher intensity were substituted, as we shall see in a later chapter. "from the very first," declared tesla, "my system has been based on a different principle, as you can see from what i have told you. for instance, my invention takes no consideration of light rays in any visible or invisible form (and hertzian rays are invisible light), which can only travel in a straight line. hence, you can see that they could not be used except as far as could be seen. in other words, they only could be used as far as the horizon, for just as soon as the curve of the earth's surface took the receiving instrument below the level of the hertzian waves they became ineffective. you see the difference is that my system is based on the stationary earth waves, along which the electrical currents can pass to any distance irrespective of horizon, or matter." a simple explanation will serve to show the principle of tesla's theory of wireless telegraphy and telephony. we can easily think of a reservoir with two openings in the cover filled with some fluid. in each of these openings is a piston and above each piston is a tuning fork. the two tuning forks must be of exactly the same tone or the experiment will not work. we strike one of the pistons with the tuning fork, and continue to strike it until the fork sets up vibrations. the vibrations pass through the air, and also communicate vibrations to the piston, which in turn passes the vibrations on to the fluid in the reservoir. these vibrations naturally continue through the reservoir, as waves, just the same as when we throw a pebble into a calm pond and watch the waves radiate out in every direction. the water does not advance, but merely moves up and down. the waves, however, advance. so with the waves set up by the tuning fork, and they set up an oscillation of the piston at the other side, agitating the tuning fork in unison with the sound vibrations coming through the air. it is just the same, declares tesla, with two of his oscillators set up on the earth's surface and tapping the great sea of electricity, which he says is in the earth. the oscillators correspond to the tuning forks, the reservoir to the earth, and the fluid in the reservoir to the electrical currents with which he says the interior of the earth is alive. exactly attuned, tesla says, the vibrations set up by the sender will be communicated to the receiver through the earth and through the air. "now, with the development of the world system," continued tesla, "we shall be able to telephone without wires just as well as telegraph, and to any part of the world just as easily as we now talk to a friend in an adjoining house over the modern wire circuits." before going with doctor tesla to his great plant out on long island to see how he is carrying on these tremendous theories of his, the boy asked him a few more questions about them, for it is a big and intricate question. "what application will you first make of the wireless transmission of power?" "my first concern," replied the magician of electricity, "will be to make air and water navigation safe. we have plenty of demonstrations of the value of the wireless telegraph in saving human lives when ships are in danger, in the _republic_ and _titanic_ disasters. but also we know that the wireless can be greatly improved upon. with a perfect system of communication, both by wireless telegraph and telephone, consider what it would mean to the navigators of air and ocean craft. "by the art of telautomatics, which is a part of the broad scheme for the wireless transmission of power, many of the worst dangers of air and water navigation will be avoided, which is right in line with the modern tendency of preventing trouble rather than waiting for it to happen before remedying it." he then went on to enumerate the various telautomatic devices that will be carried by ocean liners and airships of the future, as mentioned in the early part of this chapter. "just for instance, how could telautomatics have saved the _titanic_?" the inventor was asked. "you understand, of course," answered tesla, "that the devices i propose would be of almost inconceivable sensitiveness. they would be the centre of electrical waves, and, as soon as the iceberg got into the path of these waves from the wireless transmission plant to the ship, it would cause the electricity to register an impression of danger ahead. of course mariners would become so expert in the reading of these danger signals that they could tell the meaning of each one, and alter their course or reverse their engines according to the needs of the case." "how much have you accomplished in telautomatics at this time?" "i have made a little submarine boat that will answer to every necessary impulse. the boat contained its own motive power in a storage battery and gear for propulsion, steering sidewise, or upward or downward, and all other accessories necessary for its operation. all of these were worked from a distance by wireless impulses, sent by an oscillator to the circuit in the boat through which magnets and other devices operated the interior mechanism. "this proved to me the possibility of a high development of telautomatics. when my system is complete, a crewless ship may be sent from any port in the world to any other port propelled by wireless energy from a power plant anywhere on the face of the earth, and controlled absolutely by telautomatics." tesla's plan for aerial navigation is even more startling than that for crewless ocean liners. he thinks that the airships of the future will be propelled by wireless power and that they will have, neither planes nor other supporting surfaces, such as we are so familiar with nowadays. neither will they be supported by gas bags like balloons and dirigibles. the inventor thinks they will be compact and just as airworthy as ocean liners are seaworthy. they will be tightly enclosed, so that the terrific rush of air through the high altitudes will not strangle the passengers and crew. he sees no reason why the airships of the future should not travel at a rate of several hundred miles an hour, so that you could leave san francisco in the morning and be in new york in time for a six o'clock dinner, and the theatre, or cross the atlantic in a night. "how will these airships be propelled?" the boy asked. "by engines driven with power supplied by our great oscillator wherever we care to erect it. these engines will work with such incredible force that they will make of the air above them a veritable rope to sustain them at any desired altitude, while they will make of the air in front of them a rope to pull them forward at a high rate of speed." tesla continues to say that these ships can be made just as large as it is practicable to make their landing stages, or small enough for one or two passengers. in the waterfalls of the united states alone, he pointed out, there are twenty-five hundred million horsepower of electrical energy. niagara falls could supply more than one fifth of all the power now used in this country, he says. moreover, none of the great sites, such as those in the far northwest, are developed to their highest state, because of the difficulty in transmitting the power over long distances to where it is used. "it must be borne in mind," said tesla, "that electrical energy obtained by harnessing a waterfall is probably fifty times more effective than fuel energy. since this is the most perfect way of rendering the sun's energy available the direction of the future material development of man is clearly indicated. he will live on 'white coal.'" "doctor tesla, can you tell us, please, just how far you have developed this invention for the wireless transmission of power?" "well," answered the electrical inventor, "the best way to tell you is to show you what has been done so far." in order to see tesla's great plant we must follow the scientist and his boy friend out to bay shore, l. i., where, overlooking long island sound, we see a great mushroom-shaped steel network tower surmounting a low building--the first of tesla's many proposed high potential magnifying transmitters. "so far," said tesla of his power plant where the first attempts at wireless transmission are being made, "only about three million horsepower has been harnessed by my system of alternating current transmission. this is little, but it corresponds nevertheless to adding to the world's population sixty million indefatigable laborers, working virtually without food or pay." as the boy approached the power plant he was impressed by the great size of the tower and its circular top, as shown in the photograph. it is this circular top, with its conductive apparatus, that gathers the electricity from the air and from the dynamo, and sends it forth in great waves both through the air and through the earth. the tower is feet high, from the ground to the top, and from the ground to the edge of the cupola it is feet. the diameter of the cupola floor is feet. the cupola can be reached by both a staircase and an elevator, but it would hardly be healthy for any one to be within the network of electrical conductors when the plant was working. inside the building are the high power alternating dynamos and underneath it extends the ground wire from the cupola, through which the electricity is pumped into the ground in great spurts at the rate of more than a hundred thousand spurts a second. at this plant tesla plans to gather and concentrate millions of horsepower of electrical energy and then, in the ways we have seen, send it out to be used in a thousand different ways. "this is merely an experiment," declared tesla. "we can telegraph and carry on other such operations as require only a small amount of power from here, but it is nothing compared to the great power plants we will erect in the future." "is it necessary," asked the boy, "to have your power plant erected near the waterfall, or other means of producing the electricity?" "no, it is not. this plant, for instance, can be made a great receiving station for electric power from all the great hydro-electric sites, and from it we hope to be able to send out electrical waves that will run our ships, airships, trains and street cars, carry our voices, light our houses, and turn the wheels of our factories. it is better, however, to have the plants located close to the seats of power, and to have a greater number of plants." "how much horsepower did you say this plant would send out?" "only a mere trifle of three million horsepower, but of course this is only an experiment. to be done properly the thing must be done on a large scale, and the time will come--not necessarily remote--when we will be carrying on the whole programe embraced by the wireless transmission of power. the cost of wireless power i estimate would be about one sixteenth of that of the present system." "when you are sending such tremendous voltages won't it be very dangerous to be anywhere in the vicinity of a plant, much less anywhere that the electricity might be brought from the earth?" "no, for the power is so well harnessed that we can send it just where we want it and nowhere else. of course, on the other hand, if we wanted to make trouble with this well-harnessed lightning we could make a terrible disturbance in the earth and on the surface of the earth." "what about lightning?" "that is one of the things we had to guard against right from the very first, and i can tell you that lightning will not bother us a bit, although i cannot give you the details of our method of avoiding it. "when we are using the plant at night, however, there will be a display far more beautiful than lightning, all about the cupola in the form of a great halo of electric light visible for miles around." before we leave this fascinating subject of the wireless transmission of power let us ask doctor tesla about the effect of his invention on war. "the wireless transmission of power will first be a big factor in promoting world peace, as i said before, because through the great improvement in communication it will lead to a better understanding between nations and break down many of the old prejudices that have lived for so many thousands of years. it will facilitate travel and commerce so that a citizen of the united states will find it as simple and cheap to travel abroad as he now finds it to travel in the neighbouring state. his commercial interests also will spread to foreign countries, and the nations will be so linked with one another socially and commercially that war will be out of the question. "however, in case war should break out between the nations it will be a conflict of such gigantic proportions, and carried on with such tremendous death-dealing machines, that it will surpass our wildest dreams. "for one thing, the new art of controlling electrically the movements and operations of individualized automata at a distance without wires will soon enable any country to render its coast impregnable against all naval attacks. "i have invented a number of improvements of this plan, making it possible to direct a telautomaton torpedo, submersible at will, from a distance much greater than the range of the largest gun, with unerring precision, upon the object to be destroyed. what is still more surprising, the operator will not need to see the infernal engine or even know its location, and the enemy will be unable to interfere, in the slightest, with its movements by any electrical means. one of these devil-telautomata will soon be constructed, and i shall bring it to the attention of governments. the development of this art must unavoidably arrest the construction of expensive battleships as well as land fortifications, and revolutionize the means and methods of warfare. the distance at which it can strike, and the destructive power of such a quasi-intelligent machine being for all practical purposes unlimited, the gun, the armour of the battleship, and the wall of the fortress, lose their import and significance. one can prophesy with a daniel's confidence that skilled electricians will settle the battles of the near future, if battles we must have. "the future of wireless power development," explained the inventor, "may render it folly for any nation to have afloat a vessel of war. the secret of another nation's scheme of selectivity or combination of vibrations might be disclosed to the enemy, when the guns of their own vessels might be turned against sister ships and a whole fleet destroyed by shells from their own guns, or their magazines might be exploded by the enemy at will. however, should there be battleships in the wireless future, they will be crewless. they will be manoeuvred, their guns will be loaded, aimed, and fired, and their torpedoes discharged with unerring accuracy, by the director of naval warfare seated before a telautomatic switch-board on land. "the time will come, as a result of my discovery," says tesla, "when one nation may destroy another in time of war through this wireless force: great tongues of electric flame made to burst from the earth of the enemy's country might destroy not only the people and the cities, but the land itself. i realize that this is indeed a dangerous thing to advocate. at first thought it might mean the annihilation of the nations of the world by evilly disposed individuals. the public might at first look upon the perfection of such an invention as a calamity. we say that all inventions assist the criminal in his work. to-day the safe burglar despises the use of dynamite, turning to electrical contrivances to cut the lock from a safe. it is fortunate for the world, therefore, that per cent. of its people are good, and that only per cent. are evilly disposed: otherwise all invention might be turned more greatly to evil than to good." chapter v the motion-picture machine machines that make sixteen tiny pictures per second and show them at the same rate magnified several thousand times--motion pictures in school--our boy friend sees the whole process of making a motion-picture play. "i have just been to the moving-picture show," said the young man whose inquiring turn of mind has brought him into touch with so many recent inventions. his friend in the laboratory had just finished a very successful chemical experiment and seemed glad to see the boy. "did the pictures move very much?" he asked with a smile. "of course they did. they moved all the time." "no, they only seemed to move, for as a matter of fact there are no such things as 'moving pictures.' we call them 'motion pictures' now, for that comes nearer to expressing the idea. "cinematography, which is the technical name for the whole art of motion pictures, is based on one of nature's defects, whereas most inventions are based on some of nature's perfect processes. the defect is called by the scientists the persistence of vision, which means that after you look at an object, and it is quickly taken from before your eyes, the image remains there for the fraction of a second. [illustration: electricity enough to kill an army perfectly harnessed the oscillator shown on the left sending an alternating current from the earth into a large reservoir and back at the rate of , oscillations per second causes the tremendous electrical explosions as the reservoir is filled each time. the flames in this experiment were feet long.] [illustration: courtesy of thomas a. edison inc. a battle scene in the studio in this picture the stage director can be seen shouting directions to both actors and photographer at once.] "with this in mind you will see how the cinematograph is simply still photography worked out so as to show a series of snapshots at such speed that the eye cannot notice the change from one picture to another, but will see only the changing positions of the figures. each picture shows the figures in a little different position, in the same order that they move, so that the whole series thrown on the screen at high speed shows the figures moving just as they do in real life." "but where does visual persistence come in?" asked the youth. "it would be plain if you could see the pictures thrown on the screen twenty times as slowly as they are, for each snapshot of each stage of motion must be displayed separately. it must remain perfectly still for an instant and then must be moved away while the shutter of the projecting machine is closed. when the shutter is opened again the next picture is thrown on the screen. now, through the persistence of vision, the image of the first picture remains in your brain, photographed on the retina of your eye, while the shutter is closed, and you are not conscious that there is nothing on the white screen before your eyes. "the scientific explanation of this is simple enough: after an image has been recorded by your eye it will remain in the brain for an instant even after the object has been removed. then it fades slowly away and gives place to the next image sent along the optic nerve from the eye. thus the eye acts as a sort of dissolving lantern for the motion-picture man, and lets one image fade into another without showing any perceptible change in pictures. thus the 'moving picture' is only a scientifically worked out _illusion_ of motion." the scientist went on to say that with marvellously constructed machines this scientific fact has been turned to such account that boys and girls in some of the schools now study geography partly from motion pictures, and some of the most wonderful sights of nature are seen every day by millions of people as they sit comfortably in their seats in the motion-picture theatre. a few years ago, before the invention of cinematography, the magic lantern was largely used, as many boys will remember; but it could only show scenes in which there was no movement--or in other words, scenes that were confined to still-life photography. nowadays every boy is familiar with motion pictures depicting great historical occurrences, parades, inaugurations, coronations, volcanoes in eruption, earthquakes, buildings burning and crumbling, railroad wrecks, shipwrecks, scenes in every country in the world and plays of every imaginable kind. the motion-picture photographer takes pictures in the frozen north, and in the densest tropical jungles. he goes close to the craters of volcanoes in eruption to make a film of the terrifying flow of molten lava, and he sails the seas in the worst storms, that boys and girls who have never seen the ocean may understand its mighty upheavals. one motion-picture outfit was taken to the arctic regions off the coast of alaska where the volcanic activity in behring sea frequently causes new islands to spring from the ocean, or old ones to sink out of sight, in an effort to record on the motion-picture film the birth of a new island or the death of an old one. "ever connected with scientific research, cinematography," said the boy's friend, "is now one of the important branches of recording the phenomena of nature through which great scientific discoveries are made. of late years we have heard much about germs, and the science of germs called bacteriology. a great deal has been learned about this most important factor in the preservation of our health, through the study of disease germs, by watching their activities through the medium of the cinematograph. the little parasites are photographed under a very high power microscope and the film is cast upon a screen in the usual way. "also exploring parties and parties that go into remote places to search for additions to our store of scientific knowledge invariably carry motion-picture outfits. one of the most notable examples of this was the expedition of lieut. robert f. scott in his search for the south pole. lieutenant scott carried many hundreds of feet of standard film, a good camera, and a portable developing outfit, with which he made pictures of the antarctic continent, in order to show the world the things that he and his men risked their lives to see. "as i said before, the cinematograph is rapidly growing as an educational force, and thomas a. edison, the pioneer inventor and the leader in the development of the cinematograph, declares that it will in a short time completely do away with books in the study of geography. it is already in use in several special school and college courses, and with the improvements in the non-inflammable film, which will be explained later, it can be taken up far more extensively." the man went on to say that in this connection mr. edison, who had been watching the schoolwork of his own twelve-year-old son theodore, recently said in the magazine _the world to-day_ (now _hearst's magazine_): "i have one of the best moving-picture photographers in the world in africa. i told him to land at cape town, and to take everything in sight between there and the mouth of the nile. his pictures will show children what kaffirs are and how they live. he will show them at work, at play, and in their homes. they will be life-size kaffirs that will run and skip or work right before the children's eyes. but the kaffirs will be but the smallest part of what the african pictures will show. the biggest beasts of the jungle--the elephants, lions, rhinos, and giraffes--will be shown, not in cages, but in their native haunts. the city of cape town will be shown with its characteristic streets and its shipping. the broad veldts over which kruger's armies marched will be shown just as they are, with here and there a burgher's cottage. every step in the process of mining gold and diamonds will be put upon the film. the nile will be shown, not as a small black line upon a map, but as a body of beautiful blue water, alternately plunging over cataracts and creeping through meadows to the sea. then will come the pyramids, with natives and tourists climbing them, and, lastly, the great cities of alexandria and cairo. would any child stay at home if he knew such a treat as this was in store for him at school? would he ever be likely to forget what he had learned about africa?" "of course," continued the man in the laboratory, "this is but an example of the use of motion pictures in schools. many of you boys have probably seen them in special lectures on other subjects, for they can be used to show how people live and work in every part of the world and how the various commercial products that so largely govern our lives are made." but the motion-picture man, he explained, is not at all dependent upon what really happens for his films, because if he cannot train the eye of his camera on some occurrence that he desires to transfer to a film, he reproduces it in a studio, spending thousands and thousands of dollars, if necessary for actors, scenery and stage fittings. nothing is too difficult for the motion-picture man, and he has never proposed a feat so daring but what he could find plenty of actors willing to take the necessary parts. battles, scenes from history, sessions of congress, railroad wrecks, earthquakes and hundreds of other spectacles have been planned, staged and acted out by the makers of cinematograph films, while, of course, all the plays that we see on the screen are planned and carefully rehearsed before they are photographed. this all means that cinematography has become a gigantic industry, giving employment to hundreds of actors, photographers, and the army of men and women engaged in making and showing the films, to say nothing of the thousands of picture theatres that have sprung up in every city and town in the country. while the boy's friend was telling him these things about the adventurous life of the motion-picture man, the listener sat spellbound. "i'd love to see some motion pictures made," he said. "the machines must be wonderful." "well," answered the scientist, "we can do that, and if you'd like we can go up to one of the motion-picture studios some day soon and see the whole process from beginning to end." he was as good as his word, and several days later they were initiated into all the tricks of cinematography at one of the biggest laboratories in the country. we will follow them there and see what they found out about the machines by which motion pictures are made and shown. with the fact clear in mind that cinematography is simply a series of snapshots of figures in motion, taken at high speed and thrown on a screen at a similar rate so that the human eye is tricked into sending to the brain an impression of moving figures rather than a series of still photographs, the various machines necessary in cinematography will not be difficult to understand. before there can be a cinematograph play there must be a negative film upon which the pictures are taken, a camera to take the pictures, an apparatus for developing them, a positive film which corresponds to the printing paper in still photography, upon which the pictures are printed from the negative film, a printing machine to print the positives from the negatives, and lastly a projecting machine to throw the picture upon the screen in the schoolroom, college lecture room, or theatre. every boy who is an amateur photographer is familiar with the photographic film. up to the time the method for making practical cinematograph films was discovered in this country, scientists vainly tried to portray motion by the use of photographic plates, but had little success. in a very short time after eastman had announced the discovery of a celluloid substance that was transparent, strong and flexible, light, and compressible into a small space, edison announced a machine for showing motion pictures. the film base, or, in other words, the material which takes the place of the glass used in glass plates, was discovered by george eastman in , after years of painstaking experiment with dangerous chemicals. the base is a kind of guncotton called by chemists pyroxylin, which is mixed in wood alcohol. the guncotton is made by treating flax or cotton waste with sulphuric and nitric acids. after the guncotton and the wood alcohol have been thoroughly stirred up, the mixture looks like a thick syrup, but it is about as dangerous a syrup as ever was brewed, for its ingredients are those of the most powerful explosives. its technical name is cellulose-nitrate. it is poured out on a polished surface, dried, rolled, trimmed, and after being coated with the sensitive material that makes it valuable for photography, is ready for delivery to the motion-picture maker in lengths up to feet. [illustration: the men who gave the world motion pictures eadweard muybridge, called the "father of motion pictures." thomas a. edison, inventor of the motion-picture machine.] [illustration: the motion-picture projector this is the standard edison projector from two points of view, showing its complicated mechanism as clearly as possible.] one of the interesting points to remember about these films is that although they are made in lengths up to feet they are all one and three eighths of an inch wide, and the three eighths of an inch is given over to a margin at each side of the picture. that leaves a width for each picture on the film of just one inch. the height of each picture is three quarters of an inch. fancy a photograph one inch by three quarters of an inch! no matter how clear it is you could not see with the naked eye all its details, and so it is in the cinematograph picture. it is so clear and sharp that when put under a good magnifying glass details that cannot be seen by the human eye are noticed. now fancy multiplying the area of each little picture , times, and think of the chance for magnifying imperfections! and yet that is the amount that each picture is magnified in throwing it on a screen of the average size. the films are coated with the sensitive emulsion in two degrees. the negative films must be as sensitive as possible to light, as they are intended to receive the shortest possible exposure, while the positive films, or the ones which correspond to the print paper in still photography, are made less sensitive to light, inasmuch as they are exposed for a longer time in the printing machine. fireproof films are probably one of the most important developments in the whole great motion-picture industry, for through these, schools, colleges, churches, lecture halls, and other public places not fitted with the fireproof box in which the motion-picture operator works, can have the advantage of cinematography. it was a difficult matter to find a non-inflammable film, for science has not yet discovered a base that can be made without cellulose, but the base we know to-day was treated so as to be non-explosive and practically non-inflammable. this film base is called cellulose-acetate, and when it is exposed to an excessive heat, as, for instance, the beam of the motion-picture lamp when the film is not moving, or when it touches a flame, it melts but does not blaze up. in the melting it gives off a heavy smoke, but there is no serious danger from this, as there is from the spurting flames from an exploding cellulose-nitrate base. the films are packed in metal airtight and lightproof boxes and sent to the motion-picture firms, where they begin a complicated and an interesting career. the first stage is the perforating machine, through which all films, whether negative or positive, must go. the holes are made along the two edges of the celluloid strips, just as shown in the picture opposite page . there are sixty-four holes to the foot, on each side of the film, and each hole is oblong-shaped, as can be seen, with a width of about one eighth of an inch and a depth of about one sixteenth of an inch. this is known as the edison standard gauge, and it is observed by practically all the motion-picture firms in the world. the perforations along the edges of the films furnish the means for drawing them through the camera, printing machine, and projector; and as the correct movement of the films is one of the important factors in making good pictures, they must be absolutely mathematically exact. a fault in perforation of even as much as one thousandth part of an inch is apt to cause the film to buckle in the camera or projector and ruin the whole thing. there are several different perforating machines in use now, and all of them are claimed by their makers to be perfect. it will not be necessary for us to take one of these machines to pieces further than to see that the holes along the edges of the films are punched by hardened steel punches. the films unwind from one bobbin, pass through the perforating device, and wind upon another bobbin. of course the work must be done in absolute darkness, except for a small ruby lamp, as the films are so sensitive to light that any rays other than faint red would spoil them. after perforation the negatives and positives are ready for use. the negative goes to the photographer in its light-tight metal box to be run off in making a film of a historical scene, a comedy, some wonderful phenomenon of science, or any one of a million different subjects. just for the sake of seeing everything in its proper order we will assume that the negative is about to be used in portraying a comedy about the troubles of a book agent, and that it is all done in the studio where the scientist and his boy friend watched this very film made. now for a look into a motion-picture camera--something few people get, because the competition among the various cinematographers is keen, and those who hold patents on cameras fear infringement. the camera, which is enclosed in a strong mahogany box, stands upon a tripod. it is about eighteen inches long, eighteen inches high, and four inches wide. (this size varies with the make, and kind of work required.) the left side opens on a hinge, while on the right side are the ground glass finder, the distance gauge, and a dial to register the number of feet of film used. in the rear of the camera is a small hole which connects with a tube running straight through the box so that the operator looking through can sight it like a telescope, before the film is exposed. when the sighting and focusing are completed the opening is closed with a light-tight cap, and the film can be threaded through the camera. having no bellows for focusing like an ordinary camera, the lens of the motion-picture camera is moved back and forward a short distance in the little tube in which it is set, to aid in the focusing. of course the lenses of these wonderful snapshot machines are the best that money can buy and the factories can turn out. [illustration: a section of motion-picture film this is the exact size of the little pictures we see on the screen almost life size. note how slowly the changes appear. it takes only one second to take sixteen of these.] [illustration: courtesy of thomas a. edison, inc. making a motion-picture play in the studio note the photographer, the stage manager beside him, and the battery of arc lights making the scene in the studio as light as day.] in the rear half of the camera are two boxes. the top one holds the unexposed roll of negative, while the exposed film is rolled in the bottom one. roughly speaking, the film unwinds from the top spool, passes out of the containing box through a slit, over a set of sprockets into the "film gate," down past the lens and shutter, where it is exposed over a lower set of sprockets, and through a slit into the lower containing box, where it is wound on a spool. [illustration: a motion-picture camera a--box for coil of unexposed film. a´--box for coil of exposed film. b--film passing over rollers. b´--exposed film passing over rollers. c--cogwheel which draws out film. d--teeth which jerk film past lens. e--lens and film-gate. h--cogwheel which draws in exposed film.] "it looks simple enough, doesn't it?" asked the photographer, who was explaining the making of a moving-picture play to his visitors. "well, it is a simple idea, but it takes a very complicated and a wonderfully accurate machine to accomplish the desired result. "in the first place our cinematography is just still photography at high speed. we have to take approximately sixteen snapshots a second, so you can see that it takes a perfect machine to move the film along fast enough so that we can get sixteen good, clear, sharp pictures only slightly bigger than a postage stamp, on our film between the ticks of your watch. "now if you look through the little hole at the back of the camera you will see that the scene in front of us is in the proper focus, and if you look at the little ground glass finder at the side here you will see it just the same way, except that it will be upside down. now i will close the telescope focus at the rear so that when the film is brought down before the lens it will not be light struck." the "threading" of the camera then began. "this little flap sticking out of this slit in the top box," continued the cinematographer, "is the end of the film, which is tightly wound up in its holder. you notice that i draw it out and thread it between these rollers, making sure that the teeth of the sprockets enter the perforations along the sides of the film. i also make sure that the sensitized side of the film is turned out, so that the light coming through the lens will strike it first. after the negative has been led over the sprockets you notice that it is allowed to make a loop of a couple of inches of slack. then it is led into the important device we call the 'film gate.' "you see the gate is hinged and that these little claws or fingers running in grooves take hold of the perforations. the next thing is to close the hinged gate so that the film is tightly held against the aperture, through which the light strikes it and makes the picture. below the gate we let the negative make another loop and then thread it over another system of rollers and sprockets and so to the slit in the lower box, where the exposed negative is rolled. "the camera is now loaded and threaded and when i give the crank by which the wheels are turned a few trial turns you can see the way the mechanism works. in the first place you must understand that the film has to be jerked down with an intermittent motion. don't forget to look for the intermittent motion, because, after the persistence of vision, that jump and stop, jump and stop, is the most important thing in cinematography--intermittent motion! "you can see as the crank turns that the sprockets pull the film out and guide it along its course, and the little fingers jerk it down the space of one picture, or three quarters of an inch, at each jump. when the fingers are jerking the negative down, the shutter must be closed, and when the fingers are making their back trip to take a new hold on another length of film the strip must be as still as the washington monument, for the shutter to open, let in the light and transfer the image before the lens to the negative." the photographer turned his crank and all the wheels in the camera began to move. the sprockets working in the perforations pulled out the film and made the loop larger. the little fingers entered the perforations and jerked the film down, taking up some of the slack of the loop. the reason that the loop is formed is to prevent the film being torn by a hard jerk by the fingers when it is taut. "now if your eye were quick enough--which it is not"--said the photographer, "and you could see behind the gate, you would see a movement like the following repeated sixteen times to the second: crank turns, top sprocket adds three quarters of an inch to the top loop, bottom sprocket takes up three quarters of an inch of bottom slack loop, fingers spring from groove and carry film down three quarters of an inch, inconceivably short pause while shutter opens and picture is taken; during this pause, while film is stationary, fingers jump back into groove, slide back to starting point without touching film and shutter closes. the shutter is a revolving disk between the lens and film, and the holes in the disk passing the negative admit the light." after a roll of negative film has been exposed it is sent to the studio dark room for development. every precaution is taken, of course, that no ray of light other than that which comes from the ruby lamp shall enter this room where films representing hundreds, and perhaps thousands, of dollars are being developed. the actual process for developing is no different from that used in developing other films, but the difficulties in handling a delicate snakelike, strip some or feet long and - / inches wide are tremendous. all amateur photographers appreciate the difficulties of developing in one string a roll of twelve films of a reasonable size, but think of handling a roll of film several hundred feet long no wider than a ribbon, and holding sixteen pictures to each foot of surface! the difficulties of scratching, tangling, etc., were overcome by systematizing the process. in some cinematograph dark rooms the films are wound on racks about four by five feet, and then plunged into the various baths, which are in vertical tanks of convenient size. in yet other dark rooms the films are wound upon drums about four feet in diameter and revolved in horizontal tanks, only the lower part being immersed. the only difference is that the racks can be manipulated easier than the drums. while in the motion-picture dark room the boy visitor asked the photographer in charge whether an amateur could step in and develop a few hundred feet of film granted that he had the necessary materials. "of course he could," came a cheerful voice from the darkness. "it's just the same as developing a roll of ordinary films, only we do more in a bunch than the amateur. if you'll step over here and watch this reel that we are now putting into the developing bath you'll see that it does just the same as the single film developed in the amateur's dark room." after watching this trained photographer and his assistant for a few minutes, however, the newcomer decided that it was not an amateur's job, but rather one of the most delicate operations in all cinematography, for the developer can remedy many faults of exposure by bringing out an under-exposed film or toning down an over-exposed one. leaving the dark room the next stage of the negative is the drying room, where the film still on the rack is hung up to dry. this drying is a very difficult process because there is great danger of the film either becoming too brittle and cracking or of its being not hard enough. the air in the drying room has to be kept at a certain even temperature and it must be filtered so that no dust or impurity can injure the film. after it has been properly dried the film again is wound upon a metal spool, put in an airtight box and sent to the assembling room, where the various scenes that go to make up the picture play, taken at different times and on different rolls of negative, are joined together in their proper order to make a complete play in a single roll about one thousand feet long. after the negative film is developed, dried and wound upon a metal spool it is sent to the printing room, where positive prints are made from the original impression. right here it may be well to say that on a negative film or plate in any kind of photography white appears black and black appears white--hence the name negative. the paper or film upon which the print is to be made turns black wherever the light strikes it, so that when the negative is laid over the positive and exposed to a strong light the rays quickly penetrate the white spots on the negative and turn the corresponding spots on the positive black. the light does not penetrate the places on the negative which are black, and consequently leaves those places on the positive white. the result is that the positive shows the image just as it appears to the eye. the principle of printing positive films, then, is the same as the principle of making photographic prints or positives from ordinary still photography plates or films, but of course it is far more complicated because of the mechanical difficulties of bringing the two long, unwieldy strips of film together in the proper position. the whole process is carried out by a machine which takes the place of the printing frame into which the amateur so easily puts the still-life photographic plate and printing paper. there are several motion-picture printing machines in use in this country, but in their central idea they are similar, as they all pass the negative and positive films before a very bright light so that the impressions on the negative are transferred to the positive. the invention of this machine was a necessity for the commercial success of motion pictures, for obviously it was impossible to lay a strip of film several hundred feet long and about an inch wide in a printing frame over a positive film of the same length and width. [illustration: a motion-picture printing machine a-a´--rollers for negative film. b-b´--rollers for positive film. c--film gate where positive is held over negative for printing. d-d´--negative film. e--unexposed positive film. e´--exposed, or printed positive film. f--light which, shining through film gate, imprints image of negative on positive.] the explanation of one printing machine will suffice to indicate the general principle. some of the machines are worked by hand power, but in the larger reproduction studios electric power is used practically altogether for running the battery of printing machines. the spool of negative film is slipped on to a spindle so that it can unwind easily, and immediately underneath it the roll of unexposed positive film, properly perforated along the edges in exactly the same way that the negative film is perforated, is suspended on a similar spindle. of course the only light in the printing room is the photographer's ruby lamp. the two films unwind and pass downward, with the sensitive surfaces to the inside, and the positive on the outside of the negative. they are drawn together, and with the positive stretched flatly over the negative they pass over a pair of smooth rollers and toothed sprockets which enter the perforations of the two films with mathematical accuracy. they then make a small loop and enter a side hinged gate which holds them tightly against the printing aperture. this aperture is a hole just the size and shape of each picture on the film, and through it shines a very bright light which casts its direct rays upon the negative and imprints the image of the negative film upon the sensitized surface of the positive film. after passing the printing aperture, the two films make another small loop, run down to another toothed sprocket wheel and roller, and then separate, the printed positive being rolled upon one spool and the negative upon its spool below. the action of this machine is very similar to that of the motion-picture camera, for like the device for taking the photographs, the movement must be intermittent in order to obtain good results. if the operator desires to see whether the two films are in exactly the right position and everything is going smoothly, he can, by the use of a lever in the printing gate, drop a little red screen between the light and the films, and by looking through the hole see through the unprinted positive, and the developed negative, to the light inside. after a roll of positive has been printed, it is developed by just about the same process as is used in bringing out the images on the negative film. then, after it is dried, the various scenes are joined together, titles and sub-titles put in, any final editing that is necesary is done, and the positive film is ready to be put on the projection machine for the first trial. the preparation of the titles, sub-titles, and other explanatory writings that are thrown on the screen in the course of a cinematograph play is a comparatively simple matter. the words are written or printed out in large letters on cards and photographed by a camera with a slower movement than the ones used for recording moving figures. the positives are made from the negatives so taken, in the same way that positives of other films are made, and after development and drying are ready to be joined to the film in the proper places. every firm engaged in the fascinating business of making and reproducing cinematographic plays gives the most careful and painstaking attention to the first "performance" of a film. of course it is held in private before only the officials and a few critics invited for the exercise of their judgment. the event amounts to the same thing as the dress rehearsal of a play to be reproduced upon the stage, and any changes that are necessary in the judgment of the critics cause just about as much trouble. any one of a hundred things may be wrong. some little incongruous detail in the scenery may be noticed, some jarring gesture by an actor or a scene in which the action does not proceed fast enough. if the officials of the firm decide that a film is below their standard, parts must be cut out, and new parts photographed over again until the whole thing suits requirements. sometimes one scene must be done over many times before it suits exactly, and several hundred feet of film wasted. at a cost of about three cents a foot, it is plain that the waste in film alone is great, but when a big scene with a hundred or so actors in it has to be done over again, the cost of assembling the company, paying their salaries and other expenses is enormous. finally, when the officials themselves are satisfied with a film it is thrown on the screen for the board of censors in the various cities, and if it measures up to standard, and contains no objectionable features, it is ready for public reproduction. when all this is done, the printing machine again comes into play, and as many prints of the negative as are needed are struck off, for in cinematography, as in still photography, it is a simple matter to run off as many prints as are desired, once a good negative is made. these prints then are sent out to as many theatres, in as many different cities, as desire them, and released for public view on the same day in every theatre in the country. having looked at the motion-picture camera, and at the complicated process for developing and printing the films, we are now ready to climb into the little fireproof box from which comes the beam of light that throws the pictures on the screen. this is the projector and it is probably the most complicated of all the machines used in cinematography. as it was a development through the application of well-known mechanical principles we will not go into this subject more deeply than merely to understand its central principle, which is intermittent motion. the result toward which the inventors worked was a magic lantern such as was familiar to every boy ten years ago, that would throw upon the screen the tiny consecutive pictures on the film, with such speed, and at the same time so clearly and steadily, that the effect would be that of figures in motion. most boys will remember the flickering, flashing and jumping that used to be noticeable in motion pictures, and many are probably aware that it was the improvement of the projecting machine that did away with these objectionable features. the essential parts of the projecting machine are the lantern with its light and lens, and the device for running the positive film before the light with the proper intermittent motion. it might be said generally that the projecting machine looks like a magic lantern, but on close examination it will be seen to be an extremely complicated affair. the powerful electric light, usually an arc light, which is placed in a metal box a few inches behind the rest of the projector, directs its rays through the glass condensers, thence through the film, and thence through the lens, which throws the image upon the white screen or curtain. the condensers are made of two carefully ground glass parts. the first is dish shaped, with the concave side turned in toward the light and the convex side turned outward. immediately against it is another condenser the same diameter and convex on both sides so that the collected rays from the dished part are shot forward to a point where they will all converge. this point is the centre of the lens. from the lens the rays of light are projected in a widening beam to the white screen on which the pictures appear. the film is passed before the beam of light at a point between the condensers and the lens, so that the image is projected through the lens. the film is run before the light with the figures upside down, like in the ordinary stereopticon, and the lens turns the image right side up again. the most interesting part of the solution of the problem is the advantage taken of the persistence of vision. photographed at the rapid rate of sixteen a second, and thrown upon the screen at the same rate of sixteen a second, it is plain that the stage of motion shown in the pictures every sixteenth of a second is reproduced. with the inability of the eye to tell that the screen is merely exhibiting separate photographs, the appearance is of motion. in most persons this visual persistence is only about one twenty-fourth of a second, but that is long enough to allow animated photography to be a pleasing illusion to them, for it gives the shutter of the projector time to hide one picture while the mechanism moves the film down to the next picture, bring the film to a dead stop, and let the shutter open again to reveal the next stage of animation. the manner in which modern mechanical skill took advantage of this physiological defect, proved many years ago by the leading scientists, is nearly as interesting as this slight defect in nature's own camera--the eye. above the film gate is a metal fireproof box (many of them are lined with asbestos) in which is the roll of unprojected positive film. below it is another similar box in which the film that has been shown is wound. the motion, which is directed either by a crank turned by hand or by electrical power, is the same speed, and practically the same in detail, as that of the film in the cinematograph camera. from the film box the film runs to a roller, where a sprocket enters the all-important perforations and draws out the strip to make a small loop above the film gate. the shutter is placed in front of the lens. it is made up of a black metal circular disk, with either two or three open spaces, and a similar number of solid or opaque spaces. in general it looks like a very wide flat aeroplane propeller. like the movement of the camera, the film is stationary while the shutter is open, and when the shutter is closed the film is jerked down three fourths of an inch, or the length of one picture, and brought to a dead stop by the time the shutter revolves and is open again. this is repeated sixteen times every second, so the film is cast upon the screen for one thirty-second part of a second, and the screen is blank one thirty-second part of a second while the shutter is closed and, as we might say, the scenes are being changed for the next act. although the movement is just the same as in the camera, it may be well for the sake of making the thing perfectly clear to go through the motion very slowly. for the sake of keeping out of fractions entirely too small for our consideration we have assumed that in both camera and projecting machine the shutter is open one thirty-second part of a second and then closed one thirty-second part of a second, the whole operation taking one sixteenth of a second. as a matter of fact the effort of the experts in animated photography is to have the shutter of the camera open for just as brief a space of time as possible, and on the other hand it is their effort to have the shutter of the projecting machine open just as long a space of time as possible, and closed as short a time as possible. in other words, they desire to shorten the time when there is nothing on the screen, and lengthen the time for the eye to photograph each image on the brain. by using a little different mechanism in the film gate of the projector this is accomplished to some extent, as well as obtaining a clearer, steadier picture than formerly was shown. you will remember that in the camera and printing machine the film was jerked down by little teeth or fingers. the simpler of the two methods in general use on projectors now is called the "dog" movement. it is composed of an eccentric wheel placed below the film gate, with a little roller projecting from it. the wheel revolves and once every sixteenth part of a second the roller is brought around so that it strikes the film and jerks it down the three fourths of an inch that makes the space of one picture. [illustration: a motion-picture studio this is where a great many of the edison photoplays are made. besides all the other departments there is room on the stage for several different plays to be photographed at one time.] [illustration: courtesy of thomas a. edison, inc. a realistic film of washington crossing the delaware this picture was taken in zero weather on a real stream with real ice menacing the actors in the boats.] the other method is known as the "maltese cross" movement. the name is taken from the fact that the chief sprocket wheel is shaped somewhat like a maltese cross. this wheel, with four notches in it, is attached to the sprocket below the film gate, and it is driven intermittently by a wheel with a pin that enters one of the notches on the maltese cross wheel at each revolution, and pushes it around the space of one quarter of a turn. this of course turns the lower toothed sprocket and jerks the film down the space of one picture. on the next revolution of the driving wheel the pin enters the next notch, turns the maltese cross wheel another quarter of a turn, and, by the motion imparted to the sprocket, jerks the film down another three quarters of an inch, thereby pulling another picture into place as the shutter opens. recent improvements on this movement have largely done away with the jar resulting from the pin catching the notches in the cross. the wheel that looks like a maltese cross has, instead of four notches, three grooves, dividing the wheel into three equal parts just as if a pie were cut into three equal parts but the knife stopped short, leaving a solid hub in the centre. the space between each groove represents the length of one picture on the film. without going into a long, tiresome, technical explanation of this very important little feature of the projecting machine, it will suffice to say that the three-groove wheel is connected with the sprocket underneath the film gate. near it is a revolving arm, and upon this arm is a horizontal bar. when the arm makes a revolution, and reaches a point where it touches the three-divided wheel, the mechanical adjustment is so fine that the horizontal bar enters the groove, and the revolution of the arm carries the three-divided wheel around one third of a revolution--or the space from one groove to another--turns the sprocket and pulls the film down the space of one picture, with a quick steady pull. after getting this far, the arm on its upward course leaves the three-divided wheel, which stands still while the shutter is open until the arm gets around again, and as the shutter closes pulls the sprocket around another space. the strong light concentrated upon the film, in just the same way that you concentrate the sun's rays upon your hand with a burning glass, is very apt to set the film afire, particularly if through any slip in the machinery it stops in its rapid progress of about a foot a second. as machinery is not infallible, the manufacturers have invented various safety devices for protecting the film in case the machinery stops. of course this is not necessary when non-inflammable film is used. chapter vi. adventures with motion pictures perilous and exciting times in obtaining motion pictures.--how the machine came to be invented, and the newest developments in cinematography with a clear understanding of the mechanism of the various motion-picture machines in mind, we are free to go on with the scientist and our young friend to the exciting times experienced by actors and photographers in making the pictures that delight people all over the world. first, however, let us briefly look back over the history of the art, for there is nothing more interesting than to follow up the experiments upon which thomas a. edison based his invention of the original cinematograph or kinetoscope. long ago, even before edison was born, scientists tinkered with devices that would picture apparent motion, but they were rude attempts and little progress was made for many years. the first man to take a decisive step toward practical cinematography was edward (or eadweard) muybridge, a photographer who lived in oakland, cal.; so he is rightly called the father of motion pictures. muybridge had been experimenting with snapshot cameras, as in those days instantaneous photography with wet plates was comparatively new, and, being something of an artist as well as a photographer, he decided that snapshot photographs of animals and men while running, jumping, and walking would greatly aid artists in transferring to their canvases the exact positions of the figures they wished to paint. in the people of california were considerably excited over the feat of governor leland stanford's trotting horse occident, which was the first racer west of the rocky mountains to make a mile in two minutes and twenty seconds, and the governor was having him photographed on every occasion. governor stanford also wagered that at one time during the trotter's stride all four feet were off the ground. muybridge suggested his plan for photographing the animal's every movement, while running, trotting or walking, as a means of settling the bet, and the governor, very much pleased, gave him free access to the stables and race course. the photographer built a studio at the course and systematically went to work. first, he built a high fence along the track and had it painted white. then he securely mounted twenty-four cameras side by side along the opposite side of the course and stretched thin silk threads from the shutter of each camera across the track about the height of the horse's knees. occident was then led out and ridden along the course so that he would pass between the white background and twenty-four cameras. as he came to each silk thread his legs broke it and opened the shutter of the camera to which it was attached. thus the animal photographed himself twenty-four times as he passed over the track and showed that governor stanford's contention regarding his movements was correct. laid in consecutive order in which the photographs were taken, each picture showed a different stage of the horse's movements, and if the series of photographs was held together and riffled over the thumb, so that each one would be visible for just the fraction of a second, the impression received, thanks to the persistence of vision, was that of a horse in motion. when muybridge went to paris the year after taking the photographs of governor stanford's horse he received a warm welcome from some of the greatest french painters of the day. he gave several exhibits of his photographs, but carried the work no farther. almost one hundred years before this, several brilliant frenchmen were groping in the darkness for some way of showing motion by means of pictures, and brought forth a device known as the "wheel of life," or the zoetrope. it was simply an enclosed cylinder, and upon the inner lower face, which was free to rotate, were placed a series of pictures showing the stages of some simple animation, in sequence, such as two children seesawing, or a child swinging. the upper surface was pierced with long, narrow slits, and when one looked through the slits, and the lower surface with the pictures on it was rotated, one actually saw only one picture at a time, but as they passed before the eyes the appearance was of motion. various improvements on this idea were made, and silhouette paintings even were thrown on a screen so as to give an illusion of motion. the development of photography was necessary, however, before motion pictures ever could be a success. about the time muybridge took his pictures the old wet plate was superseded by the dry plate we know to-day, and scientists began the search for some material from which they could make film base. before the invention of films, motion pictures, as they were known at that time, were used chiefly by scientists in trying to analyze motion which cannot be traced by the human eye. among the leaders in this work was the french scientist dr. e. j. marey, who studied the flight of birds and the movements of animals and men so carefully that he wrote a book entitled "movement," which is still used by authorities in scientific research. doctor marey set up another camera at the physiological station in paris with which he and his associates made pictures of great scientific value. those were the days of the early experiment with flying machines, as will be remembered from chapter ii, and the french inventors made careful studies of marey's pictures of bird flight. doctor marey's stationary camera was a simple bellows type which took an exceptionally wide plate. the shutter, which was operated by a crank, was a disk with slits in it, so that as it turned it intermittently admitted and shut off the light. thus, as a white-clothed figure passed a dead-black background, in front of the camera, the various stages of its movements in the course of its trip from one side of the camera's focus to the other were faithfully recorded on the plate, each slit making an exposure of the image on a different section of the plate, showing the figure in a different position. many machines that were merely developments of the old zoetrope were brought out both in the united states and europe, but the greatest obstacle to their success was that they were peep-hole machines of the kind that flourished in penny arcades a few years ago, rather than devices for throwing pictures on a screen so that a large number of persons could see at the same time. in general, these old-fashioned "moving-picture" machines were simply cabinets in which were mounted a series of transparencies made from pictures representing the stages of some simple animation. an electric light illuminated the transparencies and they were rotated so that one picture at a time was seen. in some of the more improved "wheels of life," such as were shown in this country, the transparencies in consecutive order were mounted on a hub like the spokes of a wheel and were rotated so that one was seen at a time, very much like the way muybridge riffled his horse pictures over his thumb. all this time two american inventors had been at work on the two most perplexing problems in animated photography at that time, and it was through their achievements that the first practical motion-picture machine was given to the world, just as it was through the achievements of the wright brothers that the first practical aeroplane was given to the world. these two men were thomas a. edison and george eastman. mr. edison had been working for several years on a motion-picture machine, but was handicapped by the lack of a practical film. mr. eastman, after years of experiment, produced the film that made cinematography possible, in . with a strong transparent film, flexible, and compressible, to take the place of the clumsy glass plate, edison was ready to go ahead with his work, started years before, and in the crowds at the world's fair in chicago saw the first motion-picture machine. it was called a kinetoscope. [illustration: courtesy of thomas a. edison, inc. the corsican brothers--a famous trick film the parts of the twin brothers in this film were acted by the same man, the illusion being accomplished by the double exposure trick.] [illustration: courtesy of the vitagraph company of america the guillotine famous scene from the photoplay based on dickens's great novel, "a tale of two cities."] simple as it was, thousands and thousands dropped nickels into a slot and peeped into the hole at the "moving pictures." some of the boys who read this may remember machines like it. the mechanism was in a cabinet in which the pictures were shown on a positive film. this was about forty feet long and was strung backward and forward inside the cabinet on a series of spools in a continuous chain. the film passed before the peep-hole and the pictures were magnified by a lens. they were illuminated by an electric lamp behind them. a rotating shutter cut off the light intermittently, so that each picture was seen for the fraction of a second, and then a period of darkness ensued. the shutter was the only attempt at intermittent revealing of the pictures, for the film travelled continuously. the camera that edison invented for taking the pictures shown in his kinetoscope was in principle about the same as the one described earlier in this chapter, except that it has been wonderfully improved in mechanical accuracy and photographic clearness. the hardest problem facing him was the machine which would show the pictures to a large number of spectators at the same time and do away with the old peep-hole machine. the idea of the magic lantern immediately presented itself, but the inventor quickly saw the necessity of an intermittent motion, for if the ribbon of pictures was drawn before the beam of light fast enough to give the illusion of motion, each picture was thrown on the screen for such a short time that it was too faint to be seen easily. from this it was to edison but a step to a practicable projector, and nothing remained but to improve its mechanical working. getting motion pictures is the adventurous part of the business, for this work requires operators and actors who are athletes and who do not know the meaning of fear. as pictures of scenery and events are taken in every corner of the world--in the jungles, in the arctic ice, on mountains and in deserts, the photographers all can tell absorbing stories of the strange places and things they have filmed. in the rough the films are divided into four great general classes, with several special classes besides. they are scenic, industrial (showing the working of some great industry like steel making), topical, and dramatic. scenic and industrial films are simply taken at an opportune time, as it is usually not necessary to make any advance arrangements, though the photographing may incur great risks. topical films, such as the pictures of the recent durbar in india or some other great current event, are very valuable when quickly sent broadcast. of course the photographer must have the same news instinct that the reporter has to get good topical films, for he must get there first and deliver his picture "story" to his studio "editors" as quickly as possible. the photographers often have hair-raising adventures in taking such films, as the single instance of the man who went up mount vesuvius during an eruption and took a cinematograph film of it will show. the greatest variety of experiences, however, is to be found in the making of dramatic films--that is, motion-picture plays. as every boy knows, these stories have just as wide a range as the books in a library. there are plays based on biblical stories, and plays dealing with wild west adventures; there are farces, comedies, and tragedies; in fact, there is no limit to the variety. these plays, however, can be divided roughly into two classes--that is, those that are produced on the motion-picture studio stage and those produced out of doors with the natural surroundings as the stage. the interesting things about either kind would fill a book the size of this. in the early days of cinematography only simple shows were attempted, but now nothing is too big or too complicated or too expensive for the big concerns making pictures in the united states and europe. the first motion-picture studio here was simply a portable, glass roofed, black walled shed set on a pivot in edison's yard in orange, n. j. it was called the black maria and makes an interesting contrast to the great glass studio at bronx park, n. y., costing $ , , in which many of the edison films are now made. all well-equipped motion-picture studios these days are fitted out with space for several stages; a great tank for water scenes, carpenter shops, scene-painting studios, furniture and other stage properties to furnish scenes, costumes, stage fittings, and a great corps of photographers, mechanics, electricians, etc., besides the company of well-paid actors who take part in the shows. if a play is to be reproduced in the studio, the architect draws the plans for the scenery, which are sent to the stage carpenters, who make the framework and stretch the canvas. the blank scenery is then sent to the racks, where the scene painters get to work on it. in the meantime the property man at the studio, just like the property man at a theatre, has received a list of the things he will need to furnish the scene and give the actors the paraphernalia necessary for the carrying out of the play. he ransacks his storeroom and brings out tables, chairs, pictures, etc. the studio costumer also checks off her list and sees that she has in her great wardrobe costumes to dress the characters for their parts. meantime the stock company of actors is called together, the scenario, or plan of the play, is read, and rehearsals begin. all this part of it and the rehearsing are very much like the work preliminary to the staging of a regular play, except that the scenes are arranged, not according to the size of the stage, but according to the focus of the camera. each scene is timed to the second so that the pantomime will tell the story but not tire the spectators with useless repetition. in rehearsing, the actors sometimes speak their lines--that is, the words the character would say--just as if they were to be heard, because it often helps them to give the proper effect. finally, when the stage director has one scene of a play down fine, after perhaps days or weeks of rehearsing, the photographer is called. he consults with the stage manager, measures off the distance for his focus, so that he will get all that is necessary into the picture, and nothing that is not wanted; and after seeing that every detail is attended to, the great battery of arc lights overhead is turned on, and the stage manager says, "go!" the photographer begins to turn his crank, keeping one eye on the stage and the other on his stop watch, and the stage director counts off the seconds, meanwhile shouting instruction to the actors on the stage. to an outsider the noises sound like a riot or a street fair rather than a theatrical performance timed to the fraction of a second in which the movement of an eye counts in the final effect. while the camera clicks off sixteen instantaneous snapshots to the second the stage director calls out the seconds, "one, two, three. one, two, three. look out there, don't get out of focus! keep toward the centre of the stage. now, jim, run in and grab the book agent--hurry, look angry! one, two, three. that's fine! hey, there! shake your fist." and so it goes, until the director rings a bell or shouts, "that's all!" and the scene is ended. just as the last pictures are being run off, a stage hand rushes into the scene and holds up a large placard with a big number on it. this number is the number of the scene in the play, and is watched by the men and women in the assembling room when they gather the various scenes of a picture play together and join them up in the proper order for one continuous roll. of course in the joining the number is cut out of the picture for projection. it very often happens that a stage director in his effort to get a graphic story reproduced on the film takes a great many more pictures than can be crowded within the limits set for the play. then with the scenario in front of him, and a good magnifying glass to bring out the detail of the pictures, he takes his scissors, just as the editor takes his blue pencil, and begins cutting from the story the unnecessary pictures, just as the newspaper or magazine editor cuts useless paragraphs from the story or article. he must not cut out any picture that helps to tell the story, and yet he must sometimes cut out as much as feet of film. he "kills" an unnecessary picture here, and an unnecessary picture there, and adds up their length until the story has been reduced to the proper size. although spectacles such as the one in the picture representing a battle on a bridge, and others even larger, are staged in the various big motion-picture studios, the most exciting work in the filming of motion-picture plays is out of doors where the natural surroundings make the stage. a great many of the shows seen to-day are taken this way, with real trees, real water, real mountains, or real streets affording the settings. hence with studios in which battle scenes, riot scenes, water scenes, and practically any indoor scene can be reproduced; and also the great outdoors at the disposal of the cinematographer, there is practically no limit to the subjects that can be turned into dramatic films for the education and amusement of the public. a few instances of the plays made out of doors will serve to show the limits to which the producers are willing to go to get new shows. the edison company, with its big studio in new york and its manufacturing plant at west orange, n. j., in the heart of the country where the revolutionary war was fought, is reproducing a whole series of films of american history. these, so far as possible, are made on the exact spots where the dramatic events occurred. the first of the series entitled, "the minute men," was taken near boston, where those historic defenders of liberty fought for their country. in this film is the famous scene representing the battle of concord, which was taken on practically the identical ground where the battle was fought. the producers spent a great deal of time in planning this series of pictures and so far as possible had every historical fact correct, so that the value of the series from the educational point of view is apparent. the other titles in the series will show how the scenes of the revolutionary war were brought home to the american people. they included "the capture of fort ticonderoga," "the battle of bunker hill," "the declaration of independence," "the death of nathan hale," "how washington crossed the delaware," "church and country; an episode of the winter at valley forge," and so on. the film dealing with washington's trip across the delaware in the ice was made under conditions as nearly like those of the actual events as possible to get them. the pictures were taken during the coldest part of last winter ( ), and the photograph opposite page was taken while the big scene was being acted out. this was taken in an arm of pelham bay, near new york, and the "scene shifters" had to work for hours in the bitter cold breaking up the ice and shifting around the great cakes in order to get the desired effect. their success is attested by the picture reproduced here. the selig company, with studios in chicago and los angeles, and big stock companies of actors in both places also take some wonderful outdoor films. one of these was a play representing life in the african jungle, for which a special trainload of actors, and a whole menagerie of elephants, camels, lions, rhinos, leopards, pumas, zebras, and other animals, were shipped to florida, where scenes much like those in africa were found. this same company also sent a stock company and a corps of photographers to the far north, where a film play was made amid the arctic ice. the chicago studio of this concern is one of the wonders of cinematography, for not only has it a great building in which indoor plays are filmed, but a great land reserve for outdoor productions. in one place are artificial hills built in the natural forest, and upon them artificial feudal castles. in another are log cabins for frontier scenes, and in yet another a barren stretch for other kinds of scenes. the los angeles company is close to the mountains, the ocean, and the great american desert, so that it can furnish material for an endless amount of exciting wild west shows. one of the big films made in europe was "the fall of troy," produced by the itala film company, which reproduced the great wooden horse, the walls of troy, and all other historical details. the great french, german, and english companies also have made big films. in the production of plays built on well-known novels the motion-picture industry has found one of its most successful fields. dickens's great novel, "a tale of two cities," afforded the vitagraph company of america, one of its best films, while james fennimore cooper, alexander dumas, and even shakespeare, and grand opera have been transferred to the cinematograph. from the great biblical stories also have been taken films that have been shown by missionaries, and others interested in religious work, all over the world. the "passion play" was one of the first long films ever shown and it made a tremendous success. big spectacles are always popular and to fulfill the demand two locomotives have been run together at high speed, the motion-picture concern buying the machines outright for the purpose and leasing the railroad for a day; an automobile has been driven over the palisades of the hudson river, ships have been towed out into the ocean and blown up and whole towns of flimsy stage construction have been built only to be burned, while the motion-picture photographer recorded the whole thing on a film. one concern even got permission from the los angeles fire department during a big fire, and dressing an actor as a fireman cinematographed him as he heroically rushed up a ladder amidst the flames and rescued a screaming woman from an upper window. the woman was an actress who had risked her life to go into the burning building and be rescued. of course the great motion-picture industry has not been without its fatal accidents. several times actors playing the parts of men in difficulty in the water have actually been seized with cramps and have drowned before the eyes of the spectators. one time a picture was being taken of a band of train wreckers who were supposed to tie the switchman to the track. the train was supposed to stop just short of the man, but it actually ran over and killed him. the pictures were used at the inquest. during the filming of war pictures there have been explosions of gunpowder that were not intended, and in the taking of pictures of wild animals in their native haunts and in menageries, several photographers have been badly injured. there is another big and important department in the filming of motion picture plays in trick photography. every one who reads this has seen at the picture-theatre films of things that he knows perfectly well never could have happened--men walking on the ceiling, fairies the size of a match acting on a table beside a man, a saw going through a board, a piece of furniture assembling itself, a man run over by an automobile, his legs cut off, and then stuck on again all within a few minutes, marvellous railroad wrecks, and a thousand other things which could not happen or which the motion-picture photographer probably never could catch in his lens. all of these things are done through trick photography. double exposure, double printing, and the stop motion are the most common methods of obtaining these marvellous results. opposite page is a picture obtained during the reproduction by the edison company of alexander dumas's novel, "the corsican brothers." this film was obtained completely by the double exposure. in the story, the two brothers are twins so much alike that they cannot be told apart. they act exactly alike, and one even feels what, the other feels. in making the film the producers decided that it would be impossible to get two actors that looked enough alike to take the parts of the two brothers, so the same man acted both parts. in the picture referred to the brothers sitting at table with their mother are one and the same actor. the picture was made by blocking off the whole left half side of the film with black paper and running it through the camera while the actor played the part of the brother on the right side of the table. he was timed to the fraction of a second, and when the exposed half of the film was blocked off with paper and the unexposed half run through, he acted out his part on the left side of the table, to this time schedule. so exact was his work that when the brother on one side of the table spilled a drop of hot coffee on his hand and started in pain, the brother on the other side, feeling the same pain as his counterpart, jumped at exactly the same second. another popular trick with the double exposure is a scene showing mermaids or divers swimming or walking at the bottom of the sea. first a large brilliantly lighted glass tank is set up in the studio, stocked with fish and sea life, and photographed. in this kind of a film the images of the real water are a little under exposed. next a space the size of the tank is measured off on the floor with a gray scene laid flat. on the scene are painted faint lines to indicate water, and faint outlines of fish, seaweed, etc. then the actress dressed for the part of a mermaid lies flat on the setting and goes through the graceful motions of swimming while the film upon which the real water pictures were taken, is run through the camera, which is placed above her with the lens pointing directly downward. another example of double exposure is seen in most films where lilliputians or small fairies enter into the picture. the parts of both full-grown human beings and diminutive fairies are played alike by adult actors, but the difference in their size is obtained by taking each on the same film at different times. for instance, suppose a tiny fairy is supposed to appear to a grown man in the picture play. first the man goes through his act with the camera photographing him from a distance of about fifteen feet. next the fairy goes through her act, bowing, etc., to the place where the man stood and is photographed on the film from a distance of say one hundred and fifty feet. the two impressions when printed give a lifelike effect of a full-grown man and a tiny sprite. there are numberless films made by the stop-motion system, which simply means that the stage hands rush in and arrange things while the shutter is closed. all pictures in which you see a man or a woman falling off a roof or out of a window and subsequently getting up and running away are made by this system. the edison film showing an automobile going over the palisades and the driver being hurled to the rocks below was done with the stop motion. it is very simple. the cinematographer photographed the approach of the automobile and the human driver in the seat approaching the cliff at terrific speed. he stopped his camera, the automobile came to a stop, the automobilist got out and a dummy was placed in his seat. then by starting the automobile a little back of where it was slowed down and stopped, and photographing, it the public could not tell that it had been stopped, and that the man in the seat who was hurled to the rocks below with the machine was a dummy. a development of this is the picture-a-turn motion, which simply means that with each turn of the crank of the camera one exposure is made. by this trick many of the strangest films seen are made possible. the magic carpenter shop where saws and hammers move without human aid is an example. it is simply done by stage hands who rush on to the stage between each turn of the camera and advance the tools to one more stage of progress. the saw is at the top of the board, and the hammer is suspended in air (by invisible wires), etc. in the next picture, the saw is in different position, and the hammer has descended to the head of a nail. in this way all the magical effects of inanimate objects taking on life in the film are accomplished. one of the interesting details is the appearance of such objects as boards rising from the floor and placing themselves upon the bench ready for the saw. to do this the operator, keeping his shutter closed, advances his film a couple of feet and takes a picture of the board falling to the floor from the bench (pulled off by an invisible wire). as the film is moving backward, the picture when exhibited in sequence shows the board not falling but rising from the floor, and placing itself on the bench in a most mysterious manner. moving the film backward will give many strange results. for instance, in the plays where a little child is snatched from death under the wheels of an onrushing train just as the cow-catcher is upon her, it is no longer necessary to risk human lives before trains. first, the onrushing train is photographed with the film moving forward right up to the point where the child is to be standing when rescued. then the train is allowed to run on past the point. it is then backed up at high speed, and the film run backward. when the locomotive rushes past the spot where the child is to be rescued her heroic rescuer simply dashes on to the tracks amid the dust of the receding train and places the child between the rails. when this section of film, which is taken backward, is fitted into the rest of the ribbon, and is run through the projector forward, it looks as if the rescuer rushed on to the track and grabbed the child out of the way as the train passed by. another popular trick by which fairies or ghosts are made to appear gradually in motion-picture scenes is the one by which the lens is narrowed down or opened up gradually. if a ghost is to appear, the hole through which the light strikes the lens is narrowed down so that only the brightest objects are photographed. the hole is gradually enlarged so that the light increases and brings out the figures plainer and plainer, until the ghost is in full view. a great many good films, such as railroad wrecks, automobile journeys through the clouds, etc., are made with models, propelled by invisible strings over skilfully built scenery. the scene of figures walking on the ceiling is very simple inasmuch as it is only necessary to set the floor of the stage to represent a ceiling and take the pictures with the camera upside down. men and animals can be made to run up the sides of buildings, simply by laying the scenery on the studio floor, and photographing the whole thing from above. [illustration: a romance of the ice fields this film was taken in the dead of winter, and the man is in a dangerous position on a real ice cake.] [illustration: the spanish cavalier a whole motion-picture outfit was taken to bermuda to get this photoplay.] [illustration: all ready for a thermit weld after the little hole at the bottom of the weld, through which the redhot shaft inside shows, is plugged up, the thermit is ignited.] of the recent developments in cinematography the ones we hear most about are colour pictures and talking pictures. so far, these two points which would give the last touch of realism to the scenes thrown on the screen are in a very imperfect state of development, but it is safe to say that it will not be very many years before we will have them duplicating what we see and hear in actual life just as faithfully as the black and white pictures now duplicate motion. science so far has not given us a method of actually taking a motion-picture negative in the natural colours, such as now can be taken in still photography, so at first the pictures were coloured by hand, and later by stencils. this is a difficult and a tedious undertaking, however, and newer methods have been introduced. although there are several systems being worked out the one best known is the kinemacolour, which achieved its greatest fame by showing the pictures of the coronation of king george in england, and the durbar in india in colours. the kinemacolour system is simply one of photographing and projecting through screens of red and green. the shutter of the camera is made up of four parts, as follows: a transparent red screen, an opaque space, a transparent green screen, and another opaque space. thus, by the law of colours laid down by science, when one picture is photographed through a red screen, all the different tones but red are arrested by the screen, and only the objects having shades of red are photographed. next, when the green screen exposes the next space of three quarters of an inch, only the objects having green tints are photographed, as all other tints are arrested by the green screen. the film itself shows no colour other than black and white, but when it is projected through a shutter that works exactly the same as the camera shutter the pictures show the objects in their natural colours. that is, the alternating pictures taken through the red screen and shown through a screen of the same colour show all the tones of red, while the alternating pictures taken through the green screen and likewise projected through a green screen show all the tones in which appear green. thus, with the aid of the persistence of vision and a somewhat faster system of photographing and projecting, the tones blend and we see on the screen at the same instant red-coated soldiers marching past beautiful green trees, and so on. in order to make this possible it is necessary to give the films a treatment in a solution that makes them more sensitive to all light than they would be for ordinary cinematography. the drawback to the system, as you will have noticed if you have seen these pictures, is that red and green do not make up all the _primary_ colours of light. in the direct rays of light (not reflected light as from a painted wall) the primary colours, from which all the other tones are obtained, are red, green, and violet, but it has been found a little too difficult a mechanical process to use the three screens instead of only two. the hardest job of the inventors of talking pictures was to work out a mechanical device that would make a good phonograph and a motion-picture projector keep step, so that, for instance, the actor would not be heard singing after the pictures had shown him close his mouth and leave the stage. ever since his invention of the kinetoscope, edison has had this very thing in mind, and has prophesied that in the near future grand opera with motion pictures and phonographs will be within the means of every patron of the motion-picture theatre. edison's idea for obtaining this is to make the phonographic and the cinematographic records at the same time in order to insure perfect accuracy of sound and appearance, and his experiments are meeting with success. a fairly successful device for giving the phonograph and the projector synchronism, or, in other words, keeping them in step, has been worked out by the gaumont firm of paris. the phonograph and the projector are run by two motors of exactly the same size and power, from the same wires. the armatures of the motors are divided into an equal number of sections, and each section of one is connected with the corresponding section in the armature of the other, so that one cannot rotate for the fraction of a second unless the other rotates with it. a little switch working on another motor, which works on a set of gears, will speed up or slacken down the talking machine so that if the armatures get "out of step" one can be speeded up or slowed down so that the figures in the pictures will appear to be talking, laughing, or singing, just as they do in real life. another of the recent developments in cinematography is the di-optic system which aims to show every stage of the motion of figures, instead of the stage of motion every sixteenth of a second, as is in the case with the usual apparatus. the di-optic camera is simply two machines set side by side in one. it takes two loads of film, has two film gates, and two lenses, but works by turning one crank. the single shutter revolves in front of the twin lens, so that when one side is exposing a length of film the other is closed and the film is advancing. the two rolls of negative exposed in this way record the complete motions of the figures before the camera. the projector also is a di-optic machine working in the same manner as the double-eyed camera, so that when the pictures are thrown on the screen they are seen practically constantly, instead of every sixteenth of a second, for while one is hidden by the shutter, another is thrown on the screen. also inventors are working on a scheme for taking motion pictures on glass plates instead of on films. as was mentioned previously the use of the motion-picture machine has been very valuable to science, and by adapting the cinematograph to a powerful microscope a great many motion pictures of the life of bacteria have been obtained. also motion pictures are sometimes made of surgical operations. carrying this work even farther still, animated photography and x-ray photography have been joined so that science now can make motion pictures of the processes that go on inside small animals. owing to difficulties not yet overcome moving x-ray pictures cannot be taken of the human body at this time. röntgen rays cannot be refracted, or collected in a lens. hence the film for an x-ray picture must be equal in size to the picture desired. it is impossible to increase the size of cinematograph films with much success because of the danger of breaking or tearing them when under the strain of the rapid course they must pursue through camera and projector. these facts made it necessary for the scientists experimenting with x-ray motion pictures to photograph only animals, but they were greatly encouraged because they obtained some excellent views of the digestive processes of mice, guinea-pigs, fowls, and other small animals. the bones of the human hand also were photographed while the hand was opened and closed. m. j. garvallo, who carried on a great many interesting experiments in france with this type of motion pictures, used a somewhat larger and more sensitive film than the standard, combined with an apparatus too complex for attention here. this phase of cinematography, however, is still in its infancy and we can look for great improvements at an early date. another frenchman, prof. lucien bull, who was one of doctor marey's assistants in the early stages of cinematography, has made pictures of the movement of the wings of various insects such as flies, bees, wasps, etc. to do this he has had to make the fastest known cinematograph. it was an especially constructed apparatus entirely unlike the ones described here, but through the agency of an electrical spark which illuminated the vicinity in which the insect flew, , pictures per second were taken, instead of the usual sixteen. the very antithesis of the scientific are the uses of the motion-picture film as an illustrated magazine or newspaper. there are only a few successful "animated newspapers" in the world, but the idea will probably spread. the staff of such a publication is made up of photographers, who are scattered about in every nation on the globe. there are regular offices in all the big cities which are ready at a moment's notice to send photographers to any part of their territory. these photographers get films of all the important news occurrences of the day, parades, street demonstrations, wrecks, fires and whatever else fills the newspapers you read every day. the films are hurried to the main office where they are developed, cut down to short "items," or allowed to run as long, "stories" just like in a regular newspaper, pasted together with suitable headlines, printed in one continuous roll of about , feet and rushed out to the subscribers, who are usually theatres with audiences eager for the "paper." such are a few of the many motion-picture activities which have sprung up in the last few years, and made it possible for us to see whatever is interesting in any part of the world, on the cinematograph screen. beside the professional cinematographers, there are of course any number of smart boys and young men who are having fine times with the amateur projecting outfits sold by the big makers of apparatus. these machines run from mere toys made up for a little roll of film, already prepared, to projectors with which very creditable parlour shows can be given. chapter vii steel boiled like water and cut like paper our boy friend sees how science has turned the greatest known heats to the everyday use of mankind "how hot is it in that furnace?" asked the scientist's young friend as he poked about the laboratory one day. "that is not very hot now, but we could increase the temperature to about , degrees fahrenheit if we tried hard enough," answered the man who, outside of his work, enjoyed best of all the visits of the boy. "but the heat of the laboratory furnace most of the time is nothing compared to the heat that we can put to practical use through a couple of new inventions i have been trying here." "what are they for?" asked the boy, immediately all interest, for he was a member of the metalworking class in his school, and was constantly on the lookout for better ways of working in iron, steel, copper, and brass. [illustration: thermit in eruption with a blinding, dazzling glare and a gentle hissing the thermit in a white-hot molten mass fills the mould and runs down the sides like volcanic lava.] [illustration: dr. hans goldschmidt the inventor of thermit.] "well, they both are used in welding metals and in one--the thermit process--the hardest steel can be reduced to a molten mass of white hot metal boiling like a tea kettle on a stove, in about a half a minute. you see that requires a great deal of heat," continued the chemist, "and in fact the temperature is , degrees, fahrenheit. "the other process that i have been trying is known as autogenous welding, and in this even a greater temperature is generated than by the thermit process. in the tiny flame no bigger than the point of this pencil that comes from the autogenous welding torch the temperature is about , degrees fahrenheit." "my!" said the boy, "how could any one ever measure such a heat as that?" "science teaches us how to do that just as science taught us how to produce these great heats. why, you know, in the electrical furnaces at niagara falls they produce a heat that they think reaches the , degrees of the sun. outside of that, however, the thermit process and the autogenous welding process attain the greatest known heats." "those must be fine," said the boy, "because before our schools began to teach metal working, i used to play blacksmith and heat pieces of iron in the fire, but i could never do anything with it, and now that we are learning welding in the blacksmith shop at school i see what a hard job it is. i wish we could use these processes at school." "well, you will be able to use them some day," said the scientist, "but it took science a long time to find out how to produce and use very high temperatures. "in the stone age, thousands and thousands of years ago, when men lived in caves and ate raw the animals that they caught with their hands, fire was first discovered by an accident. there are many legends of how the hairy savages that populated the earth fell down and worshipped the aboriginal scientist who taught them how to warm their caves. "soon, however, fire became a necessity of life to mankind, for it was discovered that meat tasted better when exposed to a flame--that, is, when it was cooked--than when it was raw. that was a big step toward civilization, but it was a bigger one when some wild mountain tribe found that they could make much more deadly weapons than the rude ones they chipped from flint, by melting down a certain kind of rock and fashioning it into spear heads, arrow heads, and hatchets. from that time on the development of the art of metal working took only a few thousand years, until to-day man's great knowledge of metalurgy has enabled him to make such tremendous fighting machines that war is becoming entirely too destructive, and too expensive a thing to rush into lightly. thus, heat and metal working are helping to force the world forward to another step in civilization--universal peace. "after learning how to make these hardest of metals, man has now solved the problem of making them boil like water with the thermit process and of cutting them like paper with the oxy-acetylene gas torch, all in less than a minute. "you see this bag of coarse black powder that looks like iron filings? well, it is the thermit. put it into a crucible, set off a pinch of ignition powder on the top, and the whole thing will ignite in half a minute, throwing off a blinding white light and thousands of sparks like beautiful fire works. that is the thermit reaction. "you know more about the oxy-acetylene gas torch, for in your metal working at school you used the gas blowpipe to make a very hot flame. the oxy-acetylene gas torch is just a high development of this, for instead of ordinary gas, acetylene is used and instead of air we use pure oxygen." the caller sat down and asked his friend to tell something more about these two marvelous inventions. the story was several days in the telling, for there were visits to foundries and experiments in the laboratory, besides many long talks. "first we will see about thermit," said the man, and began to talk as he worked over a crucible. thermit heat process as a result of his discovery that by starting a terrific battle for oxygen between two metals he could reduce one of them to almost absolute purity, dr. hans goldschmidt has converted to the use of man a process of welding so simple and yet so forceful that it is making world-wide changes in the working of metals. this battle itself is the most interesting feature of the goldschmidt process because of the terrific heat it generates. imagine sticking your finger into boiling water. by so doing you would be exposing your flesh to a temperature of degrees fahrenheit. imagine sticking your finger into a pot of molten lead if even for the fraction of a second. you know very well what the effect would be. the temperature is degrees fahrenheit. still again, think of a redhot iron. this is about , degrees fahrenheit. steel boils at , degrees. they are all hot enough, but compare them with the temperature of , degrees fahrenheit or about , degrees centigrade, which is attained by the thermit reaction. the range of temperature in which we can live extends from a little over degrees to or degrees below zero, and yet man can so direct the heat of the thermit reaction that it will work for him. the commonest use of the process is in welding steel or iron, such as broken parts of machinery and welding steel rails, and steel or iron pipes. besides this, the thermit process will reduce many metals to a high degree of purity. after spending a few minutes in seeing how the inventor of this process came to discover it, we will take a little trip in our mind's eye to some of the places where the thermit process is in use, and see what happens. as you know, metals rarely come from the mines in a state of purity. they usually are very much mixed up with rock, slag, and other minerals, so that it takes a complicated process called smelting to separate them. even then they are not pure, and more complicated processes have to be gone through with. oxides, or metals that have been oxidized, are common because oxidization merely means that the metal has been burned so that each atom of metal has taken up an atom of oxygen to make what is called a molecule of oxide. iron ore is usually found in the form of iron oxide, because when this great earth was nothing but a swirling ball of burning gases, probably as hot as the sun, gradually cooling and forming a great cauldron of molten matter, boiling and bubbling more fiercely than the hottest cauldron of molten metal in any steel mill, much of the matter that later became iron ore was burned or oxidized. other chemical actions too technical for our attention just now were responsible for other forms of ore, such as sulphides, etc. when the earth cooled sufficiently to become solid, these things were completed, and they only had to remain hidden away under the surface for ages and ages until a little man who could live but a hundred years at the utmost solved the deepest secrets of the earth's formation. thus, to obtain pure metals the oxygen must be removed from the oxide. in other words, it must be reduced. plainly such reduction was a problem of smelting, but doctor goldschmidt in his efforts to obtain purity was working along lines of smelting, in his little german laboratory, very different from the ones in general use. his first object was to reduce iron oxides. first, he knew that aluminum has a great affinity for oxygen, or, in other words, when the two are heated will absorb oxygen like a sponge will absorb water, only more forcibly and more violently than any such comparison even faintly suggests. in yet other words, aluminum wants oxygen more than any other metal does. of course no chemical changes would occur if a piece of iron oxide and a piece of aluminum were set side by side, any more than we would have gunpowder if we set a chunk of saltpetre, a chunk of sulphur, and a chunk of charcoal all in a row. the iron oxide and the aluminum would have to be mixed by cutting or filing them into small pieces and making a coarse powder. still nothing would happen without heat to start it. if you collected some flakes of iron oxide in the palm of your hand they wouldn't look to you like very promising material for a bonfire, and you wouldn't be in any danger of an explosion, but you would have something in your hand that would burn, nevertheless. if you sprinkled your iron filings over a gas flame, welsbach burner, or over a common lamp chimney the heat would cause them to splutter and fly out with all the brilliancy you know so well when the blacksmith gives the redhot horseshoe the first pound. of course doctor goldschmidt knew all this, just as he knew that the way the aluminum would take the oxygen away from the iron oxide was through heating the coarse powder of filings to a very high temperature. but this was attended with serious troubles and many times the german scientist came near losing his life in explosions in his laboratory. at first he failed to get the mixture hot enough and nothing happened. bit by bit he increased the heat under the crucible containing the filings until it reached about , degrees fahrenheit. at this point the metals were hot enough to fuse or run together and the whole thing reacted with such violence that it amounted to an explosion. what really happened was that the mass reached the temperature where the aluminum could take the oxygen from the iron oxide, and it did so with such force that an explosion resulted. doctor goldschmidt then saw his problem. it was that of devising some way of heating the mixture to a temperature sufficient to gain the reaction, but without an explosion. after trying everything that he could think of, he conceived the plan of leaving the crucible in the open air and starting the heat at just one point first, instead of heating the whole thing in a furnace. he did this with a pinch of ignition powder placed on the top of his pile of iron oxide and aluminum. the ignition powder was simply lighted with a match. what happened? thermit was discovered. the heat, or reaction started at one point, gradually spread through the whole mass, and reduced it to white-hot molten material. in other words the application of intense heat at one point in the mixture was sufficient to fuse the metals and start the battle between the iron oxide on one side and the aluminum on the other, in the immediate vicinity of the point where the heat was applied. as the few particles set off by the ignition powder struggled for the oxygen they themselves generated heat--terriffic heat--which gave a high enough temperature to start the particles that were their next-door neighbours to struggling for the oxygen. these in turn generated heat to set off their own neighbours, and so it went. in far less time than it takes to read this, doctor goldschmidt saw the whole crucible of dead mineral particles take on life and become white-hot liquid metal. scientifically speaking, the reaction had spread through the whole mass in less than a minute, but what doctor goldschmidt saw was a blinding white light, more intense than any arc lamp, throwing off a little cloud of white smoke or vapour. apparently the whole thing was burning up. he only heard a little hissing as the metals battled for the precious oxygen. there was no explosion, there was no violent scattering of molten particles, and there were no noxious life-destroying gases such as come from the explosion of gunpowder, dynamite, or even the burning of coal. and yet the seething, molten metals in the crucible reached a temperature second or third to the highest ever registered by man. five thousand four hundred degrees--think of it!--more than half as hot as science tells us is the sun which makes this world of ours habitable. but what was the result of this temperature which staggers the imagination? just this. doctor goldschmidt knew that the aluminum had won the prize of battle and had paid the price of victory. the conquered iron was at the bottom of the crucible, a molten mass of pure metal, while the victorious aluminum, seething on the top, was nothing but slag (aluminum oxide). perhaps there may be a little lesson in this drama of the metals, because while the iron was vanquished it emerged from the stress of conflict purified and fitted for its high service to mankind, while the more aggressive aluminum came to the top an almost useless product, ruined by the prize for which it had fought. another interesting point about this reaction is that the heat produced by a certain quantity of the mixture is no greater in total volume than the heat that would be produced by the burning of an equal amount of anthracite coal. the difference is that the thermit process concentrates all the heat in a few seconds whereas the coal gives off its heat bit by bit for a long period of time. the mixture of filings used in this process is called thermit. a technical definition of the product is as follows: "thermit is a mixture of finely divided aluminum and iron oxide. when ignited in one spot, the combustion so started continues throughout the entire mass without supply of heat or power from outside and produces superheated liquid steel and superheated liquid slag (aluminum oxide)." thus the makers of thermit call the pure metal that results from the combustion, thermit steel. for the boy who has studied chemistry the simple equation by which the scientist described the process to his young friend will mean as much as his long explanation. the equation is: fe_{ }o_{ } + al = al_{ }o_{ } + fe. the scientist simply went on to say that fe_{ }, iron, and o_{ }, oxygen, in the equation means iron oxide, while al means aluminum. thus we have iron oxide plus aluminum, heated to , degrees fahrenheit, equals aluminum oxide, al_{ }o_{ }, plus pure iron, fe. these signs are simply the abbreviations scientists use for expressing processes in the terms of mathematical equations. with this general outline of the principle of the thermit process in mind its actual application will seem a simple matter. suppose that a great steel ship ploughing her way through a storm breaks her sternframe. this is the steel framework upon which the rudder post is mounted, and naturally a fracture puts the rudder out of commission. repairs must be made before the ship can make another trip. quick repairs are desired by the owners. perhaps the ship is a passenger steamer due to leave port in a few days with passengers and mail, so to put the liner in drydock, wait for the steel mills to cast a new sternframe, wait for it to come by freight, and then wait for the steelworkers to fit the piece in the place of the broken one is a matter of weeks, perhaps more. with the thermit process at hand this is not necessary. the company that manufactures and sells thermit has big plants in several cities in various parts of the world, but if there is steel repairing to be done elsewhere the company will send its materials and expert workmen on a minute's notice. so if the crippled ship limps into the port where there is a thermit plant the repairs can begin at once, but there need be only a little delay otherwise, because the captain of the ship can notify his owners of the damage by wireless while still out at sea, and long before he reaches the port he is making for they can have a complete thermit outfit on the way. one of the biggest advantages of the thermit process of repairing machinery or structural steel is that the welding in a great many cases can be made without taking the complicated parts to pieces. consequently after the ship is in drydock the workmen build a wooden scaffolding about the broken sternframe, so that they can work the better. the next step is the preparation of the broken parts for welding. most boys know how the doctor has to put splints on a broken arm so that it will knit properly. it is something like that with a thermit weld. the broken parts are supported in exact alignment by heavy blocks of concrete, and the fractured ends sliced off clean by the oxygen-gas torch. this leaves a space of from one inch to two and a half inches between the fractured ends, just according to the size of the piece to be welded. after the parts are all thoroughly cleaned the workmen are ready to take the next step. this is the preparation of the mould for the weld. first, a pattern of the weld, as it will appear when completed, is put on the fracture with beeswax. the space between the broken ends is filled in and a thick "collar" of wax is packed around the parts, so that when this is done the pattern looks like a swelling on the frame. the mould is then built around this wax pattern. the inventor of the thermit process had to make a number of experiments before he found a material refractory enough to stand the terrific heat to which the mould had to be exposed. finally he decided upon an equal mixture of fire brick, fire clay, and fire sand. with this material, then, the workmen go about making the mould. it is solid, with the exception of three apertures or tunnels, which are left by inserting in the moulding clay, wooden models of the size and shape desired. these are a gate, or place into which the molten welding material is to be poured, a "riser" or larger hole into which the surplus material can run for the overflow, and a heating aperture. the gate runs from the top of the mould down to the lowest point of the wax pattern, while the "riser" extends from the top of the wax pattern to the top of the mould. thus we really have a small inlet and large outlet, although it is always arranged so that the surplus metal remains in the riser, and as little as possible runs over. the heating aperture is a small hole in the side of the mould extending to the bottom of the wax pattern. with the mould complete the wooden models of the gate, riser, and heating aperture are pulled out and the first step in the process of welding is taken. the long pipe of a specially constructed gasoline compressed-air torch is inserted in the heating aperture and the process called preheating started. the gasoline torch, of course, quickly melts the beeswax, and leaves the space occupied by the pattern clear for the molten metal that is to be introduced to make the weld. the blast from the torch is continued through this heating aperture until the parts to be welded have reached a red heat, because if this were not done the cold steel would so chill the molten thermit steel that the weld could not be accomplished. the length of time taken by this preheating is governed, of course, by the size of the parts to be welded. sometimes it is many hours. everything is now ready for the thermit. there has been some elaborate preparation of the thermit too. the coarse powder or grains of iron oxide and aluminum previously have been prepared according to the job to be done. in very large welds, or welds where very hard steel is required, certain additions, to be explained later, are made to the thermit. the amount of thermit to be used is an important factor, of course, as there must be plenty to fill the mould, and yet not so much that it will overflow the riser. to decide on the amount takes a careful calculation because in large operations there are certain additions to the thermit which have to be considered. in general, however, the engineer must remember that he must have just twice as much molten thermit steel as he needs to fill the space left by the melting of the wax pattern. the surplus flows up into the riser, heating aperture, and gate, effectually closing all of them. the calculation, then, is that it takes four and a half ounces of steel to fill a cubic inch. it takes nine ounces of thermit to produce four and a half ounces of steel, so the engineer directing the weld must figure on eighteen ounces of thermit to each cubic inch in the wax pattern, including the space between the parts to be welded. after seeing that the proper amount of thermit is measured out the engineer must see that the crucible in which the reaction is to take place is ready to contain the strenuous battle that is to be fought in it. as before mentioned there are very few products that can withstand the heat of the fire produced by thermit. ordinary fire brick and mortar would melt or be burned to powder in a few seconds. metal would go the same way that the metal in the crucible goes. science, however, has established that magnesia tar is not affected by the thermit fire, so the crucible in which the thermit is reduced is heavily lined with magnesia tar. the crucible itself is shaped like a cone with the point downward. at the bottom is a magnesia stone, which has a conical-shaped hole for the "thimble." this "thimble" also is made of magnesia stone, and has a hole through it for the molten thermit steel to run through after the reaction has taken place. before filling the crucible with the thermit, however, the pouring hole is very carefully plugged up by a special process, with a little steel pin protected by fire sand and fire clay. this pin extends below the lowest point of the crucible a couple of inches, and by knocking it upward the molten metal is allowed to flow out. the upper end of this little plug that otherwise would be melted instantaneously by contact with the burning thermit, as indicated above, has to be protected by a layer of fire sand. the hole through which the metal flows is never more than half an inch in diameter. with the crucible, mould, and thermit prepared, the next thing is to put the thermit in the crucible and put the crucible in place. there are many ways of placing the crucible. in some cases, it is hung by a chain and in others it is supported by a tripod or wooden scaffolding. the latter is the better because, though the wood always catches fire from the heat, it can be kept standing by throwing on water, whereas steel or iron would be eaten in two in an instant by the touch of a few sparks of flying thermit. the point is to support the crucible so that the pouring hole is directly over the entering gate, or pouring gate of the mould. [illustration: thermit weld on sternframe of a steamship notice metal left above weld, where it flowed up into the riser.] [illustration: a large shaft welded by the thermit process protruding metal is that which flowed up into gate and riser. it is cut away by the gas torch to leave a neat weld.] [illustration: courtesy of the _american machinist_ cutting up the old battleship maine with an oxy-acetylene gas torch picture shows end of boat crane over exploded magazine, which was cut off in fifteen minutes.] [illustration: courtesy of the _american machinist_ cutting away the decks oxygen and acetylene generators can be seen on top of after-turret.] things move with a rush now, for all these arrangements are made ahead of time, and as soon as the workmen are sure that the parts in the mould are redhot the heating aperture is carefully plugged with fire sand and the thermit is ignited. from a mere pinch to half a teaspoonful of the ignition powder is put into a little hollow in the thermit so that the heat may be communicated at once to as much of the thermit as possible. this is then set off with a storm match. the workman quickly withdraws his hand, slams the lid on to the crucible and gets out of the way of flying sparks. there is a hiss, a puff of white smoke, a blinding glare from the hole in the top of the crucible, and that is all, beside a few sparks, to indicate that a heat second only to that of the sun is being generated within. one cannot help but marvel at the wonders of science as this inconceivable heat is being produced, the process is seemingly so simple, so easily handled, and so accessible for all kinds of work where steel welding is necessary. half a minute to a minute (according to the amount of thermit used) after the match has been applied a workman holding at arm's length a long tool called a "tapping spade" gives a few upward knocks to the little metal pin extending down from the closed pouring aperture. he jumps back for the heat is enough to set his clothes afire, even at a considerable distance, and a few flying particles of the molten thermit would inflict a serious burn. down through the little hole the thermit, that a minute before had been only a coarse dark gray powder like metal filings, seemingly the last thing on earth that would catch fire, flows into the pouring gate of the mould in a steady stream of white-hot liquid steel. the white glow from the metal is brighter than any electric light. it is so intense that although the workmen wear heavy dark goggles, they shade their eyes and turn their heads away. now you will be wondering, if you know anything about steel and its wonderful properties, how it is that this can be good steel when it is all mixed up with the aluminum oxide or slag. the reason it is of best quality is that as soon as the reaction reduces the whole mass to a molten liquid the heavier steel, set free, as the scientists say, but as we have chosen to think of it, robbed of the aluminum, sinks to the bottom, while the lighter aluminum oxide rises to the top. consequently the steel goes into the mould to make the weld while the slag, having risen to the top, will be found at the top of the pouring gate, and only around the outer edges of the weld. when the pour is completed the workmen go away and leave it to cool. it is usually left over night, sometimes as long as forty hours, when the weld is a very large one. finally the mould is broken down and the weld is found complete, with big extensions of the steel extending from the weld, in just the shape of the pouring gate "riser" and heating aperture. the molten thermit steel rushing in at the bottom of the mould has risen between the heated broken ends, and all around them, in just the shape left by the wax pattern. as the scientists say, the thermit steel has united the broken sternframe and formed a homogeneous mass with it. in other words the terrific heat of the thermit rushing on the heated ends has resulted in the two parts becoming one with the added thermit steel. after the mould is broken down the oxygen-gas torch comes into use again to cut away the ends of steel sticking up where they had cooled in the pouring gate, "riser" and heating aperture. after this the weld looks like a great swelling upon the sternframe, and if the swelling is where it will not interfere with the working of the rudder or steamer propellers, nothing more need be done. on the other hand, if the swelling is in the way, it can be reduced to the size of the frame, and squared off with machines built for the purpose. thus the ship is repaired and is ready to be taken out of drydock for her next trip, as good as new. about the same plan is followed out on all kinds of welding except pipes and rails. locomotives can be repaired without taking the complicated machinery apart just by working around until the crucible can be so hung, and the pouring gate so arranged that the metal can be poured into the place designed for it. the chief difference lies in the size of the weld to be made and the consequent amount of thermit to be used. welds have been made where as much as , pounds of thermit--enough to make , pounds of steel--have been run into a mould. in these very big welds a certain percentage of steel "punchings," or small pieces of steel, and a little pure manganese are used to give the additional hardness to the weld. without going into details as to the manner in which the principle of the thermit process is applied on rails or pipes, it will be enough to say that in welding rails three different systems are used. the first is done by building the mould around the ends of the two rails to be welded together and letting the thermit steel run in and completely surround the rails and the space between them. this gives one continuous rail just as far as the welding is carried on, and one through which the electric current of an electric road can pass without any trouble at all. it is plain, then, why this system is used so much on third rails of electric roads. the trouble with it is that the swelling on the top and inside of the rails must be machined down to present a smooth running surface to the wheels. the next system, which is now almost out of date, is one in which two moulds are used so that the thermit does not come up over the running surface of the rails. this relieves the engineers of the necessity of machining the welded joints. the third system is a mixture of the joining by plates and the thermit process. this is called the "clark joint," after the name of chief engineer charles h. clark of the cleveland, (ohio) electric company, who formulated the plan. the rails are joined with plates and bolted, or riveted together in the old way, but a thermit weld is made at the base of the rail, welding the bases of the two rails together and to the plate. the method of welding steel pipes is an exact reversal of the principle of welding together solid pieces of steel or iron. after the pipes are cut off clean, the mould, which is made of cast iron, is placed around them with specially constructed clamps to force the two ends closer together after the thermit has been poured in. the thermit is then set off in a flat-bottomed crucible like a long-handled ladle, and poured into the mould by hand as if from a ladle. as the slag rises to the top it goes into the mould first and coats the pipes. the thermit steel does not touch the pipes, but merely supplies the heat to weld them perfectly, so that they are as strong as the piping itself. just after the pour has been made, the clamps are tightened up and the white-hot pipe ends forced together. they are thus held until cold, when the mould is broken away. the slag coats the outside of the pipes and this is chipped away, leaving a perfect weld. another interesting use of thermit is in the great foundries where cauldrons of metal have to be kept at a very high temperature. to help keep the mass in a liquid state thermit can be introduced in it either by throwing it into the cauldrons in bags, with a little ignition powder so fixed that it will be touched off by the heat of the boiling metal, or by putting it in especially designed cans affixed to the ends of long rods. by these rods the thermit can be plunged to the bottom of the cauldron before it "burns." the reaction of the thermit, with the intense heat caused by it, helps to keep the mass at the proper temperature. also thermit is used in the same way with a small amount of titanium oxide, to purify iron and steel. the metal becomes much more liquid, and a commotion like boiling is started. this is the result of the titanium driving out the impure gases and driving other impurities such as metallic oxides and sulphur contents to the top. chemically what happens when the titanium is introduced by the thermit process is that the titanium combines with the nitrogen in the molten iron, giving it a much finer grain, and making it a much lighter colour, more like steel, than previously. one of the things thermit is not extensively used for is the repairing of gray iron castings. the first reason is that gray iron is cheaper than steel, and a new casting often can be turned out by the mills quickly. another and a more interesting reason is that gray iron melts in a much lower temperature than does thermit steel and consequently has a lower shrinkage. therefore when the molten thermit, with its terrific heat, cools there is a large shrinkage. thermit steel being much stronger than gray iron, its shrinking sometimes strains and cracks the iron casting. in spite of this difficulty very successful repairs have been made on cast-iron and it has been found that by mixing per cent. of ferro-silicon and per cent. pure manganese with the thermit for welding, a thermit steel is formed which is very soft and comes close to the properties of gray iron. by using this mixture important welds have been made on cast-iron flywheels, water wheels, and other cast-iron parts with great success. while industry is making progress with all these uses of thermit, science is experimenting all the time to add to the scope of the process. as was pointed out before, many other metals can be reduced to a high degree of purity with this process and in the laboratories they are always trying new ones and working out new formulas. of the pure metals that can be reduced by the thermit process there are chromium, which is to per cent. pure; manganese, which is per cent. pure; and molybdenum, which is to per cent. pure. these are used in the manufacture of very hard steel, such as armour plate, and "high speed steel." among the alloys, or mixtures of metals, there are chromium-manganese, manganese titanium, ferro-titanium, ferro-vanadium, and ferro-boron, all of which have uses in industry and help us to travel faster and more safely by railroad, electric train, and steamship. it may have occurred to some bright boy that, since this heat is so intense and so handy, it might be a good way to make steam in locomotive boilers, or cook our meals, but it will be remembered that the heat is all over within a few minutes. in other words, where a terrific heat is required for a few seconds, thermit will fill the bill, but where a continuous heat for many hours is needed, electricity, gas, coal, coke, oil, or wood are better. the high cost of aluminum would probably prevent the thermit process coming into use in the manufacture of steel for our armour plate, ship plate, or structural steel, at least for a good many years. earlier in this chapter i said that the slag, or aluminum oxide, from the thermit process was an almost useless product. this is not the precise scientific truth, for the slag becomes a black powder such as is used in making emery wheels, but the slag from thermit is never actually used for this. another use for the slag from the thermit process in which chromium is used has been discovered. potters use a material called corundum, which this slag resembles, except that it is superior to natural corundum in pottery manufacturing because of its freedom from metallic impurities. the slag can be mixed with clay and baked. it is especially useful in chemical apparatus that must withstand great extremes of temperature, because its experience has so tempered it that nothing less than a heat equal to that of the sun would give it much concern. another interesting thing about the slag from chromium thermit is that small rubies have been found in it. the scientific explanation is that they are nothing but crystallized alumina, coloured with chromium. the jewels usually are too small for any commercial purpose but serve as a very striking example of the intensity of the thermit fire. all the real jewels, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, amethysts, and so on, were formed by the terrific heat in the bosom of the earth millions of years ago when it was cooling down from gases hotter than anything we can possibly conceive of, to a molten ball, then to a solid redhot mass and then to a globe sufficiently cool on the outside to be crusted over. that they can be made in this little chemical furnace shows how far science has gone in imitation of the wonders of nature. autogenous welding and cutting "now," said the scientist, after he and his young friend had finished some experiments, and were ready to talk about autogenous welding, "imagine a little white flame no bigger than a pencil point at the end of a brass pipe about the size, and not entirely unlike in appearance the old-fashioned taper holder with which you used to light the gas, and you have before you in the rough, a picture of one of the oxy-acetylene torches that will in a few minutes weld two pieces of almost any metal, or in a few seconds cut a solid plate of the hardest steel of several inches thickness almost as fast and easy as a carpenter could saw a board, and yet without taking the temper out of the metal." picking up what seemed to be a little brass rod bent at the end, the man turned a valve, applied a match, and as the gas burned up with a beautiful little flame of dazzling whiteness, he continued: "this tiny flame, so easily controlled, is hotter than any produced by man except that generated by the electrical furnace, for it reaches a temperature of about , degrees fahrenheit. previous to the invention of these wonderful torches the oxy-hydrogen was the hottest gas flame, but it only reached a temperature of , degrees fahrenheit." "how do you use it?" asked the boy. "well, for instance, uncle sam is enabled to weld and cut steel plate in building his battleships, steelworkers to carry on their gigantic tasks, and wreckers to clear away tangled masses of steel beams far more quickly and easily than with the older methods. "if you had visited one of the navy yards, a shipyard or any place where big work in iron and steel was being carried on as short a time as three years ago, you would have seen a man sitting for hours sawing away on the end of a steel beam, for instance, trying to cut it down to the required length. he would dull many saws, use a great deal of energy, and an appalling amount of the most valuable thing in the world--time. again, you would have seen them welding pieces of iron and steel by the old blacksmith method, or riveting other pieces that could not be joined by heating them and pressing them together. "to-day you would see fewer of these processes because autogenous welding and cutting by the powerful little oxy-acetylene torches is revolutionizing certain methods of working with metals. instead of squatting at the end of the beam and sawing away like an old-fashioned carpenter, the modern iron worker takes up his little torch, turns a valve in the handle and concentrates the flame on the steel beam that he wishes cut. almost instantly a shower of sparks on the under side of the beam shows him that the flame has burned its way through. then he slowly moves the flame along the line where he desires to cut and the trick is done." illustrating with his own little laboratory torch, the scientist continued his explanation, saying that cutting is only one of the many uses to which this modern invention in steel working is put. not quite so spectacular but every bit as useful is the autogenous welding by means of these magic wands. welding metals has ever been more or less unsatisfactory. the old process of heating the two ends and then beating them together is cumbersome and practically impossible in many cases. consequently inventors have sought other welding processes with wider application and greater facility ever since the first metal workers of earliest times forged crude chains and weapons. with this modern device two pieces of steel or other metal are brought to within a small fraction of an inch of each other and by the use of the oxy-acetylene torch and a thin strip or rod of metal are melted and fused together. although the acetylene flame gives off a far greater proportion of light than heat, it is a very powerful gas and le chetalier, a french inventor, was sure that he could put it to other uses than furnishing lights for automobiles, etc. to this end he tried mixing acetylene gas with oxygen, for there can be no fire or combustion without oxygen. he very properly figured that by introducing pure oxygen into the acetylene, the burning, or combustion, would be greater, and the heat of the flame greatly intensified. his experiments were ultimately successful, and it was then only a short step to the time when three different oxy-acetylene torches were in use. in france there were developed low pressure, medium pressure, and high pressure torches; but the last named has not been found commercially practicable in the united states, where the "medium pressure" torch is sometimes called the high pressure. as we are dealing entirely with the american use of the invention we also will call the two kinds of torches used here the low pressure and the high pressure. the general principle of the torch is, as we see, the mixture of oxygen with acetylene in order to obtain a hotter flame, but right here we come to the difference between the low-pressure and the high-pressure tools. both are made of brass pipes, terminating in the burning tip and connected at the rear of the handle with rubber tubes which run to the separate tanks holding the acetylene gas and the oxygen, but the method by which these gases are combined in the torch constitutes the principle differences in the two systems, with the consequent greater or less efficiency claimed by the manufacturers. without going into the technical details, which are a matter of controversy between scientists as well as the various commercial concerns interested in the torches, it will be sufficient to say that in the low-pressure torch the acetylene gas is only used under a pressure of a few ounces, with the oxygen under a much heavier pressure, while in the high-pressure torches, the acetylene and oxygen both are under an appreciable pressure of several pounds. thus in the low-pressure torch invented by fouché, the oxygen is forced out of the nozzle by the pressure and the outrush sucks out the acetylene in the proper quantities. the two gases mix in a chamber at the end of the torch just above the tip and flow out into the air in this mixed form. the proportions of the gases in the low-pressure tool are about . of oxygen to . of acetylene. the high-pressure torch, which has largely taken the place of the low-pressure one in france, and which we also see most frequently in this country, has a different method of mixing the gases, due to the fact that they both are under pressure. according to many authorities the tip where the gases are mixed is by far the most important factor in the success or failure of the tool. in the high-pressure torch the oxygen enters the tip from a hole in the centre, while the acetylene enters it from two holes, one on each side. they meet under high pressure at the upper end of the tip, and have the length of the hollow tip in which to mix, before they strike the air. the long, narrow hole in the tip is called the mixing chamber. those who are interested in the high-pressure torch declare that it is the fact that the gases are positively mixed in proper proportion in the detachable tip, that so greatly adds to the efficiency of the tool. they declare that by allowing the acetylene to enter the tip laterally, at right angles with the oxygen, the blast of the oxygen is broken as it mixes with the acetylene, and the tendency of an oxygen flame to oxidize any metal with which it comes in contact by reason of an excess of oxygen in the flame is largely done away with. this, with the small diameter of the mixing chamber and the friction with the walls, gives a perfect mixture, according to the claims of the high-pressure torch enthusiasts. moreover, the small hole which is the mixing chamber, effectually prevents serious accidents by flash-backs of the highly explosive acetylene, and also provides a much easier method of control. each outfit has several different sizes of tips for various kinds of work. the pressure under which the two gases are used is the other big difference between the high-pressure and the low-pressure torches, as said before. in the the high-pressure tool the oxygen is compressed about the same as in the low-pressure torch, while the acetylene is under several pounds pressure, just in accordance with the size of the tip used. in the low-pressure torch the pressure on the acetylene is only about ten ounces to the square inch, or only enough to keep it flowing. on account of this difference in the pressure making the big difference in the mixture of the gases, scientists have chosen to call the low-pressure torches injector mixture types, from the fact that the acetylene is sucked into the tip by an injector system, while the high-pressure torches are called positive mixture types, because the gases are mixed directly by pressure. in the latest high-pressure tool the mixture of gases is . parts of oxygen to part of acetylene, while the low-pressure torch takes a proportion of . parts of oxygen to part of acetylene. the torches also vary in size from the little -ounce "jeweller's" torch, that the scientist used, to nineteen to twenty inches long and a weight of two and a quarter pounds. the average size, however, is twelve inches long with a weight of one pound. the welding torch is made up of two brass tubes, one for the acetylene and the other for the oxygen, connected at the two ends. at the nozzle end there is a sharp turn in the piping so that the tip is very nearly at right angles to the main pipes. at the handle end, are the connections for the rubber tubes that lead to the gas tanks, and the little valves by which the operator can control the flow of gas. the pipes carrying the gases to the tip are the same size the whole length, but at one end are enclosed in a larger tube, which serves as a handle. now that we have seen the general construction of the oxy-acetylene torches, we will assume that the tanks, which look like large soda-water reservoirs, are filled with pure oxygen and acetylene gas, and transported to some convenient point in a railroad repair shop where great forges are spurting flames, and one can hardly hear the talk of a man beside him for the roar of the hammers and the compressed air riveters. assume that some large expensive steel part of a locomotive has been broken and must be repaired quickly so that the engine can go out on the road to help haul an accumulation of freight. in the old days an engine would have to be taken apart, a new part turned out at the steel mill, shipped to the shops, and the locomotive put together again. nowadays it is only necessary to take enough of the machinery apart for the workmen to get at the broken parts. after cutting off the edges to be welded so that they make a small v, and supporting them within the fraction of an inch apart in the exact position and shape that they are to be repaired, the workman selects a rod of steel or iron, to use in somewhat the same way the tinker uses a strip of solder when he wants to repair a break in a kettle with solder and soldering iron. the selection of this filling rod, or wire, is all-important, for the skilful and successful iron worker uses a piece of metal that will fuse well with the parts to be repaired, at about the same temperature at which they themselves will fuse. mild steel or norway iron which is per cent. pure is frequently used, but there are no hard and fast rules because every master mechanic has his own ideas about such things, and would not take the word of any manufacturing company. then the operator turns on his torch, lights it with a match, takes it in one hand, and the rod of welding steel in the other. holding the end of the steel rod at the thin crack or bevelled edges between the pieces to be welded the operator directs the small flame on the point, holding the tip of the torch about a quarter to a half inch from the metal. it only takes a few seconds for the terrific heat of the flame to melt the strip of steel and the edges of the parts to be welded so that they all are fused together in one perfect mass. strange as it may seem, the brass tip of the torch does not melt in this heat because the pressure behind the gases forces them out with such velocity that the flame is far enough removed from the tip to do it no injury, just so long as the operator does not put the tip square against the metal and drive the flame back against it. this not only would melt the tip but probably would cause a flash-back in the torch. as the end of the strip melts into the crack the operator moves up the steel, and moves his torch along the crack until the whole operation is complete. at the end the weld is very rough but when it is machined down it may be so perfect that it is difficult to tell where it was made, and the strength is equal to that of any other part of the piece. in other words, the weld becomes homogenous with the parts repaired. from this fact autogenous welding takes its name. autogenous is defined as "self produced," or independent of outside materials. thus, we see that the autogenous process is a system of putting on new material, without either heating, compression, or adding flux (molten material) to the broken parts. in the foregoing paragraphs we have taken up the welding of steel parts, but the process can be as well applied to steel pipe, steel plate, iron, cast-iron, aluminum, copper, and other materials with only slight variations in the manner of using the torch. the cutting process is even more spectacular because while the welding proceeds quietly, the cutting is accompanied by just enough fireworks to show us the progress of the tiny flame through the hardest and thickest of metals. the cutting torch is the same as the welding torch with the exception of an additional pipe from which flows a jet of pure oxygen to give the flame the necessary cutting property. the greater the supply of oxygen the greater the combustion, and the more penetrating the flame. the acetylene gas flame heats up the steel--"fills the office of a preheater," said the scientist--while the oxygen jet follows close behind and makes a thin cut through the hot metal. the extra pipe is the same size as the others and extends down to the end of the torch at an angle where its tip is clamped alongside the main tip. the rear end of the third tube is connected with a rubber hose like the others, which extends to the oxygen tank. the flow of oxygen is under higher, and individual working pressure, controlled by a valve. in a new style torch the extra hose is done away with and the separation of the oxygen is done in the torch. when the modern steel carpenter wants to cut a hole, or saw off a strip from a piece of steel, no matter whether it be a steel beam, steel plate, or almost any other form of iron (except cast-iron), he attaches the cutting pipe, lights his torch and sets to work. holding the tool about half an inch from the surface he directs the little blue flame, which is no more than three quarters of an inch long, and a quarter of an inch thick, against the spot where he desires to start cutting. he holds it there a few seconds, then there is a shower of sparks on the under side of the steel plate, indicating that the flame has eaten its way all the way through. the operator next moves the torch along the line where he wants to cut. the speed with which he can move is governed by the thickness of the steel to be cut. half-inch ship steel, for instance, could be cut at a rate of more than a foot a minute. the heat of the flame melts a little of the steel, which drops down in molten particles, but the edge that is cut is sharp and clean, and its temper is as perfect as if the cutting were done with one of the laborious old-fashioned steel saws. [illustration: an oxy-acetylene gas torch weld note the little torch in the man's left hand, the filling metal in his right, and the inserted picture of the apparatus.] [illustration: tiny -horsepower turbine this engine could almost be covered by a derby hat. a part of the casing is removed to show the smooth disks.] [illustration: the tesla turbine pump driven by a / -horsepower motor. the little pump here shown is delivering gallons of water per minute against a -foot head.] this cutting process is of especial value to navy yards, shipyards, and wreckers, where there is a great deal of steel to be cut. uncle sam uses it at most of his navy yards, for in building his battleships there are thousands and thousands of holes to be cut in steel plates, plates to be shaped, and beams to be cut off to required lengths. when the scientist and his young friend visited the brooklyn navy yard to see this process in operation the naval constructors had made considerable headway on the framework of the great dreadnaught _new york_, in course of building there. the huge steel ribs of the ship towered upward amid the scaffolding nearly as high as a five-story building. in laying this steel framework, and shaping the plates that will make the hull, bulkheads, and decks, there will be millions of holes to be cut, and virtually miles and miles of plates to be shaped. instead of sawing these the workmen were cutting them with the oxy-acetylene torches. half a dozen men were at work, all cutting as fast as possible, and the great steel plates, and beams were coming and going as quickly as ever boards were passed along by a carpenter. the lines that were to be cut were all marked out in advance so the men never put out their torches. the only cessation in the work was when one of them stopped for a minute or so, to wipe his eyes, for in spite of the dark goggles worn by all operators of the oxy-acetylene process the intense flame is very hard on the eyes. one reason why the cutting process is so popular in shipyards is because in making steel ships, holes are cut in the plates, ribs, and beams, wherever possible without lessening the strength, to lighten the frame. probably the most picturesque use of the cutting device is by wreckers of steel structures. nowadays whenever there is a bad fire the building is left a tangled mass of steel pipes and girders that can only be cleared away with the greatest risk of life, and the greatest difficulty. the process always was a long, tedious one until the oxy-acetylene cutting came into use. thousands of new york boys saw the device in use during the winter of - when they visited the ruins of the equitable life assurance society fire. the sight is unmistakable. far up in the ruins you see a man bending over a great twisted steel beam that it might take weeks to pull out of the débris. soon there is a shower of sparks, and the part that is sticking out is cut off and ready to be sent to the street and hauled away. the device has been used in the ruins of a large number of disastrous fires, lately, particularly where men have been entombed in the collapse of ceilings, and haste means everything in getting out their bodies. also, it was very successfully used in cutting up the old battleship _maine_ before the hull was removed from havana harbour. chapter viii the tesla turbine dr. nikola tesla tells of his new steam turbine engine a model of which, the size of a derby hat, develops more than horsepower "how would you like to have an engine for your motor boat that you could almost cover with a man's derby hat and yet which would give horsepower?" asked the scientist of his young friend one day when they had been talking about boats and engines. "i never heard of any real engine as small as that," said the boy. "i used to play with toy engines, but they wouldn't give anywhere near one horsepower, much less ." "well, i think i can show you a little engine that, for mechanical simplicity and power is about the most wonderful thing you ever have seen, if you would like to make another visit to dr. nikola tesla, who told us all about his invention for the wireless transmission of power the other day. doctor tesla invented this little engine and he is going to do great things with it." of course the boy jumped at the opportunity, for what real boy would miss a chance to find out all about a new and powerful engine? "is it a gasoline engine?" he asked. "no, it is a steam turbine, but if you know anything at all about turbines you will see that it is entirely different from any you ever have seen, for doctor tesla has used a principle as old as the hills and one which has been known to men for centuries, but which never before has been applied in mechanics." after a little more talk the scientist promised to arrange with tesla to take the young man over to the great waterside power-house, new york, where the inventor is testing out his latest invention. we will follow them there and see what this wonderful little turbine looks like. picking his way amid the powerful machinery and the maze of switchboards, the scientist finally stopped in front of a little device that seemed like a toy amid the gigantic machines of the power-house. "this is the small turbine," says tesla. "it will do pretty well for its size." the little engine looked like a small steel drum about ten inches in diameter and a couple of inches wide, with a shaft running through the centre. various kinds of gauges were attached at different points. outside of the gauges and the base upon which it was mounted, the engine almost could have been covered by a derby hat. the whole thing, gauges and all, practically could have been covered by an ordinary hat box. yet when tesla gave the word, and his assistant turned on the steam, the small dynamo to which the turbine shaft was geared, instantly began to run at terrific speed. apparently the machine began to run at full speed instantly instead of gradually working up to it. there was no sound except the whir of well-fitted machinery. "under tests," said tesla, "this little turbine has developed horsepower." just think of it, a little engine that you could lift with one hand, giving horsepower! "but we can do better than that," added the inventor, "for with a steam pressure of pounds at the inlet, running , revolutions per minute, the engine will develop brake-horsepower." nearby was another machine a little larger than the first, which seemed to be two identical tesla turbines with the central shafts connected by a strong spring. gauges of different kinds, to show how the engine stood the tests, were attached at various places. when tesla gave the word to open the throttle on the twin machines the spring connecting the shafts, without a second's pause, began to revolve, so that it looked like a solid bar of polished steel. outside of a low, steady hum and a slight vibration in the floor, that steadied down after the engine had been running a little while, there was no indication that enough horsepower to run machinery a hundred times the weight and size of the turbine was being generated. "you see, for testing purposes," said doctor tesla, "i have these two turbines connected by this torsion spring. the steam is acting in opposite directions in the two machines. in one, the heat energy is converted into mechanical power. in the other, mechanical power is turned back into heat. one is working against the other, and by means of this gauge we can tell how much the spring is twisted and consequently how much power we are developing. every degree marked off on this scale indicates twenty-two horsepower." the beam of light on the gauge stood at the division marked " ." "two hundred and twenty horsepower," said doctor tesla. "we can do better than that." he opened the steam valves a trifle more, giving more power to the motive end of the combination and more resistance to the "brake" end. the scale indicated horsepower. "these casings are not constructed for much higher steam pressure, or i could show you something more wonderful than that. these engines could readily develop , horsepower. "these little turbines represent what mechanical engineers have been dreaming of since steam power was invented--the perfect rotary engine," continued doctor tesla, as he led the way back to his office. "my turbine will give at least twenty-five times as much power to the pound of weight as the lightest weight engines made to date. you know that the lightest and most powerful gasoline engines used on aeroplanes nowadays generally develop only one horsepower to two and one half pounds of weight. with that much weight my turbine will develop twenty-five horsepower. "that is not all, for the turbine is probably the cheapest engine to build ever invented. its mechanical simplicity is such that any good mechanic could build it, and any good mechanic could repair such parts as get out of order. when i can show you the inside of one of the turbines, in a few moments, however, you will see that there is nothing to get out of order such as most turbines have, and that it is not subjected to the heavy strains and jerks that all reciprocating engines and other turbines must stand. also you will see that my turbine will run forward or backward, just as we desire, will run with steam, water, gas, or air, and can be used as a pump or an air compressor, just as well as an engine." "but most of your research has been in electricity," tesla was reminded, for no one can forget that tesla's inventions largely have made possible most of the world's greatest electrical power developments. "yes," he answered, "but i was a mechanical engineer before i was an electrical engineer, and besides, this principle was worked out in the course of my search for the ideal motor for airships, to be used in conjunction with my invention for the wireless transmission of electrical power. for twenty years i worked on the problem, but i have not given up. when my plan is perfected the present-day aeroplanes and dirigible balloons will disappear, and the dangerous sport of aviation, as we know it now with its hundreds of accidents, and its picturesque birdmen, will give way to safe, seaworthy airships, without wings or gas bags, but supported and driven by mechanical means. "as i told you before when we were talking of the wireless transmission of power, the mechanism will be a development of the principle on which my turbine is constructed. it will be so tremendously powerful that it will make a veritable rope of air above the great machine to hold it at any altitude the navigators may choose, and also a rope of air in front or in the rear to send it forward or backward at almost any speed desired. when that day comes, airship travel will be as safe and prosaic as travel by railroad train to-day, and not very much different, except that there will be no dirt, and it will be much faster. one will be able to dine in new york, retire in an aero pullman berth in a closed and perfectly furnished car, and arise to breakfast in london." tesla's plans for the airship are far in the future, but his turbine is a thing of the present, and it has been declared by some of the most eminent authorities in the world in mechanical engineering to be the greatest invention of a century. the reason for this is not altogether on account of the wonderful feats of tesla's model turbines, but because in them he has shown the world an entirely unused mechanical principle which can be applied in a thousand useful ways. james watt discovered and put to work the expansive power of steam, by which the piston of an engine is pushed back and forth in the cylinder of an engine, but it has remained for nikola tesla to prove that it is not necessary for the steam to have something to push upon--that the most powerful engine yet shown to the world works through a far simpler mechanism than any yet used for turning a gas or a fluid into the driving force of machinery. "how did you come to invent your turbine while you were busy with your wonderful electrical inventions?" tesla was asked. "you see," he answered, "while i was trying to solve the problem of aerial navigation by electrical means, the gasoline motor was perfected; and aviation as we know it to-day became a fact. i consider the aeroplane as it has been developed little more than a passing phase of air navigation. aeroplaning makes delightful sport, no doubt, but as it is now it can never be practical in commerce. consequently i abandoned for the time being my attempts to find the ideal airship motor in electricity, and for several years studied hard on the problem as one of mechanics. finally i hit upon the central idea of the new turbine i have just been showing you." "what is this principle?" "the idea of my turbine is based simply on two properties known to science for hundreds of years, but never in all the world's history used in this way before. these properties are adhesion and viscosity. any boy can test them. for instance, put a little water on a sheet of metal. most of it will roll off, but a few drops will remain until they evaporate. the metal does not absorb the water so the only thing that makes the water remain on the metal is adhesion--in other words, it adheres, or sticks to the metal. "then, too, you will notice that the drop of water will assume a certain shape and that it will remain in that form until you make it change by some outside force--by disturbing it by touch or holding it so that the attraction of gravitation will make it change. "the simple little experiment reveals the viscosity of water, or, in other words, reveals the property of the molecules which go to make up the water, of sticking to each other. it is these properties of adhesion and viscosity that cause the 'skin friction' that impedes a ship in its progress through the water, or an aeroplane in going through the air. all fluids have these qualities--and you must keep in mind that air is a fluid, all gases are fluid, steam is fluid. every known means of transmitting or developing mechanical power is through a fluid medium. "it is a surprising fact that gases and vapours are possessed of this property of viscosity to a greater degree than are liquids such as water. owing to these properties, if a solid body is moved through a fluid, more or less of the fluid is dragged along, or if a solid is put in a fluid that is moving it is carried along with the current. also you are familiar with the great rush of air that follows a swiftly moving train. that simply means that the train tends to carry the air along with it, as the air tries to adhere to the surface of the cars, and the particles of air try to stick together. you would be surprised if you could have a picture of the great train of moving air that follows you about merely as you walk through this room. "now, in all the history of mechanical engineering, these properties have not been turned to the full use of man, although, as i said before, they have been known to exist for centuries. when i hit upon the idea that a rotary engine would run through their application, i began a series of very successful experiments." tesla went on to explain that all turbines, and in fact all engines, are based on the idea that the steam must have something to push against. we shall see a little later how these engines were developed, but it will suffice for the moment to listen to doctor tesla's explanation. "all of the successful turbines up to the time of my invention," he says, "give the steam something to push upon. for instance"--taking a pencil and a piece of paper--"we will consider this circle, the disk, or rotor of an ordinary turbine. you understand it is the wheel to which the shaft is attached, and which turns the shaft, transmitting power to the machinery. now it is a large wheel and along the outer edge is a row of little blades, or vanes, or buckets. the steam is turned against these blades, or buckets, in jets from pipes set around the wheel at close intervals, and the force of the steam on the blades turns the wheel at very high speed and gives us the power of what we call a 'prime mover'--that is, power which we can convert into electricity, or which we can use to drive all kinds of machinery. now see what a big wheel it is and what a very small part of the wheel is used in giving us power--only the outer edge where the steam can push against the blades. "in my new turbine the steam pushes against the whole wheel all at once, utilizing all the space wasted in other turbines. there are no blades or vanes or sockets or anything for the steam to push against, for i have proved that they hinder the efficiency of the turbine rather than increase it." comparing his turbine to other engines tesla says, "in reciprocating engines of the older type the power-giving portion--the cylinder, piston, etc.--is no more than a fraction of per cent. of the total weight of material used in construction. the present form of turbine, with an efficiency of about per cent., was a great advance, but even in this form of machine scarcely more than per cent. or per cent. is used in actually generating power at a given moment. the only part of the great wheel that is used in actually making power is the outside edge where the steam pushes on the buckets. "the new turbine offers a striking contrast using as it does practically the entire material of the power-giving portion of the engine. the result is an economy that gives an efficiency of per cent. to per cent. with sufficient boiler capacity on a vessel such as the _mauretania_, it would be perfectly easy to develop, instead of some , horsepower, , , horsepower in the same space--and this is a conservative estimate. "you see this is obtained by the new application of this principle in physics which never has been used before, by which we can economize on space and weight so that the most of the engine is given over to power producing parts in which there is little waste material." tesla then went on to explain the details of his new turbine. leading the way to a small model in his office he unscrewed a few bolts and lifted off the top half of the round steel drum or casing. inside were a number of perfectly smooth, circular disks mounted upon one central shaft--the shaft that extends through the machine, and corresponds to the crankshaft of an ordinary engine. the disks all were securely fastened to the rod so that they could not revolve without making it also turn in its carefully adjusted bearings. the disks, which were only about one sixteenth of an inch in thickness, and which he said were constructed of the finest quality of steel, were placed close together at regular intervals, so that a space of only about an eighth of an inch intervened between them. they were solid with the exception of a hole close to the centre. the set of disks is called the rotor or runner. when the casing is clamped down tight, the steam is sent through an inlet or nozzle at the side, so that it enters at the periphery or outside edge of the set of disks, at a tangent to the circle of the rotor. of course the steam is shot into the turbine under high pressure so that all its force is turned into speed, or what the scientists call velocity-energy. the steel casing of the rotor naturally gives the steam the circular course of the disks, and as it travels around the disks the vapour adheres to them, and the particles of steam adhere to each other. by the law that tesla has invoked, the steam drags the disks around with it. as the speed of the disks increases the path of the steam lengthens, and at an average speed the steam actually travels a distance of twelve to fifteen feet. starting at the outside edge of the disks it travels around and around in constantly narrowing circles as the steam pressure decreases until it finally reaches the holes in the disks at their centre, and there passes out. these holes, then, we see act as the exhaust for the used-up steam, for by the time the steam, which was shot into the turbine by the nozzle under high pressure, reaches the exhaust, it registers no more than about two pounds gauge pressure. [illustration: diagram of the tesla turbine a--steam inlet. b--disks. c--path of the steam. d,d´d´´--exhaust. e--reverse inlet. f--shaft.] for reasons which will be explained later, ordinary turbines cannot be reversed, but tesla's invention can run backward just as easily as forward. the reverse action is accomplished simply by placing another nozzle inlet on the other side of the rotor so that the steam can be turned off from the right side of the engine, for instance, and turned into the left side, immediately reversing its direction, with the change in the direction of the steam. the action is instantaneous, too, for as we saw in the experiments tesla showed us, the turbine began to run at practically top speed as soon as the steam was turned on. the disks in the little -horsepower engine which we saw, were only a little larger than a derby hat were only nine and three quarter inches in diameter, while in his larger turbines he simply increases the diameter of the disks. tesla further explained that the -horsepower turbine represented a single stage engine, or one composed simply of one rotor. where greater power is required he explained that it would be easy to compound a number of rotors to a double, or triple or even what he calls a multi, or many stage, turbine. in engineering the single stage is called one complete power unit, and a large engine could be made up of as many units as needed, or practicable. "then do you mean to say," tesla was asked, "that the only thing that makes the engine revolve at this tremendous speed is the passage of steam through the spaces between those smooth disks?" "yes, that is all," he answered, "but as i explained before, the steam travels all the way from the outer edge to the centre of the disks, working on them all the time; whereas in the ordinary turbines the steam only works on the outside edge, and all the rest of the wheel is useless. by the time it leaves the exhaust of my engine practically all the energy of the steam has been put into the machine." this is only one of the many advantages that tesla points out in his invention, for the turbine is the exemplification of a principle, and hence more than a mechanical achievement. "with a , -horsepower engine weighing only pounds, imagine the possibility in automobiles, locomotives, and steamships," he says. explaining the large engines that he is testing, one against the other, at the power plant, the inventor said: "inside of the casings of the two larger turbines the disks are eighteen inches in diameter and one thirty-second of an inch thick. there are twenty-three of them, spaced a little distance apart, the whole making up a total thickness of three and one half inches. the steam, entering at the periphery, follows a spiral path toward the centre, where openings are provided through which it exhausts. as the disks rotate and the speed increases the path of the steam lengthens until it completes a number of turns before reaching the outlet--and it is working all the time. "moreover, every engineer knows that, when a fluid is used as a vehicle of energy, the highest possible economy can be obtained only when the changes in the direction and velocity of movement of the fluid are made as gradual and easy as possible. in previous forms of turbines more or less sudden changes of speed and direction are involved. "by that i mean to say," explained doctor tesla, "that in reciprocating engines with pistons, the power comes from the backward and forward jerks of the piston rod, and in other turbines the steam must travel a zigzag path from one vane or blade to another all the whole length of the turbine. this causes both changes in velocity and direction and impairs the efficiency of the machine. in my turbine, as you saw, the steam enters at the nozzle and travels a natural spiral path without any abrupt changes in direction, or anything to hinder its velocity." but the tesla turbine engine, claims the inventor, will work just as well by gas as by steam, for as he points out gases have the properties of adhesion and viscosity just as much as water or steam. further, he says that if the gas were introduced intermittently in explosions like those of the gasoline engine, the machine would work as efficiently as it does with a steady pressure of steam. consequently tesla declares that his turbine can be developed for general use as a gasoline engine. the engine is only one application of the principle of tesla's turbine, because he has used the same idea on a pump and an air compressor as successfully as on his experimental engines. in his office in the metropolitan tower he has a number of models. pointing to a little machine on a table, which consisted of half a dozen small disks three inches in diameter, he said: "this is only a toy, but it shows the principle of the invention just as well as the larger models at the power plant." tesla turned on a small electric motor which was connected with a shaft on which the disks were mounted, and it began to hum at a high number of revolutions per second. "this is the principle of the pump," said tesla. "here the electric motor furnishes the power and we have these disks revolving in the air. you need no proof to tell you that the air is being agitated and propelled violently. if you will hold your hand down near the centre of these disks--you see the centres have been cut away--you will feel the suction as air is drawn in to be expelled from the outer edges. "now, suppose these revolving disks were enclosed in an air-tight case, so constructed that the air could enter only at one point and be expelled only at another--what would we have?" "you'd have an air pump," was suggested. "exactly--an air pump or a blower," said doctor tesla. "there is one now in operation delivering ten thousand cubic feet of air a minute." but this was not all, for tesla showed his visitors a wonderful exhibition of the little device at work. "to make a pump out of this turbine," he explained; "we simply turn the disks by artificial means and introduce the fluid, air or water at the centre of the disks, and their rotation, with the properties of adhesion and viscosity immediately suck up the fluid and throw it off at the edges of the disks." the inventor led the way to another room, where he showed his visitors two small tanks, one above the other. the lower one was full of water but the upper one was empty. they were connected by a pipe which terminated over the empty tank. at the side of the lower tank was a very small aluminum drum in which, tesla told his visitors, were disks of the kind that are used in his turbine. the shaft of a little one twelfth horsepower motor adjoining was connected with the rotor through the centre of the casing. "inside of this aluminum case are several disks mounted on a shaft and immersed in water," said doctor tesla. "from this lower tank the water has free access to the case enclosing the disks. this pipe leads from the periphery of the case. i turn the current on, the motor turns the disks, and as i open this valve in the pipe the water flows." [illustration: the marvellous tesla turbine the -horsepower engine, which a man could lift with one hand. how the tesla turbine compares in size with a man.] [illustration: thomas a. edison and his concrete furniture the white cabinet is a piece of edison's poured concrete furniture, while the other one is the ordinary wooden phonograph cabinet.] [illustration: model of edison poured concrete house this little house, which stands on a table in edison's laboratory, shows what he expects to do with the poured concrete house.] he turned the valve and the water certainly did flow. instantly a stream that would have filled a barrel in a very few minutes began to run out of the pipe into the upper part of the tank and thence into the lower tank. "this is only a toy," smiled the inventor. "there are only half a dozen disks--'runners,' i call them--each less than three inches in diameter, inside of that case. they are just like the disks you saw on the first motor--no vanes, blades or attachments of any kind. just perfectly smooth, flat disks revolving in their own planes and pumping water because of the viscosity and adhesion of the fluid. one such pump now in operation, with eight disks, eighteen inches in diameter, pumps , gallons a minute to a height of feet. "from all these things, you can see the possibilities of the new turbine," he continued. "it will give ten horsepower to one pound of weight, which is twenty-five times as powerful as many light weight aeroplane engines, which give one horsepower of energy for every two and one half pounds of weight. "moreover, the machine is one of the cheapest and simplest to build ever invented and it has the distinct advantage of having practically nothing about it to get out of order. there are no fine adjustments, as the disks do not have to be placed with more than ordinary accuracy, and there are no fine clearances, because the casing does not have to fit more than conveniently close. as you see, there are no blades or buckets to get broken or to get out of order. these things, combined with the easy reversibility, simplicity of the machine when used either as an engine, a pump or an air compressor, and the possibility of using it either with steam, gas, air, or water as motive power, all combine to afford limitless possibilities for its development." doctor tesla calls the invention the most revolutionary of his career, and it certainly will be if it fulfils the predictions that so many eminent experts are making for it. it is interesting to think that although this latest and most modern of all steam engines is a turbine, the first steam engine ever invented, also was a turbine. though most of us usually think of james watt as the inventor of the steam engine, he was not the first by any means, for the very first of which history gives us any record was a turbine, which was described by hero of alexandria, an ancient egyptian scientist, who wrote about b.c. hero's engine was a hollow sphere which was made to turn by the reaction of steam as it escaped from the ends of pipes, so placed that they would blow directly upon the ball. centuries later--in , about the time the new england states were being colonized--a scientist named branca made use of the oldest mechanical principle in the world--the paddle-wheel--which, turned by the never-ceasing river, goes on forever in the service of mankind. branca's invention was simply a paddle-wheel turned by a jet of steam instead of by a water current. the engine was really a turbine, for that type is simply a very high development of this idea--the pushing power of a fluid on a paddle-wheel. the picture of branca's crude machine shows the head and shoulders of a great bronze man suspended over a blazing wood fire. evidently it is intended to convey the idea that the figure's lungs are filled with boiling water, for he is pictured breathing a jet of steam on to the blades of a paddle-wheel, the revolving of which sets some crude machinery in motion. after branca, however, the turbine dropped from view and what few inventors did experiment with steam worked on the idea of a reciprocating engine. the principle of the reciprocating engine, as most boys know from their own experiments with toy steam engines, and as was discovered by watt, is simply the utilization of the power of steam for expanding with great force when let into first one side, and then the other side of the cylinder. thus, as the steam expands, it pushes the piston back and forth at a high rate of speed, transmitting motion to shafts and flywheels. in the world was ready for a bigger and more powerful type of steam engine; and c. a. parsons, an englishman, and dr. g. de laval of stockholm, brought forth successful turbines at about the same time. the machines were developed to a high state of efficiency, and are still in general use, although most turbines for driving heavy electrical machinery in the united states are the great curtiss engines, which are a combination of the principles of both the de laval and parsons machines. all of them are run by the old principle of the water-wheel. instead of the steam being turned into a cylinder to push the piston, it is turned into a steel drum or casing in which wheels or disks are mounted on the central shaft. all along the edge of these wheels are hundreds of little vanes or blades or buckets against which the steam flows from many nozzles placed all around the inside of the casing. the steam flows with great force, and naturally pushing against the blades, starts the wheels and the engine shaft to revolving. after expending its force on the blades that turn the steam passes on to a set of stationary blades which then shoot it out against the next set of moving blades. in the curtiss turbine the wheels at one end of the shaft are smaller than those at the other, and the steam enters at the small end, where it is under heavy pressure. after having expended its force on the blades of the first wheel, the steam passes through holes in a partition at the side and zigzags back so that it strikes the vanes or blades on the next larger disk. it then repeats the process, expands a little, and goes to a larger disk. finally, by the time the steam has expanded to its full capacity, the greater part of its force has been expended against the disks of the turbine. [illustration: the curtiss turbine diagram of steam diaphragm showing nozzles and fixed and moving blades a--single stage turbine wheel. b--steam nozzles. b´--steam exhausts. c--moving blades. d--stationary blades.] from this we see the main points of difference between reciprocating engines and turbines, and between most turbines and tesla's invention. while most turbines take advantage of the expansive power of steam, the main idea is to make use of the velocity of the vapour as it is driven from a set of nozzles around the turbine wheel, under high pressure. also it will be seen that tesla's invention is a turbine in form, but that it is entirely different from either of the two earlier types, because instead of giving the steam something to push against, it is allowed to follow its own natural course around between the smooth disks, and drag them after it. some kind of a crank motion is necessary in all reciprocating engines, to convert the backward and forward movement of the piston to the rotary motion of the shaft, but this is done away with entirely in the turbine. what engineers call a "direct drive" is substituted in its place. in other words, the turbine wheels or disks, fastened to the shaft, turn it, and drive the machinery directly from the source of power. the speed of the machine is regulated by gears. the great advantage of the "direct drive," particularly for big steamships and for turning big electric dynamos, will be plain to every boy when he thinks of the long narrow body of a ship in which can lie the turbine engines working directly on the propeller shafts (with the exception of certain gears, of course, for regulating the speed) instead of the big flywheels, and flying cranks of marine reciprocating engines. also with dynamos it is just as important to have the power applied directly to save space and increase the general efficiency of the machine. the greatest disadvantage of the usual kinds of turbines for most machinery, including steamships, is the fact that they cannot be reversed. to solve this difficulty, all the great ocean and coast liners, battleships, cruisers, and torpedo boats that are equipped with turbines have two sets of engines, one for straight ahead and one for backward. with the tesla turbine this disadvantage, as we have seen, is entirely done away with, and the one turbine can be reversed as easily and simply as it can be started. and so, while we are waiting for the world-moving wireless transmission of power and for the completion of tesla's invention for safe and stable airships, we can look for the speedy development of his turbine in practically all departments of mechanical engineering. chapter ix the romance of concrete the one-piece house of thomas a. edison, and other uses of the newest and yet the oldest building material of civilized peoples seen by the boy and his scientific friend while we are looking around at all these epoch-making inventions let us follow our friendly scientist and his boy companion to one of the big cement shows held in the various large cities of the united states every year, for a glance at some of the uses of reinforced concrete in modern engineering and building. for the boy who intends to become a civil engineer this wonderful material will have an especial interest, because its successful use in all of the greatest engineering works going on to-day has brought it to the front as the modern substitute, in a great many cases, for wood, brick, or expensive stone and steel structures. [illustration: what one set of boys did with concrete this indian tepee of concrete was made by the boys of dr. w. a. keyes' summer school, at sebasco, maine. the picture on the left shows the method of construction.] [illustration: massive concrete work completed side walls of solid concrete in the gatun locks of the panama canal.] [illustration: a level stretch of catskill aqueduct showing completed section as well as forms for the concrete.] on entering the cement show our friends saw on every side long rows of booths showing models of structures and articles that could be made of concrete. there were models of houses, subways, dams, bridges, dock works, retaining walls, sewers, bridges, pavements and even boats and furniture. in fact, so the men in the exhibition booths said, concrete can be used for practically every building purpose where strength, lasting qualities, and resistance to heat and cold are needed. "this is the concrete age," they declared. "concrete is fireproof, waterproof, sanitary, and resists frost when properly used. our timber supply is decreasing, the supply of iron ore for structural steel is limited, and stone is expensive; so concrete, reinforced with steel, and used by engineers who understand their business, will be the greatest building material of the future." these are the things that the enthusiasts at all the concrete shows say, but they admit that there are certain kinds of construction in which concrete is not as effective as steel or granite. also they say that the use of reinforced concrete requires the highest type of engineering skill, and a complete understanding of the technicalities of the subject. one of the places where we know concrete best is in pavements and sidewalks, and several of the booths exhibited samples of such work. to show its strength the men in charge piled on weights, struck the slabs with hammers, or subjected them to any kind of hard usage suggested by the crowd. then, too, there were sections of concrete buildings, and exhibitions of various systems of reinforced concrete construction. with these there were concrete chimneys, portable concrete garages, railroad ties, and what not. "oh, but look here," broke out the boy as he led his older friend about. "here's a perfect model of a house." "yes," answered the man, "that is a model of the famous edison poured cement, or 'one-piece' house, the latest invention of our great american inventor." there the little building stood, perfect in every way, surrounded by a model concrete wall, a beautiful lawn, and approached by fine concrete walks and driveways. "this model," explained the scientist, "represents what thomas a. edison is trying to get time to accomplish for workingmen and their families. instead of being built piece by piece, the house is supposed to be made all at one time by pouring the concrete into a complete set of moulds. this house is so interesting that we shall look at it much closer a little later on." "and here," said the boy; "what's this?" he had paused before a perfect model of the gatun locks of the panama canal, where the world's greatest work in concrete, or any other kind of masonry, is being carried on. the work is greater than the pyramids of egypt or the great wall of china. though we will not bother ourselves much with figures, it will give an idea of the size of the job on the canal when we realize that it will require , , cubic yards of concrete, and more then , tons of portland cement. in all there will be six great locks for the transportation of our ships from the atlantic to the pacific and back. three of these locks are at gatun on the atlantic side of the canal, one at pedro miguel, and two at miraflores. each lock will be , feet long, feet wide, and feet deep--and practically all of this is done with concrete. so massive is most of the work that steel reinforcement is only necessary in certain parts of the project. the problem of sinking the great retaining walls to bedrock, and making them strong enough to hold in the face of the tremendous floods of the chagres river, alone makes one of the most stupendous engineering works ever undertaken by man. were it not for the use of concrete the cost of the work would be so great as to make it almost impossible of accomplishment. the model of the gatun locks showed the boy everything, just as it will be when the canal is opened for traffic in . there was the wide gatun lake, surrounded by the tropical forests, the great gatun dam, and the series of locks in one solid mass of concrete. these locks when completed will be , feet long, and their tremendous height and thickness can be seen from the pictures of the work as it is actually being carried on. in the model there were perfect little ships on the lake and going through the locks. besides the many present day uses of cement some of the concrete enthusiasts are suggesting that heavily reinforced concrete be used in place of steel in making bank vaults, as they declare that the material will resist the keen tools and the powerful explosives of bank robbers even more successfully than the hardest steel. then too, at the cement show, the boy saw, besides models of big works and examples of all kinds of concrete construction, exhibits of the various methods of placing steel bars and steel network in the cement to make it stronger, and the different machines used in mixing concrete and in making portland cement, which is the binding element in concrete. as concrete is a material that can be mixed by an amateur and used for a great many purposes, the booths where mixing and simple uses were demonstrated attracted a great deal of attention. for instance, in the last few years the farmers have found out that they can make watering troughs, drains, floors for stables, hen houses, and even fence posts, of concrete just as easily as they can of wood or iron. moreover, the articles thus made will last practically forever. all that is needed is a supply of portland cement, and a little careful study as to the best way of mixing it with the proper amounts of sand and gravel. the amateur has best results if he starts modestly and takes up the use of reinforced concrete after learning how to use the material in its simple form. one of the most interesting uses of reinforced concrete for the amateur who has learned something of the craft is in making a good, seaworthy rowboat, or even a small motor boat. poured boats are strong, graceful, and durable. if they are properly made there never is any danger of their leaking, and by a little extra pains it is possible to make them with air-tight compartments so that they are non-sinkable. the usual method of making concrete boats is very simple. the kind of boat to be duplicated is borrowed and hung on the shore so that it swings free of the ground. then a mould of clay is built all around it. a strong bank of sand is heaped around the clay, to hold it firm. then the boat is worked a little each way so that a space of about an inch and a half is left all around between the outside of the boat and the clay. the space between the boat and the clay is the space into which the concrete is poured for sides and bottom after the reinforcing rods have been properly inserted. after the whole thing has stood a day or so the inside boat is taken out and the clay mould broken down, revealing a complete concrete hull. thus, we see that concrete can be used as a building material in practically any kind of construction, that it is easily handled since all that is necessary is to pour it into the moulds after the engineers have properly placed the reinforcement, and that it can be cast in practically any decorative design just as easily as plain. add to this the fact that concrete is cheaper than stone or steel, and that it is practically indestructible when properly handled, and it is easy to see the reason for calling this the cement age, and concrete _the_ building material of the future. after the panama canal, the greatest engineering feat in which concrete figures as one of the chief materials used, is the catskill aqueduct, by which water from four watersheds in the catskill mountains of new york state is to be piped to all five boroughs of new york city. the ashokan reservoir, near kensington, n. y., was the first part of the work to be taken up, together with the kensico storage reservoir twenty-five miles from new york, several smaller reservoirs, and the aqueducts to carry this water from the mountains to every home in greater new york. the dam and containing walls of the ashokan reservoir are all made of reinforced concrete, and the size of the lake and the strength of the walls can be appreciated when one thinks that the , , , gallons of water it holds in check would cover all manhattan island with twenty-eight feet of water. a large part of the aqueduct proper, through which this great stream of water is carried from the mountains, under the hudson river, and to the city where it runs more than a hundred feet below the street level, is made of reinforced concrete. for other examples of the use of this material in big engineering works a boy has only to look around him. there are the tunnels under the rivers around new york, the new york subways, the philadelphia and boston subways, the detroit river tunnel, bridges, culverts, big piers and other dock works, miles of concrete snowsheds along the lines of the railroads that cross the continental divide of the rocky mountains, and in fact practically every big structural undertaking. almost anywhere we look these days we see a big machine crushing rock, mixing it with sand and mortar, and turning out concrete to be shovelled into a hole and perhaps used far below the surface by "sand hogs" working under compressed air, or hoisted to the towering walls of some great office building or factory that is being constructed of the artificial stone. we are familiar with the falsework of a concrete building under construction. it is all, apparently, a maze of wooden beams that look like scaffoldings, and yet they seem to make the outlines of the building. this maze of woodwork, seemingly so lacking in plan or system, as a matter of fact is a triumph of engineering skill, for it is the mould for the building, and was all built by the most careful plans as to strains, stresses, floor loads, etc. first, however, before building the mould for a residence, school, theatre, office building, or factory, the engineer decides what strength his foundations must have. the foundation for a small residence is an easy matter, but when it comes to a big factory, or an office building of a dozen stories or so, the most careful work must be done beforehand. in the old days, when it was desired to sink the foundations of a building down to bedrock, they used steel or wooden piles, but these will rust or rot, and the modern way is to use concrete piles. either the great poles are moulded first and sunk like the ordinary wooden ones, or a pipe with a sharpened point is sunk and the concrete deposited in it by buckets designed for the purpose. once these piles are driven, they are there for all time, if the work is done properly, and the engineer can be sure that his building is as good as if resting on bedrock. from then on the erection of a reinforced concrete building is a most intricate matter, because while concrete in itself is a very simple substance, its use in buildings is a highly developed science. of course there are many different methods of using concrete, and each one prescribes a different kind of steel network for the reinforcement. then, too, some engineers cast parts of their buildings separately and put them in place after they have set, while others run the concrete for beams, floors, and walls into moulds, built right where those parts are to be in the finished structure. in laying the steel reinforcing rods, before the concrete is poured, the engineer sees that they make a perfect network so as to take care of all the strains, just as they will be put upon the building when it is completed. it is in the proper placing of reinforcement that the greatest engineering knowledge is needed in this kind of building. as the wooden moulds for the first foundation beams and girders are completed and the reinforcement is placed, the concrete is poured in. the subcellar or cellar floor mould then is laid, the reinforcement placed and the concrete run in. next the moulds for the cellar walls are built and perhaps the moulds for the beams and girders for the first floor. the reinforcing rods are placed in these moulds and the concrete run in, and so on, a story at a time, or a small section at a time, until the structure reaches the height called for in the plans, and it stands completed. as the building progresses and the concrete on the lower floor sets, the moulds can be taken down and used on higher stories. concrete is even used for the roofs of buildings, as it can be moulded right in place or set up in slabs that can be later cemented together. when properly used reinforced concrete is absolutely fireproof, so it is coming into extensive use in the construction of schools, theatres, warehouses, factories, and all other such buildings where a great height is not required. so far, none of the great skyscrapers has been built of reinforced concrete, although office buildings of sixteen stories have been erected with complete success. there is still another method of using concrete as a building material. this is in the form of building blocks, and doubtless all who read this will recall seeing many beautiful residences built of blocks of stone that on closer inspection proved to be concrete. the blocks can be cast in any size or form and used in just the same way as structural stone. now, after having looked about the city and having seen the numerous ways that concrete is used as a building material, we come back to the very latest thing in the use of this man-made stone--the "one-piece" or poured house. for a good view of it let us take a little jaunt out to west orange, n. j., with the scientist and look into the library of thomas a. edison's laboratory, where we will see a perfect model of this marvel of invention. it is practically the same as the one at the cement show. standing in the centre of the great room where edison works is this perfect little cottage, about the size of a large doll's house. it represents not only edison's latest invention, but also his favourite scheme. in years to come, when the boys who read this are grown men, it will probably be no novelty to build houses by pouring them all at once into a steel mould, but just at present it is one of the most startling developments in an age of epoch-making inventions. every boy knows that edison has never followed the ideas of others in working out his inventions, and the poured house is no exception to his rule. it will be interesting to take a little look back over a part of edison's life and see how he came to enter the cement-making business, and how, when he had his process down to a fine point, he said to himself, "it is cheap and easy to build a house or an office building of concrete in sections, why not build it all in one piece?" we shall see that no sooner had he asked himself this startling question than he began by making models, and satisfied himself that it was not only possible, but one of the cheapest and best methods of making small, simply arranged houses, such as could be bought or rented for a small sum. although edison has within the last few years brought his idea to a state where it can be put to practical use, he himself is not trying to push it commercially, as he has his other great inventions like the phonograph, storage battery, and the motion-picture machine. in fact, he is content to let it be worked out by others just so long as it fulfills his idea of giving to workingmen good houses at a low price. "years ago, long before edison had retired from active business affairs to give his whole attention to scientific research," said the scientist, as he and the boy walked about the laboratory, "he became interested in metallurgy, just as he was and always is interested in every other science where great difficulties must be overcome. in those days iron and steel were not used as extensively as they are now, but the scientists and leaders in the big industries saw that the day was coming when far, far greater quantities of iron ore would be needed to supply the great demand for steel to build skyscrapers, ships, machinery, and so on. men were going farther and farther away in their search for iron ore, but edison, with his never failing originality, said to himself that it was likely there was plenty of iron ore right around his laboratory in new jersey if he only knew how to get at it. "for one thing," continued the boy's friend, "edison had seen on the ocean beaches great stretches of white sand with millions and millions of little black particles sprinkled through them. he knew that the specks were pure iron ore. you can prove this to yourself by simply holding a good magnet close to a pile of such sand, and watching the iron particles collect." it was edison's idea to concentrate the iron ore found in the earth, in just this way, for he had sent out a corps of surveyors who had reported vast quantities of low-grade ore in most of the atlantic coast states. low-grade ore is that which contains only a small percentage of the metal desired, and hence it does not pay to smelt it, unless a very cheap process can be found. edison thought he had a process cheap enough, for he simply intended to grind the mountains to sand and take out the particles of iron by running it through a hopper with a high-power magnet at the mouth. the process sounds simple, but the machinery required was very complicated, to say nothing of being extremely heavy. edison set up his mill in the mountains of new jersey and started to blast down the cliffs of low-grade ore and run them through a series of gigantic crushers that ground them to a fine powder. the iron particles, called concentrates, after being extricated were pressed into briquets ready for delivery to the foundry. after having spent close to $ , , on the experiment, and satisfactorily proving its mechanical success, the discovery of vast quantities of high-grade ore in the messaba range of minnesota forced edison to close his plant. "this would have been a crushing failure to most men," added the scientist, "but edison's only comment was a whimsical smile. indeed, even on his way home after closing his plant, edison was planning new and more important activities, for with his experience at rock crushing he was satisfied he could enter the field as a maker of the building material called portland cement." at that time cement and concrete were even less used than were steel and iron, but edison for many years had seen that in the future they would take the place of wood, stone, and brick. "well-made concrete, employing a high grade of portland cement," said edison on one occasion, "is the most lasting material known. practical confirmation of this statement may be found abundantly in italy at the present time, where many concrete structures exist, made of old roman cement, constructed more than a thousand years ago, and are still in a good state of preservation. "concrete will last as long as granite and is far more resistant to fire than any known stone." but edison had something more than a successful business in mind when he returned from his rock-crushing plant, for he intended setting up cement-making machinery such as had never before been seen. with this end in view he began to read up on the subject, just as we have seen the wright brothers read up on aviation. incidentally, as an indication of the manner in which this wizard works, it may be said that all this time edison was perfecting his new storage battery. one big improvement upon the usual process in the manufacture of cement, planned by edison, was that the grinding should be so fine that per cent. of the ground clinker should pass through a -mesh screen instead of only per cent. as is the usual rule. thus, edison made into cement per cent. more material that other manufacturers sent back to be ground over again. the success of edison's portland cement plant is not matter for our attention here, so we will pass over those busy years to the time of edison's retirement to devote all his time to scientific research. for many years he had watched the cities grow, had seen the great tenements become more crowded, and less comfortable each year. he had seen the children playing in the streets, and had compared their lives to the happy lives of the children whose parents could afford to live away from the great cities, where boys could have yards to play in. he decided that the boys of the city streets would have a far better time, that their mothers and fathers would have a far more cheerful life if they could live in comfortable little houses in the country with yards, and gardens, and plenty of room for every one. edison saw that what was needed was a building material cheap enough, and a method of using it cheap enough, so that dwellings could be put up at a cost that would place them within the means of workingmen and their families. concrete, he decided, was the material to solve the problem, and edison set himself to the task of making houses poured complete into one mould so as to make the cost of labour as low as possible. the "one-piece" house was an assured thing from that time on. all that remained was for the "wizard of orange," as he is called, to work out the difficult details of a properly mixed cement and a practical system of moulds. an incident that occurred at the time of the failure of his ore crushing plant in the new jersey mountains was one of the things that brought the whole situation home to him. when the plant was closed and the buildings vacated, the fire insurance companies cancelled the policies, declaring that the moral risk was too great. the inventor's reply was short and to the point. he made no protest against the cancellation of his policies, but simply said he would need no more policies, as he would erect fireproof buildings in which there would be no "moral risk." this promise of edison's, made at the time of his so-called failure and pondered during the years of his tremendous activities, was not redeemed until he had retired from the business of invention as a means of gaining riches. "i am not making these experiments for money," edison has said many times. "this model represents the character of the house which i will construct of concrete. i believe it can be built by machinery in lots of or more at one location for a price which will be so low that it can be purchased or rented by families whose total income is not more than $ per annum. it is an attempt to solve the housing question by a practical application of science, and the latest advancement in cement and mechanical engineering." [illustration: huge concrete moulds at panama these great locks are made as monoliths or in moulds of one piece, the whole making the greatest masonry work the world has ever seen.] [illustration: concrete locks on the panama canal the gatun middle locks, east chamber, looking south from the east bank.] edison's plan, as we have seen before, was simply to make a set of moulds in the shape of the house he desired to build, run the concrete into them, let them stand until the material had settled, and then take down the retaining surfaces, exposing to view the finished house. it was contrary to all the previous ideas in building, and was ridiculed by many famous architects. nevertheless, tremendous obstacles are the stuff upon which edison's genius feeds, and he only worked the harder to produce a concrete that would be liquid enough to fill all the intricate spaces and turns in the moulds and yet sufficiently thick to prevent the sand or gravel in the concrete from sinking to the bottom. thus, it first had to run like thin mush and then set in walls and floors harder than any brick or stone. another of the difficulties to be overcome was to discover a concrete that would give perfectly smooth walls. although this may sound very simple, it has not yet been completely worked out in this country, owing to the heavy demands on edison's time. the perfected process, however, will be made known just as soon as the inventor can find time to complete certain small details that he wants to clear up before giving the system to the world. a french syndicate working along edison's ideas for a poured house has made some progress and it is reported they have constructed two attractive dwellings with considerable success. one of these is at santpoort, holland, and the other near paris. whether the houses are poured completely in one mould, or whether they are built a story at a time on different days, this newest form of house building is carried on along about the same lines. "let us just suppose," said the scientist, "that we are standing on a building site in some pretty suburb of a great city. we will also suppose that an edison poured house is to be erected there. plans are drawn beforehand for a small house of simple arrangement and a set of steel moulds in convenient sizes are turned out. these moulds all have connections so they can be set up and joined together in one piece. first, we see that a solid concrete cellar floor, called the 'footing', has been laid down just the size and shape of the house. a crowd of skilled workmen quickly set up the moulds on this footing and lock them together. the moulds make one complete shell of the house, from cellar to roof, just as it will appear when completed. reinforcing rods are placed in the mould so that they will be left in the concrete walls, floors, etc., of the house after the steel shell is taken away. "nearby we see a few more skilled workmen mixing the concrete in great vats. when the mould and the material are ready we see the concrete taken to a tank on the roof and poured into troughs which carry the stuff to a number of different holes through which it flows into the mould. we hear it splash, splash, splash as it gradually fills every space in the shell, and finally after six hours or so it overflows at the roof. the main part of the work is now done and we can go away for a few days while the liquid in the shell sets, or turns to the hardest kind of stone. "after about six days we return to see the moulds unlocked, taken down and the complete house standing ready with walls, floors, stairways, chimneys, bathtubs, stationary tubs in the cellar, electric-wire conduits, water, gas and heating pipes all complete. in making the moulds the spaces for bathtubs, wash-tubs, electric wiring and piping for gas, water, and heat, are just as carefully arranged as walls and floors. the only work necessary after the concrete has set is to put in the doors and windows, install the furnace and necessary fixtures for heating, lighting and plumbing and connect them up ready for use. no plaster is used in these houses, but the walls can be tinted or decorated just as the landlord or occupant desires." the boy's friend went on to say that one might think that this was about as far as science could carry the use of concrete, but edison said to himself: "if we can make houses, why can't we make furniture?" and he set about experimenting with poured furniture. he obtained some wonderful results with this newest use of concrete, and in his orange laboratory he has several cabinets, chairs, and other articles of furniture that are every bit as attractive to look at as wooden furniture and that are practically indestructible. "and my concrete furniture will be cheap, as well as strong," says edison. "if i couldn't put it out cheaper than the oak that comes from grand rapids, i wouldn't go into the business. if a newlywed starts out with, say, $ worth of furniture on the installment plan, i feel confident that we can give him more artistic and more durable furniture for $ . i'll also be able to put out a whole bedroom set for $ or $ ." at present the weight of this concrete furniture is about one third greater than wooden furniture, but edison is confident he can reduce this excess to one quarter. the concrete surface can, of course, be stained in imitation of any wood finish. the phonograph cabinet shown at the left of edison in the picture opposite page has been trimmed in white and gold. its surface resembles enamelled wood. the cabinet at his right is the old style wooden type. this concrete cabinet easily withstood the hard usage of shipment by freight for a long distance. [illustration: the world-wide use of concrete courtesy of the atlas portland cement co. an eight-story all-concrete office building under construction in portland, maine.] [illustration: courtesy of the atlas portland cement co. a perfect little model of the great gatun locks of the panama canal.] [illustration: the catskill aqueduct, one of the world's greatest concrete works laying a level section of the great concrete tunnel through which new york city is to get its drinking water.] [illustration: the aqueduct deep under ground a partially completed section showing the concrete work. note the size of the tunnel.] of course, the poured concrete furniture is made in just the same way as the houses except that it is a much simpler process. it is a very easy matter to set up a steel mould for a chair, a cabinet, a dresser, or a bedstead, whereas a house, with its tubs, conduits, stairways, hallways, doorways, window frames, plumbing system, etc., is a most complex matter, requiring a set of moulds that could be put together properly by only a man who combined the highest abilities of an architect, a builder, an engineer, and a mechanic. although concrete has been used for many years in making garden furniture, edison's plan for making finished indoor pieces with it is entirely new. but to return to the houses; edison says it is just as easy to make poured dwellings in decorative designs as in plain ones. it is only necessary to have the moulds cast in the desired shape. it is his idea to have all the poured houses pretty as well as perfectly sanitary and substantial. he intends that there shall be many different kinds of moulds, and also that each set of moulds shall be so cast that it can be joined in different ways, in order to give the houses a variety of appearance. thus, in a small town where a large number of poured houses were set up, there would be no two exactly alike if the owners preferred to have them different. according to the plans edison now has on foot, the first complete poured houses will have on the main floor two rooms, the living room and dining room, while on the second floor there will be four rooms, a bathroom and hallway. of course as the main idea is to give perfectly sanitary and comfortable houses, there will be plenty of windows, for lots of fresh air and sunlight. edison figures that he can build a house of poured concrete for $ , that would cost $ , if built of cut stone. furthermore, he figures that the rent ought to be about $ per month, as he will only license reputable concerns to use his patents, and his licenses will stipulate the approximate rent that can be charged. thus, the high cost of living about which we all hear so much at the family dinner table as well as everywhere else is being attacked by science and invention through a new channel, and edison's latest invention can be expected soon to give good homes at low rents to thousands of families now paying exorbitant prices for dark stuffy city flats. it was significant that at the celebration of edison's sixty-fifth birthday, february , , the great american inventor should sit at the head of the table surrounded by his family and associates facing a perfect model of one of his poured cement houses. the chair in which he sat, to all appearances was beautiful mahogany, but in reality was cast in a mould of edison concrete at the edison plant. at the place of each guest was a bronze paperweight, appropriately engraved, with edison's favourite motto: "all things come to him who hustles while he waits." history of concrete although concrete is in truth the newest building material in our time, it is the oldest known to civilization because it was the stuff with which the eternal buildings of ancient rome were constructed. even before the romans used concrete it was used by the eygptians, more than , years ago. every boy will remember from his history classes that the egyptians, so far as we can learn, were the first people in the history of the world to reach a high state of civilization. every boy also will remember that the only way we know this is through the evidence of ruins of tombs and buildings. many of these buildings were made of a material very much like concrete that must have been made in some such manner as concrete is made nowadays. about , years later, long after the egyptian civilization had died, the men of carthage discovered concrete for themselves and built a marvellous aqueduct miles long, through which water was brought to their city. it was carried across a great valley over about , arches, many of which are still standing in good condition. to the romans, however, we are indebted for some of the best examples of ancient concrete work. they used this material in their wonderful city for buildings, bridges, sewers, aqueducts, water mains, and in fact in a great many of the ways that we have seen it is used to-day. the great coliseum and the pantheon at rome are relics of the skill of the ancient architects in the use of concrete. although many historians think that the secret of making cementious building material was lost from the fall of rome until the middle of the eighteenth century, there are ruins of ancient castles which stood in mediæval times in europe which indicate at least some use of concrete. the real discoverer of natural cement in our modern times though, was john smeaton, who will be remembered by the readers of "the boy's second book of inventions" as the man who built the first rock lighthouse at eddystone, england, in . in his great work he discovered a kind of limestone with which he could make a cement that would set, or harden, under water. his discovery was hailed as the recovery of the secret of the ancient romans of making hydraulic cement. it was so called because it would harden under water. in , joseph parker, another englishman, made what he called roman cement. several others followed, and in natural cement was first made in the united states by canvass white near fayetteville, n. y. the material was made from natural rock and was used in the construction of the erie canal. all of these early cements are called natural cements by engineers nowadays, because they were made from natural rock. it was only necessary to find a clayey limestone which contained a certain percentage of iron oxide and two other minerals known as silica and alumina. the limestone was crushed to a convenient size and was burned in a kiln. the heat turned the stuff into cinders which, when ground to a fine powder and mixed with water, would make a cement that would harden under either air or water very quickly, and last for practically all time. just for the sake of those who have studied chemistry we will say that in this process the heat drives off the carbon dioxide in the limestone, and the lime, combining with the silica alumina and iron oxide, forms a mass containing mineral properties called silicates, aluminates, and ferrites of lime. these properties mixed with the water make natural cement. in the united states, natural cement was called rosendale cement, because it was first made commercially in a town of new york state by that name. the supply of natural cement, however, is limited, because the proper kind of limestone is only found in a few places. consequently, when an artificial mortar called portland cement was invented in , the world took a step forward that could not be measured in those days. most authorities give the credit for the invention to joseph aspdin, a bricklayer of leeds, england. he took out a patent on the material and in set up a large factory. in portland cement was used in the thames tunnel, making the first time that the material figured in any big engineering work. in those days even the most enthusiastic supporters of cement little dreamed that in this modern age it would be the material that would make possible such tremendous victories over the obstacles of nature as the panama canal, the tunnels under the rivers that surround new york and the great dams that hold back the waters all over the country. aspdin, however, is not given the credit for the invention of portland cement by all authorities, as some claim that isaac johnson, also an englishman, who early in died at the age of , was really the first man to invent a practical, commercial, artificial cement. the advantage in portland cement is that it can be made of a number of different kinds of earth, to be found in many different parts of the world, and makes a far stronger rock. it sets more slowly than natural or hydraulic cement, but is more satisfactory for use in reinforced concrete work. in the lehigh valley, where about two thirds of the portland cement used in the united states is made, the raw material is a rock, called cement rock, and limestone. in new york state they make portland cement of limestone and clay; in the middle west they make it of marl and clay, while in other western states they make it of chalk and clay. in europe slag is sometimes used. the artificial product contains lime oxide, silica, alumina, iron oxide, and other minerals in varying quantities, but the necessary ones are silica, alumina, and lime. in making portland cement the raw material is ground into a fine powder and poured into one end of a long cylindrical kiln which looks like a smokestack lying on its side. powdered coal is shot into the kiln, where it is kept burning, at a heat of about , to , degrees fahrenheit. after the raw material has been burned thoroughly and is taken from the kiln it looks like little cinders or clinkers about the size of marbles. the cement clinker is then cooled and ground to a powder, after which it is stored away for a little while to season. the first portland cement ever made in the united states was turned out by david o. saylor, of coplay, pa., in , but the development of the new industry was very slow, as builders and engineers seemed to be blind to the great possibilities of the material that built imperial rome. in , nearly twenty years after the process was introduced in america, only , barrels of portland cement were manufactured in this country. the country woke up to the situation a few years later, and in there were manufactured in the united states , , barrels of portland cement. in the industry turned out the stupendous total of , , barrels. this was because the age of concrete had dawned on the world and man had learned in those years that by mixing gravel and sand with cement he could make a material cheaper, more easily handled, and far more lasting than wood, brick or some stone. as edison once said to some of his associates: "i think the age of concrete has started, and i believe i can prove that the most beautiful houses that our architects can conceive can be cast in one operation in iron forms at a cost, which, by comparison with present methods, will be surprising. then even the poorest man among us will be enabled to own a home of his own--a home that will last for centuries with no cost for insurance or repairs, and be as exchangeable for other property as a united states bond." the technical definition of concrete is as follows: "concrete is a species of artificial stone formed by mixing cement mortar with broken stone or gravel. cement is the active element called the _matrix_ and the sand and stone forms the body of the mixture called the _aggregate_." the ingredients are mixed in different proportions for different work. a common proportion is part cement, parts sand, and parts broken stone or gravel. cement users speak of this as a " : : mixture." sometimes the gravel is left out and a mixture of part cement to or parts sand is made. the cement binds the mass together and sand fills up any little vacant spaces about the gravel, making what is called a dense mixture. [illustration: the silent knight motor two views of the latest automobile engine. at the top can be seen the sliding sleeves, the inlets and outlets which do away with valves] [illustration: a portable army wireless outfit the signal service is rapidly increasing its wireless equipment for use on land.] [illustration: the wireless in the navy practically all of uncle sam's warships and navy yards now are equipped with wireless, and a regular navy wireless operators' school is maintained at the brooklyn navy yard.] from the use of concrete it was only a short step to reinforced concrete, or, concrete braced on the inside with iron or steel rods. it is sometimes called concrete steel, ferro-concrete, and armoured concrete. if we asked an engineer the idea in using reinforced concrete he might say to us that the steel when imbedded, united so closely with the concrete as to form one single mass of very great strength. steel rods add to the _tensile_ strength of concrete which alone has a tremendous strength under _compression_. in other words, steel does not break nor stretch easily; that is, it has great tensile strength. concrete has great strength under compression; that is, it will hold up an enormous weight without crushing. thus, a concrete beam alone might crack on the bottom, because it has not as great tensile strength as steel. but, if we put steel rods into a concrete mould, an inch or so from the bottom, turn out a reinforced concrete beam, for instance, and place it in the building, with the reinforcement at the bottom, we use a beam in which the strength of the concrete and iron is combined. thus, when a great weight is placed on the top of the beam the concrete resists the compression of the weight, and the reinforcement at the bottom, by its tensile strength, prevents the beam from cracking where the strain of the weight is greatest. that is what the engineer might tell us is the theory of reinforced concrete, and the practice requires the highest engineering skill and technical knowledge, but in the simplest terms, it is concrete, braced by an imbedded skeleton of steel. in actual practice the reinforcing rods run both ways, or diagonally, just as the engineers decide it is necessary to resist the particular kind of stress that the wall or beam must withstand. reinforced concrete was first used, so far as known, by m. lambot, who exhibited a small rowboat made of that material at the world's fair in paris, in . the sides and bottom of the boat were - / inches thick, with reinforcement of steel wires. the boat is still in use at merval, france. f. joseph monier, however, is called the "father of reinforced concrete," as he took out the first patent on it in france in . monier was a gardener and had experimented with large urns for flowers and shrubs. he wanted to make his pots lighter but just as strong, so he tried making some of concrete with a wire netting imbedded in the material. but even then the world did not realize that his accomplishment was more important to mankind than a great many of the wars that had been fought, and little was done with concrete as a building material until the germans developed it. reinforced concrete was not used in the united states, according to the best records, until , when w. e. ward, without having studied the subject very carefully, built himself a house of it, in port chester, n. y. he made the whole thing, including foundation, outside walls, cornices, towers, and roof of reinforced concrete, placing the steel rods where his own good judgment told him they would do the most good. about this time the ransome cement company began to use the material for building, and put up a great many strong and beautiful structures, still to be seen in california and elsewhere. finally, bit by bit, in the face of opposition of all kinds, reinforced concrete came to be recognized by architects, engineers, and builders as one of the best materials for certain kinds of work. to-day we find that most of the predictions of the early enthusiasts have been fulfilled and that the age of concrete has dawned. that it will be used even more extensively in the future, as men learn more and more about this wonderful artificial stone, is certain. chapter x the latest automobile engine our boy friend and the scientist look over the field of gasoline engines and see some big improvements over those of a few years ago while we are following the conversations of the scientist and his young friend about new inventions, we must not overlook some of their most interesting times in keeping abreast of the vast improvements that are being made every year--almost every day--in the inventions of a dozen years ago. for instance, there is the gas engine. ten years ago it was a very imperfect machine, as every boy who has heard the old jokes about "auto-go-but doesn't," "get a horse," etc., will remember. then there is the wireless telegraph. no invention of recent years has shown a more remarkable development than that of guglielmo marconi for sending messages without wires. but these are only a few of the things that the two friends talked about. they looked into the wonderful advancement in the art of photography about which every boy knows something, and they investigated the latest achievements of science in electric lighting. ten years is a very short time, even in this fast moving age of ours, and we shall see that many inventions made years ago are still being worked upon by the original inventors and others. first, let us see a few of the ways the gas engine has been improved, for we are all more or less familiar with it in automobiles, motor boats, or the hundred and one other places that it has become an invaluable aid to man in carrying on the world's work. our young friend brought up the subject one day when he asked the scientist for a few pointers on getting better results with his motor-boat engine. "we will look it over together," said the man. "of course you know that every gasoline engine has its own peculiarities, and crankinesses, so it's hard to tell just what's the matter with one until you see it. i don't know very much about them; i wish i knew more, but i have been talking with my automobile friends a good deal lately about the new motor invented by charles y. knight." "oh, i know," replied the boy, "it is called the 'silent knight' motor because it doesn't make any noise, and it is used on a great many high-priced automobiles." "that's it. if you like we will go and have one of these engines explained to us. at any rate the automobile man can tell you more about your motor-boat engine than i can." the expedition was made shortly after the conversation. "you understand, of course," said the scientist on the way, "that the knight motor represents only one of the many, many improvements in the gas engine, but it is what we call a fundamental improvement, as it is a development in the main idea of the gasoline motor, rather than merely an improvement of one of the parts. most of the evolution of gas engines has consisted merely of the improvement and perfection of the various parts for more power, and more all around efficiency. "you remember what you found out about gasoline motors in general when we were spending so much time talking about aeroplanes. the high speed motor, as we know it now, was invented, you know, by gottlieb daimler, a german inventor, in , and with the ordinary four-cycle engine it takes four trips, or two round trips of the piston rod, to exert one push on the crankshaft of the engine. in other words, the explosion drives down the piston giving the power, and on its return trip the piston forces out the burned fumes. on the next downward stroke the fresh vapour is sucked into the cylinder and on the fourth trip, or second upward trip, the gas is compressed for the explosion. the carbureter on your motor-boat engine, and all others, as you know, is the device that mixes the gasoline with air and converts it into a highly explosive gas, and the sparking system is the electrical device that ignites the gas in the cylinders for each explosion which makes the 'pop, pop, pop' so familiar with all gasoline engines. "in the old gas engines the ignition was derived from a few dry-cell batteries and some sort of a transformer coil, whereas nowadays the magneto takes care of this work. as you know there are many kinds of magnetos, and inventors have spent years working out better and better ones. also, in the old style motors the carbureter was more or less of a makeshift, with a drip feed arrangement, and a hand regulating shutter for admitting the air. now a special automatic device regulates this, so that it is no longer a toss up whether the gas is mixed in the proper quantities or not. then, too, the oiling systems have been improved, so that the function is done automatically. in short, the motor has been made a perfectly reliable servant instead of a very capricious plaything. "all these improvements made no fundamental change in the valves through which the gas was admitted to the cylinders, and the exhausted vapours expelled--and from your own experience you know that you are just about as apt to have trouble with your valves as with any other part of your machine. "it is in these valves that the knight motor departs from the usual style, and by this it eliminates the well-known 'pop, pop, pop' by which gas engines have been known all over the world." as they looked over the engine, an expert in gasoline motors explained all the parts of the "silent knight" and showed the scientist and his boy friend just how the machine worked. he said that the only big difference between the knight motor and other standard makes of engines is that the knight substitutes for the intake and exhaust valves an entirely new device composed of two cylinders, one within the other, sliding upon each other so as to regulate the flow of gas and the exhaust of fumes. early in his career as an inventor, while living in his home city of chicago, knight decided that gasoline engines had entirely too many parts--that they were too complicated--and he set about trying to simplify them. for one thing, he made a careful study of valves, and collected a specimen of every kind known to mechanics. the sliding locomotive valve seemed to him to hold the greatest possibilities for his work, and he began a series of experiments with sliding valves until he finally brought out his first engine in . strange as it may seem, knight's work was not recognized in his own country until after he had gone to europe, where his engine was taken up by some of the biggest automobile manufacturers of england, france, germany, belgium, and italy. after that it was taken up in the united states, and only now is coming to be generally known. the inventor now lives in england, where he was first successful, and he is still at work on improvements of his engine. the motor expert went on to explain that the advantage of the knight motor lay in the fact that the two sleeves or cylinders, which go to make up the combustion chamber or engine cylinder, sliding up and down upon one another, give a silent, vibrationless movement, as against the noisy action of the old style poppet or spring valve motors. "but," interrupted the boy, "there are lots of other engines that run without making a noise nowadays." "that is true," the man answered, "but most of them run quietly only when at low speed, or stationary. when they begin to hit the high places the noise of the poppet valves is very noticeable. a few years ago, when most engine builders were satisfied to make motors that would run, regardless of noise, they paid no attention to some of the finer mechanical problems, but since they have become more skilful, they are cutting down on the noise. but, as i say, the explosions are plainly heard when these engines are running at high speed. with the 'silent knight' the only noise is that of the fan and magneto, whether at low speed or the very fastest the motor can run. there can be no noise, for there is nothing for the sleeves to strike against." the expert then went on to explain the motor in detail. the combustion chambers of the four or six-cylinder "silent knight," he explained, are made up of two concentric cylinders or sleeves, or, in other words, one cylinder within another. there is only the smallest fraction of an inch between them, and as they are well oiled by an automatic lubricating device they slide up and down upon each other with perfect ease. of course the sleeves, which are made of swedish iron, a very fine material for cylinder construction, are machined down inside and out so that they are perfectly smooth to run upon each other. the two sleeves which go to make up one cylinder work up and down upon each other by means of a small connecting rod affixed to the bottom of each sleeve connected to an eccentric rod, which is driven by a noiseless chain from the engine shaft. the most important features are the slots cut in each side, and close to the upper end of each sleeve, so that, as the sleeves move upon one another the slot in the right-hand side of the inner one will pass the slot of the right-hand side of the outer sleeve, and also the same with the left-hand side. then when the left-hand slots of the outer sleeve open upon, or come into register with the left-hand slots of the inner sleeve, a passage into the cylinder is opened for the new gas to enter. when a charge of gas has been drawn into the cylinder, one sleeve rises while the other falls, so that the openings are separated and the passage is tightly closed. the compression stroke then begins with the piston rising to the top. at this juncture the igniting spark explodes the compressed gas and the downward or power stroke takes place. during the upward compression stroke and the downward impulse stroke the slots have been closed, allowing no opportunity for the gas to escape. when the explosion has taken place and the piston has been driven to the bottom of its stroke, the right-hand openings in the inner sleeve and those of the outer sleeve come together, providing a passage for the exhausted gases to escape with the fourth or exhaust stroke. thus it is plain that the motor is of the four-cycle type and it should not be confounded with two-cycle motors. as the expert explained the motion he showed how it was carried out on an engine from which the casing had been partly removed. the careful mechanical adjustment of the eccentric shaft, which operated the connecting rods that pull the sleeves of the cylinder up and down so that the openings for the entrance of the fresh gas and the expulsion of the exploded fumes come together at just the proper second, was what took the boy's eye. in connection with this the scientist handed the boy a magazine to read. it was a copy of the _motor age_ in which an expert said editorially: "those who pin their faith to the slide-valve motor do so for many reasons, chief of which is that with this motor there is a definite opening and closing of the intake and exhaust parts, no matter at what motor speeds the car be operating. two years ago one of the leading american engineers experimented with poppet valves and discovered that frequently at the high speeds the exhaust valves did not shut, there not being sufficient time owing to the inability of the valve spring to close the valve in the interval before a cam returned to open it again. with such a condition it is certain that the most powerful mixture was not obtained. with the sleeve valve such failure of operation cannot be, because no matter how fast the motor is operating there is a definite opening and closing for both intake and exhaust valve. "it is a well-known fact that with poppet valves the tension of the springs on the exhaust side varies after five or six weeks' use, and consequently the accuracy of opening and closing is interfered with. carbon gets on the valve seatings and prevents proper closing of the valve, with the result that the compression is interfered with and the face of the valve injured. these troubles are, as far as can be learned, obviated in the sleeve valve." the friends of the knight motor claim that it is simpler than the ordinary types of engines, having about one third less parts, that it is economic, powerful, and, as previously pointed out, runs silently. beside these advantages, there are claimed for it many technical virtues that we need not enter into here. the lubricating system of the knight motors is another interesting point, as it serves to illustrate one more way in which the gasoline engine has been improved upon of late years. the manner of oiling used is known as the "movable dam" system. located transversely beneath the six connecting rods are six oil troughs hinged on a shaft connected with the throttle. with the opening and closing of the throttle these troughs are automatically raised and lowered. when the throttle is opened, which raises the troughs, the points on the ends of the connecting rods dip deep into the oil and create a splashing of oil on the lower ends of the sliding sleeves. these sleeves are grooved circularly on their outer surfaces in order to distribute the oil evenly, while toward the lower ends holes are drilled to allow for the passage of oil. when the motor is throttled down, which lowers the troughs, the points barely dip into the oil and a corresponding less amount of oil is splashed. an oil pump keeps the troughs constantly overflowing. the motor is cooled by a complete system of water jackets, and it is fitted with a double ignition system, each independent of the other. of course in the adoption of the sliding sleeve type, mushroom valves, cams, cam rollers, cam shafts, valve springs, and train of front engine gears all are eliminated, the sliding parts fulfilling their various functions. before mr. knight ever achieved success with his motor it was subjected to some of the severest tests on record in the whole automobile industry. in france, germany, and england, it was only accepted by the leading manufacturers after being tried out for periods extending over several months of the hardest kind of usage. now, that it has proven itself a practical success, automobile men declare that the sliding valve principle, never before applied to gas engines until knight began work, will undoubtedly have a lasting effect on the whole industry. the compact little two-cycle motors represent another big fundamental development in the field of gas engines. there are many different makes of two-cycle motors, of course, and all have their various merits. they are used in practically all the work for which gas engines are employed, including automobiles, motor boats, and aeroplanes. it will not be necessary to describe these engines further than to say that the name describes the fundamental difference between them and the four-cycle motors. instead of the piston making four strokes for every explosion--that is, an, upward stroke to clean out the burnt vapours, a downward stroke to suck in the fresh gas, an upward stroke to compress it, and finally the downward explosion or power stroke, all this work is done in two strokes. for the general development of the gasoline engine, it is only necessary for a boy to look about him. everywhere motors built on the same ideas as laid down in earlier inventions, but improved in every detail, are in use. not only do we see them on fine pleasure automobiles, motor boats, and aeroplanes, but on our biggest trucks, fire engines, and in business establishments where light machinery is to be run. chapter xi the wireless telegraph up to the minute the scientist talks of amateur wireless operators--the great development of wireless that has enabled it to save about three thousand lives--long distance work of the modern instruments while the inspiring stories of jack binns of the steamship _republic_, and of j. g. phillips and harold s. bride of the ill-fated _titanic_ are fresh in our minds, it is not necessary to say that within the last few years the wireless telegraph has established itself as indispensable to the safe navigation of the seas. the story of its development is a marvellous one when we think that it was only in december of that marconi received the first signal ever transmitted across the atlantic ocean without wires. now, as every boy knows, all the big steamships are equipped with wireless, all the governments of the world operate their own stations to communicate with their warships, at sea, and thousands upon thousands of boy amateurs operate their own little plants with complete success. more wonderful still is the story when we think that by the use of this invention a total of about three thousand persons have been saved from death in shipwrecks. nowhere in the pages of all history are there any more thrilling stories of heroism and devotion to duty than those of the men who, in the face of death themselves, have stuck by their keys sending out over the waves the "c. q. d." and the "s. o. s." signals, which as every boy knows are the wireless calls for help. the scientist and his boy friend never tired of talking of these things, for the young man was one of the many amateurs who had mastered the art, so that many a night as he sat at his receiver he caught the messages of steamships far out on the broad atlantic, and heard the navy yard station transmitting orders to uncle sam's ships at sea. one day shortly after the _titanic_ disaster the boy said to his friend: "i saw by the paper to-day that they are talking of passing a law to prevent the amateur wireless operators from working. i don't think they ought to do that. i'm sure most amateurs never interfere with any signals, as was said they did in connection with the messages to and from ships that went to the rescue of the _titanic_." "so long as the amateurs do not have powerful sending apparatus," answered the scientist, "i don't think they will make any serious trouble, for it makes no confusion to have them 'listening in' on the passing radiographs. of course with a powerful sender a mischievous person could work irreparable damage by sending fake messages of one kind or another. in fact there have been several instances of messages that were thought to be fakes, but i am sure no boy with the intelligence to rig up a wireless outfit, would be so lacking in understanding of his responsibilities as to try to confuse traffic. "but it would be a shame to stop the amateurs altogether," he continued, "for, no matter what the companies may say, the wireless telegraph is still in an experimental stage, and we must look to the bright boys who are studying it now, for its greatest development. the marvellous strides in improving the apparatus, and solving the mysteries of electro-magnetic currents, that have been made in the last dozen years, should be eclipsed in the next decade, if young men with some practical experience and a desire to get at the real scientific basis of the art, work at it." "what are some of the main improvements of the last few years?" asked the boy. for answer, the scientist and the boy made a journey down to the steamship docks, and visited the wireless cabins of several of the big transatlantic liners. they also went to the brooklyn navy yard, where there is a wireless school, that turns out navy operators after a thorough course in all the various branches of the art. while on vacations to the seashore, the youth had visited some of the big high-power stations that send and receive messages to and from the ships at sea. in talking to the operators and electricians the boy learned much about the wide extent to which wireless is used nowadays. the law passed by congress in the united states in , making it necessary for every passenger steamer sailing from american ports with fifty or more passengers, to carry a wireless outfit capable of working at least miles, in charge of a licensed operator, capable of transmitting or more words a minute, did a great deal to increase the use of wireless. also, not only the actions of one government but the concerted action of all the civilized nations represented at the various international wireless conferences have brought it to the official notice of the whole world. thus it has become a commercial reality on the sea, and the great lakes, and also it has become a big factor in war. all of the nations, besides having their warships equipped with wireless, now have wireless squads in the army, and have small compact apparatus that can be transported in small wagons, or even on horses' backs. these portable army wireless outfits are very valuable for the communication between detachments of an army, particularly in places where there are few disturbing elements to intercept the electro-magnetic waves. in the recent campaign in tripoli, in the war between italy and turkey, the wireless was extensively used by the italian army in the field, and it was found that the messages radiated over the desert just about as well as over the sea. of course as will be seen later, it is not meant here to convey the idea that wireless cannot be sent over the land, for the electro-magnetic waves travel through the ether in every direction, and as the ether fills the whole universe, mountains, buildings, or water just as well as the air, the waves are thought to go through obstacles as well as over water. the difficulty in sending over land, is that there are various electrical disturbances that intercept and confuse the wireless waves. in other words, wireless works through mere physical obstructions without any difficulty, just so long as certain little known electrical disturbances do not interfere. just think of the thousands and thousands of wireless messages that are passing through the ether every hour of the day and night. and yet the scientists really know very little about the laws that govern them! one of the instances of the strange antics of wireless was told to the boy by an operator who had been in charge of the wireless outfit on a hudson river boat. he said that he and the operators on the other boats were able to communicate with a station on shore until they had passed the poughkeepsie bridge, and the great steel and stone structure stretched between the boat and the station. immediately communication stopped short and all efforts failed to get any response. a series of experiments proved that the obstruction was at the bridge, but whether it was some electrical property in the bridge itself, or in the hills on each side of the bridge, they have never been able to find out, and the land station was finally discontinued. this is just an instance of what the scientists do _not_ know about wireless, but it shows the many boy amateurs that there are still worlds for them to conquer in scientific research. the central principle upon which the wireless telegraph works now is the same as it was when marconi, through his marvellous invention, first received a signal from the other side of the atlantic ocean, but the inventors have learned much more about the details of the theory and it is in the improvement of devices for applying these laws of electricity that the development has been, rather than in the discovery of new theories. nikola tesla's invention for the wireless transmission of power by earth waves is a revolutionary departure from the usual wireless practice, but as we saw in the earlier chapter on this subject the tesla invention has not yet been put in practical operation. though guglielmo marconi did not discover the laws of electricity upon which his invention is based, to him belongs all the credit for making use of the discoveries of the scientists of his day, and working out from them a practical system of wireless communication. as many boys know, the wireless telegraph is possible through the radiation of electric waves. for instance, if a stone is thrown into a pool waves are started out in every direction from the point where the water is disturbed. the water does not move except up and down, and yet the waves pass on until they reach the side of the pool, or their force is expended. the scientists before marconi found out that when an electric spark was made to jump between two magnetic poles it started electric waves in every direction, much like the stone thrown into the pool, except at a speed that is reckoned at , miles per second. prof. amos dolbear, of tufts college, massachusetts, first made use of these waves in , and a few years later doctor hertz, conducting experiments along the same lines, discovered them. since that time these waves have been called hertzian waves. for many years scientists had understood that electrical waves or vibrations travelled through the ether in a copper wire, and that gave us telegraphy by wires, but it was a new thing to think of the waves travelling in every direction through space without wires. these early investigators found out that they could detect these waves by a device called a hertzian loop, which was simply a copper wire bent into a hoop with the two ends close together but not touching. a spark would appear between the ends of the wire when the electric waves were sent out. marconi began his work where these scientists left off, as a very young man on his father's farm in italy, but soon went to england, of which country his mother was a native, and placed the results of his experiments before the government authorities. continuing his labors he soon had his wireless apparatus worked out in the form in which it first became known to the world. it consisted of a transmitter, receiving machine or detector, and a set of antennæ or aerial wires from which the electrical waves were sent. for his transmitter, he created a spark between the two brass knobs on the ends of two thick brass wires by closing and opening an electrical circuit with a key, very much like, but somewhat larger than the regulation telegraph key. the space between the knobs was called the spark gap. for a dash he would hold down his key and make a large spark, and for a dot he would release his key quickly and make only a short one. thus, he could send the regular morse or continental telegraphic codes of dots and dashes. these impulses were transmitted by wires to the aerial wires, or antennæ. the impulses left the antennæ as electro-magnetic waves, and went forth in all directions, only to be caught on the antennæ of another station aboard a ship or on land. here is where the receiver did its work, and the problem was a far more difficult one than the working out of the transmitter, for the waves as received were too weak in themselves to register a dot or a dash. in marconi's first instruments he used a device called the "coherer." this was a glass tube about as big around as a lead pencil, and perhaps two inches long. it was plugged at each end with silver, and the narrow space between the plugs was filled with finely powdered fragments of nickel and silver, which possess the strange property of being alternately very good and very bad electrical conductors. the waves in marconi's first experiments were received on a suspended kite wire, exactly similar to the wire used in the transmitter, but they were so weak that they could not of themselves operate an ordinary telegraph instrument. they possessed strength enough, however, to draw the little particles of silver and nickel in the coherer together in a continuous metal path. in other words, they made these particles "cohere," and the moment they cohered they became a good conductor for electricity, and a current from a battery near at hand rushed through the connection, operated the morse instrument, and caused it to print a dot or a dash; then a little tapper, actuated by the same current, struck against the coherer, the particles of metal were broken apart, becoming a poor conductor, and cutting off the current from the home battery. in marconi's early experiments there was little or no attempt at tuning the instruments for waves of certain lengths, but this art has been developed to a high state in modern wireless telegraphy and we shall see how the operator tunes his instruments to talk to any one special station. the distinguishing feature of the modern wireless transmitter, now familiar to every boy who has ever taken a trip aboard a large ship, or attended an electrical show, as it was in the old days, is the "crack, crack, cr-r-r-ack, crack" of the spark as it flickers between the brass knobs of the instrument, as the operator pounds away at his key. in some of the great high-power land stations, where long distance work is done the crash of the spark is like that of thunder, the flame is as big around as a man's wrist and of such intensity that it could not be looked at with unshaded eyes. on ships where the crash is too loud it has become necessary to cover the spark gap with a wooden muffler so as to deaden the noise. while the simple spark gap of the early marconi instruments was enough to send out the hertzian waves, the modern transmitter is a marvel of electrical construction utilizing as it does the latest discoveries in electrical apparatus. the most noticeable difference in the sending apparatus is in the arrangement of the two wires between which the spark flies. in the early instruments the wires were set in a horizontal line, and connected to an induction coil, but in the later ones the oscillator was turned up lengthwise with the spark gap between the vertical wings. the different position of the spark gap is a change only in form, and not in principle. in the marconi apparatus used nowadays the current comes from a dynamo of more than volts, direct current. the two terminals of the circuit are connected with an induction coil, and from there to the two ends of the wires, making the terminals of the spark gap. the upper wire runs from the spark gap to the aerial, and the lower runs through a battery of leyden jars, through a high tension transformer (as does the other side of the circuit), and thence to the ground. aboard ship the ground connection is simply made by attaching a wire to the hull of the ship, which is in connection with the water, the best possible earth connection. [illustration: marconi transmitter layout a--key. b--induction coil. c--spark gap. d--dynamo. e--rheostat. f--interrupter magnet. g--aerial. h--high tension transformer. i--ground wire. k--battery of leyden jars.] there are, of course, a great many different kinds of transmitters, but they are all worked out on the same general principle--a spark gap which creates electrical oscillations that are sent into the ether from the aerials. in some modern stations an alternating current is used at more than volts and is stepped up through a transformer to about , volts. this high power current then charges a condenser consisting of a battery of leyden jars. when the operator presses his key he establishes a connection, which immediately sets up electrical waves oscillating at a rate of anywhere from , to , , per second. these oscillations are carried to the antennæ where they pass into the ether and spread in all directions to be caught on the aerials of all stations within range. one of the improvements in wireless transmission which makes long distance work possible aboard ships is the use of what the engineers call "coupled circuits." the arrangement consists in connecting the aerial to an induction coil, and connecting the latter with a ground wire. another coil is placed close to this and is connected with the spark gap, and a condenser. the period of oscillation of the antennæ circuit, and of the spark gap circuit are timed to be exactly the same. the two circuits are then called "coupled circuits," for while they are coupled together by induction only, the oscillation or spark gap circuit increases its capacity, and at the same time has a small spark gap. with these new devices for increasing the power of the oscillations, or in other words throwing a bigger stone into the pond, the electrical waves are sent out with far greater force, just as the water waves are sent farther in the pond, and will reach stations at a greater distance. "crash, bang," goes the oscillator, and in less time than it takes to think it the oscillations have reached the antennæ of ships hundreds or thousands of miles away, or even those of another land station on the other side of the atlantic ocean. the next thing is to understand the apparatus used for receiving the faint electric waves transmitted through the ether, for the modern instruments are far different from the old style "coherer" explained before. as with the spark gaps, there are many different styles of receiving devices, all known by the general name of "detectors," as they detect the faint electro-magnetic waves radiating through the ether. some of the latest marconi experiments show a return to the "coherer" idea, very greatly improved upon, but the full details of the device have not been made public. [illustration: courtesy of the new york edison co. the navy wireless school at top is the class in sending, while below is shown the class learning to receive messages.] [illustration: an amateur wireless outfit hundreds of boys are receiving and sending wireless messages with far less efficient apparatus than that shown here.] [illustration: marconi detector layout a--aerial. b--condenser. c--glass tube oscillator transformer. d--d´--rollers. e--e´--iron wire passing through oscillator transformer. f--f´--magnets. g--g´--ground wires. h--telephone receiver.] one of the detecting devices used by the marconi system, after the old-style "coherer" was done away with, was very simple indeed in comparison to the cohering and tapping machines. it was made up of a small glass tube wound with copper wire. one end of this made the ground connection, and the other end led to the aerial, and also to an earth connection through a tuning inductance coil. then another coil was wound around the first one on the glass tube and connected with the head telephone receivers which have taken the place of the morse dot and dash printing instrument in all the modern wireless instruments. two magnets were placed just above the glass tube, and a flexible iron wire was made to move through it by means of a pair of rollers a little way from each end. when the electro-magnetic waves reached the aerial and made oscillations in the first coil about the glass tube, the magnetic intensity of the iron wire band was disturbed and the glass tube became an oscillation transformer, setting up currents in the coil leading to the telephone receivers. the impulses were manifested by ticks, just the length of the dots and dashes being sent out by the operator perhaps thousands of miles away. another form of detector is the "electrolytic" which consists of a very fine platinum wire about one ten-thousandth of an inch in diameter, which dips into a platinum cup filled with nitric acid. when the invisible electro-magnetic waves impinge upon the wires of the receiving station, and cause electrical surges to take place in those wires, they in turn affect the detector, giving an exact reproduction of the note of the transmitting spark at the distant station. this device has since been replaced by one of another type, equally sensitive and much better suited for general work on account of its greater stability and freedom from atmospheric disturbances. this detector consists simply of a crystal of carborundum supported between two brass points. when connected to the antennæ it is affected by the oscillations caused by distant transmitting stations as previously stated. these wireless signals are reproduced in telephone receivers. another frequently used detector known as the audion is composed of a small incandescent lamp with filaments of carbon, tantalum, or preferably tungsten, and one or more sheets or wings of platinum secured near the filaments. the lamp is lighted by a set of home batteries, and is connected with a ground wire, the aerial, and the telephone receivers. the tungsten filament and the platinum wing act as two electrodes, and the faint electric oscillations received on the antennæ and transmitted to the platinum plate are supposed to affect the discharge of negatively electrified particles, or ions, between the two electrodes. this affects the flow of the battery current, and consequently registers the oscillations in the telephone receivers. by diligent study of the subject the wireless experts also have learned that the arrangement of the aerials is of great importance, because much depends upon the send-off received by the electrical oscillations. in marconi's early experiments he used a single wire attached to a kite, then changed to a single wire stretched from the top of a high mast. later, the system of stretching the wires horizontally between two masts, as we see them so often aboard passenger steamships, and at land stations, came into general use. the old idea that the height of the aerial wires had something to do with the efficiency of the apparatus has passed, for science showed that the electro-magnetic waves travelled in all directions irrespective of land, water, mountains, or buildings. whether, in sending messages across the ocean, they actually pass through the globe, or follow the curve of the surface, is more than the most careful wireless students have been able to tell. another of the big improvements in wireless is in the tuning of the instruments to certain wave lengths or rates of vibrations, and in controlling the wave lengths by the sender. science has established that these waves usually vary from a few feet up to , feet or more. the ordinary wave lengths for ships is between , feet and , feet, but on the biggest land stations and the transatlantic liners the full , feet is used. even greater lengths of waves are used by the big marconi stations transmitting messages between clifden, on the west coast of ireland, and glace bay, nova scotia. the reason for this is that with the same power messages can be sent greater distances with long wave lengths than with shorter ones. the wave length is controlled by an apparatus called the "helix," which may be seen in the picture of the wireless outfit. it looks like a drum wound with a spiral of copper tubing, and although it looks simple it presents some of the greatest problems in connection with wireless. on the receiving end is the instrument called the tuner, by which the operator can adjust his detector to the wave lengths being sent out by the station with which he wishes to talk. there are various kinds of "tuners," all more or less complicated. the device corresponds to the telephone exchange or the telegraph switch-board. of course a good receiving apparatus can be tuned so that the operator can listen to any messages going through the ether, within range, but all messages that are intended to be secret are sent in code, just as all wire and cable messages that are secret are sent in code. in line with the advent of wireless telegraphy it is fitting that we should have the wireless telephone. while this instrument is still in the experimental stage, some very promising results have been obtained. there are several experimental wireless telephone stations in new york city, but the best results are obtained when some one keeps up a steady conversation, so it is far easier to connect the reproducer of a phonograph to the transmitter of the wireless telephone. it is surprising how distinctly this music or speech is received. in fact the ship operators nearing new york are often entertained by strains of music from these wireless telephones. the wireless telephones employ what are known as undamped oscillations created by electric arcs, and it is very easy to "tune out" such vibrations for musical effects. just as we have the motion-picture "newspaper," we have the wireless newspaper published aboard the big transatlantic liners every day. the news is sent out from certain land stations at certain times in the day and night, and every ship within range copies it, and publishes it just as our regular daily papers are published. of course, the paper is small, but it usually contains most of the important news of the day, the big sporting items, such as baseball scores, and the stock quotations. in the united states the great station at wellfleet, cape cod, mass., sends out the press matter each night from dispatches prepared in the main offices of the big american press associations. ships as far as , miles distant frequently receive this news matter, and by the time the ocean-going editor is ready to get out his next day's edition he is in touch with the wireless press station on the other side, and is receiving the world's news from the english coast. as our young friend found out when he was gathering up all the information he could about aeroplanes, some success has been made in the equipment of the fliers with wireless. the project offers some serious difficulties, however, as on an aeroplane there is no place for long aerials. experiments have been tried with long trailing wires, but these are dangerous to the aeroplane, and to use the wires of the machine for antennæ endangers the operator to electric shocks. one scheme tried by several aviators in the united states with some success has been the stringing of aerials in the rear framework. the problem of equipping balloons and airships with wireless is much simpler because it allows of long trailing wires to act as the antennæ. most boys will remember the success of the wireless apparatus that was set up on the _america_ at the time walter wellman made his famous attempt to cross the atlantic in his airship. that wireless will take its place as one of the great forces in civilization is the idea of guglielmo marconi, the inventor of the wireless telegraph, expressed when he was in new york in the spring of . "i believe," he said, "that in the near future a wireless message will be sent from new york completely round the globe with no relaying, and will be received by an instrument located in the same office as the transmitter, in perhaps even less time than shakespeare's forty minutes. "most messages across the atlantic will probably go by wireless at a comparatively early date. in time of war wireless connections will be invaluable. the enemy can cut cables and telegraph wires; but it is difficult seriously to damage the wireless service. the british empire has realized this, and is already equipping many of its outposts with wireless stations." chapter xii more marvels of science colour photography, the tungsten electric lamp, the pulmotor, and other new inventions investigated by our boy friend before we leave our good friend the scientist and his young companion, let us go over a few more of the things about which they talked. to take up all of them would be to prolong this book indefinitely, for the boy's mind was ever unfolding to the new things of the world and with each subject mastered, or at least partially understood, he was anxious to go on to the next. not that he did not have his special hobbies upon which he spent most of his time, for he did, but that did not prevent his inquiring young mind from reaching out for new and more wonderful things once he had come to realize the world of marvels in which we live. one of this youth's favourite pastimes was photography, and as an amateur his work had attracted considerable attention from his friends. one day in the summer, when all the trees, shrubs, and flowers were at the height of their beauty, he came into the laboratory where his scientific friend was working over an experiment. "i have heard of a process of colour photography," he said, "and i wonder if i couldn't make use of it to get some good pictures out in the country, showing just exactly how it is." "certainly," replied his friend. "there are a number of systems of colour photography now--all invented within the last few years. none of them is perfect though, and you would have the added fun of carrying on some experiments that might bring to light some valuable knowledge. "while it is possible to make coloured photographic prints now, by means of a specially treated paper, colour photography is best known as a means of making beautiful transparent glass plates and lantern slides. when held up to the light, the transparencies give an accurate picture of the scene in natural colours. the paper i mention can be bought at the photographic houses, but the inventors do not claim yet that their process is so perfect as to give exact reproductions of all the shades of colours unless they are well defined in the positive plates. the prints are made from the positive transparencies in just the same way that photographic prints are made from black and white photographic plates." "let's try some colour photographs," promptly said the boy. "will you go out into the country with me some saturday and help me?" "i certainly will be glad to go with you, but you are a better photographer than i am, for you see, about the only kind of photography i do now is with a microscope, such as you have looked through here many times. your own regular camera and tripod will be all you will need, for i will buy the colour plates upon which the pictures are to be taken." they made their trip to the country on the first pleasant saturday, and while they were out the scientist explained many points about the system. "years ago," he said, "even before that wonderful frenchman, daguerre, invented light photography, scientists were trying to discover some means of mechanically registering on paper, the beautiful things they saw in nature, in their natural colours, as well as in their natural form in black and white. all through the years of the development of photography with light and shadow, scientists never relaxed their search for some way of photographing colours. although many of them hit upon the colour screen idea by which it finally was accomplished, there remained years and years of patient experiment. prof. james clark maxwell, ducos du hauron, doctor konig, sanger shepherd, and, in later years, frederick eugene ives, of philadelphia, all worked on the idea. "in , however, antoine lumiére, of the famous french photographic house that bears his name, announced a system of colour photography which has grown in popularity ever since. the system, which is known as the autochrome, was the result of many years patient study and research with his sons who are associated in business with him." the scientist then went on to explain that in attacking the problem the investigators first had to learn all they could about colours, and how they are reflected by light rays. as we have seen in the colour process for motion pictures there are really only three fundamental or primary colours, and all other shades and tints are made up from combinations of these. the three are blue-violet, green, and orange-red, and a screen of these forms the foundation of all the colour plates now used. in the autochrome process the lowly potato, which we generally think of merely as a common article of our food, forms the first factor. the starch of the potato is ground down and sifted so that the grains are the same size--not more than . to . of an inch in diameter. these grains then are divided into three equal portions, and each portion is dyed, respectively, blue-violet, green, and orange-red. the three little piles of starch grains are then mixed together in suitable amounts and dusted on to a plate, which has previously been coated with a substance to make them stick. the difficulty in dusting on the starch grains is great, for they must cover the whole plate equally and yet not make any piles of starch at any one point, for to have several grains on top of one another would spoil the effect. the extreme delicacy of this operation will be appreciated when it is realized that there are over five million grains to the square inch. when the starch is all properly placed it makes the colour screen, though in appearance the plate is a dark gray. the plate is next put through a rolling process so that all the grains are flattened out to form a mosaic covering over the whole surface. in spite of all the manufacturers can do there will still be some microscopic spaces between the particles, and these are filled up with a fine powder of carbon to prevent the passage of light. the screen is then coated with a very thin layer of varnish and upon this is laid a thin and extremely sensitive photographic emulsion. "and so that is the way these autochrome plates we have here were made," concluded the scientist. "now our troubles begin, for we must be careful to give them a fair trial with the proper kind of an exposure and the proper kind of development." as the plates are extremely sensitive to all kinds of light the scientist cautioned the boy against loading the camera carelessly. it is better, he said, to load in a dark room. in putting the plates in the camera the plates are reversed and instead of placing the sensitized side toward the lens, the uncoated glass is put in front and the photograph is taken through the glass. thus, the image first passes through the glass, next, through the grains of coloured starch, and, lastly, is recorded on the sensitive photographic emulsion. before loading the camera, however, the scientist fitted a yellow colour screen over the lens, explaining that this was necessary to absorb some of the overactive blue-violet light rays, to which the emulsion is extremely sensitive. in exposing the plate what happens is this: suppose a green field is to be photographed. the green rays of light, reflected from the field, pass through the lens, and through the glass support of the plate. but when they reach the coloured starch, the green rays pass through the green particles of starch, but not through the violet-blue particles, or the orange-red particles, for the grains of other colours absorb the green rays and hold them. thus, development would show that the green light rays passing through the green starch particles caused the emulsion to darken under the green particles in just the proportion in which the green light reached them, and to record the image they carried. as the light would not pass through the other coloured particles they would not record any image. thus a negative is produced, as we have seen, not the colour we see in life but the complement. by treating the plate with a solvent of silver the tiny black specks that were brought out behind each green particle are removed and each starch grain is allowed to transmit exactly the colour we see in life. in other words, we have a positive. this is just as true of all the shades and hues as it is of the three fundamental colours, for the various rays of light will penetrate the starch in just the proportion of the hues they represent in the scene before our eyes. while the silver solvent will remove the dark images built up by the penetration of green light, it will leave behind the particles of red-orange, and blue-violet, backed up by the creamy silver bromide of the emulsion. if above the green field we had a blue sky, the blue-violet particles would let the blue-violet rays penetrate them, and record the image of the sky. after the negative has been treated and made a positive, a second development reduces the silver bromide to opaque metallic silver, preventing any light from passing through the grains through which a part of the image did not pass. this second bath also brightens the colours, while the hypo bath removes the unaltered silver bromide ensuring permanency to the image. "of course in taking these colour photographs," went on the scientist, "we must take into consideration a great many things, to which the manufacturers will call your attention in their booklets. the exposure is the most important part of all, for these plates are necessarily slow and must be exposed for a much longer time than the ordinary rapid plates. for instance, this field, with this bright summer sunlight, will require a full second with this lens at u. s. ." the scientist then went on to give the boy directions for developing his colour plates, as follows: the whole process of development consists of three operations and but two solutions are required, one of them being kept preferably in two stock solutions. apothecary weight is used. stock developer water ounces metoquinone - / drams sodium sulphite (dry) ounces ammonia (density . or degrees b) ounce potassium bromide - / drams dissolve the metoquinone first in lukewarm water and then the other chemicals in the order given. stock reversing solutions a. water ounces potassium permanganate grains b. water ounces sulphuric acid drams errors in exposure are to be corrected by varying the duration of development and the amount of stock solution added after the appearance of the image. use the solutions at a temperature of degrees fahrenheit, and start development of a × plate in water ounces metoquinone stock solution drams have ready two graduates, one containing drams of the stock developer, the other - / ounces. begin counting seconds upon immersion of the plate in the weak developer and watch for the outlines of the image, not considering the sky. if the time of appearance is less than seconds, add the smaller quantity of stock solution; if more, add the greater. the total times of development are given in the following table. cover the tray for protection from light as soon as the solution has been modified properly. ==================+==================+======================= time, in seconds, | quantity of | total duration of of appearance | metoquinone | development, including of image, | stock solution | time of appearance. disregarding |to be added after |---------+------------- the sky. | image appears. | minutes.| seconds. ------------------+------------------+---------+------------- to | drams | | " | " | | " | " | | " | " | | " | " | | " | " | | -------- | ------------ | -- | --- to | - / ounces | | over | " " | | ------------------+------------------+---------+------------- as soon as development is finished rinse the plate briefly, immerse in equal parts of the reversing solutions and carry the tray into bright daylight. gradually the image clears and the true colours are seen by transmitted light. in three or four minutes the action will be complete. rinse the plate in running water for thirty or forty seconds and immerse again, still in daylight, in the developer. in three or four minutes the white parts of the image will be seen to have turned entirely black. the plate may now be rinsed for three or four minutes in running water and set away to dry without fixing. to avoid frilling in summer, it is well to immerse the plate for two minutes after reversal in water ounces chrome alum grains after a brief rinsing proceed with the second development as usual. the completed transparency may be protected from scratches to a certain extent by varnishing the film side, although this is not necessary. the varnish consists of benzole (crystallizable) ounces gum dammar ounce it should be applied cold in the usual way, making sure that the entire surface is covered, and then setting the plate on edge to dry. the other colour processes now used with success also are based upon the colour screen. the process known as the omnicolore, which was brought out in france, depends upon a screen consisting of a very fine network of violet lines in one direction, crossed by red and green lines at right angles. the usual sensitive emulsion is placed over these. the lines run more than two hundred to the inch but they can be seen by close examination of the plate. in the thames process which was brought out in england the colour screen and the sensitive emulsion are on separate plates which must be bound together during exposure and again placed in register or in exactly the same relative position after development. this causes some trouble, but reduces expense as the failures waste the sensitive plates but not the colour screens. the primary colours instead of being scattered at random, as in the autochrome system, are arranged in a pattern to give the proper proportions to each. the red-orange and green particles are arranged in circles, with the green a little larger than the red ones, while the blue particles fill the spaces. the newest electric lights one evening our boy friend entered the scientist's laboratory and found it more brilliantly illuminated than it ever had been before. "oh, i know," he said looking up at the ceiling, "those new electric lights up there are tungsten lamps. it certainly makes a difference in the looks of this place." "lights up all the dingy corners, doesn't it?" answered his friend. "you remember," he continued, "we talked last week about some of the new kinds of electric light and that made me think that i might just as well take advantage of what other scientists have done and install this newest kind of electric lamps." from the ceiling were suspended several stationary fixtures with bright glass reflectors. the lamps the boy saw were somewhat larger than the usual electric light bulbs, and gave off a beautiful white light instead of the slightly yellowish illumination that comes from the ordinary ones. he saw that the filament from which the illumination came was not arranged in a series of horseshoe curves, as in the case of the ordinary globes, but that it was strung between the ends of cross trees, or "spiders," so that there was a greater total length of filament in the same size bulb than in the ones used before the invention of the tungsten lamp. it is a sight familiar enough to most boys in these days of the rapid adoption of new inventions, but it brought to the boy's mind a question that had often occurred to him before. "who invented tungsten lights?" he asked. "well, it would hardly be right to say that any one individual invented them, for they were really a development of science worked out by many men, who studied the problem for many years. this caused a number of very bitter lawsuits over the patents and brought about the imprisonment of one united states patent office official who was convicted of falsifying the records at washington to help one of the inventors. this inventor was john allen heany, and his patents were rejected finally, the rights of the tungsten filament going to the general electric company. the name 'tungsten' is taken from the material of which filament, or the little wire which lights up in the globe, is made." "what is tungsten?" asked the boy. "tungsten is a metal that for a great many years some of our most prominent chemists and scientific investigators declared could not be put to the use we see it here," answered the man. noticing that the boy leaned forward in his chair, keen on his every word, the boy's friend continued his description of this strange metal that has been put to work lighting us in our march along the road of life. he explained that tungsten, or wolfram, was discovered in and was named from the swedish words "tung" (heavy) and "sten" (stone). the mineral is not found in a pure state but rather in wolframite, which is what the scientists call a tungstate of iron and manganese, and also in schoolite which is calcium tungstate. pure tungsten is bright steel gray, very hard, and very heavy. it is one of the most brittle of all the metals and for that reason was put to very few uses before the invention of the tungsten lamp. it was most commonly used, however, in various steel processes, to harden the metal. from the time edison invented the incandescent lamp in , right up to the present electricians have tried to get a better electric light filament. a number of persons conceived the idea of making a filament of tungsten on account of its peculiar characteristics, which seemed to be just about the ones needed for the ideal electric light globe. in its fundamental idea the tungsten lamp is not very greatly different from the early edison incandescent lamps, but in the application of the principle there is half a century of accomplishment packed into a little over a quarter of a century of years. edison saw that he must have a filament that would carry the current of electricity, but yet one which would be of such high resistance that it would not take up all the current fed to it. he saw that he had to have a filament that would heat to incandescence with the electrical current, and yet one that would stand a certain amount of wear and tear, and which would not be consumed by the heat. to obtain the latter effect he put his filament in an air-tight glass globe from which the atmosphere was exhausted, leaving it in a vacuum. as there was no air, there was no oxygen, and hence there could be no oxidization, or, in other words, combustion of the filament. edison thought that success lay in a carbon filament, and in these early days when he was experimenting at his menlo park laboratory he carbonized just about everything he could lay his hands on and tried heating the result to incandescence in the vacuum globe. finally, on october , he carbonized a piece of cotton thread and put it in his vacuum globe in the form of a horseshoe loop. on connecting it with his electric circuit he was rewarded by seeing a brilliant incandescent light that lasted without dimming for forty straight hours. what a dim, dingy little light it was in comparison to the world famous lights that edison now puts forth! and yet in one way it was the most brilliant light that ever had shone in the world, for it showed mankind the pathway toward a complete system of electric lighting by incandescent lamps. the carbonized cotton thread filament had many drawbacks, and edison continued carbonizing various fabrics and fibres, including, it is said, some of the red hairs out of the beard of one of his loyal staff! at last he hit upon a filament made of carbonized japanese bamboo that was very successful for a number of years, but this was later superseded by a cellulose mixture mechanically pressed out by dies. meanwhile, several investigators began work with tungsten and a similar metal called tantalum because of their extremely high melting points, high resistance, and other technical characteristics favourable for an incandescent filament. for years they had no success because the metal was so very brittle that they could do nothing with it, but finally a filament of pressed tungsten was brought out. in this type of lamp several filament loops would be fused or welded together to make one complete filament. the result was a very fine light, but the little wire was too fragile to stand hard usage, and owing to the fact that the various connected loops were not all of exactly the same thickness, one frequently burned out far ahead of the others and caused early lamp failure. the next step, and the one which a great many scientists had declared impossible, was the manufacture of a tungsten wire through a regular process of drawing it out through dies to the desired length, and in the desired thickness. the investigators had declared that in spite of all they could do, tungsten was too brittle ever to be drawn into wire. in the latest methods this is accomplished with such perfection that tungsten wire of . of an inch in diameter is produced. "with the invention of a method for drawing out tungsten wire," continued the scientist, "an almost ideal lamp was practically accomplished. the wire simply was strung on the spiders or cross pieces, and a filament of almost any length giving almost any desired candlepower light could be used. "you see in an incandescent light the higher the melting point of the filament the greater the quantity of light for the amount of electricity used. also tungsten has a low vapour tension, which prevents discolouration of the globe by the evaporation of the filament. it also has other advantages which are too technical for us to go into. "of course, tungsten lamps still have the drawback of being rather delicate. when not in use, and when the filament is cold, it is apt to break with rough treatment, but when lighted the filament, being at a white heat, is more durable. this delicacy of the tungsten lamp is the reason the fixtures for most of them are placed in stationary positions, rather than on swinging drop cords, as is the case with so many carbon incandescent lights. "while the tungsten lamp is far from perfect, it is a great advance over other forms, and an advance in the right direction, for it gives a better light with a smaller consumption of electricity than other types. i think your father will agree with me that anything that will help ever so little to reduce the high cost of living is a benefit." "but," answered the boy, "there are other new kinds of electric lights besides tungsten, aren't there?" "oh, of course, but they are hardly as generally used as the tungsten light. there is the mercury light about which you read in 'the second boys' book of inventions,' several new kinds of arc lights, the nernst light, the tantalum lamp (which we know is much like the tungsten lamp with the exception that in the latter each loop of the wire can be made longer), and the new carbon dioxide gas electric light, which is a very good imitation of daylight. "from all our little scientific journeys you have doubtless formed the idea that light is not the simple thing it seems, and that the rays of different kinds of light will bear a limitless amount of study. now some of the greatest scientists the world ever has known have spent the best part of their lives trying to produce a light that would duplicate the beautiful health-giving rays of the sun. this light we are speaking of comes as near to it as any." he picked up a long glass test tube and holding it between his fingers said: "now if this tube were exhausted of air to a vacuum, and we had an ingenious little device at each end which would allow just the right amount--no more, no less--of carbon dioxide gas to enter it, and also we had electrodes at either end, and connected them to an alternating current, we would have a rough model of the light that duplicates daylight. "in actual practice the vacuum tubes are long, and turn upon themselves in many lengths. you have seen these lights in many places, for photographers, lithographers, dye works, textile mills, and all other places where the true light of day is necessary for the judgment of colours are adopting them for their night work." "but the light is a ghastly pale blue," interrupted the boy. "it doesn't look like daylight to me." "no, you are thinking of the mercury light, which also is strung around in tubes. that has a blue-greenish tinge to it, and gives people's faces a disagreeable greenish tinge, but this carbon dioxide electric light is white with a salmon pink tinge. of course it isn't perfect, but the men who developed it from the work of others who started on this idea years ago, are constantly at work trying to improve it." the pulmotor "my father read in the paper to-day about a new machine called the pulmotor, which he said was one of the greatest inventions ever brought out," said our boy friend one day in the winter of - . "yes, it is a great invention," replied the scientist, "and like so many other big things it is so simple we wonder how it is no one was bright enough to think of it before. i suppose most of us are too busy trying to make money." "my father said it would be a fine thing for humanity and that it would save hundreds of lives every year." "that is true, and the pulmotor is just about the newest invention of our time, along those lines. when i first heard of it, i wrote to a friend of mine in chicago, where it was brought out, and asked him about it." "how does it work?" asked the boy, and ever willing to explain the marvels of science to his young friend, the scientist took a pencil and a piece of paper to illustrate as he talked. as every boy knows, oxygen is the property in the air we breathe that gives us life. also, every boy knows that physicians and surgeons use pure oxygen stored in iron tanks to restore respiration to the lungs of their patients when breathing has almost stopped. until the invention of the pulmotor, how ever, this oxygen was simply introduced into the patient's lungs by placing the tube in his mouth and turning on the valve. the pulmotor _makes_ the patient breathe--because it carries on the function for him artificially. "in chicago this winter," said the boy's friend, "there were several cases where the pulmotor brought back to life people who apparently were dead, from asphyxiation, or gas poisoning. the machine is most successful where breathing has stopped through some unnatural interference, and the rest of the organs are physically intact, but of course it can be used in all surgical cases just as the ordinary oxygen tank is used. "one case, and probably the one about which your father was reading," continued the boy's friend, "was that of a family of three, father, mother and little girl, who were asphyxiated, and were apparently dead. the pulmotor pumped pure oxygen into their lungs until they began to breathe naturally again." when the pulmotor is unpacked from its little wooden box, about the size of a suitcase, it looks like a confusion of rubber tubes and bags. the oxygen is contained in the tank under high pressure, and this pressure also furnishes the power to keep up the artificial breathing. [illustration: the pulmotor a--oxygen tank. b--reducing valve. c--inspirator. d-e--inlet and outlet of controlling valve. f--operating bellows. g--dashpot bellows. h--face cap.] the oxygen flows from the tank through a reducing valve, which cuts down the pressure, and into a controlling valve whence it flows by a rubber tube to the face cap which fits tightly over the patient's nose and mouth. the patient's tongue is kept from sliding back into his throat by a pair of forceps placed for the purpose. thus, the oxygen is forced into the lungs by the pressure, but when it reaches a certain degree, about what it would be in normal breathing, a bellows connected with the controlling valve is pressed, and the pressure is turned to suction so that the oxygen that has been forced into the lungs is brought out, through the outlet, causing the poisonous gases to be expelled from the lungs. after the exhalation is complete the controlling valve works again and another blast of pure oxygen is sent into the lungs, only to be withdrawn at the proper moment. this is kept up until the patient's breathing is normal. we will leave the scientist and his young friend here, for already we have spent more time in following their journeys and talks than we set out to do. we have not touched upon every invention of the last ten years or so, nor every important development, by a long ways, but we have gone far enough to get a pretty fair idea as to the trend of modern thought in inventive research. this is the epoch of electricity, and of the utilization of all the great forces of nature that have been right here to our hands since the world began, but which it has taken all these thousands of years to discover and analyze. more and more man is coming to see that nature's own forces will carry on the big works of the world, if they are properly led through an understanding of their laws. we have aviation because man learned how to utilize the fact that air gives support; we have wireless telegraphy, and we will have the wireless transmission of power, because man learned that nature has her own perfect system of carrying electrical currents when they are properly delivered to her, without any cumbersome system of wires; we have the tesla turbine because its inventor found out that nature gave steam, gas, water, and even air, certain properties that are intangible, and yet stronger far than mere brute force; and so it goes: ever a greater familiarity with nature leads to greater progress, and a happier, more interesting world. the end transcriber's note: minor spelling inconsistencies, mainly hyphenated words, have been harmonized. obvious typos have been corrected. a "list of diagrams" section has been added as an aid for the reader. the tables in chapter ii have been split in order to meet width of line requirements. the first column has been duplicated in the second half of each table. bleedback by winston marks _it was just a harmless, though amazing, kid's toy that sold for less than a dollar. yet it plunged the entire nation into a nightmare of mystery and chaos...._ [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from worlds of if science fiction, august . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] the thing is over now, but i can't see a teddy bear or a set of blocks in a department store window without shuddering. i'm thankful i'm a bachelor and have no children around to remind me of the utterly insane nightmare that a child's toy plunged our country into--the millions of people who died in agony--the total disruption and near dissolution of our nation. and yet, as the united states tottered on the verge of complete chaos, it was, ironically, another child's toy that saved us. a simple, ordinary, every-day toy for tots stopped the "fever", halted the carnage that was tearing our flesh and eyes and viscera into shreds. with most the scientists in the world working for an emergency solution, they could come up with no better answer than a toy that'd been around for generations before the "mystery i-gun" was even conceived. being a plain-clothesman, i have seen greed and impatience ruin many individual lives. if i could have guessed at the chain of events that would stem from my first contact with the younger baxter brother, i would have put a bullet through his head in cold blood and cheerfully faced the gas chamber. instead i took off my hat and followed him through the substantial old house to a moderately large room in the rear where, i'd been told, we would find a body. leo baxter was a little guy about five-foot six, like me but with a better build. his size was important for a couple of reasons, one being that it was startling to say the least, when he pointed to the giant on the floor and said, "my brother." he caught my look and shrugged impatiently. "i know, i know, but this is no time for mutt and jeff gags. calvin has been murdered. now get with it, lieutenant!" if calvin _was_ his brother, leo's agitation was understandable, but his voice had a flat note of practicality in it that i didn't like. as i looked down at the sprawled length of the big man on the tiled floor, the mutt and jeff angle didn't fit at all. david and goliath was a better bet. this goliath seemed also to have met his fate from a hole in the forehead. i say, "seemed," because it developed that calvin baxter was not yet quite dead. "there's no pulse or breath," his brother said when i mentioned this error in his assumption. "you're no doctor. now call that ambulance like i told you. jump!" i said. he jumped. i made a quick examination, meanwhile, and when leo came back from the phone i pointed. "see, the blood. it's still coming out." "corpses bleed, don't they?" "not in spurts," i said. "the hole's tiny, but whatever's in there touched an artery. see that?" he looked and seemed convinced. "the ambulance will be here. anything else i should do?" "yes. nothing. don't touch a thing in this room ... or did you already?" "just calvin. i heard him fall, and when i came in he was on his face." "why did you ask for homicide when you called the police? or let's put it this way: what makes you think it wasn't an accident?" "two reasons. first, because i couldn't see any cause of the accident. when i turned him over the floor was smooth and clean under his forehead except for the smear of blood. reason number two: because calvin just doesn't have accidents. all his life he's moved in slow motion. i've never known him to stumble, or cut himself, or drop anything or even bump into anyone." i was checking around the room myself, and i had to admit that both reasons might be valid. a man the size of calvin wasn't likely to be the skittish type. and by the time the ambulance arrived i was ready to admit that if the injury were an accident, calvin baxter had contrived to conceal its source. it took several of us to load the unconscious man onto the stretcher. i told his cocky little brother to stay on ice, while i rode downtown in the ambulance. dr. thorsen called me into the emergency ward. "how did this happen?" he wanted to know. thorsen is a lean, learned old chap who normally gives more answers than he asks. i said, "don't know, doc. i found him in a sort of home workshop. no power tools, nothing dangerous in sight. the bench at one end had a couple of little gadgets on it--looked sort of electrical. some wire, soldering iron, books, a few rough circuit drawings." "the gadgets. what did they look like?" i thought back and realized that what i had to describe would sound a little peculiar. "sort of like flashlights with a pistol grip ... and no lens where the light should come out. just blunt, flat ends." thorsen shrugged. "then i don't know. i expected you to report some kind of a blast or explosion." "no sign of one." "all right, then what else but a flying particle could drill a hole in a man's forehead the diameter of a piece of -gauge wire?" "what do the x-rays show?" "we'll know in a minute. what about the murder-attempt angle?" i said that i had nothing to go on yet. that was the whole truth and the final truth! when doc's x-rays revealed _nothing but a blood clot_ deep in the brain at the end of the tiny tunnel piercing the skull, i was left without even a "modus operandi", let alone a substantial suspect. * * * * * for two days i investigated brother leo, and when i wasn't investigating him i was questioning him. the small town in minnesota where he claimed he and his brother were born had been the county seat, and the whole shivaree had burned up in a prairie fire years ago, courthouse, birth records and all. with no other living relatives, i had to depend on people who had known both men. from those whom i questioned, i ascertained that they had been passing for brothers, at least, for some time. on the third day leo's patience began to crack. "you keep asking me the same, stupid questions over and over. i tell you, i'm a mechanical engineer. my brother was a mathematician. we're both single. i make enough money in the construction game to support both of us. what's so suspicious about humoring my brother's research?" "among other things," i said, "is your ignorance of what he was doing." "for the fiftieth time i tell you i _didn't_ know!" his exasperation was mounting to the pitch i had been awaiting. "you used the past tense. you do know now?" he wheeled and crossed the living room, poured himself a drink of straight bourbon and downed it. "yes, i have a notion now, but it's none of your damned business. his ideas may be patentable." i said slowly and quietly, "now i'll tell you what i've been waiting for. i've been waiting for you to offer me information about the two little gadgets that you removed from your brother's work-bench--against my explicit orders not to touch anything. until you produce those items and explain your actions i'll be around here asking stupid questions. from now on, understand?" "damn cops!" he threw the shot glass to the floor and glared at me for a long minute. "all right, come with me." we went into a little library. he took two volumes from a high shelf and from the recess snatched the two gadgets with the pistol grips. from a table drawer, which he unlocked with a key from his pocket, he took some drawings that looked like the ones that had disappeared from his brother's little workshop. "calvin developed a new effect by applying one of his esoteric mathematical symbols to a simple electronic circuit," leo began, in his surly tone. he pointed at the margin of the circuit drawing. there were jottings of algebraic formulae in which the quantity "i" appeared prominently. he pointed this out to me and continued, "being a cop you wouldn't understand, but this symbol stands for an imaginary number, the square root of a minus one." this rang a bell from away back in my own college math. i said, "yeah, i think i remember. it's some sort of operational factor in polar coordinates. no real meaning in itself, but--" "well! an educated cop! that's right, except that calvin managed to give this symbol an actual, functional application. i was telling the truth when i said i didn't know what he was doing. i still don't understand it, and i've been losing sleep over these formulae." "then why not take it to the university and let the professors--" "because," he interrupted, "whether i understand it or not, calvin's gadget, happens to work. watch this." he picked an ordinary paper clip from the debris of pencils, stamps and rubber bands from the top desk drawers, touched it to the "muzzle" end of the gadget where it stuck as if magnetized. "now keep your eyes on the paper clip," he ordered. his forefinger pressed a button in the pistol grip, and without click, snap, buzz or murmur, _the paper clip disappeared_. leo stared at me, as thoughts of "hyper-space", fourth-dimension and space-warps flitted through my mind. it wasn't a buck roger's atomic disintegrator, because there was no heat, flash or sound. the clip was suddenly elsewhere. "and i suppose the other gadget brings it back," i said. "that's what i thought, but i can't make it work. i suppose my brother could, if he were here." he tossed the thing to me, pointed at the little box of paper clips in the drawer and said, "have fun." i did, for about five minutes. eight paper clips later i was convinced that whatever else it might be, the gadget was no potential murder weapon. the clips disappeared, totally. you could pass your hand through the point of departure without a tingle of sensation. leo briefed me further. the thing worked only on metallic conductors. it was harmless to human flesh and other organic matter. then he removed the cover that ran the length of the rather crude, hand-carved, wooden barrel. from front to back, were: one pen-light cell, a lumpy-looking coil of wire hand-wound on a spindle-shaped iron core, and a short, cylindrical bar-magnet. "in mass production," he said, "about cents worth of material and maybe cents worth of labor! do you see why i wanted to keep it a secret until i could patent it?" "no!" i said flatly. "unless you consider a paper-clip disposal unit an item of commercial importance." "but it's a whole new scientific principle--the rotation of matter completely out of our space-time continuum!" "that much i grasp, but what good is it except as a demonstration of a piece of pure scientific research?" "good lord, man, have you no imagination?" "okay, okay! get rich," i said and slammed the front door behind me as i stomped out. i had been so certain that the missing gadgets would give me a motive for the attack on leo's brother, or at least the method of inflicting the fantastic wound, that i was about ready to turn in my badge in frustration. all i could pin on leo was a desire to cash in on his brother's gimmick--which, presumably, he could have done whether calvin lived or died. suppose, i mused on my way back to the station, that calvin had refused to let leo commercialize on his discovery? perhaps calvin was preparing a paper for publication in scientific circles. maybe cool-headed little leo tried to knock off his brother to keep the secret in the family until it could be turned to a selfish dollar. all right, suppose a jury would accept such an impalpable theory as a motive, then what? no murder weapon. no witnesses. not even a genuine murder yet, because calvin was still alive. yes, old doc thorsen had kept the mathematician alive somehow. the elder baxter lay on his back across two, white iron beds pushed together in the city hospital, and thorsen came in to report to me. "the clot seems to be absorbing better than i expected, but it's doubtful that we could operate to remove the paralyzing pressure. the puncture is deep into the brain tissue, and he's too nearly gone to survive such an ordeal." "any chance that he might recover consciousness?" "pretty remote," thorsen told me. "we'll keep a special nurse with him as you ordered, just in case he does." i left calvin baxter pale and motionless as some great statue supine amid the tangle of plasma, glucose and saline hoses, under his transparent oxygen tent. the wound that had laid him low was no more than a dot of dried blood on his massive forehead. until his death, his file would remain under unsolved crimes. in my own mind i was no longer sure of anything, except that if there was a nickel in calvin baxter's discovery, his mercenary brother would wring it out. and he did. even before calvin died. some seven weeks later leo marketed the "mystery i-gun" as a combined, toy, trick and puzzle, and it set the whole damned world on its ear! i located leo baxter in his new suite of offices on the th floor of the state building. he peeled back his lips in a sneery grin. "i thought you'd be showing up." he waved away his male secretary who was still clinging to my arm trying to tow me back to the reception room. i said, "i kept your secret, then you pull an irresponsible thing like this! a kid's toy! good lord, man, that device might be dangerous!" "i appreciate your professional ethics, lieutenant. i've applied for a patent, so you can tell all your friends now. and stop worrying. the "mystery i-gun" is quite harmless. i experimented a week before going into production." "a week?" i could scarcely believe my ears. "what happens when some kid jams his gun against a light-pole or an automobile ... or the night lock on the first national bank?" "nothing. it punches no holes. a large metallic object simply dissipates the field. the largest object it will handle is about a half-inch steel screw--" "baxter, your brother's accident is connected to that device--and you turn it loose as a novelty!" "nonsense. it's safe as a knot-hole. it simply makes things disappear. little things, like tacks, ball bearing, old rusty nuts and bolts--" "and dimes and mamma's earrings and the front door key," i snapped back. "until you know how to bring those things back you had no right to market that rig." he laid his small hands before him on the desk. "lieutenant, i'm sick of working for other people. this is my chance to get a bank-roll to back my own contracting firm. yes, i financed calvin's research because he's brilliant, and i knew he'd come up with something some day. now he's done it, and i'm merely protecting his interests and my investment in him. see here." he shoved some documents at me. there was the patent application, a declaration of partnership for purposes of marketing the mystery i-gun, and the articles of incorporation of the baxter construction company. "okay," i said. "so you've cut your brother in on all this. who's his beneficiary when he dies?" "still looking for a motive for murder, aren't you, lieutenant?" i didn't admit it to him, but he was right. calvin's "accident" seemed too convenient to the purposes of his practical little brother, leo. what's more, the lab and medical men on the force were just as mystified today as they were when we brought calvin in with the needle-thin hole in his skull. old doc thorsen had admitted to me that he could name no implement--not even a surgical instrument--that could have inflicted such a narrow gauge hole. it had to be caused by a fragment, _but there was no fragment in the brain_! "leo," i said, "i know you consider this case closed, but i want you to do me a favor. i want to go over your brother's lab once more." "but you've--" he stopped, shrugged and nodded his head. "okay. i'm interested in finding out what hurt cal, as much as you are. i'll tell you, i'm busy the rest of this week, but i'll meet you at the old house next monday evening at eight. you see, i closed up the place and moved downtown." i agreed, with the feeling that he was deliberately making me wait just to annoy me. leo baxter was an important man now, a man graciously willing to cooperate with the police--at his own convenience. i stood up. "your brother has been calling your name. i suppose they told you that?" "they phoned. doctor said it was just mutterings." "you haven't even been to see him?" "what's the use? he wouldn't recognize me." well, it wasn't any of my business, really, but it's funny how you get to hate a man for his attitude. i don't know what i expected to find by going over that lab-workshop again, but whatever it was, i hoped it would incriminate leo. on the face of it he was guilty of nothing more than a premature marketing of a new device, but the way he was cashing in on calvin's genius certainly did the dying man no honor. _cash in was right!_ the toys sold like bubble-gum. the papers, radio, and tv picked up the sensational gimmick and gave it a billion bucks worth of free advertising. and the profitable part of it was that the i-gun was so simple to mass-produce that leo's fifteen contracting manufacturers were almost able to keep up with the astronomical demand. before that week was up, the wall street journal estimated there were already more i-guns in the hands of the juvenile public than all the yo-yos ever produced. they retailed at eighty-five cents, made of plastic with a hole in the back where you could change the pen-light battery. they sold, all right. they sold in drugstores and toy stores and dime stores and department stores. toddler's, tykes and teen-agers went for them. and adults. maybe million of them were in the hands of the public before i saw leo baxter next. which was almost two weeks instead of the one week he had promised. i finally got an appointment. "sorry," he said. "i've been tied up with government people all week. the a. e. c. tried to get me in trouble." i said, "skip it. you promised for tonight. now let's go." "i can't possibly make it tonight." he pointed at his desk. it was littered with correspondence, orders and contracts. "give me one more week, lieutenant." it was an order, not a request. there was nothing to do but wait the third week. it was not, however, uneventful. it was the week the accidents began to happen. at : of a tuesday afternoon, a man was admitted to a local hospital with a perforated belly. straight through, hide, guts and liver. a newsman got hold of it and wrote a scare story about an attack with a pellet gun that must shoot needles. before the edition was sold out the hospitals were loaded with emergency cases. people with holes in them. tiny little holes, mostly, but holes that went right through them. then dogs. then automobiles, trucks and busses. holes in their radiators. holes in windshields that always went straight back, through seats and sometimes passengers--right out through the rear end. * * * * * the city panicked. then the county, state and nation. in two days, yes, the whole nation! at first everyone thought we were being attacked by some secret weapon. by some miracle of statesmanship, the president of the united states prevented a "massive retaliation" attack by the army upon our most likely enemy--long enough for intelligence to affirm that no enemy on earth was that mad at us. then all thoughts turned to extra-terrestrial space. a bombardment from the sky? it was ridiculous to even consider, because none of the holes that appeared in people and things came from above. the holes were almost entirely in the horizontal plane. strangely enough during those first two days, nobody thought of the mystery i-gun. no one but me. leo baxter had disappeared into thin air, as completely as if he'd turned to metal and crawled into the muzzle of one of his own "toys". i had every known place he frequented staked out with a pair of plain-clothesmen, but it was the morning of the second day of accidents before i got a radio call from the squad car stationed near the old baxter home. leo had come home at last. he was a sad looking midget when i got there. obviously no sleep, unshaven, deep hollows under his eyes. "i figured you'd be waiting for me, lieutenant, but you know what?" he demanded. "i don't give a damn! i kept waiting for them to figure out the answer to these accidents and string me up. how come you didn't tell anybody?" i said, "shut up and let's go inside." sure, i figured the i-gun was the cause, but the last thing i wanted was for leo to get strung up before i laid my hands on that other device--the one that wouldn't work. i wanted that rig and all the plans and formulae, and leo undoubtedly had them hidden deeper than fort knox. he unlocked the door, and i told the others to wait outside. we went into the hall and closed the door behind us. "so your little toy was harmless?" i said, grabbing him by his wrinkled lapels. "so it just shoots stuff off into another dimension?" he stared at me, his eyes half glazed. "i don't--know. that's what the notes said." he sank into a chair. "i guess it doesn't, though. it must ball up the metal object and shoot it out--infinite velocity--reduced in size--infinite mass--infinite inertia--keeps circling the globe like--like a satellite. goes right through anything it hits. goes on and on. forever. little bullets. right through steel. right through flesh and bones--" "simmer down," i said. "you've been reading the papers. i've been checking the facts." "what do you mean?" "that you were right the first time. it does shoot metal objects into another dimension. but _they don't stay there_. they ooze back. slowly. real slow, so the first edge or corner that sticks back into our dimension is only a few millionths of an inch thick. then a few ten-thousandths, then a few thousandths--and that's about the time they start making holes in people and objects _that run into them_." "run into them?" "certainly. there are no holes in buildings or other stationary objects. the holes are all horizontal. now look, baxter, our only chance is to work on that other device and your brother's notes, and maybe we can develop an extractor of some kind." "no. no, you don't understand," he said shaking his head like a sleep-walker. "it balls up the metal. shoots it out. infinite mass. infinite veloc--" "knock off that nonsense, and tell me where those plans are." "trying to steal my brother's other invention, are you? it's not patented yet. you know that, don't you? couldn't patent it because i can't make it work yet. you're smart, but you won't get it from me--" i had a fair hold on him, but the pure insanity that flared in his eyes shocked me for just the instant it took him to wrench out of my hands. he stumbled to the door of the study and burst through it heading for the window. i didn't hurry after him too fast, because i knew the boys outside would take him. leo baxter was only three paces into the stale air of the unused library when he screamed, clasping his hands to his chest and dropped. a peculiar grating, plucking sound came faintly before he thudded to the carpet. i stopped hard in my tracks and wiped the sweat from my face while leo baxter twitched almost at my feet, his heart shredded and bubbling its last in his perforated chest. _the paper clips. the ones i had propelled into nothingness weeks ago._ hat in hand i advanced slowly, waving it before me chest high. then it caught suddenly, grated for a split second and passed on in its arc. now there were several tiny holes in it. i backed away a foot and brought my hat down slowly on the same lethal spot of air. chest-high it caught and hung suspended. leaving it there as a marker i took off my suitcoat, held it before me and inched forward toward the desk. something plucked at the dangling garment, and a chill froze my spine. had i been walking forward normally, the tiny speck of metal that barely caught the glint of light from the window, would have pierced my skin at just about the site of my appendix. i circled the spot continuing to feel forward with my coat. that was the paper clip baxter had fired to demonstrate to me that first day. at the phone i called headquarters and told the chief what to do. "you're so right," he told me, his voice slurring strangely. "only you're a little late. the order went out to confiscate the i-guns. they think the damned toys might have something to do with the accidents. and i bought one of the first ones for my little jerry!" his voice sounded hollow. so they were figuring it out! the next question was, how to extract the deadly particles from the other dimension, or how to keep them from bleeding back slowly into ours. i moved cautiously through the old house fanning every inch of air ahead of me with a phone book. when i got to calvin baxter's workshop i was especially careful, but i needn't have been. the only metal particles stuck into the thin air seemed to be over his work-bench where he had been experimenting with his device. all but one. it was right where i expected to find it--better than six feet in the air, just forehead high for a man tall as calvin baxter. he had fired his proto-type of the i-gun just once into the middle of the room. how long ago? eight--ten weeks ago? it seemed impossible that all this horror had occurred in such a short time. but there it was, stuck in space, protruding about a hundredth of an inch from nowhere into clear visibility. so little was showing that i couldn't be sure, but it looked like the tip of an ordinary little nail or wood-screw. this was my "murder-weapon", the cause of calvin baxter's accident. he'd run into it, jerked his head back, and the speck had come out the same hole it went in. in twenty minutes by the clock i had the lab crew out from headquarters, and had explained the whole business to them. first they measured the length of the protrusion, and my guess was about right. it measured . inches on the micrometer caliper. if it were a screw an inch long, at that rate of "bleedback" it would take another weeks to come the rest of the way out. almost two years! paul riley, the lab chief, was sharp. he caught it about the same time i did and turned to look at me. "we've got to figure a way of getting those things out of the way." i nodded. "but quick." collins, our print man, said, "why not just shoot them back into wherever it is they go, with another i-gun?" "and have them come bleeding back after a few weeks?" paul frowned him silent. he picked up a hammer from the bench and tapped the tiny, glinting speck. the point flattened out a bit, but the thud of the hammer indicated how solidly it was stuck. then he walked around behind the point and struck it a hard blow from the cross-section side. the hammer shivered in his hand and he dropped it, rubbing his numbed fingers with his other hand. "lieutenant," he said slowly, "we are up against something." we found we could file away the metal easily enough. sure it filed away until the file cut into empty space. but cold comfort that was. in a few hours, we knew, molecule by molecule, the screw buried in the other dimension would come oozing back, a minute but lethal speck ready to ambush the first very tall man who walked toward it. tall man! that's why leo baxter and i had failed to find it in the first place. i had criss-crossed that room half a thousand times in my previous examinations. if i had been taller, or the speck of metal lower-- "we've got to bring calvin baxter back to consciousness somehow," i said. "we've got to find out how that extractor of his works." "right!" jerry said, dropping his hands in resignation. we'd run out of ideas at the same time, and the senior baxter appeared to be our only hope. * * * * * we fanned our way out of there, into the squad car, and proceeded at a gingerly five miles per hour back to headquarters. on my insistence, calvin baxter had been set up in a private room at the jail with doc thorsen in attendance. the city hospitals were so jammed with accident victims and frantic relatives that it was no place to work with a man who was our only salvation. when i explained everything to dr. thorsen and told him how important it was that we bring calvin back to consciousness he shook his head. "it might be done, but it would probably kill him--" "but you said he'd never recover anyway," i argued. thorsen seemed to be considering that. "yes," he said at last. "that's more apparent now than ever. he's beginning to suffer the usual complications of immobility. probably won't last more than a few weeks anyway. but can't you get the dope you want from his brother?" he stalled while he weighed his ethics against the necessity of the moment. "his brother," i told him, "is dead. paper clips. right through the heart." "i see. well, we could operate, but as i said, calvin wouldn't survive for long. maybe only hours or minutes. and maybe not even long enough to regain consciousness after we remove the clot." i said, "i've left a crew at the baxter house to tear it apart, board by board, until we find this so-called _extractor_ that leo hid. but even after we find it, we need calvin to tell us how to make it work. there must be a part missing." we had wandered into calvin's room and were talking over his great, supine body, covered to the chin with a white sheet. the speck of scalp on his forehead had dried up and dropped off leaving only a faint white spot. as i mentioned the missing part, his lips began moving and a grunt issued from his throat. "listen," i said. "he hears me! he's trying to talk!" "no, lieutenant." thorsen said, putting a hand to his eyes. "he's been grunting like that for days. the only word that ever comes out is his brother's name, leo." the name struck anger and frustration in me. "leo," i half-shouted. "that stinking little--never even visited his brother!" "relax, gene. that won't do any good. the man's dead," he reminded me. "relax? when all over the country people are tearing their bodies to pieces? innocent people. little kids--" "i know, i know. i just spent nine hours in the emergency ward. peritonitis. cardiac injury. lungs. torn eye-balls. and it's probably just the beginning." "then what are you waiting for?" i demanded. "our only chance is to bring calvin baxter to consciousness long enough to explain how his extractor works." doc ran trembling hands through his fuzz of white hair. for the first time i noticed that the pupils of his eyes were moving back and forth in little quick, darting motions like a wild animal looking for escape. "i--don't know, gene. i suppose you are right. only--we need permission--we must--you see, he might die, and--" i took a good look at him and suddenly realized that despite his calm voice, the old man was going to pieces. i grabbed him by the arm and hauled him out of there, across the hall to the chief's office. durstine had his head down on his arms, slouched over the desk fast asleep between two clanging telephones. "wake up, chief!" i said, shaking him by the shoulder. "we have to get baxter to city hospital and--" durstine raised his head and stared at me. his usually sharp, gray eyes were dull, and his face looked dirty with a stubble of black whiskers. with a deliberate motion of both hands he knocked the receivers off both phones and fell back in his swivel chair. "now what?" he asked thickly. "you're drunk!" i exclaimed. _durstine, who would fire a -year man without a qualm if he caught a single trace of beer on his breath on duty._ "what else is new?" he could barely focus his eyes on me. i swallowed a couple of times and began explaining what must be done. get the mayor and civil defense on the phone. commandeer all radio stations to explain the true nature of the metallic particles to the public. tell them to stay put, and when they did move, to walk slowly, fanning the air ahead of them with something solid--an umbrella, a coat, newspaper, garbage can lid--anything to warn them of the tiny, suspended daggers. "yeah. great idea. some people doing it already." he said it without enthusiasm. "only trouble is, the phones are swamped. communications are breaking down already, and when people learn about the fever, they will blow sky-high." "the fever?" "the fever." he bobbed his head loosely. "my jerry died of it this afternoon. came down with it day before yesterday. by the time we got him to the hospital this morning he was running a hundred and five. docs were too busy with bleeders. wouldn't listen to me until it was too late. jerry's dead. my little jerry." his voice was flat, his eyes staring straight ahead. jerry was his only son, and one of the first kids in town to own an i-gun. durstine had said he bought it for himself. the chief went on, "what's more, the fever's epidemic. before we left the hospital they were dragging victims in by the hundreds. not just kids, either. on top of this other thing, we got the worst epidemic in history. no one knows what it is." i looked at thorsen. "you said you'd been at the hospital. what is it?" "i--saw a few cases." he said it almost under his breath. i grabbed him by his coat lapels. "snap out of it, doc. if you know what it is, for god's sake tell us!" "they don't know what it is," he said looking down at the floor. "but you do. i can tell by your face." "all right, maybe i do." his face was drawn and defiant with an almost fanatical determination. "there aren't enough sulphas and antibiotics in the world to control it. we can't do anything about it, so why drive people crazy with fear?" durstine was coming out of his fog. he opened the big bottom drawer of his desk and handed an open fifth of whiskey to thorsen. he said, "doc, you're in no condition to make a decision like that." thorsen tipped up the bottle and let several swallows pour down his leathery neck. the stuff brought tears to his eyes. he blinked them away and wiped his mouth with the back of his hand. "all right, public guardian, i'll tell you. it's pretty obvious, and other medical men will think of it pretty quick, i suppose--when they find out the cause of the punctures they are treating. this fever is just more of the same. peritonitis. only it's caused by particles so small that you can't even feel when they penetrate the skin. they're large enough to poke holes in your intestines, though. large enough to make microscopic passages for bacteria. so, you see, for every bleeding patient, there will be hundreds, thousands, coming down with peritonitis--infection of the body cavity from within. without drugs the inflammation spreads in hours, and the temperature goes up and up. it's fatal." i could almost feel the pain in my belly and the fire in my veins as he spoke. doc thorsen took another drink and handed me the bottle. "you look a little pale, gene. have a jolt and see if _your_ guts leak." durstine and i both had a drink, and the chief said, "i see what you meant. i wish you'd kept your mouth shut." i said, "dammit, we've got to do something." "like what?" durstine asked bitterly. "like quarantining the schools and the playgrounds?" thorsen nodded grimly. "and the parks? and all back yards and front yards?" durstine picked it up again. "and empty lots and all sidewalks and streets and public buildings and the whole damned outdoors plus the indoors?" the enormity of the problem began to sink into my tired brain. in the space of weeks, more than million i-guns were sold in the united states alone. multiply that figure by the number of times each was fired. ten? fifty? a hundred times? only god knew how many billion nails, tacks, screws and rivets were launched into limbo, and were now just beginning to return--invisible at first--to skewer the american people. wherever kids had played--and that was virtually everywhere--death was hidden. and the semi-visible particles would keep emerging for weeks, in the order that they were shot into the other dimension. worse yet, at the slow rate of emergence, it would be months or years before the metallic flotsam returned completely and dropped to earth! a man could protect himself only by remaining motionless. but society was geared to motion, fast, space-covering motion. the nation would starve to death, if everyone didn't go insane first and tear themselves to pieces running around. "we've got to get the secret of that extractor out of calvin baxter," i said. "if we can discover the principle, we can build large models, like a vacuum cleaner--" * * * * * getting baxter into city hospital and finding a competent surgeon in good enough condition to perform the delicate operation, took almost twenty-four hours. the hospital resembled an abattoir, the corridor floors slick from the drippings of fresh blood, as people seeking help wandered frantically from floor to floor. somehow we managed to impress upon the staff the fact that baxter had priority, and we were allowed on the operating floor, which was guarded at all entries. sick with exhaustion, i waited with durstine. thorsen was impressed into duty immediately, and that was the last we saw of him. it was a good many hours before they called us into the operating room. i won't try to describe the sight in detail. surgeons and nurses hovered over tables, weaving like drunken butchers in blood-soaked aprons. in one corner, on a cot, baxter lay with his head and shoulders propped up high. his feet hung over the end at least fourteen inches. a single sheet covered him. the top of his skull was bandaged, and he looked even paler than before. a doctor and one nurse stood on either side of him. as we came in the doctor said, "i've been told of the problem. we've done all we can, but this man is dying. i think we can bring him to consciousness for a few minutes. it's a terribly cruel thing to do, and i'm not sure he will be coherent. are you sure you want me to try?" "it's his invention that brought on all of this," i said. "if there's any solution to it, he has it in his head." "very well." he did things with a hypodermic needle while the nurse rigged an oxygen tent. the smell of ether and blood made me sicker. my throat was dry, and i remember wishing i hadn't drunk durstine's whiskey. as we stood waiting the humid air felt almost unbearably hot, and i had difficulty focussing my eyes. durstine looked terrible, hollow-eyed, unshaven, but he seemed in better shape than i. it was he who caught the first flicker of baxter's eyes and dropped to his knees. the color came back to the scientist's face in a rush of pink, and his chest heaved with deep breathing. "can you hear me?" durstine began. * * * * * an hour later baxter was dead as predicted. and so was all hope of removing the lethal debris with his other invention. the "extractor" didn't work, he had told us. yes, he'd been trying to reverse the field to retrieve the metallic objects from the other dimension, _but the experiment was a failure_! durstine took my arm. "come on, gene. we've done all we can. i know one safe place--a place where no kids ever played." "yeah, i know," i said with a tongue two sizes too big. "the nearest bar. the damned kids! they've murdered us! leo baxter and the damned kids!" things were turning gray, but i remember the chief catching me by the shoulder and jerking me around. too late i remembered about his little jerry and the agony my words must have carved in his heart. i wished he'd slug me, but he didn't. he looked at me for a long minute and said something i don't remember, because the fog closed in--a hot, dry fog that swept into my brain and blacked out the light. i don't even remember falling. the last thought i had was, _the fever! i've got it. and thorsen said there were no more antibiotics or drugs left in the city._ * * * * * some weeks later it was a surprise but no pleasure, to discover i was still alive. through the smoke of my unfocussed eyes i could tell that my "private" room was occupied by at least a dozen other patients. some were on cots and some, like me, simply lay on the floor with a blanket over them. i had one -second visit from the doctor before durstine came to take me away. the doc said simply, "you're a lucky man, lieutenant. we didn't save many 'fever' patients after the drugs ran out." the chief brought a couple of boys in blue with a stretcher to haul me out. i was amazed to discover that automobiles were still moving about the streets--not many, but a few. i was too sick and exhausted to talk during the ride. durstine rode in back with me, a hand on my shoulder. "don't worry, gene," he said. "you're going to be all right. and we've got this thing pretty well licked." he looked into my eyes and read the question i was too weak to speak aloud. "no," he said, "we didn't figure out baxter's extractor. but we do have a successful detector, and all we have to do now is use it--then hang a tin can or an old ketchup bottle on each speck of metal for a marker. yeah, the country's going to be cluttered up like a hanging garbage dump for a long time, but if you can see 'em you can dodge 'em." a detector? why, they'd have to equip every person in the country with one! and surely nothing less than an electronic, radar-type gadget could detect the microscopic particles as they first began to emerge--the kind that had riddled my intestines and given me the fever without even leaving a mark on my skin. "i know what you are thinking," durstine said. his face was gray and drawn, but he wore a faint smile. "it was simple when somebody thought of it. what would be cheap enough to distribute universally, yet effective enough to give you positive warning? you see, these tiny particles are so fine at first that you can fan the air with a plank and never know when one passes through." he raised me up from the stretcher and let me look out the window of the police ambulance. through squinted eyes i made out a strange sight. a thin scattering of pedestrians was moving slowly on the sidewalks, winding their ways among a random collection of floating tin cans and inverted bottles. when we stopped for a red light i watched a young woman in a business suit step between a whiskey bottle head-high, and a bean can about knee-high, and then proceed gingerly waving a colored sphere ahead of her. this sphere, about eighteen inches in diameter, suddenly disappeared. she stopped abruptly and began shouting. before the traffic light turned green, a man came up with an empty motor oil can and placed it on the sidewalk, under the point she indicated in the air before her. durstine explained, "when that speck gets large enough to support it, that can will be hung on it. meanwhile, other people are forewarned that the air over the can is out-of-bounds, so they won't waste detectors on it." as he spoke, the young woman was fishing another "detector" from her purse. it was a limp bit of something which she placed to her lips and inflated until it was a foot-and-a-half in diameter, then she tied off the neck and proceeded down the walk waving it before her in great vertical sweeps. it was as simple as that. our undoing had been an -cent kid's toy. and our salvation was a penny-balloon! the rumble and the roar by stephen bartholomew _the noise was too much for him. he wanted quiet--at any price._ [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from worlds of if science fiction, february . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] when joseph got to the office his ears were aching from the noise of the copter and from his earplugs. lately, every little thing seemed to make him irritable. he supposed it was because his drafting department was behind schedule on the latest defense contract. his ears were sore and his stomach writhed with dyspepsia, and his feet hurt. walking through the clerical office usually made him feel better. the constant clatter of typewriters and office machines gave him a sense of efficiency, of stability, an all-is-well-with-the-world feeling. he waved to a few of the more familiar employees and smiled, but of course you couldn't say hello with the continual racket. this morning, somehow, it didn't make him feel better. he supposed it was because of the song they were playing over the speakers, "slam bang boom," the latest top hit. he hated that song. of course the national mental health people said constant music had a beneficial effect on office workers, so joseph was no one to object, even though he did wonder if anyone could ever actually listen to it over the other noise. in his own office the steady din was hardly diminished despite soundproofing, and since he was next to an outside wall he was subjected also to the noises of the city. he stood staring out of the huge window for awhile, watching the cars on the freeway and listening to the homogeneous rumble and scream of turbines. _something's wrong with me_, he thought. _i shouldn't be feeling this way. nerves. nerves._ he turned around and got his private secretary on the viewer. she simpered at him, trying to be friendly with her dull, sunken eyes. "betty," he told her, "i want you to make an appointment with my therapist for me this afternoon. tell him it's just a case of nerves, though." "yes sir. anything else?" her voice, like every one's, was a high pitched screech trying to be heard above the noise. joseph winced. "anybody want to see me this morning?" "well, mr. wills says he has the first model of his invention ready to show you." "let him in whenever he's ready. otherwise, if nothing important comes up, i want you to leave me alone." "yes, sir, certainly." she smiled again, a mechanical, automatic smile that seemed to want to be something more. joseph switched off. _that was a damn funny way of saying it_, he thought. _"i want you to leave me alone." as if somebody were after me._ he spent about an hour on routine paperwork and then bob wills showed up so joseph switched off his dictograph and let him in. "i'm afraid you'll have to make it brief, bob," he grinned. "i've a whale of a lot of work to do, and i seem to be developing a splitting headache. nerves, you know." "sure, mister partch. i won't take a minute; i just thought you'd like to have a look at the first model of our widget and get clued in on our progress so far...." "yes, yes, just go ahead. how does the thing work?" bob smiled and set the grey steel chassis on partch's desk, sat down in front of it, and began tracing the wiring for joseph. it was an interesting problem, or at any rate should have been. it was one that had been harassing cities, industry, and particularly air-fields, for many years. of course, every one wore earplugs--and that helped a little. and some firms had partially solved the problem by using personnel that were totally deaf, because such persons were the only ones who could stand the terrific noise levels that a technological civilization forced everyone to endure. the noise from a commercial rocket motor on the ground had been known to drive men mad, and sometimes kill them. there had never seemed to be any wholly satisfactory solution. but now bob wills apparently had the beginnings of a real answer. a device that would use the principle of interference to cancel out sound waves, leaving behind only heat. it should have been fascinating to partch, but somehow he couldn't make himself get interested in it. "the really big problem is the power requirement," wills was saying. "we've got to use a lot of energy to cancel out big sound waves, but we've got several possible answers in mind and we're working on all of them." he caressed the crackle-finish box fondly. "the basic gimmick works fine, though. yesterday i took it down to a static test stand over in building and had them turn on a pretty fair-sized steering rocket for one of the big moon-ships. reduced the noise-level by about per cent, it did. of course, i still needed my plugs." joseph nodded approvingly and stared vacantly into the maze of transistors and tubes. "i've built it to work on ordinary cycle house current," wills told him. "in case you should want to demonstrate it to anybody." partch became brusque. he liked bob, but he had work to do. "yes, i probably shall, bob. i tell you what, why don't you just leave it here in my office and i'll look it over later, hm?" "okay, mr. partch." joseph ushered him out of the office, complimenting him profusely on the good work he was doing. only after he was gone and joseph was alone again behind the closed door, did he realize that he had a sudden yearning for company, for someone to talk to. <tb> partch had betty send him in a light lunch and he sat behind his desk nibbling the tasteless stuff without much enthusiasm. he wondered if he was getting an ulcer. yes, he decided, he was going to have to have a long talk with dr. coles that afternoon. be a pleasure to get it all off his chest, his feeling of melancholia, his latent sense of doom. be good just to talk about it. oh, everything was getting to him these days. he was in a rut, that was it. a rut. he spat a sesame seed against the far wall and the low whir of the automatic vacuum cleaner rose and fell briefly. joseph winced. the speakers were playing "slam bang boom" again. his mind turned away from the grating melody in self defense, to look inward on himself. of what, after all, did joseph partch's life consist? he licked his fingers and thought about it. what would he do this evening after work, for instance? why, he'd stuff his earplugs back in his inflamed ears and board the commuter's copter and ride for half an hour listening to the drumming of the rotors and the pleading of the various canned commercials played on the copter's speakers loud enough to be heard over the engine noise and through the plugs. and then when he got home, there would be the continuous yammer of his wife added to the tri-di set going full blast and the dull food from the automatic kitchen. and synthetic coffee and one stale cigaret. perhaps a glass of brandy to steady his nerves if dr. coles approved. partch brooded. the sense of foreboding had been submerged in the day's work, but it was still there. it was as if, any moment, a hydrogen bomb were going to be dropped down the chimney, and you had no way of knowing when. and what would there be to do after he had finished dinner that night? why, the same things he had been doing every night for the past fifteen years. there would be tri-di first of all. the loud comedians, and the musical commercials, and the loud bands, and the commercials, and the loud songs.... and every twenty minutes or so, the viewer would jangle with one of felicia's friends calling up, and more yammering from felicia. perhaps there would be company that night, to play cards and sip drinks and talk and talk and talk, and never say a thing at all. there would be aircraft shaking the house now and then, and the cry of the monorail horn at intervals. and then, at last, it would be time to go to bed, and the murmur of the somnolearner orating him on the theory of groups all through the long night. and in the morning, he would be shocked into awareness with the clangor of the alarm clock and whatever disc jockey the clock radio happened to tune in on. joseph partch's world was made up of sounds and noises, he decided. dimly, he wondered of what civilization itself would be constructed if all the sounds were once taken away. _why_, after all, was the world of man so noisy? it was almost as if--as if everybody were making as much noise as they could to conceal the fact that there was something lacking. or something they were afraid of. like a little boy whistling loudly as he walks by a cemetery at night. partch got out of his chair and stared out the window again. there was a fire over on the east side, a bad one by the smoke. the fire engines went screaming through the streets like wounded dragons. sirens, bells. police whistles. all at once, partch realized that never in his life had he experienced real quiet or solitude. that actually, he had no conception of what an absence of thunder and wailing would be like. a total absence of sound and noise. almost, it was like trying to imagine what a negation of _space_ would be like. and then he turned, and his eyes fell on bob wills' machine. it could reduce the noise level of a rocket motor by per cent, wills had said. here in the office, the sound level was less than that of a rocket motor. and the machine worked on ordinary house current, bob had said. partch had an almost horrifying idea. suppose.... but what would dr. coles say about this, partch wondered. oh, he had to get a grip on himself. this was silly, childish.... but looking down, he found that he had already plugged in the line cord. an almost erotic excitement began to shake joseph's body. the sense of disaster had surged up anew, but he didn't recognize it yet. an absence of _sound_? no! silly! then a fire engine came tearing around the corner just below the window, filling the office with an ocean of noise. joseph's hand jerked and flicked the switch. and then the dream came back to him, the nightmare of the night before that had precipitated, unknown to him, his mood of foreboding. it came back to him with stark realism and flooded him with unadorned fear. in the dream, he had been in a forest. not just the city park, but a _real_ forest, one thousands of miles and centuries away from human civilization. a wood in which the foot of man had never trod. it was dark there, and the trees were thick and tall. there was no wind, the leaves were soft underfoot. and joseph partch was all alone, _completely_ alone. and it was--quiet. doctor coles looked at the patient on the white cot sadly. "i've only seen a case like it once before in my entire career, dr. leeds." leeds nodded. "it _is_ rather rare. look at him--total catatonia. he's curled into a perfect foetal position. never be the same again, i'm afraid." "the shock must have been tremendous. an awful psychic blow, especially to a person as emotionally disturbed as mr. partch was." "yes, that machine of mr. wills' is extremely dangerous. what amazes me is that it didn't kill partch altogether. good thing we got to him when we did." dr. coles rubbed his jaw. "yes, you know it _is_ incredible how much the human mind can sometimes take, actually. as you say, it's a wonder it didn't kill him." he shook his head. "perfectly horrible. how could any modern human stand it? two hours, he was alone with that machine. imagine--_two hours_ of total silence!" seven day terror by r. a. lafferty things just vanished. it was simple. as a matter of fact, it was child's play! [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from worlds of if science fiction, march . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] "is there anything you want to make disappear?" clarence willoughby asked his mother. "a sink full of dishes is all i can think of. how will you do it?" "i just built a disappearer. all you do is cut the other end out of a beer can. then you take two pieces of red cardboard with peepholes in the middle and fit them in the ends. you look through the peepholes and blink. whatever you look at will disappear." "oh." "but i don't know if i can make them come back. we'd better try it on something else. dishes cost money." as always, myra willoughby had to admire the wisdom of her nine-year-old son. she would not have had such foresight herself. he always did. "you can try it on blanche manners' cat outside there. nobody will care if it disappears except blanche manners." "all right." he put the disappearer to his eye and blinked. the cat disappeared from the sidewalk outside. his mother was interested. "i wonder how it works. do you know how it works?" "yes. you take a beer can with both ends cut out and put in two pieces of cardboard. then you blink." "never mind. take it outside and play with it. you hadn't better make anything disappear in here till i think about this." but when he had gone his mother was oddly disturbed. "i wonder if i have a precocious child. why, there's lots of grown people who wouldn't know how to make a disappearer that would work. i wonder if blanche manners will miss her cat very much?" clarence went down to the plugged nickel, a pot house on the corner. "do you have anything you want to make disappear, nokomis?" "only my paunch." "if i make it disappear it'll leave a hole in you and you'll bleed to death." "that's right, i would. why don't you try it on the fire plug outside?" * * * * * this in a way was one of the happiest afternoons ever in the neighborhood. the children came from blocks around to play in the flooded streets and gutters, and if some of them drowned (and we don't say that they _did_ drown) in the flood (and brother! it was a flood), why, you have to expect things like that. the fire engines (whoever heard of calling fire engines to put out a flood?) were apparatus-deep in the water. the policemen and ambulance men wandered around wet and bewildered. "resuscitator, resuscitator, anybody wanna resuscitator," chanted clarissa willoughby. "oh, shut up," said the ambulance attendants. nokomis, the bar man in the plugged nickel, called clarence aside. "i don't believe, just for the moment, i'd tell anyone what happened to that fire plug," he said. "i won't tell if you won't tell," said clarence. officer comstock was suspicious. "there's only seven possible explanations. one of the seven willoughby kids did it. i dunno how. it'd take a bulldozer to do it, and then there'd be something left of the plug. but however they did it, one of them did it." officer comstock had a talent for getting near the truth of dark matters. this is why he was walking a beat out here in the boondocks instead of sitting in a chair downtown. "clarissa!" said officer comstock in a voice like thunder. "resuscitator, resuscitator, anybody wanna resuscitator?" chanted clarissa. "do you know what happened to that fire plug?" asked officer c. "i have an uncanny suspicion. as yet it is no more than that. when i am better informed i will advise you." clarissa was eight years old and much given to uncanny suspicions. "clementine, harold, corinne, jimmy, cyril," he asked the five younger willoughby children. "do you know what happened to that fire plug?" "there was a man around yesterday. i bet he took it," said clementine. "i don't even remember a fire plug there. i think you're making a lot of fuss about nothing," said harold. "city hall's going to hear about this," said corinne. "pretty dommed sure," said jimmy, "but i wont tell." "cyril!" cried officer comstock in a terrible voice. not a terrifying voice, a terrible voice. he felt terrible now. "great green bananas," said cyril, "i'm only three years old. i don't see how it's even my responsibility." "clarence," said officer comstock. clarence gulped. "do you know where that fire plug went?" clarence brightened. "no, sir. i don't know where it went." a bunch of smart alecs from the water department came out and shut off the water for a few blocks around and put some kind of cap on in place of the fire plug. "this sure is going to be a funny-sounding report," said one of them. officer comstock walked away discouraged. "don't bother me, miss manners," he said. "i don't know where to look for your cat. i don't even know where to look for a fire plug." "i have an idea," said clarissa, "that when you find the cat you will find the fire plug the same place. as yet it is only an idea." ozzie murphy wore a little hat on top of his head. clarence pointed his weapon and winked. the hat was no longer there, but a little trickle of blood was running down the pate. "i don't believe i'd play with that any more," said nokomis. "who's playing?" said clarence. "this is for real." * * * * * this was the beginning of the seven-day terror in the heretofore obscure neighborhood. trees disappeared from the parkings; lamp posts were as though they had never been; wally waldorf drove home, got out, slammed the door of his car, and there was no car. as george mullendorf came up the walk to his house his dog pete ran to meet him and took a flying leap to his arms. the dog left the sidewalk but something happened; the dog was gone and only a bark lingered for a moment in the puzzled air. but the worst were the fire plugs. the second plug was installed the morning after the disappearance of the first. in eight minutes it was gone and the flood waters returned. another one was in by twelve o'clock. within three minutes it had vanished. the next morning fire plug number four was installed. the water commissioner was there, the city engineer was there, the chief of police was there with a riot squad, the president of the parent-teachers association was there, the president of the university was there, the mayor was there, three gentlemen of the f.b.i., a newsreel photographer, eminent scientists and a crowd of honest citizens. "let's see it disappear now," said the city engineer. "let's see it disappear now," said the police chief. "let's see it disa--it did, didn't it?" said one of the eminent scientists. and it was gone and everybody was very wet. "at least i have the picture sequence of the year," said the photographer. but his camera and apparatus disappeared from the midst of them. "shut off the water and cap it," said the commissioner. "and don't put in another plug yet. that was the last plug in the warehouse." "this is too big for me," said the mayor. "i wonder that tass doesn't have it yet." "tass has it," said a little round man. "i am tass." "if all of you gentlemen will come into the plugged nickel," said nokomis, "and try one of our new fire hydrant highballs you will all be happier. these are made of good corn whisky, brown sugar and hydrant water from this very gutter. you can be the first to drink them." business was phenomenal at the plugged nickel, for it was in front of its very doors that the fire plugs disappeared in floods of gushing water. "i know a way we can get rich," said clarissa several days later to her father, tom willoughby. "everybody says they're going to sell their houses for nothing and move out of the neighborhood. go get a lot of money and buy them all. then you can sell them again and get rich." "i wouldn't buy them for a dollar each. three of them have disappeared already, and all the families but us have their furniture moved out in their front yards. there might be nothing but vacant lots in the morning." "good, then buy the vacant lots. and you can be ready when the houses come back." "come back? are the houses going to come back? do you know anything about this, young lady?" "i have a suspicion verging on a certainty. as of now i can say no more." * * * * * three eminent scientists were gathered in an untidy suite that looked as though it belonged to a drunken sultan. "this transcends the meta-physical. it impinges on the quantum continuum. in some ways it obsoletes boff," said dr. velikof vonk. "the contingence on the intransigence is the most mystifying aspect," said arpad arkabaranan. "yes," said willy mcgilly. "who would have thought that you could do it with a beer can and two pieces of cardboard? when i was a boy i used an oatmeal box and red crayola." "i do not always follow you," said dr. vonk. "i wish you would speak plainer." so far no human had been injured or disappeared--except for a little blood on the pate of ozzie murphy, on the lobes of conchita when her gaudy earrings disappeared from her very ears, a clipped finger or so when a house vanished as the front door knob was touched, a lost toe when a neighborhood boy kicked at a can and the can was not; probably not more than a pint of blood and three or four ounces of flesh all together. now, however, mr. buckle the grocery man disappeared before witnesses. this was serious. some mean-looking investigators from downtown came out to the willoughbys. the meanest-looking one was the mayor. in happier days he had not been a mean man, but the terror had now reigned for seven days. "there have been ugly rumors," said one of the mean investigators, "that link certain events to this household. do any of you know anything about them?" "i started most of them," said clarissa. "but i didn't consider them ugly. cryptic, rather. but if you want to get to the bottom of this just ask me a question." "did you make those things disappear?" asked the investigator. "that isn't the question," said clarissa. "do you know where they have gone?" asked the investigator. "that isn't the question either," said clarissa. "can you make them come back?" "why, of course i can. anybody can. can't you?" "i cannot. if you can, please do so at once." "i need some stuff. get me a gold watch and a hammer. then go down to the drug store and get me this list of chemicals. and i need a yard of black velvet and a pound of rock candy." "shall we?" asked one of the investigators. "yes," said the mayor, "it's our only hope. get her anything she wants." and it was all assembled. * * * * * "why does she get all the attention?" asked clarence. "i was the one that made all the things disappear. how does she know how to get them back?" "i knew it!" cried clarissa with hate. "i knew he was the one that did it. he read in my diary how to make a disappearer. if i was his mother i'd whip him for reading his little sister's diary. that's what happens when things like that fall into irresponsible hands." she poised the hammer over the gold watch of the mayor on the floor. "i have to wait a few seconds. this can't be hurried. it'll be only a little while." the second hand swept around to the point that was preordained for it before the world began. clarissa suddenly brought down the hammer with all her force on the beautiful gold watch. "that's all," she said. "your troubles are over. see, there is blanche manners' cat on the sidewalk just where she was seven days ago." and the cat was back. "now let's go down to the plugged nickel and watch the fire plug come back." they had only a few minutes to wait. it came from nowhere and clanged into the street like a sign and a witness. "now i predict," said clarissa, "that every single object will return exactly seven days from the time of its disappearance." the seven-day terror had ended. the objects began to reappear. "how," asked the mayor, "did you know they would come back in seven days?" "because it was a seven-day disappearer that clarence made. i also know how to make a nine-day, a thirteen-day, a twenty-seven-day, and an eleven-year disappearer. i was going to make a thirteen-day one, but for that you have to color the ends with the blood from a little boy's heart, and cyril cried every time i tried to make a good cut." "you really know how to make all of these?" "yes. but i shudder if the knowledge should ever come into unauthorized hands." "i shudder too, clarissa. but tell me, why did you want the chemicals?" "for my chemistry set." "and the black velvet?" "for doll dresses." "and the pound of rock candy?" "how did you ever get to be mayor of this town if you have to ask questions like that? what do you think i wanted the rock candy for?" "one last question," said the mayor. "why did you smash my gold watch with the hammer?" "oh," said clarissa, "that was for dramatic effect." forever is not so long by f. anton reeds given that much-sought knowledge of the future, how many would have courage to enjoy what life was to be theirs? [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from astounding science-fiction may . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] september, . the lights of europe still burned. the black hulk of ploving manor was broken by the squares of brilliant, friendly light from its many windows that gave the old country seat almost a cheerful aspect. from the stone terrace to the south of professor ploving's study long strings of bobbing, soft-glowing lanterns stretched across the close-cropped lawn to the dark outline of the orchard. beyond the orchard was the pounding beat of the channel. on a platform under the lights young men and young women danced to the strange new throbbing music from the americas. it was a pulsing tom-tom beat, that music, that called for a measure of gay abandon and a great deal of muscular dexterity. but not quite the same sort of abandon that their mothers and father had known. for those lovely women at the terrace tables and the gray-templed men at their sides had been the fabulous, almost forgotten "lost generation" of an almost forgotten "post-war" period. these youngsters dancing under the english stars and pressing hands in the orchard's shadow were the fortunate chosen ones who would build at last the brave new world that had been their fathers' dream. stephen darville stood in the shadows of a great clump of rhododendrons at the terrace edge watching the swirl of color on the lawn, his eyes searching the laughing crowd for a sight of jean. his eyes found her and followed her across the lawn. when she came near he called her name. she hurried to him and took his hands in a friendly tug. "one dance together, steve, before you go out to the workshop." he shook his head. "just one," she pleaded. he pressed her hands, watching the way the stiff sea breeze ruffled the gay silk kerchief at her throat. "there's no time. your father's waiting for me now." "confound father, confound you and confound science." she laughed, but there had been a note of real annoyance in her voice. darville looked at the soft curve of her throat and the high-lighted sheen of her close-cropped brown hair and beyond the moving figures on the lawn. he suddenly wanted it all; the music and the laughter and the gaiety and the feel of her in his arms. but he wanted the other, too; the thing that awaited him out there in john ploving's workshop. the feel of metal cold in his hands, metal that his own hands had helped to shape, and the crazy swaying of the thin needles on the control board before him. the age-old call of the twin, conflicting fires in the blood of youth--duty and romance. she, too, was looking out toward the dancing couples. he took her impulsively in his arms and for a moment she clung to him. "you can come back to me later on this evening when you and father are through," she whispered. he wanted to crush her to him, wanted to whisper "if i do come back, if there is a 'later on this evening' for me." but he only pressed her fingers lightly. "save me a dance," he said, and hurried away down the narrow path to professor ploving's shop. * * * * * the things that professor ploving and his young assistant did there in the shop were known only to themselves; even those in the immediate family had long ago learned to ask no questions and, above all, never to "snoop." ploving was no more immune than others to longings for fame, but years of observing with his keen, analytical mind the affairs of men both in and out of laboratories, had taught him caution. a professor of the august university of london, even a professor of independent wealth and impeccable family, could hardly dare lay himself open to ridicule. had he been seeking to release atomic energy he could have spoken glibly and weightily of corpuscular radiations and electrodes and atom-smashing and even the news-reporters would have managed to splash him upon the sunday feature pages as a brainy and adventurous fellow and a chap to know. but let him once point to his much discussed mathematical equations on his theory of the time-curve and suggest that he intended to utilize his theory in a most practical way and the world, he knew, would shout "time machine" and "crack-pot." for time machines, in , were things to be left to h. g. wells and to the rising crop of talented and imaginative english and american fantasy writers. it was no doings for a man of action and, above all, for a man of science. steve darville closed the workshop door behind him, muting the tom-tom rhythms of the music from the terrace lawn. the ploving tube stood with its small door, not unlike the door of a channel transport plane, swinging open. the professor was beside it, wiping his glasses on a linen kerchief, trying to hide the nervousness that made the knotty blue veins of his hands jerk spasmodically. he had thrown open the small window at the south wall and through it steve caught a glimpse of the rooftops of the newly-built ploving laboratories which lay just under the hill, almost beside the channel. the laboratories that were to mean so much--or nothing. intricate calculations, founded upon his own theories of the "time-curve," had been utilized by professor ploving in creation of the ploving tube, a cylinder most undramatic in appearance. but the heart of the tube was the tiny ploving button, a small incased mechanism no more than an inch in thickness and a couple of inches in diameter. if the tube were to be a success, it must depend upon that one tiny button. the button in the present tube was the result of nearly ten years of intensive labor. if it failed, another five to ten years would be needed to duplicate the experiment. according to his figures, ploving felt the button capable of sending the tube no more than ten years into the future and return. the professor's plan, based upon that single assumption, was unique. already the first wing of the new ploving laboratories was complete. there, in the building that would absorb nearly his entire fortune, the carefully assembled corps of young experimenters would work night and day to perfect the ploving button, although they could only guess at its ultimate purpose. within ten years, if things went well, ploving felt that a button should have been developed capable of opening the entire time-curve to the adventurous exploration of mankind. "but i'm an old man," the professor had snorted in the confidence of the little workshop. "i've no time to be dawdling about for a decade waiting for something to happen." the ploving plan was as simple as it was astounding. he meant to use that single button already created to go ten years into the future, take the finished products of his laboratories--the ploving button of ten years hence--return with them to his own time and proudly present them to their creators, the technicians who were so far only fumbling with the problem of their perfection. the technicians would "save" themselves ten years of labor and the new sweeping highway into the future and the past would be open to mankind within the life of its discoverer. only cold, inexorable logic kept the old man from insisting that he should be at the controls when the ploving tube met its first test. but logic was a god to whom the professor could always bow gracefully, if grudgingly, and logic certainly dictated the need for youthful co-ordination and strength during those fateful moments that could advance the scope of man's knowledge by a decade. ploving had conveyed his decision to his younger colleague only the day before in his characteristic way. "you're elected, young man, by a unanimous vote of two." * * * * * steve darville, gazing past professor ploving to the moonlit scene beyond the window, wondered what changes ten years would have wrought. there could be little alteration in the immediate vicinity of the workshop, he knew, for the cautious professor had taken no chances. his iron law had decreed that nothing be erected or remodeled or torn away in the vicinity of the workshop; the provision, as an added precaution, being incorporated as the first item in his will. the professor fumbled with his spectacles, managed at last to place them upon his nose at an unaccustomed angle, and coughed hesitatingly. "ready?" he asked. "ready," darville told him, and turned to the tube. it was a moment made for drama, but there was no time for drama. he climbed into the narrow tube, strapped himself into the awkward jump-seat and carefully checked the dial readings on the control panel before him. he nodded without glancing out toward the professor, jerked his hand in a quick salute and closed the tube's door. for a single moment he thought of the music and laughter out on the lawn beyond, the laughter and music he was missing tonight as he had been missing them for so many nights on end. but in the moment that he eased the control stick toward him he knew that it had been a small price for this moment. one hour more, less than an hour, and there would be time again for music and laughter and cool arms--or no longer need of them. the thin needles vibrated to life, swayed crazily across the faces of compact dials and as suddenly hesitated and stopped. to the man within the tube it seemed impossible that anything could have happened in those seconds. it was ludicrous; a moment more, he knew, and he must step out to face the heartbreak in the eyes of the kindly old man waiting just outside those thin metal walls. to open that door required a kind of courage darville had never needed before and for seconds he hesitated, prolonging the moment. what could he say to the broken man at the other side of that door, what would there be to say? his white-knuckled fist twisted the latch, threw the door open almost rudely. the workshop was dark, save for soft moonlight that flooded across a section of the floor from a gaping hole in the roof and farther wall. rubble lay in heaps over the shop; broken plaster and crumbled bricks and twisted, jagged fingers of steel. he had to pick his way among them as he sought the old familiar path beyond that gaping splotch of moonlight. the path, too, was strewn with rubble and beyond the path a black, pitted hole yawned among the broken, uprooted trees that had been the orchard--was it only a few minutes ago? darville rubbed a hand across his face, pulling roughly at his cheeks with thumb and fingers. instinctively he wheeled toward the booming reverberation of the channel, toward the costly ploving laboratories that were his goal. he felt suddenly sick and tired and old. they, too, were gone; a single tall chimney, like a blackened finger against the moon-swept sky, was all that marked the site of the first great sprawling wing that had been the crux of ploving's dream. ploving, jean, where were they? * * * * * blindly, almost running, darville stumbled up the path toward the south lawn, then stood weak and trembling at the edge of the twisted, fire-scorched orchard, gazing toward the bulk of ploving manor across the lawn that had been, for him, only minutes ago aglow with the soft light of swinging lanterns. the manor was in ruins; a black, blind, toothless hag squatting in sullen anger against the rolling meadow--windowless, fire-charred, forlorn. as though his body moved to some other will than his own, darville walked slowly across that barren lawn toward the house. he was almost within one of the gaping doorways, the doorway to old ploving's study, before his keen eyes caught the faint glimmer of yellow light from a single crack at the foot of the cellar stairs. light meant human beings who could tell him the things he dreaded to hear yet must know. running down the steps he tried the door and, finding it locked, beat upon it with his fists. the crack of light suddenly expanded and through the partially opened doorway darville saw the ugly snout of an automatic trained at his ribs. his eyes followed the uniformed arm upward to the insignia on the shoulder and to the stiff, tired face of the young officer who eyed him questioningly. the automatic waved him inside and the door was shut quickly behind him. * * * * * within the smoke-filled room several men, all in uniform, sat about a table. together they turned to stare at the newcomer. but it was the face of the lanky major with the shrapnel scar jagged across a cheek, that held stephen darville riveted. the major's lips were opened, as if to speak, and his eyes dilated strangely. darville watched the man shake his head to clear away the sudden paralysis; saw his eyes soften. "sorry," the major said, rising. "terribly sorry. but fact is, you look remarkably like a chap i soldiered with in flanders. died the last night of dunkirk. blown to bits. shame, too. a brilliant fellow. scientist of promise, i believe, before the war. you're a good ten years or so younger of course, but the resemblance is uncanny." the lanky major hesitated awkwardly. "i say, you couldn't be--but no, i remember he was an only child." the tension had broken. a stubby fellow in captain's uniform turned to his superior officer. "you don't mean darville, do you? steve darville?" the major nodded. "funny," the captain said. "i never met darville, you know. but last fortnight i bumped into his wife. ploving her name was. plucky. air warden in the dover area. caught hell there. lost an arm eight months ago, but do you know, she wouldn't quit. not her. back on duty and one of the best they've got." steve darville stumbled blindly to the door and up the steps. out on the path he did not turn to look back at the shell of the manor, black and gaunt and desolate against the sky. his hands shook as he reset the dial readings and pulled the control. he saw the needles sway and dance. he was hardly aware of it when they ceased swaying. numbly he reached for the door latch. inside the workshop was the bright glow of bulbs. a stiff breeze blew in at the open window. instinctively, darville glanced at his wrist watch. he had been away, in that future that was not his future, for less than three-quarters of an hour. professor ploving's eyes met his, read the frustration there. the older man said nothing, but put a hand out to the smooth surface of the tube and buried his face in his arm. darville slipped quietly out of the workshop and up the familiar path, moonlight-flooded between the orchard trees. at the orchard's edge he halted; stood listening to the gay abandon of the music and the voices, searching that blob of light and color for jean. she was standing at the edge of the lawn, a little apart from the others. stephen darville went to her quickly, smothered her cry of pleased surprise with a quick kiss and led her to the jerry-built dance floor. together they caught the tom-tom rhythm, moved into the circling stream of the dancers. "steve," she said, her voice eager, "do you have to go back tonight?" "not tonight or ever," he said. "steve!" "from now on, young one, i have time only for you." "steve," she cried. her arm pressed him, her hand squeezed his. "we'll be the happiest people in the world, steve. the happiest, gayest, most in love two people in the world. and we'll go on being that, steve--forever." two trumpets were taking a hot chorus, unmuted, their notes sharp and high and quivering. "forever," he said. the super opener by michael zuroy _here's why you should ask for a "feetch m-d" next time you get a can opener!_ [transcriber's note: this etext was produced from worlds of if science fiction, august . extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the u.s. copyright on this publication was renewed.] "feetch!" grated ogden piltdon, president of the piltdon opener company, slamming the drafting board with his hairy fist, "i want results!" heads lifted over boards. kalvin feetch shrunk visibly. "as chief engineer you're not carrying the ball," piltdon went on savagely. "the piltdon can-opener is trailing the competition. advertising and sales are breaking their necks. it's engineering that's missing the boat!" "but mr. piltdon," remonstrated feetch unsteadily under his employer's glare, "don't you remember? i tried to...." "for two years there hasn't been one lousy improvement in the piltdon can-opener!" roared mr. piltdon. "look at our competitors. the international rips apart cans in three and three-tenths seconds. universal does it in four." "but mr. piltdon--" "the minerva mighty midget does it in four point two two and plays home sweet home in chimes. our own piltdon opener barely manages to open a can in eight point nine without chimes. is this what i'm paying you for?" feetch adjusted his spectacles with shaking hands. "but mr. piltdon, our opener still has stability, solidity. it is built to last. it has dignity...." "dignity," pronounced piltdon, "is for museums. four months, feetch! in four months i want a new can-opener that will be faster, lighter, stronger, flashier and more musical than any other on the market. i want it completely developed, engineered and tooled-up, ready for production. otherwise, feetch--" feetch's body twitched. "but mr. piltdon, four months is hardly time enough for development, even with an adequate staff. i've been trying to tell you for years that we're bound to fall behind because we don't have enough personnel to conduct research. our men can barely keep up with production and maintenance. if you would let me put on a few draftsmen and...." "excuses," sneered mr. piltdon. "your staff is more than adequate. i will not allow you to throw out my money. four months, feetch, no more!" piltdon trudged out of the room, leaving behind him an oppressive silence. how could you set a time limit on research and development? a designer had to dream at his board, investigate, search, build, test, compare, discard. he had always wanted to devote all his time to research, but piltdon opener had not given him that opportunity. twenty-five years! thought feetch. twenty-five years of close supervision, dead-lines, production headaches, inadequate facilities and assistance. what had happened, to the proud dream he once had, the dream of exploring uncharted engineering regions, of unlimited time to investigate and develop? ah, well, thought feetch straightening his thin shoulders, he had managed somehow to design a few good things during his twenty-five years with piltdon. that was some satisfaction. what now? he had to hang on to his job. technical work was scarce. since the early 's the schools had been turning out more technicians than industry could absorb. he was too old to compete in the employment market. he couldn't afford to lose any money. jenny wasn't well. how to meet this four month dead-line? he would get right on it himself, of course; hanson--good man--could work with him. he shook his head despairingly. something would be sure to blow up. well, he had to start-- * * * * * "chief," said hanson a few weeks later as they entered the lab, "i'm beginning to wonder if the answer is in the hand mechanical type at all." "got to be," answered feetch tiredly. "we must work along classical can-opener lines. departures, such as the thermal or motor-driven types, would be too expensive for mass production." three new models and a group of cans were waiting for them on the bench. they began testing, hanson operating the openers and feetch clocking. "four point four," announced feetch after the last test. "good, but not good enough. too bulky. appearance unsatisfactory. chimes tinny. we've made progress, but we've a long way to go." the problem was tricky. it might seem that use of the proper gear ratios would give the required velocity, but there were too many other factors that negated this direct approach. the mechanism had to be compact and streamlined. gear sizes had to be kept down. can-top resistance, internal resistance, cutting tooth performance, handle size and moment, the minimum strength of a woman's hand were some of the variables that had to be balanced within rigid limits. sector type cutters, traversing several arcs at the same time, had seemed to offer the answer for a while, but the adjusting mechanism necessary to compensate for variable can sizes had been too complex to be practical. there was the ever-present limit to production cost. hanson's eyes were upon him. "chief," he said, "it's a rotten shame. twenty-five years of your life you put in with piltdon, and he'd fire you just like that if you don't do the impossible. the piltdon company is built upon your designs and you get handed this deal!" "well, well," said feetch. "i drew my pay every week so i suppose i have no complaints. although," a wistful note crept into his voice "i would have liked a little recognition. piltdon is a household word, but who has heard of feetch? well,"--feetch blew his nose--"how do we stand, hanson?" hanson's bull-dog features drew into a scowl. "piltdon ought to be rayed," he growled. "o.k., chief. eleven experimental models designed to date. two more on the boards. nine completed and tested, two in work. best performance, four point four, but model otherwise unsatisfactory." "hello," said feetch as an aproned machinist entered carrying a glistening mechanism. "here's another model. let's try it." the machinist departed and hanson locked the opener on a can. "i hope----" he turned the handle, and stopped abruptly, staring down open-mouthed. a cylinder of close-packed beans rested on the bench under the opener. the can itself had disappeared. "chief," said hanson. "chief." "yes," said feetch. "i see it too. try another can." "vegetable soup or spinach?" inquired hanson dreamily. "spinach, i think," said feetch. "where did the can go, do you suppose?" the spinach can disappeared. likewise several corn cans, sweet potato cans and corned-beef hash cans, leaving their contents intact. it was rather disconcerting. "dear, dear," said feetch, regarding the piles of food on the bench. "there must be some explanation. i designed this opener with sixteen degree, twenty-two minute pressure angle modified involute gear teeth, seven degree, nineteen minute front clearance cutter angle and thirty-six degree, twelve minute back rake angle. i expected that such departures from the norm might achieve unconventional performance, but this--dear, dear. where do the cans go, i wonder?" "what's the difference? don't you see what you've got here? it's the answer! it's more than the answer! we can put this right into work and beat the dead-line." feetch shook his head. "no, hanson. we're producing something we don't understand. what forces have we uncovered here? where do the cans go? what makes them disappear? are we dealing with a kinetic or a kinematic effect? what motions can we plot in the area of disappearance and what are their analytical mathematical formulae? what masses may be critical here? what transformations of energy are involved? no, hanson, we must learn a lot more." "but chief, your job." "i'll risk that. not a word to piltdon." several days later, however, piltdon himself charged into the drawing room and slapped feetch heartily on the back, causing him to break a pencil point. "feetch!" roared piltdon. "is this talk that's going around the plant true? why didn't you tell me? let's see it." after piltdon had seen it his eyes took on a feverish glint. "this," he exulted, "will make can-opener history. instantaneous opening! automatic disposal! wait until advertising and sales get hold of this! we'll throttle our competitors! the piltdon super-opener we'll call it." "mr. piltdon--" said feetch shakily. piltdon stared at his chief engineer sharply. "what's the matter, feetch? the thing can be duplicated, can't it?" "yes, sir. i've just finished checking that. but i'm in the midst of further investigation of the effect. there's more here than just a new type can-opener, sir. a whole new field of physics. new principles. this is big, mr. piltdon. i recommend that we delay production until further research can be completed. hire a few top scientists and engineers. find out where the cans go. put out a scientific paper on the effect." "feetch," bit out piltdon, his face growing hard. "stow this hooey. i don't give a damn where the cans go. may i remind you that under our standard patent agreement, all rights to your invention belong to the company? as well as anything you may produce in the field within a year after leaving our employ? we have a good thing here, and i don't want you holding it back. we're going into production immediately." * * * * * close, thought feetch, wearily. it had been a man-killing job, and it had been close, but he'd made it. beat the time limit by a half-day. the first tentative shipments of piltdon super-openers had gone to distributors along the eastern seaboard. the first advertisements blazed in selected media. the first reorders came back, and then: "it's a sell-out!" crowed piltdon, waving a sheaf of telegrams. "step up production! let 'er rip!" the super-openers rolled over the country. in a remarkably short time they appeared in millions of kitchens from coast-to-coast. sales climbed to hundreds of thousands per day. piltdon opener went into peak production in three shifts, but was still unable to keep up with the demand. construction was begun on a new plant, and additional plants were planned. long lines waited in front of houseware stores. department stores, lucky enough to have super-openers on hand, limited sales to one to a customer. piltdon cancelled his advertising program. newspapers, magazines, radio, television and word-of-mouth spread the fame of the opener so that advertising was unnecessary. meanwhile, of course, government scientists, research foundations, universities and independent investigators began to look into this new phenomonen. receiving no satisfactory explanation from piltdon, they set up their own research. far into the night burned the lights of countless laboratories. noted physicists probed, measured, weighed, traced, x-rayed, dissolved, spun, peered at, photographed, magnetized, exploded, shattered and analyzed super-openers without achieving the glimmer of a satisfactory explanation. competitors found the patent impossible to circumvent, for any departure from its exact specifications nullified the effect. piltdon, genial these days with success and acclaim, roared at feetch: "i'm putting you in for a raise. yes sir! to reward you for assisting me with my invention i'm raising your pay two hundred dollars a year. that's almost four dollars a week, man." "thank you, mr. piltdon." and still, thought feetch wryly, he received no recognition. his name did not even appear on the patent. well, well, that was the way it went. he must find his satisfaction in his work. and it had been interesting lately, the work he had been doing nights at home investigating what had been named the piltdon effect. it had been difficult, working alone and buying his own equipment. the oscillator and ultra microwave tracking unit had been particularly expensive. he was a fool, he supposed, to try independent research when so many huge scientific organizations were working on it. but he could no more keep away from it than he could stop eating. he still didn't know where the cans went, but somehow he felt that he was close to the answer. when he finally found the answer, it was too late. the borenchuck incident was only hours away. as soon as he could get hold of piltdon, feetch said trembling, "sir, i think i know where those cans are going. i recommend--" "are you still worrying about that?" piltdon roared jovially. "leave that to the long-hairs. we're making money, that's all that counts, eh feetch?" * * * * * that night, at six-ten p.m., the borenchuck family of selby, south dakota, sat down to their evening meal. just as they started in on the soup, a rain of empty tin cans clattered down, splashed into the soup, raised a welt on the forehead of borenchuck senior, settled down to a gentle, steady klunk! klunk! klunk! and inexorably began to pile up on the dining-room floor. they seemed to materialize from a plane just below the ceiling. the police called the fire department and the fire department stared helplessly and recommended the sanitation department. the incident made headlines in the local papers. the next day other local papers in widely scattered locations reported similar incidents. the following day, cans began falling on chicago. st. louis was next, and then over the entire nation the cans began to rain down. they fell outdoors and indoors, usually materializing at heights that were not dangerous. the deluge followed no pattern. sometimes it would slacken, sometimes it would stop, sometimes begin heavily again. it fell in homes, on the streets, in theatres, trains, ships, universities and dog-food factories. no place was immune. people took to wearing hats indoors and out, and the sale of helmets boomed. all activity was seriously curtailed. a state of national emergency was declared. government investigators went to work and soon confirmed what was generally suspected: these were the same cans that had been opened by the piltdon super-opener. statisticians and mathematicians calculated the mean rate of can precipitation and estimated that if all the cans opened by piltdon openers were to come back, the deluge should be over in fifteen point twenty-nine days. super-opener sales of course immediately plummeted to zero and stayed there. anti-piltdon editorials appeared in the papers. commentators accused piltdon of deliberately hoaxing the public for his own gain. a congressional investigation was demanded. piltdon received threats of bodily injury. lawsuits were filed against him. he barricaded himself in the plant, surrounded by bodyguards. livid with fury and apprehension, he screamed at feetch, "this is your doing, you vandal! i'm a ruined man!" a falling can caught him neatly on the tip of his nose. "but sir," trembled feetch, dodging three spaghetti cans, "i tried to warn you." "you're through, feetch!" raved piltdon. "fired! get out! but before you go, i want you to know that i've directed the blame where it belongs. i've just released to the press the truth about who created the super-opener. now, get out!" "yes, sir," said feetch paling. "then you don't want to hear about my discovery of a way to prevent the cans from coming back?" klunk! a barrage of cans hit the floor, and both men took refuge under piltdon's huge desk. "no!" yelled piltdon at feetch's face which was inches away. "no, i----what did you say?" "a small design improvement sir, and the cans would disappear forever." klunk! "forever, feetch?" "yes sir." klunk! klunk! "you're positive, feetch?" piltdon's eyes glared into feetch's. "sir, i never make careless claims." "that's true," said piltdon. his eyes grew dreamy. "it can be done," he mused. "the new type super-opener. free exchanges for the old. cash guarantee that empty cans will never bother you. take a licking at first, but then monopolize the market. all right, feetch, i'll give you another chance. you'll turn over all the details to me. the patent on the improvement will naturally be mine. i'll get the credit for rectifying your blunder. fine, fine. we'll work it out. hop on production, at once, feetch." feetch felt himself sag inwardly. "mr. piltdon," he said. "i'm asking only one favor. let me work full time on research and development, especially on the piltdon effect. hire a couple of extra men to help with production. i assure you the company will benefit in the end." "damn it, no!" roared piltdon. "how many times must i tell you? you got your job back, didn't you?" the prospect of long years of heavy production schedules, restricted engineering and tight supervision suddenly made kalvin feetch feel very tired. research, he thought. development. what he had always wanted. over the years he had waited, thinking that there would be opportunities later. but now he was growing older, and he felt that there might not be a later. somehow he would manage to get along. perhaps someone would give him a job working in the new field he had pioneered. with a sense of relief he realized that he had made his decision. "mr. piltdon," feetch said. "i--" klunk!--"resign." piltdon started, extreme astonishment crossing his face. "no use," said feetch. "nothing you can say--" klunk! klunk! klunk!--"will make any difference now." "but see here, the new type super-opener...!" "will remain my secret. good day." "feetch!" howled piltdon. "i order you to remain!" feetch almost submitted from force of habit. he hesitated for a moment, then turned abruptly. "good-day," said feetch firmly, sprinting through the falling cans to the door. * * * * * money, feetch decided after a while, was a good thing to have. his supply was running pretty low. he was not having any luck finding another job. although the cans had stopped falling on the fifteenth day, as predicted by the statisticians, industry would not soon forget the inconvenience and losses caused by the deluge. it was not anxious to hire the man it regarded as responsible for the whole thing. "feetch," the personnel man would read. "kalvin feetch." then, looking up, "not the kalvin feetch who--" "yes," feetch would admit miserably. "i am sorry, but--" he did no better with research organizations. typical was a letter from the van terrel foundation: "--cannot accept your application inasmuch as we feel your premature application of your discovery to profit-making denotes a lack of scientific responsibility and ethics not desirable in a member of our organization--former employer states the decision was yours entirely. unfavorable reference--" piltdon, feetch thought, feeling a strange sensation deep within his chest that he had not the experience to recognize as the beginning of a slow anger, piltdon was hitting low and getting away with it. of course, if he were to agree to reveal his latest discoveries to a research organization, he would undoubtedly get an appointment. but how could he? everything patentable in his work would automatically revert to piltdon under the one year clause in the company patent agreement. no, feetch told himself, he was revealing nothing that piltdon might grab. the anger began to mount. but he was beginning to need money desperately. jenny wasn't getting any better and medical bills were running high. the phone rang. feetch seized it and said to the image: "absolutely not." "i'll go up another ten dollars," grated the little piltdon image. "do you realize, man, this is the fourteenth raise i've offered you? a total increase of one hundred and twenty-six dollars? be sensible, feetch. i know you can't find work anywhere else." "thanks to you. mr. piltdon, i wouldn't work for you if--" a barrage of rocks crashed against the heavy steel screening of the window. "what's going on!" yelled piltdon. "oh, i see. people throwing rocks at your house again? oh, i know all about that, feetch. i know that you're probably the most unpopular man alive to-day. i know about the rocks, the tomatoes, the rotten eggs, the sneaking out at night, the disguises you've had to use. why don't you come back to us and change all that, feetch? we'll put out the new type super-opener and the world will soon forget about the old one." "no," said feetch. "people will forget anyway--i hope." "if you won't think of yourself, at least think of your fellow workmen," begged piltdon, his voice going blurry. "do you realize that piltdon opener will soon be forced to close down, throwing all your former associates out of work? think of hanson, sanchez, forbes. they have families too. think of the men in the shop, the girls in the office, the salesmen on the road. all, all unemployed because of you. think of that, feetch." feetch blinked. this had not occurred to him. piltdon eyed him sharply, then smiled with a hint of triumph. "think it over, feetch." feetch sat, thinking it over. was it right to let all these people lose their jobs? frowning, he dialed hanson's number. "chief," said hanson, "forget it. the boys are behind you one hundred per cent. we'll make out." "but that's the trouble. i thought you'd feel like this, and i can't let you." "you're beginning to weaken. don't. think, chief, think. the brain that figured the super-opener can solve this." feetch hung up. a glow of anger that had been building up in his chest grew warmer. he began pacing the floor. how he hated to do it. think, hanson had said. but he had. he's considered every angle, and there was no solution. feetch walked into the kitchen and carefully poured himself a drink of water. he drank the water slowly and placed the glass on the washstand with a tiny click. it was the tiny click that did it. something about it touched off the growing rage. if piltdon were there he would have punched him in the nose. the twenty-five years. the tricks. the threats. think? he'd figured the solution long ago, only he hadn't allowed himself to see it. not lack of brains, lack of guts. well, he thought grimly, dialing piltdon's number, he was going through with it now. "piltdon!" he barked. "three p.m. tomorrow. my place. be here. that's all." he hung up. in the same grim mood the following morning, he placed a few more calls. * * * * * in the same mood that afternoon he stood in the middle of his living-room and looked at his visitors: piltdon, williams, the government man; billings from the van terrel foundation; steiner of westchester university; the members of the press. "gentlemen," he said. "i'll make it brief." he waved the papers in his hand. "here is everything i know about what i call the feetch effect, including plans and specifications for the new type super-opener. all of you have special reasons for being keenly interested in this information. i am now going to give a copy to each of you, providing one condition is met by mr. piltdon." he stared at piltdon. "in short, i want fifty-one per cent of the stock of piltdon opener." piltdon leaped from his chair. "outrageous!" he roared. "ridiculous!" "fifty-one percent," said feetch firmly. "don't bother with any counterproposals or the interview is at an end." "gentlemen!" squawked piltdon, "i appeal to you--" "stop bluffing," said feetch coldly. "there's no other way out for you. otherwise you're ruined. here, sign this agreement." piltdon threw the paper to the floor and screamed: "gentlemen, will you be a party to this?" "well," murmured the government man, "i never did think feetch got a fair shake." "this information is important to science," said the van terrel man. after piltdon had signed, the papers were distributed. published in the newspapers the following day, feetch's statement read, in part: "the motion in space and time of the singular curvilinear proportions of the original super-opener combined with the capacitor effect built up as it increased its frictional electro-static charge in inverse proportion to the cube root of the tolerance between the involute teeth caused an instantaneous disruption of what i call the alpha multi-dimensional screen. the can, being metallic, dropped through, leaving its non-metallic contents behind. the disruption was instantly repaired by the stable nature of the screen. "beyond the screen is what i call alpha space, a space apparently quite as extensive as our own universe. unfortunately, as my investigations indicated, alpha space seems to be thickly inhabited. these inhabitants, the nature of whom i have not yet ascertained, obviously resented the intrusion of the cans, developed a method of disrupting the screen from their side, and hurled the cans back at us. "however, i have established the existence of other spaces up to mu space, and suspect that others exist beyond that. beta space, which is also adjacent to our own space, is devoid of any form of life. the new type super-opener is designed to pass cans through the beta screen. beta space will safely absorb an infinite number of cans. "i sincerely and humbly venture the opinion that we are on the threshold of tremendous and mighty discoveries. it is my belief that possibly an infinite number of universes exist in a type of laminated block separated by screens. "therefore, might it not be that an infinite number of laminated blocks exist--?" * * * * * "mr feetch--" said piltdon. feetch looked up from his desk in the newly constructed feetch multi-dimensional development division of the piltdon opener company. "piltdon, don't bother me about production. production is your problem." "but mr. feetch--" "get out," said feetch. piltdon blanched and left. "as i was saying, hanson--" continued feetch.